Encyclopaedia Britannica [16, 3 ed.]

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REL
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RHO
RID
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RIV
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ROL
ROM
ROM
ROM
ROM
ROM
ROM
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ENCTCLO PJEDIA BRITANNIC A;

D I C T I 6 NARY O F

ARTS, SCIENCES, AND

MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE; Conftrufted on a PLAN, BY WH ICH

THE DIFFERENT SCIENCES AND ARTS Are digeiled into the

TREATISES

FORM

of Diftindl

OR

SYSTEMS,

COMPREHENDING

The

and

HISTORY, THEORY,

PRACTICE,

of each,

according to the Lateft Difcoveries and Improvements; JND FULL EXPLANATIONS GIVEN OF THE

VARIOUS DETACHED PARTS OF KNOWLEDGE, WHETHER RELATING TO

NATURAL

and

ARTIFICIAL

Obje&s, or to Matters

CIVIL, MILITARY, COMMERCIAL,

Including

ELUCIDATIONS of the moft Important I opics MANNERS, and the OECONCMY TOT. »TK*R

A DESCRIPTION

A General

WITH

ECCLESIASTICAL,

&C.

relative to RELIGION, MORALS>

of LIFE : A

of all the Countries, Cities, principal Mountains, Seas, Rivers, throughout the WORLD;

HISTORY,

Ancient and Moderny of the different Empires, Kingdoms, and States; AND

An Account of the LIVES of the moft Eminent Perfons in every Nation, from the earlieft ages down to the prefent times. CvmpiSd fr*m the writing/ of tl t bcji Aathort, in Jevaral Innguagu i tht mofl approved Difliomriei, as tvell of general fcienct at of itt particular brambes ; the 7ranfaSitomt Journalst and Afemoirs, of Learned Societies, both at borne and abroad; the MS. Leisures of Eminent Profejfors on differentfcicncts ; and a variety of Original ^Jateria/s, furni/heJ by en F.xtenfine Ctrrrfpondence. THE THIRD EDITION, IN EIGHTEEN VOLUMES, GREATLY IMPROVED,

ILLUSTRATED WITH FIVE HUNDRED AND FORTY-TWO COPPERPLATES.

VOL. 1 N D OCT l

D 11 CANT,

XVI.

ST AM £ NT MMMINtSSB FRK.1TI.

EDINBURGH,

PRINTED FOR A. BEIIL AND C. MACFARQJJHAR.

MDCCXCV1I.

Cnteceo in Stationers ipalt in Cecmo of tf)e aa of parliament.

j*

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA.

RAN Rain.

Y——’

RAN

T3 ANA, the fmg, in zoology ; a genus belonging to able a load. Thefe frogs Mr Pennant fuppofes to have Ran». Xv the order of amphibia reptilia. The body is naked* been, males difapppointed of a mate. The croaking of frogs is well known ; and from that furnifhed with four feet, and without any tail. 1 here in fenny countries they are dillinguifhed by ludicrous are 17 fpecies. The moll remarkable are, thus they are ftylcd 1. The temporaria,tides: or common frog. This Dutch is an nightingalesy and Bojanimal fo well known, that it needs no defcription; but tun nvaites. Yet there is a time of the year when they become fome of its properties are very lingular. mute, neither croaking nor opening their mouths for a Its fpring, or power of taking large leaps, is remarkably great, and it is the bell fwimmer of all four- whole mouth : this happens in the hot feafon, and that footed animals. Nature bath finely adapted its parts is in many places known to the country people by the for thofe ends, the fore members of the body being very name of the padJocL moon. It is faid, that during that lightly made, the hind legs and thighs very long, and period their mouths are fo doled, that no force (without killing the animal) will be capable of opening furnilhed with very ftrong mufcles. While In a tadpole ftate, it is entirely a water ani- them. Thefe, as well as other reptiles, feed but a fmail mal ; the work of generation is performed in that element, as may be feen in every pond during fpring, fpace of the year. The food of this genus is flics, mwhen the female remains opprefled by the male lor a feds, and fnails. Toads are faid to teed alio on bees, and to do great injury to thofe ufeful infect*. number of days. During winter, frogs and toads remain in a torThe work of propagation is extremely fingular, it being certain that the frog has not a penis intrant. There pid date : the latl of which will dig into the earth, and appears a Itrong analogy in this cafe between a cer- cover themiclves with almoft the fame agility as the tain clafs of the vegetable kingdom and thofe animals ; mole. See PHYSIOLOGY, n° 48 and note (u), and id 54. 2. The eiculenta, or edible frog, differ:, from the for it is well known, that when the female frog depoformer, in having a high protuberance in the middle fits its fpawn, the male inftantaneoufly impregnates it with what we may call a farina farundans, in the lame of the back, forming a very lharp angle. Its colours manner as the palm-tree conveys fnuftification to the arc alfo more vivid, and its marks more diilintl j the flowers of the female, which would otherwife be barren. ground colour being a pale or yellowiih green, marked As loon as the frogs are rtleafed from their tadpole with rows of black fpots from the head to the rump.-— ftate, they immediately take to land ; and if the wea- This, and (Mr Pennant thinks) the former, are eaten, ther has been hot, and there fall any refrtlhing Ihowers, pie has fetn in the markets at Paris whole hamper* you may fee the ground for a confiderable fpace per- full, which the venders were preparing for the table, by fectly blackened by myriads of thefe animalcules, feek- fkinning and cutting off the fore-paits, the loins and ing for fome fecure lurking places. Some philofo- legs only being kept ; but his ftrong dilhke to thei< phers, not giving themfelves time to examine into this reptiles prevented a clofe examination into the fpecies, 3. In the country of Pennfylvania* and fome other phenomenon, imagined them to have been generated in the clouds, and fhowered on the earth ; but had parts of North America, there is a very large fpecies of they, like our Derham, but traced them to the next frogs called the bullfrog, or rana octllata. Their irides pool, they would have found a better Solution of the arc of a dufky red, furrounded with a yellow ring. The auricles are covered with a thin circular flein, which difficulty. See Preternatural RAINS, As frogs adhere clofely to the backs of their own forms a fpot behind each eye. They have four toes on fpecics, fo we know they will do the fame by tifh.— the fore-feet, and five palmated toes behind. Their coWalton mentions a llrangc ftory of their deilroying lour is a dufky brown, mixed with yellowifh green, and pike ; but that they will injure, if not entirely kill fpotted with black. The belly is yellowifh, and faintly carp, is a fa& indifputable, from the following rela- fpotted. Thefe make a monftrous roaring noile like a tion. Not many years ago, on fifhing a pond belong- bull, only fomewhat more hoarfe. Their ftze is fuperior ing to Mr Pitt of Lncomb, Dorfetfhire, great numbers to that of any other of the geuus, and they can ip ring of the carp were found each with a frog mounted on it, forward three yards at a leap. By this means they will the hind legs clinging to the back, and the fore legs equal in fpeed a very good horfe in its fwiftdl courfe. fixed in the corner of each eye of the fifh, which were Their places of abode are ponds, or bogs with ftagnant thin and greatly wailed, teized by carrying fp diiagree- water \ but they never frequent flreanu* When many VoL. XVI. Part 1.

RAN RAN [ ■2 1 of them are together, they make fuch a horrid noife, fifh, not unfrequent in our ifland as well as feveral other that two people cannot underhand each other’s fpeech. countries. But thefe fables have been long exploded. And as They croak all together, and then hop for a little and to the notion of its being a poifonous animal, it is probegin again. It feems as if they had a captain among them : for when he begins to croak, all the others fol- bable that its exceflive deformity, joined to tlie faculty low’ ; and when he hops, they alfo become hlent. When it has of emitting a juice from its pimpleg, and'a dulky this captain gives the fignal for hopping, yo1 h' ar a liquid from its hind parts, is the foundation of the renote like poop coming from him. In the day-time they port. That it has any noxious qualities there feem to have feldom make any great noife, unlefs the fky is covered ; but in the night-time they may be heard at the dihance been no proofs in the fmalkft degree fatisfadlory, tho’ of a mile and an half. When they croak, they are we have heard many ftrange relations on that point.—commonly near the furface of the water, under the On the contrary, there have been many who have taken bufhes, and have their heads out of the water. By go- them in their naked hands, and held them long withing flowly, therefore, one may get up almoit quite clofe out receiving the leatt injury : it is alfo well known that to them before they go away. As foon as they are quacks have eaten them, and have belides i'queezed quite under w’ater, they think themlelves fafe, though it their juices into a glafs and drank them with impunity. be ever fo {hallow. Thefe creatures kill and eat young We may fay alfo, that thefe reptiles are a common ducklings and goflings, and fometimes carry oft chickens food to many animals ; to buzzards, owls, Norfolk that come too near the water ; when beaten, they cry plovers, ducks, and fnakes, who would not touch them out almoft like little children. As foon as the air be- were they in any degree noxious. So far from having venomous qualities, they have of gins to grow a little cool in autumn, they hide themfelves under the mud in die bottom of flagnant waters, late been confidered as if they had beneficent ones; and lie there torpid during the winter. As foon as the particularly in the cure of the moil terrible of difeafes, by fudtion : (See Br'ttijh Zoology, vol. iii. weather grows, mild towards fummer, they begin to get the out of their holes and croak. They are fuppofed by Append, p. 389, etJeq.) But, from all circumltances, the people of Virginia to be the purifiers of waters, and as Mr Pennant obferves, they feem only to have renare refpe&ed as the genii of the fountains. Some of dered a horrible complaint more loathfome. 1 The moll full information concerning the naturethem were brought to England alive fcveral years ago. 4, The bufo, or toad, is the molt deformed and hi- and qualities of this animal is contained in the followdeous of all animals. The body is broad ; the back flat, ing letters from Mr Arfcott and Mr Pittfield to Dr and covered with a pimply dufky hide ; the belly large, Milles. “ It would give me great pleafure (fays Mr {wagging, and fwelling out ; the legs fhort, and its Arfcott) to be able to inform you of any particulars pace laboured and crawling ; its retreat gloomy and worthy Mr Pennant’s notice, concerning the toad who lihhy ; in Ihort, its general appearance is fuch as to lived fo many years with us, and was-fo great a favour-' ftrike one with difguft and honor. Yet it is faid by ite. I he greateft cunofity in it was its becoming fo rethofe who have refolution to view’ it with attention, markably tame. It had frequented fome Heps before thehall-door lome years before my acquaintance commenced that its eyes are fine ; to this it feems that Shakefpcarc w, alludes, when he makes his Juliet remark, th it, and had been admired by my father for its S >me fay the hrk and loathed toad change eyes; lize (which was of the largelt I ever met with), who As if they would have been better bellowed on fo conilantly paid it a viflt every evening. I knew it charming a fongfler than on this raucous reptile. mylelf above 30 years; and by conilantly feeding it, But the hideous appearance of the toad is fuch as to brought it to be fo tame, that it always came to the make this one advantageous feature overlooked, and to candle, and looked up as if expelling to be taken up have rendered it in all ages an objedt. of horror, and and brought upon the table, where I always fed it with the origin of moil tremendous inventions. jElian infects of all lorts ; it was fondell of flelh maggots, makes its venom fo potent, that bafilifk-like it convey- which I kept in bran ; it would follow’ them, and, when ed death by its very look and breath ; but Juvenal is within a proper diilance, would fix its eye, and remain content with making the Roman ladies who were weary motionlefs for near a quarter of a minute,'as if preparing of their hufbands form a potion from its entrails, in bn the llroke, which was an inllantaneous throwing its order to get rid of the good man. This opinion begat tongue at a great diflance upon the infedl, which lluck others of a more dreadful nature ; for in after-times fu- to the tip by a glutinous matter : the motion is quicker • perdition gave it preternatural powers, and made it a than the eye can follow (A). principal ingredient in the incantations of no&urnal I always imagined that the root of its tongue was l‘ags. placed in the forepart of its under Jaw, and the tip toI his animal was believed by feme old writers to wards its throat, by which the motion mull be a half have a ftone in its head fraught with great virtues me- circle ; by which, when its tongue recovered its fituadical and magical: it was dillinguilhed by the name tion, the infe& at the tip would be brought to the place of the reptile, and called the toad-Jionty bujonttesy era- o| deglutition. I was confirmed in this by never obferpaudirte, krottenfteln ; but all its fancied powers vanifti- ving any internal motion in its mouth, excepting one I See Anrr ed on the difeovery of its being nothing but the follilfwallow the inftant its tongue returned. PofiTbly I rbicat. tooth of the fea-wolf J, or of feme other flat-toothed might be millaken ; for I never difle&ed one, but contented Rara. —v


quality or inent. RANK, is a ftraight line made by the foldiere of a

battalion or fquadroa, drawn up fide by tkie : this or^

ur different j-ff eftaW,bodies ^le(i for and forwhich regulating the of troopsniarches, and officer* compole an army. an ^ lJr{c*Una, in the army and navy, are as foI£Engineers R*NK. Chief, as colonel 4 dire&or, as Jeutenant-colond ; fub diredor, as major ; engineer in oruinary, as captain{ engineer extraordinary, as captainlieutenant; fob-engineer, as lieutenant; praciitioner-cuguieery as enfign. Aavy RANK. Admiral, or commander in chief of his roajefty’s fleet, has the rank of a field-inarnud ; ad> minds, with their flags on the main-top-maft head, rank with generals of horfe and foot; vice-admirals, with lieutenant-generals; rear-admirals, as major-generals; commodores, with broad pendants, as brigadier-*end C >ns afteras three years fromtauthe date or^ their firftPoMup*, comnnllion, colonels ; other tains, as commanding poft-fhipe, as lieutenant-colonels • captains, not taking poll, as majors ; lieutenants, aa

Ranunen« lus.

Rank

RANK

II

Ranunculus.

RAN

t 6 1

RAN

ARMY.

between the Army, Navy, and Governors. NAVY.

GOVERNORS.

General in clyef

Admiral in chief

Commander in chief of the forces in America

Generals of horfe

Admiral with a flag at the main-top-mall

Captain-general of provinces

Lieutenant-generals

Vice-admirals

Lieutenant-generals of provinces

Major-generals

Rear-admirals

Lieutenant-governors and prefidents

Colonels

Poll-captains

Lieutenant-colonels

Poll-captains

Governors of charter colonies

Majors

Captains

Deputy-governors

Captains

Lieutenants

Eftablifhed by the king, 1760

of 3 years

Lieutenant-governors not commanding

beds four feet wide and two deep: however, in is the placing two ranks in prepare default of fuch compoft, ufe beds of any good light .one, frequently ufed in the manoeuvres of a regiment. earth of your garden ; or, if neceffary, it may be made RANKS and Files, are the horizontal and vertical lines light and rich with a portion of drift-fand and rotten of foldiers when drawn up for fervice. dung, cow-dung is motl commonly recommended; but RANSOM, a fum of money paid for the redemp- they will alfo thrive in beds of well-wrought kitchention of a Have, or the liberty of a prifoner of war. In garden earth, and they often proiper well in the comour law-books, ranfom is alfo ufed for a fum paid lor mon flower-borders. -the pardon of fome great offence, and to obtain the offeafon for planting the roots is both in autumn fender's liberty. ... andThe fpring; the autumn plantings generally flower RANULA, a tumor nnder a child’s tongue, whicn, ilrongell and foonell by a month at lead, and are fuclike a ligature, hinders it from fpeaking or fucking. RANUNCULUS, CROWFOOT: A genus of tne cceded by the fpring-planting in May and June. Perthe autumnal planting in October and early part polygamia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs ot form of November, but fome plant towards the latter end of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the September in order to have a very early bloom ; but 26th order, Multifiliqua. The calyx is pehtaphyUous; thofe planted in that month and beginning of Oaober there are five petals, each with a melliferous pore on the often come up with rank leaves foon after, in wintei, fo in fide of the heel; the feeds naked. . ' as to require prote£Hon in hard frolts; thofe, hovvevti, Species. There arc near 40 different fpecies ot this about the middle or latter end of Oftober, and genus, fix or eight of which claim general elleem as planted beginning of November, rarely fhoot up flrong till toflowery plants for ornamenting the gardens, and a wards fpring, and will not require fo much care of covergreat number are common weeds in the fields, waters, ing during winter and the fpring-planting may be perand pallure ground, not having merit for garden cul- formed the end of; January beginning of February', ture. Of the garden kinds, the principal fort is the or as foon as the weather isorfettled; will not reAfiatic or Turkey and Perfian ranunculus, which com- quire any trouble of covering, and willthey iucceed the auprifes many hundred varieties of large, double, molt tumnal plants regularly in bloom, and will flower in beautiful flowers of various colours : but feveral other good perfection. Thus by two or three diffeient plantIpecies having varieties with fine double flowers, make y@u may obtain a fucceffion of thefe beautiful a good appearance in a collection, though as thofe ot ings in conftant bloom from April till the middle of each fpecies confiff qnly of one colour, feme white, flower* June; but the autumnal plants, for the general part, others yellow, they are inferior to the Afiatic ranun- not only flower ftrongeft, but the roots increafe more culus, which is large, and diverfified a thoufand ways in fize, and furnifh off-fets for propagation : it in rich colours, in different varieties. However, all the is, however, properthetobelt plant both in fpring and auwarden kinds in general effect a very agreeable diverkty , # fn affemblage in the flower compartments, &c. and they tumn. Prepare for the choicer forts four-feet beds ot fignt being all very hardy, fucceed in any open beds and hol- earth, and rake the furface fmooth: then plant the ders, -&ef . . Culture. The Afiatic fpecies in all its varieties will roots in rows lengthwife the beds, either by diihing fucceed in any light, rich, garden earth; but the flo- them in two inches deep, and fix inches difiance in the rilts often prepare a particular compoll for the fine va- row, and the rows fix or eight afunder ; or you may rieties, confiding of good garden-mould or palture- plant them by bedding-in, or by dibble planting, the earth, fward and all, a fourth part of rotted cow-dung, fame depth and diilance. Xhofe dcligned for the borders Ihould be planted geand the like portion of fea-fand; and with tills they nprallv Doubling of the RANKS,

RAP

[

7 ]

RAP

norally towards the fpring, in little clumps or patches, of the women. But our Englilh law does not enterthree, four, or five ro®ts in each, putting them in either tain quite fuch fublime ideas of the honour of cither with a dibble or trowel, two or three inches deep, and /ex, as to lay the blame of a mutual fault upon one of three or four afunder in each patch, and the patches the tranfgreffors only j and therefore makes it a neceffrom about three to five or ten feet diltance, placing fary ingredient in the crime of rape, that it mu/t be them rather forward in the border. agam/t the woman’s w-ill. Propagation. A.U the varieties of the Afiatic ranunRape was puni/hed by the Saxon laws, particularly culus propagate abundantly by off-fets from the root, thofe of king Athelflan, w ith death ; which was alfo and new varieties are gained by feed.—i. By off-fets. agreeable to the old Gothic or Scandinavian con/lituThe time for feparating the off-fets is in fummer when tion. But this was afterwards thought too hard : and the flower is pall, and the leaves and /talks are wither- in its /lead another fevere, but not capital, puni/hment ed : then taking up all the roots in dry weather, fepa. was in/lifted by William the Conqueror, viz. caftration rate the ofl'-fets from each main root, and after drying am. lo/s of eyes; which continued till after Brafton the whole gradually in fome fhady airy rdom, put them wrote, in the reign of Henry III. But in order - up in bags till the autumn and fpring ftafons of plant- to prevent malicious accufations, it was then the law, ing ; then plant them as before, placing all the off-fets (and, it feems, flill continues to be fo in appeals of in feparate beds: many of them will blow the firflyear, rape), that the woman fliould, immediately after, go to but in the fecond they will all flower in good perfec- tlie next town, and there make difeovery to fome cretion.—2. By feed. Save a quantity of feed from the dible perfons of the injury /he has fuffered ; and afterfinefl; femi-double flowers, and fow it either in Auguft, wards ihould acquaint the high con/table of the bundled, or in March, or April, though, to fave trouble of win- the coroners, ami the flieriff, w-ith the outrage. Tliia ter-covering,- fome prefer the fpring : it fhould be fowed to correfpond in fome degree with the laws of in light rich mould, either in pots or in an rail bonier, feems Scotland and Arragon, which require that complaint drawing very /hallow flat drills five or fix inches afun- mult be made within 24 hours i though afterwards byder, in which low the feeds thinly, and cover them itatute Weftm. x. c. 13. the time of limitation in Englightly with earth, giving frequent refre/hments of wa- land was extended to 40 days. At prefent there is no ter in dry weather, and in a month or fix weeks the time ot limitation fixed: for, as it is ufually now puni/hplants will rife with fmall leaves; obferving to continue ed by indiftment at the fuit of the king, the maxim of the light waterings in dry weather, to preferve the foil law takes place, that “ nullum temp us occurrit regi moift during their fummer’s growth to increafe the fize but the jury will rarely give credit to a ilale complaint. of the roots ; and in June when the leaves decay, take During the former period aii'o it was held for law, that up the roots and preferve them till the feafon for plant- the woman (by confent of the judge and her parents) ing, then plant them in common beds, as before dimight redeem the offender from the execution of his rected, and they will flower the fpring following, when fentenoe, by accepting him for her hu/baud ; if he alfo all the doubles of good properties fhould be marked) was willing t© agree to the exchange, but not otherand the tingles thrown away-. I he juice of many fpecies of ranunculus is fo acrid wile. In the 3 Edw. I. by the ftatute Weffln. r. c. 1 as to rai/e bhlters on the fkin, and yet the roots may tat puni/hment of rape was much mitigated: the ofbe eaten with fafety when boiled. fence itfelf, 0/ raviihing a damfel within age, (that is ANIMALS, are fuch as live upon tyveive years old) either with her confent or without, or prey. oi any other woman again it her will, being reduced to RAPE, in law, the carnal knowledge of a woman forcibly and againit her will. This, by the Jevrifh law, a treipafs, it not profecuted by appeal within 40 days, was puni/hed with death, in cafe the damfel was be- and iubjefting the offender only to two years imprifonment, and a fine at the king’s will. But this lenity trothed to another man : and, in cafe /lie was not be- being produftive of the moft terrible coniequences, it trothed, then a heavy fine of fifty fhekels was to be paid to the damfcl’s father, and fhe was to be the wife of was, in ten years afterwards, 13 Edw. I. found neceffary to make the offence of forcible rape felony by itatute the raviflier all the days of his life ; without that power ot divorce, which was in general permitted by1 the Mo- Weilm. 2. c. 34. And by llatute x8 Eli/., c. 7. it is made felony without benefit of clergy; as is alfo the faic law. The civil law punifhes the crime of ravi/hment with abominable wickednefs of carnally knowing or abufimr death and confi/cation of goods: under which it includes any woman-child under the age of ten years ; in which both the offence of forcible abdu&ion, or taking away cafe the confent or non-confent is immaterial, as by a woman from her friends ; and alfo the prdent offence rea/on ot her tender years /he is incapable of judgment of forcibly ^di/honouring her ; either of which, without and difcretion. Sir Matthew Hole is indeed of opinion, ' tiie other, is in that law Zufficient toconftitute a capital that uch profligate aft ions committed on an infant uncrime. Alfo the ftealing away a woman from her pa- der the age of twelve years, the age of female difcretion rents or guardians, and debauching her, is equally penal by the common law, either with or without confentby the emperor’s edid, whether fhe confent or is forced. amount to rape and felony; as well fince as before the And this, in order to take away from women every ftatute of queen Elizabeth : but that law has in general opportunity of offending in thiy v-ay ; whom the Ro- been held only to extend to infants under ten ; thoughman laws fuppofe never to go aftray without the fe- it fhould feem that damfels between ten and twelve are ductum and arts of the other fex j and tlierefore, by it if under the proteftion of the ftatute Weltm. the «llra,m„g and „,ak,ng fo highly penal the foUcitatlons law with refpeft to their feduftion not having been alot the men, they meant to fecure cffeaually the honour tered by either of the fubfequent ftatutes. A male xn/ant, under the age of fourteen rears, is pvc-

Rape.

RAP

[

8

3

RAP Rap«,

cafe admits frequently of no better proof; and there Raphael, tirefumcd by law incapable to commit a rape, >™J is much moie reafon for the court to hear the narra-^ therefore it feems cannot be found guilty or itor tion of the child herfelf, than to receive it at fecond, though in other felonies “ malitia lupplet »tatem; hand from thofe who fwear they heard her fay fo. yet, 'as to this particular fpeciea of fclofiy, the aaw iup- And indeed it feems now to be fettled, that inthefe txrfes an imbecillity of body as well as mind. cafes infants of any age are to be heard ? and, ft they The civil law feems to fuppofe a prolUtute or com- have any idea of an oath, to be alfo (warn : it being Blf,n harlot incapable of any injuries of this kind: not found by experience, that infants of very tender yearn allowing any punifitment for violating the challity o often give the cleareft and trueft teftimony. But m her, who hath indeed no chaftiVy at all, or at lea any of thefe cafes, whether the child he fworn or not, hath no regard to it. But the law of England does it is to be wifhed, in order to render her evidence erenot judge to hardly of offenders, as to cut off all op- dible, that there fhould be fome concurrent teftimony portunity of retreat even from common trumpets, and of time, place, and circumftances, m order to make to treat them as never capable of amendment. it out the fa&; and that the conviaton fhould not bo therefore holds it to be felony to force even a con- grounded fingly on the unfupported accufation of an cubine or harlot ; becanfe the woman may have tor- infant under years of diferetion. There may be therefaken that unlawful eourfe of life : for, as Braclon fore, in many cafes of this nature, witneffes who are well obferves, “ licet merctrix fuerit antea, certe tunc competent, that is, who may be admitted to be heard ; temporis non fuit, cum reclamando neguitia; ejus con- and yet, after being heard, may prove not to be crefentire noluit.” .... dible, or fuch as the jury is bound to believe, tor As to the material facts requifite to be given in evi- one excellence of the trial by jury is, that the jury are dence and proved upon an indictment of rape, they are triers of the credit of the witneffes, as well a* of the of fuch a nature, that, though neceflary to be known truth of the Hcf. . . and fettled, for the conviftion of the guilty and preter“ It is true (fays this learned judge), that rapt is ■vatioh of the innocent, and therefore are to be found in a molt deteftable crime, and therefore ought feverely fuch criminal trtatifes as difeourfe of thefe matters in and impartially to be punifhed with death ; but it mutt detail, yet they are highly improper to be publicly dit- be remembered, that it is an accutation eafy to he made, cufled, except only in a court of juilice. We (hall hard to be proved, but harder to be defended by the therefore merely add upon this head a tew remaiks party 'accufed, though innocent.” He then relates from Sir Matthew Hale, with regard to the competen- two very extraordinary cates of malicious pro locution cy and credibility of witueffes ; which may,/a/vo pudore, for this crime, that had happened within Ins own obbe confrdered. fervation ; and concludes thus: “ I mention thefe mAnd, firft, the party raviflred may give evidence upon fiances, that we may be the more cautious upon tri da oath, and is in law a competent witnefs; but the credi- of offences of this nature, wherein the court and jury bility of her teftimony, and how far forth {he is to be with fo much eafe be impoled upon, without belie-ved, mult be left to the jury upon the circumitances great care and vigilance ; the heinoufnefs of the offence of fa& that concur in that teftimony. For inftance : many times tranfporting the judge and jury with h> if the witnefs be of good fame; if {he prefently difeover- much indignation, that they are over-baftily earned *d the offence, and made fearch for the oftender; if the to the conviftion of the perfons accufo'd thereof, by party accufed fled for it; thefe and the like are conconfident teftimony of fometimes falfe and malicicurring ciroumftances, which give greater probability the ous witneffes.’' . v , a a r to her evidence. Hut* on the other IKIC* it fht be of RAPHAEL (D’Urbino), the greateft, moft fuevil fame, and itand unfupported by others ; if Ore eonand moft excellent painter that has appeared, cealed4the injury for any confulerable time after {he had blime, fince the revival of the fine arts, was the fon o* an inopportunity to complain ; if the place, where the taCt different painter named Sanviv, and was born nt Urbiwas alleged to be committed, was where it was pofiible no on Good Friday 1482. The popes Julius II. and fhe might have been heard, and ftre made no outcry : Leo X. who employed him, loaded him with wealth thefe and the like circumffances carry a ftrong, but not and honour ; and it is faid that cardinal De St Bihiam* conclufive, prefumption that her teftimony is falte or feigned. , , , • , had fuch a value for him, that he offered him his niece Moreover, if the rape be charged to be committed in marriage. His genius is admired in all his pictures ; contours are free, his ordonnanc.es magnificent, hi* ©n an infant under 12 years of age, flic may ft ill be his correft, his figures elegant, his exprefiions livea competent witnefs, if Ihe hath fenfe and underftand- defigns ly, his attitudes natural, his heads graceful; in line, ing to know the nature and obligations of an oath ; every thing is beautiful, grand, fublime, juft, and adornand, even if fhe hath not, it is thought by Sir Mated with graces. Thefe various perfeftions he derived thew Hale, that fhe ought to be heard without oath, not only from his excellent abilities, but from his ftudy to give the court information ; though that alone will of antiquity and anatomy ; fiom the friendihip he not be fufficient to convid the offender. And he is of contrafted with Ariofto, whoand contributed not a little to this opinion, firff, Becaufe the nature of the offence being fecret, there may be no other pofiible proof of the improvement of his tafte. His piftures are printo be found in Italy and Paris. That oi the the adual fad ; though afterwards there may be con- cipally current circumllances to corroborate it, proved by Transfiguration, preferved at Rome in the church of other witneffes: and, fecondly, Becaufe the law al- St Peter Monterio, pafles for his roafter-piece. He lows what the child told her mother, or other rela- had a handfome perfon, was well proportioned, and had tions, to be given in evidence, lince the nature of the great fwecUiefs of temper ; was polite, affable, and mo-

