Encyclopaedia Britannica [16, 14R ed.]

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THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

TJoe is published

Encyclopedia Britannka

with the editorial advice of the faculties

of The University of Chicago

and of a

committee of members of the faculties of Oxford, Cambridge

and London

universities

and of a

committee

at The University of Toronto

KNOWLEDGE GROW FROM MORE TO MORE AND THUS BE HUMAN LIFE ENRICHED."

"LET

A New Survey of Universal Knowledge

ENCYCLOPiEDIA BRITANNICA Volume Napoleon

I to

16

Ozonolysis

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, INC. WILLIAM BENTON, PUBLISHER

CHICAGO LONDON TORONTO •

•

•

GENEVA SYDNEY TOKYO •

•

1966 BY Encyclop.«dia Britannica, Inc.

Copyright under International Copyright Union All Rights Reserved under Pan American and Universal Copyright

Conventions by Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. printed in the

u.

Library of Congress Catalog Card

s.

a.

Number: 66-1017}

A.D. 1768

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA Volume 16

Napoleon

N

I

ro

APOLEON

I (1769-1821), emperor of the French from 1804 to 1814 and again for "the Hundred Days" in 181S, was born at Ajaccio in Corsica on Aug. IS, 1769, one year and three months after the cession of Corsica to France by and the second to survive the Genoese. He was the fourth child infancy of Carlo Buonaparte and his wife Letizia Ramolino {see Bonaparte). His father's family was of ancient nobility. Tuscan in origin, it had emigrated to Corsica in the 16th century; Na-

—

—

last years scoffed at the genealogy that flatand courtiers had concocted to make him descend from the 12th-century Buonapartes of Treviso and Bologna, whose line was

poleon himself in his terers

extinct.

In any case. Carlo Buonaparte was one of the delegates

sent to Paris by the Corsican nobility.

A

lawyer by profession, Carlo Buonaparte had ma'rried the beautiful and strong-willed Letizia Ramolino when she was only 14 years old; and they eventually had eight children to bring up in very difficult times. The French occupation of Corsica was resisted by a number of the inhabitants, led by Pasquale Paoli, and Carlo Buonaparte joined Paoli's party, taking his wife and family away with him lest the French should seize them as hostages. When Paoh had to flee, however. Carlo Buonaparte came to terms Winning the protection of the governor of with the French. Corsica, he was appointed assessor for the judicial district of Ajaccio in 1771. In 1778, moreover, through the influence of the governor's brother, he obtained the admission of his two eldest sons, Joseph and Napoleon, to the College d'Autun, to which he took them in Dec. 1778. These events serve partly to explain Napoleon's character. A Corsican by birth, heredity and childhood associations, he continued for some time after his arrival in "continental" France to regard himself a foreigner; yet from the age of nine he was educated in France as other Frenchmen were, according to French methods and ideas. While Stendhal's tendency to account for Napoleon entirely in terms of his Tuscan and Corsican origins and to see in him a reincarnation of some 14th-century Italian condottiere is an overemphasis on one aspect of his character, it must be remembered that Napoleon shared neither the traditions nor prejudices of his new country: remaining a Corsican in temperament, he was first and foremost, through the education he re-

Ozonolysis

ceived and the books that he read, a man of the 18th century. Napoleon received his education at three schools at Autun, where he stayed only three months; at the military college of Brienne, where he attended for five years; and finally at the military academy in Paris, where his studies lasted only one year. It was during Napoleon's year in Paris that his father died at Montpellier where he had gone for treatment of a stomach cancer :

—

on Feb. 24, 178S, leaving his family in straitened circumstances. Napoleon, although not the eldest son, wanted to do all that he could to help his mother, and at the age of 16 he was acting as the head of the family. On Sept. 1, 1785, he completed his studies at the military academy in Paris, where he ranked 42nd in a class of 51. He was made second lieutenant of artillery in the regiment of

La Fere, then garrisoned at Valence. The regiment of La Fere was a kind of

training school for young Napoleon continued his education there, reading much, in particular the fashionable works on strategy and tactics by such writers as the comte J. A. H. de Guibert. He also wrote his own Lettres sur la Corse, in which he reveals his feeling for his native island. He went back to Corsica in Sept. 1786 and did not rejoin his regiment, then in barracks at Auxerre, until June IS, 1788. By that time the agitation that was to culminate in the French Revolution had already. begun. A reader of Voltaire and of Rousseau, Napoleon believed that a political change was indispensable but he seems not to have seen any need for radical social reforms, as his environment would not have brought him into conartillery officers.

;

tact with the labouring population.

THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD,

1789-99

1789 the Constituent Assembly (see France: History; French Revolution) allowed Paoli to return to Corsica. As soon as Napoleon learned of this, he asked for leave to join him and obtained it in September. He joined Paoh's group with enthusiasm, but Paoli had no sympathy for the young man, whom he considered to be a "foreigner." Disappointed, Napoleon returned to France in Feb. 1791. On April 1 he was appointed first lieutenant to the 4th regiment of artillery, garrisoned at Valence. He at once joined the Jacobin club there and soon became its president, making speeches against nobles, monks and bishops. On Sept. 2, 1791, he got leave to go back to Corsica again for three In

NAPOLEON

I

Convention's troops under J. F. Carteaux (a former painter) had taken Marseilles but were halted before Toulon, where the royali.-its had called in British forces. As the commander of the Convention's artillery had been wounded, the commissioner to the army, A. C. Saiiceti, a Corsican deputy and a friend of Napoleon's family, got the post for Bonaparte (Sept. 17) and Bonaparte was promoted chej de bataillon on Sept. 29 and adjutant general, head of brigade, on Oct. 7. His relations with Carteaux were not cordial, but he was soon on better terms with Carteaux's successors, A. Doppet and, in particular, J. F. Dugommier, who took command of the army on Nov. 16. Thenceforward Bonaparte could take active charge of the bombardment of the British positions. He received a bayonet wound on Dec. 16. On Dec. 17 the British troops, harassed by Bonaparte's artillery, evacuated Toulon; on Dec. 19 the French entered the town; and on Dec. 21 Bonaparte ;

was promoted brigadier general

in recognition of his decisive part

in the capture of the town.

•NAPOLEON

I.

EMPEROR OF THE FRENCH,

ENGRAVING BY SOULANGE TEISIN THE MUSEE DE LA

SIER FROM THE PAINTING BY JACQUES LOUIS DAVID. MALMAISON. NEAR PARIS

months. He was elected lieutenant colonel in the national guard, but he fell out completely with Paoli, its commander in chief. Corsican political quarrels made him forget the date when his leave expired, and on Jan. 1, 1792, he was listed as a deserter. In April France declared war against Austria {see French Revolutionary Wars) and his offense was forgiven. Going to Paris in May, Napoleon was an indignant witness of the attack on the royal palace of the Tuileries on June 20. He also saw the insurrection of Aug. 10, but attributed its success to Louis XVI's incompetence. Napoleon was promoted to the rank of captain but did not rejoin his regiment, returning instead to Corsica on Oct. 10, 1792, on the pretext of escorting his sister 6lisa home. Paoli was now exercising dictatorial powers on the island and preparing to separate Corsica from France. Napoleon joined the Corsican Jacobins who opposed this policy he wanted Corsica to be involved with France in the coming struggle. On Feb. 2i, 1793, he occupied the little island of San Stefano, belonging to the kingdom of SardiniaPiedmont (at war with France since September). Paoli ordered the evacuation of this island, but the Convention in Paris decided on the arrest of Paoli, and civil war broke out in Corsica (April 1793). Paoli had the Buonaparte family condemned to "perpetual execration and infamy," whereupon they all fled to France (June). Toulon (1793). Napoleon Bonaparte, as he may henceforth be called (though the family did not drop the speUing Buonaparte till after 1796), rejoined his regiment at Nice. He was given the task of collecting suppUes of munitions in the Rhone valley for the army of Italy. During this mission he witnessed the struggles at Marseilles and at Avignon between the Jacobin supporters of the Convention and the "federalists" who, with royalist backing, were against it. In his Souper de Beaucaire, written at this time, he argued vigorously for united action by all republicans rallied round the Jacobins and the Convention. At the end of Aug. 1793 the :

—

Augustin Robespierre, the commissioner to the army, wrote to his brother Maximilien praising the "transcendent merit" of the young repubhcan officer. On Feb. 7, 1794, Bonaparte was appointed commandant of the artillery in the army of Italy. He took part in the operations round Nice. The Thermidorian Interval (1794-95) Robespierre fell from power in Paris on 9 Thermidor {i.e., July 27, 1794). When the news reached Nice, the representants en mission to the army, regarding Bonaparte as a protege of Robespierre's, had him arrested on a charge of conspiracy and treason (Aug. 6). He was freed on Sept. 14 but was not restored to his command. In March 1795 he was offered the command of the artillery in the army of the West, but he refused this post, which seemed to hold no future for him, and went to Paris to justify himself. Life was difficult for him on half pay, though he was carrying on an affair with Desiree Clary, daughter of a rich Marseilles businessman and sister of the Juhe Clar>' who had just married his elder brother Joseph. Yet he was unable to obtain a satisfactory command, as he was feared for his intense ambition and for his relations with the "Montagnards" (the more radical members of the Convention). He then considered offering his services to Turkey. The Coup of Vendemiaire. Bonaparte was still in Paris in 1795 when the Convention, on the eve of its dispersal, submitted the new Constitution of the Year III to a referendum, together with decrees according to which two-thirds of the members of the Convention were to be re-elected to the new legislative assemblies. The royaHsts, hoping that they would soon be able to restore the monarchy, rose in revolt to prevent these measures from being put into effect. Barras, entrusted vnth full powers by the Convention, was unwilling to rely on the existing commander of the troops of the interior. Gen. J. F. de Menou, a weak man suspected of dealHe therefore had Bonaparte appointed ings with the royalists. second-in-command, as he knew of his ser\nces at Toulon and of

—

his present lack of

who

employment

in Paris.

Thus

it

was Napoleon

directed the defense, positioned the artiller>' and shot

the columns of rebels

who were marching

against the

down

Conven-

Year IV; Oct. 5, 1795). Having saved the Convention and the republic, he was derisively called "General Vendemiaire" by his opponents. After the rising of Vendemiaire, Bonaparte kept his place as commander of the army of the interior. Consequently he was henceforth aware of every pohtical development in France. He also became the respected adviser on military matters to the new government, the Directory. Lastly, he came to know an attractive Creole, Josephine Tascher de La Pagerie, the widow of Gen. Alexandre de Beauharnais (guillotined during the Terror), the mother of two children and a woman of many love affairs. The Italian Campaign of 1796-97. From every point of view, a new life was opening for Bonaparte. He began to observe the activities of the left-wing group directed by Franqois Babeuf and by an Italian whom he had known in Corsica, P. M. BuonarThis group, which met at the Pantheon, wanted a new revoroti. lution to install a communist regime. On the instructions of the Directory, Bonaparte closed the Pantheon club (Feb. 28, 1796). Having thus proved his loyalty to the regime, he was appointed tion (13 Vendemiaire,

—

commander

in chief of the

army

of Italy

(March

2), a post that

NAPOLEON he had been soliciting for several weeks so that he could personally conduct part of the plan of campaign adopted by the Directory on his advice. He married Josephine on March 9 and left for the army two days later. Arriving at his headquarters at Savona, Bonaparte found that his army, which on paper consisted of 43,000 men, in fact numbered scarcely 30,000 men available for service; and even these were ill-fed, ill-paid, ill-equipped and ill-shod. On March 28, 1796, he made his first proclamation to his troops: "Soldiers, you Rich provinces and great towns will are naked, badly fed. be in your power, and in them you will find honour, glory, wealth. will Soldiers of Italy, you be wanting in courage and steadfastness?" He took the offensive on April 12 and, after the victories of Montenotte, Dego, Millesimo and Mondovi, defeated successively the Austrian and the Sardinian armies, separated them and marched on Turin. King Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia asked for an armistice, which was signed at Cherasco on April 28 and converted into a peace treaty in Paris on May 15 Nice and Savoy, which had been occupied by the French since 1792, were annexed to France. Bonaparte went on against the Austrians and occupied Milan, but was held up at Mantua. While his army was besieging this great fortress, he signed armistices with Ferdinand, duke of Parma, on May 9, with Ercole III, duke of Modena, on May 17, and finally with Pope Pius VI on June 23. At the same time Bonaparte took an interest in the political organization of Italy. A plan for the "republicanization" of Italy by a group of Italian "patriots" led by Buonarroti had to be shelved when Buonarroti was arrested for compHcity in Babeuf's conspiracy against the Directory. Thereafter Napoleon, without .

.

.

:

discarding the Italian "patriots" altogether, restricted their freeof action. He set up a republican regime in Lombardy, but

dom

kept a close watch on

its

leaders;

and

in Oct. 1796 he created the

Cispadane republic by merging Modena and Reggio nell'Emilia with the papal states occupied by the French army (that is to say, Bologna and Ferrara). Finally he sent an expedition from Livorno to recover Corsica, which the British had evacuated. Austrian armies advanced four times from the Alps to relieve Mantua. Each time Napoleon defeated them not always without risk to his own army. After the last Austrian defeat, at Rivoli (Jan. 14, 1797), Mantua capitulated. Bonaparte then forced the pope to sign peace at Tolentino (Feb. 19). Next, at the head of all his forces, he marched on Vienna. He was about 60 mi. from that capital when the Austrians sued for an armistice. By the preliminaries of peace, signed at Leoben on April 18, Austria ceded the southern Netherlands to France and recognized the Lombard republic, but received in exchange some territory that had belonged to the old republic of Venice, which was partitioned between Austria, France and Lombardy. In the six months preceding the final conclusion of peace Napoleon concerned himself mainly with political problems. The Lombard and Cispadane republics, with the Valtellina and some of the formerly Venetian territory, were united to form the Cisalpine republic; the republic of Genoa was reorganized on democratic principles as the Ligurian repubhc and Jacobin propaganda was encouraged in Venetia. Some Italian patriots hoped that these developments would soon lead to the formation of a single and indivisible "Italian republic," modeled on

—

;

the French.

The Coup

of Fructidor

—

and Campo Formio. Meanwhile in France. He was uneasy

Bonaparte was also watching events

at the successes of the royalists in the elections in the spring of

1797 and advised the Directory to oppose them, if necessary, by When an attempted coup d'etat by the Directory against

force.

the royalists failed (July 1797), Bonaparte made his army vote "addresses" hostile to the royalists and sent Pierre Augereau, one

men "on Augereau's successful coup d'etat of 18 Fructidor (Sept. 4, 1797) eliminated the royalists' friends from the government and from the legislative councils and enhanced Bonaparte's prestige. Thus Bonaparte could conclude the peace treaty of Campo Formio with Austria as he thought best (Oct. 17). The Directory was displeased by this treaty because it ceded Venice to the Austrians and did not secure the left bank of the Rhine for France; but it of his generals, to Paris, together with several officers and leave."

I

raised Bonaparte's popularity to its peak, as he

on the continent after

five years of war.

had restored peace

—

The Egyptian Campaign (1798-99) The war at sea, against The directors, who wanted to launch an .

the British, continued.

invasion of the British Isles, naturally appointed Bonaparte to command the army assembled for this purpose along the Channel.

After a rapid inspection (Feb. 1798) he announced that the operation could not be undertaken until France had command of the sea. Instead he suggested that France should strike at the sources of Great Britain's wealth by occupying Egypt and threatening the route to India. This proposal, seconded by Talleyrand, the min-

was accepted by the directors, who were young general. The expedition, thanks to some fortunate coincidences, was at

ister for foreign affairs,

glad to get rid of their ambitious

a great success; Malta, the great fortress of the Knights Hospitalers of St. John of Jerusalem, was occupied on June 10, 1798, Alexandria taken by storm on July 1, and all the delta of the Nile rapidly overrun. On Aug. 1 however, the French squadron at anchor in Aboukir bay was completely destroyed by Adm. Horatio Nelson's fleet in the battle of the Nile, so that Napoleon first

,

found himself confined to the land that he had conquered. He proceeded to establish western political institutions, administration and technical skills in Egypt; but Turkey, nominally suzerain over Egypt, declared war on France in September. To prevent a Turkish invasion of Egypt and also perhaps to attempt a return to France by way of Anatolia, Bonaparte marched into Syria (PalesHis progress northwest was halted at Acre, tine) in Feb. 1799. where the British admiral Sir William Sidney Smith and the French emigre A. Le Picard de Phelippeaux (who had been at Brienne with Napoleon) withstood a siege. In May 1799 Bonaparte began a disastrous retreat to Egypt.

—

The Coup of Brumaire. The battle of the Nile showed to Europe that Bonaparte was not invincible, and Great Britain, Austria, Russia and Turkey formed a new coaUtion against France. The French armies in Italy were defeated in the spring of 1799 and had to abandon the greater part of the peninsula. These defeats led to disturbances in France itself. The cotip d'etat of 30 Prairial (June 18, 1799) expelled the men of moderate views from the Directory and brought into it men who were considered

Yet the situation remained confused, and one of the Emmanuel Sieyes, was convinced that only military

Jacobins.

new

directors,

dictatorship could prevent a restoration of the monarchy: "I am In the hope of demoralizing the looking for a sabre," he said.

Egypt, Admiral Smith had the newspapers recordThe latter did not take long to make up his mind he would leave his army and return to France in order to save the republic, of course, but also to take advantage of the new circumstances and to seize power. The Directory had in fact ordered his return, but he had not received

French army

in

ing these events passed to Bonaparte. :

—

it was actually in disregard of his instructions Egypt with a few companions on Aug. 22, 1799. Their two frigates tacked along the African coast and miraculously escaped interception by the British. Bonaparte landed at Frejus on Oct. 9 and was in Paris on Oct. 14. By this time Andre Massena's victories in Switzerland and Guillaume Brune's in Holland (Sept.-Oct. 1799) had averted the danger of invasion, and the counterrevolutionary risings within France had more or less failed. A coup d'etat could therefore no longer be justified by the need to save the repubhc. Sieyes, however, had not given up his projects, and now he had his "sabre." From the end of October he and Bonaparte were in league together planning the coup d'etat, and on 18-19 Brumaire, Year VIII (Nov. 9-10, 1 799) it was carried out the directors were forced to resign, the members of the legislative councils were dispersed, and a new government, the consulate, was set up. The three consuls were Bonaparte and two of the directors who had resigned, Sieyes and Roger-Ducos. Henceforth Bonaparte was the master of France.

the order, so that that he left

:

,

THE CONSULATE, cut close

—

Not much

now 30

1799-1804

years old, was thin, short and wore his hair the petit tondu, or "little crop-head," as he was called. was known about his personality, but people had con-

Bonaparte,

NAPOLEON fidence in a man who had always been victorious (the Nile and Acre were forgotten) and who had managed in 1797 to negotiate He was expected to bring peace back, to end a brilliant treaty. disorder and to consolidate the political and social "conquests" of the Revolution. He was indeed exceptionally intelligent, prompt to make decisions and indefatigably hardworking, but also insatiably ambitious, always pursuing greater and greater enterprises. He seemed to be the man of the Revolution because it was thanks to the Revolution that he had climbed, at so early an age, to the highest place in ihe state. He was not to forget it: but more than a man of the Revolution he was a man of the 18th century, the most enlightened of the enlightened despots, a true son of Voltaire. He did not believe in the sovereignty of the people, in the popular Yet he put his confidence more will, or in parliamentary debate. in reasoning than in reason and may be said to have preferred "men of talent''^ mathematicians, jurists and statesmen, for into "technistance, however cynical or mercenary they might be He believed that an encians" in the true sense of the word. lightened and firm will could do anything if it had the support of bayonets; he despised and feared the masses; and, as for public opinion, he considered that he could mould and direct it as he pleased. He has been called the most "civilian" of generals, but essentially he never ceased to be a soldier; clothes and titles could make no difference. The Constitution of the Year VIII. Bonaparte imposed a military dictatorship on France, but its true character was at first disguised by the Constitution of the Year VIII (4 Nivose; Dec. This constitution did not guar25, 1799), drawn up by Sieyes. antee the "rights of man" or make any mention of "liberty, equality and fraternity," but it did reassure the partisans of the Revolution by proclaiming the irrevocability of the sale of national property and by upholding the legislation against the Emigres. It gave immense powers to the first consul, leaving only a nominal role to his two colleagues. The first consul, namely Bonaparte, was to appoint ministers, generals, civil servants, magistrates and the members of the conseil d'etat and even had an overwhelming influence in the choice of members for the three legislative assemblies, the senate, the corps Ugislatij and the tribunate, though these members were theoretically to be chosen by universal suffrage. Submitted to a plebiscite, the constitution won an overwhelming majority (Feb. ISOO). It. is true that the vote was not taken by secret ballot and that pressure was exerted in many ways, but it appeared that Bonaparte was brought to power by a vote of more than 3,000,000 against about 1,500.

—

—

—

The Administration.

— The consulate's work of administrative

reform, undertaken at Bonaparte's instigation, was to be more lasting than the constitution and so more important for France. At the head of the government was the conseil d'etat, created by the first consul and often effectively presided over by him; it was to play an important part both as the source of the new legislation and as an administrative tribunal. At the head of the administration of the departements were the prefects, who carried

on the tradition of the intendants of the ancien regime, supervising the application of the laws and acting as the instruments of centralization. The judicial system was profoundly changed; whereas hitherto, from the beginning of the Revolution, judges had been elected, henceforth magistrates were to be nominated by the government, their independence however being assured by their irremovability from office. The police organization was greatly strengthened. The financial administration was considerably improved; instead of the municipalities, special functionaries were entrusted with the collecting of direct taxes; the franc was stabilized (franc de Germinal) and the Banque de France was created. Education was transformed into a major public service; secondary education was given a semi-military organization, and the university faculties were re-established. Primary education, however, was still neglected. The Concordat. Bonaparte shared Voltaire's belief that the people needed a religion. Personally, he was indifferent to religion; in Egypt he had said that he wanted to become a Mushm. Yet he considered that religious peace had to be restored to France. As early as 1796, when he was concluding the armistice in Italy ;

—

I

with Pope Pius VI, he had tried to persuade the pope to retract his briefs against the French priests who had accepted the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Pius VII, who succeeded Pius VI in March 1800, was more accommodating than his predecessor, and negotiations were opened with him in September. Ten months later a concordat was signed reconciling the Church and the Revolution. The pope recognized the French republic and called for the resignation of all former bishops; new prelates were to be designated by the first consul and instituted by the pope; and the sale of the property of the clergy was officially recognized by

Rome.

The concordat

in fact

the lay character of the state.

admitted freedom of worship and In order, however, to induce the

numerous ex-revolutionaries in the government to accept the concordat, the first consul appended to it the "Organic articles," which stipulated that papal acts should not be published in France drawn up without the state's authorization. The Code. The codification of the civil law, first undertaken in 1790, was at last completed under the consulate. The code promulgated on March 21, 1804, and later known as the Code Napoleon (g.v.), gave permanent form to the great gains of the Revolution, individual liberty, freedom of work, freedom of conscience, the lay character of the state and equality before the law; but at the same time it protected landed property, gave greater liberty to employers and showed little concern for employees. It granted only limited legal rights to women, but maintained divorce. Military Organization. The army received the most careful attention. The first consul retained in outline the system instituted by the Revolution; recruitment by forced conscription, but with the possibility of replacement by substitutes the mixing of the conscripts with old soldiers; and the eligibiUty of all for promotion to the highest ranks. Nevertheless the creation of the academy of St. Cyr, to produce infantry officers, made it easier for the sons of bourgeois families to pursue a military career. Moreover, the £cole Polytechnique, founded by the Convention, was mihtarized in order to provide officers for the artillery and engineers. Yet Bonaparte was not concerned about introducing new technical inventions into his army; he stopped the construction of military balloons, which had been started in 1793; and he sent home the American engineer Robert Fulton, who had come to suggest a steamship and a submarine for the French fleet. To win his battles he put his trust in the "legs of his soldiers"; his basic strategic idea was a fast-moving army. The Campaign of Marengo and the Peace of Lun^ville (1800-01). The first consul spent the winter and spring of 17991800 reorganizing the army and preparing for an attack on Austria (Russia had become estranged from the coalition against France). With his usual quick assessment of the situation he saw the strategic importance of Switzerland, from which he would be free to outflank the Austrian armies either in Germany or in Italy as he might see fit. His past successes made him choose Italy. Taking his army across the Great St. Bernard pass before the snow had melted, he appeared unexpectedly behind the Austrian army which was besieging Genoa. The battle of Marengo (June 14, 1800) gave the French command of the Po valley as far as the Adige; and in December another French army, led by Moreau, defeated the Austrians at HohenHnden in Germany. Austria was forced to sign the peace of Luneville on Feb. 9, 1801, whereby France's right to the "natural frontiers" which Julius Caesar had given to Gaul, namely the Rhine, the Alps and the Pyrenees, was recognized. The Peace of Amiens (1802). Great Britain alone remained at war with France. Bonaparte again began to prepare an inor catechisms

—

—

;

—

—

vasion, as in 1798, but without great conviction. He preferred to stimulate Russian animosity against Great Britain and had per-

suaded the Russian emperor Paul I to form a "League of Armed Neutrahty" with Sweden, Denmark and Prussia (Dec. 1800). The assassination of Paul in March 1801 and Nelson's bombardment of Copenhagen ruined this calculation, but Great Britain was tired of the struggle, and William Pitt, the prime minister, had already resigned.

on Oct.

1,

Preliminaries of peace, concluded in

London

1801, put an end to hostilities and peace was signed at

Amiens on March 25, 1802. The Life Consulate. General peace was re-established

—

in

NAPOLEON

I

on the pretext that the French had not yet evacuated certain Neapolitan ports, refused to leave the island. Franco-British relations became strained, and in May 1803 the British declared British,

war.

Cadoudal, Pichegru and the Due d'Enghien.

—The

peace

settlement had brought about the life consulate; the return of war was to stimulate the formation of the empire. The British government, which would have been glad to see Bonaparte deposed or removed by assassination, renewed its subsidies to the French royaUsts,

who resumed

their agitation

and plotting.

The most

notable conspiracy was hatched by a young Chouan, Georges Cadoudal, and by a former repubhcan general, Charles Pichegru, who had been deported from France after the coup d'etat of 18 Fructidor but had escaped from Guiana and taken refuge in England. The police soon got wind of the conspiracy and arrested

Pichegru on Feb. 29, 1804, and Cadoudal on March 9. Bonaparte decided to react vigorously enough to deter his opponents from any more such attempts. The police believed that the real head of the conspiracy was the young due d'Enghien who was residing Accordin the duchy of Baden, a few miles across the frontier. ingly, with the agreement of Talleyrand and the police chief Joseph Fouche, Bonaparte had the due kidnaped on neutral soil and brought to Vincennes, where he was tried and shot (March 21). This action provoked a resurgence of opposition in the old aristocracy but enhanced the influence of Fouche.

THE EMPIRE,

•BONAPARTE CROSSING THE ALPS." BY JACQUES LOUIS DAVID, MUS^E DE VERSAILLES

Europe

for the first time in ten years.

increased

still

more; and

his friends

—

The

first

1821.

IN

THE

consul's prestige

at his suggestion

—proposed

that a "token of national gratitude" should be offered to him. In May 1802 it was decided that the French people should give their opinion through a referendum, under the same conditions as in

1800, on the following question: "Shall Napoleon Bonaparte be consul for life?" In August an overwhelming majority of 3,500,000 votes against less than 10,000 granted him the prolongation of his consulate;

and he

also received the right to designate his

successor.

The Failure of the General Pacification.

— Bonaparte's con-

ception of international peace did not coincide with that of the For the British the terms of the treaty of British government. Amiens represented an absolute limit beyond which they could

under no circumstances agree to go they even hoped, when they got the chance, to take back some of the concessions they had been forced to make. For Napoleon Bonaparte, on the other hand, the treaty of Amiens marked the starting point for a new French ascendancy. First of all, from the economic point of view, he meant to reserve half of Europe as a market for France and, to the indignation of British merchants, refused to lower customs duties. Then, from the naval point of view, he intended to revive France's expansion overseas, to recover San Domingo (which had rebelled), to occupy Louisiana (ceded to France by Spain in 1800), perhaps to reconquer Egypt and at any rate to extend French influence in the Mediterranean, in the Levant and in the Indian ocean. Finally, on the continent of Europe, he advanced beyond France's natural :

frontiers, incorporating Piedmont in France, intervening in Switzerland to restore order and taking a hand in the affairs of Germany, where princes dispossessed of territory on the Rhine under the peace of Luneville were to be compensated with shares of the secularized ecclesiastical states. Great Britain was alarmed by this expansion of France in peacetime and found it scarcely tolerable that one state should possess all the coastline of the continent from Genoa to Antwerp. How-

immediate occasion of Franco-British rupture was the problem of Malta. According to the treaty of Amiens, the British, who had taken the island on the collapse of the French occupation, should have restored it to the Knights Hospitalers; but the

ever, the

1804-14

In the hope of consolidating his own position, Fouche now suggested to Bonaparte that the best way to discourage conspiracy would be to transform the life consulate into a hereditary empire, as the existence of an heir would remove all hope of changing the regime by assassination. Bonaparte readily accepted the suggestion. The senate, prompted by Fouche, then proposed a hereditary succession, and the tribunate expressed the wish that Bonaparte should be proclaimed hereditary emperor of the French. The empire was proclaimed on May 18, 1804, and a plebiscite ap-

proved the change. The Institutions of the Empire. Though there was little change in the organization of the government of France, Napoleon as emperor set himself to bring back a number of institutions simiIn the first place he wanted lar to those of the ancien regime. but by the pope himself, so that his coronato be consecrated tion should be even more impressive than that of the kings. Pius VII agreed to come to Paris, and the ceremony, which seemed equally outrageous to royalists and to the old soldiers of the RevoAt the last lution, took place in Notre Dame on Dec. 2, 1804. moment, the emperor took the crown from the pope and set it on The imperial regime moreover had its his own head himself. symbols and titles. The Roman eagle was placed above the tricolor flag and was shown, together with the golden bees, in the coat of arms of the new dynasty. Princely titles were brought back for the members of Napoleon's family in 1804, and an imperial As opposition was still lively. nobility was created in 1808. Napoleon intensified his propaganda and imposed an increasingly A dictatorial regime allowed him strict censorship on the press. to carry on his wars for years without worrying about French pub-

—

—

lic

opinion.

Having been president of the Italian repubHc (as the Cisalpine was renamed) since Jan. 1802, Napoleon in March 1805 was proclaimed king of Italy. He was crowned in Milan on May 26. The Projected Invasion of England: Trafalgar. From 1803 to 1805 Napoleon had only the British to fight {see Napoleonic Wars) and again France could hope for victory only by landing an army in the British Isles, while the British could defeat Napoleon only by forming a continental coaKtion against him. Napoleon began to prepare an invasion again, but with greater conviction this time and on a larger scale: he gathered nearly 2,000 ships between Brest and Antwerp and concentrated Even so, his "Grande Armee" in the camp at Boulogne (1803). the problem was the same as in 1798: to cross the Channel, the control the sea. Still far inferior to the have of French had to British navy, the French fleet needed the help of the Spanish;

—

;

NAPOLEON together could not hope to defeat Spain was induced to Britain in Dec. 1804, and it was decided in the Antilles, should squadrons, massed that French and Spanish lure a British squadron into these waters and defeat it, thus making

and even then the two

more than one of the declare war on Great

fleets

British squadrons.

the balance roughly equal between the Franco-Spanish na\'y and the British: a battle in the entrance to the Channel could then be engaged with some chance of success. The plan failed: the French

squadron from the Mediterranean, under Adm. Pierre de Villeneuve, found itself alone at the appointed meeting place in the Antilles. Pursued by Nelson and not daring to attack him, it turned back toward Europe and took refuge in Cadiz on July 18, 1805; there the British blockaded it. Accused of cowardice by the angry Napoleon, Villeneuve resolved to run the blockade, with the support of a Spanish squadron, in order to reach Toulon; but on Oct. 21, 1805, he was attacked by Nelson off Cape Trafalgar. Nelson was killed in the battle, but the Franco-Spanish fleet was totally destroyed. The British had won a decisive victory, which eliminated the danger of invasion and gave them complete freedom

movement

of

at sea.

The Victories in Europe

(1805-07).

— By

this time, after

two

years of effort, the British had managed to organize a new continental coalition, in which Austria, Russia, Sweden and Naples were grouped against France. On July 24, 1805, three months before Trafalgar, Napoleon had ordered the Grande Armee from

Boulogne

to the

Danube

(thus even

if

the French had

won

at

Trafalgar, the battle would not have been followed by the invasion of England). In the week preceding Trafalgar, the Grande Armee won an outstanding victory over the Austrian general Karl Mack,

whose army surrendered

at

Ulm on

Oct. 20;

and on Nov. 13 Na-

poleon entered Vienna. On Dec. 2, 1805, he defeated the combined Austrian and Russian armies in the battle of Austerlitz, the greatest victory of his career. By the peace of Pressburg (Bratislava; Dec. 26, 1805) Austria renounced all influence in Italy and

ceded Venetia and Dalmatia to Napoleon, as well as extensive territory in Germany to his proteges Bavaria, Wiirttemberg and Baden. The French then proceeded to dethrone the Bourbons in the kingdom of Naples, which was bestowed on Napoleon's brother Joseph. In July 1806 the Confederation of the Rhine was founded soon to embrace all western Germany in a union under French

—

protection.

In Sept. 1806 Prussia entered the war against France; but on Oct. 14 the Prussian armies were defeated at Jena and at Auerstadt. The Russians put up a better resistance at Eylau (Feb. 8, 1807),

but were routed at Friedland (June 14). In Warsaw, Napoleon fell in love with a Polish lady, Countess Marie Walewska (nee Laczynska; 1786-1817), by whom he had a son, Alexandre

Walewski

(q.v.).

—The Russian emperor Alexander

I could still have gone on with the struggle, but was tired of the alliance with the British. He met Napoleon at Tilsit, in northern Prussia near the Russian frontier, on a raft anchored in the middle of the Niemen river. Three treaties were signed there: a Franco-Russian peace treaty (July 7, 1807), whereby Alexander consented to Napoleon's plans for Germany and Italy and ceded the Ionian Islands to France; a secret treaty of alliance between France and Russia (also July 7) and a Franco-Prussian peace treaty (July 9), whereby the Polish provinces were detached from the kingdom of Prussia to form the duchy of Warsaw. The two emperors thus shared the domination of Europe, Napoleon taking the west and Alexander the east; and Alexander even made a vague promise to attack, by land,

Tilsit.

the British possessions in India.

The Continental System.

—As

Napoleon could no longer think of invading England, he tried to induce capitulation by His idea was to produce artificially stifling the British economy. a state of overproduction in Great Britain by means of a continental blockade which would close the whole of Europe to British products: merchandise from the factories would accumulate in the English docks, the factories would soon have to be shut down, and then the unemployed workmen would rise against the government and force it to sue for peace. The decrees of Berlin (Nov. 21, 1806) and of Milan (Dec. 17, 1807) organized the continental

I

system {q.v.): they forbade

all

trade with the British Isles, or-

goods coming from English factories or from the British colonies and condemned as fair prize not only every British ship, but also every ship which had touched the coasts of England or its colonies or had merely allowed a British dered the confiscation of

vessel to visit

all

it.

Portuguese and Spanish Resistance (1808).

—

For the blockade to succeed, it had to be enforced rigorously throughout Europe; but from the beginning one country showed itself reluctant This was England's old ally Portugal, for whom the to comply. Napoleon decided to break blockade meant commercial ruin. down Portuguese opposition by force. Charles IV of Spain willingly let the French troops cross his kingdom and they occupied Lisbon; but the prolonged presence of Napoleon's soldiers in the north of Spain exasperated the inhabitants, who accused the king and his minister Godoy of treason. When insurrection broke out, Charles IV abdicated in favour of his son Ferdinand but then appealed to Napoleon for reinstatement. Seeing the opportunity to rid

Europe of

its last

Bourbon

rulers,

Napoleon summoned the

Spanish royal family to Bayorme in April 1808 and obtained the abdication of both Charles and Ferdinand (May 5 and 6); they were interned in Talleyrand's chateau of Valengay. The people of Madrid, however, had already risen against the French occupying troops on May 2 the rising was bloodily suppressed, but insurrection soon spread across the whole country, as the Spaniards would not accept Joseph Bonaparte as king. Gen. Pierre Dupont's army corps, sent to suppress the revolt in Andalusia, was forced ;

to capitulate at Bailen in July; and this sensational blow to Napoleon's prestige was followed by another in August, when Andoche Junot's corps in Portugal capitulated to the British under the

convention of Cintra. The Iberian peninsula, now up in arms, was henceforth to be a bridgehead on the continent for the British, and under the energetic Arthur Wellesley (later duke of Wellington), in command from 1809, the Anglo-Spanish-Portuguese forces were to achieve decisive successes {see Peninsular War). Erfurt (1808) and Austria's War of 1809.— At the congress of Erfurt (Sept.-Oct. 1808), where Napoleon assembled a great concourse of princes to impress the Russian emperor, he could not extract from Alexander the definite promises to help that he reAlexander's refusal, furthermore, was partly prompted quired. by Talleyrand, who was already beginning to betray his master. In 1809, however, with most of the Grande Armee thrown into Spain, Napoleon seemed on the point of overcoming the revolt. Then, in April 1809, Austria launched an attack in Bavaria in the

Napoleon had all Germany against the French. some of his forces from Spain, and Vienna fell again to the French on May 12. After their bloody defeat at Wagram (July 6), the Austrians obtained an armistice (July 12); and by the peace of Vienna in October, Napoleon took the lUyrian provinces

hope of rousing to recall

from Austria, thus stopping a gap in the continental system. Napoleon's Zenith. The year 1810 was that of Napoleon's zenith, despite some failures in Spain and Portugal. He considered himself Charlemagne's heir. He repudiated Josephine, who had not given him a child, so that he could marry the archduchess Marie Louise, daughter of the Austrian emperor Francis I; and the birth of a son, the king of Rome, in March 1811 seemed to

—

assure the destiny of the empire. This empire, now at its greatest extent, included not only the lUyrian provinces but also Etruria, some of the papal states, Holland and the German states bordering the North sea. Around the empire proper there was a ring of vassal states ruled over by the emperor's relatives: the kingdom of Westphalia (Jerome Bonaparte) the kingdom of Spain (Joseph Bonaparte) the kingdom of Italy (with Eugene de Beauharnais, the kingdom of Naples (Joachim Josephine's son, as viceroy) Murat, Napoleon's brother-in-law) and the principality of Lucca and Piombino (Fehx Baciocchi, another brother-in-law). Finally other territories were closely bound to the empire by treaties: the Swiss confederation, of which Napoleon was the mediator; the Confederation of the Rhine; and the duchy of Warsaw. Even Austria seemed bound to France by Napoleon's marriage to Marie ;

;

;

;

Louise.

The

political

map

of Europe, which

had been so complicated

NAPOLEON At the same time the

before 1796, was now frontiers did not coincide either with geographical features or greatly simplified.

with "nationalities." Whatever he may later have said, Napoleon while he was in power was not interested in realizing either German or Italian unity. Yet by reducing the number of states, by pushing the frontiers about, by amalgamating populations and by propagating institutions like those which the Revolution and nationalism had created in France, he prepared the ground for German and Italian unification. National feeling in Europe, stirred by French ideas and by contact with Frenchmen, gave rise in turn to the first resistance against French domination. From 1809 onward Spanish guerrillas, supported by British troops, were consistently successful in the peninsula, harassing the French and

keeping them constantly on the move; and the national Cortes, convened at Cadiz by the insurrectionary element in Sept. 1810, promulgated in March 1812 a constitution inspired jointly by the ideas of the French Revolution of 1789 and by British institutions. The Disaster in Russia (1812). Since the congress of Erfurt

—

the Russian emperor had shown himself less and less inclined to implement the treaty of Tilsit. In the spring of 1812, therefore, in order to intimidate him. Napoleon massed his forces in Poland; they amounted to about 453,000 men, drawn from every region of the empire and even including contingents extorted from Prussia

and from Austria. After some last attempts at agreement, this Grande Armee began to cross the Niemen in the last week of June. The Russians retreated, scorching the earth behind them. Delayed in its advance by the difiiculty of getting supplies, Napoleon's

army

did not reach the approaches to

Moscow

till

the

The Russian commander in chief, M. I. Kutuzov, engaged it at Borodino on Sept. 7 the fight was savage, bloody and indecisive, but on Sept. 14 Napoleon entered Moscow, which the Russians had abandoned. On that same day, a huge fire broke out, which destroyed the greater part of the town. Moreover, contrary to Napoleon's expectations, Alexander refused to Withdrawal was necessary, and the premature treat with him.

beginning of September.

:

onset of winter made it disastrous. After the diflEicult crossing of the Berezina in November, fewer than 10,000 men fit for combat remained with Napoleon's main force. This catastrophe stirred all the peoples of Europe to withstand Napoleon's domination. In Germany the news let loose an out-

break of anti-French demonstrations which Prussia, having careThe Prussian troops, fully prepared them, was ready to exploit. under Gen. Hans Yorck von Wartenburg, deserted the Grande Armee (Dec. 1812) and turned against the French. Following the Prussian example, the Austrians also withdrew their troops and adopted an increasingly hostile attitude. In Italy the people were moving away from Napoleon, and the "patriots" looked either to Eugene de Beauharnais or to Murat for the unification of the peninsula.

Even in France, signs of discontent with the regime were becommore frequent. Talleyrand and Fouche were acting treacher-

ing

In Paris a malcontent general, C. F. de Malet, nearly succeeded in carrying out a coup d'etat when he announced, on Oct. 23, 1812, that Napoleon had died in Russia. This incident was a mcjor factor in Napoleon's decision to hasten back to France ahead of the Grande Armee. Arriving in Paris on Dec. 18, he proceeded to stiffen the dictatorship, to raise money by various ously.

expedients and to levy new troops. The Battle of Leipzig. In 1813, therefore, the forces arrayed against France were no longer armies of mercenaries but nations fighting for their freedom as the French had fought for theirs in 1792 and 1793; and the French themselves, for all their courage,

—

had

lost their former enthusiasm. longer that of the nation.

The emperor's

ideal

was no

In May 1813 Napoleon won some successes against the Russians and Prussians in Saxony and Lusatia (battles of Liitzen and Bautzen) but his decimated army needed reinforcement and reorganization, and the armed mediation of Austria induced him to agree to an armistice, during which a congress was to meet at Prague under Metternich's presidency. Austria, the arbiter of the situation, proposed very honourable conditions the French empire was :

to return to its natural limits;

the duchy of

Warsaw and

the

I

Confederation of the Rhine were to be dissolved; and Prussia was to return to its frontiers of 1805. Napoleon made the mistake of hesitating too long, and the congress had closed (Aug. 10; before his reply arrived.

Austria declared war.

The French were now in a worse situation than in the spring. The numerical superiority of the allies was increasing every day, as one German contingent after another left Napoleon to go over to the other side. The greatest cataclysm of the Napoleonic era battle of Leipzig or "battle of the Nations" (Oct. 16-19, 1813), in which the Grande Armee was torn to shreds. The reverse of the French degenerated fast into collapse. The French armies in Spain, forced to retreat, had been defeated at Vittoria (June 21, 1813) and by October the British were attacking their defenses north of the Pyrenees. In Italy the Austrians

was the

;

took the offensive, crossed the Adige and occupied Romagna. Murat, now openly a traitor to the emperor who had made him king of Naples, entered into negotiations with the Viennese court. The Dutch and the Belgians demonstrated against Napoleon. Downfall and Abdication (1814). In Jan. 1814 France was

—

being attacked on all its frontiers. The allies cleverly announced that they were fighting not against the French people, but against Napoleon alone, since he had rejected the terms offered at Frankfurt (Nov. 1813), whereby the French would have preserved their

The extraordinary feats of strategy which "natural frontiers." the emperor achieved during the first three months of 1814 with the army of young conscripts were not enough: he could neither allies, with their overwhelming numerical superiority, nor arouse the majority of French people from their resentful The corps legislatij and the senate, formerly so docile, torpor. were now asking for peace and for civil and political liberties.

defeat the

The treaty of Chaumont, signed on March 9, 1814, by Austria, Russia, Prussia and Great Britain, was a general pact such as France's enemies had failed to concert since 1793; the signatories for 20 years, undertook not to negoand promised to continue the struggle till Napoleon should have been overthrown. They then marshaled their forces and marched resolutely on Paris. They were at the gates of Paris on March 30, while Napoleon had moved east so that he could attack their rear guard. The Parisian authorities, no longer overawed by the emperor, lost no time in treating with the allies. The senate instituted a provisional government, with Talleyrand as president; he proclaimed the deposition of the emperor and, without consulting the French people, addressed himself to Louis XVIII, whose restoration the British alone were favouring. Napoleon had been at Vitre when he learned of the advance on Paris. He had then ordered his army to turn westward again, but had only reached Fontainebleau when he heard that Paris had capitulated. He wanted to organize a new line of resistance south of the capital, but on April 4, 1814, a majority of his marshals explained to him that his troops, worn out and demoraUzed, could hold out no longer. Marshal Ney ended the discussion by advising the emperor to abdicate. Napoleon at first refused to follow this suggestion, but in the night of April 4-5 he learned that Marmont, in command of his vanguard, had just gone over to the enemy with a whole army corps. Fontainebleau was no longer protected, and on April 6 Napoleon abdicated.

bound themselves together tiate separately

By the treaty of Fontainebleau (April 11) the allies assigned the Mediterranean island of Elba to Napoleon as his place of residence, with full sovereignty over it he was allowed to take there a corps of 400 volunteers and was granted a personal income of ;

2,000,000 francs, to be provided by Louis XVIII, as weU as other The financial provisions; also, he retained the title of emperor. empress Marie Louise was to have the Itahan duchies of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla. After unsuccessfully trying to poison himself, Napoleon spoke his farewell to his "Old Guard," gathered After a in the courtyard of the "Cheval Blanc" on April 20.

hazardous journey, during which he narrowly escaped assassination, he arrived at Elba on May 4.

ELBA AND THE HUNDRED DAYS, The

island of Elba,

1814-15

on which Napoleon was to

was only a few square miles

in size.

"I want from

live

and

now on

reign, to

Kve

NAPOLEON

I

and imagination resign himself so easily to defeat? In France, moreover, the Bourbon Restoration was soon exposed Though in 1814 the majority of the French people to criticism. were tired of the emperor, they had expressed no wish for the return of the Bourbons and were in any case strongly attached to the essential achievements of the Revolution; and Louis XVIII had come back "in the baggage train of the foreigners" with the last surviving 6migris who had "learnt nothing and forgotten nothing" and whose influence seemed to threaten most of the RevoluThe apathy of April 1814 quickly gave way tion's achievements. Old hatreds were revived, resistance organized and to mistrust.

boarded the "Bellerophon" in the morning of July 15, 1815. The aUies were agreed on one point Napoleon was not to go back to Elba. Nor did they like the idea of his going off to America. It would have suited them if he had fallen a victim to the "white terror" or if Louis XVIII had had him summarily tried and executed. Great Britain had no choice but to send him to detention in a far-off island. On July 30, 1815, the British government announced that General Bonaparte could not be allowed to retain the means of disturbing the peace of the continent again; that the island of St. Helena had been chosen for his residence; and that its position would allow him to be treated with much greater indulgence than would be possible elsewhere, in view of the precautions that had to be taken to guard his person. Napoleon pro-

conspiracies formed.

tested eloquently: "I appeal to history!"

like a justice of the peace,"

But he was only 45 and Could a man of such energy

he cieclared.

in the full possession of his faculties.

From Elba, Napoleon kept a close watch on the knew that some of the diplomats at Vienna, where

continent.

He

a congress

was

deciding the fate of Europe, considered Elba too close to France and to Italy and wanted to banish him to a distant island in the Atlantic. Also he accused Austria of preventing Marie Louise and son from coming to join him (in fact she had taken a lover and had no intention of going to live with her husband). Finally the French government refused to carry out the financial clauses of the treaty of Fontainebleau, so that Napoleon was in danger of his

being reduced to penury.

The Hundred Days.