Plate

_&y^i s’runft'? % / v marriage neither abated his care of his pupil, nor pre- funrife it had been no higher than 61. Notwithftandvented his accompanying him in his travels. Mavmg jng this appearance of extreme heat, however, the fenfinilhed this employment, lie returned to his family, fation was by no means intolerable \ they could hunt at which he had fettled at the Hague ; and here he con- mid-day, and felt the evenings rather cold. The foil tinued fome years. But as he found his family wcreafe, he refolved to retire to fome cheap country ; is a fat, loofe, black earth, which our author fays is the fame from 1 3° to 16° of north latitude ; at leaft till and accordingly removed, in 1707, to Wefel, where he wrote his Hiftory of England, and fome other pieces. we come to the deferts of Atbara, where the tropical rains ceafe. I his country divides that of the ShanThough he was of a ftrong conftitution, yet feventeen galla into two parts, nearly equal. Thefe people inyears application (for fo long was he in compoiing the hiftorv juft mentioned) entirely ruined his health. He habit a belt of land about 60 miles broad, all along died in 1725. He wrote in French, 1. A Diflertation the northern frontier of Abyffinia, excepting two large on the Whigs and Tories. 2. His Hiftory of Eng- gaps or fpaces which have been left open for the fake land, printed at the Hague in 1726 and 1727, in 9 of commerce, and which are inhabited by ftrangers, to vols 4to, and reprinted at Trevoux in 1728, in 10 vols keep the Shangalla in awe. The latter trade in gold* ato. This laft edition is more complete than that ot which they pick up in the dreams as it is waihed down the Hague. It has been tranflated into Englifh, and from the mountains; for there are no mines in their improved with Notes, by the Reverend Mr Tindal, m country, neither is there any gold in Abyfiinia, except2 vols folio. This performance, though the work oi ing what is imported from this or fome other country. a foreigner, is defervedly efteemed as the fuileft and The ShangaUa are the natural enemies of the inhabitnoft impartial collection of Enghfh political tranfac- tants of Ras-el-Feel, and much blood has been fhed in tions extant. The readers of wit and vivacity, however, the various incurfions they have made upon one anomay be apt to complain of him for being iometimes ra- ther ; though of late thofe of Ras-el-I* eel, by the afiiftance of the emperors, have been enabled to keep the ther tedious and dull. RAPINE, in law, the taking away another’s goods Shangalla at bay. RAS-SEM, a city of Tripoli in Barbary, concerning See. by violence. which a number of fables were told by the Tripoline RAPPERSWIL, a town of Swifierland, on the confines of the canton ot Zurich, and of the territory ambaffador, all of which were believed in England and Gafter, with an old caitle. It is ftrong by fitua- other parts of Europe in the beginning of this century. tion, being feated on a neck of land which advances (See PETkiFiF.D-City). Mr Bruce informs us, that it into the lake of Zurich, and over which there is a is fituated about five days journey fouth from Bengazi; bridre 850 paces long. It is fubjeCl to the cantons of but has no water excepting one fountain, which has a difagreeable tafte, and feems to be impregnated with Zurich and Berne. E Long. 8. 57. N. Lat. 47. 20, RAPPOLSTEIN, a town of France in Upper Al- alum. Hence it has obtained the name of Ras-Srm, face, which, before the Revolution, had the title of a or the fountain of poifou. The only remains of antibarony. All the muficians of Alface like wife depend- quity i* this place confift of the ruins of a tower or ed upon this baron, and were obliged to pay him a fortification, which, in the opinion of Mr Bruce, is as certain tribute, without which they could not play upon late as the time of the Vandals ; but he fays he cannot imagine what ufe they made of the water, and they their inftruments. E. Long. 7. 28. N. Lat. 48. 15.^ RAPTURE, an eeftafyor tranfport of mind. See had no other within two days journey of the place.— Ex T A S Y •

RARE, in phyfic, Hands oppofed to denfe ; and denotes a body that is very porous, whofe parts are at a great diftance from one another, and which is fuppofed to contain but little matter under a large bulk. See the following article. RAREFACTION, in phyfics, the aft whereby a body is rendered rare ; that is, brought to pofiefs more room, or appear under a larger bulk, without accefiion of any new matter.— I his is very frequently the effe& of fire, as has long been univerfully allowed. In many cafes, however, philofophers have attributed it to the aCtion of a repulfive principle. However, from the many difeoveries concerning the nature and properties of the eleCtnc fluid and ure, there is the greateft reafon to believe, that this repulfive principle is no other than elementary fire. See REPULSION. 'RAS-EL-FEEL, one of the frontier provinces of Abyflinia, of which the late celebrated traveller Mr Bruce was made governor while in that country. It is but of fniall extent, and in its moft profperous ftate contained only 39 villages. The climate is extremely hot, in Mr Bruce’s opinion one of the hotteft in the world. He informs us, that on the firft day of March, at three

Here our traveller faw many of the animals called a kind of mice ; which, he fays, feem to partake as much of the nature of a bird as of a quadruped. RASAY, one of the Hebrides Iflands, is about 13 miles long and 2 broad. It contains 700 inhabitants, has plenty of lime-ftone, free-ftone ; and feeds great numbers of black cattle; but has neither deers, hares, nor rabbits. The only appearance of a harbour in Rafay is at Clachan Bay, where Mr Macleodthe proprietor o£ the ifland rtfides. Rafay prefents a bold fhore, which rifes to the height of mountains ; and here the natives have, with inciedible labour, formed many little corn fields and patato grounds. Thefe heights decreafe at the louth end, where there are iome farms and a good * looking country. Mr Macleod is foie proprietor of this if]and* and of Rona and Fladda at the north end of it, which are only proper for grazing. The houle of Rafay is pleaiantly fituated near the fouth-weft end of the ifkmd, which is the moft level part of it. It has an extenfive and excellent garden, and is furrounded with foreft trees of considerable magnitude ; another proof that trees will grow upon the edo'C 0 of the fea, tixough it muft be allowed that the A channel

jerboa,

HAS

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Haitian! channel here narrow. j-iiuiicuuticiy Immediately hchind the Mouic houfe ..w.w i« unxvnr, ucmno me RAT, in zoology. See Mus. of Rafay arc the ruins of an ancient chapel, now ufed The following receipt is faid to have been found efas the family burying-place. f al ttr the f or loufewort, ^cftmAionpowdered, of rats. more Takeoroflefs theasfeeds Dr Johnfon, in his Tour, expreffes the higheft fatisfac- otf" ftavefacre the tion at the reception he met with when in Rafay from occafion requires one part; of oat-meal, three parts ; Mr Macleod. mix them well, and make them up into a pafte with hoRASCIANS, a poor opprefled people who dwelt ney. Lay pieces of it in the holes, and on the places on both fides of the Danube, and who, about the year where mice and rats frequent; and it will effeaually 1594, being weary of the Turkifh thraldom, firft took kill or rid the place of thofe kind of vermin by their *3 their veflels upon that river ; and then drawing eating thereof. ' together a body of fifteen thoufand men between Buda Some time ago, the fociety for encouraging arts proand Belgrade, twice defeated the pafha of Temefwar pofed a premium of 50I. for a preparation capable of with a body of fourteen thoufand Turks. They after- alluring or fafcinating rats fo that they might be taken wards took Baczkerek, four miles from Belgrade, and alive. In confequence of this, a great number of new the caftle of Ottadt; then laying liege to that of Beche, iraps, &c were invented ; and the following methods of on the rheyffa, the old pafha of I emefwar marched to alluring the rats to a certain place were publiflied. relieve it with eleven thoufand men ; but the Rafcians One of thofe moft eafily and efficaeioufly pra&ifed is encountering them, flew near ten thoufand, and took ihe trading fome pieces of their moft favourite food, 18 pieces of canon. The confequence of this vienlon, and S*r or three nights ; by which means thofe that are not al- isJ. aB.curious Warren, K. B. have been former proprietors. See lured the fir It night are brought afterwards, either by * .. their fellows, or the effeds of the trailing, &c. and will LUNDY. RAT-Taih, or Arrejls. See FARRIERY, $ xxxvn. not fail to come duly again, if they are not difturbed or RATAFIA, a fine fpirituous liquor, prepared from’, molefled. But many of the rat-catchers make fhortthe kernels, &c. of feveral kinds of fruits, parfcularly er work, and content themfelves with what can be of cherries and apricots. brought together in one night or two; but tins is neRatafia of cherries is prepared by bruifing the Ciierver effedual, unlefs where the building is fmall and enries, and putting them into a vefiel wherein brandy has^ tire, and the rats but few in number. long kept; then adding to them the kernels ot The means of taking them, when they are brought been cherries, with ftrawberries, fugar, cinnamon, white peptogether, are various. Some entice them into a very per, nutmeg, cloves; and to 20 pound of cherries 10 large hag, the mouth of which is fufficiently capacious quarts of brandy. The veflel is left open ten or twelve to cover nearly the whole floor of the place where they days, and then flopped clofe for two months before it are colleded ; which is done by fmearing fome veflel, placed in the middle of the bag, with oil of rhodium, be tapped. Ratafia of apricots is prepared two ways, and laying in the bag baits of food. 1 his bag, which viz. either by boiling the apricots in white-wine, adding before lay flat on the ground with the mouth fpread to the liquor an equal quantity of brandy, with fugar, open, is to be fuddenly clofed when the rats are all in. cinnamon, mace, and the kernels of apricots ; infilling or mgiu by flight the for jeight then th.the B. Utfteisanvc or for days ule : ; or elfe draining by infilling : or ntotlons, all finnrwhok; anfi niltt nfr t or UDton into a bag of a long form, the mouth of which, after all quor, and putting it up for ufe : or elfe by infufing the the rats are come in, is drawn up to the opening of the apricots, cut in pieces, in brandy, for a day or two, pufplace by which they entered, all other ways of retreat fing it through a ftraining bag, and then putting in the being fecured. Others, again, intoxicate or poifon them, ufual ingredients. RATCH, or RASH, in clock-work, a fort of wheel bv mixing with the repaft prepared for them the cocuhaving twelve fangs, which ferve to lift up the detents lus Indicus, or the nux vomica. They diredt four oun- every hour, and make the clock ftrike. See CLOCK. ces of the coculus Indicus, with twelve ounces of oatRATCHETS, in a watch, arc the fmall teeth at the meal, and two ounces of treacle or honey, made into a moift pafte with ilroug-beer ; but if the nux vomica be bottom of the fufy, or barrel, which flops it in winding ufed, a much lefs proportion will ferve than is here gi- up. RATE, a ftandard or proportion, by which either ven of the coculus. Any fimilar compofition of thefe the quantity or value of a thing is adjufted. drugs, with that kind of food the rats are moll fond of, RATES, in the navy, the orders or clafles into which and which has a ftvong flavour, to hide that of the drugs, will equally well anfwer the end. If indeed the the fhips of war are divided, according to their force coculus Indicus be well powdered, and infufed in and magnitude. The regulation, which limits the rates of men of war Jlrong-beer for fome time, at leafl half the quantity heie to the fmalleft number pofiible, feems to have been dicdirected will ferve as well as the quantity before-mentioned. When the rats appear to be thoroughly in- tated by confideratkms of political economy, or of that

of

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Rates, of the nmplicity of the fervice in the royal dock-yards. is aboard, fix. They have three mailer’s mates, 16 Rate*, '■’’V—*"' 'J'he Britidt fleet is accordingly dillributed into fix rates, midihipmen, three furgeon’s mates, 10 quarter-mailers ■—-y exclufive of the inferior veflels that ufually attend on and their mates, fix boatfwuin’s mates and yeomen, four naval armaments; as Hoops of war, armed (hips, bomb- gunners mates and yeomen, with 18 quartet-gunners, ketches, Hre-Hiips and cutters, or fchooners commanded ' one carpenter’s mate, with eight aflillants, and one llewby lieutenants. ard and lleward’s mate under the purfer. Ships of the firft rate mount roo cannon, having 42Ships of the fourth rate mount from 60 to 50 guns, poundens on the lower deck, 24-pounders on the middle upon two decks, and the quarter-deck. The lower deck, 1 2 -pounders on the upper deck, and 6-pounders tier is compofed of 24-pounders, the upper tier of 1 2on the quarter-deck and fore-caitle. They are manned pounders, and the cannon on the quarter-deck and with 850 men, including their officers, feamen, marines, fore-callle are 6-pounders. I he complement of a jo' and fervants. gun Ihip is 35® bi which there are three lieuteIn general, the Hups of every rate, befides the cap- nants, two mailer’s mates, 10 midfhipinen, two furtain, have the mafter, the boatfwain, the guuner, the geon’s mates, eight quarter-mailers and their mates, chaplain, the purfer, the furgeon, ami the carpenter ; four boatfwain’s mates and yeomen, one gunner’s mate: all of whom, except the chaplain, have tlieir mates or and one yeoman, with 1 2 quarter-gunners, one carpenafliilants, in which are comprehended the fail-maker, the ter’s mate and fix affillants, and a lie ward and lleward’s' mafter at arms, the armourer, the captain’s clerk, the mate. gunfmith, &c. All veffels of war,* under the fourth rate, are ufualThe number of other officers are always in propor- ly comprehended under the general name of frigates^* tion to the rate of the Hup. Thus a firft rate has fix and never appear ir> the line of battle. They are dilieutenants, fix mailer’s mates, twenty-four midihipmen, vided into the 5th and 6th rates ; the former mounting" and live furgeon’s mates, who are confidered as gentle- from 40 to 32 guns, and the latter from 28 to 20. men : befides the following petty officers ; quarter-maf- The largefl of the fifth rate have two decks of cannon,ters and their mates, fourteen ; boatfwain’s mates and the lower battery being of 18-pounders, and tliat of yeomen, eight; gunner's mates and afliftants, fix; quar- the upper deck of 9-pounders ; but thofe of 36 and 32ter-gunners, twenty-five ; carpenter’s mates, two, befides guns have one complete deck of guns, mounting 1 2fourteen afliftants; with one lleward, and lleward’s mate pounders, befides the quarter-deck and fore-caflle, which to the purfer. carry 6-pounders. The complement of a (hip of 44 If the dimenfions of all (hips of the fame rate were guns is 280 men ; and that of a frigate of 36 guns, equal, it would be the fimplcfl and mod pcrfpicuous 240 men. The firll has three, and the fecond two, method to collect them into one point of view' in a tablet lieutenants ; and both have two mailer’s mates, fix midbut as there is no invariable rule for the general dimen- ftiipmen, two furgeon’s mates, fix quarter-mallei s and fions. We mull content ourfelves with but a few re- their mates, two boatfwain’s mates and one yeoman, marks on fhips of each rate, fo as to give a general idea one gunner’s mate and one yeoman, with 10 or 11 quarof the difference between them. ter-gunners, and one purferis lleward. The Viclory, one of the laft built of our firfl Frigates of the 6th rate carry 9-pounders, thofe of rates, is 222 feet 6. inches in length, from the head 28 guns having 3-pounders on their quarter-deck, with to the Hern ; the length of her keel, 151 feet 3 inches; 200 men for their complement ; and thofe of 24, 160 that of her gun-deck, or lower deck, 186 feet '; her ex- men : tire former has two lieutenants, the latter, one ; treme breadth is 51 feet 10 inches; her depth in the and both have two mailer’s mates, four midihipmen, hold, 21 feet 6 inches; her burden, 2162 tons;,and one furgeon’s mate, lour quarter-mailers and their mates, her poop reaches 6 feet before the mizen-maft. one boatlwain’s mate and one yeoman, one gunner’s Ships of the fecond rate carry 90 guns upon three mate and one yeoman, with fix or feven quarter-gundecks, of which thofe on the lower battery are 32- ners, and one purfer’s lleward. pounders; thofe on the middle, 18-pounders; on the The Hoops-of war carry from 18 ro 8 cannon, the upper deck, 12-pounders; and thofe on the quarter- largeil of which have fix-pounders ; and the fmalleil, deck, 6-pounders, which ufually amount to four or fix.. viz. thofe of 8 or 10 guns, four-pounders. Their offi Their complement of men is 750, in which there are fix cers are gaierally the fame as in the 6th rates, with / lieutenants, four mafter’s mates, 24 midlhipmen, and little variation; and their complements of men are from four furgeon’s mates, 14 quarter-mailers and their mates, 120 to- 60, in proportion to their force or magnitude. tight boatfwain’s mates and yeomen, fix gunner’s mates N. B. Bomb-veffels are on the fame eftablilhment as and yeomen, with 22 quarter-gunners, two carpenter’s Hoops; but fire-lhips and hofpital-lhips are on that of mates, with 10 aflillants, and one He ward and ftewaid’s fifth rates. mate. Nothing more evidently mamfclls the great improveShips of the third rate carry from 64 to 80 cannon, ment of the marine art, and the degree of perfection to* which are 31, 18, and 9 pounders. The 80-gun ihips which it has arrived in Britain, than the facility of mahowever begin to grow out of repute, and-to give way naging our rirll rates ; which were formerly cfleemed * to thofe: of 74, 70, &c. which have only two whole incapable of government, unlefs in the moll favourable batteries ; whereas the former have three, with 28 guns weather of the funimer. planted on each, the cannon of their upper deck being Ships of the fecond rate, and thofe of the third, the fame as thofe on the quarter-deck and fore-caitle of have three decks, carry their fails remarkably the latter, which are 9"Pt>un^t’rs- J be complement in which well, and labour very little at lea. They are excellent a 74 is 650, and-in a 64, 500 men ; having, in peace, in a general action, or in cannonading a fortrefs. Thofe* four lieutenants, but in war, five; and when an admiral of the third rate, which have two tiers, are lit for the line

R Riiietn

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line of WtJe, to lead the convoya and fquadrona of (hips of war in adtion, and in general to fuit the different exigencies of the naval fervice. The fourth-rates may be employed on the fame occafions as the third-rates, and may be alfo deitined amongft the foreign colonies, or on expeditions of great didance; fince thefe veifels are ufually excellent for keeping and fuftaining the fea. Veflels of the fifth rate are too weak to fuffer the •{hock of a line of battle ; but they may be dedined to lead the convoys of merchant (hips, to protect the commerce in the colonies, to cruize in different dations, to accompany fquadrons, or be fent exprefs with neceffai y intelligence and orders. The fame may be obferved of the fixth rates. The frigates, which mount from 28 to 38 guns upon one deck, with the quarter-deck, are extremely proper for cruizing againft privateers, or for fhort expeditions, being light, long, and ufually excellent failors. KATEEN, or RATTEN, in commerce, a thick woollen duff, quilled, woven on a loom with four treddles, like ferges and other duffs that have the whale or quilling. There are fome rateens dreffed and prepared like cloths ; others left fimply in the hair, and others where the hair or knap is frized. Rateens are chiefly manufaclured in France, Holland, and Italy, and are moAly ufed in linings. T he fnze is a fort of coarfe lateen, and the drugget is a rateen half linen half woollen.

RATIFICATION, an a& approving of and confirming fomething done by another in our name. RATIO, in arithmetic and geometry, is that relation of homogeneous things which determines the quantity of one from the quantity of another, without the intervention of a tliird. Two numbers, lines, or quantities, A and B, being propofed, their relation one to another may be confidered under one of thefe two heads : 1. How much A exceeds B, or B exceeds A ? And this is found by taking A from B, or B from A, and is called arithmetic rcajhn, or ratio. 2. Or how many times, and parts of a time, A contains B, or B contains A ? And this is called geometric reafon or ratio ; (or, as Euclid defines it, it is the mutual habitude, or rtfpeS, of two magnitudes of the fame kind, according to quantity; that is, as to how often the one contains, or is contained in, the other) ; and is found by dividing A by B, or B by A. And here note, that that quantity which is referred to another quantity is called the antecedent of the ratio ; and that to which the other is referred is called the conJequent of the ratio ; ae, in the ratio of A to B, A is the antecedent, and B the confequent. Therefore any quantity, as antecedent, divided by any quantity as a confequent, gives the ratio of that antecedent to the confequent. tk Thus the ratio of A to B is but the ratio of B B to A is —; and, in numbers, the ratio of 12 to 4 is A or triple ; but the ratio of 4 to 12 is — = -» 4 . 123 -»r fubtriple. And here note, that the quantities thus compared

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mud be of the fame kind ; that is, fuch as by multipli- EUfincina* tlOU cation may be made to exceed one the other, or as thefe quantities are faid to have a ratio between them, which, being multiplied, may be made to exceed one another. Thus a line, how (hort foever, maybe multiplied, that is, produced fo long as to exceed any given right line ; and consequently thefe may be compared together, and the ratio exprefled: but as a line can never, by any multiplication whatever, be made to have breadth, that is, to be made equal to a fuperficics, how fmall foever; thefe can therefore never be compared together, and confequently have no ratio or refpe& one to another, according to quantity ; that is, as to how often the one contains, or is contained in, the other. See QUANTITY. RATIOCINATION, the ad of reafomng. Sec REASONING.

RATION, or RATIAN, in the army, a portion of ammunition, bread, drink, and forage, diilributed to each foldier in the army, for his daily fubfiftence, &c. The horfe have rations of hay and oats when they cannot go out to forage. The rations of bread are regulated by weight. The ordinary ration of a foot foldier is a pound and a half of bread per day. The officers have feveral rations according to their quality and the number of attendants they are obliged to keep.— When the ration is augmented on occalions of rejoicing, it is called a double ration. The fhip’s crews have alfo their rations or allowances of bilket, pulfe, and water, proportioned according to their llock. RATIONALE, a folution or account of the principles of fome opinion, a&ion, hypothefis, phenomenon, or the like. RATIBOR, a town of Germany, in Silefia, and capital of a duchy of the fame name, with a caftle. It has been twice taken by the Swedes, and is feated on the river Oder, in a country fertile in corn and fruits, 15 miles north-call of Troppaw, and 142 eall of Prague. E. Long. 22. 24. N. Lat. 50. 14. RATISBON, an ancient, large, rich, handfome, and llrong city of Germany, in Bavaria, free and imperial, with a bilhop’s fee, whole bifhop is a prince of the empire. It is called by the Germans Regenlburg, from the river Regens, which runs under a line Hone bridge, and throws itfelf into the Danube below the city ; and the rivers Luber and Nab mix with it above the city. The French call it Ratilbon, in imitation of the Latins ; it hath formerly been fubjedl to the king* of Bavaria, who made it the place of their refidence ; but it was declared free by the emperor Frederick I. which does not however hinder the dukes of Bavaria from dividing the toll with the citizens, according to an agreement between them. Thefe princes have alfo the criminal jurifdiclion, for which the magiltrates of the city pay them homage. It is the firlt city of the bench of Suabia, and contains at prefent within its walls five different free Hates of the empire ; namely, the bilhop, the abbot ot St Emmeran, the abbelfes of the Low and High Manlier, and the city. The inhabitants of Ratilbon have the privilege not to be cited before other tribunals, unlefs for actions above 400 florins. The fenate is compofed of 17 members, and there is a council of 10, which is charged with the government of the Hate. The citizens have a right to cleft a chief, whq judges of the affairs of police. The catholics have the exercife of their religion in the cathedral church, and others, and the

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Ratlines the Lutherans in three churches, which they have built. baftfon placed in the middle of a curtain ; but new a The magiftrates and officers of the city are all Protef- detached work compofed only of two faces, which Ravelin. tants ; and it is to be remarked, that although theie are make a faliant angle without any flanks, and raifed beabout 2 2 Catholic churches, yet there are very few Ca- fore the countericarp of the place. See FORTIFICAtholic citizens, the magiftracy not allowing the freedom TION. of tire town to be given to Catholics living there. As RAVEN, in ornithology. See CORvus. this city is large, elegant, and full of magnificent houfes, Sea RAPEN, or corvo marino of Kongo in Africa, in it has been chofen many years for the place of holding ichthyology, is about fix feet long, and big in proporthe diet, upon account of the conveniency, to many tion ; but the moft Angular circumflance apper aining neighbouring princes and ftates, of lending their provi- to this creature is the Hone found in its head, to which ions by land and water, without great expence. The the natives aferibe fume medicinal virtues, and the delitown-houfe, in the hall of which the Diet meets, is cate tafte of its hard roe, which is ftill much admired, extremely magnificent. In the year 1740, however, when dried in the fun, and becomes as hard as a ilone. when there was a war in Germany, the Diet met at RAVENGLAS, a town of Cumberland in EngFrankfort on the Main, till after the death of the em- land, Atuated between the rivers Irt and Efk, which, peror Charles VII. Provifion# are very plentiful at with the fea, encompafs three parts of it. It is a well Ratilbon in time of peace. The inhabitants have a built place, and has a good road for fhipping, which good deal of trade, the river on which it Hands being brings it feme trade. E. Long. o. 5. N. Lat. £ :. 20. navigable, and communicating with a gre^t part of GerRAVENNA (anc. geog.), a noble city of Gallia Cifmany. It is 55 miles fouth-eall of Nuremberg, 62 padana; a colony of ThefTalians, on the Adriatic, in wafflnorth of Munich, and 195 welt of Vienna. E. Long. es or a boggy fituation, which proved a natural fecurity J2. 5. N. Lat. 48. 59. to it. The houfes were all of wood, the communication RATLINES, or, as the failors call them ratlinsy by bridges and boats, and the town kept fweet and clean thofe lines which make the ladder Heps to go up the by the tides carrying away the mud and foil, (Strabo). Ihrouds and puttocks, hence called the ratiim of the Anciently it had a port at the mouth of the Bedefis ; Jhrouds. Auguftus added a new port, capacious to hold a fleet! RATOLFZEL, a ftrong town of Germany, in for the fecutity of the Adriatic, between which and the Suabia, near the weft end of the lake Conltance. It city lay the V 1a Caefaris. In the lower age it was the is feated on that part of it called Bodenfee, and belongs feat of the Oftrogoths for 72 years ; but being recoverto the houfe of Aultria, who took it from the duke of ed by Narfes, Juftinian’s general, it became the refidence Wirtemburg, after the battle of Nordlingen. It is 12 of the exarchs, magiflrates fent by the emperor from miles well of the city of Conltance. It is defended by Confiantinople, for 175 years, when it was taken by the impregnable caitie of Hohen Dwel, on an inaccef- the Longobards. It is ftill called Ravenna, capital of fible hill in the middle of a plain, the rock of which is Romania. The feat of the weftem or Roman Empire flint, fo that a few men may hold it out againll an washy Honorius tranflated to Ravenna about the year army. 404, and hence the country in which it flood was callRAPPLESNAKE. See CROTALUS. ed Romania, in the pope’s territory. It had a very RATILKSNAKK Root. See POLYCALA. flounfhing trade till the fea withdrew two miles from RAPZEBTJRG, or RATZEMBURG, an ancient it, which has been a great detriment. The fortificatown of Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and tions are of little importance, and the citadel is gone m the duchy of Lawenburgh, with a bilhop’s fee and a to ruin. It is now moft remarkable for the excellent caitie. The town depends on the duchy of Lawenburg, wine produced in its neighbourhood. The maufoleum and the cathedral church on that of’Ratzburg. It "is of I heooonc is ftill to be feen, remarkable for bciW feated on an eminence, and atmolt furrounded with a lake covered by a Angle Hone 28 feet in diameter and . e 25 miles in length and three in breadth. The Duke of thick. It was at Ravenna that the duke of Nemourv Lawenburg feized and fortified it in 1689, and the king fell, after having gained a moft de'cifive viftory over the of Denmark took it in 1693 ; but it was difmantled, army, in IJII. See FRANCH, n' 120, and and reftored in 1700 to the Duke, who re-fortified it. confederate Modern Umverfal Hiftory, vol. xx. n. i >4.. &c This town has been frequently pillaged, particularly in 3 RAVENSBURG, a county of Germany, in Weft552> ky I'rancis duke of Saxe Lawenburg, becaufe the phalia, bounded on the north by the bifhoprics of canons refufed to ele& his fon Magnus their bilhop. Omaburg and Minden, on the call by Lemgovv, on It lies nine miles fouth of Lubec. This place is noted the fouth by the bifhopnc of Paderbom, and on the for its excellent beer. E. Long. 10. 58. N. Lat weft by that of Munfter. It belongs to the king of 53- 47i ruflu, and has its name horn the caftle of RavcufRAVA, a town of Great Poland, and capital of a burg. palatinate of the fame name, with a fortified caftle, RAVENSBURG, a free and imperial town of Gerwhere they keep Hate prifoners. The houfes are built many, in Algow, in the circle of Suabia. It is well of wood, and there is a Jefuits college. It is feated in a bJilt, and the public ftmflares are handfome. The morafs covered with water, which proceeds from the river Rava, with which it is furrounded. It is 45 miles inhabitants are partly Proteftants and partly Papifts. It is feated on the river Chenfe, in E. Long. 9. 46. fouth of Blcfko, and i;o fouth-weft of Warfaw. The IN• JLat. 47• 44* palatinate is bounded on the north by that of Bloflco, on 1 the call by that of Mazovia, on the fouth by that of chattel, , ^V£T» an 'nfea ftaped Kke a may-bug, or cock (fee SCARAB^US), with which the ifland of Sandomer, and on the welt by that of Lencieza. (juadaloupe is much peftered. It has a {linking fmell, RAVELIN, in fortilication, was anciently a flat preys upon paper, books, and furniture, and whatever tllCT

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RaviUla'’. they do not gnaw is difcoloured by their ordure, i hefc and through a clay funnel into his bowels by the navel. RavlilUe. natty infects, which are very numerous, and appear The people refilled to pray for him ; and w-hen, acchiefly by night, would be intolerable, were it not for cording to the fentence pronounced upon him, he came a large fpidef, forne of them as long as a man’s flit, to he dragged to pieces by four horfes, one of thofe which intangles them in its web, and otherwife furprifes that were brought appearing to be but weak, one of them. On which account the inhabitants of the iiland the fpeefaters offered his own, with which the criminal was much moved : he is faid to have then made a conare very careful of thefe Ipiders. ^ftdi’rn URAVILLIAC (Francis), the infamous afiaffin of feffiort, which was fo w'ritten by the greffier Voifin, niv, Hi/It Henry IV. of France, was a native of Angoulefme, that not fo much ag one word of it could ever be read. val. xxi. and at the time of hiS execution was about one or two He was very earneft for abfolution, which hisconfeffor I'* 147* .and c thirty .years of age. See 1'RANGE, n 146, and refufed, unlefs he w'ould reveal his accomplices ; “ Give note (A), &c. HENRY IV. of France. Ravilliac was the fon of pa^ it me conditionally (faid he) ; upon condition that I rents who lived upon alms. His father was that fort have told the truth,” which they did. His body was .of inferior retainer to the law, to which the vulgar fo robuft, that it refilled the force of the horfes ; and give the name of a pettifogger, and his fon had been the executioner w'as at length obliged to cut him into bred up in the fame way. Ravilliac had fet up a claim quarters, which the people dragged through the ftreets. to an eftate, but the caufe went againft him : this dif- The houfe in which he was born was demolilhed, and appointment affe£led his mind deeply : he afterwards a column of infamy erefted ; his father and mother taught a fchool, and, as himfelf faid, received chari- were banilhed from Angoulefme, and ordered to quit table gifts, though but of a very fmall value, from the the kingdom upon pain of being hanged, if they returnparents of thofe whom he taught; and yet his diftrefs ed, without any form of procefs ; his brothers, fillers, was fo great, that he had much ado to live. When uncles, and other relations, were commanded to lay he was fei/ed for the king’s murder, he was very loofely afide the name ©f Ravilliac, and to affume fome other. guarded ; all were permitted to fpeak with him who Such was the fate of this execrable monller, who, acpltafed ; and it was thought very remarkable that a Je- cording to his own account, fiiffcred himfelf to be imfuit fliould fay to him, “ Friend, take care, whatever pelled to Rich a fadl by the feditious fermons and books you do, that you don’t charge honeft people.” He of the Jefuits, whom Henry, rather out of fear than was removed next day from the houfe of Efpernon to love, had recalled and caitffed, and to whom he had the Conciergerie, the proper prifon of the parliament bequeathed his heart. Neither the dying words of Ravilliac, nor fo much of Paris. When he was firft interrogated, he anof his procefs as was publilhed, were credited by his fwered with great boldnefs, “ 1 hat he had done it, and would do it, if it were to do again.” When cotemporaries. Regalt the hillorian fays, that there two different opinions concerningo this aiTaifinaJhe C was vvrtb told tuiu that Liiau the 11 iv_ king, jvmuj though dangeroufly ^ j wound- were *- —r ed, vas living, and might recover, he faid that he had tion ; one, that it was conduced by fome grandees, who n r • t_ fm'rihr***r1 that monarch to to their their old old refentmentfi refentments;: the the Rruck him home, and that he was fure he was dead. facririced thatother, that it was done by the cmiffaries of the SpaIn his fubfequent examinations he owned that he had long had an intention to kill the king, becaufe he fuf- niards. Letters from Bruffels, Antwerp, Mechlin, and fered two religions in his kingdom ; and that he en- other places, were received before the 15th of May, deavoured to obtain an audience of him, that he might with a report of the king’s death. Though nothing admonilh him. He alfo faid that he underllood the king’s occurs in the examinations of Ravilliac that were full great armament to be againll the pope, and that, in his publilhed, in reference to his journeys to Naples and opinion, to make war againll the pope, was to make other places; yet as thefe are fet down as certain truths war againll God. We have no diftindb account of the by good authors, fo there are probable grounds to bethree lall examinations; but he is faid to have perfilled, lieve that they were not fiftitious. It appears from in the molt folemn affeverations, that he had no accom- Sir Ralph Winwood’s Memorials, that Ravilliac had plices, and that nobody had perfuaded him to the fail. been not long before at Bruffels. Amongft other circumftances that created a very great doubt,7 whether XIc appealtu ^ at c*v the He appeared luipnixu furprifed au at nothing fo much as univerfal abhorrence of the people, which, it feems, the aflaffm fpoke truth, were the things found in his r Vi*. wfrp forced forced to guard frnard him oocket pocket at the time he was feized :; amonerft amongft which wwas as he did not expeft. TTPV They were llri&ly from his fellow-prifoners, who would otherw'ife a chaplet, the figure of a heart made in cotton, in the have murdered him. 'The butchers of Paris ddired to centre of which he faid there was a bit of the true have him put into their hands, affirming that they would crofs, but when cut there was none, which he affirmed flay him alive, and that he Ihould Hill live 12 days. was given him by a canon at Angoulefme, a piece of When he was put to the toiture, he broke out into paper with the arms of France pa nted upon it, anohorrid execrations, and always infilled that he did the ther full of charadttp-s, and a third containing verfesfor fa6l from his own motive, and that lie could accufe the meditation of a criminal going to execution. The nobody. On the day of his execution, after he had provoft of Pluviers, or Petiviers, in Beauce, about fix made the amende honourable before the church of Notre miles from Paris, had faid openly on the day that Henmurdered, “ This day the king is either Dame, he was carried to the Greve; and, being brought ry IV. was i n i v s i A r*. . 1 1 • » I . upon a fcaffold, wras tied to a wooden engine in the flain or dangeroufly wounded.” After the king’s death ftvape of a St Andrew’s crofs. T he knife with which was known, he was feized and fent prifoner to Paris; he did the murder being faftened in his right hand, it but, before he was examined* he was found hanged in was firil burnt in a flow lire ; then the flelhy parts the livings of his drawers. His body was, notwithof his body were torn with red-hot pincers, and melted ftanding, hung up by the heels on the common gibbet lead, oil, pitch, and rofm, poured into the wounds, on the 19th of June. What increafed the fufpicions 5 grounded 1

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1 homas, leaving him alfo for life 601. per aftnunv The eldeft of thefe young gentlemen not being four years of age, Mr Ray, as a faithful truftee, betook himfelf to tire inftru6tion of them ; and for their rife compofed his Nomcnclator Glaflicus, which was publifhed tin's very year, 1672. Francis the eldeft dying before he was of age, the younger became Lord Middleton. Not many months after the death of Mr Willoughby, Mr Ray loft another of his belt friends, biflrop Wilkins ; whom he vifited in London the < 8th of November 1672, and found near expiring by a total fuppreftion of urine for eight days. As it is natural for the mind, when it is hurt in one part, to feck relief from another; fo Mr Ray, having loft fome of his heft friends, and bang in a manner left deftitute, conceived thoughts of marriage ; and accordingly, in June 1673, did actually marry a gentlewoman of about 20 years of age, the daughter of Mr Oakley of Launton in Oxfordfhire. Towards the end of this year, came forth his “ Obfervations Topographical, Moral, &c.” made in foreign countries; to which was added his Catalogus Stirfiurn in exteris rtgtnnibus obfervatarum : and about the fame time, his CollcSion of unufual or local Englijl words, which he had gathered up in his travels through the counties of England. After having publifhed many books on fubjevifts foreign to his proieflion, he at length refolvcd to publilh in the character of a divine, as well as in that of a natural philofopher : in which view he publilhed his excellent demohftration of the being and attributes of God, entitled The Wifdom of God manifejled^tn the Works of the Creation, 8vo, 1697. I he rudiments of tin's work were read in fome college leCfures 5 and another colledlion of the fame kind he enlarged and publiflred under the title of Three Pyjico-

R.un grounded on this man’s end, was his having two Tons 'i Jefuits, and his being a dependent on the family of Riy ' Monfieur d’Entragues. v RAUN, upon the liver Miza, a town of fome ftrength, remarkable for a bloody flcirmifh between the Pruflians and Andrians, in Align ft 1744. The king ivf Prufiia, intending to get poireffion of Beraun, fent thither fix battalionif, with eight cannon, and 800 hnffars ; but General Feftititz being there with a great party of his corps, and M. Luchefi with 1000 horfe, they not only repulfed the Pruflians, but attacked them in their turn, and, after a warm difpute, obliged them to retire with confiderable lofs. RAURICUM (anc. geog.), a town of the Raurici, fituated over againft Abnoba, a mountain from which the Danube takes its rife. A Roman colony led by L. Manutius Plancus the fcholar and friend of Cicero : called Colonia Rauriaca (Pliny), Ravrira (Infcription), dugu/la Riiuncorum. The town was deftroyed in Julian’s time. It is now commonly called Augfl, a village greatly decayed from what it formerly was. It is fituated on the Rhine, diftant about two hours to the call of Bafil. The country is now the canton of Bafil. RAY (John), a celebrated botaniil, was the fon of Mr Roger Ray a blackfmith, and was born at Black Notly in Efl’ex in 1628. He received the lirft rudiments of learning at the grammar-fehool at Braintree ; and in 1644 was admitted into Catharine hall in Cambridge, from whence he afterwards removed to Trinity college in that univerfity. He took the degree of mafter of arts, and became at length a fenior fellow of the college ; but his intenfe application to his fludies having injured his health, he was obliged at his leifure hours to exercile himfelf by riding or walking in the fields, which led him to the ftudy of plants. theological Difcourfes, concerning the Chaos, Deluge, and He noted from Johnfon, Parkinfon, and the Phytologia Diffolution of the World, 8vo, 1692. He died in 1705. Britannica, the places where curious plants grew ; and Fie was modeft, affable, and communicative ; and was in 1658 rode from Cambridge to the city of Cheiter, diftinguilhed by his probity, charity, fobriety, and piety. from whence he went into North Wales, yifiting many He wrote a great number of works ; the principal of places, and among others the famous hill of Snowdon ; which, befides thofe already mentioned, are, f. Catareturning by Shrewfbury and Glouceft£r. In 1660 he logus Plantarum Anglia. 2. Didionariolum Tri/inguefepublilhed his Catalogus Plantarum circa Cantalrigiam naf- cundum locos communes. 3. Hijloria Plant arum. Species, centium, and the fame year was ordained deacon and hadenus editas, aliafque tnftper mult as noviter inventas et prielt. In i66r he accompanied Francis Willoughby, dejeriptas comptedens, 3 vols. 4. Methodus Plantarum Efq; and others in fearch of plants and other natural nova, cum Tabulis, 8vo, and feveral other works on curiofities, in the north of England and Scotland ; and plants. 6. Synopjis Methodica Animalium quidrupethe next year made a wellern tour from Cheiter, and dum et Serpentinigeneris, 8vo. 6. Synopjis Methodica Athrough Wales, to Cornwall, Devonlhire, Dorfetlhire, vium et Pifcium, 7. Hijloria Inf'dorutr, opus poflhum’im. Hamplhire, Wiltlhire, and other counties. He after- 8. Methodus JnfeBarum. 9. Philofophical Letters, &c. wards travelled with Mr Willoughby and other genRAY, in (optics, a beam of light emitted from a ratlemen through Holland, Germany, Italy, France, &c. diant or luminous body. See LIGHT and OPTICS. took feveral tours in England, and was admitted felInjleded Rars, thole rays of light which, on their low of the Royal Society. In 1672, his intimate and near approach to the edges of bodies, in palling by them, beloved friend Mr Willoughby died in the ?7th year are bent out of their courfe, being turned either from of his age, at Middleton Hall, his feat in Yorklhire ; the body or towards it. This property of the rays of “ to the infinite and up.fpeakable lofs and grief (fays Mr light is generally termed dijfradion by foreigners, and Dr Hay) of myfelf, his friends, and all good men.” There Hooke fometimes called it dejledion. having been the clofell and fincereft friendlhip between Rejleded RAYS, thofe rays of light which, after Mr Willoughby and Mr Ray, who were men of limi- falling upon the body, do not go beyond the furface of lar natures and taftes, from the time of their being it, but are thrown back again. fellow collegians, Mr Willoughby not only confided Refraded RAYS, thofe rays of light which, after fallin Mr Ray, in his lifetime, but alfo at his death : ing upoM any medium, enter its furface, being bent eifor he made him one of the executors of his will, and ther towards or from a perpendicular to the point on charged him with the education of his funs Francis and which they ML VOL. XVI. Part T. c Pencil

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a number of rap iiTutng from a ment or information of an auditor. Now, if we obferve Re-.ding. / J "“‘ point of an object, and diverging in the form ot a the deliveries natural to thefe two fituations, we fnall find, that the fird may be accompanied with every deReading. cone. v RAZOR, a well-known indrumeilt, ufed by fur- gree of expreffion which can mauifed itfelf in us, from geons, barbers, &c. for (having oflf the hair from va- the lowed of fympathy to the mod violent and energerious parts of the body.—As (having to many people tic of the fuperior paffions ; while the latter, from the is a mod painful operation, cutlers in dilTerent coun- fpeaker’s chief bufinefs being to repeat what he heard tries have long applied their (kill to remove that in- with accuracy, difeovers only a faint imitation of thofe convenience. Some have invented foaps of a peculiar figns of the emotions which we fuppofe agitated him kind to make the operation more ealy, and fome have from whom the words were, fird borrowed.—The ufe invented draps. With reipe61 to razors, iome artills have and neceffity of this difference of manner is evident; fucceeded rather by accident than from any fixed prin- and if we are attentive to thefe natural figns of exciple ; and therefore we have found great inequality in preffion, we lhall find them conforming with the greatell nicety to the flighted and mod minute movements the goodnefs of razors made by the lame artitl. A correfpondent affures us, that he has for 40 years of the bread. This repetition of another’s words might be fuppofed pad been at much pains to find out razors made by the bed makers both in England and Scotland, and was for- to pafs through the mouth of a fecond or third perfon ; tunate enough, about 22 years ago, to difeover a kind and in thefe cafes, fince they were not ear and eye witmade by a Scotchman of the name of Logan, which neffes of him who fird fpoke them, their manner of dehe called magnetical razors, becaufe they were direfted livery w'ould want the advantage neceffarily arifing from to be touched with an artificial magnet before ufing. an immediate idea of the original one ; hence, on this Thefe, our friend affures us, are mod excellent razors, account, this would be a dill lefs lively reprefentation than and he has ufed them for upwards of 20 years. He fays that of the fird repeater. But as, from a daily obfervation likewife that they continue in good order, without re- of every variety of fpeech and its affociated figns of emoquiring to be ground ; but fliat the great draw-back tion, mankind foon become pretty well acquainted with on their being generally ufed, is the price, which is them, and this in different degrees, according to their higher than mod people are able or difpofed to give difeernment, fenfibility, &c. experience (hows us that for that inftrument. Our correfpondent, who refides thefe latter repeaters (as we call them) might conceive in the vicinity of London, alfo informs us, that lately and ufe a manner of delivery which, though lefs charaftethe famous furgeon’s indrument-maker, Mr Savigny in rijlic perhaps, would on the whole be no way inferior to Pall Mall, after numberlefs experiments, in the courfe the firit, as to the common natural exprefiion proper for of above 20 years, has at length brought razors to a their fituation. It appears, therefore, that repeaters of degree of perfeftion never yet equalled ; and with fuch every degree may be eileemtd upon a level as to animacertainty, that the purchafer is in no danger of a dif- tion, and that our twofold dillinftion above contains appointment, though the price is very moderate. By accurately enough the whole variety of ordinary delivethole, we are told, the operation of (having is per- ry ;—we fay ordinary, becaufe There is another very peculiar kind of delivery fomeformed with greater eafe, more perfeftly, and more extimes ufed in the perfon of a repeater, of which it will pedition!] y, than with any other. RE, in grammar, an infeparable particle added to in this place be neceffary to take fome notice. What the beginning of words to double or otherwife mo- we mean here is mimicry; an accomplifliment which, dify their meaning ; as in re-a&ion, re-move, re-export, when perfeftly and properly difplayed, never fails of yielding a high degree of plcafure. But fince this • See. RE-ACTION, in phyfiology, the refidance made pleafure chiefly "refults from the principle of imitation by all bodies to the aftion or impulfe of others that refpefting manner, and not from the purport of the endeavour to change its date whether of motion or matter communicated; fince, comparatively fpeaking, it is only attainable by few perfons, and praftifed only red, &c. READING, the art of delivering written language on particular occalions ;—on thefe accounts it mull be • ref ufed a place among the modes of ufeful delivery with propriety, force, and elegance. “ We mud not judge fo unfavourably of eloquence taught us by general nature, and efteemed a qualificaor good reading (fays tiie illudrious Fenelon), as to tion purely anomalous. Thefe dillinftions with regard to a fpeaker’s fituareckon it only a frivolous art, that a declaimer ufes to impofe upon the weak imagination of the multitude, tion of mind premifed, let us fee to which of them an and to ferve his own ends. It is a very ferious art, author and his reader may mod properly be referred, . defigned to indraft people ; to fupprefs their paflions and how they are circumilanced with regaid to one and reform their manners ; to fupport the laws, direft another. The matter of all books is, either what the author public councils, and to make men good and happy.” T Delivery in Reafon and experience demondrate, that delivery in fays in his own perfon, or an acknowledged recital of reading reading ought to be hfs animated than in interejled/peaking. the words of others: hence an author may be elleemed lhould.be jn every exercife of the faculty of fpeech, and thofe ex- both an original fpeaker and a repeater, according as ted than Vn Pref^ons countenance and gedure with which it is what he writes is of the firll or fecond kind. Now a intertfted generally attended, wc may be conlidered to be always reader mull be fuppofed either aftually to perfonate the fpeaking. in one of the two following fituations: Firlt, delivering author, or one whofe office is barely to communicate our bofom fcntimer.ts on circumdances which relate to what he has faid to an auditor. But in the firft of thefe ourfelves or others, or, fecondly, repeating fomething fuppofitions he^would, in the delivery of what is the authat was fpoken on a certain, occafion for the amufe- thor’s own, evidently commence mimic; which being, as . above R*y 11

Pencil of RAYS,

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Rfacing above obferved, a charaAer not acknowledged by gcnc- than ufual, yet (it) requires that the fame proportion R-fadlng. v“—^ rai nature in this department, ought to be rejected as in point of quantity be obferved in the fyllables, as there generally improper. The other i'uppolition therefore is in mufleal notes when the fame tune is played in mud be accounted right; and then, as to the who/e quicker or flower time.” But that this deviation from matter of the book, the reader is found to be exadtly in ordinary fpecch is not a fault, as our author afferts ; the fituation of a repeater, fave that he takes what he nay, that on the contrary^ it is a real beauty when kept delivers from the page before him inftead of his memo- under proper regulation, the following obfervations it is ry. It follows then, in proof of our initial proportion, hoped will fufficicntly prove. (I.) It is a truth of the moft obvious nature, that that, if we are directed by nature and propriety, the manner of our delivery in reading ought to be inferior thofe things which on their application to their proper in warmth and energy to what we fhould ufe, were the fenfes have a power of railing in us certain ideas and language before us the fpontaneous effufions of our own emotions, are ever differently modilkd in their conftituent hearts in the circumftances of thofe out of whofe mouths parts when different effects are produced in the mind: and alfo (II.) that, within proper bounds, were we to it is fuppofed to proceed. Evident as the purport of this reafoning is, it has not fuppofe thefe conilituent parts to be proportion illy info much as been glanced at by the writers on the fub- creafed or diminilhed as to quantity, this effect would jedt wc are now entered upon, or any of its kindred Hill be the fame as to quality.—For inftance: The difones ; which has occalioned a manifelt want of accuracy ferent ideas of ftrength, fwiftnefs, &c. w hich are railed in feveral of their rules and obfervations. Among the in us by the fame fpecics of animals, is owing to the reft, this precept has been long reverberated from au- different form of their correfponding parts; the different thor to author as a perfedl ftandard for propriety in effects of mufic on the paflions, to the different airs and reading. “ Deliver yourfelves in the fame manner you movements of the melody ; and the different expreffions would do, were the matter your own original fentiments of human fpeech, to a difference in tone, fpeed, &c. of uttered direftly from the heart.” As all kinds of deli- the voice. And thefe peculiar effects would ftill revery muft have many things in common, the rule will main the fame, were we to fuppofe the animals above in many articles be undoubtedly right; but, from what alluded to, to be greater or leffer, within their proper has been faid above, it muft be as certainly faulty in bounds ; the movement of the mufic quicker or flower, refpedl to feveral others; as it is certain nature never provided it did not palpably interfere with that of fome confounds by like figns two things fo very different, as other fpecies; and the pitch of the voice higher or lower, a copy and an original, an emanation darted immediately if not carried out of the limits in which it is obferved from the fun, and its weaker appearance in the lunar re- on limilar occafions naturally to move. Farther (III.) fledlion. flnee, refpefting the emotions more especially, there The precepts we have to offer for improving the are no rules to determine d priori what effect any parabove-mentioned rule, (hall be delivered under the heads ticular attribute or modiheation of an object will have 2 of accent, empbafis, modulation, exprejfion, f cvfes, &c. upon a percipient, our knowledge of this kind muft eccent. I. Accent* In attending to the affedfions of the evidently be gained from experience. Ealtly, (IV.) voice when we fpcak, it is eafy to obferve, that, inde- In every art imitating nature we are pleafed to fee pendent of any other confideration, one part of it differs the characteriftic members of the pattern heightened a from another, in Jirefs, energy, or force of utterance. little farther than perhaps it ever was carried in any In words we find one fyllable differing from another real example, provided it be not bordering upon fome with refpedf to this mode; and in fenteuces one or ludicrous and difagreeable provinces of excels. more words as frequently vary from the reft in a iimilar Now for the application of thefe premiffes.—To keep manner. This ftrefs with regard to fyllables is called pace and be confiftent with the dignity of the tragic accent, and contributes greatly to the variety and har- mufe, the delivery of her language fliould neceflarily be mony of language. Refpedfing 'words, it is termed em- dignified ; and this it is plain from obfervation (I.) canpbojis ; and its chief office is to affift the fenfe, force, or not be accomplifhed otherwife than by fomething diffeperfpicuity of the fentence—of which more under the rent in the manner of it from that of ordinary fpcech ; next head. ft nee dignity is effentially different from familiarity. But “ Accent (as deferibed in the Ledlures on Elocu- how muft we difeover this different manner? By attendtion) is made by us two ways; either by dwelling long- ing to nature : and in this cafe flie tells us, that beiides er upon one fyllable than the reft, or by giving it a uftng -Aflower delivery, and greater diflintlnefs of the fmarter percuffion of the voice in utterance. Of the words (which every thing merely grave requires, and hr ft of thefe we have inftances in the -worte glory, father, gravity is a concomitant of dignity, though not its effenceJ, holy ; of the lafl in hat1 tie, hab it, bor'ro'w. So that ac- we muft dwell a little longer upon the unaccented fyllacent with in is not referred to tune, but to time ; to bles than we do in common. As to wdiat our author quantity, not quality ; to the more equable or precipi- obferves in the above quotation, of dignity's only requitate motion of the voice, not to the variation of the ring a flower utterance than ordinary’, while the pronotes or inflexions.” portion of the fyllables as to quantity continues the In theatric declamation, in order to give it more pomp lame; it is apprehended the remark (II.) rcfpe&ing and folemnity, it is ufual to dwell longer than common quicknefs and Jlownefs of movement, w’ill Ihow it to be upon the unaccented fyllables; and the author now not altogether true. For fince the delivery is not alquoted has endeavoured to prove (p. 51. 54.) the tered in form, its expreffion muft he ftill of the fame practice faulty, and to fhow (p. 55.) that “ though it kind, and perhaps what may be rightly fuggefted by {i. e. true foleirnity) may demand a flower utterance the term gravely familiar. C2 But

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Reading. But fomething farther may be yet faid In defence ot have been an unheard-of and dreadful punilhment Readini?, this artificial deliver)^, as our author calls it. Is not brought upon man in confequence of his tranfgrfcfhon j —» the movement of any thing, of whatever fpecies, when on that fuppofition the third line would be read, dignified or folemn, in general of an equable and delibeBrought death into the world, Sec. rate nature (as in the minuet, the military Hep, &c.) . And in theatrical declamation, is not the prbpenfity to But if we were to fuppofe mankind knew there was fuch introduce this equab/enefi fo fining, that it is almolt im- an evil as death in other regions, though the place they pojfible to avoid it wholly, were we ever fo determined inhabited had been free from it till their trr.ifgrefixon: to do it ? If thefe two queries be anfwered in the affir- the line would run thus, mative (as we are perfuaded they will), while the firft Brought death into the avorld. Sec. fupporls our argument for the propriety of the manner of Now from a proper delivery of the above lines, with delivery in queflion, the fecond difeovers a kind ol necejjity for it. And that this manner may be carried a regard to any one of the fuppofitions we have chofen, little farther in quantity on the Jlage tlun is ufual in out of feveral others that might in the fame manner have real /iffy the principle (IV.) of heightening nature will been imagined, it will appear that the emphjs they iljuftify, provided fafhion (which has ever fomething to lullrate is effected by a manifefl de/ay in the pronunciado in thefe articles) give it a fan&ion ; for the freci/e tion, and a tone fomething fuller and louder than is ufed quantity of feveral heightenings may be varied by this in ordinary ; and that its office is folely to determine the meaning of a fentence with reference to fomething 3 great legiflator almoft at will. Jiiupiudi8II. Emphajis. As emphafis is not a thing annexed faid before, prefuppofed by the author as general knowto particular words, as accent is to fyllables, but owes its ledge, or in order to remove an ambiguity where a rife chiefly to the meaning of a paflage, and muft there- paflage is capable of having more fenfes given it than fore vary its feat according as that meaning varies, it one. But, fuppofing in the above example, that none of will be neceflary to explain a little farther the general the fenfes there pointed out were precifely the true one, idea given of it above. and that the meaning of the lines were no other than Of man’s firfl difobedience, and the fruit what is obvioufly fuggclled by their fimple conllrudtion; Of that forbidden tree, whofe mortal tafte in that cafe it may be afked, if in reading them there Brought death into, the world, and all our woe, See. ffiould be no word dignified with the emphatical accomSing heav’nly mufe, &c. panyments above deferibed ?—The anfwer is, Not one Suppofing, in reference to the above well-known with an emphaiis of the fame kind as that we have juil lines, that originally other beings, befides men, had dif- been illuflrating ; yet it is neverthelefs true, that on obeyed the commands of the Almighty, and that the bearing thefe lines well read, we fhall find fome words circumltance were well known to us, there would fall diflinguifhed from the reft by a manner of delivery boran emphajis upon the word man's in the firfl line, and dering a little upon it (A). And thefe words will in general be fuch as feem the mofl important in the ftnhence it would be read thus ; tence, or on other accounts to merit this diflin6lion. Of mans firfl difobedience, and the fruit, See. But as at bell it only enforces, graces, or enlivens, and But if it were a notorious truth, that mankind had not fixes the meaning of any paffage, and even caprice tranfgrefled in a peculiar manner more than once, the and fafhion (s) have often a hand in determining its place and magnitude, it cannot properly be reckoned an emphjts would fall on JrJl, and the line be read, ejfenhal of delivery. However, it is of too much moOf man’s firjl difobedience, See. ment to be negledled by thofe who would wilh to be Again, admitting death (as was really the cafe) to good readers ; and, for the fake of dillin&ion, we may not The following lines will illuflrate both thefe kinds of flrefies: For, to convey th«ir right meaning, the is evidently to be pronounced louder and fuller than thofe with the accents over them. Get wealth and place, if poffible with grace ; If not, by ANY means get wealth and place. POPE. This couplet is accented in the manner we find it in the EJfny on Elocution by Mafon. And if, according to the judgment of this author, the words thus diflinguifhed are to have an emphatical flrefs, it muft be of the inferior kind above-mentioned, and which a little farther on \^e call emphafis of force ; while the word ANY in a different type alone pofleffes the other fort of energy, and which is there contradiflinguifhed by the term empbafit (A)

word

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— Farther : Since the more elTentiai of thefe two energies is folely the work of haivre (as appears by its being corfantly found in the common converfation of people of all kinds of capacities and degrees of knowledge), and the molt ignorant perfon never fails of uling it rightly in the effufions of his own heart, it happens very luckily, and ought always to be remembered, that provided we underhand what we read, and give way to the didates of our own teeling, the emphafts of fenfe can fcarce ever avoid falling fpontaneoufly upon its proper place. Here it will be neceffary to fay lomething by way of reply to a queltion which will naturally occur to the mind of every one. As the rule for the anphafis of fenfe requires we fhould underltahd what we read before it can be properly ufed, it is meumbent upon us never to attempt to read what we have not previoufly Itudied lor that purpofe ? In anfwer to this, it mult Ire obfervtd, that though fuch a Hep will not be without its advantages ; yet, as from the fairnefs of printed types, the well-known paufes of punduation, and a long acquaintance with the phrafeology and conllrudion of our language, &c. experience tells us it is pojfblc to comprehend the fenfe at the firft reading, a previous perufal of what is to be read does not feem neccjjary to all, though, if they would wilh to appear to advantage, it may be expetlient to many ; and it is this circumitance

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which makes us venture upon extemporary reading, and Rwdirpi give it a place among our amufeiwents.—Similar remarks might be made with regard to modulation, expreffon, &c. did not what is here obferved naturally anticipate them. ^ III. Modulation (n). Every perfon mull have obfer-ModuU. ved, that, in fpeaking, the voice is fubjed to an altera-dotu tion of found, which in fome meafure refemblts the movement'of a tune. Thefe founds, however, are e\idently nothing like fo much varied as thofe that are flridly mulical; and we have attempted to {how in the preceding chapter, that, befides this, they have an elfcnt’al difference in themfelves. Neverthelefs, from the geneial fimilitude of thefe two articles, they' polfefs feveral terms in common; and the particular we have now to examine is in both of them called modulation. This affedion of the voice, being totally arlitrary, is differently charaderized in different parts of the world; mid, through the power of cuftom, every' place is iisclined to think their own the only' one natural and agreeable, and the reft affeded with fome barbarous twang or ungainly variation (*r). It may be obferved, however, that though there is a general uniform call or fafhion of modulation peculiar to every country, yet it hy no means follows, that there is or can be any thing fixed in its application to particular paffages; and therefore we find different people will, in any given iaflance, ufe modulations fomething different, and neverthelefs be each of them equally agreeable. But, quitting thefe general remarks, we fhall (as our purpofe requires it) confider the properties of modulation a little more minutely. Firft, then, w’e may obferve, that, in fpeaking, there is a particular found (or key-note, as it is often called) in which the modulation for the moft part runs, and to which

(c ) The firft of thefe terms anfwers to X\vt fimp'e emphafu deferibed in the Ledum on Elocution, and the fecond what is there called complex. The difference lies in this. Under complex emphafit the author feems (for he is far from being clear in this article) to include the tones fimply confidered of all the emotions of the mind ; as well the tender and languid, as the forcible and exulting. Our term is intended to be confined to fuch modes of Cxprelhon alone as are marked with an apparent frefs or increafe of the voice.

nearly to

rh autll r ♦ high 1° A and 5 ?in the °/ delivery fntroduawn to the Art of Reading, not allowing that therefolely is anyinvariation of tone, of as to of a complete period or fentence, places modulation the diverfification the key-note and the variety of fyllables, as to long oxjhorl, fwft oxfoov, frong or weak, and loud or fojt. As we arc of a different opinion, our idea of modulation is confined purely to harmonious inflexions of voice. Thcfe qualities of words, it is true, add greatly both to the force and beauty of delivery ; yet, fince fome of them are fixed and not arbitrary (as long nlfbort), and the others (of/™/, and flow,/ranged weak, loud and foftf. may be confidered as modes of exprefiion which do not affed the modulation as to it will agree beft with our plan to efleem thefe properties as refpeaively belonging to the eftablifhed laws of pronunciation and the imitative branch of exprtffion mentioned in the end of the enfuing head.' E 1 aCCOun s ve ha nriJ *17 and " ITapparently ! )fomttW 'f remaining the modern modulation of the; ancients, it appears have been highly ornamented, not unitkeofour rwiM/iw particularly that of to their theatric dcclaand accom an; ti dum tl dum dum de ; the favourite* mr^MV ” •nDWLt°ja^ ^Ut mer^ ru^‘cs on account of its being out of fafhion, was very probably praate, of d! R T \ [°'C "fre rtcit'd bf °“r a'>"ll»«- So fluctuating are the Lite and nd But vhrth were flrongly folicited by the pope’s party to do. He In the mean time Frederic, furnamed the Wifey elecwas therefore permitted to depart with a fafe condua for a certain time ; after which he was in the (late of a tor of Saxony, and Luther’s great patron, departed this proferibed criminal, to whom it was unlawful to perform life, and was fucceeded by his brother John. Fiedciic, though he had protefted and encouraged Luther, yet any of the offices of humanity. to introduce the reformed religion into r During the confinement of Luther in a caftle near was at no pains ^ his

REF [ 41 ] REF church of Rome. And in general, all the German* P-eforrm. his dominion*. —— But with his fticcefTorlt * ‘r--w - - vm ’ otherwlfe7; ti open theirgwe^ec pnfed, and jn 1552, he marched againft the emperor, who lay with eyes to the truth about the fame time. The reformed peace by* a handful of troops at Infpruck, and expefted no fuch religion was propagated in Sweden, foon after Luthe ele&or thing. By this fudden and unforefeen accident Charles ther’s rupture with the church of Rome, by one of of Saxony, was fo much difpirited, that he was willing to make his difciples named Oiaus Petri. The zealous efforts ^ peace almoft on any terms. The confequence ef this of this mifiionary were feconded by Guftavus Vafa, was, that he concluded a treaty at Paffau, which by whom the Swedes had raifcd to the throne in place of the Proteftants is confidered as the bafis of their religi- Chriftiern king of Denmark, whofe horrid barbarity ous liberty. By the firft three articles of thiu treaty it loft him the crown. This prince, however, was as prudent