—

All these considerations drove Napoleon Decisive as ever, he returned to France like a thunderon March 1, 1815, he landed in the Gulf of Juan with a detachment of his guard. As he crossed the Alps, the republican peasants rallied round him, and at Laffrey, near Grenoble, he captivated the soldiers dispatched to arrest him. Thenceforward "the eagle flew from steeple to steeple until it reached the towers of Notre Dame." On March 20 he was in Paris. Napoleon was brought back to power rather as one who embodied the spirit of the Revolution than as the emperor who had fallen a year before. To maintain himself and to rally the mass of Frenchmen to his cause he should have allied himself steadfastly with the Jacobins; but this he did not dare. Unable to escape from the bourgeoisie whose preponderance he himself had assured and who feared above all else a revival of the socialist experiments of 1793 and 1794, he could only set up a political regime scarcely Enthusiasm ebbed distinguishable from that of Louis XVIII. When fast, and the Napoleonic adventure seemed a dead end. the Acte additionnel which modified the imperial constitution was submitted to a plebiscite, only about 1,500,000 citizens voted

to action. bolt:

a

smaU

majority.

:

ST.

When

lished in 1823).

Napoleon mustered an army to oppose the allied troops massing on the frontiers. With it he marched into Belgium and defeated Two days later, at the Prussians at Ligny on June 16, 1815. Waterloo, he met the British under Wellington, the victor of the Peninsular War. A savage battle followed. Napoleon was in sight of victory when the Prussians under Bliicher arrived to reinforce the British. "Victory changed sides" and soon, despite the heroism of the Old Guard, Napoleon was overthrown. {See Waterloo Campaign.) The Second Abdication. Back in Paris, Napoleon was forced to abdicate by the legislative chambers he did so, in favour of his son. Napoleon II, on June 22, 1815. On July 3 he was at Roche-

—

:

fort, intending to take ship for the United States, but a British squadron prevented any French vessel from leaving the port. Napoleon then decided to appeal to the British government for protection. Capt. F. L. Maitland, in command of the "Bellerophon," one of the blockading ships, told him that his request might be granted; and on July 13, Napoleon wrote his famous letter to the British prince regent (later George IV)

Royal Highness,

A

my

country and to the hostility prey to the factions which divide poHtical career, of the greatest powers of Europe, I have ended I am going, like Themistocles, to seat myself at the hearth of I put myself under the protection of its laws, the British people. which I ask from Your Royal Highness, as from the most powerful,

my

and

the most constant, and the most generous of

my

Having apprised Maitland of

on July

his decision

enemies. 14,

Napoleon

HELENA,

1815-21

"Bellerophon" reached Plymouth, Napoleon was transferred to the "Northumberland," which on Aug. 10, 1815, set sail for St. Helena. Meanwhile, France was paying heavily for the escapade of the Hundred Days. The second treaty of Paris (Nov. 1815) deprived the French of some frontier districts which had belonged to them even before the Revolutionary Wars, as well as of the part of Savoy which had been left to France in 1814. A "white terror" more violent than ever was let loose throughout the country, and the counterrevolutionaries came to power, where they were to remain for 15 years. On Sunday, Oct. 15, 1815, the "Northumberland" dropped anchor off St. Helena. Napoleon disembarked with those followers who were voluntarily accompanying him into captivity: Gen. Bertrand, grand marshal of the palace, and his wife; the comte de Montholon, aide-de-camp, and his wife; Gen. Gourgaud; Las Cases, the former chamberlain; and several servants, including the valet Louis Marchand. They were all settled in The Briars, the property of an Englishman, William Balcombe, since the great house of Longwood was not yet ready for them. On Dec. 10, however, they moved to Longwood, though work on the house was still to go on throughout Napoleon's captivity. Napoleon settled down to a life of routine. He got up late, breakfasting about 10 a.m., but seldom went out. He was free to go anywherfe on the island so long as he was accompanied by an EngUsh officer, but he soon refused to comply with this condition and so shut himself up in the grounds of Longwood. He wrote and talked much. At first Las Cases acted as his secretary, compiling what was later to be the Memorial de Sainte-Helene (first pubthe

From

7 to 8

p.m. Napoleon had dinner, after

which a part of the evening was spent

in reading aloud

—Napoleon

Then they played cards, a favourite game being "reversis." About midnight Napoleon went to bed. Some of his time was devoted to learning English, and he eventually took to reading English newspapers; but he also had a large number of French books sent from Europe, which he read attentively and annotated. St. Helena has a healthful climate, and Napoleon's food was liked to hear the classics.

good, carefully prepared and plentiful. The deterioration of his health in exile must have been due, in part at least, to inactivity. The man who for 20 years had played so great a role in the world and who had marched north, south, east and west across Europe could hardly be expected to endure the monotony of existence on a little island, aggravated by the reclusion that he had voluntarily imposed on himself. He had also more intimate reasons for un-

happiness: Marie Louise sent no word to him, and he may have learned of her liaison with the Austrian officer appointed to watch over her, Graf A. A. von Neipperg (whom she eventually married in secret without waiting for Napoleon's death) nor did he have any news of his son, the former king of Rome, who was now living Finally, though in Vieima with the title of duke of Reichstadt. the severity of Sir Hudson Lowe has been much exaggerated, it is certain that this "jailer," who arrived as governor of St. Helena ;

nothing to make Napoleon's leon from the start disliked him as the former in April 1816, did

life easier.

Napo-

commander

of the

Corsican rangers, a band of volunteers recruited by the British in the recent wars and largely composed of enemies of the Bonaparte

NAPOLEON

I

Obsessed by family. carry out his instructions exactly, Lowe came into conflict with Las Cases, whom he saw as Napoleon's confidant, as early as Nov. 1816: he had him arrested and expelled. Thenceforward relations between the governor and Napoleon were hmited strictly to those

Napoleon was taken up. Byron had published his "Ode to Napoleon Buonaparte" as early as 1814; Heine wrote his ballad "Die Grenadiere"; and in 1817 Stendhal began his Vie de NapoUon. At the same time the emperor's most faithful supporters were working together, talking about him and distributing reminders

by the regulations. Napoleon showed the first signs of illness at the end of 1817; he seems to have had an ulcer or a cancer of the stomach. The Irish doctor Barry O'Meara, having asked in vain for a change in the conditions under which Napoleon lived, was dismissed; so also was his successor John Stokoe, who was likewise thought to be The undistinguished Corsican well-disposed toward Napoleon. doctor who took their place, C. F. Antommarchi, prescribed a

of him, engravings, etc.

his responsibilities

and always anxious to

stipulated

treatment that could do nothing to cure his patient. It is uncerhowever, whether Napoleon's disease was curable at all, even by 20th-century methods. From the beginning of 1821 the illness became rapidly worse. From March, Napoleon was confined to bed. In April he dictated his last will; "I wish my ashes to rest on the banks of the Seine, in the midst of that French people which I have loved so much. I die before my time, killed by the English oligarchy and its hired assassins." On May S he spoke a few coherent phrases; "My my son head of the army. The French nation God ." He died at S;49 p.m. on that day, not yet 52 years old. His body was dressed in his favourite uniform, that of the Chasseurs de la Garde, covered by the gray overcoat that he had worn at Marengo. The funeral was conducted simply, but with tain,

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

due propriety,

in the

Rupert valley where Napoleon had sometimes

walked, beside a stream in which two willows were reflected. The stone covering his tomb bore no name, only the words "Ci-git"

("Here

lies").

THE NAPOLEONIC LEGEND had set loose a torrent of hostile books designed man's reputation. One of the least violent of these was Chateaubriand's pamphlet De Buonaparte, des BourNapoleon's

fall

to sully the great

bons, et de la necessite de se rallier a nos princes legitimes (1814). But this hterature soon died down, while the task of defending

my

life is!"

They idealized his Ufe ("What a novel he himself had said) and began to create the Napo-

leonic legend.

As soon as the emperor was dead, the legend grew rapidly. Memoirs, notes and narratives by those who had followed him into it. In 1822 Dr. O'Meara, in London, published Napoleon in Exile, or A Voice from Saint Helena; in 1823 Montholon and Gourgaud began to publish the Memoires pour servir d. I'histoire de France sous Napoleon, ecrits a Sainte-Helene, while Las Cases, in his famous Memorial, presented the emperor as a republican opposed to war who had fought only when Europe forced him to fight in defense of freedom; and exile contributed substantially to

Antommarchi published his Derniers momens de Napoleon. Thereafter the number of books in Napoleon's honour increased continually; the year 1827 saw Victor Hugo's "Ode a la Colonne," the completion of A. J. F. Fain's series of recollections of the years 1812-14, the 28 volumes of the Victoires et conquetes des Pranin 1825

Walter Scott's Life of Napoleon Buonaparte and the first volume of J. Marquet de Montbreton de Norvins' Histoire de (ais,

Neither police action nor prosecutions could prevent books, pictures and objects reminiscent of the imperial saga from multiplying in France. After the July revolution (1830), when thousands of tricolor flags had appeared in windows, Louis Philippe's government had not only to tolerate the growth of the legend but even to promote it: in 1833 the statue of Napoleon was put back on the top of the column in the Place Vendome in Paris; and in 1840 the king's son Frangois, prince de Joinville, was sent in a warship to fetch the

Napoleon.

emperor's remains from St. Helena to the banks of the Seine in accordance with his last wishes. A magnificent funeral was held in Paris on Dec. 14, 1840, and Napoleon's body was conveyed, through the Arc de Triomphe in the Place de I'fitoile, to entombment under the dome of the Invalides. Napoleon's nephew Louis Napoleon {see Napoleon III) exploited the legend in order to seize power in France. Though his attempts at Strasbourg in 1836 and at Boulogne in 1840 were failures, it was chiefly thanks to the growth of the legend that he won election to the presidency of the second republic, with an overwhelming majority, in 1848 and was able to carry out the coup d'etat of Dec. 2, 1851, and to make himself emperor in 1852. The disastrous end of the second empire in 1870 damaged the Napoleonic legend and gave rise to a new anti-Napoleonic hterature, best represented by Hippolyte Taine's Origines de la France contemporaine (1876-94). World Wars I and II, however, together with the experience of the 20th-century dictatorships, made Any comparison with it possible to judge Napoleon more fairly. Stalin or Hitler, for instance, can only be to Napoleon's advantage. He was tolerant; he released the Jews from the ghettoes; and he showed respect for human hfe. Brought up on the Encyclopedie and on the writings of the philosophes of the Enlightenment, he was always above all, as has already been said, a man of the 18th century, the last of the "enhghtened despots." Conclusions. One of the gravest accusations made against Napoleon is that he was the "Corsican ogre" who sacrificed milUons of men to his ambition. Precise calculations show that the

—

Napoleonic Wars of 1804-15 cost France itself about 500,000 men; i.e., about one-sixtieth of the population. The loss of these young men, furthermore, seems to have had a notably adverse effect on the birth rate. The social structure of France changed little under the empire. It remained roughly what the Revolution had made it; a great mass of peasants (75%), half of them being the working owners of their farms or sharecroppers, the other half having too little land for their own subsistence and hiring themselves out as labourers.

tem,

TOMB OF NAPOLEON. HOTEL DES INVALIDES, PARIS

Industry, stimulated by the war and the continental sysprogress in northern and eastern France,

made remarkable

whence exports could be sent

to central

Europe but ;

it

decUned

in

NAPOLEON II— NAPOLEON

lO

the south and west because of the closing of the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. The great migrations from rural areas toward industry in the towns began only after 1815. The nobility, hard hit by the Revolution, would probably have declined more swiftly if Napoleon had not restored it; but it could never recover its former privileges, and its attempt to reassert itself politically after

1S15 came to nothing.

Above all. Napoleon left durable institutions, the "granite masses" on which modern France has been built up: the administrative system of the prefects, the Code Napoleon, the judicial system, the Banque de France and the financial organization, the university and the military academies. He made a lasting mark on the history of France and of the world. See also references under "Napoleon I" in the Index. BiBU0GR.\PHV. By the middle of the 20th century the literature on Napoleon already numbered more than 100,000 volumes, and new books were still appearing every month. Only the most important works can be listed here. For fuller bibliography see F. M. Kircheisen, Bibliographie napoUonienne (1902) and Bibtiographie du temps de NapoUon,

—

—

vol. only published (190S-12); G. Davois, Bibliographie na)ran' preparations on the Rhine, he suddenly signed preliminaries of peace with Austria at Villa franca in July. The Italian national

movement

slipped entirely out of his control and

he eventually found himself confronted with a united Italian monarchy very different from the weak federation that he had planned. This new Italy was dissatisfied because neither Rome nor Venice was included; the pope and the French clericals were alienated because Napoleon had allowed the annexation of the papal states to the kingdom and finally, when Napoleon received Nice and Savoy from Sardinia-Piedmont as a reward for his assistance, he lost the goodwill of Great Britain {see Italian Independence, Wars of; Italy: History). His grandiose plans for a new "Latin empire" in Mexico under the Austrian archduke Maximilian involved Napoleon in still further difficulties (1862-67): the invasion of the country proved much harder than he had foreseen; when it was at length accomplished the hostility of the United States compelled him to withdraw (1866-67); and finally Maximilian was executed by the Mexicans and his whole regime overthrown. In Germany likewise Napoleon involved himself in humiliating contradicrions. He personally favoured some unification of Germany, as he favoured unification of Italy, and he was consequently benevolently neutral when Prussia declared war on Austria in 1866 (see Seven Weeks' Wak). He hoped that these two powers would exhaust themselves in a long struggle and that he would then be able to intervene as mediator and impose a settlement. Prussia's rapid victories found him so unprepared that (as had already happened in Italy) he found himself quite unable to keep up with events. He feebly asked Prussia for "compensations" on the Rhine, only to be rebuffed; and so began the hostility that was to culminate in the Franco-German War. Napoleon's foreign policy is thus one of repeated disappointments, but also one which was primarily responsible for the reshaping of Europe on nationalistic lines. It should not be forgotten too that it was he who annexed Cochin China to France (1862) and so laid the basis of his country's subsequent expansion and empire in the far east; and that he so stimulated French naval development in the new fields of steam-propelled and ironclad ships that Great Britain's traditional supremacy on the seas seemed for a time to be seriously challenged. He was lucky here in having able advisers the marquis Justin de Chasseloup-Laubat, minister ;

—

of the

navy and

colonies,

and Stanislas Dupuy de Lome, the naval

Domestic Policy

emperor

in

—

in his

working actively

to assist

and accelerate

this change.

He gave

great impetus to the foundation of institutions of credit, the construction of railways, the holding of industrial exhibitions, the

draining and reclamation of waste land and the extension of public works, of which the rebuilding of Paris remains a surviving monument. Inspired by the example of Great Britain, he introduced

amount of free trade with the Anglo-French commercial agreement of 1860 (the "Cobden treaty") despite much opposition, in the hope that it would encourage the moderruzation

a considerable

of industry.

It

was under

his reign

and with

his

encouragement and in

that the effective organization of the working class began;

1864 combination for strikes was made legal. Though economic circumstances were to a considerable extent independent of him, there is no doubt that he contributed to making his reign one of remarkable and almost unprecedented prosperity. It was long remembered as such; and this gave considerable strength to the Bonapartist cause after 1870. Still, Napoleon had his disappointments in this sphere too. He said "I alone have busied myself with the workers"; but the workers turned socialist all the same. The industrialists whom he sought to stimulate gave him no thanks for increasing the competition that they had to meet because of his policy of free trade.

volved

difficulties

was

Here again

his

dreams of progress

in-

he had not foreseen.

pohcy that Napoleon came nearest The regime that he established in 1852 was highly to success. authoritarian: it concentrated all important powers in the emperor and gave him a free hand in appointing the ministers and officials who ran the country. The legislature, though still elected by universal suffrage, had its rights drastically curtailed: it could not initiate bills, it could amend them only to a limited extent and its debates were published in censored form. Political acti\aty in the country was virtually brought to an end, and opposition could be expressed only indirectly under heavy disguise in literary journals. However, in the first years of the empire this dictatorial regime was probably generally popular among a majority of the people, since the disorders of the republic and the fear of anarchy and socialism had produced a reaction in favour of strong government. It has often been stated that Napoleon maintained himself in office by force: Karl Marx, for example^ declared that his principles were not liberty, equality and fraternity but "cavalry, infantry and artillery." Yet the peasants, who formed the bulk of the electorate, cared little for politics and were quite happy to vote as directed by Napoleon's agents, the prefects and the mayors; in return they obtained what they wanted most, namely material prosperity and improvements in the condition of their daily lives, subsidies for their village schools, roads and railways. This system worked well enough in the 1850s, but began to collapse in the second decade of the reign. The "red menace" of 1852 was forgotten, the opposition parties revived and found ready weapons in the mistakes and hesitations of the government. The Italian war of 1859 ended Napoleon's alliance with the Catholics, who now took the lead in opposition, and they were joined by the manufacturers incensed by the free trade treaty. Napoleon met this challenge in an interesting and original way, which speaks well for his political acumen. He believed that it is "always public opinion which wins the last \ictory." "March at the head of the ideas of your century," he declared, "and these ideas follow you and support you. March behind them, and they drag you after them. March against them, and they overthrow you." He determined, therefore, that he would yield to the growing demand for liberty by granting it voluntarily while he still could, so as to It

in his constitutional

capture the leadership of the

new trend

in public opinion.

On

NAPOLEON— NAPOLEONIC WARS he issued a decree increasing the powers of the legislature; and after further concessions from 1867 he invited the

Nov,

24, 1860,

leader of the liberal opposition in parliament, fimile Ollivier, to form a responsible ministry at the end of 1869. Thus was his dictatorship transformed into a constitutional monarchy, and on May 8, 1870, the "Liberal empire" was approved in a plebiscite by

an overwhelming vote of 7,359,000. Napoleon seemed to have given his regime a new lease of life, for he had completely disarmed the majority of the opposition by The Liberal empire has been granting most of their demands. criticized for not being a real parliamentary democracy, and many historians have claimed that it was either consciously or unconsciously a sham, whose inherent contradictions inevitably caused There are grounds however for believing that its rapid collapse. Napoleon was trying to establish not parliamentary government government" with a definite doc"representative form of but a trine behind it; and that his Liberal empire was an original and worthwhile experiment which might have succeeded had the Franco-German War not destroyed it in its infancy. Deposition and Exile. The international situation appeared to be very calm when suddenly on July 2, 1870, it was revealed that the Spaniards had invited a German prince, Leopold of HohenzoUern-Sigmaringen, to be their king. This was taken to be a threat to the security of France, and the king of Prussia, Wilfatal liam I, was asked to stop the prince's candidature and then mistake to promise that he would never allow it to be revived. His refusal, turned into an insult by Bismarck, caused the French chamber on July 15 to vote for war against Prussia, which was declared on July 19 (see Franco-German War). Though ill with a disease of the bladder to the point of hardly being able to move. Napoleon took command of his troops and, largely through his prolonged hesitation, was quickly defeated and surrounded at Sedan. He surrendered on Sept. 2, and the third republic was proclaimed

—

If the declarer succeeds in

on Sept. 4. Napoleon III, on being released by the Germans, withdrew to England and lived in Camden Place, Chislehurst. Later, he projected a return to France, in the hope that his presence would

in Paris

had of returning victorious to France. One of the most enigmatic and controversial rulers of the 19th century. Napoleon III was long regarded as a mere tyrant or adventurer, an impostor with good intentions, perhaps, but with none Later, however, when the of Napoleon I's outstanding ability. personal animosities aroused by his reign had died down, his politiachievement could be better appreciated. His significance and cal writings were published in collected editions, four volumes (185456) and five volumes (1856-69), supplemented by his Hhtoire de Jules Cesar, three volumes (1865-66), and by the Oeuvres posthumes (1873). See also references under "Napoleon III" in the Index. Bibliography. P. de La Gorce, Histoire du second empire, 7 vol. (1894-1905) F. .\. Simpson, The Rise of Louis Napoleon (1909) and Louis Sapoleon and the Recovery oj France (1923) J. M. Thompson, Louis Sapoleon and the Second Empire (1954) T. Zeldin, The Political (T. Ze.) System of Napoleon III (1958). NAPOLEON, a round game of cards (known colloquially rank The cards as at whist, as "nap"). Any number may play. and five are dealt to each player. The deal being completed, the player to the dealer's left looks at his hand and declares how many tricks he would play to win against all the rest, the usual rule being that more than one must be declared; in default of declaring he says "I pass," and the next player has a similar option of either declaring to make more tricks or passing, and so on all round. A declaration of five tricks is called "going nap." The player who declares to make most has to try to make them, and the others, but without consultation, to prevent him. The declaring hand has the first lead, and the first card he leads makes the trump suit. The players, in rotation, must follow

—

;

;

;

suit if able.

of tricks

be found under French Revolutionary Wars. The is concerned with the warfare that continued, except during the uneasy peace of Amiens (1802-03), till Napoleon's first abdication (1814) and is arranged as follows:

affairs, will

present article

I.

II.

III.

The Defeat of Austria, 1800-01 1. The Marengo Campaign 2. The Danube Campaign and Hohenlinden 3. The Peace of Luneville and the Italian Settlement Great Britain, France and the Neutrals, 1800-02 1. The League of Armed Neutrality 2. The Anglo-Turkish Conquest of Egv-pt The Interval of Peace, 1802-03 1. The Peace of Amiens 2.

Redispositions in Europe

Economic Aspects of the Wars V. French and British .^rmed Forces 1. Napoleon's .\rmy and Method of Warfare 2. British Military and Naval Strength VI. The Third and Fourth Coalitions, 1803-07 1. The British Rupture of the Peace 2. The Formation of the Third Coalition 3. Ulm, Austerlitz and the Peace of Pressburg 4. Trafalgar and Italy 5. Hanover and the Confederation of the Rhine 6. The Russo-Prussian AlUance IV.

7.

8.

VII.

The Campaign of Jena and .^uerstadt The Winter Campaign of 1806-07: Eyiau

10.

Great Britain and the Fourth Coalition Friedland

11.

The

9.

He

died at Chislehurst on Jan. 9, 1873; and the early death of his only son. Napoleon Eugene Louis, prince imperial (1856-79). deprived Bonapartism of whatever chance it

was unsuccessful.

number

NAPOLEONIC WARS.

lead to a rising for his restoration to the throne; but the prehminary operation that he underwent to cure his incapacitating disease

at least the

he stood for he wins whatever stakes are played for; if not he loses. If the player declaring nap wins he receives double stakes Someall round; if he loses he only pays single stakes all round. times, however, a player is allowed to go "Wellington" over "nap," and even "Bliicher" over "Wellington." In these cases the caller of "Wellington" wins four times the stake and loses twice the stake, the caller of "Bliicher" receives six times and loses three times the stake. Sometimes a player is allowed to declare misere, i.e., no tricks. This ranks, as a declaration, between three and four, but the player pays a double stake on three, if he wins a trick, and receives a single on three if he takes none. An account of the wars of the European powers between 1792 and Nov. 1799, when Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew the Directory and assumed control of French

—

—

13

making

Treaties of Tilsit

The Continental System and the Blockade, 1807-11 1. The Coercion of Europe 2. The Orders in Council and Napoleon's Decrees of 1807 3. The Spanish Insurrection and Erfurt (1808) 4. Effects 5. 6. 7.

VIII. Austria's 1. 2.

Economic Warfare

of

The French System of Licences The Annexations of 1809-10 The Crisis of 1811

War

of 1S09

Landshut and Eckmiihl Aspern-EssUng

4.

The .Austrian Campaign The Southern Fronts

5.

Wagram

3.

in

Poland

6. The Walcheren Expedition of the British 7. The Peace of Vienna (Schonbrunn) IX. France and Northern Europe, 1809-12 X. The Russian Campaign, 1812 1. The Invasion of Russia 2. The Retreat from Moscow XI. The Campaign of 1813 1. 2.

3.

Prussia's Change of Side The .\ustrian .\ttempt at Mediation The New French .^rmy

6.

Liitzen (Gross-Gorschen) and Bautzen The .\rmistice and the Reichenbach Treaties Dispositions for the Autumn Campaign

7.

Dresden

8.

The

4. 5.

Allies'

9.

Leipzig

Convergence

XII. The Campaign of France, 1814 1. Brienne and La Rothiere 2.

Champaubert, Montmirail, Chateau-Thierry and

Vauchamps 3. 4. 5.

6. 7.

Schwarzenberg's Advance and Retreat The Congress of Chatillon and the Treaty The Operations on the .Msne The .Mlied Advance on Paris The End of the War

of

Chaumont

NAPOLEONIC WARS

14 When

the coup d'itat of Brumaire (Nov. 1799) brought Napoleon Bonaparte to power, the second coalition against France was beginning to break up. In Holland, a capitulation had been

to a hurried summons, returned to assault the Austrian vanguard with 6,000 men and 6 or 8 cannon. F. £. Kellermann's cavalry charge against the Austrian flank completed the transformation

of the Anglo-Russian expeditionary and though the Russo-Austrian forces in Italy had won a series of victories, the course of the campaign in Switzerland had reflected growing differences between Austria and Russia. Yet despite Russia's subsequent abandonment of the common cause and France's recovery of control over Holland and Switzerland, the British government paid no serious attention to Bonaparte's proposals for peace in Dec. 1799, since on the one hand the regime in France had yet to prove itself and on the other it was expected that the Austrians would make further gains.

was killed. {See Marengo, Battle of.) On June IS, 1800, Melas concluded a capitulation: the Austrians were to evacuate northern Italy west of the Mincio, though remaining in Tuscany and the papal Legations; they received free passage of their troops to Mantua. While Bonaparte lacked the strength in Italy to impose more stringent terms, the Holy Roman emperor Francis II contracted a fresh agreement with Great Britain on June 20. Malta, which Bonaparte had offered to the Russian emperor Paul I three months before, fell to the British in September.

signed for the withdrawal force;

I.

THE DEFEAT OF AUSTRIA,

Though Bonaparte had

to

1800-01

embark on the campaigns

2.

of 1800 with

inadequate forces and funds, the weaknesses of allied strategy went Austria far to offset the disadvantages under which he laboured. had decided on an equal division of its strength by maintaining armies of approximately 100,000 men in both the German and Italian theatres. Instead of reinforcing Austrian strength in northern Italy, where there was most hope of success, the British gov-

ernment spent its efforts in limited and isolated enterprises, among them an expedition of 6,000 men to capture Belle-lie and another of 5,000 to join the 6,000 already in Minorca. When in June these two forces were diverted to co-operate with the Austrians they arrived off the Italian coast too late to be of use.

Bonaparte's plan was to treat Italy as a secondary theatre and Germany. It proved impossible to increase Moreau's army of the Rhine to more than 120,000, too small a margin of superiority to guarantee the success required. Nevertheless, Bonaparte was busy with the creation of an army of reserve w^hich was to be concentrated around Dijon and was destined to seek a decisive victory in

command

he had engaged this force in the south he would be able, should the need arise, to take it to Moreau's assistance. In Italy, Massena's 30,000-40,000 outnumbered troops were to receive the Austrians in the Apennines and in Alpes-Maritimes until the army of reserve, marching to the south of the army of the Rhine, should cross the Alps, fall upon the Austrians' lines of communication, cut off their retreat from Piedmont and bring them to battle. Bonaparte had hoped that Moreau would mass the army of the Rhine in Switzerland and cross the river at Schaffhausen to turn the Austrian left in strength and obtain a decisive victory before dispatching some of his army to join the force descending on the rear of the Austrians in Italy. Moreau, however, preferred to think in terms of crossing the Rhine at intervals over a distance of 60 mi. and encountering the Austrians before he had concentrated his own forces. 1. The Marengo Campaign. Moreau did not begin his offensive until April 25, 1800, when Bonaparte was issuing the preliminary orders for the crossing of the Alps by the army of reserve. The urgency of the situation in the south, where Massena was besieged in Genoa on April 21 and L. G. Suchet had fallen back to the line of the Var, made it necessary to send the army of reserve, now en route for Geneva, over a pass further to the west than had been originally intended. An ill-provisioned force of 35,000 men and 40 cannon began the passage of the Great St. Bernard on the night of May 14-15 and completed it on May 25. Moreau, who had been asked to send 25,000 men via the St. Gotthard, released 15,000, but only 10,000 of them joined Bonaparte's army on June 1, a day before the French occupied Milan and its extensive magazines. When Massena surrendered Genoa on June 4 and sent his forces to join Suchet's, Bonaparte's presence in the rear of the Austrians had robbed their success of significance. The collapse of the Austrian offensive enabled Suchet's troops to inflict serious losses in what fast became the Austrian rear as Michael Melas turned to meet the army of reserve. A number of oversights in the execution of Bonaparte's fundamentally sound strategy just before the battle of Marengo on June 14 came close to causing his destruction, for they enabled Melas to concentrate 30,000 men and more than 100 guns for an attack on Bonaparte's 22,000 and 14 guns. Bonaparte had had to yield ground when Desaix, responding to act

under

his

in Italy

;

—

until

of near defeat into a victory, but Desaix

The Danube Campaign and Hohenlinden.

principal columns, having reached the

Rhine

— Moreau's

at Strasbourg, Brei-

sach and Basel and completed the crossing on vanced along the south bank of the Danube.

May 1, 1800, adOn May 3, C. J.

Lecourbe took Stockach, while Moreau defeated Paul Kray at Engen. After a further reverse at Messkirch, the Austrians withdrew, to reach Ulm on May 11. Having lost his advantage in numbers at this point through the dispatch of the contingent to Italy, Moreau rejected a direct attack on the strong positions at Ulm in favour of a turning movement on the right. On June 19 he forced the passage of the Danube between Hochstadt and Donauworth, thereby compelling Kray to evacuate Ulm. The French entered Munich nine days later and had pushed Kray's demoralized army back upon the Inn before hostilities were suspended, on July IS, by the armistice of Parsdorf. At the end of the armistice both sides had armies of approximately 100,000 between the Danube and the Tirol. While a Franco-Dutch force of 16,000 from the Main protected Moreau's wing, 20,000 Austrians in the Tirol covered his opponent's left The Austrians forestalled Moreau's impending offensive on the Inn by launching theirs on Nov. 27, 1800. Moreau withdrew to muster his dispersed forces to meet an attempt to outflank him, left

flank.

and in the battle of Hohenlinden (Dec. 3) the mobility of the French enabled him to rout the Austrian columns, which lost 14,000 men and 80 cannon. Many thousands more were taken prisoner in a vigorous pursuit. By the armistice of Steyr (Dec. 25) the Austrians agreed to negotiate for peace without Great Britain. In Italy the French, in contravention of the armistice, had occupied Tuscany in Oct. 1800 on the grounds of British activity at Livorno. On the Mincio front Macdonald arrived from Chur (by a bold crossing of the SpliJgen pass) with 14,000 men to strengthen Brune, who then forced the crossing against the outnumbered Austrians late in December. Having abandoned the Adige (Jan. 1, 1801) and the Brenta (Jan. 11), the Austrians were ready to sign Treviso the armistice of (Jan. IS). 3. The Peace of Lune'ville and the Italian Settlement.

The Franco-Austrian peace

of Luneville was signed on Feb. 9, For the most part it repeated the treaty of Campo Formio (1797). The French frontier was to be advanced to the Rhine, with the proviso that the rulers thus dispossessed should be compensated from ecclesiastical territory in Germany; compensation was also to be found for the Habsburg grand duke Ferdinand III of Tuscany, who was also to be dispossessed; and the Dutch, Helvetic, Cisalpine and Ligurian republics were recognized by Austria. The Neapolitans, who had meanwhile invaded Tuscany, were driven back by Murat's force of 26,000; and the armistice of Fohgno (Feb. 18, 1801), whereby they agreed to evacuate the papal states, was followed by the peace of Florence (March 28), whereby Naples lost httle territory but undertook to exclude British and Turkish trade. In accordance with the treaty of Aranjuez of March 21, 1801, between Bonaparte and Charles IV of Spain (who in Oct. 1800 had restored Louisiana to France), Tuscany was

1801.

erected into the kingdom of Etruria for Charles IV's son-in-law, Louis of Bourbon-Parma; and Parma, to which the latter renounced his claim as heir apparent, passed under French administration. Abandoned by the Austrians, Charles Emmanuel IV of Sardinia could do nothing against the continuing French occupation of Piedmont.

NAPOLEONIC WARS GREAT BRITAIN, FRANCE AND THE

II.

NEUTRALS,

1800-02

British, in pursuit of their primarily maritime, colonial

The

and

commercial interests in the wars, might claim to be serving the common cause and had moreover applied their profits to subsidizing the continental armies, but had adopted means that offended neutral states and former allies alike. Through the blockade, the British could virtually dictate the terms of European sea trade: granting licences for merchant shipping to enter the ports of France and France's associates, they admitted neutrals only when there were not enough British ships to carry all the colonial produce of which they now controlled the sources. Moreover, the British maintained that a neutral flag did not cover an enemy's goods; that these might be seized when destined for a port only blockaded on paper; that iron, hemp, timber, pitch and corn were at all times contraband of war; and that neutral ships were liable to search even when under convoy. Offended by the Brit1. The League of Armed Neutrality. ish capture of Malta after Bonaparte had presented the island to him, the Russian emperor Paul, in Nov. 1800 placed an embargo on British ships in Russian ports; and on Dec. 16 Russia, Sweden and Denmark renewed that League of Armed Neutrahty which

—

they had first made in 1780, during the American Revolution. The Danes occupied Hamburg, which had become the main entrepot for Anglo-German trade after the French invasion of Holland, while the Prussians, who joined the league on Dec. 18, invaded Hanover. Germany and the Baltic had witnessed much of the expansion of British trade during the previous decade of war, British exports

Bremen and Hamburg having risen 600% between 1792 and 1800. The closing of the Baltic and of the German ports and rivers thus struck the most damaging blow at Great Britain's commerce and war economy. Furthermore, the Baltic and Germany also to

supplied most of the materials for British shipbuilding and were the main source of the imports of grain, supplying S%-16% of British consumption. As the harvests of 1799 and 1800 were poor, the interruption in shipments was soon felt in a bread shortage.

The

assassination of the

emperor Paul (March 1801) removed moment when its members had

the chief author of the league at a to reckon with British reprisals.

Hyde Parker had

A

fleet

including 18 ships of the

Yarmouth

for the Baltic on and on April 2 Nelson led a vanguard of 12 battleships and the frigates into Copenhagen harbour. The shore batteries opened fire but, despite orders to retire and the grounding of three battleships, he continued the action till he had overcome the stubborn resistance of the vessels and hulks anchored there. The Danes agreed to an armistice and made peace on May 28; Sweden had already done so on May 18, and an Anglo-Russian convention followed on June 17. The league was thus dissolved and its forces withdrawn from Hanover, Hamburg and Liibeck; in return the British modified their maritime claims. The new Russian emperor, Alexander I, moreover gave up the demand for Malta. British sea 2. The Anglo-Turkish Conquest of Egypt. power made possible a further success in the course of the year 1801 the defeat of the army that Bonaparte had left in Egypt in 1799. An expeditionary force of 18,000 under Sir Ralph Abercromby was landed at Aboukir (Abu Qir) in March, the Turks sent 25,000 to the theatre, 6,000 sepoys from India arrived via the Red sea, and the 13,000 French in Cairo surrendered on June 28 and the 5,000 in Alexandria on Aug. 30. Nelson's attack on the flotilla at Boulogne, however, met with failure (Aug. 15-16).

line

under

March

Sir

left

IS

whose place as prime minister had been taken by Henry Addington, approved of negotiations with France on Feb. 21, 1801.

12;

;

—

Pitt,

overture not so much because of the collapse of Austria as because of the danger presented by the League of Armed Neutrality. The preliminaries having been concluded on Oct. 1, 1801, the peace of Amiens was signed on March 27, 1802. Notwithstanding their The reverses overseas, the French recovered all their colonies. British kept Ceylon (taken from the Dutch) and Trinidad (taken this

from the Spaniards), but restored Minorca to Spain and Cochin, the Cape of Good Hope and the Spice islands (Moluccas) to Holland. France agreed to the evacuation of Naples and the papal states and to the return of Egypt to Turkey. The British undertook to leave Malta within three months: the island was to be handed back to the Order of St. John of Jerusalem, and until the Order could assume its government was to be garrisoned by 2,000 Neapolitan troops, with its neutrality guaranteed by the powers. It was agreed that "an adequate compensation" should be found in Germany for the prince of Orange, William V, who had lost his position in the Netherlands. Though Bonaparte had already ignored his undertaking in the treaty of Luneville to observe the independ-

ence of the neighbouring republics, the treaty of Amiens made no reference to nonintervention in their affairs; and when later the British government complained that French troops remained in Holland and northern Italy in violation of the treaty of Luneville,

Bonaparte replied that this was the business of the signatories to that treaty and that he desired "the treaty of Amiens and nothing but that." France had asked for British recognition of the Italian republics, but in the absence of compensation for the king of Sar-

was withheld. Redispositions in Europe. Representatives of the Cisalpine republic, summoned to Lyons at the end of 1801 to remodel their constitution, invited Bonaparte in Jan. 1802 to accept the presidency of the republic, which was henceforth to be known as Similar arrangements were subsequently the Italian republic. made in the Ligurian republic and in Lucca; and Piedmont was brought under direct French rule in Sept. 1802. In Germany the compensation of the rulers dispossessed by the French was settled by the Reichsdeputationshauptanschluss of French and, to a lesser extent, Russian influence Feb. 1803. marked the negotiations by which the ecclesiastical principalities and all but six of the imperial cities were distributed among the displaced princes and the larger German states. The church in dinia this

—

2.

Germany lost nearly 2,500,000 subjects; Prussia gained nearly 400,000; Bavaria's losses on the left bank of the Rhine were more than compensated by the acquisition of bishoprics and imperial cities to the east; Wiirttemberg, Baden, Hesse-Kassel and Salzburg became electorates. Austria gained some territory but was in effect weakened, since the new settlement not only left the Reich feebler but also lessened the emperor's voice in its affairs. The coming of peace accelerated Bonaparte's reorganization of French institutions and overhaul of governmental machinery; and his achievement in this field provided the model for countries under French occupation during the following decade. IV.

ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE WARS

:

UI.

THE INTERVAL OF PEACE,

1802-03

Meanwhile the British economy was suffering from severe strain. Gold payments rose steeply in 1800 and 1801, for in addition to disbursing £5,600,000 in subsidies and £2,800,000 in their own military expenses in Europe during these two years, the British spent an estimated £19,000,000 on grain imports, though only once since 1793 had these last exceeded £2,000,000 per annum. The price of wheat had risen to 1565. per quarter by March 1, 1801. It fell to 1295. in 1.

June and to

The Peace

of

755. in

December.

Amiens.

—^The British government had opened

France had a population of 27,350,000 in 1801 as opposed to Great Britain's 10,942,146 and had gained much territory in the warfare since 1792; but a significant advance in economic strength was to enable Great Britain to wage war against this formidable adversary and to achieve the "miracles of credit" whereby foreign military assistance could be subsidized. The French, whose manufactures progressed less dramatically than the British and whose seaborne trade had been strangled, found it impossible to raise funds commensurate with their aggressive policy in Europe, so that Napoleon had to rely on the spoils of conquest to supplement the deficiencies of French finance.

Many of the figures for British overseas trade during the period represent official values based on a scale of prices current in the Useful only for comparison, 1690s, regardless of market value. the official scale shows that exports rose from £20,000,000 in 1790 to £53,500,000

and 1801 and by

51%

1814, increasing by between 1801 and 1814.

in

75% between The

1790

total expendi-

NAPOLEONIC WARS

i6

ture of the British government in 1793 was £30,590,000, of which war services amounted to £10.340,000 (nearly twice the figure for peacetime) in 1814 these sums had increased to £163,790,000 and £69,070,000 respectively. The steep rise in national income made this possible both by providing immediate revenue and by supplying the funds from which investors lent to the state, whose debts' rose from £230,000,000 at the beginning of 1793 to £507,000,000 in 1S02 and to £900.000.000 in 1815. For the period as ;

a whole, 35f^ of the addition to the country's expenditure caused by the war was met from current revenue, and between 1802

and 1813 the proportion of total net governmental income derived from borrowing was never more than 54.7%. Great Britain had superior banking ser\'ices, could suspend payments in gold at home and raise heavy loans and was preponderant France by contrast was finanin the European money market. cially hampered by a national economy and financial machinery ill-constituted to produce government credit, by the \drtual impossibility of inflating the metallic currency and by potential investors' lack of confidence in the regime. The deliberate obscurity of Napoleon's budgetary system makes it difficult to ascertain the exact Among the privy funds that he state of government finances. amassed were (1) the tresor de I'armee, formed by Austrian and Prussian war contributions and estimated to have furnished 743,000,000 francs between 1805 and 1810; and (2) the domaine extraordinaire of Jan. 1810, largely composed of the territories which Napoleon had retained in the satellite states. These hidden sources of income met some part of French expenditure, and foreign states

and

made

further contributions of

supplies, but the disparity

money

as well as troops

between French and British finan-

In 1813, when French expenditure was in the region of £40,000.000, the British government was able to borrow £105,000,000 of the £174,000,000 that it spent. Napoleon's economic ideas owed much to the outmoded mercantilist school. He hoped to destroy Great Britain's capacity to cial

resources remains clear.

No changes were made in formation (the infantry continued to use the rbglement of 1791): it was by the overall organization of his army and the direction of its movements that Napoleon brought a new form to warfare with the campaign in 1805, in which for the first time 200,000 men employed in divisions and corps were coordinated to a single purpose under one leader. In 1800 the practice had been adopted of forming groups of several divisions under the command of a senior general, but it was with the formation of the armie des Cotes, or Coastal army, on the Channel coast that Napoleon introduced the army corps as the definitive basis of army organization. Each corps was given a separate staff and to

accustom

it

to

maneuvers en masse.

tactics or battle

administrative services and was composed ordinarily of three infantry divisions and a division of light cavalry. Separate from the army corps was the cavalry reserve of two divisions of cuirassiers (heavy cavalry) and three or four divisions of dragoons, each with a mobile battery of horse artillery. The organization of an appropriate general staff, transport, artil-

and rear services was also undertaken.

lery

Napoleon's posses-

sion of a general staff, however, did not imply the circumstances

associated with the term in later usage.

Its chief, Berthier,

and

the rest of its personnel were required not to think or to act independently but to communicate effectively between Napoleon and his corps commanders. There was no real training for staff work, and the staff officers were chosen haphazardly, as Napoleon reserved the control of a campaign to himself (though he allowed his corps commanders much freedom in the execution of his orders). He was content to employ largely second-rate men who were not always adequate to the parts allotted to them under his supervision and who were to show still more serious deficiencies when they became theatre commanders. Since he lacked the means to provide for more systematic methods. Napoleon's campaigns had to yield prompt and decisive results.

The

virtual

abandonment

of traditional lines of

com-

European markets to British trade. Yet in a position to do so the mOitary strength whereby he had enforced his will on Europe was so strained that the continental powers could break the boycott prematurely and resume hostilities against his widely dispersed armies. Imported grain provided no more than 5% of Great Britain's consumption in normal years and is estimated never to have exceeded 16%, though in such periods as 1800-01 and 1811-12 home production of grain fell short of normal demand by 40%. There is no evidence that Napoleon ever considered withholding grain from Great Britain in an attempt to force withdrawal from the war: when he did suspend shipments, as in 1811-12, it was because grain was scarce in Europe. At other times his mercantilist views led him to export French grain to Great Britain, pro-

munication in favour of an independent "line of operations" directed against the enemy army and based on a convenient centre for immediate rear services, together with the reduction of supply trains to a minimum, conferred great strategic benefits so long The system, however, was not as victory was soon obtained. amenable to prolonged campaigning or to the conduct of a successful retreat, in which the army would quickly exhaust its supplies, since its customary measures of pillage and forced requisition were less efficient than the more normal organized raising of supplies for payment. Nor could the system be easily applied in comparatively unproductive areas or over great distances: perfected in western Europe and in northern Italy, it was far less practicable in

vided that France received cash, not goods, in return. For the mercantile marine France had had more than 2,000 ships employed in European and colonial trade by 1792 but possessed only 200 ships of 200 tons or more by 1800, while British strength rose by one-third in ten years to number 19,772 vessels (2.037,000 tons) in 1802 and was to reach 21,869 ships (2,447,831 tons) in 1815. Maritime supremacy enabled the British to dominate the colonial reexport trade (coffee, tea, sugar, spices, cotton and dyes) to the great advantage of their national economy.

by

make war by closing when at last he was

the

1.

VI

(Sept. 5, 1798),

Napoleon did not prescribe the infantry formations to be used his corps commanders, whose varying combinations were often ineffective and wasteful of manpower, especially in the frontal He made no atattacks that he favoured in his later battles. tempt of any consequence to introduce the two-rank firing that the British used to such advantage against opponents whose ranks were at least three deep. He put great emphasis on his cavalry, which screened the movements of army corps, intervened at crucial moments in battle and conducted the vigorous pursuits so profitable after a victorious engagement.

With

a

remarkable grasp

Napoleon was prediscover the whereabouts

of the strategic implications of a situation.

FRENCH AND BRITISH ARMED FORCES Napoleon's Army and Method of Warfare.— In V.

the law of 10 Fructidor year

the east.

eminent

France had replaced the

Revolution by a regular method of conscription which, with a few modifications, remained in force until 1815. Of the 5,692,164 men belonging to the 18 classes affected by this law, 2,716,567 were called up and 2,022,201 actually incorporated in the army. Troops levied in the 12 years 1800-11, of whom shghtly more than 75% came from areas French in 1792, accounted for no more than 50% of those mobilized between 1798 and 1815. Between the peace of Luneville and the campaign of 1805 Napoleon formed the best of the armies that he was to lead approximately half of its effectives had already seen active service and there had been ample opportunity to absorb recruits into it and levies of the

;

;

in disposing his

enemy

of

forces, to

army

head them

corps to off

from

retreat, to obstruct their

concentration and to bring them to battle. Mobility and the careful dispersal of semi-independent army corps so as to control an extensive area were often decisive factors in Napoleon's campaigns.

—

British Military and Naval Strength. The British reguarmy had been employed predominantly in colonial warfare,

2.

lar

for which it had been freed by calling up the militia to supplement home defense; but even so the demand for men had outrun the

supply of volunteers, and in July 1799 the government had begun paying a bounty to militiamen who would volunteer for service with the regular army. The strength of the latter was reduced to Inevitably the British at95,800 after the peace of Amiens. tached primary importance to their navy. In 1803, whereas the

NAPOLEONIC WARS French had 23 ships of the hne and 25 frigates and could call upon Dutch repubHc's 15 capital ships (of which, however, only 5 were in commission) the British had 34 ships of the line and 86 frigates in service and 77 of the line and 49 frigates in reserve; and at the close of the war the British had 240 ships of the line and 317 frigates against the French 103 and 55. the

,

THE THIRD AND FOURTH COALITIONS,

VI.

The British Rupture

1.

of the Peace.

the rupture of the peace of

1803-07

—Among the causes of

Amiens was Napoleon's

refusal to

Excluded from France a trade treaty with Great Britain, the countries under French control, the British merchants

make

and and manufacturers found peace no more profitable than war. The British government, having shown its good faith by abolishing the wartime income tax and by considerably reducing naval and military expenditure, found ample pretexts for dissatisfaction in Napoleon's uncompromising treatment of the dependent territories; and the provocative report by Gen. H. F. B. Sebastiani, published in the Moniteur of Jan. 30, 1803, which declared that 6,000 men Claiming could reconquer Egypt, gave fresh cause for dispute. that the treaty of Amiens was not being carried out, Addington's government decided to retain Malta in defiance of the treaty, thus supplying the technical casvs belli. To obtain an initial advantage. Great Britain declared war on May 18, 1803. The French thereupon occupied Hanover and Naples, closing Hamburg and Bremen to British trade but failing to occupy Sicily. Both Hanover and Naples, together with Holland, were charged with the support of their French garrisons, 78,000 strong. The French treasury drew on the revenues of northern Italy, received yearly subsidies of 84,000,000 francs from Spain and Portugal and obtained $11,250,000 outright from the sale of Louisiana to the United States in May 1803. Spanish subsidies to France led Great Britain in Oct.