REF . [ 47 ] REF r!na a- prudent 3* he was zealous; and, as the minds o. the edift, by which eveiy fuhjedl of Denmark was deela- ^.” * _i j f Swedes were in a fluduating Hate, he wjfely avoided red free either to adhere to the tenets of the church of Rome, or to the doiftrine of Luther. The papal tyil kind of vehemence and precipitation in fpreading a T the new dodrine. Accordingly, the tirfl objed of his ranny was totally deftroyed by his fucceftbr Chriattention was the inftrudion of his people in the fa- ftiern III. He began by fupprefiing the defpotic aucred dodrines of the Holy Scriptures; for which pui- thority of the bifhops, and reltoring to their lawful pofe he invited into his dominions feveral learned Ger- owners a great part of the wealth and pofiefiions which mans, and fpvead abroad through the kingdom the the church had acquired by various flratagems. This Swedifh tranflation of the Bible that had been made was followed by a plan of religious do&rine, worfhip, by Olaus Petri. Some time after this, in 1526, he and difeipline, laid down by Bugenhagius, whom the appointed a conference at Upfal, between this reformer king had fent for from Wittemberg for that purpofe ; and Peter Gallius, a zealous defender of the ancient fu- and in 1539 an aflembly of the ftatts at Odenfee gave -5 perlfition, in which each of the champions was to bring a folemn fanclion to all thefe tranfadlions. In France alfo, the reformation began to make fome In Fiintc. forth his arguments, that it might be ften on which fide the truth lay. In this difpute Olaus obtained progrefs very early. Margaret queen of Navarre, a fignal vidory ; which contributed much to confirm lifter to Francis 1. the perpetual rival of Charles V. was Guftavus in his perfuafion of the truth of Luther’s doc- a great friend to the new dodrine ; and it appears trine, and to promote its progrefs in Sweden. 'I he that, as early as the year 1523, there were in feveral following year another event gave the finifhing flroke of the provinces of France great numbers of people to its propagation and luccefs. I his was the afiembly who had conceived the greatell averfion both to the of the ftates at Wefleraas, where Guflavus recommend- dodrine and tyranny of the church of Rome ; among ed the dodrine of the reformers with fuch zeal, that, whom were many of the firft rank and dignity, and after warm debates fomented by the clergy in general, even fome of the epifcopal order. But as their numit was unanimoufiy refolved that the reformation intro- ber increafed daily, and troubles and commotions were ^ duced by Luther fhould have place in Sweden. This excited in feveral places on account of the religious difrefolution was principally owing to the firmnefs and ferences, the authority of the king intervened, and magnanimity of Guftavus, who declared publicly, that many perfons eminent for their virtue and piety were he would lay down the feeptre and retire from the put to death in the moll barbarous manner. Indeed kingdom, rather than rule a people enflaved by the or- Francis, who had either no religion at all, or, at bell, ders and authority of the pope, and more controuled by no fixed and confident fyllem of religious principles, the tyranny of their bifhops than by the law's of their conduded himfelf towards the Protcllants in fuch a monarch. From this time the papal empire in Swe- manner as bell anfwered his private views. Sometimes den was entirely overthrown, and Guflavus declared he refolved to invite Melandhon into France, probably with a view to pleafe his filter the queen of Navarre, head of the church. :| 4 In Denmark, the reformation was introduced as early whom he loved tenderly, and who had llrongly imbias the year I >2t, in confequence of the ardent defire bed the Proteftant principles. At other times he exdifeovered by Chriftiern II. of having his fubje&s in- erciftd the moll infernal cruelty towards the reformed ; ftru&ed in the doctrines of Luther. This monarch, and once made the following mad declaration, That if notwithflanding his cruelty, for which his name has he thought the blood in his arm was tainted by the been rendered odious, was neverthelefs defirous of de- Lutheran herefy, he would have it cut off; and that livering his dominions from the tyranny of the church he would not fpare even his own children, if they en, of Rome. For this purpofe, in the year 1520, he fent tertained fentiments contrary' to thofe of the Catholic for Martin Reinard, one of the difciples of Carloftadt, church. About this time the famous Calvin began to draw out of Saxony, and appointed him profeflbr of divinity at Hafnia ; and after his death, which happened in the attention of the public, but more efpceially of the 1521, he invited Carloftadt himfelf to fill that impor- queen of Navarre. His zeal expofed him to danger ; tant place. Carloftadt accepted of this office indeed, and the friends of the reformation, whom Francis was but in a fhort time returned to Germany ; upon which daily committing to the flames, placed him more than Chriftiern ufed his utmoft endeavours to engage Lu- once in the moll perilous fituation, from which he was ther to vifit his dominions, but in vain. However, the delivered by the interpofition of the queen of Navarre. progrefs of Chriftiern, in reforming the religion of his He therefore retired out of France to Balil in Swiffeifubjeclfi, or rather of advancing his own power above land; where he published hisChriftian Inllitutions, and that of the church, was checked, in the year 1523, became afterwards fo famous. Thofe among the French who firft; renounced the by a confpiracy, by which he was depofed and banifhed ; his uncle Frederic, duke of Holftein and Slefwic, jurifdi&ion of the Romilh church, are commonly called Lutherans by the writers of thofe early times. being appointed his fucceffor. Frederic conduced the reformation with much great- Hence it has been fuppofed that they had all imbibed er prudence thah his predeceffor. He permitted the the peculiar fentiments of Luther. But this appears by Proteftant dodlors to preach publicly the fentiments no means to have been the cafe : for the vicinity of of Luther, hut did not venture to change the eftahlifli- the cities of Geneva, Laufanne, &c. which had adopted government and difeipline of the church. Hov/ever, ed the do&rines of Calvin, produced a remarkable efhe contributed greatly to the progrefs of the reforma- feft upon the French Proteilant churches ; infomuch tion, by his fuccefsful attempts in favour of religious that, about the middle of this century, they all entered liberty in an afiembly of the Rates held at Odenfee in into communion w'ith the church of Geneva. The 1527. Plere he procured the publication of a famous French Proteftantfl were calledHuruemts* by their ad-* qef /7 *' ^ r • gVtWTSm 4A verfaneft;

R E F [ 48 1 REF could never make its way into the kingdom of Naples; Re/om ficforma- vtvfaries, by way of contempt. Their fate was very tionfevere, being perfecuted with unparalleled fury ; and nor could either the authority or intreaties of the 'bn. 1 " * though many princes of the blood, and of the ilril no- pope engage the Neapolitans to admit even viftting in- ^ • 39 bility, had embraced their fentiments, yet in no part of quifitors. In Spain, feveral people embraced the Proteftant,n Sp^a f See the world did the reformers fuffer fo muchf. At lad religion, not only from the controverfies of Luther, but France, all commotions were quelled by the fortitude and magi>0l3 »141 nanimity of Henry IV. who in the year 159^ granted even from thofe divines whom Charles V. had brought all his fubjefts full liberty of confcience by the famous with him into Germany in order to refute the docEdia of Nantes, and feemed to, have thoroughly efta- trines of Luther. For thefe do&ors imbibed the prebliHied the reformation throughout his dominions. Du- tended herefy inftead of refuting it, and propagated ring the minority of Louis XIV. however, this edia it more or lefs on their return home. But the inqui* was revoked by Cardinal Mazarine, lince which time fiition, which could obtain no footing in Naples, reignthe Proteftants have often been cruelly perfecuted ; nor ed triumphant in Spain, and by the moft dreadful mewas the profeffion of the reformed religion in France at thods frightened the people back into Popery, and any time fo fafe aa in mod other countries of Europe. fuppreffed the defire of exchanging their fuperftition for a move rational plan of icligion. It was indeed 3? See Revolution. In the NeIn the other parts of Europe the oppofition to the prefumed that Charles himfelf died a Proteftant ; and thtrlauds, c]ll1rch of Rome was but faint and ambiguous before it feems to be certain, that, when the approach of death &c * the diet of Augfburg. Before that period, however, had diffipated thofe fchemes of ambition and grandeur it appears from undoubted teftimony, that the doarine which had fo long blinded him, his fentiments became of Luther had made a confiderable, though probably much more rational and agreeable to Chriftianity than fecret, progrefs through Spam, Hungary, Bohemia, they had ever been. All the ecclefiailics who had atBritain, Poland, ami the Netherlands ; and had in all tended him, as foon as he expired, were fent to the thefe countries many friends, of whom feveral repaired inquifition; and committed to the flames, or put to to Wittemberg, in order to enlarge their knowledge death by fome other method equally terrible. Such •by means of Luther's converfation. Some of thefe was the fate of Auguftine Cafal, the emperor’s preachcountries threw off the Romifti yoke entirely, and in er ; of Conftantine Pontius, his confeffor ; of Egidius, • others a prodigious number of families embraced the whom he had named to the biftiopric of Tortofa; of Barprinciples of the reformed religion. It is certain in- tholomew de Caranza, a Dominican, who had been condeed, and the Roman-catholics themfclves acknowledge feffor to King Philip and Queen Mary ; with 20 others 4* it without helitation, that the Papal do&rines and au- of lefs note. In England, the principles of the reformation be-j”J'l,J thority would have fallen into ruin in all parts of the world at once, had not the force of the fecular arm gan to be adopted as loon as an account of Luther’s been employed to fupport the tottering edifice. In the do&rines could be conveyed thither. In that kingdom Netherlands particularly, the mofl grievous perfccutions there were ftill great remains of the feeff called Lol-took place, fo that by the emperor Charles V. upwards lards, whofe dodlrine rcfembled that of Luther ; and of 100,000 were deflroyed, while ftill greater cruelties among whom, of confequcnce, the fentiments of our were exercifed upon the people by his fon Philip II. reformer gained great ciedit. Henry VIII. king of The revolt of the United Provinces, however, and mo- England at that time was a violent partilan of the tives of real policy, at laft put a flop to thefe furious chinch of Rome, and had a particular veneration for proceedings ; and, though in many provinces of the the writings of llromas Aquinas. Being informed Netherlands, the eflablifhment of the Popifh religion that Luther fpoke of his favourite author with conwas ftill continued, the Proteftants have been long tempt, he conceived a violent prejudice againft the refree of the dangei of perfecution on account of their former, and even wrote againft him, as we have already obferved. Luther did not hefrtate at writing againft 38 principles. In Italy. The reformation made a confiderable progrefs in his majefty, overcame him in argument, and treated Spain and Italy foon after the rupture between Lu- him with very little ceremony. The firft ftep toward* ther and the Roman pontiff. In all the provinces of public reformation, however, was not taken till the Italy, but more efpecially in the territories of Venice, year 1529. Great complaints had been made in EngTufcany, and Naples, the fuperftition of Rome loft land, and of a very ancient date, of the ufurpations of ground, and great numbers of people of all ranks ex- the clergy ; and by the prevalence of the Lutheran preffed an averfion to the Papal yoke. Thisoccafion- opinions, thefe complaints were now become more geed violent and dangerous commotions in the kingdom neral than before. The Houfe of Commons, finding of Naples in the year 1546 ; which, however, were at the occafron favourable, paffed feveral bills, reftraining laft quelled by the united efforts of Charles V. and his the impc fitions of the clergy : but what threatened the viceroy Don Pedro di Toledo. In feveral places the eccldlaitical order with the greateft danger were the pope put a flop to the prpgrefs of the reformation, by ievere reproaches thrown out almoft without oppofition letting loole the inquilitors ; who fpread dreadful marks in the houfe againft the diffolute lives, ambition, and of their barbarity through the greateft part of Italy. avarice of the priefts, and their continual encroachThefe formidable minilters of fuperftition put fo many ments on the privileges of the laity. The bills for reto death, and perpetrated fuch horrid adls of cruelty and gulating the clergy met with oppofition in the Houfe rppreflion, that moll of the reformed confulted their of Lords; and bifhop Fifher imputed them to want of •fafety by a voluntary exile, while others returned to faith in the Commons, and to a formed defign, prothe religion of Rome, at leaft in external appearance. ceeding from heretical and Lutheran principles, of rob* But the inquifttion, which frighted into the profeffion bing the church of her patrimony, and overturning the of Popery feveral Proteftants in other parts of Italy, national religion. The Commons, however, complain-

R E F R H F [ 49 ] trary laws and the tyrannical yoke of Rome upon the Rcfo nu vnu- ed to the kinp:, by their fpeaker Sir Thomas Audley, tlon ‘ on. of thci’e reflexions thrown out againft them; and the people of England. Nor were the methods die em* v 1 ployed in the caufe of fuperftition better than the caufe bilhop was obliged to retraX his words. Though Henry had not the leaf! idea of rejeXing itfelf, or tempered by any feutiments of equity or comany, even of the mod abfurd Romifh fuperflitions, yet panion. Barbarous tortures and death, in the mod ns "the oppreffions of the clergy fuited very ill with the Shocking forms, awaited thofe who oppofed her will, or violence of his own temper, he was pleafed will} every made the lead Hand againd the redoration of Popery. opportunity of lefiening their power. In the parlia- And among many other viXims, the learned and pious ment of 1531* he fhowed his defign of humbling the Cranmer, aichbidiop of Canterbury', who had been one clergy in the moll efteXual manner. An obfolete fla- of the mod illudrious indruments of the Reformation tute was revived, from which it was pretended that it in England, fell a facrifice to her fury. This odious was criminal to fubmit to the legatine power which feene of perfecution was happily concluded in the year had been exercifed by cardinal Wolfey. 13y this ftroke 1558, by the death of the queen, who left no iffue ; the whole body of clergy was declared guilty at once. and, as foon as her fucceffor the lady Elizabeth afeendThey were too well acquainted with Henry’s difpofi- ed the throne, all things affumed a new and a pleaiing tion, however, to reply, that their ruin would have afpeX. This illudrious princefs, whofe fentiments, been the certain confequence of their not fubmitting counfels, and projeXs, breathed a fpirit fuperior to the to Wolfey’s commiflion which had been given by royal natural foftnefs and delicacy of her fex, exerted this authority. Indead of making any defence of this kind, vigorous and manly fpirit in the defence of oppreffed they chofe to throw themfelves on the mercy of their confcience and expiring liberty, broke anew the defovereign ; which, however, it cod them 1 18,840 1. to fpotic yoke of Papal authority and fuperllition, and, procure. A confefiion was likewife extorted from delivering her people from the bondage of Rome, eduthem, that the king was proteXor and fupreme head blifhed that form of religious doXrine and ecclefiaftica! -of the church of England ; though feme of them had government which dill iubfids in England. This relithe dexterity to get a claufe inferted, which invalidated gious cdablifhment differs, in fume refpcXs, from the the whole fubmifiion, viz. in fo far as is permitted ly plan that had been formed by thofe whom Edward VI. had employed for promoting the caufe of the Reformathe law of Chrift. y The king, having thus begun to reduce the power tion, and approaches nearer to the rites and dlfcipline of the clergy, kept no bounds with them afterwards. of former times ; though it is widely different, and, in He did not indeed attempt any reformation in religious the mod important points, entirely oppofite to the prinmatters ; nay, he perfecuted mod violently fuch as did ciples of the Roman hierarchy. See England, n° 293, 4t attempt this in the lead. Indeed, the mod eflential &c. The caufe of the reformation underwent ill Ireland111 Ireland, article of his creed feems to have been his own fupremac y ; for whoever denied this, was fure to fuffer the the fame viciffitudes and revolutions that had attended mod fevere penalties, whether Proteftant or Papill. it in England. When Henry VIII. after the abolition But an account of the abfurd and cruel conduX of this of the Papal authority, was declared fupreme head upou prince, and of his final quarrel with the pope on ac- earth of the church of England, George Brown, a nacount of his refilling a difpenfation to marry Anne Bo- tive of England, and a monk of the Augudiue order, le^n, is given under the article England, n° 253— whom that monarch had created, in the year 1535, aiehbifhop of Dublin, began to aX with the utmod 292. He died in 154,7. and was fucceeded by his only vigour in confequence of this change in the hierarchy'. fon Edward VI. This amiable prince, whole early He purged the churches of his diocefe from fu perdiyouth was crowned with that wifdom, fagacity, and vir- tion in all its various forms, pulled down images, detue, that would have done honour to advanced years, droyed relics, abolilhed abfurd and idolatrous rites, and, gave new fpirit and vigour to the Protedant caufe, and by tire influence as well as authority he had in Ireland, was its brighted ornament, as well as its mod effec- caufed the king’s fupremacy to be acknowledged in tual fupport. He encouraged learned and pious men that nation. Henry fliowed, foon after, that this fuof foreign countries to fettle in England, and addref- premacy was not a vain title ; for he banifhed the fed a particular invitation to Martin Bucer and Paul monks out of that kingdom, confifcated their revenues, Fagius, whofe moderation added a ludre to their other and dedroyed their convents. In the reigu of Edward virtues, that, by the minidry and labours of thefe emi- VI. dill farther progrefs was made in the removal of nent men, in concert with thofe of the friends of the Popifli fuperditions, by the zealous labours of bifhop Reformation in England, he might purge his domi- Brown, and the aufpicious encouragement he granted nions from the fordid fiXions of popery, and edablifh to all who exerted themfelves in the caufe of the Rethe pure doXrines of Chridianity in their place. For formation. But the death of this excellent prince, this purpofe, he iffued out the wifed orders for the and the acceffion of queen Mary, had like to have redoration of true religion; but his reign was too Ihort changed the face of affairs in Ireland as much as in to accomplith fully fuch a glorious purpofe. In the England; but her deligns were difappointed by' a very year 1553, he was taken from his loving and affiiXed curious adventure, of which the following account has fubjeXs, whofe forrow was inexprcfltble, and fuited to been copied from the papers of Richard earl of Corke. their lofs. His filler Mary (the daughter of Catharine “ Queen Mary having dealt feverely with the Proteof Arragon, from whom Henry had been feparated by dants in England, about the latter end of her reign 4l the famous divorce), a furious bigot to the church of figned a commiffion for to take the fame courfe with Curiousdif0 111 Rome, and a princefs whofe natural charaXer, like the them in Ireland ; and to execute the fame with greater^PP ' ' fpirit of her religion, was defpotic and cruel, fucceeded force, Ihe nominates Dr Cole one of the commiffumers.^'^^*.. him on the Britifh throne, and impofed anew the arbi- This DoXor coming, with the commiflion, to Cheftcrtor iQ s.ot. Vou XVI. Part I. on land. G

REF REF [ 5° 3 J'JugJbourg depuis 1517—1530, in 4 vols 8vo, Berlin Refra on his journey, the mayor of that city hearing that her 1 majelly was fending a mefienger into Ireland, and he 178?, and Mofheim’s Ecclefiaftical Hiftory. See alfo Refu! being a churchman, waited on the Do&or, who in dif- Sleidan De Statu Religionis iff Republic# Carolo V. ; courfe with the mayor taketh out of a cloke-bag a Ctefaris Commcntarii; and Father Paul’s Hiftory of the leather box, faying unto him, Here is a cornmijjion that Council of Trent. REFRACTION, in general, is the deviation of a (hall lajh the Heretics of Ireland, calling the Protcftants by that title. The good woman of the houfe being moving body from it? diredl courfe, occafioned by the well affe&ed to the Proteftant religion, and alfo having different denfity of the medium in which it moves; or a brother named jfohn Edmonds erf the fame, then a ci- it is a change of direction occafioned by a body’s falltizen in Dublin, was much troubled at the Dodlor’s ing obliquely out of one medium into another. The words; but watching her convenient time while the word is chiefly made ufe of with-regard to the rays of mayor took his leave, and the Doftor complimented light. See Optics {Index) at Refradion. REFRANG1BILITY of Light, the difpofition him down the ftairs, (he opens the box, takes the comof rays to be refradted. The term is chiefly applied to mifiion out, and places in lieu thereof a flieet of paper with a pack of cards wrapt up therein, the knave of the difpofition of rays to produce different colours, acclubs being faced uppermoft. The Doftor coming up cording to their different degrees of refrangibility. Seeto his chamber, fufpedting nothing of what had been Chromatics and Optics pajjlm. REFRIGERATIVE, in medicine, a remedy which done, put up the box as formerly. The next day gorefreflies the inward parts by codling them; as clyflers, ing to the water.fide, wind and weather ferving him, he fails towards Ireland, and landed on the yth of Oc- ptifans, &c. REFRIGERATORY, in chemillry, a veffel tilled tober 1558 at Dublin. Then coming to the caftle, the Lord Fitz-Walters being lord-deputy, fent for with cold water, through which the worm paffes in dihim to come before him and the privy-council; who, fl.illations; the ufe of which is to condenfe the vapours coming in, after he had made a fpeech relating upon as they pafs through the worm. Cities of REFUGE, were places provided as Afywhat account he came over, he prefents the box unto the lord-deputy; who caufing it to be opened, that the la, for fuch as againft their will fhould happen to kill a fecretary might read the commiflion, there was nothing man. Of thefe cities there were three on each fide fave a pack of cards with the knave of clubs upper- Jordan: on this tide were Kedelh of Naphtali, Hebron, molt ; which not only ftartled the lord-deputy and and Schechem; beyond Jordan were Bezer, Golan, and council, but the Dodtor, who aflured them he had a Ramoth-Gilead. When any of the Hebrews, or llrancommiffion, but knew not how it was gone. Then the gers that dwelt in their country, happened to fpill the lord-deputy made anfwer : Let us have another com- blood of a man, they might retire thither to be out of miffion, and we will fhuffle the cards in the meanwhile. the reach of the violent attempts of the relations of the The Dodlor being troubled in his mind, went away, and deceafed, and to prepare for their defence and juftifica* returned into England, and coming to the court obtain- tion before the judges. The manflayer underwent two ed another commiflion ; but flaying for a wind on the trials : firft before the judges of the city of refuge to water-lide, news came to him that the queen was dead: which he had fled ; and fecondly before the judges of and thus God preferved the Proteftants of Ireland.” his own city. If found guilty, he was put to death Queen Elizabeth was fo delighted with this ftory, which with all the feverity of the law. If he was acquitted, was related to her by lord Fitz-Walter on his return to he was not immediately fet at liberty; but, to infpire a England, that fhe fent for Elizabeth Edmonds, whofe degree of horror againll even involuntary homicide, he hufband’s name was Matterjhad, and gave her a penfion was recondu&ed to the place of refuge, and obliged to continue there in a fort of banifliment till the death of of 40 1. during her life. 43 Of the R.C' ‘ In Scotland, the feeds of reformation were very early the high-prieft. If, before this time, he ventured out, formath n fown, by fevcral noblemen who had refided in Germany the revenger of blood might freely kill him; but after in Scotduring the religious difputes there. But for many years the high-prieft’s death he was at liberty to go where he land. it was fupprefled by the power of the pope, feconded by pleafed without moleftation. It was nenzeffary that inhuman laws and barbarous executions. The mofl emi- the perfon who fled to any of the cities of re* nent oppofer of the Papal jurifdiction was John Knox, fuge fliould underitand feme trade or calling, that a difciple of Calvin, a man of great zeal and invincible he might not be burthenfome to the inhabitants. fortitude. On all occalions he raifed the drooping fpi- The cities of refuge were required to be well fupplied rits of the reformers, and encouraged them to go on with water and neceffary proviflons. They were alfo with their work notwithllanding the oppofition and to be of eafy accefs, to have good roads leading to them, treachery of the queen-regent; till at laft, in 1561, by with commodious bridges where there was occafion. the afliflance ot an Englifh army fent by Elizabeth, Po- The width of the roads was to be 32 cubits or 48 feet pery was in a manner totally extirpated throughout the at lead. It was further required, that at all crofs-waya kingdom. From this period the form of doftrine, wor- dire£tion-potls (hould be ere&ed, with an infeription fhip, and difeipline eftablifhed by Calvin at Geneva, has pointing out the road to the cities of refuge. The had the afcenclancy in Scotland. But for an account 15th of Adar, which anfwers to our February moon, of the difficulties which the Scottifh reformers had to was appointed for the city magiftrates to fee that the ftruggle with, and the manner in which thefe were roads were in good condition. No perfon -in any of overcome, &c. fee Scotlanb. thefe cities was allowed to make weapons, left the relaFor further information on the fubjedl of the refor- tions of the deceafed fhould be furnifhed with the means mation in general, we refer our readers to the works of gratifying their revenge. Dent. xix. 3. iv. 41. 43.; of Burnet and Brandt, to Beaufobre’s Hijloire de la Jofh. xx. 7. Three other cities of refuge were condiReformation dans (Empire, et les Etats de la Confejfton tionally promifed, but never granted. See Asylum. 8 REGIL

REG [ u?ccs REFUGEES, a term at firft applied to the French II Proteftants, who, by the revocation of the edi& of Igata* Nantz, were contlrained to fly from perfecution, and take refuge in foreign countries. Since that time, however, it has been extended to all fuch as leave their country in times of diftrefs ; and hence, fince the re.volt of the Britiflv colonies in America, we have frequently heard of American refugees. REGALE, a magnificent entertainment or treat, given to amballadors and other perfons of dillindtion, to entertain or do them honour. It is ufual in Italy, at the arrival of a traveller of tminence, to fend him a regale, that is, a prefent of fweetmeats, fruits, &c. by way of refrelhment.. REGALIA, in law, the rights and prerogatives of a king. See Prerogative. Regalia is alio ufed for the apparatus of a coronation ; as the crown, the fceptre with the crofs, that with the dove, St Edward’s ftaff, the globe, and the orb with the crofs, four feveral fwords, &c.—The regalia of Scotland were depofited in the caitle of Edinburgh in the year 1707, in what is called the Jewel Office. This room was lately opened by fome commiffioners appointed by the king, when the large chelt in which it is fuppofed they were placed was found ; but as it has not, that we have heard of, been opened, it is impofiible to fay whether they be there or not. It is very generally thought they were carried to the Tower of London in the reign of Queen Anne ; and a crown is there (hewn which is called the Scotch crown. We do not believe, however, that that is the real crown of Scotland; and think it probable that the Scotch regalia are in the cheft which was lately found. If they are not there, they muft have been taken away by Health, and either deftroyed or melted do\vn, for we do not believe that they are in the Tower of London. Lord of REGALITY, in Scots law. See Law, n° clviii. 4. Court of REGARD. See FontsT-Courts. REGxYRDANT, in heraldry, fignifies looking behind ; and it is ufed for a lion, or other bcaft, with his face turned towards his tail. REGARDER, an ancient officer of the king’s fo'reft, fworn to make the regard of the forelt every year ; that is, to take a view of its limits, to inquire into all offences and defaults committed by the forelters within the foreft, and to obferve whether all the officers executed their rdpedtive duties. See FormstJLaws REGATA, or Regatta, a fpecies of amufement peculiar to the republic of Venice. This fpe&acle has the power of exciting the greateft emotions of the heart, admiration, enthufiafm, a fenfe of glory, and the whole train of our beft feelings. The grand regata is only exhibited on particular occafions, as the vifits of foreign princes and kings at Venice. It is difficult to give a juft idea of the ardour that the notice of a regata fpreads among all claffes of the inhabitants of Venice. Proud of the cxclulive privilege of giving fuch a fpedtacle, through the wonderful local circumltances of their city, they are highly delighted with making preparations a long time before, in order to contribute all they can towards the perfe&ion and enjoyment of the fpedtacle. A thoufand interefts are formed and augmented every day ; parties in favour of the different competitors who are known j the protection of young

-i ] REG noblemen given to the gondoliers in their fervice ; the y defire of honours and rewards in the afpirants ; and, in ' the midll of all this, that ingenious national induftry, which awakes the Venetians from their habitual indolence, to derive advantage from the bufinefs and agitation of the moment: all thefe circumftances united give to the numerous inhabitants of this lively city a degree of fpirit and animation which render it during that time a delightful abode in the eyes of the philoiopher and the ftranger. Crowds of people flock from the adjacent parts, and travellers joyfully repair to this feene of gaiety and pleafure. Although it is allowable for any man to go and inferibe his name in the lift of combatants until the fixed number is complete, it will not be amils to remark one thing, which has relation to more ancient times. The ft ate of a gondolier * is of much confideration among * See C«k~ the people ; which is very natural, that having been the primitive condition of the inhabitants of this country. But, befidcs this general confidcration, there are among them fome families truly diftinguilhed and refpeCled by their equals, whofe antiquity is acknowledged, and who, on account of a fuccefllon of virtuous men, able in their profeffion, and honoured for the prizes they have carried off in thefe contefts, form the body of noble gondoliers ; often more worthy of that title than the higher order of nobility, who only derive their honours from the merit of their anceftors, or from their own riches. The confidcration for thofe families is carried fo far, that, in the difputes frequently ariling among the gondoliers in their ordinary paffage of the canals, we fometimes fee a quarrel inftantly made up by the Ample interpolition of a third perfon, who has chanced to be of this reverend body. They are rigid with refpedl to mifalliances in their families, and they endeavour reciprocally to give and take their wives among thofe of their own rank. But we muft remark here, with pleafure, that thefe diftindtions infer no inequality of condition, nor admit any oppreflfion of inferiors, being founded folely on laudable and virtuous opinions. Diftindfions derived from fortune only, are thofe which always outrage nature, and often virtue. In general, the competitors at the great regatas are chofen from among theie families of reputation. As foon as they are fixed upon for this exploit, they fpend the intennediate time in preparing themlelves for it, by a daily afliduous and fatiguing exercifc. If they are in fervice, their matters during that time not only give them their liberty, but alfo augment their wages. This cuftom would ieem to indicate, that they look upon them as perfons confecrated to the honour of the nation, and under a fort of obligation to contribute to its glory. At laft the great day arrives. Their relations affemble together : they encourage the heroes, by calling to their minds the records of their families ; the women prefent the oar, befeeching them, in an epic tone, to remember that they are the fons of famous men, whofe fteps they will be expedted to follow': this they do with as much folemnity as the Spartan women prefented the fhield to their fons, bidding them either return with or upon it. Religion, as pradtifed among the lower clafs of people, has its {hare in the preparations for this enterprize. They caufe maffes to be faid ; they make vows to fome particular church ; and they arm their boats for the conteft with the images of thofe faints who are moit in vogue. Sorcerers are not forgotten G2 upon

REG [ 52 1 REG Rcgfltl. uron this occafiou. For gondolier* who have loft the guards or patrol, nor even a gun or a halbert. > 7 he R*? and Le Index there, at Antimony. rii); mentioned nowhere elfe more early: a town of Rsgvlus of Arfenic. See Chemistry, n° 1267, &c* the Cantii, in Britain. Now Reculver, a village on the and 1285 1294. The ancient procefs for making reguhis