1804 to seize bullion ships en route for Spain,

thus provoking the hostilities which lasted until 1808. At the end of 1803 Napoleon gave the title armee d'Angleterre, or army of England, to his forces asserribled around Boulogne. Later, when he had successfully turned this army against the continental powers, he could claim that such had been his original purpose. He had, however, made extensive preparations for the invasion of England, and the army maintained on the Channel coast numbered more than 100,000. At first he envisaged a crossing of the Channel en masse, to be completed before British naval forces

had time

craft; but

it

to intervene against his hghtly

armed invasion

soon became apparent that there could be no ques-

enough for that. therefore had first to be cleared of British warships, and Napoleon prescribed a pohcy for the French fleet which he hoped would draw British naval strength away from home waters. 2. The Formation of the Third Coalition. Napoleon seems not to have felt apprehensive at the prospect of a third coalition against France, for he pursued courses which could only encourage its formation. In June 1804, shortly after Pitt had replaced Addington, the British government, which had been considering the terms on which to seek an alliance with Russia and Sweden, received proposals for an Anglo-Russian agreement. Austria could at first respond to Russian overtures only by accepting the promise (Nov. 1804) of Russian help against a French attack; Sweden signed an alliance with Great Britain in Dec. 1804 and with Russia early in 1805; but it was not until April 11, 1805, that Great Britain and Russia provisionally concluded a treaty envisaging a European league to compel France to evacuate Italy and Hanover, to restore independence to Holland and Switzerland and to reinstate the king of Sardinia in Piedmont. The British offered an an-

tion of getting the invasion fleet to sea quickly

The Channel

—

style of

17

emperor of Austria,

as Francis

I,

was now

in Aug, 1804,

much affronted by Napoleon's actions in Italy that on Aug, 9, 1805, he adhered to the Anglo-Russian alliance, which had been

so

finally ratified

on July

28.

Napoleon was not without support against

this coalition:

varia (which joined France on Aug. 25, 1805),

Baden

Ba-

(Sept. 5)

and Wiirttemberg (Oct, 5) were normally opposed to Austria, and their desire to absorb adjacent Habsburg domains encouraged them to range themselves with France, Moreover, Prussia's neutrality favoured the French by blocking the route that a RussoSwedish- force, accompanied by a British contingent, could have taken from Stralsund to attack the French in northern Germany and the Netherlands; and Prussian coolness toward the coalition later delayed the march of Russian armies to support the Austrians in Bavaria, 3.

—

Ulm, Austerlitz and the Peace of Pressburg. The Auswho had hesitated to join the coalition, now rushed into

trians,

hostihties with such speed that they enabled

with their main

Napoleon

to deal

the Russians had come to their supsuperior forces under the archduke

army before

Employing heavily Charles in northern Italy against Massena (who was to conduct a defensive campaign on the Adige) and keeping a further 25,000 under the archduke John in the Tirol, they prejudiced their chance of success in the main theatre of war, Bavaria. On Sept. 8, 1805, fewer than 80,000 Austrians under Karl Mack crossed the Inn, whereupon the much smaller Bavarian army withdrew safely northward to WiJrzburg. Though Napoleon had begun to move 176,000 men toward central Europe in the last days of August, Mack did not even wait for the first Russian army to join him and while respect for Prussia's neutrality delayed the arrival of the second

port.

;

Russian army till November, Bernadotte's Frenchmen from Hanover marched southward across Prussian Ansbach without Prussia's

permission.

Napoleon's first orders had directed the French forces in Hanover on Wiirzburg, Marmont's corps in Holland on Mainz and the army of England, henceforth renamed the Grande Armee, on lower Alsace; but when he learned that Mack was in the Black Forest, he swung his own army to its left, reaching the Rhine in the former Palatinate and passing through Wiirttemberg and Franconia in columns which converged on Mack's rear. Mack had grouped his forces around Ulm and awoke too late to his danger. Napoleon's forces began crossing the Danube around Donauworth, 50 mi. downstream from Ulm, on Oct. 7, 1805. Uncertain of the Austrians' latest positions, Napoleon now extended his front along the Lech river, detaching one corps toward Munich to contain the Russians should they appear. Despite bad weather, shortage of supplies and clumsiness on the part of some of Napoleon's

subordinates in the course of Mack's encirclement, the mass of Mack's army was taken prisoner at or soon after his capitulation at Ulm, concluded on Oct. 20. So vigorous was the pursuit of the escaping units of Austrians that only one division joined the Russians under Kutuzov, who reached the Inn in mid-October with

fewer than 40,000 men and who now retired as Napoleon advanced. Leaving Ney to drive the archduke John from the Tirol, Napoleon entered Vienna on Nov, 13. The archduke Charles, having gained some ground on Massena in Italy, was recalled to Austria, but came too late to defend Vienna and withdrew into

Hungary.

Murat had gained the passage of the Danube near Vienna by a subterfuge, and the French continued to pursue the Russians, who Napoleon was constrained to susfell back to Olmiitz (Olomouc) pend his advance at Brijnn (Brno), since Kutuzov had been joined ,

by the second Russian army.

Moreover, Frederick William III of

nual subsidy of £1,250,000 for every 100,000 troops that their allies employed in the field.

Prussia, indignant at Bernadotte's violation of Prussian neutrality, was now threatening to intervene in favour of the alHes and could

The French empire had been proclaimed in May 1804 and Napoleon had been crowned emperor in December. He had next accepted the transformation of the Italian republic into the kingdom of Italy, with himself as king, in March 1805; and soon afterward Liguria was annexed to the French empire. The Holy Roman emperor Francis II, who in view of the diminution of Habsburg influence in Germany had already assumed the additional

have settled the

he had promptly sent his army of 180,000 Great Britain, however, had been offended at Prussia's desire to occupy Hanover and so had not offered money for Prussian or other North German forces; and British coolness, together with the influence of the pro-French party in Berlin and Napoleon's procrastination of discussions with the Prussian envoy. Christian Haugwitz, kept Prussia out of the

men

into

issue

if

the struggle.

NAPOLEONIC WARS while Napoleon settled accounts \vith Russia and Austria. 2, 1805, the allies lost 26,000 of their 87,000 men and 180 guns, and the French between 7,000 and 8,000 of their 73,000 men. Francis of Austria signed an armistice with Napoleon on Dec. 6, and Alexander withdrew his broken army to Russia under a truce. The peace treaty between France and Austria was signed at Pressburg (Bratislava) on Dec. 26, 1805. Austria had to cede field

In the battle of Austerlitz (q.v.), on Dec.

appro.xiniately

Venetia, Istria and Dalmatia to Napoleon as king of Italy; Tirol, Vorarlberg and several smaller territories to Bavaria, whose elector, Maximilian Joseph, was now to be recognized as a king; and other territories to Wijrttemberg and to Baden, which became a kingdom and a grand duchy respectively. Wiirzburg was ceded by Bavaria to Ferdinand of Salzburg (the former grand duke of Tuscany), who in turn ceded Salzburg to Francis of Austria. 4. Trafalgar and Italy. The war at sea culminated in the

—

battle of Trafalgar (q.v.), on Oct. 21, 1805.

On

Sept.

14,

Na-

poleon had instructed Adm. de Villeneuve at Cadiz to enter the Mediterranean and to hold some of the coalition's forces in Italy by attacking Naples while the French army marched to the DanOn Oct. 19-20, Villeneuve left harbour with ii ships of ube. Then the line, his Spanish vessels mingled with the French. Nelson came up with him off Cape Trafalgar, with 27 ships. The French and Spanish lost 19 ships on the day of the battle, and 4 more were captured early in November; the British lost none in the battle or in the storm which followed, sinking many of their prizes. Nelson and 448 British were killed; wounded brought French and Spanish casualties their total casualties up to 1,690. numbered about 4,400 killed, 2,500 wounded and 7,000 captured.

Russia and Prussia signed a secret defensive alliance against France July 1806. Napoleon, however, still discounted the notion that Prussia might go to war against him; he was preparing to honour his undertaking to withdraw French forces from Germany even when Prussia, on Aug. 9, had ordered partial mobilization. Growing tension in Prussia and the stronger tone of Russian diplomacy soon made him change his mind. On Sept. S, 1806, a day before the Prussians opened the North Sea ports to the British, he instructed his forces in the triangle Coblenz, Constance and Passau to regroup farther north between Frankfurt and Amberg. Prussia had chosen to go to war with France in far less favourable circumstances than those which had obtained in ISOS: the French were now within easy reach of the frontier, the Austrians could no longer intervene, the Russians were behind the Vistula. Furthermore, the Prussian army had little light infantry, poor artillery and only cumbersome supply trains and had not yet adopted the divisional system. In the face of Napoleon's army corps, the Prussians took the field in three armies commanded by elderly men. The first and fundamental mistake of the Prussian high command was to come forward, instead of withdrawing to form a line along the Elbe and awaiting the arrival of the Russians. 7. The Campaign of Jena and Auerst'adt. Having won the in

—

south to strengthen his defenses on the Mincio and too late to affect the outcome of the year's campaigns. The Neapolitans welcomed it and joined the coalition; but the French army forced the allies to withdraw to Corfu and to Sicily (though Reggio, on the mainland, remained in British hands till Feb, 17, 1808); and Napoleon's brother Joseph was proclaimed king of Naples on

support of the elector Frederick Augustus of Saxony, the Prussians marched into Saxon territory on Sept. 13, 1806. The news reached Paris five days later, and on Sept. 19 Napoleon ordered the concentration of the Grande Armee, by the beginning of October, along the Main as far as Bamberg and thence to the south. At Mainz on Sept. 29 he learned that the Prussians were still between Eisenach and Hildburghausen in front of the Thuringer Wald and roughly at right angles with the Main. This news suggested that he had time to enter Saxony so as to appear in the rear of their left flank. Having reached Wiirzburg on Oct. 2, he closed up his forces; and on Oct. 5 he gave orders for the march to the northeast in three columns, his corps were to cross the Frankenwald and debouch on the upper Saale at Saalfeld, Schleiz and Hof. On Oct. 9 a Saxon division was attacked at Schleiz; on Oct. 10 a Prussian detachment was routed at Saalfeld; Hof was occupied without opposition. While Napoleon continued his advance toward Gera, the Prussian army under Prince Friedrich von Hohenlohe retired northward to Kahla, 20 mi. to the west of Napoleon's ob-

March

jective.

The immediate

was to frustrate French plans for a diverand there could be no return to plans for an

result

sion against Naples,

invasion of England.

The Anglo-Russian force that landed at Naples in Nov. 1805 arrived long after Napoleon had withdrawn his troops from the

30, 1806, in place of the Bourbon Ferdinand deposition Napoleon had announced in Dec. 1805).

IV (whose With the

occupation of the papal states the whole of Italy was under French control. 5.

:

The engagement trate

Hanover and the Confederation

of the

Rhine

In

Vienna on Dec. IS, 1805, Napoleon and Haugwitz had drafted the treaty of Schonbrunn whereby Prussia was to enter into an offensive-defensive alliance with France, to cede Neuchatel, Cleves and Ansbach and to acquire Hanover. The Prussian government,

wishing simply to occupy Hanover till peace should have been made, did not ratify this treaty, but was soon forced, under the treaty of Paris (Feb. IS, 1806), to annex Hanover outright and to close the Prussian as well as the Hanoverian ports to British commerce. Great Britain consequently declared war on Prussia (April 21) and seized 250 Prussian ships in British harbours. Having thus embroiled Prussia with Great Britain, Napoleon obstructed the plan for a confederation, under Prussian leadership, to include Saxony and other states of northern Germany. He set up his brother Louis, however, as king of Holland (June 1806) and then proceeded to form the Confederation of the Rhine in July, embracing Bavaria, Wiirttemberg, Baden, Aschaffenburg, Hesse-Darmstadt, Nassau. Berg and several smaller states of western Germany, with himself as its protector. When these confederates announced that the ancient Reich had ceased to exist, Francis of Austria acquiesced by renouncing his title of Holy Roman emperor (Aug. 1806). Negotiations had meanwhile been proceeding between the belligerents, but Charles James Fox's ministry, which had taken office in Great Britain after Pitt's death (Jan. 1806), made no more progress with Napoleon than did the Russians. 6. The Russo-Prussian Alliance. The hardening of antiFrench feeling in Berlin put an end to an uneasy stalemate, and

—

of Saalfeld at last convinced the Prussians that

from the Elbe, and they decided to concenunder King Frederick William and Charles William Ferdinand of Brunswick, at Weimar. When the French forces reached the Saale (Oct. 12, 1806), Napoleon ceased his march to the northeast and moved his forces to the left to close in on the river line. As Hohenlohe retreated from Kahla to Jena, Napoleon swung his right wing northwestward to gain the Saale and march up its right bank, while the main body of the French was directed to cross the river between Kahla and Jena and then to advance on the mass of the Prussian forces. By the evening of Oct. 12 Napoleon's main advance guard had made contact with the outposts left at Jena by Hohenlohe and Davout was at Naumburg, 20 mi. downstream, within easy reach of the roads from Weimar along the left bank of the Saale via Auerstadt and Freiburg toward the Elbe. The movements of the following day and the separate defeats of the Prussian forces on Oct. 14 are described in the articles Jena, Battle of; Auerstadt, Battle of. The Prussians lost 22,000 killed and wounded in the two battles and 18,000 prisoners. The most famous pursuit of the Napoleonic period began on Oct. IS and ended with the capitulation at RatOf the kau, near Liibeck, on Nov. 7, of Bliicher's detachment. Prussian army, only 15,000 men under Anton Wilhelm von Lestocq escaped to East Prussia. Together with 120,000 prisoners, vast quantities of materiel had been taken: one month's campaigning had destroyed the Prussian war machine. The price of such defeat was severe. Pending the final settlement a war contribution of 160,000,000 fr. and extensive requisitions throughout northern Germany were exacted. Napoleon's immediate demands were for all Prussian territory west of the Elbe except Magdeburg and the Altmark, but the rapid collapse of Prusthey might be cut their

forces,

off

NAPOLEONIC WARS sia, the Russian advance into Prussian Poland (Oct. 23, 1806) and the disclosure of the Russo-Prussian alliance soon led him On Nov. 10 he to offer an armistice instead of a peace treaty.

announced that he would occupy Berlin until a general settlement had been made, including the restoration by the British of the Frederick Wilcolonies seized from the French and their allies. Meanwhile the liam preferred to remain in the allied camp. French had occupied Brunswick and Hesse-Kassel; and WiJrzburg had joined the Confederation of the Rhine in September. The peace of Posen (Poznan), between France and Saxony was concluded on Dec. 11, 1806, bringing Saxony into the Confederation of the Rhine and giving its elector, Frederick Augustus, the title of king.

—

The Winter Campaign of 1806-07: Eylau From Berlin Behind the Vistula were French advanced into Poland. Lestocq's Prussians and 55,000 Russians under Bennigsen, who bank and was awaiting a and the right had occupied Warsaw further Russian army of 35,000 men under F. W. von Buxhowden. On Nov. 28, 1806, Bennigsen abandoned Warsaw without resistance to Murat, whom Napoleon had sent ahead with Davout, followed by Lannes and Augereau. As the three remaining French corps became available. Napoleon directed Ney's and Bernadotte's toward Thorn (Torun) and Soult's between Thorn and Warsaw. At Berlin, on Nov. 19, Napoleon had informed a Polish deputation that he sympathized with their desire for the restoration of Poland; but though he was ready to recruit Polish assistance, he did not contemplate a thoroughgoing revival of the Polish state, which would have aroused further Russian enmity and Austrian 8.

the

opposition.

Bennigsen withdrew his forces to the Narew, principally around On Dec. 18, 1806, Napoleon himself reached Warsaw. After some indecisive engagements between Dec. 22 and Dec. 29 he gave up all hope of an effective pursuit of the retreating Russians and ordered his army into winter quarters. The combined Russian and Prussian forces had numbered about 115,000, of whom about 20,000 had been killed, wounded and captured; the French had suffered approximately 5,000 casualties. Weather, terrain and poor communications robbed the French of their mobility and Napoleon was handicapped by the unfamiliar difficulty of feeding an army in an unfertile area whose resources the Russians had already exhausted. Most of the French army was grouped in front of Warsaw. On the extreme left one corps was placed before Elbing (Elblag); another at Neidenburg (Nidzica) linked the force at Elbing with the mass of the army; and outposts were established along the Passarge (Pasleka), then along the Omulew and as far south as Ney, who had been ordered to push the Prussians the Bug. northward late in Dec. 1806, so exceeded his instructions that his troops had not reached winter quarters when Bennigsen advanced against the French left wing in the last days of Jan. 1807. On Jan. 25 Bernadotte concentrated his corps at Mohrungen (Morag), 8 mi. W. of the Passarge, where he repulsed the numerically superior Russian advance guard before withdrawing southward toward Osterode (Ostroda). Anxious to appear in the rear of his enemy, Napoleon marched northward along the right bank of the Alle (Lyna) with three corps. He came up with the Russians, who had retreated to the north between the Passarge and the Alle, at Gottkendorf (Gutkowo) on Feb. 3, but night fell before a battle could be fought, and by morning the Russians had decamped, abandoning their magazines on the Alle. The French continued their pursuit, and on Feb. 7 their forward troops attacked the Russian rearguard outside Eylau, occupying the town that night. The battle of Eylau was fought on the following day, Feb. 8, 1807. The Russians suffered 25,000 casualties and were able to retreat in good order; the French, having had 28,000 casualties and being unable to pursue the Russians, fell back into Pultusk, and was reinforced by Buxhowden.

winter quarters along the Passarge.

—

Great Britain and the Fourth Coalition. Though he had more than 600,000 men under arms in Europe altogether. Na9.

poleon had barely 150,000 available for the war in East Prussia, and of those only 100,000 could be used for the decisive operations of summer 1807 (50,000 remained in Poland, protecting

19

communications and covering the 30,000 Russians disposed along the Narew). To the north, in East Prussia, there were 24,000 Prussians and 85,000 Russians by June 1807, and more Russian troops were expected. The allies, however, were not well placed to profit from the dispersal of Napoleon's forces. While Russia was handicapped by having undertaken war against Persia (1804) and Turkey (1806), Great Britain's practice of piecemeal lines of

warfare overseas precluded the dispatch of a strong expedition to help the eastern allies. The progress of the campaign in East Prussia was obscured for the British by developments in South America.

On June

27, 1806,

Home Popham,

with 1,600 troops, had captured Buenos Aires; and though the Spaniards had recovered the place in August the prospect of opening up new markets was so attractive to the British that a second expedition of 7,800 men under Sir John Whitelocke was sent out. Landing near Buenos Aires on June 28, 1807, it suffered such heavy losses in the assault on the Failure had city's defenses that the project had to be abandoned. also overtaken the 6,000 troops sent from Sicily to Alexandria in March and the naval squadron dispatched in February to assist the Russians by attacking Constantinople. It was not until April 26, 1807, that Russia and Prussia concluded the convention of Bartenstein (Bartoszyce), by which they undertook to make no separate peace treaties and to free Germany and Italy. The British proposed to grant Prussia a subsidy of £1,000,000 and to send an expeditionary force to Stralsund to join 16,000 Swedes in opposing the French, who had occupied Swedish Pomerania. Sweden, however, had signed an armistice with the French on April 18, and this truce lasted till July 3. When 8,000 British troops under W. S. Cathcart disembarked at Rijgen in mid-July, the Russians and Prussians, farther to the east, had already been defeated. The fourth coahtion had come into being a squadron under Sir

too

late.

—

Friedland. Soon after the suspension of the winter camNapoleon issued orders for the siege of Danzig. The investment began on March 12, 1807, and the town was surrendered 10.

paign.

on

May

26, offering a valuable base for operations.

army had Passarge. left wing.

left

The French

winter quarters early in May to assemble behind the 5 the Russians appeared before the French

On June

As Bennigsen's opening moves traversed the French Napoleon grouped his forces. On June 8, 1807, an encounter with 10,000 Russians suggested that the mass of the Russian army was around Guttstadt (Dobre Miasto), on which Napoleon proceeded to march and where on June 9 he dislodged the Russian rearguard. The Russians retreated to Heilsberg (Lidzbark Warminski) on the Alle, where they had prepared an entrenched camp, 35 mi. S. of Konigsberg and 27 mi. S. W. of Friedland. Heavy fighting took place before Heilsberg on June 10, in which the French had the advantage. Next day Napoleon brought up the rest of his forces, trusting that the threat to their lines of retreat would make the Russians withdraw as they did late in the evening. Bennigsen crossed to the right bank of the Alle, while Napoleon, anticipating that he would soon reappear on the left bank, headed north toward Eylau to place himself between the Russians on the Alle and the Prussians On June 13 the French were massed in front of Konigsberg. close to Eylau, with strong detachments pushed forward in the direction of both Konigsberg and Friedland. That evening it was learned that the Russians had crossed the Alle at Friedland, which Lannes had already been instructed to occupy next day. The battle of Friedland (q.v.). on June 14, ended with the crushing deMeanwhile feat of the Russians, who suffered 25,000 casualties. the corps detached to keep the Prussians away from the battlefield had driven Lestocq into Konigsberg, which he abandoned on June Napoleon 16, withdrawing his forces to join Bennigsen at Tilsit. reached the Niemen on June 19 and found the Russians ready for front.

—

an armistice. 11. The Treaties of Tilsit.

—A

as well as his reverses in the field,

variety of political motives,

prompted Alexander

to

make

Great Britain and his belief that a French invasion of Russia would stimulate oppomeans to conthe Napoleon had not Yet sition to his regime. peace;

among them were

his dissatisfaction with

NAPOLEONIC WARS

20

template an early invasion of Russia and had resolved, should Alexander remain in the war, to maintain his forces on the Niemen and to await the eventual reappearance of the enemy army. Alexander was ready to accept not only peace, but an alliance with France. He hoped to acquire the greater part of Turkey's Balkan possessions, though Constantinople itself was not to fall Furthermore, an understanding with France and to his share. hostility toward Great Britain would give him the opportunity to pose as an arbiter of European affairs in common with Napoleon

Though Napoleon would to preserve Russia's Polish lands. not agree to restore Prussia's western territories in exchange for the cession of Polish provinces to Saxony and excluded Frederick

and

William from the Franco-Russian negotiations and from the secret alliance signed at Tilsit on July 7, 1807, Russia lost nothing in the peace treaty of the same day. The settlement between France and Prussia (July 9, 1807) furnished the spoils of the recent campaigns. Prussia was reduced to half its former population, losing all possessions west of the Elbe and almost all the territory gained in the three partitions of Poland. Danzig was to be a free city, garrisoned by the French, and Prussia was to be occupied by French forces till a heavy war indemnity had been paid. Further, Prussia agreed to close its ports to British trade and, if necessary, to join Russia and France in war against Great Britain. The ceded territory west of the Elbe was distributed mostly between Murat's grand duchy of Berg and the new kingdom of Westphalia (created for Jerome Bonaparte in Aug. 1807 and including also Brunswick and Hesse-Kassel but East Frisia went to Holland, and some other lands were left at Napoleon's disposal. The bulk of the Polish provinces, with a population of 2,000,000, were made into the duchy of Warsaw for the king of Saxony, with a French garrison. Westphalia entered the Confederation of the Rhine, into which Mecklenburg and Oldenburg followed in 1808. )

VII.

;

.

.

:

—

:

.

Napoleon was organizing three more army corps for Spain. In Italy, Tuscany (Etruria) was annexed to the French empire in pursuance of the convention of Fontainebleau; Parma was also formally incorporated into the empire; and the papal Marches were added to the kingdom of Italy in April 1808, to extend French surveillance of the Adriatic coast. Russia declared war on Great Britain on Oct. 31, 1807, and Prussia followed suit on Dec. 1, apologizing secretly to the British government for its action, as also did Austria, which had joined the continental system in October and was forced to announce a state of hostilities with Great Britain early in 1808.

Russia, having begun to mass forces on the Finnish frontier Nov. 1807, invaded Swedish Finland, with Danish support, on Feb. 21, 1808. The British granted Sweden a subsidy of £1,200,-

in

000, but the nature of King Gustavus IV's plans made it impossible to find a basis for common military action, and the 12,000 troops

under Sir John Moore, sent to Goteborg in May 1808. returned without having landed. British shipping, however, continued to supply Swedish markets and to engage in contraband trade with the other Baltic countries. 2. The Orders in Council and Napoleon's Decrees of 1807. to the Berlin decree and the Tilsit agreement by the orders in council of Nov. 11, 18 and 25 and of Dec. 18, 1807, which prescribed that any port closed to the British was to be regarded as under blockade and that, under pain of confiscation, any neutral vessel sailing to or from such ports was

— The British further retaliated

enemy and

pay customs duties (now increased to 20%-30%) on taxing neutral, principally American, trade with enemy colonies, the orders favoured the interests of British merchants and planters, who had been complaining of foreign competition. As far as was practicable, the continent of Europe was to receive its commerce through Great Britain; and up to the point where British shipping capacity proved insufficient, the hcence system ensured that this trade was carried in British vessels.

.

to

By

cargo.

its

Napoleon's Berlin decree of Nov. 21, 1806, had already declared and that "no ship which shall comes directly from England or the English colonies enter any of our harbours." The secret Franco-Russian alliance of Tilsit furthered his scheme for economic warfare against Great Britain, since the co-operation of Russia should permit the complete closure of the Baltic to British shipping and hasten AusAlexander undertrian participation in the continental system. took to support France against the British if they did not consent acknowledge the complete freedom of the by Nov. 1, 1807, to seas and to return the conquests made since 1805 if they refused, France and Russia would "summon the three courts of Copenhagen, Stockholm and Lisbon to close their ports to the British and declare war." 1. The Coercion of Europe. Soon informed of the FrancoRussian agreement, the British government tried to prevent Denmark from joining Napoleon's continental system. On July 26, 1807, Adm. James Gambler sailed for Copenhagen with a massive fleet, and his junction with W. S. Cathcart's troops, evacuated from Swedish Pomerania, enabled him to land 27,000 men near Copenhagen on Aug. 16: the Danes were offered an alliance and told that in any case they must surrender their fleet for the duration of the war. Rejection of this ultimatum led to the bombardment of Copenhagen (Sept. 2-5). and the Danes capitulated on Sept. 7. The British withdrew with 18 Danish ships of the line and many smaller vessels. Denmark signed an alliance with France on Oct. 30, 1807. On July 19, 1807. Napoleon informed the Portuguese that they must join the continental system; ten days later he ordered the concentration around Bayonne of 20,000 troops under Junot. The Portuguese tried to placate both belligerents by proposing to refuse to confiscate British goods, but to close their ports and to go through the motions of making war on Great Britain but neither side would accept such a policy. In mid-October the French troops set out for Portugal, marching through Spain. The Franco-Spanish convention of Fontainebleau (Oct. 27) regulated a partition of .

Algarve and Alemtejo (Alentejo) were to go to Manuel de Godoy, the Spanish court's favourite; the rest was to be at Napoleon's disposition. On Nov. 30, Junot's vanguard reached Lisbon, whence the Portuguese royal family had embarked for Brazil with a British escort. On the pretext of supporting Junot in Portugal,

to put in at a British port to obtain a licence to trade with the

THE CONTINENTAL SYSTEM AND THE BLOCKADE, 1807-11

that the British Isles were under blockade

.

Portugal: the northwest, with Oporto, should go to the house of Bourbon-Parma in return for the cession of Etruria to France;

Since in practice the Berlin decree did not prevent neutral vesfrom bringing British cargoes into French-held ports. Napoleon intensified his measures by the decree of Fontainebleau (Oct, 13, 1807) and the two decrees of Milan (Nov. 2i and Dec. 17). The decrees of Oct. 13 and Nov. 2i classed all colonial prod-

sels

uce as British unless carrying a certificate of origin, while that of Dec. 17 declared that "all ships which had submitted to the British [orders in council] were denationaUzed, and good and lawful prize; and every ship sailing from or to Great Britain or any of its

colonies

The

.

.

.

was good and lawful prize." French and British regulations was

effect of the

to leave the neutrals with the prospect of being taken as prizes at sea by the British or in port by the French. On Dec. 22, 1807, the

United States imposed an embargo on belligerents adopting measures against neutral shipping, a decision which favoured France and damaged British interests, since the French conducted their trade in neutral ships. The U.S. embargo was unpopular with many sections of U.S. opinion and was not completely effective, despite further legislation in 1808 and the Enforcement act of Jan. 9, 1809; but it contributed to the crisis which overtook Great Britain in 1808. 3.

The Spanish Insurrection and Erfurt (1808).— French

troops had installed themselves in Burgos, Pamplona and Barcelona by the end of Feb. 1808. Murat left Burgos for Madrid on

March

15, but his approach provoked riots in the capital, which Godoy's imprisonment and to the enforced abdication of Charles IV in favour of his son, Ferdinand VII, on March 19, four days before Murat's arrival. Charles and Ferdinand were summoned to Bayonne, where on May 10 Napoleon obliged them to

led to

resign the

kingdom

to his brother Joseph.

Meanwhile more

seri-

NAPOLEONIC WARS ous rioting in Madrid (May 2) was followed by nationalist insurJoseph entered Madrid on July 20 rections throughout Spain. but soon had to retire beyond the Ebro. For an account of the ensuing operations in Spain and Portugal, see Peninsular War. From the first the war in Spain affected France's relations with the eastern powers. The Franco-Russian entente was disliked in Russian governing circles, and they felt further dissatisfaction at Napoleon's treatment of Prussia and at his proposals for the Napoleon was now anxious to division of Turkish territories.

Russian support to guard against Austrian and German the bulk of his forces were engaged in Spain. Having concluded a convention with Prussia whereby the French were to evacuate Prussian territory except certain strong points on the Oder (Sept. 8), Napoleon on Sept. 27, 1808, met Alexander at Erfurt. His concessions failed to impress Alexander, who refused to put any effective pressure on Austria; but at least the treaty of enlist

moves while

Erfurt (Oct. 12) renewed the Tilsit alliance, and Napoleon could now expect to be free to concentrate on Spain. The Grande Armee was dissolved, two corps alone remaining in Germany under

Davout.

When

Napoleon, at Vitoria, on Nov. 6, 1808, took over comFrench in Spain north of the Ebro, the only solidly constituted force opposing him was that of the 20,000 British under Sir John Moore, reinforced by 13,000 infantry disembarked at La Coruna on Oct. 26; and within a month Napoleon had occupied Madrid. Moore resolved (Dec. 6) to assist the Spanish by moving with 26,000 men against the communications of the still dispersed French forces; but on Dec. 23 he received news of a French concentration against him and next day he began his retreat. Having given up his direction of operations on Jan. 3,

mand

of the 70,000

Napoleon left Valladolid for Paris a fortnight later, to face the danger from Austria {see below). His brief experience of Spanish warfare had shown him some of its difficulties, and he left Spain unsubdued, but he was not prepared to abandon his enterprise. 4.

Effects of

Economic Warfare.

—The

opening of Spain,

values fell from il6,600,000 in 1805 to iS,400,000 in 1808 and recovered only to £14,500,000 in 1809, sales to America outside the United States for the same years rose from £8,500,000 to £18,100.000 and to £19,800,000. Much of the increase in South Amer-

by

and the default of the Spanish colonies was among the causes of the economic crisis of 1811. A parallel development in shipments to the Mediterranean offset the damage done by Jefferson's measures in North America. While shipments to the United States fell by £6,300,000 between 1805 and 1808, those to the Mediterranean grew fourfold to £6,800,000. The effect of U.S. measures against British commerce was greatly eased in 1809, for while the Non-Intercourse law of March 1809 maintained the prohibitions on trade with belligerents, it did not include the Iberian peninsula and Scandinavia, and U.S. British ships were able to make their way to nonneutral ports. exports to the United States had fallen to £5,300,000 in 1808; for 1809 they were £7,460,000. The continental blockade, however, was already capable of creating substantial strategic difficulties for Great Britain. Imports of grain from Europe sank from 114,000 tons in 1807 to 14,000 tons in 1808, so that the price of

credit,

wheat, as

little

as 66s. a quarter in

1807, averaged 94j. Sd. in 1809 and \Ois. in 1810. It is in this context that the shortsightedness of Napoleon's determinedly mercantilist policy in selling surplus

and 1810

The

is

most

French and

allied

corn in 1809

striking.

France and the European consumers had food enough but missed amenities such as coffee and sugar; cotton manufacturers soon found themselves cut off from their raw materials as well as from competition; and capital was lacking to create new enterprises to offset the absence of British manufactures. French ports and their merchants were hard hit, and difficulties of transportation arose from the greatly increased use effects of the

blockade were keenly

felt in

continental states as well as in Great Britain.

—

11,600,000 in 1809. 5.

The French System

of Licences.

—To increase revenue and

to dispose of surplus agricultural production.

Napoleon

in April

1809 issued licences as a temporary measure, permitting the export of alcohol and foodstuffs in exchange for wood, flax, iron and quinine, or cash; but the concessions were so limited that the Hcences taken up during the next 14 months represented only 3% of French exports for 1809. A decree of July 25, 1810, imposed the licence system on all foreign trade; and one of Aug. 5 laid duties of 40%-S0% on colonial goods. The entry of colonial goods was conditional on the export of goods of at least equivalent value. British manufactures, however, could not be brought in. Finally, the decree of Fontainebleau of Oct. 10, 1810, prescribed sentences of ten years' imprisonment and branding for the smuggling of British manufactures and up to four years for the importation of unlicensed colonial goods. All goods illegally imported were subject to confiscation;

was to be sold by the state and manufactured goods were to be publicly destroyed. These measures precipitated the crisis of 1811 on the continent. Through the decrees of 1810 the French state, in effect, took over the contraband trade, whose costs were commuted into the new customs tariffs. Licences given under the decree of July 25 were restricted at first to trade in French ships, and the modest colonial produce

trade permitted could hardly offset the overall effects of the continental system. Customs receipts increased to nearly 106,000,000 By Nov. 25, 1811, howfr. between Aug. 1810 and Dec. 1811. ever, only 494 of the new licences had been issued to cover imfr. and exports worth 45,000,000; and "exports" were dummies, later jettisoned, to warrant the landing of imports. Apart from the cessions 6. The Annexations of 1809-10.

ports worth 27,000,000

many

Portugal and South America to British trade helped to offset the drop in Great Britain's exports to Europe. Whereas Great Britain's exports to northern Europe in "real" (as opposed to official)

ican business was financed

21

Between 1806 and 1808, when British exports fell by approximately 13%, those of the French empire declined by 27% to remain at the same level in 1809, when the volume of British foreign trade rose by more than 33%. French customs receipts, 60,600,000 fr. in 1807, were only of land routes for continental trade.

—

imposed upon defeated Austria under the peace of Vienna (see below). Napoleon extended the frontiers of the French empire in 1809-10 in order to make his continental system more effective. On May 17, 1809, he annexed what had been left of the papal states; and on July 6 Pius VII, who had excommunicated Na-

Rome as a prisoner. On Jan. 3, 1810, Zeeland was annexed and the Dutch provinces between the Scheldt before the outright annexation of occupied, and the Rhine were Finally, in Dec. 1810 Napoleon annexed Holland on July 9. not only Valais but also all northwestern Germany between the Low Countries and the western Baltic, including Hamburg. Bremen, Ltibeck, part of Berg, part of Westphalia, Arenberg, Salm poleon, was taken from

—

least happily of all, because its ruling dynasty was closely connected with Russia Oldenburg. The "real" value of Great Britain's 7. The Crisis of 1811. exports and reexports, £51,100,000 in 1805 and £49,700,000 in 1808, reached £62,200,000 in 1810. For that reason the slump of

and

—

—

1811, when they fell to £43,900,000, was the more severely felt. Napoleon's recent measures against British commerce with the continent had contributed to this decline, but the crisis was due rather more to the effects of the war itself in encouraging the overrapid development of non-European trade and the growth of Moreover, financial instabihty had been increased by inflation. speculation. Thus the difficulties of 1811 were general. Though the British suffered more from the slump in trade than did their economically less-developed neighbours, the crisis overtook both Europe and the new world. Popular discontent in Great Britain was exacerbated by the rise in the cost of bread, caused partly by the poor harvests of 1809 and 1810. Economic opinion urged a return to the gold standard, but this would have depressed the

economy still further and curtailed Great Britain's contribution to the war in Europe. By its determination to sustain the war, the British

government did much

to

overcome the

crisis

:

having spent

£44,200,000 on war services and borrowed £22,500,000 in 1809, it spent £50,200,000 on the services and raised £23,500,000 in 1811

NAPOLEONIC WARS

22

and increased its borrowings by 50% in 1812. Both France and Great Britain relaxed their commercial measures against each other in Nov, 1811; the British allowed the export of cotton and quinine and admitted French and allied traders; the French permitted the entry of the colonial goods hitherto forbidden cotton, sugar, coffee, tea, dyes, etc. and granted licences

—

—

for trade.

From Nov. 1810 Napoleon had relaxed the Berlin and Milan decrees in respect of U.S. shipping; and in Feb. 1811 President Madison asked the British government to revoke the orders in After much delay the British agreed (April 21. 1812), council. provided that Napoleon had freed American trade from all restrictions. This was confirmed and, finally, on June 23, 1812. the but too late, since the United orders in council were revoked States had declared war on June 18 (see War of 1812). By this time, however, the British contraband trade with Germany was reviving; and after the complete opening of Swedish and Russian ports and an increase in South American trade, exports of British produce and manufactures reached £41,700,000 in 1812 (as opposed to £32,900,000 in 1811), while the volume of reexports rose by more than 50%.

—

VIII.

AUSTRIA'S

WAR OF

1809

Austria the involvement of the French army in Spain offered an opportunity to restore the rights of the Habsburgs in Germany and Italy and to put an end to the growing fear of new French demands. Moreover, though Austria did not intend to

To

sponsor German nationalism, the possibility of identifying the house of Habsburg and its traditions with the struggle to set central Europe free from French domination engendered a degree of exaltation in preparing for war and a kind of popular enthusiasm hitherto unprecedented. Though the reforms undertaken after 1805 had left the Austrian regime unchanged in fundamentals, while the financial condition had continued to deteriorate, the army had been considerably improved. Provision was made for the raising of reserves for regiments of the line. The Landwehr, established on June 9, 1808, was to furnish about 200,000 men, but their value was restricted to providing limited reinforcements for regular units. The military reformers adopted some measure of skirmishing tactics in 1807 and raised 23,000 light infantrymen in Sept. 1808. At the same time, the cavalry and the artillery were reorganized, so that in 1809 there were 36,000 horsemen and 760 guns in the field. A return was made to the requisition systems in order to supplement the previously cumbrous supply trains; and the corps system was adopted, but only in principle. The threat of Russian intervention could have deterred Austria from aggression, but though Alexander was pledged to help France if Austria eventually declared war, he yet refused to coerce Austria. While they met with little enthusiasm from Great Britain and got no heavy British subsidy to defray the cost of their mobilization, the Austrians could still count on a substantial effort to distract Napoleon: the British cabinet had agreed on the necessity to intervene in Europe and was considering whether to strengthen the British forces in Portugal, to send an expedition to the Netherlands or to make a diversion in the Baltic. News of Austrian preparations for war prompted Napoleon to return to Paris from Spain in Jan. 1809. The threat to his regime was greater than any that had emerged since 1805, and his difficulties were reflected in the high proportion of young recruits and foreign troops in the forces that he hurriedly assembled. The conscription class of 1809 had been summoned in Jan. 1808; a further draft of 20,000 had been taken from each of the classes of 1806-09 in September; and 80,000 of the class of 1810 were called

up

in

December.

German

contingents furnished nearly one174,000 which assembled on the The garde, recalled from Spain to

third of the striking force of

Danube

in mid-April

1809.

new army, had

still to come up. For the Austrians, the archduke John was to lead 47,000 against Eugene de Beauhamais in northern Italy; 10,000 were to go to the Tirol and 7,000 to Dalmatia; and 35,000, under the archduke

stiffen the

Ferdinand, were to guard Galicia against J. A. Poniatowski's 19,000 Poles and the dangers of a popular rising. The principal effort,

however, was to be along the Danube, where the archduke Charles was to have 190,000 men at his disposition. Charles had first planned to move from Bohemia to place his army between the assembling French forces and attack Davout's 60,000 troops around Regensburg on the Danube; but eventually, declining to leave Vienna uncovered, he sent the bulk of his forces via Linz to take the offensive south of the Danube. Though this course involved delay and diminished his advantage, it promised substantial success provided that he struck promptly. 1.

Landshut and Eckmvihl.

— Launching

his offensive before

the French completed their concentration, Charles entered Bavaria

Braunau, on the Inn, on April 9, 1809. If he had moved quickly he might have surprised the French at Neustadt on the Danube in the middle of their concentration; but he did not reach their outposts on the Isar till April 15. With him, around Landshut, were 126,000 troops, another 49.000 having been sent up the north bank of the Danube from Passau to a position 30 mi. N. of Regensburg. Commanding in Napoleon's absence, Berthier failed to withdraw Davout from Regensburg, with the result that his forces, dangerously far apart, risked an early defeat in detail, since on April 16 Charles's forward troops had only 15 mi. to march to reach the Danube 20 mi. upstream from Regensburg. Farther up the Danube, Berthier had 33,000 troops around Ingolstadt and 16,000 between Neuburg and Donauworth, while to the south, along the Lech as far as Augsburg, there were 20,000 under Oudinot. Massena's force of 40,000, scattered over the area Augsburg-Ulm-Landsberg, had not completed its assembly. Napoleon arrived at Donauworth early on April 27, 1809, while Lefebvre's three divisions were still falling back from the Isar before Charles's columns. As the Austrians appeared to be headat

ing northward from Landshut to Regensburg and the Danube, Napoleon formed the plan for using Davout to hold their front while

Massena came up on their rear to cut them off from Landshut. Davout left the Regensburg area to march along the right bank of the Danube in front of the enemy early on April 19: with 47.000 men, he ran no great risks unless he were attacked at once and by the mass of the enemy; and in that case there were 46,000 troops around Neustadt to come to his assistance. In the event, Charles's two eastern columns did not encounter the French as they concluded their advance, and the third, left-hand column was easily contained at Teugen by Davout's rear guard as his vanguard joined Lefebvre's forces at Abensberg. On the same day, April 19, Massena's advance, on the French right, brought him to a point 30 mi. W. of Landshut, where Johann von Hiller was in command of the two remaining Austrian columns. Napoleon, mistaking Hiller's forces for the mass of the Austrian army, then pressed Massena to reach the Isar and take Landshut, supposing that, if a large proportion of the Austrian forces were caught in the triangle whose apex was the Isar-Danube confluence and whose sides ran down to Regensburg and Landshut, Charles would be forced either to stand and fight or to attempt escape by crossing the Danube at Straubing or Regensburg. Lannes was given command of the centre of the French front, where he was placed to deliver a blow to the flank of the Austrians at Abensberg on April 20, as they were pushed back toward Landshut by Lefebvre and Davout. On April 21, the 40,000 Austrians around Landshut were threatened by forces of 94,000 converging from the north under Lannes and Vandamme and from the west under Massena. Massena however entered Landshut too late to take the Austrians The Austrians in reverse, and Hiller withdrew toward the Inn.

more than 9,000 casualties around Landshut and in the and lost 30 cannon and much of their transport. Regensburg capitulated to the Austrians on April 20, 1809. Reinforced by the two corps sent originally to the north of the Danube, Charles next decided to attack Davout and Lefebvre, who found themselves heavily outnumbered; but on April 22, before he could outflank Davout's left, his own left wing was attacked by Davout at Eggmiihl (see Eckmuhl, Battle of). Napoleon's arrival on his rear compelled Charles to retreat, and during the

suffered retreat

Danube unpursued. week's operations had cost Austria 30,000 casualties and the archduke's forces into two groups. Though both groups

night the Austrians crossed the

A split

NAPOLEONIC WARS toward Vienna, north of which their reunited army numbered 130,000 by mid-May, the Austrian reverse confirmed Frederick William in his preference for keeping Prussia neutral. He had, however, thought of joining Austria; and several Prussian officers, headed by Ferdinand von Schill, started a patriotic rising of their own on April 28, 1809, in the hope of encouraging him to intervene against the French. 2. Aspern-Essling As Charles withdrew northward into Bohemia, Napoleon advanced on Vienna with the intention of achieving a decision before the Austrian forces in Italy and the Tirol could intervene. Thus the main French army followed Hiller toward Linz, leaving Davout and Bernadotte to observe Charles. To the south Lefebvre advanced via Munich to the Salzach and the Tirol. After a fierce engagement at Ebelsberg on the Traun (May 3, 180Q~) Hiller reached the Danube and the archduke's army. The French entered Vienna on May 12, but found the bridges broken and Charles's army massed on the left bank of the swollen Danube. To come to grips with the Austrians, Napoleon decided to attempt a crossing a little below Vienna, where islands split the river into smaller channels. His advance guard, sent across on the night of May 20-21, was attacked between the villages of Aspern and Essling; and after more French forces had crossed they were repulsed on May 22 with at least 20.000 casualties, the AusThis reverse, the battle of Aspern-Essling trians losing 23,000. (q.v.), not only compromised Napoleon's immediate military situThe ation, but lessened his standing in the eyes of Europe. Tirolese, who had risen in favour of the Habsburgs against Bavarian rule in April but had appeared to be quelled by Lefebvre's arrival in Innsbruck on May 19, retook Innsbruck a week after Aspern-Essling and remained in the field for six more months (see HoFER. Andreas). In April 1809 the 3. The Austrian Campaign in Poland. Russian emperor Alexander resumed his war with the Turks. For two months he made no move against Austria except to issue a belated declaration of war (May 5). though he maintained a large force on the Galician border and when he did intervene in Galicia The it was with an eye to his own interests, not to Napoleon's. archduke Ferdinand had crossed the Pihca on April 17 to reach Warsaw on April 23; and Poniatowski retired to the right bank of the Vistula until the Russians should come up. Ferdinand next advanced down the left bank, but could not cross at Flock or at Meanwhile Poniatowski assumed the offensive up the Torun. river, taking Lublin and Sandomierz in mid-May; but the Ruswere able to

retire

—

;

with him. Ferdinand, returning southward, thus made good his escape. 4. The Southern Fronts. Defeating Eugene de Beauharnais before the Tagliamento on April 16, 1809, the archduke John had driven the French back to the Adige before the news of Landshut and Eckmiihl obliged him to retire. With his forces still too widely dispersed, he withdrew before Eugene across Carinthia and Styria sians, entering Galicia in early June, failed to co-operate

—

Hungary and arrived at Kormend on the upper Raab river on June 1. Retiring next to Raab (Gyor), he was defeated there on June 14; and though he crossed the Danube next day and reached Bratislava on June 23, he rejoined the archduke Charles several hours too late to take part in the battle of Wagram, whereas Eugene had joined Napoleon beforehand. Far to the west, in Styria around Graz, Ignaz Gyulai continued till June 29 to maneuver against Marmont, who had taken the offensive against the Austrians in Croatia and had been at Laibach by June 3. 5. Wagram. By the beginning of July 1809 Napoleon had assembled approximately 180,000 men and 488 cannon on the isle of Lobau and in" its environs on the right bank of the Danube east of Vienna. On the left bank Charles had about 136,000 men and 414 guns. After a number of diversions along the river, the French army began its passage, below Essling, at 9 p.m. on July 4. Charles withdrew to a strong position six miles north of the Danube above Deutsch Wagram and Aderklaa, from which for two days he strongly resisted French attacks. On July 6, however, he was forced to retreat. In this battle of Wagram (q.v.) the Austrians had given a good account of themselves, while the per-

into

—

formance of the French reflected the inferiority of their army to the veteran force that Nap>oleon had wasted since 1805. Charles

23

northward to the Thaya (Dyje), with his forces well in hand, and the French proved slow to develop their pursuit. On July 12, after a last engagement at Znaim (Znojmo), Napoleon was willing to grant an armistice. The Austrians who had entered Saxony and put King Frederick Augustus to flight retraced their retired

steps. 6.

The Walcheren Expedition

of the British.

—The

British

1809 that they would intervene in the Low Countries. On July 28, an expedition of 39,200 men, the largest that had ever been sent to the continent, sailed for the Scheldt estuary, supported by a fleet of 35 ships of the line, 23 frigates and 350 transports. Its incompetent commander, the 2nd earl of

had decided

in

May

Chatham (John Pitt), instead of marching directly on Antwerp, which might have fallen, wasted precious time on Walcheren Island before Flushing, which he occupied on Aug. 16. Half of his force returned to England during the first week of September, by which time almost 11,000 men had contracted fever. The rest remained Of to garrison Walcheren till they were taken oflE in December. the expedition's 4,044 dead, only 106 had been lost in action. Late in July 1809 7. The Peace of Vienna (Schonbrunn). the Russian emperor asked Napoleon for an undertaking that Poland as a whole would not be reestablished: he could countenance the transfer of much of Galicia to the duchy of Warsaw, but not any arrangement prejudicial to Russia's position in Poland. Both he and Napoleon saw how damaging to Franco-Polish relations it would be if Napoleon complied with this request; but in any case Alexander's conduct since the outbreak of war in April had already shown that Tilsit and Erfurt were to be regarded as establishing a truce rather than an alliance between France and Russia. The war party in Austria drew fresh strength from the deterioration of the Franco-Russian entente, so that the peace negotiations, which opened in the middle of August, proceeded slowly. When Napoleon finally offered part of Galicia and an assurance on Poland to Alexander, the latter on Sept. 1 told the Austrians that he was not prepared to support them in continuing

—

the war.