It has Rcg;uSu f Ul of arfenlc In mWng four part, of Lj \ pure- gravity, *“ ^opacity, *V°*~ . » fem!m metallic and? luftre. _ fIts 'colour is With two parts of black flux, one part of borax and one white and livid, it tarnifhes in the air, is very brittle, part of filings of iron or of copper, and quickly tiding but. much more volatile than any other femimetal. It the mixture in a crucible. After the operation is fim . - eaiily lofes its inflammable principle, when fubhmed in ed, a regulus of arfenic will be found at the bottom of veflels into which the air has accefs ; the fublimate hathe crucible of a white livid colour, and ot conflderable ving the appearance of grey flowers, which by repeatfolidity. The iron and copper employed in this pro- ed fublimations become entirely white, and iimilar to cels mrenutu, as as 1*1 rrvftalline arfenic. When regulus ot arlemc is Is are are not not intended, in the operation for the martial white white cryftalline arfenic. When regulus of arfenic n rcgulus of antimony. ,o precipitate the arfemc, and to ft^gly ;n op®, air, as under a feparate it from fulphur or any ot er u (ne ;itt (,burns |th aa white or bluifti bluifli flame, and difdiff _ uroa w muffle, with ivhite or flame, and white arfenic is pure, and nothing is to be taken from fipates in a thick fume, which has a very fetid fmell, it; but, on the contrary, the inflammable principle is to like that of garlic. be added to reduce it to a regulus. _ The true ufe of Regulus of arfenic may be combined with acids and thefe metals in the prefent operation is to unite with the moft metals. See Arsenic, n° 17. We ftiall only farreo-ulus of arfenic, to give it more body, and to prevent ther obferve here, that, according to Mr Brandt, is its entire difiioation in vapours. Hence the addition the Swediffi Memoirs, the regulus of arfenic cannot of iron, while it procures thefe advantages, has the in- be united with mercury. Although the phenomena convenienoy of altering the purity of the regulus ; for exhibited by white arfenic and regulus of arfenic in fothe metallic fubftance obtained is a regulus of ariemc lutions and allays are probably the fame, yet an accuallayed with iron. It may, however, be punhed from rate companion of thefe would deferve notice, efpe* the iron by fublimation in a clofe veffel; by which ope- cially if the regulus employed were well made; for fome ration the regulifed arfenical part, which is very volatile, difference muft proceed from the greater or lefs quanis fublimed to the top of the veflel, and is feparated tity of what in the old chermftry is called phlogifton -from the iron, which being of a fixed nature remains at with which it is united. See Chemistry, n° 1288, the bottom. We are not, however, very certain, that &c. in this kind of reftification the regulus of arfenic does Regulus tf Cobalt, is a femimetal lately dilcovered, hot carry along with it a certain quantity of iron ; for, and not vet perfeiftly well known. It receives its name in general, a volatile fubftance raifes along with it, in fublimation, a part of any fixed matter with which it from cobalt, becaufe it can only be extra&ed from the mineral properly fo called. The proccfs by which this happened to be united. femimetal is obtained, is fimilar to thofe generally ufed Mr Brandt propofes another method, which we believe is preferable to that deferibed. He direfts that for the extraftion of metals from their ores. The cowhite arlemc fliould be mixed with foap. Inftead of balt muft be thoroughly terrified, to deprive it of all the foap, olive-oil may be ufed, which has been found the fulphur and arfenic it contains ; and the unmetallic to fucceed well. The mixture is to be put into a retort earthy and ftony matters muft be feparated by waffling. or glafs matrafs, and to be dlftilled or fublimed with The cobalt thus prepared is then to be mixed with double or triple its quantity of black flux, and a little firet at firil very moderate, and only fufficient to raile decrepitated fea-falt; and muft be fufed either in a forge, the oil. As the oils, which are not volatile, cannot be diftilled but by a heat fufficient to burn and decom- or in a hot furnace, for this ore is very difficult of fupofe them, the oil therefore which is mixed with the fion. When the fufion has been well made, we find arfenic undergoes thefe alterations, and after having upon breaking the crucible, after it has cooled, a me•penetrated the arfenic thoroughly is reduced to a coal. tallic regulus covered with a fcoria of a deep blue coWhen no more oily vapours rife, we may then know lour. The regulus is of a white metallic colour. T. he that the oil is reduced to coal. Then the fire muft be furface of its frafture is clofe and fraall-grained. I he increafed, and the metallifed arfenic will be foon fub- femimetal is hard, but brittle. When the fufion has iimed to the upper part of the veffel,/in the infide of been well made, its furface appears to be carved with which it will form a metallic cruft. When no more many convex threads, which crofs each other diverfely. fublimes, the veffel is to be broken, and the adhering As almoft all cobalts contain alio bifmuth, and even as •cruft of regulus of arfenic is to be feparated. The re- much as of the regulus itfelf, this bifmuth is reduced gulus obtained by this firft operation is not generally by the fame operation, and precipitated in the lame perfeft, or not entirely fo, as a part of it is always manner, as the regains of cobalt; for although theie overcharged with fuliginous matter, and another part two metals are frequently mixed in the lame mineral, lias not enough of phlogilton ; which latter part ad- that is, in cobalt, they are incapable of uniting togeheres to the inner fur face of the cruft, and forms grey ther, and are always found diftind and feparate from or brown cryftals. This fublimate muft then be mixed one another when they are melted together. At tlw with a lefs quantity of oil, and fublimed a iecond time bottom of the crucible then we find both regulus of like the firft; and even, to obtain as good regulus as cobalt and bifmuth. The latter, having a greater fpemav be made, a third fublimation in a clofe veffel, and ciftc gravity, is found under the former. 1 hey may be without oil, is neceffary. During this operation, the feparated from each other by the blow of a hammer. oil which rifes is more fetid than any other empyreu- Bifmuth may be eafily diftinguiflred from the regulus xnatic oil, and is almuft iniupportable. This fmell cer- of cobalt, not only from its fit nation in the crucible, tainly proceeds from the arfenic ; the fmell of which is but alfo by the large ihining facets which appear in its fradure, and which are very different from the clofe afh* exceedingly ftrong and difagrecable when heated. Regulus of arfenic made by the method we have de- coloured grain of regnlus of cobalt. This femimetal is more difficult of fufion than any icribed, and which we confider as the only one which Kul„s

R E 1 [ ‘ 17 1 R E L Ru#[utii* other ? is lefs eafily calc’mable, and much icfs volatile. defeated. The Prudlans hid feven o:TLe”s and 100 Re'n-deer N i! Its calx is grey, and more or lefs brown; and when fu- men killed; 14 officers and 1 yo men wounded. The HHchenvitrifiable mattei-s, it changes into a beautiful Auftrians had rooo men killed and wounded ; 20 of , ^ ^ e‘ __ blue glafs called fmalt* This calx, then, is one of thofe their officers and 400 men taken prifoners. The action ’" “ which preferve always a part of their inflammable prin- ended at eleven. REIN-deer, or TaranJus, See Cervus, n° 4. ciple. Tt is foluble in acids, as the regulus is. i his REINS, in anatomy, the fame with Kidneys. See regains is foluble in vitriolic, marine, nitrous acids, and in aqua-regia, to all which it communicates colours. Anatomy, n° ici. Reins of a Bndley are two long flips of leather, faThe folution in vitriolic acid is reddiih ; the folution in marine acid is of a fine bluifh-green when hot, and ftened on each fide of a curb or fnaffle, which the riits colour is almofl totally effaced when cold, but is der holds in his hand, to keep the horfe in fubjedtion. There is alfo what is called falfe reins ; which is a eafily recoverable by heating it, without being obliged to uncork the bottle containing it. This folution of lath of leather, parted fometmies through the arch of the the calx of regulus of cobalt is the bafis of the fympa- banquet, to bend the horfe’s neck. REJOINDER, in law, is the defendant’s anfwer thetic ink ; for without marine acid this ink cannot be made. All the folutions of regains of cobalt may be to die plaintiff’s replication or reply. Thus, in the precipitated by alkalis; and thefe precipitates are blue, court of chancery, the defendant puts in an anfvver which colour they retain when vitrified with the ftrong- to the plaintiff’s bill, which is fometimes alfo called an exception ; the plaintiff’s anfwer to that is called a reeft. fire. Not only fympathetic ink, but alfo regulus of co- plicationy and the defendant’s anfwer to that a rejoindre. RELAND (Adrian), an eminent Orientalift, born balt, may be made from the zaffre commonly fold ; which is nothing elfe than the calx of regulus of cobalt at Ryp, in North Holland, in 1676. During three mixed with more or lefs pulverifed flints. For this pur- years ftudy under Surenhulius, he made an uncommon pofe we muft feparate as well as we can the powder of prog refs in the Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldee, and Arabic flints from it, by wafliing, as M. Beaume docs, and languages; and thefe languages were always his fathen reduce it with black flux and fea-falt. Regulus vourite ftudy. In I73i» he was, by the recommendaof cobalt feems incapable of uniting with fulphui : but tion of King William, appointed profeffor of Oriental it eafily unites with liver of fulphur; and the union it languages and eccleliaftical antiquities in the univerlitv forms is fo intimate, that M. Beaume could not fepa- of Utrecht; and died of the fmall-pox in 1718. He rate thefe two fubllances otherwife than by precipita- was diftinguiftied by his modclty, humanity, and learning ; and carried on a correfpondcnce with the moft % tion with an acid. Many curious and interefling remarks are ft ill to be eminent fcholars of his time. His principal works are, difcovered concerning this lingular femimetal, and we 1. An excellent defeription of Paleftine. 2. Five difmay hope to receive further in formation from the en- fertations on the Medals of the ancient Hebrews, and deavours of chemifts who have undertaken the exami- feveral other differtations on different fubjeCfts. 3. An nation of it. M. Beaume particularly has made con- Introduction to the Hebrew Grammar. 4. The Anfiderable experiments on this fubjecf, part of which he tiquities of the ancient Hebrews. 5. On the Mahocommunicates to the public in his Courfe of Chemiitry, metan Religion. Thefe works are all written in Latin. and from whom we have borrowed the moft of the above RELATION, the mutual refpeCt of two things, or obfervations. See Chemistry, n0 1294, &c. what each is with regard to the other. See MetaREHEARSAL, in mufic and the drama, an eflay physics, n° 93, &c. and 1 28, &c. or experiment of fome compohtion, generally made in Relation, in geometry. See Ratio. private, previous to its reprefentation or performance Relation, is alfo ufed for analogy. See Anain public, in order to render the aftors and performers logy, and Metaphysics, p. 529, &c. more perfe cannot be denied ; but yet, when contrailed with atheifm, it was not without its favourable effects. It was fo connected with the order of fociety, tjiat> w{thout its fupport, that order could fcarce have

favourable?heen maintained. The young rake might perhaps juftify himfelf by the example of Jupiter, or Apollo, or fame other amorous divinity ; the frail virgin or matron might complain of Cupid, or boaft of imitating Venus ; and the thief might pra£tife his craft under the patronage of Mercury : Bat if we take the whole fyltem together, if we 'Confider with what views thofe deities were publicly worfhipped, what temples were railed, what rites inftituted, what facrifices offered, and what fer'ue confecrated ; we fhall perhaps find it neceffary to acknowledge that the general effects even of that mixed and incoherent fyllem of polytheifm which prevailed among the Greeks and Romans were favourable to fociety. To Hate a particular inflance ; the ancilia of Mars and the fire of Vefla were thought to fecure the perpetuity of the Roman empire. As long as the facred ancile, which had been dropped from heaven for that benevolent purpofe, was fafely preferved in thofe holy archives in which it had been depofited ; and as long as the facred fire of Veftawas kept burning, without being once extinguifhed, or at lead fuffered to remain for an inflant in that Hate ; fo long was Rome to fubliil and flourifh. And, however fimple and abfurd the idea which connedled the profperity of a nation with the prefeivation of a piece of wood in a certain place, or with the conHant blazing of a flame upon an hearth; yet no fa6l can be more certain, than that the patriotifm and enthufiaHic valour of the Romans, which we fo much extol and admire, were, in many inftances, owing in no inconfiderable degree to the veneration which they entertained for the ancilia and the ^ veflal fire. As is proA numerous feries of fails occur in the Roman hived by a flory, which fhow the happy effedls of their religious feriesof18 oP™0ns and ceremonies on their fentiments concerning facbj focial order and the public welfare. How powerful

] R E L was the influence of the faeramentum adminlflered to ReK/i^ the foldiers when they enliHed in the fervice of their v-* country ? The promifes made, the idea of the powers invoked, and the rites performed on that occafion, pro. duced fo deep and fo awful an impreffion on their minds, that no danger, nor dillrefs, nor difeontent, could prompt them to violate their engagements. The refponfes of the oracles, too, though the dictates of deceit and impoHure, were often of Angular fervice to thofe to whom they were uttered ; when they infpired the warrior, as he marched out to battle, with the con. fidence of fuccefs, they communicated to him new vigour, and more heroic valour, by which he was actually enabled to gain, or at lealt to deferve, the fuccefs which they promiied. Again, when in times of publie diflrefs, the augur and the prieH directed fome games to be celebrated, certain facrifices to be offered, or fomc other folemnities to be performed, in order to appeafe the wrath of the oft’ended deities ; it is plain that the means were not at all fuited to accomplifh the end pro. pofed by them ; yet Hill they were highly beneficial. When the attention of the whole people was turned entirely to thofe folemnities by which the wrath of heaven was to be averted, they were roufed from that defpondency under which the fenfe of the public diltrefs or danger might have ©therwxfe caufed them to fink : the public union was at the fame time more clofely cemented, and the hearts of the people knit together ; and when perfuaded, that by propitiating the gods they had removed the caufe of their difirefs, they acquired fuch calmnefs and Hrength of mind as enabled them to take more diredt and proper meafures for the fafety of the Hate. Could we view the ancient Greeks and Romans adling in public or in private life under the influence of that fyHem of fuperllition which prevailed among them; could we perceive how much it contributed to the maintenance of civil order ; could we behold Numa and Lycurgus eflablifhing their laws, which would otherwife have met with a very different reception under the fandlion of divinities ; could we obferve all the beneficial effedls which arofe to communities from the celebration of religious ceremonies - we fhoiild no longer hefitate to acknowledge, that thofe principles in the human heart by which we are fuceptible of religious fentiments, are fo eminently calculated to promote the happinefs of mankind, that even when perverted and abufed, their influence is Hill favourable. j; The ideas which prevailed among the nations of the Their no heathen world concerning a future Hate of retribution rio“r° j[a were, it muH be coufeffed, not very correct. Some of ^g^j. the poets, we believe, have reprefented them in no un- tion into fair light: both Homer and Virgil have condudled their red; heroes through the realms of Pluto, and have taken occalion to unfold to us the fecrets of thole dreary abodes. The feenes are wild and fanciful; the rewards of the juH and virtuous are of no very refined or dignified nature : and of the punifhments inflidted on the guilty, it is often hard to fay for what ends they could be inflicted ; whether to corredl and improve, or for the gratification of revenge or whim : they are often fo whimfical and unfuitable, that they cannot with any degree of propriety be aferibed to any caufe but blind chance or wanton caprice. A great dog with three tonguesj, a peevifh old boat-man with a leaky ferry-boat, demanding

u ic ic (r

R E L t pijen- manding In's freight in a furly tone, ami an uxorious monarch, are objects too familiar and ludicrous not to degrade the dignity of thofe awful feenes which arc reprefented as the manfions of the dead, and to prevent them from making a deep enough imprefiion on the imagination. The actions and qualities, too, for which departed fpirits were admitted into Elyfium, or doomed to the regions of fuffering, were not always of fuch a nature as under a well-regulated government on earth would have been thought to merit reward, or to be worthy of punilhment. It was not always virtue or wifdom which conduced to the Elyfian fields, or gained admifiion into the fociety of the immortal gods.— Ganimede was for a very different reafon promoted to be the cup-bearer of Jove ; and Hercules and Bacchus could not furely plead that any merits of that kind entitled them to feats in the council, and at the banquets of the immortals. That do&rine, likewife, which reprefented mortals as hurried by fate to the commiffion of crimes, which they could no more abftain from committing than the fword can avoid to obey the impulfe of a powerful and furious arm plunging it into the bread: of an unrefifting antagoniit, could not but produce effects unfavourable to virtue; and it afforded a ready excufe for the mod: extravagant crimes. 6 ever- Yet, after all, he who attentively conliders the ideas fs faib!e fo of the Greeks and Romans concerning the moral : and government of the world and a future date of rewards 1 or- and punifhments, will probably acknowledge, that their general influence mull have been favourable to virtue and moral order. Allow them to have been incorreft and dafhed with abfurdity ; ftill they reprefent punifhments prepared for fuch qualities and a&ionsas were injurious to the welfare of fociety ; whilll, for thofe qualities which rendered men eminently ufeful in the world, they hold forth a reward. Though incorrecl, their ideas concerning a future date were exceedingly didinft ; they were not vague or general, but fuch as might be readily conceived by the imagination, in all their circumftances, as really exifting. When a man is told that for fuch a deed he will be put to death, he may fh udder and be alarmed, and think of the deed as what he mud: by no means commit; but place before him the feene and the apparatus for his execution, call him to behold fome other criminal mounting the fcaffold, addrefling his lad: words in a wild feream of defpair to the furrounding fpe&ators, and then launching into eternity—his horror of the crime, and his dread of the punifhment, will now be much more powerfully excited. In the fame manner, to encourage the foldier marching out to battle, or the mariner fetting fail under the profpedl of a ftorm, promife not, merely in general terms, a liberal reward ; be lure to fpecify the nature of the -reward which you mean to beftow; deferibe it fo as that It may take hold on the imagination, and may rife in oppolition to the images of death and danger with which his courage is to be aflailed. If thefe phenomena of the human mind are fairly ftated, if it be true that general ideas produce no very powerful effc&s on the fentiments and difpofitions of the human heart, it mud: then be granted, that though the feenes of future rew.ard and punifliment, which the heathens confidered as prepared for the righteous and the wicked, were of a fomewhat motley complexion ; yet ft ill, as they were diftindt and even minute draughts,

67 1 R E L they muft have been favourable to virtue, and contribu- Religion, ted in no inconfxderable degree to the fupport of civil v—^ order. ^ . Another thing of which we may take notice under The notion this head, is the vaft multiplicity of deities with which deities the Greek and Roman mythology peopled all the gions of nature. Flocks and fields, and woods and TuS oaks, and flowers, and many much more minute objefts, tendency had all their guardian deities. Thefe were fomewhatwhcn com* capricious at times, it is true, and expedted to have at^ tention paid them. But yet the faithful fliepherd, and"1 ‘U * the indullrious farmer, knew generally how to acquire their friendfhip ; and in the idea of deities enjoying the fame iimple pleafures, partaking in the fame labours, protecting their pofieffions, and bringing forward the truits of the year, there could not but be fomething of a very pleafing nature, highly favourable to induftry, which would animate the labours, and cheer the feftivals, of the good people who entertained fuch a notion; nay, would diffufe a new charm over all the fcencs of the country, even in the gayeft: months of the year. From all of thefe particular obfervations, we think ourfelves warranted to conclude, that notwith(landing the mixed charadters of the deities who were adored by the celebrated nations of antiquity ; though they are in many inilaoces reprefented as confpicuous for vices and frolics ; however vain, abfurd, and morally criminal, fome of the rites by which they were worftupped may have been, and however incorrect the notions of the heathens concerning the moral government of the univerfe and a future (late of retribution ; yet ftill, after making a juft allowance for all thefe imperfedlions, the general influence of their religious fyftem was rather favourable than unfavourable to virtue and to the order and happinefs of fociety. It was not without good reafo* that the earlieft legif- The ad van*' lators generally endeavoured to cilablifh their laws and tape of conftitutions on the bafis of religion ; government needs eftaWi(hinB the fupport of opinion; the governed muft be im-&baprefled with a belief that the particular eftablifliment li?0f reli " to whieh they are required to fubmit, is the bell ealeu- gion. luted for their fecurity and happinefs, or is fupported on fome fuch folid foundation, that it muft prove impoflible for them to overturn it, or is conneded with fome awful fan&ion, which it would be the mod heinous impiety to oppofe. Of thefe feveral notions, the laft will ever operate on mod men with the mod deady influence. W e arc frequently blind to our own intereft ; even when eager for the attainment of happinefs, we often refufe to take the wifeft mcafures for that end. The great bulk of the people in every community are fo little capable of reafomng and forefight, that the public mimfter who (hall mod fteadily dired his views to the public good will often be the mod unpopular. Thofe laws, and that fyftem of government, which are the moll beneficial, will often excite the ftronged popular difeontents. Again, it is not always eafy to perfuade people that your power is fuperior to theirs, when it is not really fo. No one man will ever be able to perfuade a thoufand that he is ftronger than they all together: and theiefore, in order te perfuade one part of his fubjtds or army that it is abfolutely neceflary for them to fubmit to him, becaufe any attempts to refift his power would prove ineffcdual, a monarch or general mud take care iirll to perfuade another part that it is for their in*2 tereil

68 1 R E L R E L [ be received as a tell of its truth, what particular fyllem Retipo* RcK^ion. tereft to fubmlt to him ; or to imprefs the whole with a belief that, weak and pitiful as he himfelf may appear, might, with the bell reafon, be received as true,,while.— when viewed fingly in oppofition to them all, yet by the the reft were rejected. tft, The principle upon which we here fet out is, afiiilance of fome awful invifible beings, his friends and that all, or almoft all, fyftems of religion with which we proteftors, he is fo powerful, that any attempts to refill his authority mull prove prefumptuous folly. Here, are acquainted, whether true or falfe, contribute more then, the aid of religion becomes requifite. Religious or lefs to the welfare of fociety. But as one field is fentiments are the molt happily calculated to ferve this more fruitful, and one garden lefa overgrown with purpofe. Scarce ever was there a fociety formed, a weeds than another; fo, in the fame manner, one fyftem mode of government ellablifhed, or a code of laws of religious opinions and ceremonies may be more hapframed and enabled, without having the religious fenti- pily calculated than others to promote the truell inte- ^ ments of mankind, their notions of the exiltence of fu- re Its of mankind. In oppofition to thofe philbfophers Adnntjp bvilizi, perior invifible beings, and their hopes and fears from who are fo vehement in their declamations againll the °f tlon inequality of ranks, we have ever been of opinion, » thofe beings, as its fundamental principle. Now, we believe, it is almoft univerfally agreed, that even the that refinement and civilization contribute to the haprudelt form of fociety is more favourable to the happi- pinefs of human life. The charabler of the folitary fanefs of mankind, and the dignity of the human charac- vage is, we are told, more dignified and refpedlable ter, than a folitary and lavage Hate. And if this, with than that of the philofopher and the hero, in prowhat we have afierted concerning religion as the balls portion as he is more independent. He is indeed of civil government, be both granted, it will follow, more independent; but his independence is that of that even the moll imperfect religious notions, the moil a Hone, which receives no nourifhment from the foolilh and abfurd rites, and the wildell ideas that have earth or air, and communicates none to animals or been entertained concerning the moral government of vegetables around it. In point of happinefe, and ia the univerfe by fuperior beings, and a future Hate of point of refpedlability, we cannot hefitate a moment, retribution, have been more advantageous than atheifm. let philofophers fay what they will, to prefer a virtuto the happinefs and virtue of human life. We have al- ous, enlightened, and pcjilhed Briton to any of the ready granted, nor can it be denied, indeed, that many rudeft favages, the leall acquainted with the reftraints of the religious opinions which prevailed among the an- and the fympathies of focial life, that wander through jt cient heathens, did contribute, in fome degree, to the the wild forefts of the weftern world. But if we pre- Andthcri depravation of their morals : and all that we argue for fer civilization to barbarifm, we muft admit, that in is, that on a comparative view of the evil and the good this view' Chriftianity has the advantage over every which refulted from them, the latter mull appear mure other religious fyftem which has in any age or country than adequate to counterbalance the effedts of the prevailed among men ; for nowhere has civilization and ufeful fcicnce been carried to fueh a height as among former. *9 The infinite But if fuch be the natural tendency of thofe princi- Chriftians. ajvantage p|es which *he human heart is made fufceptihle of reIt is not, indeed, in any confiderable degree that the v,iew of a >ure * ’ ligious fentiments, that even enthuliafm and abfurd fu- abfurd fuperftitions of thofe rude tribes, who can fcarce ^ ^ rational, and true perftition are produdlive of beneficial efl’edls more than be faid to be formed into any regular fociety, can con-nitjonj(l religion. iufficient to counterbalance whatever is malignant in tribute to their happinefs. Among them the faculty pag4nni their influence on fociety—furcly a pure rational reli- of reafon is but in a very low Hate; and the moral prin-lions, gion, the do&rines of which are founded in undeniable ciple ufually follows the improvement or the depreffion truth, and all the obfervances which it enjoins, calcula- ot the reafoning faculty. Their appetites and merely ted to promote by their diredl and immediate effedls animal pafiions are almoft their only principles of acfome ufeful purpofes, mull be i* a very high degree tion : their firft religious notions, if we fuppofe them conducive to the dignity and the happinefs of human not to be derived from revelation or tradition, are pronature. Indeed one collateral proof of the truth of duced by the operation of gratitude, or grief, or hope, any religion, which mull have very confiderable weight or fear, upon their imaginations. And to thefe, however ■with all who are not of opinion that the fyftem of the wild and fanciful, it is not improbable that they may univerfe has been produced and hitherto maintained in owe fome of their earlieft moral notions. The idea of order and exillence by blind chance, will be its having fuperior powers naturally leads to the thought that a ftroager and more diredl tendency than others to pro- thole powers have fome influence on human life. From mote the interefts of moral virtue and the happinefs of this they will moll probably proceed to fancy one fet mankind in the prefent life. Even the tellimony of of aftions agreeable, another offenfive, to thofe beings thoufands, even miracles, prophecies, and the fantlion to whom they believe themfelves fuhjebl. And this, of remote antiquity, will fcarce have fufficient weight perhaps, is the firft diilinclion that favages can be fupto.perfuade us, that a religion is of divine origin, if its poled to form between actions, as right or wrong, to general tendency appear to be rather unfavourable than be performed or to be avoided. But if this be the advantageous to moral virtue. 30 cafe, we muft acknowledge that the religious notions ComparaIII. We lhall therefore, in the next place, endeaol the favage, however abfurd, contribute to elevate tive view the ef- vour to determine, from a comparative view of the ef- his -chara&er, and to improve his happinefs, when fefts produced on the chara&er and circumllanccs of they call forth the moral principle implanted in his ferts of different focicty by the moll eminent of thefe various fyllems of breail. religious religion which have been in different ages or in diffeBut if the focial Hate be preferable to a ftate of wild fy items. rent countries ellablilhed in the world, how far any and folitary independence, even the rude fuperftiticns of one of them has in this refpeft the advantage over the unenlightened tribes of favages are in another refpedl reft > and, if the utility of a fyllem of religion were to beneficial to thofe among whom they prevail. They ufually

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ifcn. ufualty form, as has been already obferved' under this article the bafis of civil order. Religious opinions ■ may lead the great body of the community to reverence fome .particular fet of inflitutions, fome individual or fome family, which are reprefented to them as peculiarly conneaed udth the gods whom they adore, Under this fanaion fome form »f government Is eftablifhed • they are taught to perform focial duties, and rendered capable of focial enjoyments. Not only Numa and Lycimms, but almoft every legiflator who has fought to civilize a rude people, and reduce them under the reftraints of legal government, have endeavoured to imprefs their people with an Idea that they a£ed with the approbation, and under the Immediate dircction, of fuperior powers. We cannot but allow that the rude fuperftitions of early ages are produ&ive of tliefe advantages to fociety ; hut we have already acknowledged, and it cannot be denied, that they are alfo attended with many unhappy efte&s. When we view the abfurdities intermixed with the fyftems of religion which prevailed among moft of the nations of antiquity, we cannot help lamenting that fo noble a principle of human nature as our religious fentiments fhould be liable to fuch grofs perverfion ; and when we view the effe&s which they produce on the morals of mankind, and the forms of fociety, though we allow them to have been upon the whole rather beneficial than hurtful, yet we cannot but obferve, that their unfavourable effects are by far more numerous than if they had been better direfted. What unhappy eftefts, for inftance, have been produced by falfe notions concerning the condition of human fouls in a future ftate. Various nations have imagined that the feenes and obje&s of the world of fpirits are only a ftadowy representation of the things of the prefent world. Not only the fouls of men, according to them, inhabit thofe regions ; all tiie info or animals and vegetables, and even inanimate bodies that are killed or deftroyed here, are fuppofed to pafs into that vifionary world ; and, exifting there in unfubftantial forms, to execute the fame fun&ions, or feive the fame purpofes, as on earth. Such are the ideas of futurity that were entertained by the inhabitants of Guinea. And by thefe ideas they were induced, when a king or great man died among them, to provide for his comfortable accommodatipn in the world of fpiiits, by burying w ith him meat and drink for his fubfiftence, flaves to attend and ferve him, and wdves with whom he might {till enjoy the pleafures oflove. His faithful fubjedta vied with each other in offering, one a fervant, another a wife, a third a fon or daughter, to be ft nt to the other world in company with the monarch, that they might there be employed in his fervice. In New Spain, in the ifland of Java, in the kingdom of Benen, and among the inhabitants of ladoftan, fimilar practices on the fame occafion, owing no doubt to fimilar notions of futurity, have been prevalent. But fuch practices as thefe cannot be viewed with greater contempt on account of the opinions which have given rife to them, than horror on account ef their unhappy effedfs on the condition of thofe among whom they prevail. A lively impreflion of the enjoyments to be obtained' in a future ftate, together witb fome very falfe or incorredt notions concerning the qualities or adtions which vycre to entitle the dcparting foul to admiffion into the feene of thofe enjoy-

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ments, Is fald to have produced equally unhappy ef- ReIig;owy has among the Japanefe. They not only bribed their priefts to folicit for them; but looking upon the enjoy. . ments of the prefent life with difgull or contempt, they ufed to daft themfelves from precipices, or cut their throats, in order to get to paradife as foon as poffible. Various other fuperftitions fubfifting among rude nalions might here be enumerated, as inftances of the perverfion of the religious principles of the human heart, which render them injurious to virtue and happinefs. The aufterities which have been praaifed* chiefly among rude nations, as means of propitiating fuperior powers, are efpecially worthy of notice.-When the favourite idol of the Banians is earned in folemn proceffion, iome devotees proftrate themfelves on the ground, that the chariot in which the idol iscarried may run over them ; others, with equal enthufiafm, dafli themfelves on fpikes faftened on pxirpofc t® the car. Innumerable are the ways of torture which have been invented and pra&ifed on themfelves by men ignorantly ft riving^ to recommend thcmfelves to the favour of heaven. Thefe we lament as inftances in which religious fentiments have been fo ill dire&ed by the inflficnce of imagination, and unenlightened erring reafon, as to produce unfavourable effefts on the human charafter, .and oppofe the happinefs of focial life.— Though wc have argued, that even the moft abfurd fyftems of religion that have prevailed in the world, have been upon the whole rather beneficial than injuriinis to the dignity and happinefs of human nature; yet if it ftall not appear, as we proceed farther in our comparative view of the effe&s of religion on fociety, that others have been attended with happier effefts than thefe fuperflitions which belong to the rude ages of fociety, we may fcarce venture to brand the infidel with the appellation of fool, for refufing to give his aflent to reli— gious do&rines, or to aft under their influence, 2d, The polytheifm of the Greeks and Romans, and other heathen nations in a fimilar ftate of civilization, we have already confidered as being, upon the whole, rather favourable than unfavourable to virtue; but we muft not partially conceal its defeats. The vicious characters of the deities which they worfliipped, the iucorrcft notions which they entertained concerning . the moral government of the univerfe and a future retribution, the abfurdity of their rites and cerempnies, and the criminal practices which were intermixed with them, muft have altogether had a tendency to pervert both the reafoning and the moral principles of the human mind. The debaucheries of the monarch of the gods, and the fidelity with wftich his example in that refpedl was followed by tire whole crowd of the inferior deities, did, we know, difpofe the devout heathen, when he felt the fame paflions wftich had afferted their power over the gods, to gratify them without Icruple. It is a truth, however, .and we will not attempt to deny or conceal it, that the genius of the polytheifm of the Greeks and Romans was friendly to the arts; to fuch of them efpecially as are raifed to excellence “by the vigoious exertion of a fine imagination ; mufic, poetry, feulpture, arcftkcClure, and painting, all of thele arts appear to have been confidcrably indebted for that perfedlion to which they attained,, efpecially among the Greeks, to the fplendid and fanciful fyftem of mythology which was received among that ingenious people. — But"