The peace of Vienna, signed at Schonbrunn on Oct. 14, 1809, was a costly settlement of what had been, militarily, Austria's The Innviertel and the least unsuccessful war against Napoleon. province of Salzburg had to be ceded to Bavaria; part of Croatia, Fiume, Istria and Trieste, most of Carinthia and Carniola went to Napoleon; West Galicia (the Polish territory acquired by Austria in 1795, with Cracow and Lublin) passed to the duchy of Warsaw; and in the east the Tarnopol area was assigned to Russia. Francis of Austria thus lost 3,500,000 subjects and all his coastal possessions. Austria had also to pay an indemnity of 85,000,000 fr. and to reduce the army to 150,000 men. IX.

FRANCE AND NORTHERN

EXIROPE, 1809-12

Gustavus IV of Sweden abdicated in March 1809. His uncle, who succeeded him as Charles XIII, made peace with Russia by the treaty of Fredrikshamn of Sept. 17, ceding Finland. Sweden next made peace with France by the treaty of Paris of Jan. 6, 1810, and joined the continental system (officially at least). When Bernadotte was chosen heir to the Swedish crown (see Charles XIV John), Napoleon obtained a declaration of war by Sweden against Great Britain (Nov. 17). This had no effect, and Bernadotte soon told Alexander that he would remain independent of French influence and loyal to the treaty of Fredrikshamn. Franco-Russian relations were exacerbated early in 1810 when Napoleon's betrothal to the Austrian archduchess Marie Louise was announced before Alexander had declared his mother's refusal of Napoleon's overtures for a marriage alliance with the Russian imperial family. If the suggestion had been unwelcome, the denouement was slighting, and the growth of French influence in Vienna increased Alexander's impatience of French tutelage. The difficulties occasioned to Russia by the continental system, together with Napoleon's own example in permitting relaxation of his commercial measures where French interests were involved, prompted Alexander to issue the ukase of Dec. 31, 1810, forbidding some imports by land (whose provenance was the French empire and the satellite states) and doubling the duty on some French merchan-

NAPOLEONIC WARS

24 dise,

and

Before

to

this,

open his ports to neutral shipping and British goods. Napoleon had taken the unmistakably hostile course Thenceforward France and Russia both

of annexing Oldenburg.

prepared for war. Early in ISl 1 Napoleon had only the 50,000 troops of the duchy of Warsaw and the 45,000 French garrisoned in Germany to proThe Russians could soon put 240,000 tect his eastern frontier. men in the field, and .Mexander concluded that if the Poles would join him, together with the 50,000 Prussians who could, he believed, then also join him without risk, he "could advance to the Oder without striking a blow." This plan was dropped when the Poles refused to change sides despite Alexander's offer to reconstitute Poland; but Napoleon remained on the alert in the spring of ISll, and by Aug. 16 he was discussing the general plan of a Russian campaign to begin in June 1812. In Dec. IS 11 Napoleon secured Austria's informal agreement to furnish 30,000 men for his campaign against Russia; and by a treaty of Feb. 24, 1812, Frederick William of Prussia, to the dismay of Prussian patriots, consented to the occupation of his country by the Grande Armee on its way to Russia and undertook to provide supplies and materials to it (the cost to be set against the balance of the Tilsit indemnity) and also to send and maintain at full strength a contingent of 20,000 men. Both Austria and Prussia, however, informed Alexander that they would make no serious effort in the forthcoming campaign. Napoleon offended Bernadotte by opposing the latter's plan for the annexation of Norway to Sweden and by occupying Swedish Pomerania (Jan. 1812) in reprisal for Sweden's failure to exclude colonial goods. Bernadotte therefore sought alliance with Russia; and by the agreement of April 5-9, 1812, it was arranged that the Swedes should invade Germany when the French were deeply enough engaged in Russia and that the Russians should later help the Swedes to annex Norway. On May 28 Russia made peace with Turkey.

X.

THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN,

1812

For the campaign of 1812 Napoleon summoned the largest army that Europe had ever seen. He also made unprecedented efforts to assemble supplies and transport, but these preparations were quite insufficient for an advance with such disproportionate forces far into Russia. He wrongly supposed that the campaign would be ended within 30 days. Late in February the various elements of the Grande Armee set out on the long journeys which were to bring them to the frontier along Niemen in June. 1. The Invasion of Russia. The main French army began to cross the Niemen into Russia on June 24, 1812. The total invading force then numbered approximately 453,000; but about 612,000 were to enter Russia during the campaign, and little more than 200,000 of them were French. The non-French contingents were destined for employment in secondary tasks; the spearhead of the invasion force was composed of French troops. Napoleon divided his forces into armies, commanding the principal one himself and providing two auxiliary armies to protect the flanks and rear of his striking force. With him on the Niemen were 227,000 men; next on his right Eugene led 80,000; on the right wing at Grodno were Jerome with 76,000 and, beyond him, K. P. Schwar-

—

zenberg's Austrian contingent of nearly 30,000, charged with the observation of the southernmost of the dispersed Russian forces; and on the extreme French left were Macdonald and Yorck with the Prusso-Polish force of 40,000.

Behind the Niemen the Russian commander Barclay de Tolly's army numbered 118,000. Bagration commanded approximately 35,000 and several thousand Cossacks behind the Bug, while A. P. Tormasov, who was observing Schwarzenberg, led about 40,000. In the north P. Kh. Wittgenstein was advancing westward with 25,000 to defend the Dvina. For reserves, the Russians could call on recruits under training and Cossack and militia formations; but as these were not at once available the Russian command decided to retreat before Napoleon's greatly superior forces.

A forced march brought the French to Vilna on June 28, 1812, but by then Barclay had moved toward the fortified camp of Drissa on the Dvina and Bagration, against whom Jerome was making a ;

lengthy march from the south in

difficult conditions, avoided Davout's attempt to cut his line of retreat by a thrust through Minsk with two divisions and was able to cross the Dnieper (July Barclay meanwhile had abandoned Drissa and withdrawn 25). first to Vitebsk (July 23), then to Smolensk, where Bagration joined him on Aug. 3, bringing their combined forces to 110,000. Napoleon, whose march from Vilna to Vitebsk had failed to separate the two Russian armies, now turned southeastward, crossing the Dnieper in the night of Aug. 13-14, 1812. On Aug. 14 an engagement at Krasnoe (Krasny) left Barclay in no doubt of his intentions. The French appeared, 180,000 strong, before Smolensk on Aug. 16 and, despite the resistance of Barclay's rear guard, entered the suburbs next day. Early on Aug. 18 the Russians withdrew, having destroyed the bridges and fired the town; and though their rear guard was defeated by Ney and Murat at Valutina on Aug. 19, the mass of their army eluded pursuit. The French lost nearly 15,000 killed and wounded in the actions of Aug. 16-19. Meanwhile on Aug. 17, 1812, Gouvion-Saint-Cyr replaced Oudinot on Napoleon's left flank and defeated Wittgenstein at Polotsk. A few days later Schwarzenberg won a success at Gorodechno; but though the French extreme left flank in this sector had been able to contain Tormasov, P. V, Chichagov's approach from the south threatened to double the Russian numbers there. Napoleon halted at Smolensk till Aug. 25, summoning Victor's corps to Smolensk to protect his lines of communication and ordering Augereau's

from Germany to ViLna. Prolonged and rapid marching and commissariat problems, not combat, had already taken heavy toll of Napoleon's strength. If the failure of the transport columns to supply the marching troops reduced the effectiveness of the infantry, the cavalry, so essential to his methods of warfare, were particularly vulnerable: forage was lacking for the 300,000 horses, and disease and excessive work increased their death rate. Fruitful though Barclay's cautious methods had been, he was replaced by the veteran Kutuzov on Aug. 17, 1812. The new commander was determined to fight a major battle before abandoning Moscow. The French arrived before his positions around the village of Borodino on Sept. 5. The next day was spent in concentrating the army, reconnaissance and preparations; and the inconclusive battle of Borodino (g.v.) was fought on Sept. 7. The Russians fell back southeastward to the Nara river, and Napoleon entered Moscow with 95,000 men on Sept. 14. That night the city was fired, partly at least by the Russians themselves. 2. The Retreat from Moscow The Russians refused to come to terms; and both military and political dangers could be foreseen if the French were to winter in Moscow. After waiting for a month. Napoleon began his retreat, his army now 110,000 strong, on Oct. 19, 1812. His first intention was to retire via Kaluga and thus to make a long detour through more fertile and unexhausted territory before regaining Smolensk, but after the successful combat of Maloyaroslavets (Oct. 24), where he found Kutuzov in his path, he decided to return by the direct route. At Vyazma, on Nov. 12, 1812, Napoleon's forces had already fallen to 55,000 men. It was not until Nov. 6 that the first snowstorm overtook the army, to be followed by alternate thaws and

—

frosts

till

early December,

when

bitter cold set in.

Thus

the large

majority of Napoleon's losses occurred before the first snowfall. On leaving Smolensk, which had been ravaged in August and was now virtually destitute of supplies, the French found Kutuzov threatening their path at Krasnoe. Kutuzov however decUned to bring on a general engagement, and in the intermittent fighting that ensued (Nov. 15-17) the main French forces secured their retreat. Ney, trapped with the rear guard on Nov. 18, was able to escape, with heavy losses, only by crossing the unreliable ice on the Dnieper. The Grande Armee now numbered 8,000 combatants and 40,000 stragglers. Victor's corps, 15,000 men, who had gone northwestward from Smolensk, and Oudinot's, fewer still, rejoined the army west of Orsha; in their rear Wittgenstein had crossed the Dvina. The French approached the Berezina only to learn that the vital bridge at Borisov had been captured by Chichagov, whom Schwarzenberg had failed to pursue on his march from the south. Ou-

NAPOLEONIC WARS burned the bridge before they withdrew. During the night of Nov. 25-26, 1812, two bridges were constructed upstream at Studyanka while a feint to dinot's corps took Borisov, but the Russians

the south distracted the Russians' attention. Oudinot's 7,000 men crossed on Nov. 26, the main body of the army next day. On Nov.

28 the rear guard under Victor held off Wittgenstein's attacks along bank while Chichagov's assaults on the west bank were contained by the rest of the army. At 9 a.m. on Nov. 29 Victor's men fired the bridges. From Smorgoni the French continued their march, now in extreme cold, to Vilna (Dec. 9) and thence to the east

Kovno, where a few broken- thousands crossed the Niemen to find refuge at Konigsberg. A further 40,000 men in isolated detachments subsequently made their way to the Vistula. From the north, Macdonald's corps retired with 16,000

men;

in the south,

Schwarzenberg and J. L. E. Reynier fell back to the Bug with 40,The exhausted Russians, their own forces reduced to 40,000, suspended their advance at the Vistula. Their casualties had also been extremely high: fewer than 30% of the troops who began the pursuit at Maloyaroslavets reached Vilna. When the remnant of his army was 60 mi. E. of Vilna, on Dec. 5, 1812, Napoleon had handed the command over to Murat and had hastened on ahead in order to reach Paris before the news of his It is estimated that of the 612,000 combatants who endisaster. 000.

tered Russia only 112,000 returned to the frontier:

100,000 are thought to have been killed in action, 200,000 to have died from other causes, 50,000 to have been left sick in hospitals, 50,000 to have deserted and 100,000 to have been taken as prisoners of war. The French themselves lost 70,000 in action and 120,000 wounded, Rusas against the non-French contingents' 30,000 and 60,000. sian casualties have been set at 200,000 killed, 50,000 dispersed or deserting and 150,000 wounded.

The dissolution of the Grande Armee meant that the French army could no longer absorb new recruits into well-established formations. Nor could it find trained men and horses on a scale to replace the magnificent cavalry arm destroyed in Russia. XI.

THE CAMPAIGN OF

1813

was not immediately certain that the Russians would carry the war into Germany. Alexander, however, intended to exploit Nahis new opportunities and resolved to continue his advance. poleon hoped, mistakenly, that Austria and Prussia would send reinforcements to assist Murat in maintaining a front until he himself returned with a new army. 1. Prussia's Change of Side. Prussian resistance to Napoleon was precipitated by the initiative of Yorck, commander of the Prussian contingent under Macdonald. Instead of marching as Macdonald's rear guard, Yorck chose to sign his own convention of neutrality with the Russians at Tauroggen on Dec. 30, 1812, which allowed them to occupy the Prussian territory between Konigsberg and Memel so that Macdonald had to continue his retreat to Danzig. On the other wing of the French front, Schwarzenberg signed an armistice on Jan. 30, 1813, and withdrew southward with his It

—

Austrian troops, exposing Reynier's corps in its retreat to the Oder. The Poles offered no resistance to the Russian advance, which stood at the Niemen on Jan. 13, reached the Vistula on Jan. 18 and gained Warsaw on Feb. 7. King Frederick William's first reaction to Yorck's convention of Tauroggen was to declare it the act of "an insubordinate soldier." Gaining confidence, however, he decided to join the patriotic advocates of resistance to France and to capture a leading

German War of Liberation. Meanwhile, the exiled vom und zum Stein, whom Frederick William had dismissed from the Prussian government in 1808 and who was known as a spokesman of the anti-French movement in Germany, was installed by the Russians as provisional governor in Konigsberg, where the estates of East Prussia met to call for the formation of a Landwehr. Frederick William agreed on Feb. 3 to an appeal for volunteers; and within another week he had abolished role in the

statesman Karl

exemption from military service. After negotiation and the use of some pressure on Frederick WOliam, Alexander concluded an alliance with him at Kalisz on Feb. 28, 1813, by which he undertook not to make peace until the

25

kingdom of Prussia had been restored to an area and population equivalent to what it had had before Tilsit, though almost all the territory gained in the second and third partitions of Poland was to be renounced. On March 16 Prussia declared war on Napoleon; and on March 19 Alexander and Frederick William issued a proclamation declaring the Confederation of the Rhine to be dissolved and summoning its rulers to change sides or forfeit their states. Prussian support was essential to Alexander's plans, since the Russian field army numbered only 64,000 at the end of March 1813, whereas Prussia had 61,500 ready for campaign, 28,000 in garrison and 32,000 in Pomerania and in East Prussia and would have the Landwehr available for service in August. The practical enthusiasm for the German national movement have been subject to some exaggeration: it furnished 22,000 volunteers between March and May, while the Landwehr contributed more than 120,000 men, to supply half of the Prussian effectives in the autumn campaign. Eugene, who had replaced Murat in command of the French forces on Jan. 16, 1813, retreated from Poznan on Feb. 12 and paused only briefly on the Oder (Feb. 18-22) before falling back on Berlin. On March 4, he withdrew from Berlin to defend the line of the upper Elbe, exposing Hamburg, which was captured by Russian cavalry on March 18, and abandoning Dresden, the Saxon capital, where Bliicher and his Prussians arrived on March 27. In April 1813 the British offered subsidies to Frederick William on condition that Hanover, which Prussia had undertaken to forgo, was enlarged and that Prussia would agree with Russia not to make peace without Great Britain's consent. Acceding to the Russo-Swedish agreement of 1812, the British not only assigned Norway to Bernadotte (treaty of Stockholm, March 3, 1813), but allotted him Guadeloupe into the bargain and £1,000,000 toward the cost of the contingent of 24,000 with which he landed in Pomerania on May 18. 2. The Austrian Attempt at Mediation. Austria was the least prepared of the major European powers for immediate hostilities against France. Metternich distrusted Alexander's designs in Poland and in the Turkish states and was reluctant to asOn the other hand alliance sist the aggrandisement of Prussia. with France would leave Austria to the mercy of the allies if Napoleon were defeated but would not ensure adequate recompense if he won. In April 1813 Metternich asked Napoleon to agree to the return of Illyria, to the partition of the duchy of Warsaw and to the dissolution of the Confederation of the Rhine, informing him that Austria was about to take up armed mediation and would intervene against the side which failed to agree with its proposals. Austria had guaranteed the integrity of the kingdom of Saxony, and on April 26 King Frederick Augustus undertook to join forces with Austria in the event of war. Metternich was also seeking support from Bavaria, whose loyalty to France was uncertain. results of Prussian

in 1813

—

—

New French Army. Though the Austrian field army number 194,000 by Aug. 1813, only one-third of that number was available during the early months of the year. Napoleon's new levies, hastily raised on his return from Russia, lacked training 3.

was

The

to

and experience; and though cannon, muskets, munitions and wagons were found, he had few horses, so that there were only 7,0008,000 cavalrymen fit to campaign by April 1813. In Sept. 1812 a levy of 137,000 men had been made from the class of 1813; and on Jan. 11, 1813, Napoleon called up the class of 1814 in a contingent of 150,000 men and raised a further 100,000 from the classes of 1809-12. Instead of winding up his Spanish affairs, he withdrew 27,000 troops from the peninsula, leaving more than 150,000 in Spain. In Jan. 1813 the incorporation into the active army of 22 regiments of the premier ban of the garde nationale provided about 85,000 men for the hne. In April he mobilized another 90,000 men of the 1814 class and a further 80,000 of the classes of 1807-12 serving with the garde nationale. When he left Paris for the front on April 15 the Russian army in Germany numbered 110,000 men, of whom 30,000 were cavalry, and the Prussian 80,000 men; against them. Napoleon had 226,000 troops and 457 guns. 4. Ltitzen (Gross-Gorschen) and Bautzen Napoleon had

divided his forces into two armies

own command; and

the

army

:

the

army

Main under his by Eugene. In the

of the

of the Elbe led

NAPOLEONIC WARS

26

last days of April 1813 Napoleon reached the Saale with 140,000 men, of whom only 7.500 were cavalry, and 372 guns. Napoleon proposed first to march on Leipzig, outflanking his enemy, then to turn southward to drive the allies against the Erzgebirge mountains. Late on April 30 the army of the Elbe (62.000) was around Merseburg and the army of the Main along the Saale west of Weissenfels. while the allied troops under Wittgenstein (64.000 infantry, 24.000 cavalry and 552 guns"! were grouped south of Leipzig, almost at right angles to the French line of operations. On May 1. 1813, Napoleon entered LiJLzen; the army of the Elbe had moved from Merseburg to Schladebach and the leading corps of the army of the Main from Weissenfels to Liitzen. while the garde advanced to W'eissenfels and the two rear corps closed up on Naumburg and Stossen. During the next day Ney was to remain at Liitzen, to protect both the movement of the army of the Elbe on Leipzig and the approach of the rearward corps of his own army of the Main as they came up to Liitzen. Ney disposed his troops rather carelessly and failed to reckon sufficiently with the danger of an allied attack. W'ittgenstein was thus prompted to attempt to detach the flank guard under Ney, split the enemy forces and drive the army of the Elbe back upon the Elster river. On May 2. 1813. the allies opened their cannonade at GrossGorschen near Kaja, taking Ney's corps by surprise as Napoleon was superintending the attack on Leipzig. Napoleon ordered his troops to concentrate at Kaja instead of continuing their approach to Leipzig (now in French hands) and reestablished his front while waiting for Bertrand to intervene on the allied left flank and for Macdonald to cut the enemy's retreat to the Elster. Both came slowly to the battlefield and the struggle ended at nightfall. Covered by his numerous cavalry, which prevented pursuit, Wittgenstein retired in good order. The French had purchased their inconclusive victory at a cost of about 20,000 killed, wounded and captured; the allies had lost 12,000. However, the retreat of the allies caused Frederick Augustus of Saxony to abandon them, and

his

army now joined

the French.

On May 3. 1813, Ney was instructed to move northeastward on Torgau and Wittenberg while the army of the Elbe followed the aUied retreat on Dresden. From Dresden the Russians continued their retreat to the Spree, the Prussians bearing northward before In the north 30.000 under F. W. von Bijlow were to cover Berlin. On May 8 Napoleon entered Dresden, where he spent over a week in reorganizing his forces and establishing a base of operations against the main allied army and Berlin. Eugene was sent to Italy and the armies of the Main and Elbe were divided between Napoleon and Ney. On May 18, 1813, Napoleon set out for Bautzen to seek a decisive battle. Having first ordered Ney to send two of his corps toward Berlin, he subsequently countermanded this order and summoned all Ney's forces to Bautzen, but the new instructions arrived rejoining their allies at Bautzen.

the Prussians at Poischwitz and was extended subsequently from

June 20 to Aug. 10 for an Prague.

unrealistic discussion of peace terms at

The Prussian Landwehr and

the Austrian army had not had spent its force. Napoleon had lost 25.000 more men than the allies; his army lacked ammunition and supplies and was exhausted by continual marching the number of sick had risen to 30.000) and above all he was short of ca\-alry. He counted on matching the allies' increase in strength during an armistice and on putting sufl&cient cavalry into yet entered the field, but the French offensive

(

;

the field to secure a decision.

At Reichenbach (modern Pol. Dzierzoniow") in Silesia, British plenipotentiaries signed a treaty with Frederick William on June .

14. 1813.

that

and another with Alexander on June

Hanover should be restored and enlarged,

tories should be

15.

It

was agreed

that Prussia's terri-

made

equivalent to those of 1806 and that the three powers should not treat separately with Napoleon. Great Britain was to provide £2,000,000 toward the support of the 240,-

000 men in the Russian and Prussian field armies. There followed, on June 27. a third treaty of Reichenbach. between Austria, Russia and Prussia, whereby the Austrians undertook to enter the war if Napoleon did not accept their terms. These terms, together with their allies' still more exacting demands, included the disappearance of the duchy of Warsaw, the Confederation of the Rhine and the German annexations and the surrender of Holland, Italy, Spain and lUyria. The news of Wellington's crushing victory at Vitoria, in the Peninsular War, strengthened the allies' morale considerably. By July 5 Castlereagh, the British foreign secretary, was ready to adopt the continental powers' conditions for peace, to demand Sicily for the Bourbons and to seek the allies' acknowledgement of Bernadotte's claims. The armistice ended on Aug. 10. Austria declared war two days later. The treaty of Teplitz (Sept. 9) confirmed the Austro-Russo-Prussian alliance. 6. Dispositions for the Autumn Campaign.^

—

Despite Ausentry into the war. Napoleon had virtually kept pace with the allies' increase in strength, for he now commanded 442.000 men of whom more than 40,000 were cavalry, excluding the 26,000 men in garrisons on the Elbe, and 1.284 guns. The Russians began the autumn campaign with 184.000, the Prussians, whose Landwehr was becoming available for service, with 162.000; the Austrians contributed 127,000. the Swedes 23.000 and the Anglo-German contingent 9.000: in all more than 500.000 men and 1.380 guns. tria's

Napoleon had only 43.000 men in reserve, however, while the reserves and besieging forces numbered 143,000 without

allies'

the French had paid heavily for their partial victories. Napoleon still enjoyed a numerical advantage, and the allies were materially in poor condition; yet on June 1, 1813. he proposed an armistice

counting the 112.000 troops dispersed in fortress duty. After considerable discussion the allies decided to divide their forces into three armies: the army of Bohemia under Schwarzenberg (accompanied by Alexander and Frederick William), consisting of 127.000 Austrians, together with 82,000 Russians and half as many Prussians; the army of Silesia under Bliicher, a RussoPrussian force of more than 100.000; and the army of the North under Bernadotte. comprising the Swedish contingent. 73,000 Prussians and a Russian detachment, in all 125.000 men. The first army would advance on Dresden up the western bank of the Elbe and the third on Wittenberg, protecting Berlin, while the second would assist either the first or the third as the course of events should demand. It was agreed that the allies should avoid battle with Napoleon and attack his subordinates. Napoleon's autumn campaign of 1813 was the worst conceived and most disastrous of his career. He was determined to relate his strategy to the fortresses which his forces occupied, thus reducing his scope for movement and though there were good reasons for his decision to defend the line of the Elbe, it also posed In the first place, it required difficulties which he failed to resolve. the retention of Dresden as his principal base of operations. Yet if he moved the bulk of his forces northward to join Davout from Hamburg and J. B. Girard from Magdeburg in attacking the army of the North, he would loosen his grip on the king of Saxony and allow the army of Bohemia and the army of Silesia to unite before Dresden. As he decided to concentrate against the latter two armies, Oudinot was left exposed in the north to contain Bernadotte's much superior forces. With the deduction of Davout's

which was accepted on June 4 by the Russians

40,000 at

too late to ensure the necessary concentration of strength.

The

had assembled 96.000 men on the Spree around Bautzen; and Napoleon was determined to engage them by a preliminary attack on May 20 to be completed when Ney should arrive from the north next day to attack their fiank and rear, cutting their lines of communication and pushing them toward the Erzgebirge. On May 20 the preliminary attack was successful; but on May 21 Ney, who reached Preititz with more than 40,000 in hand, allowed himself to be drawn into an inconclusive encounter with the aOies' allies

—

right wing.

The

restricted extent of Ney's outflanking

movement

and the heav-y superiority of their cavalry allowed the allies to escape once more when they began their retreat eastward at 4 p.m. French casualties were about 20.000 men, the allies' half as many. Having crossed the Katzbach on May 26. 1813. the allies turned southward with the intention of safeguarding Silesia. On June 1 they reached Schweidnitz (Swidnica) and the French occupied Breslau. In the north, Davout's troops had retaken Hamburg on

May 5.

30.

The Armistice and the Reichenbach

Treaties.

—Though

at Plaswitz

and by

;

Hamburg and

the garrisons along the Elbe, Napoleon

NAPOLEONIC WARS greatly reduced both his capacity to

maneuver and the number of

troops immediately available for the field. 7. Dresden. Napoleon did not know that the allies had decided

—

to increase the

army

of

Bohemia

to 250,000

men, and he resumed

operations intending to stand on the defensive in the south, with Dresden, till the allies should show their hand, and to

his base at

seek a decision in the north, where Oudinot (with 70,000) and Davout from Hamburg would converge upon Berlin. At Bautzen, on Aug. 17, 1813, he learned that 40,000 Russians from the army of Silesia were marching to Bohemia. He proposed to deal first with Bliicher and then with the armies of Bohemia and of the North. Bliicher having advanced toward Lowenberg on the Bober (Lwowek Slaski on the Bobrawa), Napoleon crossed the river on Aug. 21 only to find that Bliicher had retreated. Returning to Gorlitz, he learned on Aug. 23 that the advance of the army of Bohemia had obliged Gouvion-Saint-Cyr to fall back on Dresden. Leaving Macdonald with 75,000 men to hold Bliicher east of the Bober, Napoleon set off westward in haste, at the same time ordering Vandamme to march to Stolpen, where he intended to assemble the remainder of his forces on Aug. 25 so that they could appear en masse at Pirna in Schwarzenberg's rear. He himself arrived at Stolpen on Aug. 25; but so dangerous was the situation at Dresden that he instructed the bulk of his forces to proceed directly on the At 10 a.m. on city while Vandamme continued alone to Pirna.

Aug. 26, the garde entered Dresden, having marched 90 mi. in 72 Schwarzenberg, who had meant to launch his attack at hours. 4 P.M., now decided to retire, but too late to prevent the beginning of the engagement. Though Napoleon led only 70,000 men against an enemy twice that number, he succeeded in pushing his opponents back before nightfall; he was joined late that night by Marmont and Victor's corps. The battle was resumed at 6 a.m. on Aug. 27, the French driving back Schwarzenberg's right and overwhelming his left. At 4 p.m. the allies withdrew in disorder, though their retreat was not heavily pressed; they had lost 10,000 men killed and wounded, more than 13,000 captured and 26 guns. The French began their pursuit early on Aug. 28, but the less effectively because Napoleon became ill and retired to Dresden. Illness and the shortcomings of his corps commanders deprived him of the full reward of his last major victory. A succession of reverses soon destroyed the effect of Dresden. On Aug. 23, 1813, Oudinot had been defeated by Bijlow at Grossbeeren, with the loss of 3,000 men, and retired behind the Elbe. On the evening of Aug. 28 news reached Dresden of Macdonald's rout by Bliicher on the Katzbach (Aug. 26), in which the French had lost nearly 20,000 men and more than 100 guns. Vandamme, pressing on toward Tephtz with 38,000 men to intercept the retreating army of Bohemia, became separated from his colleagues and on Aug. 30 was surrounded at Kulm; he lost about 15,000 men in a rout that destroyed his corps as an organized force. 8. The Allies' Convergence. Napoleon, still anxious to reach Berlin, replaced Oudinot by Ney, whom he sent to hold Bernadotte away from the Elbe. On Sept. 3, 1813, he left Dresden to rally Macdonald's army, which he led forward to Hochkirch again to find that Bliicher had ordered a retreat to the Neisse. Schwarzenberg, having approached Dresden once more (Sept. 5), retired to Teplitz when Napoleon turned south. Ney crossed the Elbe to be completely defeated at Dennewitz on Sept. 6, where he lost about 22,000 men and 53 cannon. Bernadotte, whose Swedes had been absent from both Grossbeeren and Dennewitz, continued to maneuver along the right bank of the Elbe. At Pirna, where on Sept. 18 he had finally rejected a plan to attack the army of Bohemia, Napoleon was wrongly informed that Bernadotte had crossed the Elbe at Rosslau. Returning to Dresden on Sept. 21, he reinforced Macdonald on Aug. 22 to push Bliicher on to his prepared positions near Bautzen. More false news of Bernadotte's arrival on the Elbe at Wartenburg then caused him to evacuate all areas east of the river save for the bridgeheads in French hands. Bliicher now decided to join Bernadotte, who arrived before Wartenburg on Sept. 24, while Schwarzenberg's army, 180,000 strong, left the Dresden area to march on Leipzig, arriving around Chemnitz on Sept. 26. Bliicher defeated Bertrand's 14,000 at Wartenburg a week later and completed his

—

—

27

crossing of the Elbe next day (Oct. 4), when Bernadotte led 76,000 across at Rosslau, pushing Ney before him. Napoleon resolved to

take advantage of the allies' deliberate advance: against them, and operating on interior lines, he disposed of 250,000 men. On Oct. 2

he sent Murat to Freiberg to take command of 45,000 men to resist Schwarzenberg's march on Leipzig. On Oct. 5 he ordered Gouvion to retain Dresden with 40,000 while he attempted to defeat Bliicher and Bernadotte with the rest of his forces. Prudently, on Oct. 7 he instructed Gouvion to evacuate Dresden, but he countermanded the order on the same day. Marching 50 mi. in two days, he had assembled 150,000 men around Wurzen, east of Leipzig, on Oct. 8, with whom he proposed to attack Bliicher at Diiben but Bliicher, covered by the Saale, retreated to join Bernadotte's army near Halle on Oct. 10. 9. Leipzig. Prevented by the advance of the army of Bohemia from pursuing Bernadotte and Bliicher, Napoleon planned to attack it when Schwarzenberg had committed it to an engagement in the Leipzig area. On Oct. 14, 1813, he ordered his troops to Leipzig. Had Napoleon been able to concentrate his forces on that day, Schwarzenberg would have been exposed to defeat on the Elster and Pleisse rivers to the south; but early on Oct. 16 Napoleon was still waiting for Macdonald, and at 9 a.m. Schwarzenberg opened his attack on the heights of Wachau. The battle of Leipzig (q.v.), When it ended, with the or Battle of the Nations, was begun. French withdrawal in the early hours of Oct. 19, the allies had lost approximately 55,000 men; French killed and wounded have been estimated at 38,000 men but the total French losses were about 60,000 men, with 325 guns and enormous quantities of materiel. Napoleon's principal forces crossed the Saale at Weissenfels on Oct. 20, 1813, and halted at Erfurt from Oct. 23 to Oct. 26. Meanwhile Bavaria had concluded an armistice with the allies on Sept. 17 and joined the coalition, by the treaty of Ried, on Oct. 8. At the end of October 30,000 Bavarians under Karl Philipp Wrede blocked Napoleon's path at Hanau but they met with heavy defeat and lost 9,250 men. Marching via Frankfurt, the French crossed the Rhine at Mainz (Nov. 2-4), their numbers now reduced to 70,000 men and 35,000 stragglers, among whom typhus had appeared; 120,000 more remained beleaguered in the German fortresses. For the second year in succession Napoleon had lost an army.

—

;

XII.

THE CAMPAIGN OF FRANCE,

At Frankfurt on Nov. approval of Russia and

1814

1813, Metternich, with the reluctant Prussia, offered peace on the basis of 9,

France's "natural frontiers," the Rhine, the Alps and the Pyrenees; but he stipulated prompt acceptance, since the allies did not intend to delay operations. When Caulaincourt, Napoleon's new foreign minister, delivered his assent on Dec. 2 the allies had already with-

drawn

their proposal. Castlereagh arrived in Basel on Jan. 18, 1814, prepared to offer subsidies to the value of £5,000,000 to the allies; to demand the restoration of Spain and Portugal and compensation for the Bour-

bons of Naples; and to abandon some of Great Britain's colonial conquests in return for the establishment of a Dutch barrier. He wanted to unite Belgium with Holland so as to block French expansion and was ready to advocate the extension of Prussia's fronHis ability and, even more, the strength of his tiers to the west. position permitted him to intervene between Alexander and Metternich, so as to bridge divisions growing between Russia and Prussia on the one hand and Austria on the other. By the end of Dec. 1813 Napoleon had only 60,000 troops to defend the Rhine frontier and a further 30,000 ready for early operations, while the allies were about to invade France with their

North via the Low Countries; that of under Bliicher, between Coblenz and Mannheim; and Bohemia, still under Schwarzenberg, via Switzerland, the Jura and Langres. In the north, Bernadotte remained to contain Davout at Hamburg, leaving 20,000 men under Biilow in Holland and 50,000 with Ferdinand von Wintzingerode around Wesel. Bliicher had 50,000 men at Mainz and Schwarzenberg 180,000 around Basel. In Italy, Eugene was to conduct a defensive campaign with SO,three armies: that of the Silesia, still

that of

NAPOLEONIC WARS

28

000 against 75,000 Austrians. Soult with 60,000 men strove to halt Wellington's advance with greater forces from Spain. Murat, as king of Naples, had already entered into negotiations with the Austrians and on Jan. 11, 1S14, he concluded an alliance by which he was to furnish them with 30,000 men. Bernadotte's arrival in Holstein obliged Frederick VI of Denmark to cede Norway to Sweden on Jan. 14 (in exchange for an indemnity in Germany) and Heligoland to Great Britain. In mid-Nov. 1S13 Lebrun evacuated Amsterdam, and rebels at The Hague demanded the return of the house of Orange to the Netherlands. 1. Brienne and La Rothi^re. After crossing the Rhine on Dec. 31, 1813, Blucher crossed the Marne at St. Dizier on Jan. 25,

—

1814. On that date Schwarzenberg's forces stood 150,000 strong between Langres and Bar-sur-Aube, 30 mi. S.W. of Bliicher's position. Napoleon meanwhile had assembled the corps of Marmont, Victor and Ney, in all 41.000 men, around Vitry-le-Fran(;ois, 20 mi. N.W. of St. Dizier; 20,000 more were under Mortier, in the neighbourhood of Troyes; and Macdonald and Sebastian!, with 10.00011.000, were en route from Mezieres to Ste. Menehould. Learning that Bliicher was approaching the Aube with his forces dispersed. Napoleon advanced rapidly toward 25,000 of Bliicher's army around St. Dizier and pursued him to Brienne. Here the French had slightly the better of the piecemeal engagement on Jan. 29, in which both sides lost about 3,000 men, but Napoleon failed to prevent Bliicher's junction with Schwarzenberg's right wing. At La Rothiere 85,000 men and 200 guns commanded by Bliicher attacked Napoleon's 45.000 men and 128 guns on Feb. 1, 1814. The French held out till nightfall and made their retreat along the snow-covered banks of the Aube; they had lost more than 6.000 men (of whom 2,000 were captured) and 60 guns. The allied casualties were of similar size. Next day the allies agreed at Brienne that they should separate, Bliicher marching ^^a Chalonssur-Marne to Meaux, Schwarzenberg via Troyes toward Bar-surBy Feb. 3 Napoleon had 70,000 men between Seine and Sens. Troyes and Arcis-sur-Aube, and Macdonald had reached Chalons. 2. Champaubert, Montmirail, Chateau-Thierry and Vauchamps. Leaving. about 40,000 men to contain Schwarzenberg,

—

Napoleon marched against Bliicher's left flank. On Feb. 7, 1814, he was at Nogent-sur-Seine while Macdonald was retreating on £pemay and Bliicher advancing toward Paris. Having ordered Marmont to occupy Sezanne, Napoleon himself arrived late on Feb.

9,

determined to stake

all

on a

last offensive

with his heavily

men. The day before, Bliicher's main column had been extended over 44 mi., while Yorck's corps was more than 12 mi. to the north of his line of advance. At Champaubert on Feb. 10, Marmont and Ney routed one of Bliicher's

inferior forces of 30,000

corps, an isolated force of 4,000 Russians, of

caped.

The French now

whom

only 1,600 es-

lay across Bliicher's line of march, as

had reached Vertus, east of Champaubert, with the rearmost troops, while his leading corps, under F. G. von der OstenSacken, was to the west beyond Montmirail. Leaving Marmont to observe Bliicher, Napoleon took 18,000 men and hurried to Montmirail, where he defeated Osten-Sacken's 18,000 Russians on Feb. 11, before Yorck (who had been awaiting Macdonald's apBliicher

pearance along the Chateau-Thierry road) could join battle to extricate them. The allies lost nearly 4,000, the French half as

many. Pursuing Yorck's force and the remains of Osten-Sacken's to Chateau-Thierry (Feb. 12, 1814) the French drove them with fresh losses across the Marne, whence Mortier was instructed to press their withdrawal northward. Napoleon left Chateau-Thierry late on Feb. 13 to overtake the troops already sent back to support Marmont, who was trying to hold Bliicher off at Vauchamps. Attacking on Feb. 14 and again that night at fitoges, as Bliicher retreated, the French inflicted 6,000 casualties as against their own 600. In the four days between Champaubert and Vauchamps, Bliicher's army of 56,000 had been scattered by Napoleon's 30,000 and suffered losses of more than 16,000 against 4,000 French. Bliicher, however, rallied his divisions around Chalons, where by Feb. 18, his reinforced army numbered more than 50,000. Napoleon had spent himself and his troops to achieve only a post-

ponement of

defeat.

—

3. Schwarzenberg's Advance and Retreat. Schwarzenberg meanwhile, finding Troyes evacuated by the French, had remained there resting his army (Feb. 7-10, 1814). He then advanced in two columns, one to the bridge over the Seine at Bray, the other toward Fontainebleau. Leaving Mortier and Marmont on Bliicher's front. Napoleon set off with the garde on Feb. IS to attack Schwarzenberg. Having joined Oudinot and Victor at Guignes, he issued orders at 1 a.m. on Feb. 17 for a general advance. On Feb. 18 he defeated a rearguard of 10,000 men on the north bank of the Seine opposite Montereau, capturing a vital crossing-point and 3,400 men. Pursued by the French, Schwarzenberg began to withdraw to Troyes, while Bliicher marched to Mery-sur-Seine to reunite on Feb. 21 with the army of Bohemia. Schwarzenberg now abandoned his plans for a joint battle with Napoleon in his alarm at Augereau's advance with 28,000 men from the south against his communications. Yet after detaching troops to meet this threat he still had 90,000, who with Bliicher's 50,000 gave the allies 140,000 with whom to oppose Napoleon's 75,000, exclusive of Mortier and Marmont 's troops to the north. Declining to join Schwarzenberg in his retreat on Langres, Bliicher turned north toward Reims to join Bulow and 'Wintzingerode. On Feb. 23 Billow's and three Russian corps were detached from Bernadotte's command and assigned to Bliicher, who now became strong enough to campaign on his own the more easily because Schwarzenberg's movements had carried Napoleon first south and then east of the Seine. 4. The Congress of Chatillon and the Treaty of Chaumont. On Feb. 5, 1814, the allies had opened the congress of Chatillon(-sur-Seine) and on Feb. 7 they demanded that the French should return to the frontiers of 1792. Napoleon, who after the battle of La Rothiere had given Caulaincourt a free hand in his negotiations, soon rejected this demand; but on Feb. 17 negotiations were resumed with Caulaincourt. Napoleon's success at Montmirail had led him to demand the Rhine and the Alps as the frontiers of France; and the Austrians. who had sought an armistice on Feb. 17, sought one again on Feb. 24. By the treaty of Chaumont (March 9), however, thanks largely to Castlereagh's intervention, Great Britain, Russia, Austria and Prussia undertook to continue the war till France accepted the old frontiers and acknowledged the independence of the German states, Holland, Switzerland and Spain; to this end each power would maintain 150,000 men in the field and the British would pay subsidies of £5,000,000. The four powers also agreed on a 20-year defensive aUiance to meet any later attempt at expansion by France. 5. The Operations on the Aisne. At Troyes, which he reoccupied on Feb. 24, 1814, Napoleon learned of Bliicher's move toward the Marne and Aisne with 60,000 men, against whom Mortier and Marmont had only 18,000. Leaving 42,000 with Macdonald and Oudinot to observe Schwarzenberg, Napoleon sent Ney, Victor and J. T. Arrighi northward to attack Bliicher's rear and, on Feb. 27, went himself to Arcis-sur-Aube, whence by advancing toward Fismes, he threatened to cut off Bliicher's retreat across the

—

—

;

—

Aisne.

Bliicher therefore halted his offensive against

Marmont

Ourcq on March 1 and withdrew northeastward and Wintzingerode, who were attacking Soissons. The sudden capitulation of Soissons on March 3 eased Bliicher's movement and he continued his march on Laon. Safely behind the Aisne, he regrouped his army, which Biilow and Wintzingerode's reinforcements brought up to 110,000 men. Napoleon moved after him with 35.000 followed by 14,000 with Mortier and Marmont, crossing the Aisne at Berry-au-Bac. A confused and bloody encounter with Bliicher's flank guard of 30,000 at Craonne on March 7 ended with Bliicher's retreat to Laon, both sides having lost approximately 6,000 men. DiNnding his forces into two columns, Napoleon was unsuccessful in his attack from the south on March 9; and that night Marmont's corps was surprised and broken up by the allies' cavalry, with a loss of 2,500 prisoners and 45 cannon (it was rallied only at Berry-au-Bac next day). This reverse would have been more extensive still had Bliicher not fallen ill and had the Prussians not halted their pursuit. Withdrawing to Soissons, Napoleon next moved to Reims, where he fought a successful engagement against a Russian corps of 15,000. 6. The Allied Advance on Paris. Meanwhile, Schwarzenand Mortier

at the

to join Biilow

—

NAPOLEONITE—NAPRAPATHY berg had pushed Macdonald and Oudinot slowly before him to-

and generals mentioned above

Napoleon now marched from Reims to Mery-surSeine to attack his communications. Schwarzenberg withdrew to Troyes on the news of Napoleon's approach, and by March 19, 1814, his forces were between the Seine and the Aube. Napoleon crossed the Aube at Arcis with 16,000 men, and Schwarzenberg, with nearly twice as many, was pushed off the battlefield by nightNext fall of March 20; casualties were about 2,000 on either side. day Schwarzenberg resumed the attack with 100,000, and Napoleon

Wars"

ward Provins.

had to

retreat.

Not strong enough to stop either allied army, Napoleon resolved to move eastward to rally his garrisons in Lorraine and seek to rising in order to

provoke a general

From

zenberg's rear.

Marne.

Bliicher

St.

throw himself against Schwar-

Dizier his light troops

marched southward

moved

draw

via Chalons across the French

closer to

24, 1814, the allies

could not halt the allies, who crossed the Marne at Meaux to reach Bondy on March 29. The garrison of Paris and the national guard brought Marmont and Mortier's forces to 42,000, and on March 30 they fought honourably before the outskirts of Paris, retiring slowly before the allies' 100,000. That night they concluded the Napoleon hurried westward, reaching Troyes city's capitulation.

on March 29 and Fontainebleau next day. On March 31,1814, the allies entered 7. The End of the War. Paris, where they invited the inhabitants to decide on their future form of government. In the evening, however, the allied leaders determined not to make peace with Napoleon. The French senate on April 2 and the corps legislatif on April 3 proclaimed the deposition of Napoleon and on April 6 the senate called Louis XVIII to

—

;

the throne, subject to his accepting a constitutional charter. At Fontainebleau, meanwhile, the marshals had refused to follow Napoleon in his demand for a last attempt at resistance with his 60,-

000 troops and had prevailed on him to abdicate son.

Then Marmont's

in

favour of his

decision to take his corps into the allied

4—5) uncovered Fontainebleau, and Napoleon agreed to abdicate both in his own name and in his son's. The treaty of Fontainebleau, which he accepted from the allies on April 13, assigned to him the sovereignty of Elba, the title of emperor and an annual stipend. On April 20, he bade farewell to his lines (night of April

troops and set out for Elba. Wellington's forces had already driven Soult from Spain into the south of France; and during February and March 1814 the

French continued to retreat eastward from the Adour. At Touwhen the news of the cessation of hostilities had not yet reached the two commanders, Soult was again defeated. In Italy, Murat, having gone over to the Austrian side, had advanced from Naples to occupy Rome, Ancona and Bologna, obliging Eugene to retire from the Adige to the Mincio. In February louse on April 10,

he opened negotiations with Eugene, which continued intermittently until news was received of the allies' advance on Paris. Hostilities were ended a few days later by a convention (April 16) un-

from Italy. The aUies made peace with Louis XVIH's government by the treaty of Paris (May 30, 1814). They demanded no indemnity and even permitted the retention of nearly all the works of art that the French had taken as spoils of war, but the frontiers of 1792 were restored, except that Montbeliard and western Savoy were left to France (as well as Avignon and the Comtat-Venaissin, annexed in 1791). Overseas, France renounced Tobago, St. Lucia, Mauritius and Seychelles to Great Britain and San Domingo to der which

Eugene was

to

withdraw

;

and references under "Napoleonic

in the Index. Bibliography. For general works on the Napoleonic period and for detailed studies of Napoleon's foreign policy see the books cited under Napoleon I, especially G. Lefebvre, NapoUon (1935), which itself provides valuable bibliographies; also G. Bruun, Europe and the French Imperium, 1799-1814 (1954). For military aspects in general see H. Camon, La Guerre napoleonienne, 5 vol. (1903-10); J. Morvan, Le Soldat imperial (1904) E. Bourdeau, Campagnes modernes, 1792-1815, 4 parts (1912-21) G. Six, Les Geniraux de la Revolution et de I'Empire (1948). For individual campaigns, in chronological order, see J. de Cugnac, La Cainpagne de I'armie de reserve en 1800, 2 vol. (1900-01) E. Picard and P. Azan, La Campagne de 1800 en Allemagne, 3 vol. (1907-09); P. C. Alombert and J. Colin, Campagne de 1805 en Allemagne, 3 vol. (1903-04) F. N. Maude, The Jena Campaign (1908) F. L. Petre, NaC. von der Goltz, Jena to Eylau, Eng. trans. (1913) poleon's Campaign in Poland, 1806-07 (1907) and, for 1809, Napoleon Campagne de Saski, La L. C. Archduke Charles G. and the (1908); 1809 en Allemagne et en Autriche, 3 vol. (1899-1902); G. Fabry, La Campagne de 1812 (1904); E. Tarle, Napoleon's Invasion of Russia (1942) F. N. Maude, The Leipzig Campaign (1908) F. L. Petre, Napoleon's Last Campaign in Germany, 1813 (1912) and Napoleon at Bay, 1814 (1914) E. A. Lefebvre de Behaine, La Campagne de France, 4 vol. (1913-35). For naval affairs see E. Desbriere, Projets et tentatives de debarquement aux lies britannigues, 4 vol. (1900-02) Sir Julian Corbett. The Campaign of Trafalgar (1910) P. Mackesy, War in the Mediterranean 1803-10 (1957). For economic affairs see E. F. Heckscher, The Continental System (1922); W. F. Galpin, The Grain Supply of England During the Napoleonic Period (1925) F. Crouzet, L'Economie britannique et le hlocu^ continental 1806-1813 (1958). (J. H. N.)

—

;

;

;

;

along the

Schwarzenberg; and at Sompuis on March determined to advance directly on Paris by parallel routes. Mortier and Marmont were soundly beaten at La Fere-Champenoise on March 25, losing 2,000 killed and wounded, 4,000 prisoners and SO cannon. With only 12,000 men left, they rear to

29

;

;

;

;

NAPOLEONITE,

or Corsite, a gabbro showing orbicular, or spherical, structure from Santa Lucia di Tallano, Corsica. The rock when cut and polished makes a beautiful ornamental

which are to be found in most petrographical Although often referred to as a diorite, napoleonite in its mineral and chemical composition corresponds to a hornblende gabbro iq.v.). The spheroids or orbicules in napoleonite, remarkable for their uniformity in structure, range from | in. to 2 in. in diameter and are set in a matrix of variable grain size built up of green hornblende and cummingtonite (see Amphibole) and bytownite feldspar (see Feldspar: The Plagioclases).

stone, examples of

museums.

The core of these structures consists of material mineralogically similar to the matrix but richer in feldspar; it is followed by a series of broad and narrow zones, respectively, of radiate plagioclase

and the final defeat of Napoleon (see Waterloo Campaign) the second treaty of Paris, signed on Nov. 20, 1815, was more stringent to France.

See further the historical section of the articles on the belligerent states; biographical articles on the sovereigns, statesmen, marshals

and

green

hornblende-cummingtonite

radially arranged.

intergrowths

also

Both the plagioclase of the core and of the

broad zones is distinctly more calcic than that of the matrix. These relations are in accord with the concept that the orbicules developed in a crystallizing liquid and the structure itself has probably arisen by rhythmic crystallization. Orbicular or spheroidal structures, though by no means common, have been found in the crystaUine rocks of Sweden, Finland, the U.S.S.R. and North America. They have been closely studied by the petrologists of Finland and are there known as esboites. The mutual relations in composition and structure of orbicule and matrix in some of these rocks, especially those of Finland, have led to the opinion that the structures are metamorphic in origin, the orbicules developing in a solid or quasi-solid matrix which has in part been converted into a migmatite by metasomatic replacement.

his forces

Spain but regained the other colonies. Finally, France accepted in advance the allies' division of previous French conquests at the forthcoming congress of Vienna (q.v.). After the Hundred Days

;

;

See P. Eskola, J.

"On

the Esboitic Crystallization of Orbicular Rocks," (C. E. T.) 448^85 (1938).

Geol., vol. xlvi, pp.

NAPO-PASTAZA,

former province in the Oriente region of Ecuador, east of the Andes mountains. With an area of 33,237 Howsq.mi., Napo-Pastaza was the largest province in Ecuador. ever, it had a population in 1950 of only 25,425. The capital was provinces Tena. In Jan. 1 960 the province was divided into the two See El of Napo (pop. [1962] 24,487) and Pastaza (13,840). Oriente.

NAPO RTVER, America.

a tributary of the

The Napo

rises

among

Amazon

river in

the volcanoes of the

South

Andes

in northern Ecuador and flows southeast to join the near Iquitos, a town in northeast Peru. Total length is See Amazon. a system of manipulative drugless treatr ment based on a theory that the cause of disease is connective tissue that has become shrunken as a result of injury. A shrunken

mountains

Amazon 700 mi.

NAPRAPATHY,

NARA— NARA YANGANJ

30

strand of connective tissue is called a ligatight and may occur in the spine, thorax, pelvis or elsewhere. It is claimed that such tissue can be corrected by naprapathic treatment, which aims at

Study of a set of charts showing types of ligatights and manipulations to correct them are held to the training. important part of practitioner's Naprapathy be an was founded in 1907 by Oakley Smith. a ken (prefecture) in central Kii peninsula (western Honshu), Japan, east of Osaka. The total area of the prefecture Its southern and northeastern portions are mounis 1,426 sq.mi. tainous, while its northwestern quarter is occupied by the Nara stretching the shrunken strands.

NARA,

(Vamato)

basin, the

fecture's population

key lowland.

The

basin has most of the pre-

(,781,058 in 1960),

main

cities,

agricultural

land and transportation

facilities. It is separated from eastern Osaka by the Ikoma and Kongo mountains. The Nara basin is one of Japan's most densely settled and historic regions and has many famous temples, buildings and other remains from the past. However, it is being pulled increasingly into the commercial orbit of Osaka (less than one hour by electric train), to which it sends a daily stream of commuters, products of its intensive agriculture and a variety of simple cotton goods and handicrafts. Nara, the capital and largest city of Nara prefecture, is 25 mi. from Osaka, in the hilly northeastern edge of the Nara basin. Pop. (1960) 134.577. During 75 years (710-784) it was Japan's capital

Indus at Rohri by the 1 2-mi.-long Nara supply channel. The Eastis also considered by some as the channel by which the Ghaggar or Hakra (now dry) flowed into the sea. Others believe it to be the old bed of the Indus or the Sutlej. (K. S. Ad.) (Narain), king of Siam from 1657 to 1688, is best known for his conduct of foreign relations. In 1664 he signed a treaty with the Dutch giving them commercial privileges in Siam, ern Nara

NARAI

including extraterritoriality. He was unsuccessful in establishing a favourable basis for trade and goodwill with the British, and a series of incidents led to a declaration of war against the British

He welcomed the first French Cathmissionaries to his shores in 1662, because he discovered they could build forts as well as churches. Through the good offices of the missionaries he exchanged political missions with popes and East India company in 1687.

olic

kings.

He

also

engaged

tional enemies in

in useless, intermittent

wars against tradi-

Burma, Cambodia and Chiengmai.

Narai's policies caused violent reactions on the part of the court and the people. The whole realm was filled with European-built

by European soldiers. The most powerful mingovernment was a romantic Greek trader. Constant

forts garrisoned ister in the

Phaulkon. The missionaries overreached themselves in trying to convert the king to Catholicism and to spread their religion throughout the kingdom. When the king died, foreigners were dispossessed of power or driven out, and Siam remained in comparative seclusion from the west for more than a century thereafter. (C. A. B.)

NARAYAN, JAYAPRAKASH

(1902), Indian powas born on Oct. 11, 1902, in the Saran district of Bihar. He was educated locally and at universities in the United States, where he maintained himself by his own exertions and became a Marxist. He returned to India in 1929 and joined the Congress party. He was sentenced to a year's imprisonment in 1932 for participation in the civil disobedience movement. After his release he took a leading part in the formation of the Congress Socialist party, a left-wing group within the Congress party itself. He was imprisoned again in 1939, for opposition to the war effort, but subsequently made a dramatic escape and for a short time tried to organize violent resistance to the government before his recapture in 1943. After his release in 1946 he tried to persuade the Congress leaders to adopt a more militant pohcy and argued that political independence would be incomplete without a social revolution. In 1948 he left the Congress party, in company with most of the Sociahsts, and formed a separate Socialist party, which in 1952 merged with another leftwing group to become the Praja Sociahst party. But he was becoming dissatisfied with party politics and in 1954 announced that he would devote his life exclusively to the Bhoodan Yajna (landgift) movement {see Bhave, Vinoba). His continuing interest in political problems, however, was revealed in 1959 when he argued for a "reconstruction of Indian polity" by means of a four-tier hierarchy of village, district, state and union councils resembling the "basic democracies" established in Pakistan by Pres. Ayub Khan, which he specifically praised. In April 1960 he organized an Afro-Asian convention in Delhi to protest against Chinese policy in Tibet as well as against the remains of colonialism elsewhere. (Ke. a. B.) a town in the Dacca district of East Pakistan, stands 8 mi. S.E. of Dacca on both banks of the Lakhya at its confluence with the Dhaleswari, just before the latter joins the Meghna. It has thus steamer connections with all the important inland ports as well as with Chittagong. Pop. (1961) 162,054 including 36,262 in the industrial area. Its good location as a riverport has made Narayanganj a collecting centre of hides and skins and a terminal market for jute. Together with Dacca {q.v.) it forms the greatest industrial region of East Pakistan, with the largest number of jute presses and jute and cotton mills. It also has manufacture of leather and footwear and glassworks. The making of underwear is a notable cottage industry. The town is compact, built on raised low-lying land, with many spacious streets. Old buildings include Kadam Rasul (1801), a shrine built by Ghulam Mohammed of Tippera; two forts built by Isa Khan, one of the Bara Bhaiyas (12 landlords of Bengal), durhtical leader

SCHOOLCHILDREN NARA

IN

and many of the

FRONT OF THE ENTRANCE TO THE TEMPLE OF KATSURA.

striking artistic

monasteries,

sculpture)

accomplishments (Buddhist temage

still

preserved,

grouped around the edge of the celebrated deer park.

{See also

ples,

of

that

are

Japanese Sculpture: Nara [Tempyo] Period.) Many artifacts have been preserved for 1,200 years in a log storehouse, the Shosoin. These splendid remnants of early Japanese civilization attract more than 4,000,000 visitors annually. Besides tourism and administration, Nara is a leading commercial and educational centre and has some manufacturing. (J. D. Ee.) (officially Eastern Nara), an important water channel in Sind, West Pakistan, now utilized for the Eastern Nara canal (226 mi.), the largest of the Sukkur barrage canals. The upper part of the Nara river was a small channel through which spill water from the Indus, above Rohri, found its way to central and lower Sind. Skirting the sandhills throughout the Thar Parkar

NARA

it discharged itself into the Puran, an old channel of the Indus, which 80 mi. farther south enters the Rann of Cutch. To ensure regular water supply it was coimected in 1958-59 with the

desert

and

political theorist,

NARAYANGANJ,

NARBONNE—NARCISSUS and the Laxmi Narayan building, a Vishnu construction of the 12th century, after which the town is named. Modern buildings include the Dacca-Narayanganj chamber of commerce and industry, National and Grindlays bank. Co-operaThere is also a municipal tive house and Seth Tolaram college. The town has facilities for ship repairs. public hbrary. ing the reign of Akbar;

(K.

NARBONNE,

S.

Ad.)

a city of France, ancient capital of Gallia

Narbonensis and now capital of an arrondissement in the departement of Aude, lying on a vine-growing plain 8 mi. (13 km.) from Pop. the Mediterranean, 34 mi. {SS km.) E. of Carcassonne. (1962) 30,388. The town has excellent rail services and is on two

31

peror. Narcissus raised himself to be one of the first ministers

of state and also one of the richest

He was

men Rome had

ever known.

for a long time in league with Messallina (q.v.), but fear

made him and death (48).

backed

other freedmen secretaries combine to secure her Claudius could not remain unmarried, but Narcissus wrong candidate, Claudius' divorced wife Aelia

the Paetina; hence, on Claudius' marriage to Agrippina the younger, he lost influence to the financial secretary Pallas, who had supported her. His loyalty to Messallina's son Britannicus ensured his death on Nero's accession. It is often held that Narcissus' im-

of commerce.

portance betokens the development of a centraUzed bureaucracy under Claudius, but the ancient evidence only represents him as a powerful favourite; it is so distorted by social prejudice that his talents and achievements cannot now be assessed.

Surrounded by wide outer boulevards, Narborme is divided into bourg and cite by the Robine canal, a branch of the Canal du

20,

main roads.

It

has a subprefecture and courts of

instance and

first

Its old buildings include the basilica of St. Paul Serge (llth-14th centuries), a curious and early specimen of the Gothic style in the south, with a churchyard of the 4th century; the unfinished cathedral of St. Just (13th-14th centuries), which consists

Midi.

only of a choir (135 ft. high) flanked by two 234-ft, towers; the church of St. Sebastian, flamboyant Gothic (15th century); and the pure Renaissance-style House of the Three Wet-Nurses (16th century), so named because of the proportions of the three caryatids that support its cornice. Special notice must be taken of the

Archbishops' palace, a collection of civil, mihtary and religious buildings ranging from the high middle ages to the 18th century. A part of the palace is used as a town hall, but it shelters also two exceptional museums: the museum of Narbonne prehistory and

and the museum of art and history, with important and ceramics. In the Lamourguier church one of the world's greatest lapidary museums. Modern build-

antiquities

collections of paintings is

ings include the technical college, and, in a park, the Palace of Arts, Sports and Work, enclosing an Olympic swimming pool,

gymnasium and meeting rooms for workers. Narbonne has a good trade in wines, salt and tartar. Its honey The main industries are uranium and sulfur refining, is renowned. alcohol distilling, oil milling and the making of wine casks and bricks and tiles. Narbonne was the capital of the Volcae Tectosages. There the Romans in 118 B.C. founded their first colony in Gaul, Narbo Martius; they built great works to protect the city from inundation and to improve its port. The capital of Gallia Narbonensis, the seat of a proconsul and a station for the Roman fleet, Narbo Martius became the rival of Massilia (Marseilles) but the division of Gallia Narbonensis into two provinces reduced its importance. Alans, Suebi and Vandals each held the city until in 413 it was occupied by the Visigoths, whose capital it afterward became. In 719, after a siege of two years, it was captured and extended by the Saracens. Charlemagne made the city the capital one of the duchy of Gothia, and divided it into three lordships for the bishop, another for a Prankish lord and a third for the Jews. In the 13th century the archbishopric was seized by the pope's legate, Arnaud Amaury, who took the title of viscount of Narbonne. Simon de Montfort, however, deprived him of this dignity, receiving from PhiUp Augustus the duchy of Narbonne along with the county of Toulouse. By his expulsion of the Jews Philip the Fair hastened the decay of the city; and about the same period the Aude, which had been diverted by the Romans to flow theatre,

See M. P. Charlesworth in Cambridge Ancient History, vol. x, ch. with bibliography (1934). (P. A. Br.)

NARCISSUS, Cephissus and the

in

Greek mythology, son of the river-god

nymph

Leiriope, distinguished for his beauty.

mother that he would have a long life, The provided he never looked upon his own features. His rejection of the love of the nymph Echo (q.v.) or of his lover Ameinias drew upon him the vengeance of the gods. Having fallen in love with his own reflection in the waters of a spring, he pined away (or killed himself), and the flower that bears his name sprang up where seer Tiresias told his

he died.

According to Pausanias, Narcissus, to console himself

for the death of a favourite twin sister, his exact counterpart,

by his own. very plausible suggestion of Sir James Frazer in The Golden Bough that this story is to be connected with the widespread belief that it is unlucky, or even fatal, to see one's own reflection. This superstition existed in Greece. Hence is derived the term narcissism, used in psychiatry, and especially psychoanalysis, for a morbid condition in which the subject is intensely interested in his own body. NARCISSUS, a genus of bulbous plants belonging to the amaryllis family (Amaryllidaceae), native of central Europe and the Mediterranean region; one species, N. tazetta, extends through Asia to Japan. From some of these, by cultivation and hybridization, have arisen the numerous modern varieties used in gardens sat gazing into the spring to recall her features It is a

and as cut flowers. The plants have long narrow leaves springing from the bulb and a central scape bearing one or more generally large,

The

flowers

are regular; the perianth (calyx

and corolla) springing from above the ovary is tubular below, with spreading segments and a central corona or cup; the six stamens are

—

toward Narbonne, burst its banks, returned to its original bed, and the harbour was silted up. United to the French crown in 1507, Narbonne was enclosed by a new line of walls under Francis I; the last portions of its ramparts were demolished in 1870. The archbishopric was founded about the middle of the 3rd century, its first holder being Sergius Paulus; it was suppressed in 1790. (He. J.) NARCISSUS (d. A.D. 54) was a freedman, who as ab epistulis to the Roman emperor Claudius I was responsible for bringing to his attention letters on every kind of subject from cities and officials throughout the empire, and doubtless for drafting replies. This household secretarial post had existed before but had had no political importance; by his influence over the malleable em-

white or yellow, drooping

or inclined flowers.

;

inserted within

the tube.

The

most interesting feature botanically is the corona, which springs from the base of the flower segments and gives the special character to the flower.

One

classifi-

cation of narcissuses includes 11

groups or divisions; of these the following five are of chief interest to the gardener 1.

PAPER-WHITE NARCISSUS (NARCISSUS TAZETTA ALBA), ONE OF THE POLYANTHUS NARCISSUSES

The hoop

petticoat narcis-

from 4

to 12 in. in height

suses are

and have grassy foHage and. yellow or white flowers. These have the corona in the centre of the flower very large in proportion hke a hoop petticoat. They and much expanded, the other parts to are all regarded as varieties or forms of the common hoop petticoat, N. bulbocodium, which has comparatively large bright-

—

yellow flowers. 2. A second group is that of the pseudo narcissuses, of which the common or wild daffodil, N. pseudo-narcissus, is the type. This species is found in woods and thickets in most parts of the

NARCOTICS—NARCOTICS, LAWS RELATING TO

32

north of Europe and 1

and

and

in length

ft.

flat

flower.

is

Its leaves are about breadth and have a blunt central ridge

naturalized in the U.S.

in. in

The stem, which

edges.

The

1

is

8 to IS

in.

long, bears a single

flowers are large, yellow, scented and slightly droop-

and a bell-shaped corona that is crisped at the margin; they appear in early spring. In this species the corona is also very large and prominent. {See Daffodil. ) 3. Another group, with coronas of medium size, includes the fine and numerous varieties of N. incoinparabilis, one of which ing, with a corolla deeply cleft into six lobes,

has large, double flowers. A', odonis, known as the campernelle jonquil, has two to four uniform bright-yellow flowers and is considered a hybrid between A', jonquillii and .\. pseudo-narcissus,

although

it

found wild

is

4. The polyanthus marked group, whose

or

Trance and Spain. bunch narcissuses form another

in

peculiarity of producing

many

well-

flowers on

the stem is indicated by the name. In these the corona is small and shallow as compared with the perianth. A', tazetta is the type

They are The Chinese sacred hly, of this group.

general favourites or joss flower,

cissus, forced

on a large scale by

The

A',

jonquil.

florists,

among

spring flowers.

and the paper-white narare varieties of

A', tazetta.

jonquilla, with yellow flowers, a native of south

Europe and Algeria, does well outside in a warm border but may also be grown in pots for early flowering. 5. In the poet's or pheasant 's-eye narcissuses {N. poeticiis) the is large, spreading and conspicuous and the corona very These pheasant's-eye narcissuses, of which small and shallow. there are several well-marked varieties, blossom in succession from early spring to midspring, and all do well in the open borders

perianth

as permanent hardy bulbs. Narcissuses are best displayed in naturalized plantings but are

more formal arrangements. Bulbs, available in fall, should be planted as soon as they are received, so that they may root before cold weather arrives. They should be covered by soil as deep as one and one-half times their height. Narcissuses will thrive in a loamy soil enriched with rotted manure or bone meal, which should not touch the bulbs. After the plants flower, the leaves should be allowed to wither naturally; the bulbs depend upon the foliage for the manufacture of food materials necessary for the resumption of growth next season. See also Flowxr: Commercial Flower Growing. BiBLiOGR-^PHY. For a scientific treatment of the genus, see J. G. also effective in

early

—

Baker, Handbook of Amaryllideae (1SS8). See also E. \. Bowles, Handbook of Narcissus (1934) Royal Horticultural Society, Diction;

ary of Gardening, vol. iii (1951); the American Daffodil Yearbook (1947 et seg.) Norman Taylor (ed.), Taylor's Encyclopedia of Gardening, 4th ed. (1961). ;

NARCOTICS,

a general term for substances that produce

lethargy or stupor and the rehef of pain. In a restricted sense, the term appUes to opium (q.v.) or coca leaves or any compound,

manufacture, salt or preparation thereof, even though their action Prescriptions for these substances in most counis not narcotic. tries require that the prescribing physician be registered with the proper governmental agency (department of the treasury in the United States) and comply with the regulations furnished by that agency. See Drug Addiction; Narcotics, Laws Relating to. (F. L. A.) , TO. Addiction to narcotic drugs began to be recognized as a social evil in the 19th century, and governments have sought to deal with it along three main lines: (1 control of sources of supply through international co-operation; (2 prohibition by criminal penalties; and 3 ) treatment of addicts by medical and public health authorities. The United States has been the foremost e.xponent of international controls, the United States and NationaUst China (Formosa) are prominent for the severity of their repressive laws, and the United Kingdom, followed by the Scanchnavian countries, probably has had most success in the medical treatment of addicts. In nearly all countries, however, an attempt is made to balance the need for repressive legislation, on the one hand, and the medical treatment of addicts on the other; the balance varies according to local circumstances. England, for example, unlike the United States, has only a small number of drug addicts and no organized iUicit

NARCOTICS LAWS RELATING )

)

(

in narcotics; such differences should be kept in appraising the legislation of the two countries. traffic

mind

in

—

International Controls. The opium tralTic in the far east was exploited by westerners in the 18th and 19th centuries. The Opium wars (1839-42, 1856-60; were fought to crush Chinese resistance to this exploitation. The United States, however, began to bar its nationals from the traflic by bilateral agreements as early as 1833, outlawed U.S. participation in the China traffic in 1881, and suppressed domestic manufacture of smoking opium by progressively higher taxation after 1890 and by outright prohibition in 1909. In 1909 Pres. Theodore Roosevelt convened a commission of 13 nations, which met in Shanghai to discuss the international problem, and these deliberations led to the Hague Opium convention of 1912, The Hague convention required each adhering Power to control production, importation and exportation of raw opium and

its

coca leaves, as well as to regulate distribution

and

its

own domestic manufacture,

use, to confine the latter to legitimate medical

Following World W'ar I these objectives were pursued by the League of Nations (ratification of the 1919-20 peace treaties included automatic ratification of the 1912 convention )j^ and there have been many international agreements since the Geneva convention of 1925, attempting to set up a production quota system and creating a permanent central opium board to administer it; the Geneva agreement of 1925, proposing to bind the principal Asiatic producers of opium to establish government monopolies for easier control; the Geneva convention of 1931, extending the limitations on manufacture and distribution of drugs, and creating an international drug supervisory body to police them; the Bangkok agreement of 1931, calhng for government monopolies of the retail sale of opium in Asiatic countries; the 1936 convention (with less than a score of adherents), calling for direct criminal sanctions to punish international trafiicking; the protocol of 1946, bringing all prior agreements under the supers'ision of the United Nations and replacing the Opium Advisory committee of the League of Nations by the UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs; the protocol of 1948, providing machinery for the addition of new drugs to the controlled categories by action of the World Health organization; the protocol of 1953 (with more than 50 adherents), agreeing to drastic Hmitations on the cultivation of poppies; and the Single convention of 1961, codif>ing and extending the propurposes.

;

numerous multilateral treaties. Despite this array of international commitments, the contracting Powers have not co-operated effectively enough to stamp out production for addict consumption nor to curb illicit trafficking. Producing countries in the middle and far east continue to tolerate,

visions of the

if

not encourage, lucrative drug industries within their borders;

and consuming countries Uke the United States (which has no domestic production; continue to receive vast supplies via the smuggler and clandestine peddler. {See also Opium; Opium Traffic.)

—

United States. By the start of the 20th century narcotic drugs were widely used in the United States. Eating opium and laudanum were sold everywhere. Respectable people suffered from the "opium sickness." Even children's medicines contained opiates, and the medical profession prescribed addicting drugs with little restraint. When heroin was introduced, in 1898, it was widely hailed as a nonaddicting substitute for morphine. In the early 1900s a number of states passed prescription laws. To aid in the enforcement of these laws and to provide the regulation required by the 1912 Hague convention, congress in 1914 passed the Harrison Narcotics act. The Harrison act, still the basic U.S. drug statute, began as a simple tax measure. It imposed a stamp tax of Ic per ounce on opium and coca products and required all who handled them importer, manufacturer, wholesaler, pharmacist and prescribing

—

physician to register, to keep records and to make use of special But the act also contained an amorder and purchase forms. biguous limitation: the physician was exempted from its requirements only in prescribing drugs "to a patient" and "in the course of his professional practice only."

Enforcement

fell

to the treasury

department, which was also

NARDI—NARDINI charged, in 1919, with enforcement of the National Prohibition act; the department's new prohibition unit thereupon launched twin campaigns against drug users and alcohol drinkers. From the outset, though the Harrison act called merely for collection of the tax, registration was refused to sellers outside the medical profession, and even doctors and pharmacists who ministered to addicts were arrested and prosecuted. (narcotic drug chnics), established in

Public health

facilities

many communities

during

the period 1918-23 to provide treatment for addicts, were closed.

In a series of test cases, culminating in U.S. v. Behnnan (1923), the U.S. supreme court interpreted the ambiguous exemption referred to above to mean that no doctor could lawfully prescribe or administer any narcotic drug to an addict, even in a good-faith attempt to cure the addiction or alleviate the symptoms of withThough this decision was reversed in U.S. v. Lind.ner drawal. (1925), treasury enforcement policies have continued to rely on the

Behrman

interpretation.

Estimates of the number of persons addicted to narcotic drugs in the United States at the close of World War I range from 200,000 to 1,000,000 (the latter being the treasury department's ofi&cial figure). It is certain that a great number, finding themselves cut off from all legitimate suppliers and medical assistance, simply cured themselves. But many turned to the underworld, to a hitherto unknown figure, the "dope peddler"; in doing so they became criminals themselves, creating the richest illicit drug market in the world and the most costly law enforcement problem of our times. In the heyday of bootlegging, there were twice as many federal convictions for drug offenses as for liquor law violations (in 1928, for instance, a federal prison census showed 2,529 prisoners out of a total of 7,138 to be Harrison act offenders) in the mid-1960s, with the addict population of the country estimated to be about 60,000, drug-law arrests by federal and local authorities remained above 20,000 per year. Over 15% of federal prisoners were serving time for drug-law offenses. The Harrison act was amended by the Marihuana Tax act ;

(1937), placing marihuana in the controlled category, and by the Boggs act (1951) and the Narcotic Control act of 1956.

These acts greatly increased the penalties

for drug-law violations,

minimum

sentences and depriving offenders of the privileges of probation and parole afforded other federal prisoners. A person convicted of any drug-law offense must be

introducing mandatory

imprisoned for at least 2 years (and up to 5, though the court may suspend the sentence for first offenders); on the second offense, the sentence must be 5 to 10 years, and for subsequent convictions For offenses in the minimum is 10 years and the maximum 40. the sale, transfer and smuggling categories, the prescribed sentence for a first offense (without suspension) is 5 to 10 years, and for subsequent convictions, 10 to 40 years. A discretionary fine, up to $20,000, may be imposed with any of the foregoing sentences. Heroin, estimated to constitute 90% of the ilhcit traffic, was directly outlawed by the 1956 act, and its sale by an adult to a minor was made punishable by life imprisonment or, if the jury so recommended, by death. A number of states nave followed the federal pattern of penalties in their own drug statutes. The United States thus is notable (along with Formosa, where most offenses involving drugs are punishable by summary execuBut it should also be tion) for the severity of its narcotic laws. noted that two of the finest narcotic drug hospitals and research centres in the world are operated by the U.S. public health service, one at Lexington, Ky., opened in 1935 and one at Fort Worth, Tex., opened in 1938. Great Britain. Great Britain, also an adherent to the Hague convention of 1912, enacted its Dangerous Drugs act, with regulatory provisions strikingly similar to those contained in the Harrison act, in 1920. The first home office regulations contained a similar ambiguous exemption for the physician: he could possess and supply drugs only "so far as may be necessary for the practise or exercise of his said profession, function or employment, and in his capacity as a member of his said class." But in Great Britain the ambiguity was resolved by a medical commission. In 1926 the Rolleston committee, made up of eminent doctors appointed by the government, recommended that physicians should

—

33

be permitted to prescribe morphine or heroin for addicts (1) in cure by gradual withdrawal; (2) when drugs cannot safely be discontinued because of the severity of withdrawal symptoms; and (3) when the patient "while capable of leading a useful and relatively normal life when a certain minimum dose is regularly administered, becomes incapable of this when the drug is entirely discontinued." These standards have been accepted and observed in the United Kingdom since 1926. The police function concentrates upon aiding doctors by preventing forged prescriptions and detecting frauds, such as an addict's placing himself in the care of more than one physician at the same time. In 1961 the Interdepartmental Committee on Drug Addiction, headed by Sir Russell Brain, reported that it saw no need for further statutory controls. In the early 1960s there were about 15 convictions annually in the courts of the United Kingdom for offenses involving opium (with sentences up to six months and fines up to £100), and about 50 annually for offenses involving manufactured drugs such as morphine and heroin (with sentences up to two years and fines up to £100). Home office records of known addicts, believed to be highly accurate because of prescription checks, show a total addict population consistently below 500, in a population exceeding 50,000,000. There is no significant smuggling activity, and no illicit drug market, in the United Kingdom.

See also

Drug

Addiction.

(R. Ki.)

— Charles

E. Terry and Mildred Pellens, The Opium J. Anslinger and W. F. Tompkins, The Traffic in Narcotics (1953); W. L. Prosser (ed.), "The Narcotic Problem," U.C.L.A. Law Review, vol. 1, p. 405 (1954) "Narcotics," Law and Contemporary Problems, vol. 22, no. 1 (1957) William B. Eldrige, Narcotics and the Law (1952); U.S. Bureau of Narcotics, Traffic in Opium and Other Dangerous Drugs (1954); Drug .Addiction: Crime or Disease?, Joint Committee on Narcotic Drugs of the American Bar Association and the American Medical Association (1961); Proceedings, White House Conference on Narcotic and Drug Abuse, Sept. 2728, 1962 (1963); Report, Interdepartmental Committee on Drug .'Vddiction (H.M.S.O., 1961); Nathan B. Eddy, "Drug .•\ddiction and the Law," Britannica Book of the Year, 1964, pp. 291-294 (1964).

Bibliography.

Problem (1928); H.

;

;

NARDI, JACOPO (1476-1563), Florentine statesman and whose history of his native city throws light on contemporary events and personalities, was born in Florence in 1476. A republican and supporter of Savonarola, he occupied various He official positions after the expulsion of the Medici in 1494. historian,

continued in the public service after their return, but joined in the movement for their second expulsion in 1527 and was instrumental in defeating the Medicean troops under Cardinal Silvio Passerini. On the family's final reinstatement in 1530, Nardi was exiled.

He

lived

most of the

rest of his hfe in Venice.

He

died in

March

1563.

Nardi's chief literary work was his Istorie della Citta di Firenze, pubhshed posthumously (1582). Based on the diary of Biagio Buonaccorsi, a companion of Machiavelli, it covers the period 1498 to 1538. It reflects Nardi's republican zeal, and his admiration for the religious ideals of Savonarola, and its style is sometimes heightened by sincere feeling. He was also the author of two comedies, and of a life of Antonio Giacomini (1567). See L. Arbib's complete edition of Nardi's Istorie La vita e le opere di Jacopo Nardi (1901).

(1838^1)

;

A.

Pieralli,

NARDINI, PIETRO

(1722-1793), Italian violinist and composer, was born at Leghorn on April 12, 1722. He studied vioUn and composition at Leghorn and later became a pupil of G. Tartini at Padua. For 15 years he held an appointment as solo vioUnist at the court of Stuttgart. In 1767 he settled at Leghorn and was with Tartini during the latter's last illness. He became music director to the duke of Tuscany in 1770 and enjoyed great fame as a performer and composer. He died at Florence on May Nardini is remembered as Tartini's most famous pupil; 7, 1793. he himself had many distinguished pupils, among them the Englishman Thomas Linley the younger. His compositions for the viohn, although not numerous, are melodious, eminently playable, and also have considerable value as technical studies. Several of his sonatas and six of his quartets were reprinted in modern editions.

See K. Pfiifain, Pietro Nardini (1936).

(Cs. Ch.)

NARES—NARODNIKI

34 NARES, SIR GEORGE STRONG

dSM-lolS).

English

admiral and arctic explorer, was born

in Aberdeen on April 24, Educated at the Royal Naval college, he entered the navy in 1S45. For some years he served in the I'acil'ic, after which he was mate of the "Resolute" in the arctic expedition of 1852 in search of Sir John Franklin. After serving in the Crimea, he was engaged in the training of cadets and in survey work off the northeast coast of .\ustralia and in the Mediterranean. While in command of the "Challenger" (1872-74) he explored the southern oceans as far as the Antarctic and undertook extensive geographic and oceanographic work. In 1874 he commanded the arctic expedition to reach the north pole in the "Alert" and the "Discovery." The spring voyages of 1S75 through the pack ice were difficult, costly and ill-fated. He was elected fellow of the Royal society 1875), created knight commander of the Bath 1876) and aw^arded medals by the Royal Geographical society (1877) and

1831.

(

(

the Geographical Society of Paris

(

18791.

In 1878 he

the "Alert" in a survey of the Magellan straits.

commanded

Retiring from

active service in 1886, he continued in the service of the govern-

ment, becoming a vice-admiral in 1892. He died at Surbiton, Surrey, on Jan. 15, 1915. His publications were Reports on Ocean Soundings and Temperature (1874-75) and Narrative of a Voyage to the Polar Sea During 1ST 5-76, two volumes (1878). See Report of the Proceedings of the Arctic Expedition of 1875-1876 (H. G. Kg.) (1876).

NARESUAN

(Phra Naret), popularly known

as the Black

Prince, was king of Siam

from 1590 to 1605. In his youth, his country was invaded and conquered by Burma and was exposed In 1571, when only 16 to repeated invasions from Cambodia. years of age. Prince Naresuan was made governor of the northern province of P'itsanulok. His rule was a chronicle of constant fighting, during which he displayed reckless courage and extraordinary military skill. In 1584 he renounced allegiance to Burma. He successfully defended the capital city of Ayuthia, and defeated the besieging Burmese forces by a combination of scorched earth and daring guerrilla tactics. He also drove out the Cambodians and thus had reassured Siamese independence by the time he mounted the throne. As king he devoted more time to the improvement of internal affairs. He conducted peaceful relations with Portuguese from Malacca and Spanish from Manila. Then he e.xpanded his power over much of Burma and Malaya, and reduced Cambodia to vassalage. He re-established the prestige of Siam in the region between the Indian ocean and the borders of China. More than anyone else, the celebrated warrior hero was responsible for the greatness of Siam which dazzled the first East India merchants from the Netherlands and Elizabethan England. See also Thailand: History. (C. A. B.) NARINO, southwesternmost department of the republic of Colombia, bounded by Ecuador on the south, the Pacific ocean on the west, and by the department of Cauca and the comisaria of Putumayo on the north and east. The comisaria of Putumayo was made a part of Narifio in 1953 and re-established as a comisaria in Area, 12,499 sq.mi. The population of Narifio (547,323 [1961 est.] 613.640) is principally concentrated in the volcanic Andean highlands above 5,000 ft. Indian physical and cultural characteristics predominate but Spanish is the universal language. The densely settled altiplano of Tuquerres-Ipiales on the Ecuador frontier is separated by the Patia river from that of Pasto, where Narino's capital of that name is located. The econ1957.

in 1951;

omy

of Narifio is based almost entirely on agriculture. Wheat, and potatoes are the principal highland crops. Bananas are exported from the port of Tumaco, which handles large ocean-going vessels. A railroad from Tumaco ascends the Patia

barley, beans

valley for 70 mi. to El Diviso.

NARMADA

(Js. J. P.) (Narb.ada), a river of central India. It is some-

times regarded as the boundary between Hindustan or northern India and the Deccan or peninsular India. It rises near Amarkantak in the Maikala range in Madhya Pradesh and for the first course winds among the Mandla hills. Then at Jabalpur, passing through the Marble Rocks (noted dolomitic marble gorge, about 2 mi. long), it enters the structural trough

200 mi. of

its

between the Vindhya and Satpura ranges, and pursues a direct westerly course to the Gulf of Cambay. Its total course through Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat is 801 mi., and it (lows into the sea in the district of Broach. It receives the drainage of the northern slopes of the Satpuras, but not that of the \'indhya tableland, the streams

from which flow into the Ganges and Jumna.

After entering Gujarat state, the river widens out in the fertile district of Broach, with an average breadth of ^ to 1 mi. Below Broach city it forms an estuary which is 13 mi. broad where it enters the Gulf of

The Narbada

Cambay.

and navigation

nowhere

is

utilized

confined to ^he lower section. In the rainy season boats of considerable size sail about 60 mi. above Broach city. In sanctity the Narbada ranks second to the Ganges among the rivers of India, and along its whole course are special for irrigation,

is

places of pilgrimage such as Suklatirtha and

meritorious act that a pilgrim can perform

The most walk from the

Nemawar. is

to

and back along the opposite bank. Narbada has always been an important routeway Arabian between the sea and the Ganges valley. Its middle section is followed by the main railway from Bombay to Jabalpur (L. D. S.) on its way to Allahabad. (Populists), the adherents of a 19th-century socialist movement in Russia based on the idea that political propaganda among the peasantry would lead to the awakening of the masses and, through their influence, to the liberalization of the Since Russia was a predominantly agricultural country regime. the peasants represented the majority of the people narod) hence the name of the movement, narodnichestvo or populism. The movement arose among the Russian intelligentsia (i.e., prosea to the source of the river

The

valley of the

NARODNIKI

:

(

fessional people, students

and the so-called raznochintsi or

tellectuals not belonging to the gentry)

momentum

in the 1860s;

it

in-

gained

and culminated in the assassination of the emperor Alexander II in 1881. It was enhanced by dissatisin the IS 70s

faction with Alexander's land reforms

of

1861, which, though

from serfdom, created unsatisfactory economic conditions for peasant agriculture by favouring the landowners in the partition of land and by imposing an involved system of collective compensation on the villages. At the same time the movement was influenced by western ideas; e.g., those of Herbert Spencer, Auguste Comte and John Stuart Mill. The Narodniki also embodied in their teachings a considerable amount of Communist ideology gathered from Karl Marx's works, accepting for instance his ideas of communal ownership and production, his dislike for private enterprise and his definition of surplus value. However, they modified two of Marx's fundamental principles, thus bringing upon themselves the criticism of orthodox Marxists. First, they believed in agrarian communism and disregarded the industrial proletariat, which in their days represented liberating the peasants

but a small minority of the population of Russia. Second, they adapted to their needs Marx's theory of historical development, according to which human society must progress ine\itably from primitive communism to industrial capitalism and thence to the dictatorship of the proletariat. That, the Narodniki argued, would not apply to Russia, where peasant life was traditionally organized in the mir or village community. A successful change of regime would, in their view, allow Russia to skip the intermediate stages and pass straight from primitive communism to modern sociahsm.

many Russian

embodied a mesRussian nationahst philosophers, the Slavophils, who also beheved in the inherent virtues of the peasant commune. Yet an evolution of thought did take place. While the Slavophils idealized the mir as an ancient and peculiarly Slavonic institution, the Narodniki laid

Thus,

like so

doctrines, populism

sianic element reminiscent of certain teachings of the eariier

stress

on social questions.

Unlike theories of the Narodniki were vague. the Marxists, they did not distinguish between the various income groups of the peasantry and did not class the richer peasants as enemies of the people. The mir and the artel < a primitive village

The economic

productive co-operative), they believed, would naturally evolve a system of production and distribution beneficial to the community. On the political methods whereby reforms and the drafting of a constitution should be achieved, the Narodniki differed widely

NARRA—NARTHEX among themselves. The moderates believed that propaganda among peasantry would undermine the tsarist regime and enforce a democratization of the government, but there as to

how

this

would take

place.

On

was disagreement

the one hand

M.

A. Bakunin,

the anarchist of the older generation of ideahstic socialists, put his hopes into peasant risings the sheer force of which would, he believed, effect political changes; on the other, the moderate P. L. Lavrov (1823-1900) advocated propaganda among the people and the enlightenment of the illiterate peasantry, which would lead to gradual reforms. In opposition to both those theories the radical P. N. Tkachev (1844-85) preached a forcible overthrow of the tsarist regime followed by gradual education of the masses to communist standards: until such time as the people were enlightened enough to govern, Tkachev suggested the rule of an intellectual minority which would guide them to this goal. The Narodniki were predominantly atheist in their philosophical outlook and positivist in their method and claimed to accept only phenomena confirmed by experience. The activities of the Narodniki developed in the late lS60s in a movement known as khozhdenie v narod ("going to the people") in the course of which young inteUigentsia, dressed in peasant clothes, canvased rural regions, mainly those of the Volga, Don and Dnieper. This led to persecution, arrests and poUtical trials, the most famous one of which was the "trial of the 193" 1878). The illiterate peasantry did not always respond to propaganda in the expected way and sometimes gave the dedicated intellectuals away to the police. This campaign and its outcome have been well described by Ivan Turgenev in his novels. The Narodniki retahated to persecution by acts of counterviolence and by the "execution" of agents provocateurs. In 1876 secret organization, the Zemlya i Volya ("Land and Freedom"), a was formed, and the Narodniki started switching over from peace(

ful

propaganda to

terrorist

and conspiratorial

activities.

Differences between moderates and radicals widened and, in The 1879, at the Voronezh party meeting, the movement spht.

moderates, G. V.'Plekhanov and P. B. Axelrod (1850-1928), then formed the organization Cherny Peredel ("Black Redistribution") which, as the name indicates, aimed at a fairer distribution of land among the peasantry. The radicals, A. I. Zhelyabov (1850-81), A. D. Mikhailov (1855-84), Vera N. Figner and Sofia L. Perovskaya (1853-81), gathered around Narodnaya Volya ("People's Will"), a terrorist organization which set out to change the regime by violence. A series of poUtical murders was arranged, culminat-

on March 13 (N.S.), 1881, in the assassination of the emperor Alexander II, accompanied by the party's open letter to his succes-

ing,

sor

demanding constitutional reforms.

This was the climax of the activities of the Narodnaya Volya organization, which thereafter deteriorated. The 20th-century Socialist Revolutionary party can be called the ideological descendant of the Narodniki. In the 1880s Plekhanov became the head of a Marxist group, Osvobozhdenie Truda ("Liberation of Labour"), and an outstanding theorist of Social Democratic thought. Bibliography. T. G. Masaryk, The Spirit of Russia, vol, ii (1919)

—

;

A. Koyre, £tudes sur I'kistoire de la pensee philosophique en Russie (1950); D. Mitrany, Marx Against the Peasant (1952); H. SetonWatson, The Decline of Imperial Russia, 1855-1914 (19S3) A. Yarmolinsky, Road to Revolution (1957) F. Venturi, Roots of Revolution (1960). (Ru. H.) ;

;

NARRA

(Asana), the local PhiUppine name applied to cerof the pea family (Leguminosae), especially to P. indiciis, also called India padauk. Narra wood is used for cabinet work; it is usually a red or rose colour, often variegated with yellow, and is hard and heavy. The trunk is surrounded (or, occasionally, supported) by huge buttresses extending outward and upward for 10 to 20 ft.; these are sometimes made into table tops, the pattern of the grain and the colouring being hardly equalled by any other timber. The wood cells contain a peculiar substance: a minute chip placed in a bottle of water soon gives an opalescent colour to the liquid. Narra wood is known also as Burmese rosewood, Andaman redwood and Kiabooca wood. NARSES (c. 478-c. 573), Byzantine general, born in Persarmenia, was a eunuch who played an important role during tain timber trees of the genus Pterocarpus

Justinian

I's reign.

35 He became

an

official in

the imperial house-

hold sacellarius) which entailed command of the spatharo(a bodyguard of eunuchs), eventually rising to be grand chamberlain (praepositus sacri cubiculi). When the Nika riot broke out in Constantinople in 532, Narses was one of those who saved Justinian his throne in winning over the Blue political faction by lavish distribution of bribes and by timely military action. In 535 he was sent to Alexandria with troops to ensure the reestablishment of the imperial candidate Theodosius as patriarch and to quell disturbances which had arisen by reason pf the election. In 538 he took part in Justinian's reconquest of Italy ostensibly to assist Belisarius. The two commanders, very different in character, found it difficult to co-operate and in 539 Narses was recalled to Constantinople. In the summer of 551 Narses was in charge of troops directed against barbarian raiders, mainly Huns, Gepids and Lombards, who were devastating the Balkans. On the resurgence of Ostrogoth power in Italy under Totila, Narses was made commander in chief in the autumn of 551, and in the following year opened a vigorous campaign. At the end of June in 552 he defeated Totila, who died of his wounds, and he entered Rome. During the following years scattered resistance by the Goths was crushed, and Franks and Alamans entering north Italy were subdued. Imperial control was gradually restored under Narses, who appears to have exercised both civil and military authority. He was recalled by Justin II in 567 and is said to have retaliated by inviting the Lombards to enter north {

cubiculars

Italy.

In appearance he was small and elegant, and as a eunuch could never be a candidate for the imperial throne, which may have been one reason for the continuous favour he enjoyed from Justinian. He was a devout man and during the empress Theodora's lifetime he seems to have inclined toward Monophysitism. Though apparently not a particularly cultivated man, he had moral and intellectual qualities. Astute, controlled, with excellent judgment, he served Justinian well, and his evil reputation for oppression and avarice in Italy during his later years should not obscure this.

—

Bibliography. E. Stein, Histoire de bas-empire, vol. ii (1949); J. B. Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire, vol. ii, 2nd ed. (1923) C. Diehl, Juslinien (1901). (J. M. Hy.) ;

NARSIMHAPUR the Jabalpur division of quarters of the district,

(Narsinghpur),

Madhya

is

a

town and

Pradesh, India.

district in

The town, head-

on the Central railway 50 mi. W. of Jabalpur. Pop. (1961) 17,940. Once called Chhota Gadarwara, it was renamed Narsinghpur when a temple of Narsingh (the "man lion," an incarnation of Vishnu) was erected about 150 years ago. The river Singri divides the town into two parts, Kandeli on the east and Narsimhapur on the west. The chief trade is in timber. Narsimhapur District (area 1,979 sq.mi.; pop. [1961], 412,406) is a narrow strip of fertile black alluvium between the Narmada (Narbada) river and the Satpura ranges. The Narmada, which marks its northern border, receives many tributaries from the south whose ravines are an ever-growing problem. Much of the district is forested and the remainder is under cultivation, the main crops being wheat, cotton, jowar millet and sesamum. Narsimhapur once formed part of the territory of the Mandla Gond kings of Chauragarh, 20 mi. S.W. of Narsimhapur town. Later, the Bundelas of Orchha conquered Chauragarh and in 1781 the Gond dynasty was overthrown by the Marathas who were lies

ousted by the British in 1818.

NARTHEX,

in

(S.

M.

A.)

narrow porch, usually the entrance of a church, sometimes

architecture, a long,

colonnaded or arcaded, at sometimes as the side of the atrium (g.v.) adjacent to the church fagade. In the early days of Christianity it was the only portion of the church to which catechumens and penitents were admitted. Occasionally an additional vestibule exists within the church building proper. In this case, the inner vestibule is called the narthex and the outer porch an exonarthex. The narthex is common in basilican, Byzantine and some Romanesque churches, particularly in Italy; in the Gothic period its use had almost disappeared, but during the Renaissance it was again found, although its ritual usage had entirely died out and it had become a simple alone,

NARVA—NARYSHKIN

36 porch or vestibule.

See

Antechapel;

Basilica;

Religious

Architecture.

NARVA,

a river port of the Estonian Soviet Socialist ReU.S.S.R., situated on the Narva (Narova) river a few miles above its entry into Narva bay on the Gulf of Finland and 120 mi. E. of Tallinn on the Tallinn-Leningrad railway. With

public,

it is associated the nearby seaside resort of Narva-Joesuu. population, mostly Russian immigrants, was 27,600 in 1959.

Its

—

dominated by two medieval fortresses Ivangorod on the east bank built by the Russians and Hermann fortress on the west bank founded by the Danes. In the 13th century a settlement developed under the protection of the Danish fortress and obtained city privileges. In 1346 the Danish king, Valdemar IV, sold Nars'a to the Teutonic knights whose stronghold it remained until its capture in 155S by the Russians. In 1581 it was taken by the Swedes who lost it in 1704 when the Russian emperor, Peter the Great, took it from Charles XII by assault after having suffered a great defeat under its walls four years earlier. Narva remained under Russian rule until Estonia obtained independence in 1918-20; it was annexed by the U.S.S.R. with the rest of Estonia in 1940-41. During World War II it was occupied by the Germans 1941-44) and it suffered much from artillery fire when In 1945 the suburb of Ivangorod it was recaptured by the Soviets. (Jaanilinn) was incorporated into Leningrad oblast of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. Narva is an important te.xtile centre, the site of the large Kreenholm mills. In 1955 a hydroelectric power station with a capacity of more than 100.000 kw. was completed on the Narva river. To the west at Soldina is a huge Baltic electric power station run by shale oil.