R E L R E L [ 70 3 Ileliglon, But we cannot give an equally favourable account oi preparing the way for the promulgation of the Cofpel, Religion, U»l - v jtg influence on the fciences. There was little in that but likewife to render the Jews a more refined and vir- —r-* fyftem that could contribute to call forth reafon. We tuous people, and a better regulated community, than rnay grant indeed, that if reafon can be fo fhocked with any neighbouring nation. In the firil place, the attriabsurdity as to be roufed to a more vigorous exertion butes of the Deity were very clearly exhibited to the of her powers, and a more determined aflertion of her Jews in the eftabliihment of their religion. The mirights in confequence of furveying it; in that cafe tins racles by which he delivered them from fervitude, and fyftem of mythology might be favourable to the exer* condudted them out of Egypt, were ftriking demonftrations of his power ; that condefeenfion with which cife and improvement of reafon ; not otherwife. The connexion of paganifm with morality was too he forgave their repeated a£ts of perverfenefs and rebelimperfedt for it to produce any very important effedts lion, was a moft convincing proof of his benevolence ; on the morals of its votaries. Sacrifices and prayers, and the impartiality with which the obfervance and the and temples and feftivals, not purity of heart and in- violation of his laws were rewarded and puniftied, even tegrity of life, were the means prefcribed for propitia- in the prefent life, might well convince them of his ting the favour of the deities adored by the Pagans, juftice. A part of the laws which he di&ated to MoThere were other means, too, befides true heroifm and fes are of eternal and univerfal obligation ; others of patriotifm, of gaining admiftion into the Elyfian fields, them were local and particular, fuited to the character or obtaining a feat in the council of the gods. Xeno- of the Jews, and their circumftances in the land of Caphon, in one of the moft beautiful parts of his Memoirs naan. The Jewifti code, taken altogether, is not to be of Socrates, reprcfents Hercules wooed by Virtue and confidercd as a complete fyftem of religion, or laws calPleafure in two fair female forms, and deliberating culated for all countries and all ages of fociety. When with much anxiety which of the two he ftiould prefer. we confider the expediency of this fyftem, we muft take But this is the fidtion of a philofopher defirous to im- care not to overlook the defign for which the Jews are prove the fables of antiquity in fuch a way as to render faid to have been feparated from other nations, the cirthem truly ufeful. Hercules does not appear, from th© cumftances in which they had lived in Egypt, the cu« tales which are told us of his adventures, to have been ftoms and manners which they had contradied by their at any fuch pains in choofing his way of life. He was intercourfe with the natives of that country, the manreceived into the palace of Jove, without having occa- ner iu which they were to acquire to themfelves fettlefion to plead that he had through life been the faithful ments by extirpating the nations of Canaan, the rank follower of that goddefs to whom the philofopher makes which they were to hold among the nations of Syria him give the preference ; his being the fon of Jove, and and the adjacent countries, together with the difficulty his wild adventures, were fufficient without any other of reftraining a people fo little civilized and enlightenmerits to gain him that honour. The fame may be faid ed from the idolatrous worfhip which prevailed among concerning many of the other demi-gods and heroes their neighbours: All thefe circumftances were cerwho were advanced to heaven, or conveyed to the blefs- tainly to be taken into account; and had the legiflator ful fields of Elyfium. And whatever might be the oi the Jews not attended to them, his inllitutions muft good effedfs of the religion of Greece and Rome in ge- have remained in force only for a ftiort period ; nor neral upon the civil and political eftablifiiments, and could they have produced any latling effe&s on the in fome few inftances on the manners of the people, chara&er of the nation. With a due attention to thefe yet ftill it muft be acknowledged to have been but ill circumftances, let us defeend 10 an examination of parcalculated to imprefs the heart with fuch principles as ticulars. 3b might in all circumftances diredt to a firm, uniform, teAlthough in every religion or fuperftition that has The bath nor of virtuous condudt. prevailed through the world, we find one part of its m- * But after what has been faid on the charadter of ftitutions to confift in the enjoining of certain feftivals this religion elfewhere (fee Polytheism), and in the to be celebrated by relaxation from labour, and the perfecond part of this article, we cannot without repeti- formance of certain ceremonies in honour of the gods; tion enlarge farther on it here. Of die Jewifti reli- yet in none, or almoft none befides the Jewifh, do we gion, however, we have as yet faid little, having on find every feventh day ordained to be regularly kept purpofe referved to this place whatever we mean to in- holy. One great end which the legiflator of the Jews troduce under the article, concerning its influence on had in view in the inftitution of the Sabbath w^as, to imfociety. prefs them with a belief that God was the maker of the 34 3d, When we take a general view of the circum- univerfe. In the early ages of the world a great part View f>( Judaifm. ftances in which the Jewifli religion was eftabliflied, the of mankind imagined the ftars, the fun, the moon, and effe&s which it produced on the charadler and fortune the other planets, to be eternal, and confequently obof the nation, the rites and ceremonies which it enjoin- je£\s highly worthy of adoration. To convince the If* ed, and the lingular political inftitutions to which it raelites of the abfurdity of this belief, and prevent them gave a fandtion, it may perhaps appear hard to deter- from adopting that idolatry, Mofes taught them, that mine, whether it were upon the whole more or lefs be- thofe confpicnous obje&s which the Gentile nations reneficial to fociety than the polytheifm of the Egyp- garded as eternal, and endowed with divine power and tians, Greeks, and Romans. But if fuch be the judge- intelligence, were created by the hand of God ; wffio, ment which preconceived prejudices, or an hafty and after bringing all things out of nothing, and giving carelefs view, have induced fome to form of this celebra- them form, order, and harmony, in the fpace of fix ted fyftem , there are others who, with equal keennefs, days, refted on the feventh from all his works. Variand founder reafoning, maintain, that it was happily ous paflages in the Old Tcftament concur to (how, calculated, not only to accomplilh the great defign of that this was one great end of tke inftitution of the Sabbatk

R E L r 71 1 R E L Sabbath. The obfervance of the Sabbath, and deteila- addition, that on the year of the jubilee Haves obtained Rc!:g'on. v— tion of idolatrous worfhip, are frequently inculcated tq- their freedom, and the lands reverted to the old prog:ther; and, again, the breach of the Sabbath, and the prietors. On the year of the jubilee, as on the fabbaworlhip of idols, are ufually reprobated at the fame tical year, the lands were to reft uncultivated, and lawtime. Another good reafon for the inftitution of a fuits were now to terminate. The chief delign of this Sabbath might be, to remind the Jews of their delive- inftitution appears to have been, to preferve the order rance from bondage, to infpire them with humanity to of ranks and property originally cltabliflied in the HeGrangers and domeftics, and to mitigate the rigours of brew ilate. None but Ifraelites or circumcifed confervitude. verts could enjoy the benefit of this inftitution ; nor The purpofes for which the other feflivals of the could even thefe hope to regain their eftates on the ird her Jewifh religion were inflituted appear alfo of fufficient year of the jubilee, if they fold them for any other purill A importance. The great miracle, which, after a feries pose hut to fupply their neceftities. The law relative of other miracles, all dire&ed to the fame end, finally to ufury was evidently founded on the fame plan of effedted the deliverance of the Jews out of Egypt ; and polity with reipeft to property. To almoft any other their aft ual departure from that land of fervitude, might nation fuch a law, it mult beconfefted, would have been well be commemorated in the feaft of the paffover. To unfuitable and unjuft : but as the Jews were not derecal to the minds of polterity the hiftory of their an- signed for a trading nation, they could have little occaceitors, to imprefs them with an awful and grateful fenfe fion to borrow, unlefs to relieve diftrefs; and as an inof the goodnefs and greatnefs of God, and to make dulgence to people in fuch circumftances, the Jew was them think of the purpofes for which his almighty forbidden to exaft ufury from his brother to whom he power had been fo fignally exerted, were furely good had lent money. reafons for the inllitution of fuch a feftival. The feaft The Jewifh legiflator, we may well think, would be°f cican of Pentecoft celebrated the firlt declaration of the law difpofed to adopt every proper method to prevent his by Mofts, in the fpace of fifty days after the feaft of nation from falling away into the idolatry of heathen pbre the pafibver. It fervcd alfo as a day of folemn thankf- nations. Probably one reafon of the diftinftions be-ofwurflup. giving for the blefiings of a plenteous harveft. On the tween clean beafis which they were permitted to eat, feaft of tabernacles, they remembered the wanderings of and unclean beafts, the eating of which they were taught their anceftors through the wildernefs, and exprefled fQnb(^er as pollution, was to prevent them from contheir gratitude to heaven for the more comfortable cir- vivial intercourfe with profane nations, by which they cumftances in which they found themfelves placed. might be feduced to idolatry. We do not readily fit The feaft of new moons ferved to fix their kalendar, and down at table with people wfio ait fond of difhes which determine the times at which the other fellivals were we regard with abhorrence. And if the Jews were to be celebrated ; on it trumpets were founded, to give taught to loathe the fleih of fome of thofe animals which public notice of the event which was the caufe of the were among the greateft deUcacies of the Gentiles, they feftival; no fervile works were performed, divine fer- would naturally of eonfequence avoid fitting down at vice was carefully attended, and the firft fruits of the meat with them, either at their ordinary meals or at month were offered to the Lord. The Jewiftr legifia- thofe entrrtainments which they prepared in honour of tor limited his feftivals to a very fmall number, while their deities ; and this \ve may with good reafon conthe heathens devoted a confiderable part of the year to fider as one happy mean to preferve them from idolathe celebration of theirs. But we perceive the occa- try. Belidts, the Jews were permitted, or rather iniions upon which the Jewifti feftivals were celebrated to joined, to eat animals which the Gentiles reverenced as have been of fuitable importance ; whereas thofe of the iacred, and from which they religioufiy with-held all heathens were often celebrated on trifling or ridiculous violence. Goats, fheep, and oxen," were worfhipped in occafions. Piety and innocent recreation fhared the Egypt (fee Polytheism and Pan) ; and feveral learJewifli feftival; the feftivals of the heathens were chief- ned writers are of opinion, that Mofes direfted his peoly devoted to debauchery and tdlenefs. ple to facrilice and eat certain of the favourite animals ba The Hebrews had other folcmn feafons of devotion of the Egyptians, in order to remove from their minds »1 bil< aatidbefi//&/>, which they therefore worfhipped as the divinity which rendered their country fruitful. It made its appearance, too, on the firft day of the month Thoth[A), which was the beginning of the Egyptian' year, and as fuch celebrated with feafting and feftivity ; and being bymuch the brighteft ftar in the heavens, Horopollo {cap. 3.) informs us it was conlidered as fovereign over the reft. A combination of fo many important circumftances might have induced a people lefs fupeiftitious than the Egyptians to pay divine homage to that glorious luminary, which was confounded with Ifs, who had been long regarded with the higheft venerat ion ; and as Ifis was the wife and lifter of Ofiris, and always afibciated with him, the ftar of Ills or Remphan' was naturally afibciated with Moloch, the fame with v O fin’s. But it will be afked, how the ftar which by the Egyptians was called Soth or Sothis came to be worfhipped by the Hebrews under the appellation of Chiun or Remphan ? This is a very pertinent queftion, and we fhall endeavour to artfwer it. Every one knows that the pronunciation of oriental words is very uncertain ; and that as the vowels were often omitted in writing, it is of very little importance to. the meaning how they be fupplied, provided we retain the radical confonants. The word Chiun may with equal propriety be written Kiun, Kwn, or even Kyon, the “ otherwife “

«wi»g «o the />««»»* tftl,.

REN r fo ] R E M idol confecrated by the Egyptians to Sothis or the dog- Rmov,, the Hebrew jod being convertible irtto the Greek « or liar, was a female figure with a liar on her head ; and Renfre#, the Romany; but the words Cane, Ckan, hence the prophet upbraids his countrymen with ha- (hire, which are often diverfified into Ken, Kyn, ^ Cahan, ving: borne the Star of their deity. lignJfying ftW, CKf, Prl^ tog**** Action of REMOVING, in Scots law. See through a great part otwhkh Aiiafx nlfies _ _ a K, P 18* r fn Law, N'clxvii. 18. Chine* language $u">’ S J\ [• REMURIA, feftivals eftabhlhed at Rome by Rotnilar to the word Chiun or Khiun under confideration, milar cot ^ mulus to appeafe the manes of his brother Remus. They that no etymologift will hefitate to pumo were after|ards called Lemuria, and celebrated yearly, of the fame original and the lame tmpot . REMUS, the brother of Romulus, was expofed toKan or Khan is univerfally known to je gether with his brother by the cruelty of his gmndfatitle in Tartary ; and Katan or Kaw, which ^ In the conteft which happened between the two lv cognate of the word Chiun or Ktun, t^m brothers about building a city, Romulus obtained the or oil Perfran language the ep^etapphed o tWy- brothes ^ ^ ^ ^ nafty of princes which fucceeded Cyrus tie }^as t tQ death by his brother’s orders, or by RomuAmong the ScytUms or an«CTt 1 ^ lu8 himfelf {fee RomUlus). The Romans were afflift1 fies the Sun and hkew.fe the * ^ fig Gothfc ed with a plague after this murder; upon which the oradl dia 6t Kun, runs throngli aU " In cle was confulted, and the manes of Remus appeafed by fon)ereCn, tongue, every where-denoting a chiej or jo a , inftitution . n’. „ir the of the TJo-mni-ia Remuria. ‘' . S the Syrian dialea, Kon a prince; and hence RENAL, fomething belonging to the reins or Kidthe Almighty is ftyled (Gen. xiv. 19.) Konah, which is tranflated^/#^ but might have, with perhaps * "RENCOUNTER, in the military art, the encounmore propriety, been rendered of heaven and tei of two little bodies or parties ef forces. In which earth/ In Hebrew, the .word Kahan or Kahen, \\h c fenfe rencounter is ufed in oppoiition to a pitched is'the eitherora Liu. very yv. ; feme with Khan or Kan, figmnes , name cue. • r 1 r pr'ujl or a prince ; and in Egypt Kon was the name of battle. Rencounter, in Angle combats, is ufed by way ot the firft Hercules or the/««. Hence^ the fame woid contradiftindion to duel.—When two perfons fall out in competition denotes greatnefs, as Can-obus the great and fight on the fpot without having premeditated the ferpent; Can-athoth, the great Thoth or Mercury, Can- combat, it is called a rencounter. RENDEZVOUS, or Rendevous, aplace appoint^FromdfbMeHftion we would conclude, that the ed to meet in at a certain day and hour. word, which is found in fo many tongues, and always RENEALMIA, in botany 5 a genus of the mono. 1 1 * to * . the 1 ^nan'dria /Ir>r lenotes Ch>,f, » the ^ ^X^gl’ng clafs of T»?^nr plant, denotes Chief, Prince, Sovereign, is very word GW wmen rr • „ as gyma^, ■vhich me-Eagypuauo the Egyptians tiiiLt— and Hebrews apphed M, ^ the calyx calyx 1'he corolla is trifid ; the nedarium oblong ;; the being, in their conceptions, the chief or fovereign of monophylkms ; the anthera felfile, oppofite to the necall the liars. This will appear Hill more probable, when tarium-; the berry is flelhy. I here is only one fpecies, we have afeertained the import of the word Remphan, which is a native of Surinam. or, as the LXX have it, Raiphan. _ RENEGADE, or Renegado, a perfon wEo has Phan, the latter part of this word, is unquestionably apollatized or renounced the Chriltian faith, to^ emthe feme with the the Egyptian ace lome omer rcngn/H, „ r n• -r-L Pan, \ t. *moil ancientO ofr'nrrnafO of LllC trods (fee Pan). -ll -- v?dit p , and, the .. RENFREW, the i *c RENFREW, the county-town cot.nty.town of of Renfrewihire, Renfrewlh.re Hebrew Phanah, confpexit, fpedavit, vidit; and tie (landing on the fmall river Cathcart, which flows into radical word feems to be phah, which figmfies omethe Clyde at the dillance of five miles from Glaigow, times the countenance, and fometimes Hence is a fmall but ancient royal borough, the feat of the Phaethon, which is compounded of pha light, eth or ejo Iheriff’s -court and of a prefeytery. The town is neatfire, and on {Length, came to be one of the names ol the ly built, and the inhabitants enjoy a tolerable lhare or fun. Rai, which we commonly write Rajah, has long commerce.—Renfrew w'as originally joined to Lanerk, fig-nified, among the Indians, a fubordmate prince ; and but was made an independent theriffdom by Robert 11. we know, that between India and Egypt there was a who had a palace here. W. Long. 4. 26. N. Lat. 55. 51. very early intercourfe. Raiphan, therefore, may be RENFREWSHIRE, a county of Scotland, ityled x . 1. V>nif .either ither the royal light or the bright prince, fubordinate fubordmate to ^ r* • was t’VlC* the JlH* anbiaufe it \xrnR • either fenfe, It Dfiris• ; andj .in it was aa vprv very nvouer proper emthet epithet ^ Stnai, is a fmall county, ex»f Sothis in the Egyptian kalendar. _ The wor e 2Q mdes from n0rth to fouth, and 13 >r Rom, again (for it is fometimes written Remphan, tending Dumbartonlhire by the y .nd fometimes Rompha), ia no other than the Hebrew rom eaft «, weft ^ d Qn the eaft w!th La. Run, “high, exalted.” Hence Remphan .a the h,gh n^C^on the we.t,^^ jr exalted light, which Sothis certainly was. r tdc country ;s varied with hill and vale, wood For this etymological difquilltion we are indebted to crowded with populous villages, and aDr Doig, the learned author of teller, m theSn^e andjl ^ ^^ Tht. foil ;s in ge. State, wrho has written a diflertation on Chiun and Rem" rye barley, oats, peafe, beans, than, of fuel, value that we hope it will not be much "eml fert.le^preduc ^eUs ^ „f coalj longer with-held from the public. 1 he alee,taming *nd>turffor fud, and affords abundance of pafturage the identity of thofe names, and the god to which mouth. There are 11 fpecies ; of which the moll re- differences and refemblances. Refemblance among objefts of the fame kind, and markable is the luteola or common dyer’s weed, growing naturally in wafte places in many parts of Britain. diffimilitude among objefts of different kinds, are too The young leaves are often undulated ; the ftalk is a obvious and familiar to gratify our curiofity in any deyard high, or more, terminated with a long, naked fpike gree : its gratification lies in difeovering differences of yeliowifh-green flowers : the plant is cultivated and among things where refemblance prevails, and refemmuch ufed for dying filk and wool of a yellow colour. blances where difference prevails. Thus a difference The great recommendation of the plant is, that it will in individuals of the fame kind of plants or animals, is grow with very little trouble, without dung, and on the deemed a difeovery, while the many particulars in which very worft foils. For this reafon it is commonly fown they agree are neglefted ; and in different kinds, any with, or immediately after, barley or oats, without any refemblance is greedily remarked, without attending to additional care, except drawing a bufh over it to harrow the many particulars in which they differ. it in. The reaping of the corn does it little or no hurt, A comparifon of the former neither tends to graas it grows but little the firft year; and the next fummer tify our curiofity, nor to fet the objefts compared in it is pulled and dried like flax. Much care and nicety, a ftronger light: two apartments in a palace, fimilar however, is requiiite, fo as not to injure either the in fhape, fixe, and furniture, make feparately as good feed or ftalk; or, which fometimes happens, dama- a figure as when compared ; and the fame obfervation ging both, by letting it ftand too long, or pulling it is applicable to. two fimilar compartments in a garden : too green. To avoid thefe inconveniences, a better on the other hand, oppofe a regular building to a fall method of culture has been deviled. This new me- of water,, or a good pifture to a towering hill, or even thod is to plough and harrow the ground very fine, a little dog to a large horfe, and the contraft' will prowithout dung, as equally as poffible, and then lowing duce no effeft. But a refemblance between objefts of about a gallon of feed, which is very finall, upon an different kinds, and a difference between objefts of acre, fome time in the month of Auguft. In about the fame kind, have remarkably an enlivening effeft.. two months it will be high enough to hoe, which The poets, fuch of them as have ajuft tafte, draw all. muft be carefully done, and the plants left about fix their limilies from things that in the main differ wideinches afunder. In March it is to be hoed again, and ly from the principal fubjeft ; and they never attempt this labour is to be repeated a third time in May. a contraft:, but where the things have a common ge-' About the clofe of June, when the flower is in full nus, and a refemblance in the capital circumftances : vigour, and the ftalk is become of a greenifli-yellow, place together a large and a fmall-fized animal of the it ftiould be pulled; a fufficient quantity of Items be- fame fpecies, the one will appear greater, the other ing left growing for feed till September. By this lefs, than when viewed feparately: when we oppofe means the flower and ftalk, both of them being care- beauty to deformity, each makes a greater figure by fully dried, will lell at a good price to the dyers, who the. comparifon. We compare the drefs of different employ it conftantly, and in large quantities; add to nations with curiofity, but without furprife ; becaufe this, that the feed being ripe and in perfeft order, will they have no fuch refemblance in the capital parts as yield a very confiderable profit. In a tolerable year, to pleafe us by contrafting the fmaller parts. But a when the feafons have not been unfavourable, the ad- new cut of a fleeve, or of a pocket, enchants by its. vantages derived from this vegetable will anfwer very novelty ; and, in oppofition to the (ormer (aftuon, raifes well ; but if the fummer ftiould be remarkably fine, fome degree of furprife. and proper care is taken in getting it in, there will be T hat refemblance and diffimilitude have an enlivena ' wg

RES RES [S3 ] That have been wretched : but to think how much Hefem* W effea upon objefts of fight, k made fufficiently I have been happier. b'.anco. evident; and that they have the fame eifeft upon obSouthern's Innocent Adultery, aft 2. iefts of the other fenfes, is alfo certain. Nor is that The diftrefs of a long journey makes even an indiflaw confined to the external fenfes ; for charaaers contrafted make a greater figure by the oppoution : lago, ferent inn agreeable ; and, in travelling, when the road is good, and the horfeman well covered, a bad day in the tragedy of Othello, fays, may be agreeable, by making him fenfible how fnug He hath a daily beauty in his life he is. That makes me ugly. The fame effedt is equally remarkable, when a man The charaacr of a fop, and of a rough warrior, are oppofes his condition to that of others. A ftiip tofnowhere more fuccefsfully contrafted than in Shake- fed about in a ftorm, makes the fpe&atop refled upon his own eafe and fecurity, and puts thefe in the ftrongfpeare:

T*or, when GH reprcfents the direA impulfe of a V“ particle, GI is the abfolute oblique Impulfe, and GO ftream on any plane furface BC, is to the diredl inipulfe is the effe&ive impulfe in the direftion GO : Now GI on its bafe BR or SE, as the fqtiare of the fine of the is to GO as radius to the fine of GIO, and GIO is angle of incidence to the fquare of the radius. 2. If an ifofceles wedge ACB (fig. 2.) be expofed to the complement of IGO, and is therefore equal to CGO, a ftream of fluid moving in the diredtion of its height the angle of obliquity. CD, the impulfe on the fides is to the diredl impulfe Therefore f: : Sin. O. on the bale as the fquare of half the bafe AD to the But Fi/zrR'rSin.T Thetefore F : f— R3 : Sin.5* X Sift. and fquare of the fide AC, or as the fquare of the fine of half the angle of the wedge to the fquare of the radius. f =F X Sin.5/X Sin. 0. 9 For it is evident, that in this Cafe the two tranfverfe Cor.—The dire& impulfe on any furface is to the irtien : di- effeftive oblique impulfe in the diredlion ol the ftream, impulfes, fuch as GP in fig. I, balance each other, and ffed m- as the cube of radius to the cube of the fine of inci- the only impulfe which can be cblerved is the fum of pu. to the dence. For draw I Qjmd GP perpendicular to G H, the two impulfes, fuch as GQjof fig. I, which are to eft lb! ueim-and IP perpendicular to GP ; then the abfolute ixn- be compared with the impulfes on the two halves AD, -pu. pulfe GI is equivalent to the impulfe GQ__in the direc- DB of the bafe. Now AC : AB rad. : fin. ACD, tion of the ftream, and GP, which may be called the and ACD is equal to the angle of incidence. Therefore, if the angle ACB is a right angle, and tranfverfe impulfe. The angle G I Q_js evidently equal ACD is half a right angle, the fquare of AC is twice to the angle GHl, or FGC, the angle of incidence. the fquare of AD, and the impulfe on the fides of 1 Therefore f: ? r=GI : GQ^, = R : Sin. i. redlangular wedge is half the impulfe on its bafe. But F:/= R35: Sin.’/. } Alfo, if a cube ACBE (fig. 3.) be expofed to a Therefore F :

— F X Sin.5 i. Ife on Before we proceed further, we {hall confider the im- fides, and then to a ftream moving in a diredlion perface in pulfc on a furface which is alfo in motion. This is evi- pendicular to one of its diagonal plaftes, the impulfe in *n : c dently a frequent and an important cafe. It is per- the firft cafe will be to the impulfe in the fecond as ^2 haps the moft frequent and important: It is the cafe of to 1. Call the perpendicular impulfe on a fide F, and a Jhip under fail, and of a wind or water-mill at work. the perpendicular impulfe on its diagonal plane f, and Therefore, let a ftream of fluid, moving with the di- the tffe&ive oblique impulfe on its fides ? ;—we have late rection and velocity DE, meet a plane BC, (fig. J. F :/= AC : AB =1:^2, and :xxxvi. n° 2.1, which is moving parallel to itfelf in the direCtion /: ? r= ACT AD* = 2 : 1. ^Therefore , and with the velocity DF: It is required to determine F : e == 2 ; V^2, = : 1, or the impulfe ? Nothing is more eafy : The mutual actions of bodies very nearly as 10 to 7. fame reafoning will apply to a pyramid whofe depend on their relative motions only. The motion bafeThe is a regular polygon, and whofe axis is perpendicuHE of the fluid relative to BC, which is alfo in motion, is compounded of the real motion of the fluid and lar to the bafe. If fuch a pyramid is expofed to a the oppofite to the real motion of the body. 1 here- ftream of fluid moving in the direction of the axis, the lore produce FI) till D /“DF, and complete the pa- diredl impulfe on the bafe is to the effedlive impulfe on rallelogram D / e E, and draw the diagonal D e. The the pyramid, as the fquare of the radius to the fquare impulfe on the plane is the fame as if the plane were at of the fine of the angle which the axis makes with the reft, and every particle of the fluid impelled it in the fides of the pyramid. And, in like manfter, the diredl impulfion on the diixftion and with the velocity D e ; and may therefore be determined by the foregoing propofition. Thispro- bafe of a right cone is to the effedlive impulfion on the pofition applies to every pofiible cafe ; and we {hall not conical furface, as the fquare of the radius to the fquare bellow more time on it, but referve the important mo- of the fine of half the angle at the vertex of the cone,, dification of the general propofition for the cafes which This is demonftrated, by fuppofing the cone to be a fhall occur in the pradlical applications of the whole pyramid of an infinite number of fides, We may in this manner compare the itnpulfe on any doftrine of the impulfe and reiillance of fluids. polygonal furface with the impulfe on its bafe, by com1 B portion Prop. IV. The dire£l impulfe of a ftream of fluid, paring apart the impulfes on each plane with thofe ic " o' ie diwhofe breadth is given, is to its oblique effedlive im- their correfponding bafes, and taking their fum. And we may compare the impulfe on a curved furpulfe in the direction of the ftream, as the fquare of ft : of radius to the fquare of the line ef the angle of in- face with that on its bafe, by refolving the curved furKi , en ft] m to face into elementary planes, each of which is impelled cidence; th ?ffecby an elementary filament of the ftream. oblique For the , number of filaments which occupy the obThe following beautiful propofition, given by Le in tilfc ii lique plane BC, would occupy the portion NC of a f.h ame perpendicular plane, and therefore we have only to Seur and Jaquier, in their Commentary on the fecond dlion. compare the perpendicular impulfe on any point V with Book of Newton’s Principia, with a few examples of its appliqation, will fuffice for any further account of the efteftive impulfe made by the fame filament FV on this theory. o.i the oblique plane at G. Now GH reprefents the impulfe which this filament would make at V ; and G Q_ Prop. V.—Let ADB (fig. /p) be the fedlion of apulfeona furface of fimplc curvature, fuch as is the furface of curved furis the effedlive impulfe of the fame filament at G, eftia cylinder. Let this be expofed to the adfion of af;ice cornmated in the diredtion G H of the ftream ; and G H is fluid moving in the diredtion AC. Let BC be the toGQjtsG H! to GH, that is, as rad,* to fin.T N fedlion bafe. Vox,. XVI. Part I.