The town

is

(

NARVAEZ, PANFILO DE venturer, was born at Valladolid. the reduction of

(c.

He

14S0-1S28), Spanish adhelped Diego Velasquez in

Cuba and was put at the head of the force sent to Hernan Cortes to renounce his com-

the .\ztec coast to compel

He was defeated by his compatriot and made prisoner (1520). On his return to Spain Narvaez obtained from Charles V a grant of land in Florida as far as the River of Palms. Landing near Pensacola bay in x^pril 1528. he struck inland with 300 of Disillusioned his followers and reached "Apalache" on June 25. in their hopes of fabulous wealth, they made for the coast, arriving in July at the Bahia de los Caballos, at or near St. Mark's. Having built rude boats, the much-reduced company sailed on mand.

Mexico, but the vessel that carried Narvaez was storm. His lieutenant, Nuiiez Cabeza de Vaca, and three others ultimately reached the Gulf of California by way of Texas. See Florida. (1800-1868), Duque de Valenxl^, Spanish general and politician, a leading Conservative supporter of Isabella II, was born at Loja (Granada) on Aug. 5, 1800. of an illustrious Andalusian family. He joined the Guardias Valonas in 1815 and was one of the ablest of the regent Maria Sept.

22

destroyed

for

in a

NARVAEZ, RAMON MARIA

He rose to the rank of brigadier in 1836 and began his political career with Cristina's military leaders during the first Carlist war.

An opponent of Gen. Baldomero Espartero (q.v.) and the Progresista party, Narvaez led an unsuccessful rising at Seville in 1838 and had to flee, first to Gibraltar and then to France. There he plotted against Espartero, especially after Maria Cristina (q.v.) had been driven from the regency. In 1843 he staged a successful coup d'etat in Spain and the next year was asked to form a government. Narvaez's first ministry was notable for the promulgation of the 1845 constitution and for the tax reforms of the finance minister, Alejandro Mon. The government fell early in 1S46 and Narvaez was replaced first by the marques de Miraflores and then, after a brief return to ofiice, by Francisco Isturiz. who offered him the post of ambassador to Naples. Narvaez refused this appointment and went into e.xile, but Joaquin Pacheco's government made him ambassador to France, whence he returned in 1847 to head another ministry. The new administration (Oct. 1847-Jan. 1851) was Narvaez's period of greatest achievements including the suppression of a fresh Carlist rising and the execution of numerous public works. He retired from politics in 1851, but returned briefly to power in

election to the Cortes in 1838.

—

1856-57, 1864-65 and 1866. He died in Madrid on April 23, He was created duque de Valencia in 1844. 1868, See also Spain: History: The Bourbon Dynasty. (R. S. Ll.) an ice-free seaport on the Ofotfjord in the northern part of Nordland fylke (county), Norway, 110 mi. N.E. of Bod0. Pop. (1960) 13,311. The iron ore store and the railway divide the town into two districts: Frydenlund, with the slate church 1925), hospital, college and primary schools; and Oskarsborg, with the marketplace, market hall, Kongens gate (main street ), town hall, technical schools and a cableway ascending 2,100 ft. above the town toward the top of the Fagernesfjell (4,186 A railway links Narvik with Kiruna and other places in ft.). Sweden. Narvik is connected with other parts of Norway by roads, coastal shipping and airlines. The main occupation of the inhabitants is the export of iron ore, brought from the KirunaGallivare region in Sweden. The town dates from the lS80s (it was called Victoriahavn, 1887-98, in honour of the crown princess Victoria, wife of crown prince Gustavus, later Gustavus V, and of the princess royal Victoria of Great Britain, wife of Frederick III of Prussia), and developed after the construction of the Ofot railway (opened 1903), the most northerly in the world. During

NARVIK,

(

II the Germans seized Narvik on April 9. 1940. Two naval battles were fought there on April 10 and 13, 1940, and the port was captured on May 28 by a British-French expeditionary force which withdrew on June 9. (A. L. So.) (Narwal, Narwhale), one of the toothed whales (Monodott monoceros of the Arctic in which the left of

World War

NARWHAL

)

the two teeth present (very rarely both)

in the

male

as a long unicornlike, forward-directed tusk

may

be in

excess of nine feet), twisted in a left-handed spiral.

The body,

is

developed (which

which reaches about 15 ft. in length, is gray, mottled with darker and Ughter markings, and has no dorsal fin; the head is bluntly rounded ip profile. The right tooth of the male, generally, and both teeth of the female, usually, remain unerupted in deep sockets in the skull. In young narwhals several small teeth are present but disappear soon after birth.

The narwhal

is

rarely found south of latitude 65° N.;

it

is

gregarious and usually found in schools of 15 or 20, sometimes many more. Its food consists of squid and fishes, in the capture of which it appears to be in no way handicapped by its reduced dentition. Little is known of the biology of the narwhal. The use of the tusk to the animal is unknown and its value as ivory to man is not great because it contains a central cavity that precludes its

use in the manufacture of anything but small articles.

Whale.

NARYN,

(L. a river

and town

in Soviet central Asia.

flows westward for about 450 mi.

See also H. M.)

The

from the Tien Shan

river

to the

Fergana valley where

It crosses the it joins the Syr-Darya. Socialist Republics, and although the does not freeze and has a large hydroelectric potential. The first of a series of power stations to be built on the Naryn and its tributaries was completed near Uch-Kurgan on the border of the Uzbek S.S.R. in Nov. 1962, and generates 180,-

Uzbek and Kirgiz Soviet winters are cold

it

000 kw.

The town (pop. [1959] 15,000), in the Kirgiz S.S.R., was founded by the Russians as a fortified outpost in 1868. It lies at the point where the motor road from Frunze to the Torugart pass crosses the river, and is 110 mi. S. by road of the railway station (G. E.' Wr.) at Rybachye. NARYSHKIN, a Russian family which gave its name to the faction contending for the Russian throne on behalf of Peter Alekseevich (later Peter I the Great) against the Miloslavskis, who represented the interests of Ivan Alekseevich (Ivan V). The Naryshkins sprang into prominence and entered the closed circle of the Kremlin aristocracy with the marriage in 1671 of the tsar Alexis

(q.v.), after the

Miloslavskaya,

to

When,

Natalia

in 1672, Natalia

death of his

Kirillovna

first

Naryshkina

wife

M.

I.

(1651-94).

gave birth to Peter, a sturdy child

—un-

two sons by Miloslavskaya, the sickly Fedor and the halfwitted Ivan the fortunes of the Naryshkins rose and those of the Miloslavskis declined. In the next 20 years eight Naryshkins were to be elevated to the dignity of boyar. The actual leader like Alexis'

—

NASBY— NASEBY was A. S. Matveev (q.v.) related to them through a niece of his by marriage, he had also been Natalia's guardian and brought about her marriage with Alexis. On the accession of Miloslavskaya's elder son to the tsardom as Fedor III (q.v.) in 1676, the Miloslavskis regained their ascendancy and prevailed on the tsar to banish Matveev and his During his disgrace, Natalia won the support of many family. powerful families and some of the higher clergy, including the

of the Naryshkin party

:

patriarch of Moscow, loakhim, who in 1682, on Fedor's death, proclaimed Peter tsar in accordance with the wish of the vesTo mark the occasion, six tigial zemski sobor (land assembly). Naryshkins were at once promoted grooms of the bedchamber {spahiiki).

Meanwhile the discontented streltsy (musketeer troops) were threatening revolt, and the Miloslavskis deftly presented them with a collective scapegoat in the persons of the Naryshkins.

From May

(new style; 15 old style), 1682, for a whole week, the streltsy wreaked death and destruction on the persons and Among their possessions of their true and imaginary enemies. victims were Matveev and three Naryshkins; a rumour circulated by the Miloslavskis had accused them of plotting to murder Peter's

On June

own

candidate for the throne.

(N.S.), Ivan and Peter were proclaimed joint rulers, with Ivan's sister Sophia (q.v.) as regent. Natalia's father, Kiril Poluektovich Naryshkin (1623-91), and her brothers Lev Kiril5

lovich (1664-1705) all

and Martemyan Kirillovich (1665-92) were

banished.

(L. R. Lr.)

NASBY, PETROLEUM

V., pen name of David Ross

833-1 888), U.S. humorous satirist of the Civil War peborn near Binghamton, N.Y., on Sept. 20, 1833. From an early age he worked for various newspapers in New York In and Ohio. 1 861, as editor of the Findlay (Ohio) Jeffcrsonian, he published the first of many satirical letters purportedly written by one Petroleum Vesuvius Nasby. For over 20 years Locke contributed "Nasby Letters" to the Toledo Blade, which under Many of the letters his editorship gained national circulation. appeared also in book form. An ardent Unionist and foe of slavery, Locke vigorously supported the Northern cause. His chief weapon was a heavy irony. He let his character Nasby, a "Copperhead," argue in favour of the Southern position; but because Nasby is stupid, illiterate, coarse and vicious, he damns the cause he favours. His reasonUsed for a ing is absurd, his grammar and spelling atrocious. serious end, such verbal fooling delighted Northern readers, in-

riod.

(i

He was

cluding President Lincoln,

who

occasionally read

Nasby

letters

But topical satire and humour date quickly. Among the many humourists who flourished during and immediately after the Civil War, Locke, perhaps the most influential of his time, is today one of the least readable. He died on Feb. 15, to

his

foremost poet.

The themes

of Nascimento's poetry,

cabinet.

1888. See Cyril Clemens, Petroleum V. Sense in American Humor (1942)

Nasby (1936)

;

Walter

Blair,

Horse

(L. T. D.)

which

is

usually in blank

verse, polished, robust but often overladen with archaisms, range from denunciations of the tyranny of the aristocracy, the Inquisi-

and the hierarchy, coupled with praise of liberty and patriothomely evocations of the joys of life in his native land and laments on the poverty and loneliness of exile. His demonstration of the flexibility and richness of the Portuguese language, his choice of themes and his translations of such works as Wieland's Oberon and Chateaubriand's Les Martyrs influenced the romantic tion

ism, to

writers.

—

Obras completas de Filinto Elisio, 22 vol. (1836a useful selection is that edited by J. P. Tavares (1941). See also T. Braga, Pereira de Silva, Filinto Elisio e a sua epoca (1891) (N. J. L.) Filinto Elisio (igoi). Bibliography.

Time, however, was on the side of the Naryshkins. While Natalia, counseled by B. A. Golitsyn (q.v.), managed to hold her own, Peter was growing up. In the spring of 1689, thanks to V. V. Golitsyn's absence in the Crimea, the Naryshkins, including Lev (who had been allowed to return from exile), were able once more to seize the initiative. It was now their turn to expose a plot being hatched by the Moscow streltsy, whose commander, F. L. Shaklovity, was openly accused of conspiring to wipe out the Naryshkin family. Tension reached its climax in August, when Peter, hearing that the streltsy were after his blood, sought sanctuary in the Troitse-Sergiev monastery, where he was joined by By the the Naryshkins and growing numbers of his supporters. end of the first week in September, Sophia threw her hand in, and their adleaving the Naryshkins, especially Lev and Natalia, herents in control. In 1690 Lev Kirillovich was appointed head of the foreign office (posolski prikaz), a post which he occupied until 1702, though he had ceased to exercise any political influence by 1699. See C. Bickford O'Brien, Russia Under Two Tsars, 1682-1689 (1952).

Locke

(pseudonym, FiLiNTO ELisro) (i734-i8i()), the last of the Portuguese neoclassical poets. He was born in Lisbon on Dec. 23, 1734, of humble and probably adulterous origin. He was educated by the Jesuits and ordained in 1754. Not long afterward he founded a literary society known as the Grupo da Ribeira das Nans. In 1768 he became tutor to the daughters of the marquis of Aloma and fell in love with one of them, the "Maria" of his poems. Disapproving of the low-born poet's affection for his daughter, the marquis may have been ultimately responsible for Nascimento's being denounced to the Inquisition in June 1778. He succeeded in escaping to France, however, and there, except for some four years in The Hague during the revolutionary Terror, he remained, living by translations and by taking private pupils. But when he died, in Paris on Feb 25, i8ig, it was recognized that Portugal had lost its

25

half brother Ivan, the streltsy's

37

NASCIMENTO, FRANCISCO MANOEL DO

40) J.

;

M.

;

NASEBY, BATTLE OF, was

fought on June 14, 1645, about

of Leicester, between the parliamentarian army and the royalists under Prince Rupert; it largely decided the first phase of the English Civil War (see Civil War, English). Sir

20 mi.

S.

Thomas Fairfax, commander in chief of the parliamentarian New Model army that had been formed earlier in 1645, had ultimately been given a free hand on strategy and had made up his mind to attack the main royalist army whose headquarters were at Oxford. Oxford had long been under siege. To relieve the pressure the royalist army broke out and stormed Leicester on May 30, but afterward Charles I was uncertain what to do next and his army lingered at Daventry, in Northamptonshire, collecting supplies. Fairfax advanced to Kislingbury, 8 mi. E. of Daventry. on June 12.

On June

14 the king's council of war decided

it

must accept

a battle.

The two armies drew up and faced each other on a one-mile front. The royalist army was deployed along a ridge called Dust hill, the parliamentarian army on another ridge half a mile away; between them lay a valley known as Broad Moor, lying about a mile north of Naseby.

Prince Rupert had approximately 10,000

command; the parHamentarians about 14,000. Rupert himself commanded the cavalry on the royalist right, Lord Astley the infantry in the centre and Sir Marmaduke Langdale the cavalry on the left. Facing them were, respectively, the parliamentarian cavalry under Commissary General Henry Ireton,

men under

his

the infantry under Maj. Gen. PhiUp Skippon and the cavalry on In the right under Fairfax and Lieut. Gen. Oliver Cromwell. spite of his inferior numbers Rupert attacked all along the line. He himself drove back the horse on Ireton's left but then made the

mistake of engaging in a wild pursuit; Ireton himself harassed the royalist infantry but soon was wounded and taken prisoner. Meanwhile on the right Fairfax' first hne of horse repulsed the Fairfax himself then went to rally the infantry in the royalists. centre and handed over the cavalry command to Cromwell. Unlike Rupert, Cromwell successfully regrouped his troopers and was thus able to go to the help of the parliamentarian foot, who were hard pressed in the centre where Skippon had been wounded. At this stage Charles I, who had a small reserve in hand, wanted to commit it to redress the course of the battle, but was prevented from doing so, and in the confusion the opportunity was missed. By the time Rupert and his men returned from attacking the parliamentarian baggage train near Naseby village, the battle was

38

NASH— NASHE

The parliamentarians claimed to have killed bevirtually over. tween 400 and 1,000 men, to have taken 4,500 prisoners, and to have captured arms for 8,000 men, while themselves losing only 150 men. The inferiority of the royalists in numbers and in morale after But Rupert's three years of war chiefly explains the victory. inability to keep his troopers in check, which contrasted with Cromwell's fine discipline of his cavalry, contributed notably to the royalist defeat. The attacks on the royalist infantry's flanks by Ireton and by Cromwell had saved the weakened parliamentarian centre. Fairfax, unlike Rupert, exerted considerable control over the course of the battle and, together with Cromwell, deserved the triumph. See Austin Woolrych, Battles of the English Civil

War

(1961). P. A.)

(M.

NASH, JOHN

(1752-1835), English architect best known as architect to the prince regent, later George IV, was born in London, son of an engineer and millwright. Starting his career in the office of the architect Sir Robert Taylor, Nash remained there In 1778 he set up in business as architect for about ten years. and builder but in 1783 became bankrupt through speculation, and moved to make a fresh start in Carmarthen. Various moderate commissions followed, including jails at Carmarthen, Cardigan and Hereford. He became well established as a country-house architect, designing freely in adaptations of the classical, Gothic and picturesque "cottage orne" styles. Surviving examples of his houses include Llanayron, Cardiganshire; Southgate grove, Middlesex; Sundridge park, Kent; Blaise hamlet, near Bristol; and Cronkhill, Shropshire.

In about 1796 he returned to London and soon entered into informal partnership with Humphrey Repton, the landscape gardener. From the time of his marriage in 1798, Nash seems to have acquired the patronage of the prince regent and also a reasonable fortune, enabling him to remodel and live in a town house, 29 Dover street, and to build himself East Cowes castle, Isle of Wight, in semi-baronial manner. His major work, begun in 1811, was the development of Regent's park and Regent street as a residential area, linked by a new street to Carlton house and the centre of Georgian London. It incorporated the Regent's canal, churches, artisans' houses, shops and arcades as well as the layout of many of the surrounding streets. Regent street with its well-known Quadrant and colonnades, the latter demolished in 1848, was finished in about 1825 by which date Nash had also built the circular porticoed Church of All Souls, Langham place. These schemes of town planning with their appreciation of the picturesque and skilful use of urban composition on a large scale still provide many of London's most charming features such as Park Village East, Park crescent and Carlton House terrace. From 1813 to 1815 Nash held the post of deputy surveyor general; he had also become the prince regent's personal architect in which capacity he extended and greatly altered the Royal pavilion, Brighton (1815-23), in a fanciful "Hindoo" style at enormous total cost of about £160,000. In 1821 instructions were given that Buckingham house should be rebuilt as a royal palace, again regardless of expense. The king, however, died in 1830 and Nash's work at Buckingham palace was never completed as he shared his master's unpopularity and was dismissed. Subsequently, in 1831, he was required to answer an inquiry into the expenditure and alleged defects of the building. He died at Cowes on May 13, 1835. See J. N. Summerson, John Nash (1935).

NASH, PAUL

(E. C. D.)

(1889-1946), English painter appointed an official war artist in both World Wars I and II, was born in London on May 11, 1889, and studied at the Slade school, London. In 1914 he enlisted in the artists' rifles and his 1918 exhibition of paintings portrayed with abstract detachment shattered war landscapes, such as "Menin Road" (Imperial War museum, London). There followed seascapes (''Wall Against the Sea," Carnegie institute, Pittsburgh) and landscapes ("Oxenbridge," Birmingham art gallery, Eng.) of distinguished design and cool, vibrating colours; and book illustrations and wood engravings. In the 1930s

developed freer design and richer colour, together with a symbolic, "fourth-dimensional" vision influenced by surhis paintings

realism. One of his best-known paintings of World War II was "Totes Meer" ("Dead Sea," Tate gallery, London). Later paintings reveal his imaginative poetic symbolism; e.g., "November Moon" (Fitzwilliam museum, Cambridge, Eng.) and "Solstice of the Sunflower" (National gallery, Ottawa). Nash died at Boscombe, Hampshire, on July 1 1, 1946. See Paul Nash, Outline (1949); M. Eates (ed.), Paul Nash (1948). (M. T. N.)

RICHARD

(1674-1762), first of the great dandies of NASH, England, known as Beau Nash, and also as "Monarch of Bath and Tunbridge Wells." He was born of upper-middle-class Welsh parents on Oct. 18, 1674, at Swansea, where his father, reduced by Cromwell's wars, was operating a bottle factory. Young Nash, after Carmarthen grammar school and a year at Jesus college, Oxford, bought his way into the guards as an ensign. Introduced thereby to London society, he "put his whole intellect into a bow." When army pay proved insufficient he entered at 20 the Inner Temple, less to study law than "the art of living without money." Over the gaming tables Nash rounded his manner. The epicures dubbed him "the Count" and the benchers chose him master of the revels on the accession, singly, of William III in 1695. Capt. (afterward Sir) John Vanbrugh, to depict a beau, modeled from Nash the title part of the comedy Aesop (1697). When Queen Anne passed a month at Bath, she drew thither the nobility, who in turn attracted gamblers, among them, in 1705, Beau Nash. He gained the patronage of the manager, Captain Webster, who was soon afterward killed by a duelist. Bath corporation thereupon elected Nash master of ceremonies. He elevated the standard of manners by forbidding swords, boots and aprons in assemblies; he regulated chair-men; he fixed charges for lodgings. Improving Bath itself, he built roads, promoted assembly rooms and founded a mineral-water hospital with 108 beds for the poor. In 1715 the Beau began opening the season in Tunbridge Wells and controlled the resort from 1735, when its manageress died. Three years later he entertained the prince of Wales at Bath. Nash wore a large white three-cornered cocked hat, dressed elaborately

and traveled

in royal

many

manner

in a

coach-and-six.

Lord

ballroom took the gold-laced master, Unmarried, he was egoistic and flippant, though openhanded, and excelled as a mediator. After 1745 antigambling laws ruined his livelihood. Nash died at Bath on Feb. 3, 1762, a threadbare pensioner, but was buried with pomp in Bath abbey. Bibliography. Oliver Goldsmith, The Life of Richard Nash (1762) A. Barbeau, Bath in the 18th Century (1905) Margaret Barton, Tunbridge Wells (1905) Willard Connely, Beau Nash (1955). (W. Co.) Chesterfield said

in the

at a distance, for "a gilt garland."

—

;

;

;

NASHE

THOMAS

(Nash), (1567-1601?), English pamand dramatist, was born in 1567 at Lowestoft, Suf-

phleteer, poet

In 1581 or 1582 he folk, the son of a Herefordshire minister. About 1588 he matriculated at St. John's college, Cambridge. left Cambridge and went to London, where he became associated His first with Robert Greene and other professional authors. appearance in print was his preface to Greene's Menaphon (1589), absurditie though he probably wrote The anatomic of (1589) earlier. Both works reveal the recent university graduate a fervid :

but traditional espousal of literary standards, violent hostility to popular literature, a conventional misogynic attitude and a style The learning is pretentious and the tone tainted by euphuism. often arrogant and sometimes coarse; "I will persecute those idiots third generation, that have made Art their heires unto the and bankerout of her ornaments, and sent Poetry a begging up and

downe

the Countrey." In 1589 and 1590 he evidently became a paid hack of the episcopacy in the Marprelate controversy (q.v.), and matched wits with the unidentified, but enormously clever, "Martin," Almost all the replies to Martin have variously been assigned to Nashe, but the only one that has been convincingly attributed is An Almond for a Parrot (1590). He wrote the preface to Thomas Newman's unauthorized edition of Sir Philip Sidney's Astrophel and Stella (1591). Though Nashe penned an extravagant, servile

NASHUA—NASHVILLE dedication to Sidney's sister, the countess of Pembroke, the book was withdrawn and reissued in the same year without Nashe's

foreword. Pierce Penilesse his supplication to the divell (i5g2) revealed Nashe's artistic strengths and weaknesses. Purged of euphuistic affectations, his prose had become a combination of colloquial diction and idiosyncratic coined compounds ideal for controversy

But his eccentric discussion of the seven deadly sins. verbal facility was frequently an end in itself; Nashe rambled, inserting whatever came to mind, and failed to impose a consistent and for

In a digression he attacked to Greene's diatribe against the

structure upon his material.

Richard

Harveys in A quip jar an upstart courtier (1592) a passage which Greene Gabriel Harvey deleted before his death on Sept. 3, 1592. After iq.v.) had assailed both Greene and Nashe in Four Letters and certaine somiets (1592), in Strange newes (1592), Nashe defended, but not too strenuously, the memory of his friend and heaped Then, in the foreword further abuse upon the Harvey family.

Harvey and thus added

Jerusalem (1593), he indicated willingness end the dispute, but when Harvey, who was probably unaware

to Christs teares over to

of the proposal, printed Pierces supererogation (i593). Nashe withdrew the preface in the second edition, and wittily burlesqued his

opponent

Thomas Middleton, when he termed

Sajron-Walden (1596). 1604, was probably most accurate

Have with you

in

writing in

this

to

controversy "but the running a

tilt

of wits

shops on both sides of John of Paul's churchyard." 1592 and 1593 Harvey was in the employ of John Wolfe,

in booksellers'

For

in

39

America, lix (1944); and E. H. Miller, "The Relationship of Robert Greene and Thomas Nashe, 1588-1592." '" Philological Quarterly (E. H. Mr.)

(1954).

NASHUA,

a city of

Merrimack and Nashua

New

has extensive manufacturing. With the post-World War II withdrawal of textiles the city developed a the Nashua-New Hampshire through base industrial diversified foundation, which includes shoes, paper products, electronics, chemicals, office equipment, millwork, plastics, greeting cards, asbestos products and machinery for the manufacture of plastic and paper. The site was originally part of Massachusetts province but the 1741 boundary settlement placed it in New Hamp.shire. This led to local resentment and a five-year delay in applying for a charter In 1803 the village of Indian Head, across took the name of Nashua (believed to have been derived from a local Indian tribe). The two settlements The northern section withdrew, as joined in 1837 as Nashua. Nashville, in 1842 over a dispute in locating the town hall. They were reunited under a city charter in 18S3. as Dunstable,

the

Nashua

N.H.

river,

Nashua is the women, founded

site

in

of Rivier, a

1933.

The

is

to be credited,

Catholic college for

immi-

grants to the textile mills, followed by large numbers of French Canadians. The latter still form the major ethnic group, although Lithuanian, Polish and Greek immigrants subsequently contributed to the cosmopolitan character of the

170,874.

Harvey

Roman

city early attracted Irish

found and that none of theire books bee ever printed hereafter." Apparently Nashe wrote Strange newes while he was living in late 1592 and early 1593 at the home of Sir George Carey, who

if

is

It

tive population figures see table in

printed his pamphlets, and,

N.W.

rivers 40 mi.

seat of Hillsboro county.

Nashe was as early as 1593 a hack in the printing establishment of John Danter. The flyting was ofificially terminated in 1599, when the archbishop of Canterbury ordered "that all Nasshes bookes and Doctor Harveyes bookes be taken wheresoever they maye be

who

located on the of Boston, Mass.; the

Hampshire, U.S.,

community.

For compara-

New Hampshire

;

Population.

(L. F. R.)

NASHVILLE,

capital city

Cumberland river in the north middle Tennessee basin. Pop. (1960) (For comparative population figures see table in Ten-

Davidson county, central

of Tennessee, U.S., and seat of

is

portion of

situated on the

the

nessee: Population.) History. The first English settlement in Tennessee west of the Allegheny mountains, the city was founded in 1779 by settlers dramatically relieved for the moment his oppressive poverty. eastern Tennessee under the leadership of James Robertson from Christs teares over Jerusalem and The Terrors of the Night (1593) were dedicated to members of the Carey family. In the former and John Donelson. The site of the city had been occupied much Nashe ominously warned his countrymen during one of the worst earlier by French traders, who operated a trading post near the plagues that unless they reformed London would suffer the fate present downtown area, and before that by the Shawnee Indians. It was originally named Fort Nashborough, for Gen. Francis Nash of Jerusalem, and so strenuously condemned the greed of London merchants that he was forced to cancel the offending passage. The of North Carolina, and in 1784 took its present name. One of the prime movers behind the settlement of Fort NashborTerrors of the Night was a discursive, sometimes bewildering, attack on demonology. Both works were medieval in their attitudes ough was Richard Henderson, a North Carolina jurist, who in 1775 acquired most of middle Tennessee and Kentucky in the famous and almost puritanical in their moral indictments. He also is Pierce Penilesse excepted, Nashe's most successful works were Transylvania purchase from the Cherokee Indians. credited with having written the Cumberland Compact, the articles his masque, Summers last Will and Testament (1592, publ. 1600), the contained settlers, which the adopted by Jacke Wilton self-government of his novel The unfortunate traveller, or, The life of (1594) and Nashes lenten stuffe (1599). The unfortunate travel- first known provision in the United States for recall of elected Henderson's settlement was officials (see Tennessee: History). ler has brilliant sections, including the romance of the earl of Surrey and Geraldine, but it is marred by Nashe's lack of artistic under frequent Indian attack in its early years and for a while these attacks seemed likely to destroy the infant colony. But with control and by his repellent fascination with cruelty and violence. Lenten stuffe, purportedly a panegyric of red herrings, contained the end of the American Revolution many new settlers arrived increasing the population and treaties of peace were soon signed a charming description of Yarmouth, Norfolk, and a serio-comic with the formerly hostile Indians. treatment of Hero and Leander. The city grew rapidly in the first half of the 19th century and By his share in a lost stage comedy entitled The Isle of Dogs (1597) and labeled seditious, Nashe offended the authorities. Ex- soon became a thriving trade centre for the entire middle Tennessee area. Radiating from the city like the spokes of a wheel actly what punishment he received is unknown, but Ben Jonson and others were temporarily imprisoned. In the remaining years was an extensive system of turnpikes over which the produce of the surrounding area was brought to the city's Cumberland river of his life Nashe apparently retired from London to Yarmouth. He died in 1600 or 1601. Nashe was the first of the English docks. Nashville's commercial importance was further enhanced in the 1850s when it acquired railroad connections with major comprose eccentrics, an extraordinary inventer of verbal hybrids, mercial cities to the north and south. The city also became a and, according to C. S. Lewis, "the supreme master of literary In 1826, just two years before political centre of the state. sansculottisme.'' (C. S. Lewis, English Literature in the Sixteenth Century, Oxford University Press, London, 1954.) Unfortunately Andrew Jackson became president of the United States, Nashhe neither had time because of financial need nor the temperament ville was selected as temporary capital of the state; in 1843 it became the permanent capital. necessary to realize fully his undoubted talents. Its transportation facilities and strategic location made NashThe Works were edited by R. B. McKerrow, five volumes ville an important city in the campaigns of the American Civil (1904-10; revised edition by F. P. Wilson, 1958). War. It was occupied by Federal troops in Feb. 1862, shortly BiBuooRAPHY. C. S. Lewis, English Literature in the Sixteenth Donelson, the Confederacy's key defense Century (1954) D, J. McGinn, "Nashe's Share in the Marprelate Con- after the capture of Ft. Nashville was under Federal position on the Cumberland river. troversy," Publications of the Modern Language Association of

—

;

—

NASI

40 military control for the remainder of the war and from

March 1865 it was Governor Andrew Johnson. 1862, to

March

3,

the seat of government for Military

It also was a major supply base for Federal operations in the lower South. Its warehouses and railroads played an important part in Gen. William T. Sherman's 1864

campaign against Atlanta. The last major battle of the Civil War took place at Nashville a few months after the fall of Atlanta. Confederate Gen. John B. Hood moved back into Tennessee in an effort to cut Sherman's supply lines and perhaps threaten Cincinnati and other northern After suffering heavy losses in the battle of Franklin cities. (Nov. 30, 1864), Hood advanced to the southern outskirts of Nashville, about IS mi. N. of Franklin and there established defensive

lines

across

the

railroad

tracks

leading south.

On

Union army, commanded by Gen. George H. Thomas, marched out against Hood and overwhelmingly defeated the badly outnumbered Confederates. On the following day the Union victory was made complete and the Confederate army retreated in near disorder into Alabama. Since Nashville had been occupied early in the war and without a fight, the city suffered less physical destruction than most occuUnion warehousing and supply operations pied southern cities. were not without economic benefit to the city and the many Federal soldiers who remained in Nashville after the war helped promote its economic recovery. Nashville resumed and improved its position as a leading investment and commercial centre and by the turn of the century was also becoming an important manufacturing centre in the state. Its continuing industrial development was greatly accelerated in the 20th century by the availability of cheap electric power from the Tennessee Valley authority and from the Cumberland river dams of the U.S. army corps of engineers. Dec.

15, 1864, the

Population and Government In 1960 the Nashville standard metropolitan statistical area (SMSA), consisting of Davidson county, had a population of 399,743. In 1963 the SMSA was en-

Sumner and Wilson counties, bringing its popuon the 1960 census) to 463,628. Prior to April 1, 1963, government of the city was by a mayor and council, while most residents of Davidson county outside the city were governed by a county judge and county court. A few areas in the suburbs were incorporated as separate cities under varying forms of city government. For many years the city had been slow to expand its boundaries. On June 29, 1962, however, a new metropolitan form of government, to replace the separate city and county governments, was adopted in a special election. The validity of this new form of government was subsequently affirmed by the state supreme court on Oct. 5, 1962, and put into effect on April 1, 1963. During the following year a planned and orderly consolidation of city and county functions was effected. While these changes were being made, the city was also engaged in ambitious and progressive programs of urban renewal, slum clearance, improved street lighting, expansion of airport facilities and other civic improvements. As was the case with other Tennessee cities, Nashville was for many years grossly underrepresented in the state legislature. The U.S. supreme court decided in Baker v. Carr ( 1 962 ) that the state's legislative apportionment was a proper subject for review by fedlarged to include lation (based

eral courts, resulting in legislation giving greater representation to

Nashville and other urban areas {see Tennessee; Govermnent). Commerce, Industry and Transportation. Nashville has a well diversified economy. Investment firms and insurance firms are both important. There are more than 500 manufacturing plants but no single one is a dominant element in the city's

—

economy. The largest industrial plant is one producing dacron and cellophane at Old Hickory, a suburban industrial city built as an explosives centre during World War I. Other major industries produce shoes, major parts for airplanes, vacuum bottles and lunch transport equipment and paper bags. Important additions to the city's industrial development include a glass plant and a rubber plant. Nashville is widely known as a religious centre. It is the site of the national headquarters of several boards and agencies of the Methodist Church, the Sunday School board of the Southern Bapkits, river

convention and the international headquarters of the DisChrist Historical society. The Methodist Publishing House is said to be the largest religious publishing house in the world and is one of the few major publishers that operates its own printing plant; its interdenominational magazine The Upper Room is claimed to be the world's most widely used devotional guide, being printed in over 30 languages. This publishing house is only one of a large number that make printing and publishing one of the city's major industries. The Southern Baptist convention also operates a publishing house. During the second quarter of the 20th century the city became widely known as an entertainment centre, largely through its "country music" industry. Regular radio broadcasts of the "Grand Ole Opry" began in 1925 and national network broadcasts in 1939; it consistently attracted capacity audiences to its performances in historic Ryman auditorium. Country music is also the mainstay of a very large recording industry. Nashville is served by several airlines, two railroads and more than 40 motor-freight lines, several of which have their home tist

ciples of

offices in the city.

Education.

It is the

major

river port

on the Cumberland.

—Vanderbilt, a private university founded

in 1873,

ranks as one of the nation's leading universities; it has schools of liberal arts, medicine, law, religion, engineering, nursing and On adjoining campuses are George Peabody graduate studies. College for Teachers (private), founded as Davidson academy in 1785, and Scarritt College for Christian Workers, a Methodist senior college and graduate school chartered in 1924. Nearby is Belmont college, established in 1951 by the Tennessee Baptist convention on the historic property formerly occupied by WardBelmont college, now defunct; farther south is David Lipscomb college, founded in 1891 and affiliated with the Churches of Christ. In the west portion of the city are Fisk university, established in 1865 and affiliated with the American Missionary association, and, on an adjoining campus, Meharry Medical college (Methodist), founded in 1876. Still farther west is Tennessee Agricultural and Industrial State university, established in

1912.

The

city also

has two highly regarded private preparatory schools, Harpeth Hall (for girls) and Montgomery Bell academy (for boys). Wellknown private schools in nearby outlying towns are Battle Ground academy in Franklin, Castle Heights Military academy in Lebanon and Columbia Military academy in Columbia, all for boys.

—

Parks and Recreation Nashville's park system includes more than 30 city parks. The best known is Centennial park, which occupies 132 ac. of the state centennial exposition grounds and features the world's only full-scale reproduction of the Parthenon. Edwin Warner park and Percy Warner park, adjoining each other in the southwestern portion of the county near the city's Fine Arts Center and Botanical Gardens, contain 2,665 ac. of hilly land of great natural beauty. These parks contain scenic roads, picnic and play areas, hiking and riding trails and a municipal golf course. Old Hickory lake, a 22, 500-ac. impoundment of the Cumberland river, is another major recreational area. The area's best-known historic site is The Hermitage, the home

Andrew Jackson. It annually attracts thousands of visitors, of whom also visit Belle Meade, a famous 19th-century plantation home and thoroughbred nursery; Traveler's Rest, the of

many home

of Jackson's close friend and business associate, Jphn Overton; and Ft. Nashborough, a reconstruction of the fort around which the city developed. (W. T. A.)

NASI, JOSEPH (1520P-1579), Jewish statesman and finanwho rose to a position of power in Turkey under the sultans Suleiman the Magnificent and Selim II. Of Marrano descent, Nasi was born in Portugal and baptized under the Christian name of Joao Miguez. He moved to Antwerp in 1536 with his aunt Dofia Gracia Nasi, wife of the banker Francisco Mendes. There he gained a thorough knowledge of commercial and financial afIn 1554 Nasi settled fairs in the service of the house of Mendes. at Istanbul, declared himself to be a Jew and married his cousin Reyna, the daughter of Doria Gracia. He soon attained high favour with Sultan Suleiman and his son Selim. At Tiberias in Palestine the town and seven neighbouring villages were granted to him by the sultan in 1561 he strove to establish a community cier,

—

—

NASIK—NASIRIYAH of Jewish refugees from Europe. Five years later, in 1S66, Selim II, having just ascended the Ottoman throne, made him dul^e of Naxos. His influence, hostile to Venice, contributed not a httle to the decision made at the Porte in 1571 to attempt the conquest

After the death of Selim II in 1574 Nasi found himself excluded from an effective role in public affairs. The last years of spent in virtual retirement at his villa of Belvedere life were his near Galata. He died there on Aug. 2, 1579. of Cyprus.

See C. Roth, The House of Nasi, the

Duke

of

Naxos (1948). (V. J. P.)

NASIK,

a

town and

rashtra, India.

Godavari

river,

district in the

Bombay

division of

Maha-

on the 6 mi. from the Central railway and 110 mi. N.E.

The town, headquarters

of the district, Hes

Pop. (1961) 131,103. It is a place of Hindu pilgrimage because of the sanctity of the Godavari river and the belief that Rama, the legendary hero of the epic Ramayana, lived there for a time with his wife Sita and his brother Lakshman. The town lies mainly on the right (south) bank of the river; Panchavati, the quarter on the left bank, has several temples. The river banks are lined with ghats (stepped bathing places). The town has an arts of

Bombay.

and science college, affiliated to Poona university, and is the seat of an Anglican bishop. Brass- and copperware, especially statues, Interesting places caskets, chains and lamps, are manufactured. include the Dasahara maidan (open space), the Jain Chambhar caves and Pandu Lena, a group of Buddhist caves (1st century B.c.-6th century a.d.). the exception of a few villages in the on a plateau 1,300-2,000 ft. above sea level. Area 6,020 Pop. (1961) 1,855,246. The west is hilly and intersected by ravines; the east is open, fertile and well cultivated. The Sahyadri range stretches north-south, the watershed formed by the Chandor range running east-west. All streams south of this watershed join the eastward-flowing Godavari; north of it the Girna and its tributary the Mosam join the westward-flowing Tapti. The Kadva canal (1874), the Girna left-bank canal

Nasik District, with

west,

is

could be studied. Nasir ad-Din visited Europe in 1873, 1878 and 1889; he kept diaries of these visits which were published in Persian and English. The shah became unpopular in his later years because of his refusal to yield to the increasing

waged

lost to

Russia in

Fath ad-Din endeavoured to seek some compensation Great Britain therefor these losses by seizing Herat in 1856. upon declared war on Persia, forcing the shah to relinquish Herat and to recognize the kingdom of Afghanistan. Although imbued at first with liberal ideas through the influence of Taqi Khan, the shah subsequently became opposed to reforms. Nevertheless, he ruled his country firmly and well for the greater part of his reign. It can indeed be said that he was

Ali Shah, Nasir

in the reign of

for reforms

and of

payments most of which went into his own pocket. He was assassinated at Teheran by a fanatic on May 1, 1896. See also Iran: Administration and Social Conditions ; Persian History Qajar Dynasty. for lavish

:

See G. N. Curzon, Persia and the Persian Question, vol. i,. pp. 391412 (1892) J. Feuvrier, Trois Ans a la cour de Perse, 2nd ed. (1906). ;

(L. Lo.)

NASIR-I

KHUSRAU

(1004-1088),

Persian poet, theologian and religious propagandist, whose later hfe and work were influenced by his conversion to Isma'ihsm, was born near Balkh (in Afghan Turkestan) of a Shi'ite family. He served in the Saljuq government of Khorasan before resigning to make the pilgrimage

Mecca. Continuing his journey into Palestine and Egypt, he was impressed by the splendour of Fatimid rule in Cairo and it was as an ardent Isma'ili convert that he returned to Balkh in 1053. His vigorous advocacy of that heresy obliged him soon to flee to the mountains of Badakhshan (northwest Hindu Kush), where he ended his days. His poems of a didactic and devotional literary

Being unable to regain any of the territory

demands

his granting extensive concessionary rights to foreigners in return

(1909) and the Godavari right- and left-bank canals (1911) irrigate about 87,000 ac. At Gangapur, 8 mi. W. of Nasik, an earthen dam (built 1949-54) irrigates about 45,000 ac. The chief crops are bajra, jowar, pulses, oilseeds, cotton, sugarcane, guavas, potatoes, peanuts and betel nuts. Manufactures include cotton and silk textiles, gold and silver thread and copper, brass and silver vessels. At Ravalgaon is a sugar factory and there are railway workshops Places of interest include the Govinat Igatpuri and Manmad.

the two disastrous wars which were

curbed the excessive

duced; the construction of roads practicable for wheeled traffic was begun; and education on modern lines was initiated by the establishment, in 1851, of the Dar al-Funun (Ecole Polytechnique) in Teheran, where modern scientific ideas and European languages

to

cution of the Babis.

He

power of the mullahs by the gradual reassertion of the civil authority and by the introduction of the lay administration of religious properties; and despite his fear of reforms, he took certain measures which resulted in the partial opening up and modernizaTelegraph and postal services were introtion of the country.

sq.mi.

deshwar temple at Sinnar, the Ankai and Tringalwadi caves near Igatpuri, the Jogeshwar temple in Baglan, and numerous hill forts. Other larger towns include Malegaon, Yeola and the military sta(M. R. P.) tion Deolah. NASIR AD-DIN (Nasr ad-Din) (1831-1896), shah of Persia from 1848 to 1896, was born probably at Teheran on July Although not the eldest son of his father, Mohammed 17, 1831. Shah, he was, through his mother's influence, made heir apparent. disturbances which broke out on his accession in 1848 Serious were quelled mainly through the efforts of his extremely capable and honest chief minister, Mirza Taqi Khan. Thereafter some much-needed reforms were introduced. These reforms, however, made Taqi Khan many enemies, and he was hated by the queenmother, who had great influence over the young shah. The consequence was that Taqi Khan 'was disgraced and finally murdered. In 1853 the shah himself narrowly escaped death at the hands of three fanatical Babis (see Babism). Although in general kindly and humane, Nasir ad-Din thereupon embarked on a fierce perse-

41

the best sovereign of the Qajar line.

character consist mainly of long odes considered to be of high quahty; he is also credited with two moralizing sequences, the Sa'adat-nama and the Raushana'i-nama. His most celebrated prose work is the Safar-nama, a diary describing his journey. It is

most valuable record of the scenes and events which he witHe also wrote more than a dozen treatises expounding the doctrines of the Isma'ilis, among them the Jami' al-hikmatain, in which he attempted a harmony between theology and philosNasir-i Khusrau's style is straightforward and vigorous. ophy. a

nessed.

In his verse he displays great technical virtuosity, while his prose is remarkable for the richness of its philosophical vocabulary. Bibliography. E. G. Browne, Literary History of Persia, ii, pp. 220-246 (1929) G. Le Strange, Diary of a Journey Through Syria and Palestine (18S8) G. M. Wickens, two articles in the Islamic Quarterly, vol. ii, pp. 117-132, 206-221 (1955) and vol. iv, pp. 66-67 (1957) on (A. J. Ay.) the "Sa'adat-nama" and "Safar-nama" respectively. (An Nasiriyah), a town of southern Iraq, cap-

—

;

;

NASIRIYAH

of the liwa' (province) of the same name, about 110 mi. N.W. of Basra. Pop. (1957) 39,060. A bridging point and local market situated on the north bank of the Euphrates, Nasiriyah was founded about 1870 by Nasir Sadun Pasha, then paramount sheikh ital

of the Muntafiq confederation, who became an Ottoman official and furthered Midhat Pasha's policy of reducing nomadism in Iraq. The town, surrounded by a mud wall and numerous bunds to prevent flooding, is built mainly of brick (mostly sun-dried), with relatively broad streets. About three-quarters of the population are Shi'ah Muslims, and there is a community of Sabians engaged in silverworking, boatbuilding and carpentry, together with a few Persians and Kurds. Nasiriyah Liwa', formerly named after the Muntafiq tribe, lies between Diwaniyah liwa' on the west and Basra liwa' on the east. Area 5,580 sq.mi. Pop. (1957) 455,644. Though relatively small in size, it is one of the most densely populated regions in Iraq owing to the relative abundance of cultivated land and the presence of many nomads and semisettled pastorahsts. Wheat, barley and dates are grown, and there is an important rice area in the extreme southeast extending from the head of Lake Hammar. The sheep-herding nomads play a greater part in local economic hfe

than they do in

many

other riverine areas of Iraq.

Corresponding

NASMYTH— NASSAU

42

Ottoman sanjak of Muntafiq, which with Basra and Amarah formed the old vilayet of Basra, Nasiriyah liwa' is the lowest portion of the Euphrates valley before the river spreads out into the extremely shallow and marshy Lake Hanimar, The ruins of Larsa, Ur, Erech, Eridu and Lagash are closely in boundaries with the

found

all

tians

the succession of his legitimate heir, Boabdil (q.v.).

(.W. B. Fr.)

in this region.

and border warfare, in which the Chrishad taken a series of key positions (notably Gibraltar in 1462), Nasrid rule was finally doomed by Mulay Hasan (Abu-1Hasan Ali) ( 1466-82), who renewed hostilities against Castile and at the same time plunged his subjects into civil war by opposing turies of internal disorder

NASMYTH, ALEXANDER

(1758-1840), Scottish portrait and landscape painter, was born in Edinburgh on Sept. 9, His work attracted the attention of the portrait painter 175S. Allan Ramsay, who took him to London and employed him upon the subordinate portions of his portraits.

Edinburgh painter.

in 1778.

He

Nasmyth returned

to

and was soon largely patronized as a portrait

also assisted Patrick Miller of Dalswinton, as drafts-

man, in his mechanical researches and experiments. Miller advanced him money to go to Italy in 1782, where he remained two years. On his return he painted the portrait of Robert Burns now Although they are little in the Scottish National Portrait gallery. known, some of his portraits, and in particular the conversation pieces he executed in the 1780s and 1790s, are of considerable interest. Nasmyth's pronounced Liberal opinions gave offense to many of his aristocratic patrons, and led to the diminution of his practice as a portraitist. In his later years, accordingly, he worked mainly at landscapes. His subjects are carefully finished and coloured, but are wanting in boldness and freedom. He also designed sets for the theatre and worked as an architect. He invented the "bow-and-string" bridge and is known for his designs for the Dean bridge, Edinburgh, and the graceful circular temple covering St. Bernard's well. Nasmyth died in Edinburgh on April 10, 1840.

Nasmyth (q.v.), was an engineer. His Patrick Nasmyth (1787-1831), called in his time the "British Hobbema," achieved a reputation as a landscape His youngest son, James

eldest son,

For an account of the Nasmyth family, see S. Smiles Nasmyth, Engineer: an Autobiography (1883).

(ed.),

James

NASMYTH, JAMES

(1808-1890), Scottish engineer and inventor of the steam hammer, was born in Edinburgh on Aug. 19, 1808, the youngest son of Alexander Nasmyth, the "father of Scottish landscape art." He started his own business in Manchester

few years was at the head of the prosperous Bridgewater foundry at Patricroft, near Manchester, from which he retired in 1856 with a fortune. The invention of the steam hammer, with which his name is associated, was actually made in 1839, when a drawing of the device appeared in his notebook, or "scheme-book," as he called it, with the date Nov. 24 of that year. Nasmyth designed the steam hammer to meet the difficulty experienced by the builders of the "Great Britain" steamship in finding a firm that would undertake to forge the 30-in. -diameter paddle wheel shaft originally designed for that vessel, but he did not construct the machine until 1843. He did much to improve machine tools and devised many new appliances the shaping machine (,"Nasmyth steam-arm"), a nut-milling machine, steam pile driver, hydraulic machinery for various purposes, etc. He died in London on May 7, 1890. His autobiography was edited by Samuel Smiles (1883).

and

in a

—

NASRIDS, the last of the Muslim dynasties of Spain, ruled Granada from 1238 to 1492 {see Granada, Kingdom of). The family rose to power in the turmoil which followed the defeat of the Almohads at the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212. The first Nasrid ruler, Mohammed I (d. 1273), became a tributary in

vassal of

the capital of the Bahamas,

is

a port

on the north-

New

Providence Island. Founded on the site of the village of Charles Towne, it was not until 1690 that it took its present name and not until 1729 that the city was laid out. {See Pop. (1961 est.) 54,557. also Bahamas.) The temperate climate (average temperature November-May, 23° C. [74" F.], June-October, 28° C. [82° F.]), beautiful scenery and fine beaches make Nassau one of the chief pleasure resorts of the world. The city proper covers a comparatively small area but the residential districts extend for a considerable distance along the coast. From Bennett's hill, a ridge south of the city, there is a view not only of the city and harbour but also of almost the whole island. The water tower, a conspicuous landmark on the Below the tower ridge, is the source of the city's water supply. is Ft. Fincastle (1793), one of several built during the 18th century when Nassau was fortified. On Mt. Fitzwilliam above the city is the imposing white building of Government house; in the middle of a long flight of steps in front of it stands a statue of Christopher Columbus. On George street, which leads downhill The city's to the town, stands Christ Church Anglican cathedral. centre is Rawson square with the law courts and chief government public library are and the buildings; Christ Church cathedral nearby. The main shopping and business street is Bay street, which also has the public market (1901). Bay street runs parallel with the harbour front. Offshore, at the eastern end of the harbour, are the marine gardens, where glass-bottomed boats are

The natural vegetation of Nassau is exceedingly beautiful, the scarlet poinciana tree flowering from May to September and the poinsettia at Christmastime, and the purple bougainvillea growing profusely along the hedgerows. In the Ardastra gardens along Bay street to the west of the city are available for sight-seeing.

painter.

in 1834,

NASSAU,

eastern coast of

King Ferdinand

HI

capture of Seville in 1248.

of Castile

He

and assisted him

at the

started the construction of the

Alhambra (g.ti. and laid the basis of Granada's prosperity by welcoming refugees from Seville, Valencia and Murcia. His successors were weakened by dynastic and factional strife: in two and a half centuries there were 20 Nasrid rulers. Most of them died violently; several were expelled and restored two or three times. The dynasty wavered between submission to Castile and dependence on their Marinid kinsmen of Fes, whose mercenaries often dictated the political fortunes of Granada. The African alliance proved disastrous, leading, for example, to the defeat of Yusuf I (1333-54) at Rio Salado (1340) by Alfonso XL After two cen)

many rare tropical plants. The harbour, which is sheltered by Hog

Island, accommodates There are no important industries on the but products including sisal, sponges, citrus fruits, tomatoes

vessels of 24-ft. draft. island,

and pineapples are exported. Nassau is easily reached by sea or air. From the airport at Oakes field, 1 mi. from the town's centre, there is regular service to airports in the U.S., Great Britain and elsewhere. There is also local service to other islands in the Bahamas.

W. W. Cartwright

See

(ed.),

Pocket Guide to Nassau, 8th ed. (1954)

Historic Forts of Nassau (1932).

NASSAU, a historic territory of western Germany, corresponding under the Federal Republic of Germany to the westernmost part of the Land Hesse (q.v.) together with the district of Montabaur in the Land Rhineland-Palatinate. In its consohdated form (1816-66) as a sovereign duchy, Nassau had an area of 1,830 sq.mi., being divided approximately into halves by the Lahn river and bounded south by the Main, southwest by the Rhine, northwest and north by parts of Prussia's Rhine province and Prussian Westphalia and east by parts of Grand-Ducal Hesse, by Prussian Wetzlar, by Hesse-Homburg and by Frankfurt am Main. South of the Lahn are the Taunus mountains; north is the barren Westerwald. Thickly wooded, Nassau has valleys rich in grain notable vineyards, numerous spas and deposits of iron, and malachite. History. In Roman times the south of the country was inhabited by the Germanic Mattiaci. During the great migrations, The Franks, having annexed the it was occupied by the Alamanni. north, overran the south in the reign of Clovis; and in the 6th-

and

fruit,

lead, copper, silver

—

7th centuries Christianity was introduced. Before 1 128 the counts of Laurenburg, of the local nobility, built a castle overlooking the Lahn near the town of Nassau; and Walram (d. 11 98) took the

His grandsons divided their inheritance and Wiesbaden; Otto I took the north, with Dillenburg and Siegen. title

in

of count of Nassau.

1255:

Walram

II took the south, with Weilburg, Idstein

NASSER—NAST —

Walramian Nassau. Walram II's son Adolf (g.v.) was German king from 1292 to 1298. His descendants, however, continually partitioned their lands. Nassau-Weilburg, separated from NassauIdstein-Wiesbaden in 1355, became a princely countship of the Reich in 1366 and acquired Saarbriicken and also Commercy (in Lorraine) in 1381, but was split into Weilburg and Saarbriicken branches from 1442 to 1574 and again in 1574 and 1594. After the reversion of the whole Walramian inheritance to Weilburg (1605) new partitions in 1629 and 1651 divided it between three lines, Weilburg, Idstein and Saarbriicken-Usingen. The last named was subdivided into branches of its own from 1659 to 1728 and from 1735 to 1797, but had the Idstein succession from 1722. When the lands west of the Rhine were ceded to France (1801), Nassau-Weilburg and Nassau-Usingen made common cause and substantial compensation in 1803 (see Germany; History). Entering Napoleon's Confederation of the Rhine and making some

won

Walramian Nassau received further terNassau) and became a was maintained as a sovereign duchy by the congress

cessions to Berg in 1806,

ritory (notably at the expense of Ottonian

duchy. It of Vienna; and the extinction of the Usingen line in 1816 made William of Weilburg (1792-1839) sole duke of Nassau. His successor Adolf (1817-1905) took Austria's side in the Seven Weeks' War; and on Oct. 3, 1866, Nassau was annexed by Prussia to form the bulk of the Wiesbaden district of the province of HesseNassau. Otto7iia7i Nassau. Otto I's descendants also indulged in partitions and subdivisions; Dillenburg and Hadamar (1290-1394); Dillenburg-Dillenburg and Dillenburg-Beilstein (1343-1561); and Dillenburg-Dillenburg and Dillenburg-Breda (1516-44). It was by legacy from the Breda branch that William of Nassau-Dillenburg became prince of Orange (see Orange, House of; William the Silent). The sons of his brother John VI of Nassau-Dilienburg (d. 1606) effected a fourfold partition of their patrimony, but the branch of Nassau-Dietz eventually reaccumulated it as the others died out (Nassau-Hadamar in 1711, Nassau-Dilienburg in 1739, Nassau-Siegen in 1743). Having lost their German possessions in 1806, the Ottonians in 1815 received Luxembourg in compensa-

—

—

tion. They also had the kingdom of the Netherlands. male hne died out in 1890, Luxembourg passed to Walramian cousin Adolf.

—

When

their

their distant

Bibliography. Nassauische Annalen (periodical, 1827F. ) T. Schliephake and K. Menzel, Geschichte von Nassau, 7 vol. (1866-89); C. Spielmann, Geschichte von Nassau, i vol. (1910-26). ;

W.

GAMAL

Egyptian ABD-AL- (1918), and poUtical leader, became the president of Egypt in 1956. He was born at Beni Mor in Asyut province, upper Egypt, on Jan. 15, 1918, the son of a post-office civil servant, and was educated in Cairo at a secondary school and at the mihtary college to which, after a period of normal military duties, he was appointed a lecturer in 1942. Intensely patriotic and pohtically active, Nasser formed a group of young officers dedicated to the cause of Egyptian nationalism. By 1945 a substantial group of "free officers" formed a secret organization around Nasser. The Palestine war of 1948-49, in which Nasser narrowly escaped death from a chest wound, did much to harden their bitterness and determination. In the disillusion which followed the end of the war the organization of the free officers was tightened and underground propaganda against the regime was extensively undertaken until, in July 1952, the well-planned coup was executed that led to the deposition of King Faruk (g.v.). Although from the outset real power rested in the hands of the Revolutionary Command council of U officers controlled by Nasser (by this time a lieutenant colonel), Maj. Gen. Mohammed Naguib (g.v.) was at first put forward as the leader of the mihtary regime. In 1953 he was named prime minister and president of the new republic with Nasser as deputy prime minister and minister of the interior. In 1954, however, Naguib was deprived of his titles, and Nasser, escaping unhurt from an attempt on his hfe in Alexandria, emerged as prime minister and the real ruler of Egj'pt. Nasser, hke most of the other cadets who joined the military college with him in 1936, had sprung from the fellah middle class, the native Egyptians of the provincial towns. What he and they

NASSER,

army

officer

43

wanted was not only the effective independence of the country but good, uncorrupt government in the hands of people like themselves. Neither sociaHsm nor capitahsm, nor even democracy in either the eastern or the western sense, represented for them a principal objective. Something of their aims at this time may be learned from Nasser's published writings and speeches (including his Philosophy of the Revolution, 1954), still more from the policy which the officers' regime pursued. Although at first inexperienced in the problems of power, Nasser soon became not only a national but an international figure. His first major success was the negotiation of the agreement for the withdrawal of British troops from the Suez canal zone 1954). In June 1956 he was elected president of Egypt. His nationalization of the Suez canal company (July 26. 1956), following withdrawal of western promises of aid in building the Aswan high dam, was interrupted, but only briefly, by the Suez conflict of that year (see Suez Canal), from which Nasser emerged with great prestige throughout the Arab world. One consequence of this prestige was the Syrian-Egyptian union of Feb. 1958 which led to the creation of the first United Arab Republic (U.A.R.), of which Nasser was the president. This federation, to which Yemen had become affiliated, collapsed in 1961 with Syria's secession, but following mihtary coups in Iraq (Feb. 1963) and in Syria (March 1963) a draft f

subject to referendum, for a second (tripartite) U.A.R. federation was signed in Cairo on April 17, 1963 (see United Arab Republic). Nasser's aspirations toward leadership of the Arab world remained unfulfilled. 'He committed large forces in support of the republican regime in Yemen and was joined by the president of that state as well as those of Iraq and Algeria when in 1964 he entertained Soviet Premier N. S. Khrushchev at the celebrations that marked the completion of the first stage of the Aswan high dam. Apart from the events outhned above, the main features of Nasser's regime have been his growing hostility toward Israel (g.v.); anticoloniahsm; support for the nonaligned nations; negotiations with the U.S.S.R. for aid, without political commitments, both for his armament program and for the construction of the Aswan dam; subsequent acceptance of aid from the United States and the west; occasional moves toward leadership among the newly emerging African nations; and the use of Cairo radio station for the dissemination of pohtical propaganda. Nasser's main domestic achievement has been in land reform. By 1954 about 620,000 ac. of agricultural land had been confiscated from wealthy landowners and distributed among the peasants. In 1961 all foreign-owned agricultural land (about 140,000 ac.) was nationahzed for the same purpose and in the same year a decree was issued restricting the maximum landholding to 100 ac. See constitution,

also

Egypt: History.

See Jean and Simonne Lacouture, Egypt in Transition, Eng. trans. F. Scarfe (1958) Tom Little, Egypt (1958). (H. S. D.)

by

;

NAST,

THOMAS

(1840-1902). U.S. cartoonist, best known

machine of Wilham M. Tweed was born in Landau, Ger., on Sept. 27, 1840. He was brought to New York city by his mother in 1846. He studied art there with Theodore Kaufmarm and at the National Academy of Design, at the age of 15 became a draftsman for Frank Leslie's Hlustrated Newspaper, at 19 for Harper's Weekly, at 20 went to England for the New York Illustrated News and in the same year went to Italy to cover Garibaldi for The Illustrated London News and U.S. pubhcations. His cartoon, "After the Battle" (1862), attacked Northerners opposed to pushing the Civil War vigorously. This and other cartoons published in Harper's Weekly during the Civil War led President Lincoln to call him "our best recruiting sergeant." Nast's cartoon campaign against Tweed was chmaxed when a caricature of him led to his identification and arrest in Vigo, Spain, in 1876. Originally a Repubhcan, Nast turned first to the Mugwumps because of his advocacy of civil ser\'ice reform and his distrust of James G. Blaine and in 1884 to the Democrats; in 1892 he returned to the Republicans. Having lost nearly all his money in the failure of the brokerage house of Grant and Ward in 1884, he was appointed consul general at Guayaquil, Ecuador, by Pres. Theodore for his attack on the pohtical (g.v.) in

New York

city in the 1870s,

NASTURTIUM—NATAL

44

Roosevelt in 1902, and he died there on Dec. 7 of the same year. Nast did some painting in oil and book illustrations, but his fame rests on his caricatures and political cartoons. From his pen came the Democratic party's donkey, the Republican party's elephant, and

Tammany

See A. B. Paine,

Hall's tiger.

Thomas Nast: His Period and His

Pictures (1904). (D. H. W.)

NASTURTIUM,

the common name for soft-stemmed flowering plants of the genus Tropaeolum, only a few of the 50 species constituting the family Tropaeolaceac being cultivated as ornamentals, and the generic name sometimes used for certain aquatic crucifers (,scc

Water

Cress).

The garden nasturtium or Indian of the genus,

is

cress (T. majus),'\ikt others

native to South America

in Peru, but in cultivation

by means of the long

is

;

it

is

a perennial climber

treated as a hardy annual.

stalk of the peltate leaf

which

It is

climbs

sensitive

contact like a tendril. The irregular flowers have five sepals united at the base, the dorsal one to

produced

into a spur; of the

two upper are slightly and stand rather apart from the lower three; the eight stamens are unequal and the pistil consists of three carpels which form a fleshy fruit. The pungent leaves are sometimes eaten in salads, and the young green fruits petals the

as

Tom Thumb

(r. m. nanum), is an excellent bedding or border flow'er. growing about one foot high. Other NASTURTIUM (TROPAEOLUM MAJUS) fine annual tropaeolums are T. peltophorum, with long spurred orange-red flowers, and T. minus, a kind of miniature T. majus with yellow, scarlet and crimson varieties. T. peregrinum is the well-known canarybird flower. A fine nasturtium with brilliant scarlet blossoms is T. speciosnm from Chile; it has tuberous roots, as have also such perennials as T. polyphyllum and T. pentaphyllum. T. tuberosum, the anu, is

grown in the Andean highlands for its edible tubers. Garden nasturtiums are easily grown from seed, which is sown in a warm, sunny location after the danger of frost is past. They are quick growing and,

an abundance of

made

in

if

planted in too rich

soil,

may

foliage at the expense of blossoms.

autumn provide potted

sion of the largest of these

rivers into the Stormberg basaltic lavas has carved out the prominent Drakensberg mountains (q.v.).

Such deep river erosion has left high interfluvial spurs trending eastward from the plateau edge. Where strong sheets of dolerite have resisted erosion, wide open basins have been formed in the interior above such rock barriers. Two of these basins which occupy a considerable area are the Ladysmith basin on the upper Tugela river and the Newcastle-Utrecht basin on the upper Buffalo river. In general three surface divisions can be recognized: a coastal zone rising to between about 1,500 and 2,000 ft.; a midland zone on the interfluvial spurs rising to about 3,500-4,000 ft., and a high veld area from about 4,000 ft. up to the foot of the Drakensberg escarpment. Climate. Atmospheric temperature is related closely to altitude. Mean temperatures in July are highest in the coastal belt, where they exceed 15° C. (60° F.), and lowest on the high veld, where they are between 7° and 10° C. (45° and 50° F,). In January the mean monthly temperatures of the coastal belt to the north of Durban exceed 24° C. (75° F.), and in the interior basins and in Zululand the mean maximums generally exceed 29° C. (85° F.). Temperatures often exceed 32° C. (90° F.) when berg winds blow from the plateau. Frost is rare in the coastal belt except in July, when light frosts may occur in valley bottoms. In the high veld area the duration of the frost period extends from about the middle of May to the middle of September.

are pickled in vinegar as a substitute for capers. The dwarf

known

forming the southern extremity of the great Mozambique plain. Steeply graded rivers have worked powerfully on the different rocks to produce the present surface features, and headwater ero-

—

hw

different

variety

has been dislocated by a number of east-trending faults. In Zululand the flat coastal plain is covered by marine Tertiary beds

produce Cuttings

Natal lies wholly in the region of predominantly summer rainbut the coastal belt receives in general rather more than 30% of its annual rainfall in the winter half-year. From the coast to the midlands the mean annual rainfall decreases from about 40 in. to about 30 in., but increases with altitude to about 40 in. in the high veld areas. On the Drakensberg the precipitation is estimated to be over 60 in. The reliability of the annual rainfall over the province as a whole is between 80% and 90%. An important feature of the midland zone is the frequency of mist so that certain parts of the zone are known as the mist belt and are fall,

well suited to afforestation, especially of wattles.

—

Vegetation. The coastal belt of subtropical forest or dense evergreen bush extends for 6 to 20 mi. from the coast. This is succeeded inland by more open bush or savanna which passes, in the southern part of the province, into remnant patches of temperate forest. Lying at an altitude of between about 3,000 and

plants for winter blooms indoors.

See also Tropaeolaceae.

NATAL,

the smallest of the four provinces of the Republic of South Africa, has an area of 33,578 sq.mi., or 7.11% of the area of the Republic. This area includes Zululand and Tongaland (gg.v.), which lie between the Tugela river and the Portuguese East African (Mozambique) border, together occupying 10,362 sq.mi. The province is bounded on the west by the Drakensberg escarpment, on the south partly by the upper Umzimkulu river and the Mtamvuna river. The northern boundary lies for most of its distance along the Pongola river, along the crest of the Lebombo range as far north as Usutu poort, along the Usutu river to its confluence with the Ingwavuma and from there to the 13th beacon along the boundary hne with Portuguese East Africa, on the coast, 5 mi. N. of the inlet to Kosi bay. The provincial capital is

PietermariLzburg.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Landforms.

—The province

lies in the eastern marginal area of the Republic of South Africa. Most of its surface is formed of beds belonging to the four series of the Karroo system, which in the coastal region have been folded to form the Natal monocline. Pre-Karroo formations (Archean granite, Table Mountain Sandstone, etc.) have been exposed along most of the monoclinal axis, except in a small area to the north of the Tugela river where the Karroo beds are still intact. In the lower Tugela basin the axis

VALLEY OF A THOUSAND HILLS. A REMARKABLE CRUMPLED FORMATION NEAR PIETERMARITZBURG

NATAL zone marks the position of the mist belt. At higher 4,000 altitudes the dominant vegetal type is tall "sour" grass. The lower valleys in the south and most of the low country in the north are areas of thornbush (Acacia savanna). Animal Life. Natal contains many distinctive southern species as well as tropical African species and may be considered as a corridor in which southern and northern fauna have intermingled. Tropical forms in the northern part of the province include the tsetse fly, which formerly infested Zululand as far south as the Umfolozi river, the tree-nesting tailor-ant (Oecopliylla smaragdina), the tiger fish (Hydrocyon vittatus), the ghost frog (Chiromantis zerampelhia) the white rhinoceros, the black rhinoceros, and of the antelopes the nyala and the suni. This tropical corridor has also been the passageway to the south of many east ft.,

this

—

,

African birds such as the hornbills, louries and trogons, and the tropical barbets and parrots. Most of the game is preserved in the provincial reserves. In Zululand the Hluhluwe game reserve (57,000 ac.) and the Umfolozi game reserve (72,000 ac.) have white and black rhinoceros, kudu, impala, waterbuck, wildebeest, zebra, buffalo and many other animals. In the Drakensberg, the Giant's Castle game reserve contains over 1,500 head of eland besides numerous oribi, klipspringer, grysbok, reedbuck and other ancelopes. In the Nkuzi game reserve in Zululand among many other antelopes are the inyala and the suni. In the extreme north of Zululand, near the confluence

of the Usutu and the

Ingwavuma (Ngwavuma)

rivers, the

Ndumu

reserve, with its freshwater pans, contains many hippopotamuses, crocodiles and numerous waterfowl, as well as the suni antelope. Along the Zululand coast are several parks and nature

game

reserves where a great variety of birds, fish and

game

tected.

(J.

are pro-

H. Wn.)

HISTORY In 1497 the Portuguese Vasco da Gama, on his voyage to India, sighted the bluff at the entrance to the present harbour of Durban on Christmas day and so named the country Terra Natalis. Neither then nor subsequently did the Portuguese settle or claim Natal. The nearest Portuguese settlement was 296 mi. farther north at Delagoa bay, which offered safer anchorage and a more convenient entrepot for trade. It was, then, from shipwrecked mariners that the first tales of the Natal coast reached Portugal. King Sebastian of Portugal in 1575 commissioned Manuel de Mesquita Perestrelo to survey the South African coast and mark points for safe anchorage in storms, for these had already taken heavy toll of the merchantmen. In 1593 the wreck of the Portuguese "Santo Alberto" north of the Great Kei river left a party of 285 stranded on the shore. This group, instead of pushing north along the coast to Delagoa bay, a route already notorious for its perils, used compass and sextant to "navigate" an inland route which took them through the heart of Natal Zululand and Tonga-

land to Lourengo Marques. These were the first Europeans known to have penetrated to the interior of Natal. By the 1 7th century English, French and Dutch challenged the Portuguese monopoly of the Indian ocean, but for Natal the story was still one of wrecks and disasters rather than of trade and

In 16S5 the survivors of the Enghsh slaver "Good Hope"' left a small company complete with guns in a shanty fort on the bluff. The following year the Dutch trader "Stavenisse" was wrecked farther south. The survivors were Joined by English from the bluff and from another Enghsh vessel, the "Bonaventura." They built a boat and sailed with a cargo of ivory to Cape settlement.

Town. In 1689 Simon van der Stel dispatched thence the "Noord" to open up trade in ivory and secure the bay of Natal. The bay was duly purchased, but the wreck of the "Noord" on the return voyage and the repudiation of the sale by the natives made the venture abortive. In 1721 another venture was made by Gov. Maurits Pasques de Chavonnes to place a settlement during the Dutch attempt to hold Delagoa bay. Both moves were abandoned The coast was difficult and for practical purposes the in 1730. hinterland of Natal was terra incognita. There was no obvious source of wealth to be tapped. For yet another century Natal was

to lie off the beaten track of

45 European adventurers.

Cape of Good Hope,) Within Natal the Nguni branch of

{See also

the Bantu seems to have set-

Zulu (reputed dates 1627-1709) being but the least of many founders of tribes. A. T. Bryant in his bcok Olden Times in Zululand and Natal (1929) estimated that about 50 separate clans inhabited Natal proper at the opening of the 19th century and hazarded the calculation that at least tled early in the 16th century,

78,000 and probably 100,000 natives were technically aboriginals North of the borders of modern Natal, the TembuTongas seem to have acted as middlemen between the Portuguese traders and the natives in Zululand and Natal. They are credited with introducing maize (corn), yams, peanuts and, legend has it, cats into Natal. Throughout the hinterland, which of course had as yet no political boundaries, there were the petty wars about land and cattle common to all primitive societies, but no major cataclysms. The first attempt at a paramountcy was made 18071818) by Dingiswayo. He was chief of the Mtetwa (Umtetwa), northeast of the Tugela river. He opened up trade with Delagoa bay by exchanging oxen and tusks for blankets and beads. Until his defeat and death at the hands of Zwide, chief of the Ndwandwes (Undwandwes), in 1 SIS he estabhshed a rough suzerainty which Shaka (Chaka) of the Zulus was to usurp {see Zululand). Already before Shaka crossed the Tugela in 1818, refugee tribes from Zululand headed by the Tembus and Cunus had hacked a way through the coastal tribes of Natal. Thereafter the Zulu impis (warrior regiments) first of Shaka and then of Dingaan (Dingane) completed the dispersal and destruction which was to mislead both Boer and Briton into thinking Natal was uninhabited. Those who had not been murdered or conscripted either hid or fled. From 1821 onward all the area between the Umzimkulu and the Umzimvubu rivers was in chaos. Ncapaai of the Ama-Baxa tribe (1826-44) forged some of the exiled tribes into a massive army of about 3,000 warriors. He defied both the pressure from Natal to the north and from Pondoland to the south until his destrucThree tion by Faku, chief of the Amapondo (Pondo), in 1844. prime factors, then, provide clues to the policy of early European settlement in Natal: fear of Zulu mihtary power; the myth that Natal was uninhabited; and the chaos beyond the Umzimkulu which threatened both Natal and Cape province. First British Settlement, 1824. One consequence of the occupation of the Cape by Britain in 1806 was the attempt to map Throughout 1822 and 1823 the east coast for naval purposes. Capt. 'W. F. Owen of the Royal Navy laboured at this task. Merchants and traders, already speculating in the coastal trade, followed in his track. Two former naval heutenants, F. G. Farewell and J. S. King, arranged with Owen to finish the survey of the port of Natal and St. Lucia bay. Farewell and King failed to land at St. Lucia bay, but a renewed attempt farther south brought them triumphantly across the bar of what is now Durban harbour. The following year Farewell with H. F. Fynn and others returned to the port of Natal to found a trading station and open up negoChiefly tiations with Shaka at his Bulawayo (Zululand) kraal. because of the courage, tact and medical skill of Fynn, Shaka rewarded Farewell's party by signing a treaty (Aug. 1824) ceding the port of Natal and about 50 mi. of coastline to a depth of 100 mi. inland. This was never revoked, but Shaka seems to have regarded the traders as in some sort his vassals or subchieftains for in 1826 they were virtually conscripted into Shaka's war with the Ndwandwes. Both Shaka and Dingaan protested against shelShaka did not hesitate to ter given to refugees from royal wrath. make peremptory demands, as for instance in 1828 when he was infuriated because his ambassadors to George I'V had returned empty handed from Port Elizabeth equally because they had forgotten the Macassar oil he ordered. John Cane was compelled to set out for the Cape to purchase the oil and dared not defy. While the Cape authorities unfairly blamed the traders for the tribal upKing heavals, the traders themselves led a precarious existence. died of dysentery in 1828. Farewell was murdered by Nqueto and the Kwabis in 1829 in no man's land. In 1831 Fynn and his group narrowly escaped with their fives when Dingaan raided Port Natal, and the following year Fynn withdrew to Grahamstown. in Natal.

(

—

;

NATAL

46

Shaka and, more particularly. Dingaan (headmen) were perturbed by European diffusion, especially after the opening of the land route through Pondoland. Jacob the interpreter, a Kaffir former convict (shot in 1S32'>, combined distorted pictures of European power and greed with the self-claimed power to prophesy that the coming of traders and white missionaries spelled doom to the natives, and it is inconceivable that Matiwana, who was murdered by Dingaan in It

and

seems

clear that both

their indunas

1829, can have failed to report his disastrous encounter with Col. H. Somerset at Baziya Mount. In 1832 Andrew Smith arrived from the Cape to report on Natal. In 1834 a commissie (committee) trek arrived from the Eastern province directed by Piet Uys. They made contact with the Zulus by shouting across the Tugela and reported that Natal was vacant and available for settlement. The European settlers at Port Natal reiterated the demand first made by King in 1826 that Natal should be taken over as a colony. In 1S34 the merchants at Cape Town petitioned to the same end, while in Britain there was some mercantile support for the move. In Natal the settlers backed their demands by laying out a municipality which in 1835 they called Durban after the then governor of the Cape. Sir Benjamin D'Urban. But in the Cape the renewal of frontier war and in Britain the reluctance of the colonial office

undertake wider commitments militated against intervention. Capt. A. F. Gardiner had gone to Natal step was essayed. as a missionary and had secured from Dingaan (May 1835) a treaty ceding the southern half of Natal, on condition that refugees were handed back to Dingaan. He also secured the appointment of the Rev. F. Owen at Dingaan's kraal at Umgungundhlovu. With this behind him he secured in 1837 magisterial authority at Durban from the Cape. But without troops or police, he had no effective control in Natal where the traders, hunters and gunrunners wanted protection without control. For this reason the traders welcomed Piet Retief, the advance envoy of the trekkers who had crossed the passes of the northern Drakensberg in the to

One

late

summer

of 1837.

—

The Voortrekkers in Natal. The settlers welcomed Retief and guided him to Dingaan's court. Dingaan promised Retief virtually the whole of Natal provided he first recovered cattle stolen from the Zulus by Sikonyela in Basutoland. This Retief rapidly achieved by a mixture of subterfuge and force so expeditious that together with the news of the defeat of Dingaan's kinsman Mzilikazi at the Marico river (Nov. 1837) it alarmed Dingaan and the indunas. The deed of cession w'as duly signed and witnessed but it was sealed with Retief 's blood: Piet Retief and more than 60 foUow'ers who were all unarmed being massacred on the spot (Feb. 1838). From Umgungundhlovu Zulu impis sped to exterminate the scattered laagers along the Bushmans and Blaauwkrantz rivers. Loss of life was appalling. The English from Durban hastened to the rescue with their native levies but were overwhelmed. Save for a few stalwarts the survivors embarked from Natal on the brig "Comet." Undeterred by the murder of Retief and the death of Gert Maritz the following September, the trekkers, reinforced by timely supplies brought up by Andries Pretorius from Graaff-Reinet, simultaneously pursued two ends the defeat of Zulu military dominance and the organization of a government in Natal in touch with trekkers west of the Drakensberg. In Dec. 1838 the Boers under the supreme command of Pretorius defeated the Zulus at the battle of the Blood river and destroyed more than 3,000 of Dingaan's army. H. Jervis, the British agent, mediated a peace in May 1839, but it was broken by both sides and Dingaan was finally defeated by the trekkers in alliance with his brother Panda (Mpande) at Magongo in Jan. 1840 and fled to his death in Swaziland. Panda made valuable concessions to the allies of his treachery. He ceded a coastal belt from the Black Umfolozi river to the entrance to St. Lucia bay, undertook to withdraw behind the Tugela and rule in the newly defined Zululand as the vassal of

—

the

new

republic with

its

the territorial position

drafted.

The volksraad

Even before had been was to meet four

capital at Pietermaritzburg.

had been secured,

a constitution

(elected legislature)

times a year at the capital, leaving a commissie raad (town committee) to function during the long recesses. Landdrosts (magis-

were appointed at Pietermaritzburg, Weenen and Congella Financial stringency, acute field cornets were elected. Smith took control of the port, lack of permanent trained officials, personal quarrels between the leaders, the difficulty of keeping touch with the adjunct mads at Winburg and Potchefstroom, all made progress toward effective administration difficult, but not necessarily impossible. 'What sabotaged the structure of the republic was the influx of natives returning to Natal to resettle the lands they had abandoned to the Zulus. The attempt of the trekkers to meet the crisis by their subjection and expulsion probably decided the British to intervene. British Annexation of Natal, 1843. Even before the trek, various groups in Britain and in the Cape had pressed for the annexation of the port of Natal. By 1838 there were clear grounds There were signs of coal in Natal which for decisive action. trates)

and

12

after Capt. T. C.

—

made Durban,

in the

days of steamships, a possible coaling point;

there was anxiety about French colonial projects

when

it

was

dis-

A. Smellekamp, self-appointed political agent who republic in 1842, was financed in Paris; there was official as well as humanitarian concern that the "apprentices" scheduled for release at the end of 1838 should in fact be released; there was the ambiguity caused by the claim of jurisdiction to latitude 25° S. in the Cape of Good Hope Punishment act. together with the British refusal to admit that allegiance and therefore obe-

covered that visited the

J.

new

dience could be discarded there was above all the growing realization that disturbances in the Cape were in part the consequence of upheavals in Natal. At first British policy was dangerous by rea;

son of

its

uncertainty.

The Whig government was on

its last legs

Between 1839 and 1846 there were Though five different secretaries of state for war and colonies. permanent officials like James (afterward Sir James) Stephen exercised great influence, decisions at cabinet level had always to by 1839 and

fell in

Sept, 1841.

reckon with parliament.

The slowly forming convictions

as to

what was the right poUcy were tempered by practical politics and the already heavy drain on Britain's financial resources. In the circumstances, with changing fronts in South Africa and changing Befronts at Whitehall, it was difficult for policy to crystallize. tween Dec. 1838 and Dec. 1839 Durban had been reoccupied and held. The military crisis over, the order came to withdraw the British forces from Durban in Dec. 1839. The republican flag was thereupon hoisted. But at the end of 1840 the Natalians sent a commando against Ncapaai, who with his Bushmen allies had raided republican cattle. This disturbed local opinion because of the scale of the plunder, which included "apprentices" taken in It also alarmed Faku, chief of defiance of the Punishment act.

Amapondo, to reassure whom, in Jan. 1841, Captain T. C. Smith was sent with a small force to the Umgazi river. Hitherto the colonial office had toyed with the proposal of Pretorius that But in Dec. 1841 the republic should be officially recognized. came the new-s that in August the raad, harrassed by the unceasing flow of native refugees, had decided to evict them and settle them in the disputed territories between the Mtamvuna and the Umzimvubu, the tinderbox of conflict. To avert this, in May 1842 Smith was ordered to reoccupy Durban. His leisurely advance gave the republicans time to organize, and Smith was besieged so closely at the port that only the heroic ride of Dick King to Grahamstown Col. A. J. Cloete rushed up for reinforcements averted disaster. reinforcements by sea and resistance collapsed. In June the rethe

publicans submitted. One year later Henry Cloete (brother of A. J. Cloete) arrived as special commissioner and thenceforward though the raad, shorn of its more virile members, continued to function until Oct. 1845, in theory the administration was British, the land settlement was liable to revision and the principle of In Aug. 1843 Panda, all claim to legal equality was pronounced. European suzerainty being tacitly dropped by Britain, accepted the Tugela river as his frontier and confirmed the cession of St. Lucia bay. This fixed the northern boundary of Natal. To the south, the

Umzimkulu was

fixed as the

boundary and beyond

it

Faku, having disposed of Ncapaai, was given treaty status and recognized as ruler between the Umzimkulu and the Umtata rivers. When it is recalled that in Dec. 1843 similar treaty status had

been given to

Adam Kok

and Moshesh across the Orange

river,

NATAL the annexation of Natal to the

Cape appears not merely

as

it

obviously was, in part a commercial, in part a humanitarian, move but also as part of a constructive, if abortive, effort to give new On the maintestability to frontiers distorted by the Great Trek. nance of stability combined with flexibility, the well-being of all in southern Africa depended. In this respect, when the War of the Ax broke out in the Cape in 1846, the annexation proved to have been a wise insurance. Partly because, theoretically, the colonial office would allow no distinction

between black and white, and pendant on that a revision

was considered necessary, many trekkers withdrew from Natal. It is estimated that by the beginning of the number Boer families had shrunk to less than 100. 1847 of The largest immigration project was that launched by J. C. Byrne who during 1849-51 brought out 2,500 emigrants from Britain. From Annexation to Responsible Government in 1893. Though from 1845 onward Natal had a local administration, until 1856 it was substantially an adjunct of the Cape. In 1856 it was given its own legislative council of 4 official members and 12 elected representatives. As the settlers increased, they sought to establish control over the executive by securing more complete control over the revenue. There were two chief bones of contention. In 1856 the crown stipulated that £5,000 annually should be set aside for native development. This was challenged on the constitutional ground that the legislature had incomplete control of the land settlement

—

Secondly, Theophilus (later Sir Theophilus) diplomatic agent, then as secretary of native affairs, was a permanent official and tended to move without consultation with either government or legislature. Overemphasis on the niceties of constitutional theory reached their chmax during

over expenditure. Shepstone (g.v.),

first as

the depression which coincided with the lieutenant governorship of

R.

W. Keate

(1867-72).

Economic

crisis,

constitutional dead-

lock, uneasiness in the native areas, the threatened repercussions

of the Langalibalele affair (see below)

resulted in the dramatic

intervention of the colonial office which sent

Wolseley

in

1875 to

stiffen official control.

ing the constitution in five-year period, eight

By

out

Sir

Garnet

dint of "drown-

champagne and sherry" he added, for a more official members to the legislature.

Between 1845 and 1877 Shepstone native administration.

built up the Natal pattern of His influence was at its height when, in

1849, by ordinance, the heutenant governor was made supreme chief and Shepstone his chief induna. Natal was geographically

from the rest of South Africa, the European population was small and its resources slight. Across the Tugela was the powerful Zulu monarchy and within Natal the Europeans were hopelessly outnumbered. Merely to have preserved peace during the crucial period of Natal's growth was a major development. When in 1849 a hut tax of 7s. was imposed on the natives, Shepstone supervised its collection. For years the hut tax was the most stable revenue of the colony. During 1851-54 Shepstone sought leave to draw off the natives to districts south of the Umzimkulu and to create, as the trader John Dunn was to do in Zululand, a quasi monarchy. This was vetoed by the colonial office. Instead, isolated

he settled about 80,000 natives in fixed locations in Natal, leaving about 50,000 as squatters on crownlands or on private property. In 1864, largely at his instigation, the Native Land trust was created with control over more than 2,000,000 ac. of land. In the same year provision was made for educated natives to apply for exemption from native law. Little attempt was made nor indeed, with deficiency of men and money, could be made, to civilize the tribes, though by the end of the century 188 mission schools were subsidized. Measure of Shepstone's achievement was given when, in 1873, Langalibalele, chief of the Hlubi tribe, settled at the foot of the Drakensberg and rebelled rather than hand in for registration the firearms his young men had earned in Kimberley. In the existing state of tension in South Africa, the revolt was probably intended to touch off a general rising. Its prompt suppression by Sir Benjamin Pine without a ripple of revolt in the rest of Natal is comment enough on the effectiveness of the Shepstone system at that stage of Natal's economic development. As the European population of Natal in the 1870s was little more than 20,000, the Natahans sought not so much land as a re-

47

Various crops had been sampled; tobacco, indigo, cotton and tea in addition to staple farm products had been tried and found wanting. The future of the colony seemed to turn on the coastal belt which in the late 1850s was found suitable for sugar cane. Many natives, acclimatized to the uplands, could not adapt themselves to the malaria-ridden coastal belt. Most had all they needed without work. In 1860, therefore, and, save for the period 1866-74, without interruption until 1911, coolie labour was recruited in India on a five-year indenture with the

liable labour supply.

option of settling on the expiration of the contract. At the same time free immigrants began to arrive in numbers. The prosperity of the Natal sugar industry as well as the development of market gardening was substantially due to Indian labour. On the eve of the union in 1910 there were 65,917 free Indians and 42,777 were still under indenture.

1870s Natal remained relatively isolated from the South Africa. The Drakensberg, though not insurmountable, was a formidable barrier. Across the Tugela lay Zululand and to the south (though Alfred county beyond the Umzimkulu was added to Natal in 1865) lay Pondoland and Griqualand East, both potential storm centres. Communications by sea were not easy. Repeated attempts to make the harbour safe had failed and the coast was often the scene of wrecks until the harbour mouth was narrowed and dredged. Economic impetus was, though, sharply felt in the 1870s and 1880s. The opening of the Kimberley diamond fields (1870) made transportation a profitable venture. The coming of railways facihtated the development of the Natal coal fields and railways in their turn were indebted to the development of the coal mines as well as to the opening of the Witwatersrand gold fields in 1886. By the 1890s Natal had a key role to play in the making of a new South Africa. From 1875 to 1880, moreover. Natal had been the hub of political crisis. The annexation of the Transvaal (q.v.) by Shepstone on the instruction of the earl of Carnarvon, secretary of state for colonies, in 1877 and the Zulu War of 1879 {see Zululand) were prelude to the first Transvaal War of 1880-81 which was fought and extinguished in the Laing's Nek pass and over the Drakensberg at Majuba (Feb. 1881). The crisis made the Natalians acutely aware of the South African position as a whole and H. Escombe and John (afterward Sir John) Robinson began to press for responsible government. Robinson in particular pressed for a federal union, which, Carnarvon's project having ended so disastrously, he argued should next originate with South Africa. Zululand, after abortive experiments, was annexed to the crown in 1887 and the sensitivity of the foreign office as well as the colonial office to the vulnerability of the South African coast line was shown in the sealing off of the coast by annexation. In 1884 St. Lucia bay was annexed, in 1884 Port St. Johns, in 1885 Galekaland, in 1886 Bomvanaland, in 1894 Pondoland and in 189S Tongaland. Economic development and greater security necessarily reacted on internal politics. The retirement of Shepstone in 1877 saw the beginning of a transitional phase in native policy. In 1875 a native high court of three judges had been established, thus separating the judicial from the administrative powers of the secretary for native affairs. A commission was appointed to draw up a code of native law (1878), but in practice magistrates in each There was a growing district had a wide margin of discretion. Until the

rest of

interest in native administration not altogether then divorced

from

land hunger and desire to tap more effectively the labour and

Native affairs were more exposed to the exigencies of politics. Codification of native law tended to give rigidity to a tribal structure that economic changes were beginning to undermine. In 1893 the increase in European colonization and settled development, greater prosperity and, it seems, conviction that the economic prosperity of Natal turned on forging links with the Transvaal, brought to a successful conclusion the demands for responsible government in Natal. The first prime minister was Sir John Robinson (1893-97). He had been a member of the legislative council since 1863 and had represented Natal at the London conference on federation (1876) and at the jubilee celebrafiscal potentialities of the natives.

NATAL

48

In 1888 he had represented Natal at the South tions of 1887. African customs conference and had declined to commit Natal to agreements which would have sacrificed the advantages of its geographical proximity to the Rand. In the three years that fol-

lowed the customs agreement between the Cape and the Orange Free State and the extension of the Cape railway system to Pretoria, Natal revenues shrank by SO^e and the colony was crippled by £250.000 interest charges on debt incurred to improve railways and harbours. Natalians tended unwarrantably to blame a nonresponsible administration for failure to press Natal's economic The popular response to Robinson's renewed agitation interest. for responsible government was due to popular conviction that the colony's future depended on the exploitation of the Rand market which was only 130 mi. from the Natal border. One reason for this belief was that Natal was still a crown colony, so that obliquely the Natal railway was a "crown" railway, the extension of which was prohibited by the Transvaal after it had reached Certainly the conclusion Charlestow-n near the border in 1891. of a railway agreement with the Transvaal (Feb. 1894) followed hard on the heels of the establishment of responsible government.

In Oct. 1895 the new line was completed to Pretoria. Economic forces had proven a basic community of interests between the South African states, a conclusion endorsed in Natal which belatedly in 1898 concluded customs agreements with the Cape and Orange Free State. In the same way the native problem was even more clearly an interstate problem, once the mines

native and European, over the age of 18 was, though theoretically it treated all races equally, re.sented by the natives on whom it

placed a disproportionate burden. There had been, too, much antiwhite agitation. When, therefore, the attempt to collect the tax led to the killing of two European policemen at Byrnetown, there were signs and fears of a general rising. The arrested natives were tried and sentenced by court-martial, but Lord Elgin, secretary of state in the Campbell-Bannerman ministry, ordered stay of execution. The Natal protest that this was a violation of the rights of self-governing colonies received commonwealth support and

More

Lord Elgin gave way.

serious

was the threatened spread of

Bambata

to rouse Zululand. In than six months the revolt was isolated and suppressed, but Dinizulu was implicated. Natalians that convinced isolated events He was arrested in Dec. 1907 and thanks to the skilled advocacy of W. P. Schreiner he was acquitted of most of the charges levied The revolt had been promptly handled and Natal against him. had received the active support of the other South African colonies. It is to the credit of Natal that the revolt caused some heart searching. A special commission was appointed in Aug. 1906 to inquire into the whole position and more than 5,500 natives attended and 901 native statements were recorded in the schedule attached to the report. Its analysis recognized the defects in native administration, in particular the loss of personal contact, the increased and

the revolt through the attempt of less

Two

there had been 48 new regulations often confusing regulations since 1893) and the subordination of native affairs to political pressures. One sentence in particular w'as long to be pertinent "As

things ruptured the approach to a common South African point of view. One was the cultural revival of Afrikaner nationalism

we can neither assimilate or destroy them, political forethought and commonsense alike call for a settlement of the question on a

hopes on the republics; the other was Jameson raid (Dec. 1895 Thus, though in 1897 Natal, as befitted its see Transvaal). new status, assumed responsibility for Tongaland and Zululand, the necessary readjustments had hardly been made when, in Oct. 1899, the South African War struck at the foundations of South African co-operation. Natal was invaded by the Boers but the defense of Ladysmith, as well as the reinforcements hurried from overseas through the port of Durban, prevented the colony from being overrun. Natalians played an important part both in the On its conclusion civil and the military organization of the war. the districts of Vryheid, Utrecht and parts of Wakkerstroom were founded by Boers in reattached to Natal. Utrecht, settled and 1848, had been enlarged by agreements with Panda in 1861. While in 1884, also at the expense of Zululand, Vryheid had been founded and, with frontiers cut off from the sea by the British annexation of St. Lucia bay, had, to the exasperation of Natal, been recognized faiite de miejix by Britain in 1884. Natal had made considerable efforts and sacrifices during the war and though it is arguable that as a colony its interests had on occasion either been ignored or even subordinated to those of the Cape and to

broad, enlightened permanent basis." It seems fairly certain that Natal's approach to the union was coloured by the experiences of

at the

which

Rand became dependent on

migrator>' native labour.

fixed its political

the gross and inexcusable blunder of the

the shifting trends of British colonial policy,

its

territory

had

been doubled since 1897 and then coincided with the boundaries envisaged by the trekkers. Peace of Vereeniging to the Union of South Africa, 1910. The peace of Vereeniging which ended the South African War was followed by the grant first of representative and then of responsible government in the Transvaal and the Orange River colony. This made the problem of evolving some kind of economic and political co-ordination as urgent as it had been before the war. Natal statesmen played a prominent part in the intercolonial conferences which preceded the union. In 1906 the Bambata rebellion was a sharp reminder that more was at stake than railway rates and customs. Responsible government in Natal had brought with it a tendency to subordinate native affairs to the exigencies of party politics, while the rapid development of commerce and industry brought natives more sharply up against European notions of contract reflected in the Masters and Servants regulations. The migration of native labourers first to Kimberley, then to the Rand First or, nearer home, to the coal fields of Natal was unsettling. locusts, then rinderpest, then war had dislocated agriculture. Squatters' rents had gone up, the cost of living, even at Zulu levels, was rising and the poll tax of £1 a head imposed on all males,

—

(

:

1906. The need for union on economic grounds was clear. The advantage of a strong front in view alike of the Indian and the native question was also clear, but Natal was sceptical of Cape liberalism quite as much as of Transvaal nationalism and strove vainly in the National convention which preceded union to subNatal was the only stitute federation for an incorporating union. colony which held a referendum on the question of union. It was accepted by 11,121 votes to 3,701. For the subsequent history of Natal, see South Africa, Republic of: History. (W. A. Ml.)

POPULATION, ADMINISTRATION AND ECONOMY Population.

—

In 1960 the population of Natal was 2,979,920, comprising 340,235 whites. 2,199,578 Bantu (a term that has officially replaced "native" or "African"), 394,854 Asians and 45,253 Coloureds. Of these, 85% of the whites. 85% of the Coloureds, 78% of the Asians and 18% of the Bantu were urban dwellers. It is thus clear that in Natal the whites, Asians and Coloureds are preponderantly urban; the Bantu preponderantly rural. Of the rural Bantu in 1951 about 366,000 w-ere on white farms, 31,000 on farms of Asians and Coloureds and 90.000 on About 955,000 lived in other farms and agricultural holdings. Bantu areas consisting mainly of homelands. Trust land, mission stations, tribally owned farms and crown land. In the homelands, covering 11,211 sq.mi., the Bantu population was 925,610, giving a mean density of 83 to the square mile, but densities varied from about 50 in northern Zululand and Tongaland to about 140 in the southern coastal zone. The chief towns are Durban (pop. [1960] 681.492) and Pietermaritzburg (128,598) (qg.v.). Administration. The relationship of the provinces to the central government is described under South Africa, Republic

—

OF.