RE S RES [98 ] known, that the parabolic area BMGC is two thirds JUfiftanie. feftlon €jf the plane (which we have called its hafe), of the parallelogram BCGO. Therefore the impulfe v-* perpendicular to the direction of the ftream. In produced, take any length CG; and on CG defcnbe on the quadrant ADB is two thirds of the impulfe on the bafe BC. The fame may be faid of the quadrant the femicircle CHG, and complete the rectangle Adb and its bafe c b. Therefore, The impulfe on a cy-The imBCGO. Through any point D of the curve draw on » ED'parallel to AC, and'meeting BC and OG in Q_ linder or half cylinder is two thirds of the diretl impulfe on cpulfe iui r its tranfverfe plane through the axis ; or it is two thirds y ^ » and P- Let DF touch the curve in D, and draw of the direft impulfe on one fide of a parallelopiped of the chord GH parallel to DF, and HKM perpendicular to CG, meeting ED in M. Suppofe this to the fame breadth and height. he done for every point of the curve ADB, and let Prop. VI.— If the body be a folid generated by the •«- LMN be the curve which paffes through all the revolution of the figure BDAC (fig. 4.) round the axis AC ; and if it be expofed to the aftion' of a points of interfetlion of the parallels EDP and the correfponding perpendiculars HKM. ftream of fluid moving in the direAion of the axis AC; then the effe&ive impulfe in the dire&ion of the The effective impulfe on the curve furface ADB in ftream is to the direA impulfe on its bafe, as the folid tlie direaion of the ftream, is to its direft impulfe on generated by the revolution of the figure BLMNC the bafe BC as the area BCNL is to the reftangle round the axis CN to the cylinder generated by the HCGO. revolution of the reAangle BOGC. Draw edqmp parallel to EP and extremely near it. This fcarcely needs a demonftration. The figure The arch D d of the curve may be conceived as the ADBLMNA is a feAion of thefe folids by a plane feftion of an elementary plane, having the polition of pafling through the axis; and what has been demonthe tangent DF. The angle EDI is the angle of in- ftrated of this feAion is true of every other, becaufe cidence of the filament ED de. This is equal to CGH, they are all equal and fimilar. It is therefore true of becaufe ED, DF, are parallel to CG, GH ; and (be- the whole folids, and (their bafe) the circle generated caufe CHG is a femicircle) CH is perpendicular to by the revolution of BC round the axis AC. GH. Alfo CG : CH = CH : CK, and CG : CK = Hence we eafily deduce, that The impulfe on a fphere On a CG" : CH1, = rad.1 : fin.1, CGH, rrrad.1 : fin.1 in- is one half of the direct impulfe on its great circle, or on cid. Therefore if CG, or its equal DP, reprefent the bafe of a cylinder of equal diameter. diredl impulfe on the point Q__of the bafe, CK, or its For in this cafe the curve BMN (fig. 5.) which geequal QM, will reprefent the effe&ive impulfe on the nerates the folid exprefling the impulfe on the fphere point D of the curve. And thus, Q?/* P will reprefent the direA impulfe of the filament on the element is a parabola, and the folid is a parabolic conoid. Now Qjr of the bafe, and Oym M will reprefent the ef- this conoid is to the cylinder generated by the revolution of the reAangle BOGC round the axis CG, as fective impulfe ' of the fame filament on the element the fum of all the circles generated by the revolution D . EF. From every point of the circumference of this to which it foouted on a horizontal plane. The

RES [ no 1 RES •P eftlhnce. The refults of thefe experiments were as conformable to CE as the fine of wCE is to radius; and the angle Refiftam * ^ ' t-o the theory as could be wiihed. The refifbance was mCE is the angle contained between the initial and "””“ Difference always a little lefs than what the theory required, but final direftions, becaufe Cm is parallel to AK. Now between greatly exceeded its half; the refult of the generally re- let the intervals of time diminifh continually and the this tiieory ceived theories. This defeat fliould be expected ; for frequency of the impulfes increafe. The defleftion ben'.ents'ac11'the demonftration fuppofes the plane"MN to be infinite- comes ultimately continuous, and the motion curvilicounted ly extended, fo that the film of water which iffues neal, and the propofition is demonfirated. We fee that the initial velocity and its fubfequent for. through the chink may be accurately parallel to the plane. This never can be completely effe&ed. Alfo changes do not affeft the conclufion, which depends it was fuppofed, that the velocity was juflly meafured entirely on the final quantity of motion. 2. The accumulated effeft of the accelerating forces, by the amplitude of the parabola EGK. But it is well known that the very putting the plane MN in the way when eHimated in the direftion AK of the original of the jet, though at the diftance of an inch from the motion, or in the oppofite direftion, is equal to the orifice, will diminifh the velocity of the efflux through difference between the initial quantity of motion and the this orifice. This is eafily verified by experiment. Ob- produft of the final quantity of motion by the cofine ferve the time in which the veffel will be emptied when of the change of direftion. For *'2m — C l — m /, ~ BM —f q there is no plane in the way. Repeat the experiment with the plane in its place ; and more time will be neBM= BL -ML, = AK—EG -ceffary. The following is a note of a courfe of exA K-AO - O K,~ AO—PN. periments, taken as they Hand, without any feleClion. Therefore PN+FG-}/(//the accumulated impulfe in the direftion OA)—AO—CM, =AO—CEX coN° i Ref'ft. by theory fine of ECM. Refift. by experiment Cor. 1. The fame aftion, in the direftion oppofite Difference to that of the original motion, is neceffary for caufing In order to demonftrate this propofition in fuch a a body to move at right angles to its former direftion manner as to furniffl the means of invelligating the as for Hopping its motion. For in this cafe, the cowhole mechanifm and aftion of moving fluids, it is necef- fine of the change of direftion is = 0, and AO—CE fary to premife an elementary theorem of curvilineal Xcofine ECM=AO—0, —AO, — the original momotions. tion. If a particle of matter deferibes a curve line ABCE Cor. 2. If the initial and final velocities are the fame, Plate (fig. 13.) by the continual aftion of defieAing forces, the accumulated aftion of the accelerating forces, efiiCCCCXXXVI. which vary in any manner, both with refpedt to intenmated in the direftion OA, is equal to the produft of fity and direftion, and if the aftion of thefe forces, in the original quantity of motion by the verfed fine of every point of the curve, be refolved into two direc- the change of direftion. tions, perpendicular and parallel to the initial direftion The application of thefe theorems, particularly the AK; then, fecond, to our prefent purpofe is very obvious. All the 1. The accumulated effeft of the defle&ing forces, filaments of the jet were originally moving in the direceftimated in a direftion AD perpendicular to AK, is tion of its axis, and they are finally moving along the to the final quantity of motion as the fine of the final refiHing plane, or perpendicular to their former motion. change of direction is to radius. Therefore their tranfverfe forces in the direftion of the 53 Let us firfi: fuppofe that the accelerating forces aft axis are [in amulo) equal to the force which would His propo ficion de- by Harts, at equal intervals of time, when the body Hop the motion. For the aggregate of the fimultamonth a ted. js ;n tpe p0Jnts A, B, C, E. And let AN be the de- neous forces of every particle in the whole filament is flefting force, which, afting at A, changes the origi- the fame with that of the fucceflive forces of one particle, nal direftion AK to AB. Produce AB till BH== as it arrives at different points of its curvineal path. AB, and complete the parallelogram BFCH. Then All the tranfverfe forces, eHimated in a direftion perFB is the force which, by afting at B, changed the pendicular to the axis of the vein, precifely balance and motion BH (the continuation of AB) to BC. In fuHain each other; and the only forces which can prolike manner make Ch (in BC produced) equal to BC, duce a fenlible effeft are thofe in a direbdion parallel and complete the parallelogram C/E A. C/is the to the axis. By thefe all the inner filaments are prefdeflefting force at C, &c. Draw BO parallel to AN, and fed towards the plane MN, and muff be withffood by it. GBK perpendicular to AK. Alfo draw lines through It is highly probable, nay certain, that there is a quantity C and E perpendicular to AK, and draw through B of Hagnant water in the middle of the vein which fuffains and C lines parallel to AK. Draw alfo HE, /j/per- the preffures of the moving filaments without it, and pendicular,, and EG, HI, hi, parallel to AK. tranfmits it to the folid plane. But this does not alter It is plain that BK is BO or AN eHimated in the the cafe. And, fortunately, it is of no confequence direftion perpendicular to AK, and that BG is BE what changes happen in the velocities of the particles eHimated in the fame way. And fipce BH = AB, HE while eacli is deferibing its own curve. And it is from ot 1M is equal to BK. Alfo Cl is equal to BG. this circumftance, peculiar to this particular cafe of perT herefoie CiVI is equal to AP bBG. By fimilar rea- pendicular impulfe, that we are able to draw the confining it appears that E?k = E f 4- />/, - Cf 4- CM, = clufion. It is by no means difficult to demonftrate that C^-fBG, + AP. the velocity of the external furface of this jet is conL herefore if CE be taken for the meafure of the ftant, and indeed of every jet which is not aided on by final velocity or quantity of motion, Em will be the external forces after it has quitted the orifice : but this accumulated effeft of the deflefting forces eHimated in difeuffion is quite unncceffary here. It is however exthe direftion AD perpendicular to AK. But Em is tremely difficult to afeertain, even in tins moft fimple 5 cafe,

:7(b

5Z ' tl em vai J'C! ge;

RES r HI ] RES It is therefore without proper authority that the Refinance, cafe, what is tlie velocity of the internal filaments in abfolute impulfe of a vein of fluid on a plane which re- -——v'""—** the different points of their progrefs. Such is the demonllratioil which Mr Bernouilli has ceives it wholly, is afferted to be proportional to the given of this proportion. Limited as it is, it is highly fine of incidence. If indeed we fuppofe the velocity —a, and valuable, becaufe derived from the true principles of in G and H are equal to that at A, then hydraulics. the whole impulfe is 2aV 1—i2, as is commonly fupHe hoped to render it more extenfive and applicable pofed. But this cannot be. Both the velocity and to oblique impulfes, when the axis AC of the vein quantity at H are lefs than thofe at G. Nay, frequent(fig. 13. n° 2.) is inclined to the plane in an angle ly there is no efflux on the fide H when the obliquity ACN. But here all the fimplicity of the cafe is gone, is very great. We may conclude in general, that the and we are now obliged to afcertain the motion of each oblique impulfe will always bear to the direct impulfe TV filament. It might not perhaps be impoffible to deter- a greater proportion than that of the fine of incidence :d mine what mull happen in the plane of the figure, to radius. If the w’hole water efcapes at G, and none o that is, in a plane paffing through the axis of the vein, goes off laterally, the preffure will be 2a-\-2ac—zbe'A T- and perpendicular to the plane MN. But even in this 2 a'. cafe it would be extremely difficult to determine how V i — r . The experiments of the Abbe Boffut fhow in the plaineft manner that the preffure of a vein, ftrimuch of the fluid will go in the direction EKG, and king obliquely on a plane which receives it wholly, diwhat will go in the path FLH, and to afcertain the minifhes faifer than in the ratio of the fquare of the form of each filament, and the velocity in its different fine of incidence ; whereas, when the oblique plane is points. But in the real flate of the cafe, the water wholly immerfed in the ftream, the impulfe is much will diffipate from the centre C on every fide; and we greater than in this proportion, and in great obliquicannot tell in what proportions. Let us however con- ties is nearly as the fine. fider a little what happens in the plane of the figure, Nor will this propofition determine the impulfe of a and fuppofe that all the water goes either in the courfe fluid on a plane wholly immerfed in it, even when the EKG or in the courfe FLH. Let the quantities of impulfe is perpendicular to the plane. The circumwater which take thefe two courfes have the propor- ftance is now wanting on which we can eitablilh a tions of p and n. Let ^2a be the velocity at A, calculation, namely, the angle of final defleftion. Could V2b \>o the velocity at G, and be the velocity this be afeertained for each filament, and the velocity at H. ACG and ACH are the two changes of di- of the filament, the principles are completely adequate reftion, of which let c and —c be the colines. Then, to an accurate folution of the problem. In the expeadopting the former reafoning, we have the preffure of riments which we mentioned to have been made under' the watery plate GKEACM on the plane in the di- the infpeftion of Sir Charles Knowles, a cylinder of fix inches diameter was expofed to the adtion of a reftion AC= ~— X2 a—zc b, and the preffure of the llream moving precifely one foot per fecond; and when r certain deductions were made for the water which was .ate FILFACN = - , nn X 2 a 2 cfiy and their fum held adhering to the pofterior bafe (as will he noticed pi P+ 8 afterwards), the impulfe was found equal to 3^ ounces __ py.2a—2^+nX2a+2r' ; which being mult iplied by avoirdupois. There were 36colotired filamentsdiilributed 11 P 4* on the ftream, in fuel /dilations as to give the moft ufeful the fine of ACM or V1 gives the preffure per- indications of their curvature. It was found neceffary te have fome which paffed under the body and fome above pendicular to the plane MN =^.2/7~-2A.A+n X n it ; for the form of thefe filaments, at the fame diftance /+ from the axis of the cylinder, was confiderably diffe+ 2C p, , l V 1 —r . rent : and thofe filaments which were fituated in planes But there remains a preffure in the dire&ion perpen- neither horizontal nor vertical took a double curvature. dicular to the axis of the vein, which is not balanced, In fhort, the curves were all traced with great care, and " as in the.former cafe, by the equality on oppofite fides the defledting forces were computed for each, and reof the axis. 1 he preffure arifing from the water duced to the diredtion of the axis ; and they were which efcapes at G has an effedl oppoiite to that pro- fummed up in fuch a manner as to give the impulfe of vhrced by the water which efcapes at H When this the whole ftream. The defledtions were marked as far is taken into account, we fhall find that their joint ef- a-head of the cylinder as they conld be affuredly obJ p n ferved. By this method the impulfe was computed to forts peipendicular to AC arc ^—-Xzrr^i —which, be 2 if- ounces, differing from obfervation T5^ ©f anof the whole; a difference which being multiplied by the cofine of ACM, gives the ac- ounce, or about may moft veafonably be aferihed to the adhefion of the tion perpendicular to MN =7-— Y. 2 ac\/i —r. water, which mull be moft fenfible in fuch fmall veloP ~Tn The fum or joint effort of all thefe preffures is cities. Thefe experiments may therefore be confidered as giving all the confirmation that can be defired of the P'XZ 1 — 2^-f-n X2n-i-2c/3 ./—n~Y,2ac > jullnefs of the principles. This indeed hardly admits a/ j yL- -c2-F P+n of a doubt : but, alas ! it gives us but fmall affiftance ; /-Fu I bus, from this cafe, which is much fimpler than lor all this is empirical, in as far as it leaves us in every can happen in nature, feeing that there will always be cafe the talk of obferving the form of the curves and a lateral efflux, the determination of the impulfe is as the velocities in their different points. rFo derive feruncertain and vague as it‘was fure and precife in the vice from this moft judicious method of Daniel Berformer cafe. noulli, we mult difeover fome method of determining, a priori.

\

* RES RES' f n j ] Refinance. a priori) what will be the motion of the fluid whofe the velocity for its height, and the fmall excefs is mofl Refiftam couvfe is obftruded by a body of any form. And probably owing to adhefion, and the meafure of the here we cannot omit taking notice of the cafual ob- real refiftance is probably precifely this weight. The fervation of Sir Ifaac Newton when attempting to de- velocity of a fpouting fluid was found, in fact, to be termine the refiftance of the plane furface or cylinder, that acquired by falling from the furface of the fluid; or fphere expofed to a ftream moving in a canal. He and it was by looking at this, as at a pole ftar, that favs that the form of the refilling furface is of lefs con- Newton, Bernoulli, and others, have with great fagacifequence, becaufe there is always a quantity of water ty and ingenuity difeovered much of the laws of hyllagnant upon it, and which may therefore be confider- draulics, by fearching for principles which would give ed as frozen ; and he therefore confiders that water this refult. We may hope for fimilar fuccefs. In the mean time, we may receive this as a phyficai only whofe motion is necefiary for the moil expeditious difeharge of the water in the veffel. He endea- truth, that the perpendicular impulfe or refiftance of a vours to diferiminate that water from the reft ; and plane furface, wholly immerfed in the fluid, is equal although it mull be acknowledged that the principle to the weight of the column having the furface for which "he aflumes for this purpofe is very gratuitous, its bafe, and the fall producing the velocity for its becaufe it only fhows that if certain portions of the wa- height. This is the medium refult of all experiments made ter, which he determines very ingenioufly, were really frozen, the reft will iffue as he fays, and wrill exert the in thefe precife circumftances. And it is confirmed preflure which he alfigns ; ftill we mull admire his fer- by a fet of experiments of a kind wholly different, and tility of refource, and his fagacity in thus forefeeing which feem to point it out more certainly as an im^ what fubfequent obfervation has completely confirmed. mediate confequence of hydraulic principles. If Mr Pitot’s tube be expofed to a llream of fluid ExperiK We are even difpofed to think, that in this cafual obfervation Sir liaac Newton has pointed out the only iffuing from a refervoir or veffel, as reprefented in LUt method of arriving at a folution of the problem ; and fig. 14. with the open mouth I pointed dire&ly again ft p^ that if we could difeover what motions are not neceffary the ftream, the fluid is obferved to Hand at K in the cccm for the mofl expeditious pajfage of the water, and could thus upright tube, precifely on a level with the fluid AB in determine the form and magnitude of the llagnant wa- the refervoir. Here is a moft unexceptionable experiter which adheres to the body, we Ihould much more ment, in which the impulfe of the ilream is aftually opeafily afeertain the real motions which occafion the ob- pofed to the hydroftatical preffure of the fluid on the i'erved refiftance. We are here difpofed to have recoune tube. Preffure is in this cafe oppofed to preffure, beto the economy of nature, the improper ufe of which caufe the iffuing fluid is defle&ed by what flays in the we have fometimes taken the liberty of reprehend- mouth of the tube, in the fame way in which it would ing. Mr Maupertuis publilhed as a great difeovery be deflected by a firm furface. We ffiall have occafion his principle of fmalleft aftion, where he Ihowed that by and by to mention fome mofl valuable and inftruc„ ; in all the mutual aftions of bodies the quantity of ac- tive experiments made with this tube. It was this which fuggefttd to the great mathema-Ealer’i tion was a minimum ; and he applied this to the folution of many difficult problems with great fuccefs, ima- tician Euler another theory of the impulfe and refill-theory, gining that he was really reafoning from a contingent ance of fluids, which muft not be omitted, as it is aplaw of nature, fele&ed by its infinitely wife Author, viz. plied in his elaborate performance On the Theory of that in all occafions there is the fmalleft poffible exertion the Conftru&ion and Working of Ships, in two voof natural powers. Mr D’Alembert has, however, fhown lumes qto, which was afterwards abridged and ufed as a vid. Encyclopedic Frangofe, Action) that this was text book in fome marine academies. He fuppofes a but a whim, and that the minimum obferved by Mau- ftream of fluid ABCD (fig. 15.), moving with any vepertuis is merely a minimum of calculus, peculiar to a locity, to ftrike the plane BD perpendicularly, and that formula which happens to exprefs a combination of ma- part of it goes through a hole EF, forming a jet thematical quantities which frequently occurs in our EGHF. Mr Euler fays, that the velocity of this jet way of confidering the phenomena of nature, but which will be the fame with the velocity of the ftream. Now compare this with an equal ftream iffuing from a hole is no natural meafure of aftion. A nun hod But the chevalier D’Arcy has fhown, that in the in the fide of a veffel with the fame velocity. The one ♦•u-ommeir- trains of natural operations which terminate in the pro- ftream is urged out by the preflure occaiioned by tin; ♦kd forob- dndtion of motion in a particular direftion, the interme- impulfe of the fluid ; the other is urged out by the diate communications of motion are fuch that the fmall- preflure of gravity. The effects are equal, and the moihtoi y. eft poffible quantity of motion is produced. We feem difying circumftances are the fame. The caufes are obliged to conclude, that this law will be obferved in therefore equal, and the preffure occafioned by the imthe prefent inftance ; and it feems a problem not above pulfe of a ftream of fluid, moving with any velocity, is our reach to determine the motions which refult from equal to the weight of a column of fluid whofe height it. Wc would recommend the problem to the eminent is produdlive of this velocity, &c. Pie then determines mathematicians in -fome Ample cafe, fuch as the propo- the oblique impulfe by the refolution of motion, and fition already demonftrated by Daniel Bernoulli, or the deduces the common rules of refiftance, &c. But all this is without juft grounds. This gentleperpendicular impulfe on a cylinder included in a tubular canal; and if they fucceed in this, great things may man was always fatisfied with the flighteft analogies be expected. We think that experience gives great which would give him an opportunity of exhibiting his encouragement. We fee that the refiilance to a plane great dexterity in algebraic analyfis, and was not afterfurface is a very fmall matter greater than the weight wards ftartled by any difcordancy with obfervation. of a column of the fluid having the fall productive of Anahfi magis fider.dum is a frequent affertion with him. Though

R E s . RES [i I3 ] fuch motion will produce an inequality of preffure, Refifantr. tee, TKougli lie wrote a large volume, containing a theory v "’'"A —' of light and colours totally oppofite to Newton’s, he which will determine the fucceeding motions. He there- ' fore endeavoured to reduce all to the difeovery of thofe has publifhed many differtations on optical phenomena on the Newtonian principles, exprefsly becaufe his own difturbing preffures, and thus to the laws of hydroftaprinciples non idea facile anfam pralebat analyji injlru- tics. He had long before this hit on a very refined and ingenious view of the adtion of bodies on each endec. Viti Not a fhadow of argument is given for the leading other, which had enabled him to folve many of the moft ,«n iun' principle in this theory, viz. that, the velocity of the jet difficult problems concerning the motions of bodies, fuch is the fame with the velocity of the ilream. None can as the centre of ofcillation, of fpontaneous converfion, be given, but faying that the preffure is equivalent to its the preceffion of the equinoxes,. &c. &c. with great faproduction ; and this is affuming the very thing he la- cility and elegance. He faw that the fame principle bours to prove. T he matter of fad is, that the velo- would apply to the adtion of fluid, bodies. The princity of the jet is greater than that of the ftream, and ciple is this. “ In ’whatever manner any number of bodies are fupmay be greater almoit in any proportion. Which curious circumftance was difcovered- and ingenioufly ex* pofed to alt on each other, and by thefe a&ions.come to change plained long ago by Daniel Bernoulli in his Hydrodyna~ their prefent motions, if voe conceive that the motion ’which mica. It is evident that the velocity mull be greater. each body would have in the following infant (if it became Were a ftream of fand to come againft the plane, what free), is rfolved into two other motions ; one of which is goes through would indeed preferve its velocity un- the motion which it really takes in the following infant; changed: but when a real fluid ftrikes the plane, all that the other will be fuch, that if each body had no other modoes not pafs through is defledted on all lides; and by tion but this fecond, the whole bodies would have remained thefe defledtions forces are excited, by which the fila- in equilibrio.” We here obferve, that “ the motion ments which furround the cylinder immediately fronting which each body would have in the following inftant, the hole are made to prefs this cylinder on all fides, and if it became free,” is a continuation of the motion as it were fqueeze it between them : and thus the par- which it has in the firft inftant. It may therefore perticles at the hole muft of neceffity be accelerated, and haps be better expreffed thus : If the motions of bodies, anyhow aEting on each other, he •the velocity of the jet mutt be greater than that of the ftream. We are difpofed to think that, in a fluid per- confidered in two confecutive infants, and if we conceive fe&ly incomprefiible, the velocity will be doubled, or at the motion which it has in the firf infant as compounded of leait increafed in the proportion of I to 2- If the two others, one of which is the motion which it aEtually fluid is in the fmalleft degree comprefiible, even in the takes in the fecond infant, the other is fuch, that if each very fmall degree that water is, the velocity at the firft body had only thofe fecond motions, the whole fyfem would impulfe may be much greater. D. Bernoulli found that have remained in equilibria. The propofition itfelf is evident. For if thefe fea column of water moving 5 feet per fecond, in a tube fome hundred feet long, produced a velocity of 136 cond motions be not fuch as that an equilibrium of the whole fyftem would refult from them, the other comfeet per fecond in the firft moment. There being this radical defedt in the theory of Mr ponent motions would not be thofe which the bodies Euler, it is needlefs to take notice of its total infuffi- really have after the change ; for they would neceftariciency for explaining oblique impulfesand the reliftance ly be altered by thefe unbalanced motions. See D’Alembert EJfai de Dynamique. , of curvilineal prows. Affifted by this inconteftable principle, Mr d’Alemictus We are extremely forry that our readers are deriving m of f0 little advantage from all that we have faid ; and that bert demonftrates, in a manner equally new and fimple, A :n VA " having taken them by the hand, we are thus obliged to thofe propofitions which Newton had fo cautioufly degrope about, with only a few fcattered rays of light to duced from his hypothetical fluid, fliowing that they diredf our fteps. Let us fee what affiftance we can get were not limited to this hypothefis, viz. that the mofrom- Mr d’Alembert, who has attempted a folution of tions produced by limilar bodies, fimilarly projedled in this problem in a method entirely new and extremely them, would be fimilar; that whatever were the prefingenious. He faw clearly that all the followers of fures, the curves deferibed by the particles would be the Newton had forfaken the path which he had marked fame ; and that the refiftances would be proportional out for them in the fecond part of his inveftigation, and to the fquares of the velocities. He then comes to conhad merely amufed themfelves with the mathematical fider the fluid as having its motions conftrained by the difeufiions with which his introdudlory hypotkelis gave form of the canal or by folid obftacles interpofed. them an opportunity of occupying themfelves. He We ffiall here give a fummary account of his funda-Summary paid the deferved tribute of applaufe to Daniel Ber- mental propofition. ^ noulli for having introduced the notion of pure preffure It is evident, that if the body ADCE (fig. 16.) did^n^i pr"oir as the chief agent in this biifinefs ; and he faw that he not form an obftruftion to the motion of the water, thepofuion. was in the right road, and that it was from hydroftati- particles would deferibe parallel lines TF, OK, PS, &c. cal principles alone that we had any chance of explain- But while yet at a diftance from the body in F, K, S,ccccxxxvu ing the phenomena of hydraulics. Bernoulli had only they gradually change their directions, and deferibe the eonlidered the preffures which were excited in confe- curves FM, K m, S n, fo much more incurvated as they quence of the curviliueal motions of the particles. Mr are nearer to the body. At a certain diftance ZY-this d’Alembert even thought that thefe preffures were not curvature will be infenfrble, and the fluid included in the coniequences, but the caufes, of thefe curvilineal the fpace ZYHQjvill move uniformly as if the folid motions. No internal motion can happen in a fluid body were not there. The motions on the other, fide but in confequence of an unbalanced preflure; and even'’ of tire axis AC will be the fame ; and we need only Von. XVI. Part I. P attend

RES RES [ XH 1 Refinance, attend to one half, «ind we fhall confider thefe as in a fure from l towards n, or from n towards b. Therefore Reft{lanC{, u frnce the fluid in this ftagnant canal ftiould be in equili- —r-* '“■“"V—""' ftate of permanency. brio, there mull alfo be fome a&ion, at leaft in one of No body changes either its direftion or velocity otherwife than by infenfible degrees : therefore the particle the parts b m, m q, qn, to counterbalance the a&ion on wl!ich is moving in the axis will not reach the vertex the part b n. But the fluid is ftagnant in the fpace (in confequence of the law of continuity). A of the body, where it behoved to defied inftantane- FAM oufiy at right angles It will therefore begin to be de- Therefore there is no farce which can a£t on b m, m y, fleded at feme point F a-head of the body, and will de- q n; and the preflure in the canal in the direftion bn ox b is nothing, or the force b e — o, and the force ie is feribe a curve FM, touching the axis in F, and the nperpendicular to the canal ; and there is therefore no body in M ; and then, gliding along the body, will preffure in the canal FM, except what proceeds from, quit it at feme point L, deferibing a tangent curve, the part y F, or from the force e i; which laft being perwhich will join the axis again (touching it) in R; and thus there will be a quantity of ftagnant water FAM pendicular to the canal, there can be no force exerted ou before or a head of the body, and another LCR behind the point M, hut what is propagated from the part y F. The velocity therefore in the canal FM is conftant or aftern of it. . . . Let a be the velocity of a particle of the fluid m if finite, or infinitely fmall if variable : for, in the firft any inftant, and a' its velocity in the next inftant. The cafe, the force b e would be abfolutely nothing ; and invelocity a may be confidered as compounded of a and the fecond cafe, it would be an xnfinitefimal of the fec". If the particles tended to move with the velocities cond order, and may be confidered as nothing in coma” only, the whole fluid would be in equilibrio (general parifon with the velocity, which is of the firft order. principle), and the preffure of the fluid would be the We fhall fee by and by that the laft is the real ftate of fame as if all were itagnant, and each particle were the cafe. Therefore the fluid, before it begins to change its dire&ion in F, begins to change its velourged by a force V expreffmg an indefinitely fmall city in fome point y a-head of F, and by the time that it reaches F its velocity is as it were annihilated. Cor. r. Therefore the preffure in any point D arifesmoment of time. (N. B. — is the proper expreffion of both from the retardations in the part y F, and fromthe accelerating force, which, by afting during the mo- the particles which are in the canal MD: as thefe laft ment f, would generate the velocity a"; and a' is fuppofed an indeterminate quantity, different perhaps for move along the furface of the body, the force —> deeach particle). Now let a be fuppofed conftant, or ftroyed in every particle, is compounded of two others,, a — a'. In this cafe a' — o. That is to fay, no prefin the direction of the furface, and the other perfure whatever will be exerted on the folid body unlefs one pendicular to it ; call thefe p and />'. The point D is there happen changes in the velocities or direftions of preffed perpendicularly to the furface MD ; iff, by all the particles. Let a and a! then be the motions of the particles in the forces p in, the curve MD ; 2d, by the force p' acton the fingle point D. This may be neglected in two confecutive inflants. They would be in equilibrio ing comparifon of the indefinite number of the others:, d' if urged only by the forces — Therefore if y be the therefore taking in the arch MD, an infinitely fmall point where the particles which deferibe the curve FM portion N m, = s, the preffure on D, perpendicular to begin to change their velocity, the preffure in D would the furface of the body, will be — J'p s > an^ flube equal to the preffure wliich the fluid contained in the canal y FMD would exert, if each particle were folicited ent muft be fo taken as to be = 0 in the point M. Cor. 2. Therefore, to find the prefibre on D, we by its force . The queftion is therefore reduced to the muft find the force p on any point N. _ Let u be the finding the curvature in the canal y FMD, and the ac- velocity of the particle N, in the direftion N m in any inftant, and a + « its velocity in the following inftant j celerating forces — in its different parts. we muft have / =r Therefore the whole queftion It appears, in the firft place, that no preffure is exerted by any of the particles along the curve F M : for is reduced to finding the velocity a in every point N, fuppofe that the particle a (fig. 17.) deferibes the in- in the direftion N m. And this is the aim of a feries of propofitions which His ^ definitely fmall ftraight line a b \n the firft inftant, and 1131 follow, 111 in which author kHl^llctyb difplays the moft accurateeq xCCOJICl IIllLdlil. jpiULil.lLC Ua Ub till kill Ub C*d m* U Uy dllkl V> iilk.il the Lllv ctLILiiv/i L-11C XllUiL. vli dLv '. '.1 bt'm the fecond inftant;j produce zr. ab, and J.Uilk/Wj joining dc, the motion ab ox b d may be confidered as and precife conception of the fubjedt, and great addrefs'J^. 1 oi ub 6, c, which particle iccuiy really takes and eieganee elegance in his mathematical auctions, analyfis. Heat COmpofed\ Ul wnu.11 the me paiLieic Ldiv.es in the Liie aim ins,inaLiieniaLieai jiae au lengthy^ lengm-- jh next inftant, and ^ motion dc which fhould be deftroy- brings out an equation which expreffes the preffure on fd. Draw b i parallel to d c, and i e perpendicular to b c. the body in. the moft general and unexceptionable manIt is plain that the particle £>, folicited by the forces ner. We cannot give an ab draft, becaufe the train of bey ei (equivalent to dc} fhould be in eqdilibrio. This reafoning is already concife in the extreme : nor can we being eftabliftied, b e muft be = 0, that is, there will be even exhibit the final equation ; for it is conceived in no accelerating or retarding force at b; for if there the moft refined and abftrufe form of indeterminate be, draw^rn (fig. 18.) perpendicular to £ F, and the funftions, in order to embrace every pofiible circumparallel n q infinitely near it. The part bn of the fluid ftance. But we can affure our readers, that it truly excontained in the canal bn qm would fuftain fome pref- preffes the folution of the problem. But, alas! it is of 8 ’

RES [ i R.c Snce. no ufe. So Itnperfeft is our mathematical knowledge, that even Mr d’Alembert has not been able to exemVi, the plify the application of the equation to the fimpleft cafe imj fedt which can be propofed, fuch as the direft impulfe on flat f a plane furface wholly immerfed in the fluid. All that ma ;ma- he is enabled to do, is to apply it (by iome modificatic? c is tions and fubftitutions which take it out of its ftate of afe! >. extreme generality) to the direft impulfe of a vein of fluid on a plane which defle&s it wholly, and thus to fhow its conformity to the folution given by Daniel Bernoulli, and to obfervation and experience. . He fhows, that this impulfe (independent of the deficiency arifing from the plane’s not being of infinite extent) is fomewhat lefs than the weight of a column whofe bafe is the feftion of the vein, and whofe height is twice the fall neceffary for communicating the velocity. This great philofopher and geometer concludes by faying, that he does not believe that any method can be found for folving this problem that is more direft and Ample; and imagines, that if the dedu&ions from it fhall be found not to agree with experiment, we mull give up all hopes of determining the refiftance of fluids by theory and analytical calculus. He fays analytical calculus ; for all the phyfical principles on which the calculus proceeds are rigoroufly demonftrated, and will not admit of a doubt. There is only one hypothefis introduced in his inveftigation, and this is not a phyfical hypothefis, but a hypothefis of calculation. It is, that the quantities which determine the ratios of the fecond fluxions of the velocities, eftimated in the directions parallel and perpendicular to the axis AC (fig. 16.) are functions of the abfeifla AP, and ordinate PM of the curve. Any perfon, in the leafl acquainted with mathematical analyfis, will fee, that without this fuppofition no analyfis or calculus whatever can be inftituted. But let us fee what is the phyjical meaning of this hypothefis. It is Amply this, that the motion of the particle M depends on its fituation only. It appears impofiible to form any other opinion ; and if we could form fuch an opinion, it is as clear as day-light that the cafe is defperate, and that we mufl renounce all >3 hopes. 1 M _ aemaWe are forry to bring our labours to this conclufion; J tic is ‘ flu Id aj> but we are of opinion, that the .only thing that remains is, for mathematicians to attach themfelves with firm»ir= nefs and vigour to fome fimple cafes; and, without c«f : aiming at generality, to apply Mr d’Alembert’s or Bernoulli’s mode of procedure to the particular circumftances of the cafe. It is not improbable but that, in the folutions which may be obtained of thefe particular cafes, circumftances may occur which are of a more general nature. Thefe will be fo many laws of hydraulics to be added to our prefent very fcanty ilock ; and thefe may have points of refemblance, which will give birth to laws of ftill greater generality. And we repeat our expreffion of hopes of fome fuccefs, by endeavouring to determine, in fome fimple cafes, the minimum poQiliU of metion. The attempts of the Jefuit commentators on the Principia to afceitain this on the Newtonian hypothefis do them honour, and have really given us great afliilance in the particular cafe which came . >4multi through their hands. Ai f>i; xperi- And we fliould multiply experiments on the refiftance of bodies. Thofe of the French academy are unfet s. doubtedly of ineftimable value, and will always be ap-

R E s 1 . pealed to. But there are circumftances in thofe experi- Rcfiftanee. ments which render them more complicated than is —-v—""* proper for a general theory, and which therefore limit the conclufions which we wiih to draw from them. The bodies were floating on the furface. This greatly modifies the dcfledlions of the filaments of water, cauling fome to defledl laterally, wdiich would otherwife have remained in one vertical plane ; and this circumftance alfo neceflarily produced what the academicians called the remou, or accumulation on the anterior part of the body, and deprefiion behind it. This produced an additional refiftance, wdrich wras meafured with great difficulty and uncertainty. The effedl of adhefion mull alfo have been very confiderable, and very different in the different cafes ; and it is of difficult calculation. It cannot perhaps be totally removed in any experiment, and it is neceffary to confider it as making part of the refiftance in the moft important practical cafes, viz. the motion of {hips. Here we fee that its efftfi is very great. Every feaman knows that the fpeed, even of a copper-fheathed {hip, is greatly increafed by greafing her bottom. The difference is too remarkable to admit of a doubt: nor fliould we be furprifed at this, when we attend to the diminution of the motion of water in long pipes. A fmooth pipe four and an half inches diameter, and 500 yards long, yields but one-fifth of the quantity which it ought to do independent of fridfioa. But adhefion does a great deal which cannot be compared with friftion. We fee that water flowing thro* a hole in a thin plate will be increafed in quantity fully one-third, by adding a little tube, whofe length is about twice the diameter of the hole. ‘ The adhefion therefore will greatly modify the adlion of the filaments both on the folid body and on each other, and wall change both the forms of the curves and the velocities in different points ; and this is a fort of objection to the only hypothefis introduced by d’Alembert. Yet it is only a fort of obje&ion ; for the effect of this adhefion, too, muff undoubtedly depend on the fituation of the particle. ^ The form of thefe experiments of the academy is ill-The expefuited to the examination of the refiftance of bodies r’nje.nt8 wholly immerfed in the fluid. The form of expe- ^orda^fufriment adopted by Robins for the refiftance of air, ceptihle of and afterwards by the Chevalier Borda for water, is confidefree from thefe inconveniences, and is fufceptible of ia^e accut equal accuracy. The great advantage of both is theraC** exaft knowledge which they give us of the velocity of the motion; a circumftanceeffentially neceffary, and but imperfectly known in the experiments of Mariotte and others, who examined quiefeent bodies expofed to the aCtion of a ftream. It is extremely difficult to meafure the velocity of a ftream. It is very different in its different parts. It is fwifteft of all in the middle fuperficial filament, and diminifhes as we recede from this towards the fides or bottom, and the rate of diminution is not precifely known. Could this be afeertained with the neceffary preciiion, we fliould recommend the following form of experiment as the moft fimple, eafy, eco- Plate nomical, and accurate. ccccxxxvi. Let a, b, c, d, (fig. 19.) be four hooks placed in a 66 horizontal plane at the corners of a redtangular paral-^’m^e ex* lelogram, the fides a c, b d being parallel to the direction of the ftream ABCD, and the fides a by c u being ring the perpendicular to it. Let the body G be Mened to vel,,city Pi an a ftream.

11 E . s . II 6 ] 11 E S [ Refinance an axis ey of fUff-tempered ileel-wirCj fo that the fur- ftancy of form depends on the difturbing forces being Refiflactf, * face on which the fluid is to a& may be inclined to always as the fquares of the velocity ; and this ratio of — the difturbing forces is preferved, while the inertia of the flream in the precife angle we defire. Let this the fluid is the only agent and patient in the procefs. axis have hooks at its extremities, which are hitche into the loops of four equal threads, fufpended fiom t ic But when we add to this the conftant (that is, invariahooks a, b, c, d; and let He be a fifth thread,'fufpend- ble) difturbing force of tenacity, a change of form and ed from the middle of the line joining the points of dimenfions muft happen. In like manner, the friction, fufperifion a, b. Let HIK be a graduated arch, vvhoie or fomething analogous to friftion, which produces an centre is H, and whofe plane is in the direction of the effect proportional to the velocity, muft alter this neftream. It is evident that the impulfe on the body (j ceffary ratio of the whole difturbing forces. We may will be meafured (by a procefs well known to eveiy conclude, that the effedt of both thefe circumftances mathematician) by the deviation of the thread He from will be to diminiih the quantity of this ftagnant fluid, the vertical line HI; and this will be done without any by licking it away externally ; and to this we mult intricacy of calculation, or any attention to the centres aferibe the fadt, that the part FAM is never perfedlly of gravity, of ofcillation, or of percuflion. Thefe mult ftagnant, but is generally difturbed with a whirling mobe accurately afcertained with refpeft to that form in tion. We may alfo conclude, that this ftagnant fluid which the pendulum has always been employed for will be more incurvated between F and M than it would meafuring the impulfe or velocity of a ftream. d hefe have been, independent of tenacity and fridtion ; and advantages arife from the circumftance, that the axis that the arch LR will, on the contrary, be lefs incuref remains always parallel to the horizon. * We may vated.—And, laftly, we may conclude, that there will be allowed to obferve, by the by, that this would have be fomething oppofite to preffure, or fomething which been a great improvement of the beautiful experiments we may call abjt rail ion, exerted on the pofterior part of of Mr Robins and Dr Hutton on the velocities of the body which moves in a tenacious fluid, or is expocannon-fhot, and would have faved much intricate cal- fed to the ftream of fuch a fluid ; for the ftagnant culation, and been attended with many important ad- fluid LCR adheres to the furface LC ; and the paffing fluid tends to draw it away both by its tenacity vantages. The great difficulty is, as we have obferved, to mea- and by its fridtion. This muft augment the apparent fure the velocity of the ftream. Even this may be done impulfe of the ftream on fuch a body; and it muft in this way with fome precifion. Let two floating bo- greatly augment the refiftance, that is, the motion loft dies be dragged along the furface, as in the experiments by this body in its progrefs through the tenacious fluid : of the academy, at fome diftance from each other late- for the body muft drag along with it this ftagnant fluid, rally, fo that the water between them may not be fen- and drag it in oppofition to tire tenacity and fridtion of fibly difturbed. Let a horizontal bar be attached to the furrounding fluid. The effedt of this is moft rethem, tranfverfe to the direction of their motion, at a markably feen in the refiftances to the motion of penproper height above the furface, and let a fpherical pen- dulums ; and the chevalier Buat, in his examination of dulum be fufpended from this, or let it be fufpended Newton’s experiments, clearly flrows that this conftifrom four points, as here defcribed. Now let the de- tutes the greateft part of the refiftance. This moft ingenious writer lias- paid great attention viation of this pendulum be noted in a variety of velo" to this part of the procefs of nature, and has laid the cities. This will give us the law of relation between the velocity and the deviation of the pendulum.. Now, foundation of a theory of refiftance entirely different in making experiments on the refiftance of bodies, let from all the preceding. We cannot abridge it; and it the velocity of the ftream, in the very filament in which is too imperfedt in its prefent condition to be offered as the refiftance is meafured, be determined by the devia- a body «f dodtrine : but we hope that the ingenious author will profecute the fubjedt. tion of this pendulum. It were greatly to be wifhed that fome more palpable

-L . PV, 1*1 water againft the ftern ; and it is evident that this ad 3d, Poop of the longto box So Thefe are molt valuable experiments. ^ ^ vantage0muft be fo much the greater as the body is threat utility of longer. But the advantage will foon be fufceptible of or lomrer. them in hinder part of the body. Tor the whole impulfe or ihip-build refiftance, which muft be withftood or overcome by the no very confiderable increafe : for the lateral and diing. vergent, and accelerated filaments, will foon become fo external force, is the fum of the adive preffure on the nearly parallel and equally rapid with the reft of the fore-part, and of the non-preffure on the hinder-part; flream, that a great increafe of length will not make > and they fhow that this does not depend folely on the any confiderable change in thefe particulars ; and it form of the prow and poop, but alfo, and perhaps clnet- muft be accompanied with an increafe of fri&ion. ly, on the length of the body. We fee that the nonThefe are very obvious reflexions. And if we attend preffure on the hinder-part was prodigioully diminifhed minutely to the way in which the almoft ftagnant fluid (reduced to one-fourth) by making the length of the behind the body is expended and renewed, we fhall fee body triple of the breadth. And hence it appears, that all thefe effedts confirmed and augmented. But as merely lengthening a (hip, without making any change we cannot fay any thing on this fubjeX that is prein the form either of her prow or her poop, will greatly cife, or that can be made the fubjeX of computation, diminifh the refiftance to her motion through the waneedlefs to enter into a more minute diferffipn. ter ; and this increafe of length may be made by conti- itTheis diminution of the non-preffure towards the centre nuing the form of the midfhip frame in feveral timbers alomr the keel, by which the capacity of the fhip, and moll probably arifes from the fmaller force which is neher power of carrying fail, will be greatly increafed, ceflary to be expended in the infledtion of the lateral fialready infleXed in fome degree, and having and her other qualities improved, while her fpeed is laments, their velocity diminilhed. But it is a fubjeX highly deoT augmented. . . ferving the attention of the mathematicians; and we Phyfical It is furely of importance to confider a little the prefume to invite them to the ftudy of the motions of eaufe of it phvlical caufe of this change. The motions are exe.xplaincd. tmnely complicated, and we muft be contented if we thefe lateral filaments, paffing the body, and prefled into its wake by forces which are fufceptible of no difcan but perceive a few leading circumftances. The water is turned afide by the anterior part of the ficult inveftigation. It feems highly probable, that if a prifmatic box, with a fquare ftern, were fitted with an body, and the velocity of the filaments is increafed, and addition precifely ffiaped like the water which would they acquire a divergent motion, by which they alfo (abftraXing tenacity and friXion) have been ftagnant pufh afide the furrounding water. On each fide of the behind it,"the quantity of non-preffion would be the body, therefore, they are moving in a divergent direc- fmalleft poffible. The mathematician would furely diiid with an increafed increaiea velocity. velocity, But out as ao they mv-j are 1 u r -n r ...A,'™* tion, and by* the fluid without them, _• their , cover circumitances which wouldnart lurmfti fome maxim* all fides ypreffed .. 1•r f/ir tVif* hinHer as well as for the motions gradually approach to parallelifm, and their ve- of conftruXion for the hinder part as well as for the prow. And as his fpeculations on dhis laft have not been locities to an equality with the ftream. The progrefwholly fruitlefs, we may expeX advantages from his atfive velocity, or that in the direXion of the ftream, is ^ checked, at leaft at firft. But fince we obferve the fi- tention to this part, fo much negleXed. In the mean time, let us attend to the deduXiortS ^ k laments conftipated round the body, and that they are which Mr de Buat has made from his few experiments. expen not dtfleXed at right angles to their former direXion, ^ Wheaijit^'

I2T 1 RE S RES [ Tlie non-preffures increafed in a greater ratio than the Re'iftarcet When the velocity is three feet per fecond, requiv— ring the productive height 21,5 lines, the heights cor- fquares of the velocities. The ratio of the velocities to a refponding to the non-preffure on the poop of a thin fmall velocity of 2 inches per fecond increafed geomeplane is J4,4-T lines (taking in feveral circumftances of trically, the value of q increafed arithmetically; and we judicious correction, which we have not mentioned), may deteimine q for any velocity V by this proportion that of a foot cube is 5,83, and that of a box of triple L — 1 Jiat 1S length is 3,31. L — : L ~ = 0,5 :y, ancl q — > Let q exprefs the variable ratio of thefe to the height producing the velocity, fo that q h may exprefs the non- let the common logarithm of the velocity, divided prefiure in every cafe ; we have, by 2f, be confidered as a common number ; divide For a thin plane q — 0,67 this common number by 2 T^, the quotient is y, which a cube 0,271 mult be multiplied by the productive height. The proa box =r 3 cubes o^fS duct is the preffure. It is evident that the value of q has a dependence on When Pitot’s tube was expofed to the ftream, we the proportion of the length, and the tranfverfe feCtion had w? — 1 ; but when it is carried through ftill water, of the body. A feries of experiments on prifmfltic bo- m ~ 1,22. When it was turned from the ftream, dies fhowed Mr de Boat that the deviation of the fila- we had q —0,151 \ but when carried through ftill ments was fimilar in fimilar bodies, and that this ob- water, y is =0,138. A remarkable experiment. 84 tained even in difiimilar prifms, when the lengths were When the tube was moved laterally through the wafup. r r s as the fquare-roots of the tranfverfe feCtions. Although ter, fo that the motion was in the direction of the plane "’ ' ^ therefore the experiments were not fufficiently nume- of its mouth, the non-preffure was 1= 1. This is one^™khy rous for deducing the precife law, it feemed not impof- of his chief arguments for his theoiy of non-preffion. able expefible to derive from them a very ufeful approximation. He does not give the detail of the experiment, anddmeut. By a dexterous comparifon he found, that if / expreflfes only inferts the refult in his table. the length of the prifm, and s the area of the tranfverfe As a body expofed to a ftream deflefts the fluid, feCtion, and L expreffes the common logarithm of the heaps it up, and increafes its velocity; fo a body moved quantity to which it is prefixed, we fhall exprefs the through a ftill fluid turns it aflde, caufes it to fvvell up non-preffure pretty accurately by the formula = before it, and gives it a real motion alongfide of it in the oppofite direction. And as the body expofed to a L(,4^7). ftream has a quantity of fluid almoft ftagnant both beHence arifes an important remark, that when the fore and behind; fo a body moved through a ftill fluid height correfponding to the non-preffion is greater than carries before it and drags after it a quantity of fluid, and the body is little immerfed in the fluid, there which accompanies it with nearly an equal velocity. will be a void behind it. Thus a furface of a fquare Plus addition to the quantity of matter in motion muft inch, juft immerfed in a current of three feet per fe- make a diminution of its velocity ; and this forms a very ' S-cond, will have a void behind it. A foot fquare will confiderable part of the obferved refiftance. We cannot, however, help remarking that it would He .>bjoc We muft be careful to diftinguifh this non-preflure require very diftind and ftrong proof indeed to over- , from the other caufes of reliftance, which are always turn the common opinion, which is founded on our moft "d. neceffarily combined with it. It is fuperadditive to certain and fimple conceptions of motion, and on a law the aCtive imprefiion on the prow, to the ftatical pref- of nature to which we have never obferved an excepfure of the accumulation a-head of the body, the ftatical tion. Mr de Buat’s experiments, tho’ moft judicioufly preflure arifing from the depreflion behind it, the effeCts contrived, and executed with fcrupulous care, are by no of friCtion, and the effeCts of tenacity. It is indeed means of this kind. T[ hey were, of abfolute neceffity, next to impofiible to eftimate them feparately, and many very complicated; and many circumftances, impoffible to of them are actually combined in the meafures now gi- avoid or to appreciate, rendered the obfervation, or ven. Nothing can detennine the pure non-preflures at leaft the comparifon, of the velocities, very uncertain. ^ We can fee but two circumftances which do not ad-Remarks till we can afeertain the motions of the filaments, mit of an eafy or immediate comparifon in the two n^nTon itro-' univerfally ^ Buat here maxim, takes occafion to controvert the itates of the problem. When a body is expofed to a the motion adopted that the preffure occafioned uni-by a ftream of fluid _ on a fixed body is the fame with ftream in our experiments, in order to have an impulfeof bodies ' that on a body moving with equal velocity in a qui- made on it, there is a force tending to move the bodyin runn,n» Wa “ ’ efcent He repeated all thefe experiments with backwards, independent of the real impulfe or preffure the perforated box in ftill water. The general diftinc- occafioned by the defle&ion of the ftrean>. We cannot * ’ tion vvas, that both the preflures and the non-prefiure have a ftream except in confcquence of a floping furm this cafe was lefs, and that the odds was chiefly to fact. Suppofe a body floating on this ftteam. It be obferved near the edges of the furface. The gene- will not only fail down along with the Jlrecim, but it ral faCtor of the preffure of a ftream on the anterior fur- will fad down thejlream, and will therefore go fafter face was m~ 1,186; but that on a body movintr along the canal than the ftream does: for it is floating through a ftill fluid is only m- 1. He obferved no on an inclined plane ; and if we examine it by the laws non-preffure even at the very edge of the prow, but of hydroftatics, we fhall find, that befides its own tenm en a leniible preffure. The preffure, therefote, or re- dency to/hk down this inclined plane, there is an odds 1 dance,18 more. equably diffufed over the furface of the of hydroftatical preffure, which pujhes it down this prow than the impulfe is.—He alfo found that the re- plane. It will therefore go along the canal fafter than iiitanees dimimfhed in a lefs ratio than the fquares of the ftream. For this acceleration depends on the diffethe velocities, efpecially in fmall velocities. unce of preffure at the two ends, and will be more reVol.XVI. Parti. markable ice.

RES RES t 12 * 1 body which is carried along thro’- dill water, or whichRefifhn«, RefiAancr. markable as the body is larger, and efpecially as it is f_i f -T' jonger> This may be diftinftly obferved. All floating to- remains nearly ftagnant in the midd of a ftream. He ”*v^ the fum of the motions in the diredion of the dies go into the ftream of the river, becauie there they’ takes ftream, viz. the fum of the adual motions of all thofe find the fin ailed obdruaion to the acquifition of this particles which have loft part of their motion, and he motion along the inclined plane; and when a number divides this fum by the general velocity of the ftream. of bodies are thus floating down the dream, the large and longed outdrip the red. A log of wood floating The quotient is equivalent to a certain quantity of wadown in this manner may be obferved to make its way ter perfedly ftagnant round the body. Without being very fad among the chips and faw-dud which float a- able to determine this with precifion, he obferves, that it augments as the refiftance diminifhes ; for in the cafe longfide of it. , , Now when, in the courfe of our experiments, a body of a longer body, the filaments are obferved to converge to a greater diftance behind the body. The is fupported againd the action of a (Iream, and the im- ftagnant mafs a-head of the body is more conftant; for pulfe is mehfured by the force employed to fupport it, the defledton and refiftance at the prow are obferved it is plain that part of this force is employed to act not to be affeded by the length of the body. Mr Buat, jnrain't that tendency which the body has to outdrip the dream. This does not appear in cur experiment, by a very nice analyfis of many circum (lances, comes when we move a body with the velocity of this tlream to this conclufion, that the whole quantity of fluid, which in this manner accompanies the folid body,, rethrough dill water having a horizontal fuiface. The other diitinguithing circum(lance is, that the re- mains the fame whatever is the velocity. He might tardations of a ftream arifmg from friction are found have deduced it at once, from the conlideration that the curves deferibed by the filaments are the fame in all veto be nearly as the velocities. When, therefore, a locities. fi ream moving' in a limited canal is checked by a body He then relates a number of experiments made to f put in its way, the diminution of velocity occaiioned by the friftion of the dream having already produced its ef- certain the abfolute quantity thus made to accompany body. Thefe were made by caufing pendulums to feft, the impulfe is not affeded by it; but when the the body puts the dill water in motion,,the fridion of the ofcillate in fluids. Newton had determined the rebottom produces fome effed, by retarding the recefs finances to fuch ofcillation by the diminution of the of the water. This, however, mud be next to no- arches of vibration. Mr Buat determines the quantity thing. . , • in. of dragged fluid by the increafe of their duration ; for The chief difference will arife from its being almott this ftagnation or dragging is in fa ^ was above 50 or 60 times. But m a It was found, that with refped to thin planes, fpheres, fluid fenfibly comprefiible, or which is not and pyramidal bodies of equal bafes, the refiftances were confined, a void may be left behind the body. Its moinverfely as the quantities of fluid dragged along. ti011 may be fo fwift that the furrounding preflure may The intelligent reader will readily obferve, that thefe noit fuffice for filling up the deferted ip ace ; and, in views of the Chevalier Buat are not fo much difeoveries cafe, a ftatical preffure will be added to the reliftance. of new principles as they are claffifications of confe- ri'b|s may be the cafe in a veflel or pond of w^ater r quences,w hich may all be deduced from the general prin- having an open furface expofed to the finite or limited ciples employed by D’Alembert and other mathemati- preffure of the atmofphere. . The queftion now is, whecians. But they greatly affift us in forming notions of tlier the reiiffance will be increafed by an increafe of different parts of the procedure of nature in the mutual external preffure ? Suppofing a fphere moving near the aft ion of fluids and folids on each other. This muff be furface of water, and another moving equally faff at very acceptable in a fubjeft which it is by no means f°ur times the depth. If the motion be fo fwift that a probable that we (hall be able to inveftigate with ma- v°id is formed in both cafes, there is no doubt but that thematical precifion. We have given an account of tbc fphere which moves at the greateft depth is molt thefe laft obfervations, that we may omit nothing of refilled by the preffure of the water. If there is no confequence that has been written on the fubjefl j and void in either cafe, then, becaufe the quadruple depth, we take this opportunity of recommending the Hydrau- would caufe the water to flow in with only a double veliqut of Mr Buat as a moll ingenious work, containing locity, it would feem that the refillance would be more original, ingenious, and pra&ically ufeful thoughts, greater ; and indeed ±he water flowing in laterally with than all the performances we have met with. His doc- a double velocity produces a quadruple non-preflure.— trine of the principle of uniform motion oj fluids in pipes But, on the other hand, the preffure at a fmall depth and open canals, will be of immenfe fervice to all engi- may be infuflicient for preventing a void, while that neers, and enable them to determine with fufficient pre- below effectually prevents it; and this was obferved in cifion the mofl important quellions in their profeffion ; fome experiments of Chevalier de Borda. The effeft, quellions which at prefent they are hardly able to guefs therefore, of greater immerfion, or of greater comprefat. See Rivers and Water Works. lion, in an elaitic fluid, does not follow a precife ratio . 0f The only circumltance which we have not noticed in of the preffure, but depends partly on abfolute quantice detail, is the change of refillance produced by the void, ties. It cannot, therefore, be Hated by any very limpte e d. or tendency to a void, which obtains behind the body ; formula wliat increafe or diminution of refiHance will ^0R and we omitted a particular dilcuflion, merely becaufe refuk from a greater depth ; and it is chiefly on this we could fay nothing iufliciently precife on the fubject. account that experiments made with models of Ihips and Perfons not accullomed to the diicufiions in the phylico- mills are not conclulive with rclpetl to the performance mathematical iciences, are apt to entertain doubts or of a large machine of the iame proportions, without corfalfe notions connedled wfith this circumllance, which redfions, fometimes pretty intricate. We affert, howwe Hi all attempt to remove ; and with this we lhall con- ever, with great confidence, that this is of all methods elude this long and uniatisfadlory difl'ertation. the moll exadl, and infinitely more 'certain than any icd. If a fluid were perfectly incomprefiible, and were . thing that can be deduced from the moll elaborate calcontained in a veffei incapable of extenfion, it is im- culation from theory. If the refinances at all depths be poflible that any void could be formed behind the body; equal, the proportionality of the total reiillance to the and in this cafe it is not very eafy to fee how' motion body is exadt, and perfedlly Conformable to obfervation. could be performed in it. A fphere moved in fuch a ' It is only in great velocities where the depth has any medium could not advance the Imallell dillance, unlefs material influence, and the influence is not near fo confome particles -of the fluid, in hhing up the fpace left fiderable as we lluiuld, at firil fight, fuppofe ; for, in by ft, moved wfith a velocity next to 'infinite. Some eilimating the effedt ol immerfion, which has a relation Q2 to>

RES RES r 124 3 Rffiftence to the cKfFerence of prefTure, we muft alwnys take in equation Three points will do it with fdme approachRefi(Him v— the preffure of the atjnofphere ; and thus the preilure to precifion ; but four, at leaft, are neceffary for giving — at 3 ^ feet deep is not 33 times the prefiure at one foot any notion of its nature. D’Ulloa has only given two deep, but only double, or twice as great. I he atmo- experiments, which we mentioned in another place. We may here obferve, that it is this circumitance fpheric predate is omitted only when the refilled plane which immediately produces the great refiflance to the is at the very furface. D’Ulloa, in his Examino Maritime, has introduced an equation exprefling this rela- .motion of a body through a fluid in a narrow canal.— tion ; but, except with very limited conditions, it will The fluid cannot pafs the body, unlefs the area of tire miflead us prodigiouffy. To give a general notion of feftion be fufficiently extenlive. A narrow canal pre-. its foundation, let AB (fig. 23.) be the feftion of a vents the extenfion fidewife. The water mull therefore plane moving through a fluid in the diredlion CD, with heap up till the feftion and velocity of diffufion arc a known velocity. The fluid will be heaped up before fufficiently enlarged, and thus a great backward preffure it above its natural level CD,becaufe the water will not is produced. (See the fecond feries of Experiments by be pufhtd before it like a folid body, but will be pufh- the French Academicians; fee alfo Franklin’s Efiays.)ed alide. And it cannot acquire a lateral motion any It is important, and w ill be confidered in another place. other way than by an accumulation, which will diffule T*hus have we attempted to give our readers fome acitfelf in all directions by the law of undulatory mocount of one of the moll interefting problems in the tion. The water will alfo be left lower behind the plane, becaufe time muji elapfe before the prefiure of whole of mechanical philofophy. We are forry that fo the water behind can make it nil the fpace. \'Ve may little advantage can be derived from the united efforts acquire fome notion of the extent of both the accumu- of the firll mathematicians of Europe, and that there our feientific dep lation and deprefikm in this way. There is .a certain is fo little hope of greatly improving 1 knowledge of the fubjecl. What wre have delivered will, = •u depth CF ( ~ where v -is the velocity, and ? the however, enable our readers to perufe the waitings of accelerating power of gravity) under the furface, fuch thofe wffio have applied the theories to pra&ical purthat water would flow through a hole at F with the ve- pofes. Such, for inftance, are the treatifes of Johnfmp‘|feof locity of the plane’s motion. Draw' a horizontal line EG. Bernoulli, of Bouguer, and of Euler, on the conltruc-watercs water The v/ater will certainly touch the plane in G, and w'e tion and working of ffiips, and the occafional differta- 1111118, tions of different authors on water-mills. In tlus laft may fuppofe that it touches it no higher up. '1 herefore there w'ill be a hollow, fuch as CGE. The elevation application the ordinary theory is not without its vaHE will be regulated by confiderations nearly fimilar. lue, for the impulfes are nearly perpendicular ; in which ED muft be equal to the velocity of the plane, and HE cafe they do not materially deviate from the duplicate mull be its productive height. Thus, if the velocity proportion of the fine of incidence. But even here thisof the plane be one foot per fecond, HE and EG will theory, applied as it commonly is, miileads us exceedbe A-s- of an inch. This is fufficient (though not exadl) ingly. The impulfe on one float may be accurately for giving us a notion of the thing. We lee that from enough ftated by it; but the authors have not been atthis muft arife a preffure in the dire&ion DC, viz. the tentive to the motion of the water after it has made itsimpulfe; and the impulfe on the next float is ftated the preffure of the whole column HG. Something of the fame kind will happen although fame as if the parallel filaments of water, wffich.were the plane AB be wholly immerged, and this even to not Hopped by the preceding float, did impinge on the fome dey‘3 We fee fuch elevations in a fwift running oppofite part of the fecond, in the fame manner, and ftream, :.iie there are large {tones at the bottom.— with the fame obliquity and energy, as if it were deThis oecafions an excefs of preffure in the direction op- tached from the reft. But this does not in the leaft repofite to the plane’s motion ; and w'e fee that there femble the real procefs of nature. Suppofe the floats B, C, D, H (fig. 24.) of a wheel muft, in every cafe, be a relation between the velocity and this excefs of preffure. This D’Ulloa exprefles by immerfed in a ftream whole furface moves in the direcan equation. But it is very exceptionable, not taking tion A K, and that this fnrface meets the float B in E, properly-into the account the comparative facility with The part BE alone is fuppofedto be impelled-; whereas which the water can heap up and diffufe itfelf. It muft the water, checked by the float, heaps up on it to e.—• always heap up till it acquires a fufficient head of water Then drawing the horizontal line BF, the part CF of to produce a lateral and progreflive diffufion fufficient the next float is fuppofed to be all that is impelled by for the purpofe. It is evident, that a imaller elevation the parallel filaments of the ftream; whereas the water will fuffice when the body is more immerfed, becaufe bends round the lower edge of the float B by the furthe check or impulfe given by the body below is propa- rounding preffure, and rifes on the float c all the way gated, not vertically only, bat in every diredlion ; and to f. In like manner, the float D, inllead of receiving therefore the elevation is not confined to that part of an impulfe on the very fmall portion DG, is impelled all the furfaee which is immediately above tin* moving body, tire way from D to g, not much below the iurface of but extends fo much farther laterally as the centre of the llream. The furfaces impelled at once, therefore, agitation is deeper : Thus, the elevation neceffary for greatly exceed what this flovenly application of the the pafiVge of the body is fo much fmaller; and it Is theory fuppofes, and the w'hole impulfe is much greater; the height only of this accumulation or wave which de- but this is a fault in the application, and not in the termines the backward preflure on the body. D’Ulloa’s theory. It will not be a very difficult thing to acquire equation may happen to quadrate with two experiments a knowledge of the motion of the water which has at different depths, without being nearly juft ; for any palled the preceding float, which, though not accurate, two points, may be in a curve, without exhibiting its will yet approximate couiiderably to the truth; and i then

RES[ I2C 3 RES picine, n° 104. Physiology, Se