The Natal

provincial council's responsibilities include proshop hours, loans to

vincial hospitals, certain municipal powers,

municipalities and health committees, entertainment duty, water supply, education and teachers' pensions. The main items of its

revenue are personal, income and company taxes, automobile registration fees

and

tertainment taxes.

taxes, hospital receipts, totalizator

and en-

In addition there are considerable subsidies

from the central government and a smaller amount from the department of transport for national roads. The main items of expenditure are education, hospitals and health services, roads, bridges, etc., and national roads. For purposes of administration

NATAL—NATCHEZ the province is divided into 44 magisterial districts. Public Health. The Natal provincial administration controls 20

—

hospitals and hospital advisory boards, and

representatives

of

various interests are appointed to assist with the control of these Many hospitals, which are maintained solely at public expense. institutions not controlled by government authorities also receive financial assistance from provincial funds. Education. There are more than 1 60 primary and intermediate

—

schools for whites, most of which are maintained by the state or

Secondary and high schools are also similarly For Asians and Coloureds there are nearly 300 primary and intermediate schools, and some secondary and high schools. There are also several private schools. Bantu schools number more than 1,400. The University of Natal (founded 1909 as a constituent college of the University of South Africa, assuming are state-aided.

maintained.

university status in 1949), the chief institution of higher education in the province, is located partly in Pietermaritzburg and partly in Durban.

and Bantu.

The Economy.

Students include whites, Asians, Coloureds

—Agriculture. — By

far the most valuable crop sugar cane, which is grown on the coastal lowlands and forms one of the principal agricultural products of the country. Maize (corn) is grown mainly in the uplands; the total yearly crop is

is

approximately 2,000,000 bags (of 200 lb. each), the most productive districts being Estcourt, Newcastle, New Hanover, Bergville and Utrecht. Some of the best yields in South Africa are obtained in the midlands, where the average yields are five-six bags to the Except for acre; on some farms seven-eight bags are usual. kafir corn (kafir or sorghum), which is grown mainly on Bantu lands, the only other important crop is cotton, which does well under irrigation in the Ngotshe district, where production averages about 3,000,000 to 4,000,000 lb. per year, and in the Lower Umfolozi district, with about 1,000,000 lb. Pastoral farming is practised mainly in the midland and highland areas, where most of the cattle are pastured. The Bantu herds outnumber those of the whites by about 90%. Sheep are raised in the greatest number in the high veld districts of Utrecht, Klip River and Newcastle. Mining and Industry. Coal production is the most important mining activity. Derived from the middle Ecca beds of the Karroo system, the Natal coals include some of the best types in South Africa and, because of the great intrusions of dolerite, there are

—

Most of the coal and anthracite produced (about 5,000,000 tons a year) comes from two coalfields: the Klip River field centred on Glencoe, including Newcastle and Dundee, and the northern Natal field, with Vryheid as its main producing centre. In the coastal zone titanium is mined at Isipingo, the production being about 30 tons a day. The production of ilmenite, zircon (for ceramics) and rutile was also beginning in the mid-20th century in the south coastal areas. Almost all manufacturing industry takes place in the Durban and Pinetown industrial area. Products include textiles, soap, rubber, cigarettes, fertilizers, paint, clothing and furniture. Other establishments include a ferromanganese plant at Cato Ridge, a rayon factory at Umkomaas, an oil refinery at Wentworth, a cotton factory at New Germany and a textile factory at Pinetown. At Pietermaritzburg is the tanning extract factory probably the largest in the world. A further industrial area has been laid out

large deposits of anthracite.

49

harbour and Ladysmith is a main rail junction. The Louis Botha National airport is near Durban. See also references under "Natal" in the Index. (J. H. Wn.) NATAL, chief city and capital of the state of Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil. It is located a little more than 5° S. of the equator, on the right bank of the Rio Potengi about 2 mi. above the river's mouth. Pop. (1961) 154,276. Natal is connected by rail with the interior of the state and southward to Joao Pessoa, Recife and Maceio. Its chief overland connections, however, are by all-weather gravel highways which reach all the major points in the northeast of Brazil and extend southward to Rio de Janeiro. During World War II, Natal was a stage in the ferry route over which planes from the U.S. were flown to Africa and southeast Asia. Natal is also the port through which the products of the The chief products are state are sent to other parts of Brazil. cotton, sugar, salt and hides. In the city there are plants for the manufacture of cotton textiles and for the refining of salt. The (P. E. J.) city was founded by the Portuguese in 1599. NATCHEZ, a Muskogean-speaking tribe formerly Uving in nine villages on the east side of lower Mississippi river between the Yazoo and Pearl rivers, near the site of the present city of Natchez, Miss. Early in the 18th century when the French first established themselves in what was later called the Natchez disRelations with the trict, the tribe numbered perhaps 6,000. French were at first friendly, and under Jean Baptiste Le Moyne, sieur de Bienville, governor of Louisiana, Ft. Rosalie was built on the site of the present city of Natchez. In 1723 the Natchez were nearly conquered by the French, and an unsuccessful uprising of the Natchez in 1728 was followed in Nov. 1729 by the massacre of more than 200 Frenchmen and the destruction of Ft. Rosalie. In

the war that followed the French enlisted the aid of the Choctaw tribe, drove the Natchez from their villages and scattered them.

More than 400 Natchez were captured and

sold into the

West

In-

dian slave trade; the remainder took refuge with the Chickasaw, and later with the Creek and Cherokee. A few Natchez lived in northeastern Oklahoma in the 1960s. The Natchez, allied in general culture to other Muskogean tribes, were primarily agricultural, highly developed in the arts, and exerted considerable influence on neighbouring tribes before their dispersal, They had developed a sun worship with which

was related a perpetual

fire

of oak bark in a temple.

The

fire,

as

all fires in the villages, was allowed to die once a year on the eve of the harvest festival and was renewed at dawn on the festival day by a high priest who made fire by rubbing two sticks

well as

were then made anew from this fire. some of which was offered at the temple and some of which was ground and baked into bread for a ceremony at sunset. The ceremony was followed by together.

All the village fires

The women then bore

in the first maize,

general feasting.

Power is provided by the Electricity Supply commission's Natal Southern and Natal Central undertakings, of which the Congella (Durban) and Umgeni power stations and the Colenso undertaking

caste system classified men as suns, honoured people and commoners (or stinkards). The tribal chief (the Great Sun) and heads of the villages claimed descent from the sun; and there were both male and female suns, each supposedly descended from a male and female who had come out of the sun. The system was matrihneal and exogamic. Male and female suns could not marry each other. Male suns married stinkard wives and their children were honoured people. Sun women married stinkard husbands and their children were rated suns. The Great Sun had the power of life and death over all the others and was followed in death by his spouses, attendants and voluntary victims. The succeeding tribal chief was the son of the Great Sun's sister or closest female relation. See H. B. Cushman, History of Choctaw, Chickasaw and Natchez

operate together.

Indians (1961).

—

Mountain Rise, while at Howick is a notable rubber factory, Ladysmith cotton factories and at Empangeni, in Zululand, a pineapple cannery. at at

An

important marine industry is whaling, producing annually products to the value of about R. 6,000,000. To meet the industrial developments, improvements in Durban harbour have included rail and road access to the Island View oil sites and new precooling and cargo sheds. Commitnications. Natal has a network of communications including 1,539 mi. of railway line and 503 mi. of bituminous surface

—

main

roads.

Durban

{q.v.)

is

South Africa's most important

The remarkable Natchez

nobles,

NATCHEZ,

a city of Mississippi, U.S., is located on the Mississippi river near the southern boundary of the state; the

Adams

county. Founded by France as an outpost bastion Natchez has been part of the struggle for colonial mastery in North America and is symbolic of the south with its rich ante-bellum cotton culture, post-Civil War dechne and modseat of

of empire,

ern industrialization. The oldest settlement on the Mississippi river, the site was

NATHAN— NATIONAL ACADEMY OF

50

700 as one of a series of military posts designed to halt British westward penetration, with actual settlement ocSurviving a massacre by Natchez Indians in curring in 1716. selected in

NATHANYA

1

SCIENCES

(Netanya),

a

town of

Israel situated

on the

Founded was named

coastal plain of Sharon, 25 mi. N. of Tel Aviv-Jaffa.

1928 as an agricultural village of smallholders, it Nathan Straus, a well-known U.S. philanthropist. Pop. 40.907. It became a popular bathing resort for the region, l')61

in

1729, one of the bloodiest in American history, the settlement passed to the British in 1763 at the conclusion of the French

after

and Indian War. Becoming Great Britain's chief outpost on the Mississippi. Natchez was a haven for Loyalists driven from the revolting colonies during the early stages of the American RevoluSpanish tion until, in 1779, the town was captured by Spain. cession occurred in 1795, and with occupation by the United first incorporated town the (1803) States in 1798 Natchez became and the first capital of the Territory (1798-1802) of Mississippi. It was also the southern terminus of the famed Natchez Trace, the overland link between Natchez and Nashville, Tenn. As the old southwest was settled, Natchez burgeoned as the commercial and cultural centre of a vast and rich cotton-producing area. At the outbreak of the American Civil War it was the largest and

and British forces had a big rest camp there in World War II. Many diamond cutters and polishers from the Netherlands and Belgium were settled in a suburb to carry on the diamond industry, and other important industries textiles, chemicals, paper products, food processing) have been developed. The Goldmunz Museum of Modern Art is in the southern part of the town. The park by the sea includes an open-air theatre. There is good road and railway communication with Tel Aviv-Jaffa. (No. B.)

wealthiest city in Mississippi.

Following a decline after the Civil War, modern Natchez has capitalized

upon

historic legacy to

its

natural resources,

become again one of

industrial potential,

and

Mississippi's leading cities.

(

)

(

NATICK, a city of Massachusetts, U.S., 18 mi. W.S.W. of Boston, is situated on the southeast end of Lake Cochituate. The area was granted to John Eliot (g.v.) in 1650 as a plantation where he could carry on his mission work and establish a school of higher education for the most capable Indian converts; Natick was its original Indian name. Eliot published his Indian Bible The Indians held in 1658, a copy of which the town possesses. the land in common until 1719 and prevailed until 1762. Incor-

Mississippi at Natchez.

A $40,000,000 bridge spans the Timber, petroleum and natural gas reserves have attracted major manufacturers of rubber, wood, paper and textile products as well as producers of petroleum and natural

poration as a town took place in 1781. Modern Natick serves in a dual capacity as a suburban residential community and as a growing industrial town. Of special interest is the research and engineering centre of the U.S. army quartermaster research and deFor comparative population figures see velopment command.

gas.

table in

Transportation

highway and

facilities

airline

include river, railway

(nonpassenger),

systems.

Possessing a legacy of the cotton barons' magnificent homes, sunken roads, an infamous though long extirpated river front section named "Natchez-Under-the-Hill" and a culture ranging from the supreme elegance of the "Cotton kingdom" to the lawlessness of the early river front, Natchez has become the stereotype of The annual Natchez pilgrimage, held the ante-bellum south. during March and featuring homes and pageants of those days, attracts visitors from throughout the United States. Many novels and motion pictures have their setting in the city. The city contains several parks, the largest of which was once part of Auburn and Sunnyside plantations; also three hospitals, the Fisk public library and Natchez college, a Negro Baptist junior college opened in 1885. For comparative population figures see table in Mississippi: Population.

(P. F.

NATHAN, GEORGE JEAN

editor and drama critic, of whom, at Nevi York Times reported ". no other American critic of the period had so greatly raised the standards of play producers or so determinedly elevated the tastes of play goers." He was born Feb. 14. I8S2, in Fort Wayne, Ind., son of Charles and Ella (Nirdlinger) Nathan. He graduated from Cornell university, Ithaca, N.Y., in 1904 and joined the staff of the New York Herald. Beginning in 1906, he was at various times drama critic for numerous magazines and newspapers, but his name is particularly associated with Smart Set, of which he was co-editor (1914-23) with H. L. Mencken, and with the American Mercury, which, also with Mencken, he helped to found (1924). As a critic Nathan championed the plays of Ibsen, Strindberg, Shaw, Eugene O'Neill, Sean O'Casey and William Saroyan. He published his Theatre Book of the Year annually from 1943 through 1951, as well as more than 30 volumes of lively essays on theatrical and other sub.

.

jects.

Nathan married the

New York

actress Julie

Haydon

in 1955.

He

died in

on April 8, 1958. (B. Ht.) one of the first disciples of Christ, "an Israelite ... in whom there is no guile" (John i, 47). He was an inhabitant of Cana in Galilee (John xxi, 2), but is otherwise unknown. Though Nathanael was one of the first disciples, his name does not appear in the apostle lists. A 9th-century Syrian tradicity

NATHANAEL,

—

him with Bartholomew so Isho'dad of Merv, Elias Damascus and others. (See Bartholomew, Saint.) This identification was adopted by Rupert of Deutz in the 12th century and became common from that time on in the Western Church; it is commonly accepted by modern biblical scholars. The name means "God has given." (J. A. Fi.) tion identified

of

(nee

E. L.)

Moore) (1846-1911),

smashing in Kansas. With a few hymn-singing women, or alone, she would march into a saloon, sing, pray, hurl vituperations at all "rummies" present and smash the fixtures and the stock with hatchets. This crusade, most violent in the 1890s, led to scattered After this period of temporary efforts at law enforcement. "hatchetation" of "joints" her words she lectured in many states, in Canada and Great Britain, usually under her own management. For a while she also spoke between acts of carnivals and

—

—

burlesque shows.

The

Wa.)

(1882-1958), U.S. author, the time of his death, the

(M.

Massachusetts: Population.

NATION, CARRY AMELIA

U.S. temperance advocate, was born in Garrard county, Ky., Nov. In 1867 she married Charles Gloyd, an alcoholic; their 25, 1846. brief unhappy life together prompted her later career of saloon-

fact that her first

husband had been an active member of

a fraternal order as well as an alcoholic led her to fight such organizations along with saloons, and she added to her list of things to

be destroyed tobacco, foreign foods, corsets, skirts of improper

She length and paintings of the sort often found in barrooms. was an advocate of women's suffrage, but neither the national movement for suffrage nor that for temperance gave her much support. Her second husband, David Nation, divorced her in 1901 on grounds of desertion after a marriage of 23 years. She died June 9, 19 II. Her autobiography, T/ie Use and Need of the Life of Carry (G. Bn.) A. Nation (1904), is a hodgepodge of disorder.

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES-NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL. The academy, a nongovernmental U.S. organization of scientists, was established March 3, 1863, by act of congress to serve as an official adviser to the government,

The Nain all matters of science and technology. Research council was established by the academy in 1916. The academy and the council were unified after World War II and came to be known as the National Academy of Sciences-National Research council (N.A.S.-N.R.C, or Academy-Research council). Although the academy came into existence in the midst of a upon request, tional

its earliest activities dealt for the most part with nonmilitary concerns. Among the first tasks assigned to it were those dealing with weights, measures and coinage, magnetic deviation and bottom-fouling in iron ships, wind and current charts and sailing directions, materials for the manufacture of coins, the prevention of counterfeiting and the establishment of metric stand-

bitter civil war,

ards for the states. Later, the

academy was asked to advise on plans for observing Venus in 1874 and 1882. In 1871 it prepared in-

the transits of

structions for the scientific activities of the expedition which sailed in the naval vessel "Polaris"

toward the north pole,

in

1873 for

NATIONAL ANTHEMS the exploration of the Yellowstone and in 1902 for the exploration of the Philippines.

The government

also turned to the

academy for advice on admade recommenda-

In 1878 the academy

ministrative problems.

tions that resulted in the creation of the U.S. geological survey; later,

academy advice

led to the establishment of the weather bu-

and the national and academy recommendations played a lead-

reau, the Smithsonian Astrophysical observatory

bureau of standards

;

ing role in the estabUshment of the U.S. forest service.

In 1916, at the request of Pres. Woodrow Wilson, the academy established the National Research council to attack problems arising from the shortage of nitric acid and organic chemicals and from urgent needs in communications and preventive medicine. The council was active in the development of devices useful in antisubmarine warfare and in directing antiaircraft fire, in the develop-

ment of

effective insecticides,

and

in the testing of lenses

and the

production of optical glass. The council also participated in the investigation of traumatic shock and the development of procedures for the selection of officers and the classification of draftees. Among the steps of lasting significance taken during the years immediately after World War I were the launching of the extensive program of National Research council fellowships to enable young The council scientists to receive postdoctoral research training. inaugurated a highway research board to provide a modern technological base for the development of a national highway system, and published between 1926 and 1933 the eight volumes of the International Critical Tables of Numerical Data, Physics, Chemistry, and Technology. So great was the effort required by World War II that a group of academicians persuaded the federal government to establish its own agency, the Office of Scientific Research and Development, providing for appropriate links with the academy. Among the accomplishments of the resulting collaboration were the recommendations of an academy committee that an intensive drive for the military application of nuclear fission be pursued; recommendations on the large-scale production of penicillin, the development of quinine substitutes, the battlefield use of sulfa drugs and the use of human blood plasma in transfusions; on the design of adequate defenses against the possibiHties of biological warfare; on the stockpiling of strategic materials; on research in metallurgy and mineral technology; on the selection and training of aircraft pilots and of specialists in radar and electronics and on problems relating to human nutrition and aviation medicine. The impact of World War II subordinated for a time the academy's role as a learned society. Funds from governmental sources rose from 6% of the entire budget of the academy and the council in 1939 to 62% in 1948. During the same period total annual expenditures increased from a little over $700,000 to more than $3,100,000. In the 1960s these totals reached $15,000,000 a year. Rapidly increasing demands upon the academy after World War II, stemming both from the expanding needs of the federal govern;

ment and from

the growth of science itself, resulted in integration

of the organization as the National

Academy

of Sciences-National

which the members of the academy are trustees as well as participants, and the council is made up of representatives of the great national scientific and engineering societies and of the government. Several thousand scientists and engineers Research council,

in

participate in the activities of the over-all organization.

Among

Academy-Research council were the inauguration of the Atomic Bomb Casualty commission, at the request of Pres. Harry S. Truman, to study the long-term effects of the bombings in Hiroshima and Nagasaki; and a series of extensive engineering tests of highway construction, culminating in a $27,000,000 national road test. Some of the academy's major activities have stemmed from the deepening involvement of science the undertakings of the

in

many

facets of public policy.

In 1955 a continuing survey of

the biological effects of atomic radiation was undertaken with pri-

Reports emanating from this study set forth the state of knowledge in specialized fields for the benefit of scientific workers and summarized the situation in nontechnical language for the education of the public in the biological problems accompanying the advent of the atomic age. Other areas of public concern

vate support.

51

which the academy has looked include federal support of science, world population problems, civil defense, personal loyalty requirements relating to the award of governmental research grants, railroad and urban transportation, the utilization of technical and scientific manpower, and at the request of Pres. John F. Kennedy research needs and opportunities in the field of natural into

—

—

resources. See A. H. Dupree, Science in the Federal Government (1957). (F. Sz.; H. J. Le.)

NATIONAL ANTHEMS.

National anthems are the offisongs of countries that are used on national and other festive occasions and as greetings to visiting sovereigns or heads of states. The word anthem has an ecclesiastical connotation, not cial patriotic

strictly suited to

such songs, which would be better called national

hymns.

The

anthem coincided with the development and most of the older anthems date from this period. The following are or rise of

the national

of nationalism at the beginning of the 19th century,

have been the principal national anthems. Afghanistan: "Salaam Badshahi Daulat Afghanistan." Tune by Mohammed Farukh; no words; adopted 1943. Albania: "Hymni i Flamurit." Tune by Ciprian Porumbescu (1880), words by Asdren (A. S. Drenova), adopted 1912. Andorra: "Himne Andorra." Tune by Father Enric Marfany, words by D. Joan Benlocchi Vivo. Argentina: "Himno Nacional de Argentina" ("Old, mortales, el i

Tune by J. Bias arranged by J. P. Esnaola (1860), words by V. Lopez y Australia: "God Save the Queen" (see Great Britain, be-

grito sagrado:

Parera, Planes.

Libertad, libertad, libertad").

also "Advance, Australia Fair," used unofficially, tune and words by P. Dodd McCormick, arranged by H. A. Chambers. Austria: After World War II: "Land der Berge, Land am Strome." Tune by Mozart ("Briider, reicht die Hand zum Bunde," from the Masonic cantata, K. 623, 1791) arr. by V. Keldorfer, words by Paula Preradovic, adopted 1946. Under the empire "Gott erhalte, Gott beschiitze, unsern Kaiser, unser Land." Words by L. L. Haschka, tune by Haydn (1797). After World War I: "DeutschOesterreich, du herrliches Land." Words by Karl Renner, tune by Wilhelm Kienzl (1920). After 1933: "Sei gesegnet ohne Ende." Words by Ottokar Kernstock, to Haydn's tune. Belgium: "La Brabangonne" ("Apres des siecles d'esclavage"). Original words by H. L. A. Dechet (Jenneval), tune by F. van Campenhout, written in 1830 during the struggle for Belgian independence. In 1951 the tune was revised by a specially appointed commission and a fourth verse by Charles Rogier was added. A Flemish version was also prepared, with words by M. Herreman, which replaced "De Vlaamsche Leeuw," words by H. van Peene, tune by K. Miry (1845). Bolivia: "Himno Nacional de Bolivia" ("Bolivianos, el hado propicio corono nuestros votos y anhelo"). Tune by B. Vincenti, words by J. I. Sanjines, adopted 1842. Brazil: "Ouviram do Ypiranga as margens placidas." Words by Bulgaria: From J. 0. Duque Estrada, tune by F. M. da Silva. 1946, "Bulgaria mila, zemya na gheroi." Words by Nikola Furnadziev, M. Isacvand and Elizaveta Bagriana, tune by G. Dimitrov, G. Zlatev-Cherkin and S. Obtetenov. Until 1946: "Shumi Maritza." Words by Marachek, tune by Gabriel Shebek, later version of words by N. Zhivkov. Burma: "Gba majay Bma pyay." Tune by Th Kin Ba Thoung, words by a group of Burmese, adopted 1948. Cambodia: "Som pouk tepda rak sa moha khsath yeung." Adapted from a Cambodian folk song by F. Perruchot and J. Jekyll, words by Chuon-Nat, adopted 1941, reaffirmed 1947. Canada: "God Save the Queen" (see Great Britain, below). Also used unofficially: "The Maple Leaf Forever," words and tune by A. Muir, arr. by H. A. Chambers (1867); French-Canadians, "0 Canada! Terre de nos aieux," words by Sir A. B. Routhier, tune by C. Lavallee, arr. by H. A. Chambers (c. 1880). Ceylon: "Namo Namo Matha." Words and tune by A. Samarakoon, arranged by S. Sena, adopted 1952. Chile: "Cancion Nacional de Chile" ("Duke patria, recibe los votos"). Original words by B. de Vera y

low)

;

:

Pintado (1819), modified by E. Lillo (1847), tune by R. Carnicer (1828). China (Communist): "The March of the Volunteers."

China {Nationalist)

:

"San min chu

I."

Tune by Che'ng Mao-Yiin

NATIONAL ANTHEMS

52

(1928), words by Sun Yat-Sen, adopted 1929. Colombia: "Himno Words by ICacional de Colombia" ("Oh! gloria inmarcesible"). R. Nuiiez, tune by 0. Sindici (c. 1905). Congo: "Debout ConWords and music by J. Lutumba and golais, Unis par le sort." Costa Rica: "Himno Nacional de Costa Rica" ("Noble S. Boka. Patria, tu hermosa bandera"). Tune by M. M. Gutierrez, adopted Cuba: "Himno 1853; words by J. M. Zeledon, adopted 1900. Bayames" ("Al conibate corred, bayameses"). Words and tune

by P. Figueredo (186S). Czechoslovakia: Czech, "Kde domov muj," words by J. K. Tyl. tune by F. Skroup (1834) Slovak, "Nad Tatru sa biyska." words by J. Matuska (1844), tune traditional. (These were combined in 1919.) Denmark: Danish royal anthem "Kong Kristian stod ved hojen mast." Words by J. Ewald, tune probably adapted by J. E. Hartmann from D. L. Rogart (1779). Danish national anthem: "Der er et yndigt Land." Words by A. Oehlenschlaeger, tune by H. E. Kroyer (c. 1819). Also used unofficially: "Dengang jeg drog Doafsted." Words by F. Faber, tune by J. 0. E, Horneman. m^inican Republic: "Himno Nacional de la Republica Dominicana" ("Quisqueyanos valientes, alcemos"). Words by E. Prud'homme, tune by J. Reyes (1883, adopted 1900). Ecuador: "Salve! 6 Patria!" Words by J. L. Mera, tune Egypt (U.A.R.): Instrumental by A. Neumann (1886). Estonia: "Mu march by Kamal el-Tawil, adopted 1957. isamaa, mu onn ja roon." Words by J. Jannsen (1865, adopted 1917), tune by F. Pacius (1848, the same as the Finnish c. national anthem). Ethiopia: "Ethiopia hoy Dessybelish." Tune by K. Nalbandian (1925), words by a group of Ethiopians (1930). Finland: "Maamme" ("Oi maamme suomi synnyinmaa"). Words by J. L. Runeberg (1846), tune by F. Pacius (1848). France: "La Marseillaise" (see Marseillaise, La). Words and tune by Rouget de Lisle (1792). During the reign of Napoleon III: "Partant pour la Syrie." Words by A. de La Borde, tune attributed to Queen Hortense of Holland, but probably by L. ;

:

Drouet.

Germany: German Federal Republic: "Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit" (verse three of "Deutschland, Deutschland iiber alles"). Tune by Haydn (see below), adopted 1950. German Democratic

Republic

:

"Auferstanden aus Ruinen und der Zukunf t zugewandt."

Words by J. R. Becher, tune by H. Eisler, adopted 1949. The first German national anthem was "Heil dir im Siegerkranz." Words by H. Harries (1790), modified by B. G. Schumacher (1793), tune "God Save the Queen" (see Great Britain below), adopted 1796. After World War I "Deutschland, Deutschland iiber alles." Tune by Haydn ("Gott erhalte," see Austria, above), words by A. H. Hoffmann von Fallersleben (1841, adopted 1922). Great Britain: "God Save the Queen." Words and tune anonymous, first sung semiofficially at Drury Lane and Covent Garden theatres in London, arranged by T. A. Arne and Charles Burney respectively, after Sept. 28, 1745, when the defeat of the Jacobite rebellion was announced. The earliest copy of the words appeared in The Gentleman's Magazine, 1745. It was then merely an expression of party loyalty to George 11, and the words {e.g., "confound their politics" referred to the Jacobites, not to some enemy of the country as a whole. The tune has been traced back, unconvincingly, as far as John Bull (1619) and its opening phrase, to the words "God Save the King," appears in a catch by Henry Purcell (1685) as though quoted from a song already familiar, which may, however, be a coincidence. The later claims made for Henry Carey and James Oswald rest on no solid foundations. The words became slightly altered when the song came into use as the British national anthem and "Queen" was first substituted for "King" in Queen Victoria's reign. Greece; "Ymnos is tin eleftherian." Tune by N. Mantzaros, words by D. Solomos (1824). Adopted 1863. Greenland: "Nangminek Erialik." Tune by J. Petersen, words by H. Lund. The Danish national anthem is also used. Guatemala: "Himno Nacional de Guatemala" ("Guatemala feliz"). Tune by R. Alvarez Ovalle (1880), words by J. J. Palma (1896), adopted 1896. Guinea: "Liberie." Tune by A. Yaya; no words. ("Pour le pays, pour les ancetres, Haiti: "La Dassilinienne." marchons unis.") Tune by N. Geffrard (1903), words by J. Lherisson, adopted 1904. Honduras: "Himno Nacional de Honduras" :

)

("Tu bandera es un lampo de cielo"). Tune by C. Hartling, words by A, C. Coello, adopted 1915. Holland: see Netherlands. Hungary: "Isten aldd meg a magyart." Words by F. Kolcsey (1823), tune by F. Erkel (1844). Iceland: "0 Gud vors land." Words by M. Jochumsen, tune by S. Sveinbjornsson (1874). /nrfw.- "Jana Gana Mana." Words and tune by R. Tagore (adopted 1950). Indonesia: "Indonesia tanah airku." Tune and words by R. Supratman, adopted 1949. Iran: "Shahanshah-i ma zurde bada." Tune by N. Moghaddam (1934), words by S. Afsar, adopted 1943. Iraq: Tune by L. Zambaka, no words, adopted 1959. Ireland, Republic of: "The Soldier's Song" ("We'll Sing a Song"). Words by P. Kearney, tune by Peadar and Patrick Heaney (c. 1917, chorus adopted 1926). Isle of Man: "O Halloe nyn ghooie." Tune adapted by W. H. Gill from an old Manx air, words by W. H. Gill. The main anthem is "God Save the Queen." Israel: "Hatikvah." Words in Hebrew by N. H. Imber, English by Nina Salaman, tune based on traditional Hebrew melodies, adopted by the Zionist movement in 1907, by Israel in 1948. Italy: "Inno di Mameli" ("Fratelli d'ltalia"). Words by G. Mameli, tune by M. Novaro (1847, adopted 1946). Jamaica: "Eternal Father Bless our Land." Words by the Rev. Hugh Sherlock, music by Robert Lightbourne, introduced Aug. 6, 1962. Japan: "Kimi ga yo." Words 9th century, tune by H. Hirokami, revised by F. Eckert (1880). Jordan: "Ashaal Maleek." Tune by A. At-Tannin, words by A. A. Ar-Rifaa'i, adopted 1946.

Kenya: "Ee Mungo nguru yetu." Words in Swahili composed by a commissioned group, tune traditional. Korea, North: "TongTune by E. Ahn. Korea, South: hai Moolkwa Paikstusani." "Aeguk-ga." Kicwait: March, composer unknown, no words. Laos: "Xadlao tangle deumma." Tune by Dr. Thongdy (1941), Latvia: "Dievs, sveti words by M. Pouhmi, adopted 1947. National anthem Lat\iju." Words and tune by K. Baumanis. Lebanon: "KuUu na lil watan of the U.S.S.R. sung since 1940. Tune by M. El-Murr, words by R. Nachleh, lil 'ula lil 'alam." adopted 1926. Liberia: "All Hail Liberia, Hail !" Tune by 0. Luca (1860), words by D. B. Warner. Libya: "Ya Biladi Bijihadi." Tune by W. A. Wahab, words by Al Baschir al Arebi. Liechtenstein: "Oben am deutschen Rhein." The tune is that of "God Save Lithuania: the Queen," words are by H. H. Jauch (1850). "Lietuva, tevyne musu." Words and music by V. Kudirka (1918). Luxembourg: "0ns Hemecht." Tune by A. Zinnen, words by

M.

Lentz.

Malaysia: "Negaru ku." Tune derived from Malay folk song, words by several authors, adopted 1957. Malta: "Lil din 1-art helwa." Tune by R. Samut, words by D. K. Psaila. Mexico: "Himno Nacional de Mexico" ("Mexicanos. al grito de guerra"). Words by F. Gonzalez Bocanegra. tune by J. Nuno (1854). Monaco: "Principaute Monaco, ma patrie." Tune by B. de Castro, words by L. Canis, first performed 1867, Morocco: Tune arranged by L. Morgan, no words. Nepal: "Shri man gumbhira Nepali." The Netherlands: "Wilhelmus van Nassouwe." Tune (1626), anonymous, words by P. van Marnix (c. 1590) considered the oldest national hymn. Also "Wien Neerlands bloed in d'aderen vloeit." Tune by J. Wilms (1815), words by H. Tollens. Newfoundland: "When sunrays crown thy pineclad hills." Tune by C. H. Parry, words by C. C. Boyle (1901), first performed 1902. "God Save the Queen" also New Zealand: "God Defend New Zealand." Words by used. Thomas Bracken, tune by John J. Woods, adopted 1940; but "God Save the Queen" continued to be used. Nicaragua: "Himno Nacional de Nicaragua" ("Salve a ti Nicaragua en tu Suelo"). Tune anonymous, words by S. I. Mayorga (1917). Norway: "Ja, vi elsker dette landet," words by B. Bjomson (1859), tune by R. Nordraak, adopted 1864, Pakistan: "Qaumi Tarana." Tune by A. G. Chagla, words by A. A. H. Jullundhari, adopted 1954. Panama: "Himno Nacional de Panama" ("Alcanzamos por fin la victoria"). Tune by Don performed 1903. Paraguay: J. A. Santos, words by J. Ossa, first "Himno Nacional de Paraguay" ("Paraguayos, Republica o muerte!"). Words and music by F. Acuiia de Figueroa. Peru: "Himno Nacional de Peru" ("Somos libres, seamoslo siempre"). ;

NATIONAL ARCHIVES Words by

J.

de

Torre Ugarte, tune by

B. Alcedo (1821), Philippines: "Pamban-

la

J.

tune rewritten by C. Rebagliati (1912). Tune by J. Felipe, words by J. sang Awit ng Pilipinas." Poland: "Jeszcze Polska nie Palma, first performed 1898. zginela." Words by J. Wybicki (1797), tune traditional (c. 1795, adopted 1927, altered 1948, harmonized by K. Sikorski). Portugal: "Herois do mar." Words by L. de Mendonca, tune by A. Keil

historical publications

53 commission.

The national archives preserves, describes and services federal records retained because of their enduring value. It holds the

Rumania: "Te slavim, Romania, pamant parintesc." Words by E. Frunza and D. Desliu, tune by M. Socor, adopted on Aug. 23,

most important records dating from about 1774 to the They include the original laws, executive orders and proclamations, treaties, records of the congress and virtually all the permanently valuable records of federal executive agencies. The holdings, most of which are freely open for research, are described in finding aids published from time to time. Records of high research value are available to scholars and research in-

1953.

stitutions through the agency's microfilm publication program.

"Himno National de El Salvador" ("Saludemos la patria"). Tune by J. Aberle (1879), words by J. J. Cafias, adopted 1953. San A/dnKo.- "Onore a te onore." Tune by F. Con-

States, the Bill of Rights

(adopted 1910).

Salvador, El:

solo, words by G. Carducci. Saudi Arabia: "as-Salam al-Malaki." Tune by A. R. Al-Hatib, no words. Sierra Leone: "High we exalt Music by John Akar, words by C. N. thee realm of the free." Somali Republic: "Somalia Fyle, arranged by Logie E. Wright.

Music by Giuseppe Blanc. South Africa: "Die Stem van Suid-Afrika." Words by C. J. Langehoven (1936), tune by Hanolato."

M. L. de Villiers, adopted 1938, official English translation, 1952. Spain: "Marcha Granadera." Tune by an unknown German composer (1770), revived 1942. Sudan: Tune by Captain Murgar, words by A. M. Salih. Siveden: "Du gamla, du fria." Words by Switzerland: "Rufst R. Dybeck, tune traditional, adopted 1844. du, mein Vaterland." Words by J. R. Wyss (1811), tune "God Save the Queen" (see Great Britain above). Syria: "Humat aldiyari 'alaikum salam." Words by Khalil Mardam Bey, tune by the brothers Fulayfel, adopted 1939. Tanganyika: "Mungu Ibariki Afrika"

("God Bless Africa"). Composed by Enoch Sontonga, introduced Dec. 9, 1961. This is the same tune as the anthem "Nkosi Sikelel'i Africa." Words by Thailand: "Kha wora putt a chao." a group of Tanganyikans. Tune by Huvitzen 1872 ), words by Prince Narisaranuvadtivongs (

and King Vajiravudh, adopted 1934. Tibet: "Perkyi Gyelloo" (19th century). Trinidad and Tobago: "Forged from the Love of Liberty." Words and music by Patrick S. Castagne. Tunisia: "Ala Khallidya." Tune by T. S. Mahdi, words by J. E. Ennakache, Turkey: "Istiklal Marsi." Words by Mehmed adopted 1958. Akif Ersoy, tune by Osman Zeki Ungor, adopted 1921. Uganda: "Oh Uganda! May God Uphold Thee." Music by George W. Kakoma, words by Peter G. Wingard, first performed Aug. 9, 1962. United States of America: "The Star-Spangled Banner." Words by F. S. Key (1814), to the tune of J. Stafford Smith's song "To Anacreon in Heaven," adopted 1931. Earlier, "My Country, 'Tis of Thee," words by S. F. Smith, tune "God Save the Queen" (see Great Britain above) 1832; "Hail Columbia!" words by J. Hopkinson (1798), tune by P. Fyls (c. 1800). Uruguay: "Orientales, la patria 6 la tumba." Words by F. A. de U.S.S.R.: Figueroa, tune by F. Quijano and F. J. Deballi. Words by S. "Gosudarstvenny Gimn Sovetskogo Soyusa." Mikhalkov and El-Registan, tune by A. V. Alexandrov, adopted 1943 replacing "L'Internationale," words (originally French) by E. Pottier (1871), tune by P. Degeyter.

"Himno Nacional de Venezuela" ("Gloria al bravo pueblo"). Words by V. Salias, tune by J. Landaeta (c. 1810), adopted 1881. Vietnam, South: "Quoc Thieu Viet-Nam." Words and tune by Luu Huu Phuoc (1943), adopted 1945. Western Samoa: "0 le Fu'a o le sa' Olotoga o Samoa." Words Venezuela:

and music by Saumi I. Kuresa, introduced June 1, 1948. Yugoslavia: "Hej Sloveni." Words anonymous, tune traditional, adopted 1945. See National Anthems of the World, edited by Martin Shaw and Henry Coleman (1960). (E. W. Bm.; X.) ARBITRATION TRIBUNAL: see Industrial Court. ARCHIVES, U.S. The national archives and

NATIONAL

NATIONAL

records service, part of the General Services administration, consists of

the national archives, the Office of Federal Records Centers,

the Office of Records ter

and the

Management,

the Office of the Federal RegisIt is headed by the chairman of the national

Office of Presidential Libraries.

archivist of the United States,

who

is

also

nation's

present.

The Declaration

of Independence, the constitution of the United

and many other historic documents are National Archives building. Records Centers is responsible for the appraisal of records, for the economical maintenance of noncurrent records, and for assisting agencies with the efficient management on display

The

in the

Office of Federal

and disposition of

ment work

their records.

The

Office of

Records Manage-

responsible for developing and promoting improved paper-

is

practices throughout the government.

The

Office of the Federal Register publishes the daily Federal

Code of Federal Regulations, the United States Statutes at Large, the United States Government Organization Ma?iual and the Public Papers of the Presidents of the United Register, the

all obtainable through the government printing office. The Office of Presidential Libraries administers the Franklin D. Roosevelt library at Hyde Park, N.Y., the Harry S. Truman library at Independence, Mo., the Dwight D. Eisenhower library at Abilene, Kans., and the Herbert Hoover library at West Branch, Iowa. Papers of these presidents and many of their associates are housed in the libraries and contain significant materials for the study of modern U.S. history. After President Kennedy's assassination, preparations were made for the establishment of the John F. Kennedy library at Boston.

States,

The

national historical publications commission promotes and

participates in

documentary publication programs of public and

private agencies.

Projects for publishing papers of such

men

as

Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, John Quincy Adams, Alexander Hamilton and James Madison have been set up under private sponsorship. The commission itself undertook preparation of a documentary history of the ratification of the federal constitution and the Bill of Rights. (W. C. G.)

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCE-

MENT OF COLORED PEOPLE, a U.S. voluntary interracial organization founded to combat racism, stamp out lynching and lynch law, eliminate racial discrimination and segregation and assure Negroes their constitutional rights.

In response to a

call

by 60 Negro and white educators, clergymen and other leadon Feb. 12, 1909, the centennial of the birth of Abraham Lincoln, a national conference on the Negro was held in New York city on May 30-June 1 of that year. The conference idea had been conceived by William English Walling, a journalist, and nurtured by two social workers Mary White Ovington and Henry Moskowitz together with Oswald Garrison Villard, grandson of William Lloyd Garrison. Out of this conference the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (N.A.A.C.P.) was issued ers

—

—

born.

Since

its

founding, the N.A.A.C.P. has sought

legal action to protect the rights of

Negro

its

citizens,

goal through

nonpartisan

laws and a program of education and public information designed to win popular support. By the second half of the 20th century the N.A.A.C.P. had become a nationwide association of more than 400,000 mem-

political action to secure

enactment of

civil rights

bers in 1,200 local units in 45 states and the District of Columbia.

Headquarters were maintained in New York city with a bureau in Washington and regional offices in Atlanta, Dallas and San Francisco. Its monthly organ, The Crisis, had a circulation of more than 80,000. See also Negro, American. See Langston Hughes, Fight for Freedom: the Story of the NAACP For current history see the Brilannica Book of the Year, (Ro. C. W.) edition.

(1962).

American

NATIONAL CITY— NATIONAL CONVENTION

54

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF MANUFACTURERS

(U.S.):

Trade Organization.

''T3ical presidential year begins with New Hampshire in March; includes Wisconsin, Illinois, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Massachusetts in April; the District of Columbia, Maryland, Indiana, Ohio, Alabama, West Virginia, Nebraska, Oregon and Florida in May; and California, New York and South Dakota in June. Something is usually known concerning the presidential candidate preferences of the would-be delegates, even in the states where there is no pro\'ision for putting such information on the ballot. In many of the primary states, would-be delegates can indicate their candidate preference on the ballot if the candidate gives consent; and in a few states, notably New Hampshire, Oregon and Florida, they can do so without the necessity of securing candidate consent. Generally when there is an active contest for the nomination of one party or the other, opposing presidential candidates of national stature can be expected to campaign vigorously in at least three or four of the presidential primary states. These state campaigns and elections usually have the effect of committing state delegations to vote on the first ballot for the candidates winning in the respective states. They also attract national attention and clearly affect the estimates of the candidates that are held

by the voters, from

delegates, even those

as well as those held states

by the prospective

were no primaries are held. In by state and district

these states, delegates are usually selected

party conventions. Time, Place, Composition.

—

The national conventions meet time and place previously determined by the respective party national committees. Formerly the conventions were usually held in June, but in 1952 and 1960 both were held in July, and in 1956 in August, In 1964 the Republican convention was held in midJuly and the Democratic convention late in August. There is no poUcy on which party meets first. Chicago has been chosen as the convention city most frequently in the 20th century, with Philadelphia second, Baltimore was the at a

favourite meeting place from IS32 to 1872, For most of a century, voting strength in both conventions was apportioned among the states in accordance \vith their electoral college vote, usually two convention votes for each of the state's senators and representatives in congress; and this was still a major factor in the apportionment in the 1960s. In preparation for its 1916 and later conven-

NATIONAL COUNCIL OF CHURCHES

56

however, the Republican party adopted rules curtailing the representation of congressional districts (mainly in the south) where the Republican vote was light. Both parties later adopted the practice of giving "bonus" votes to the states carried by the party in a previous election, which had the effect of inflating total convention voting strength to more than 1,300 votes in each party by 1956. In Republican conventions, state delegations usually were restricted to their authorized size, with one vote for each delegate; but the Democratic party repeatedly authorized the election of additional delegates on a half-vote basis and frequently seated delegates who held less than half a vote, with resultant confusion of voting procedures. In 1960, the Democratic party put all delegates on a half-vote basis and increased the total numtions,

ber of votes to 1,521.

Proceedings.

— Each convention

is

senator or representative in congress.

Party platforms are prepared in committees designated for purpose. Platform issues have been hotly fought, with divided votes, in many Democratic conventions, including notably those of 1924 and 1948; but no platform issue came to a divided vote on the floor of a Republican convention from 1936 to 1960. There was. however, a Republican floor fight in 1964. Nominations are the work of the convention as a whole and have not directly involved any prior committee action since Candidates are placed in nomination with eulogistic 1S40. nominating and seconding speeches; noisy demonstrations are then staged by the supporters of each nominee parading up and down the aisles; and eventually the convention votes. The roll of the states is called alphabetically, and the vote of each state delegation is reported by its chairman; if necessary the delegation is polled. The state's vote may be divided among two or the

more candidates,

unless the delegation is bound by its state to vote as a unit. Many contests are settled on the first or second ballot, but even in the 1940s and 1950s, several ballots were sometimes necessary. The Willkie nomination of 1940 required the Dewey nomination of 1948, three; the Stevenson nomination of 1952, three. In rare instances, such as Franklin D. Roosevelt's nomination at the Democratic national convention of 1936 and Lyndon B. Johnson's nomination at the 1964 Demosix ballots;

is

to

make acceptance speeches

Reform Proposals.

nominated by acclamation without

the formality of a roll call vote. Vice-presidential nominations

follow the presidential. Frequently the vice-presidential choice has been determined by the presidential nominee in consultation with other party leaders, after which other candidates for the lesser nomination have withdrawn and the convention has ratified the choice without a contest. But in 1956. Stevenson followed the e.xample of Bryan in 1896 an example that Bryan never again followed himself in insisting that the convention itself make the choice. Sen. Estes Kefauver won the nomination on the second ballot after an extremely close contest with Sen. John F. Kennedy. Throughout the 19th century, the candidates usually remained at their homes while the conventions were in session; and committees were sent, often weeks later, to advise the successful candidates officially of the convention action. In the 20th century, willing candidates began to be present at the convention city oftener but rarely appeared in the convention itself before 1932. In that year, however. F. D. Roosevelt came to Chicago by airplane from Albany. N.Y., and appeared in person at the end of the Democratic convention to accept its nomination. After that time, major candidates were usually present in the conven-

—

and appearance of the nominees became customary. their history, the conven-

at the final session

—Throughout

tions have been among the most criticized of political institutions, perhaps because they provide so many opportunities for the organization, manipulation and display of political power. Throughout the 20th century, a favourite reform proposal has been to replace the conventions with a national presidential primary, to be provided either by a constitutional amendment or by federal law encouraging uniform state action. Public reaction to the conventions of 1952, the first to receive full television coverage over nationwide networks, was interpreted by some

observers as giving great impjetus to the presidential primary.

opened by the chairman of the national party committee, and usually elects a temporary chairman on the first day. The temporary chairman may give the keynote address and usually pre.sides until the organization of the convention has been completed. Senators have often served as temporary chairmen, but governors have done so increasingly in the 20th century. The permanent chairman usually takes over on the second or third day of the convention and presides during the adoption of the party platform and the balloting on presidential and vice-presidential nominations. During the 19th century, state and local party leaders usually served as permanent chairmen; in the 20th century the post was usually tilled by an incumbent

cratic convention, a candidate

tion city during the proceedings,

But that impetus

movement failed to

for a national

show

itself in

congress, except in the adoption of a presidential primary law for the District of Columbia.

State legislatures also were slow to register any notable desire to install primaries in states

where they did not already

exist.

Florida revised its previous statute along lines recommended by a group of political scientists and claimed credit for developing a

model presidential primary system. At mid-20th century the conventions undoubtedly had become amount of professional and scientific research activity than at any previous time in their history. While such research mainly added to the store of knowledge concerning the complexities of the presidential nominating process, it also produced many suggestions for changes in procedures. It seemed that these might eventually have a significant cumulative effect without changing the fundamental nature of the convention institution, which seemed to be firmly established as a part of the U.S. the object of a greater

political system.

—

Bibliography. E. P. Herring, The Politics of Democracy, ch. 16 V. 0. Key, Jr., Politics, Parties and Pressure Groups, 3rd ed.,

(1940)

;

Alfred de Grazia, The American Way of Government, (1952) ch. 17 (1957) Louis Brownlow, The President and the Presidency (1949); Sidney Hyman, The American President (1954); Eugene H. Roseboom, A History of Presidential Elections (1957) P. T. David, M. Moos and R. M. Goldman, Presidential Nominating Politics in 1952, 5 .vol. (1954); Manning J. Dauer el al., "Toward a Model State Presidential Primary Law," American Political Science Review, p. 143 (March 1956); P. T. David, R. M. Goldman and R. C. Bain, The Politics of National Party Conventions (1960); C. A. H. Thomson and F. Shattuck, The Presidential Campaign of 1956 (1960); R. C. Bain, Convention Decisions and Voting Records (1960). (P. T. D.) ch. IS

;

;

;

NATIONAL COUNCIL OF CHURCHES.

The National

Council of the Churches of Christ in the U.S.A. was formed in December 1950 by a merger of 12 national interdenominational agencies, several of which had been organized as early as 1908. Its purpose is to provide an organization through which member churches can express their common faith and cooperate with one another on programs to which the bodies themselves consent or which they initiate. The council has no authority over its constituent bodies. Among its objectives and functions, as stated in its constitution, are to encourage fellowship and counsel concerning the spiritual Hfe and religious activities of the churches; to promote cooperation among local churches and the development of state and local councils of churches; to encourage study of the Bible; to

and

do for the churches such

to provide a

medium

common

services as are desired;

of consultation, research,

and

joint plan-

ning.

By 1964

there were 31 Protestant and Orthodox bodies constitu-

ent to the council, of which 24 were Protestant denominations.

W-

most 40 other denominations or agencies of denominations cooperated in one or more of the council's programs. In the constituency of the council at that time were approximately 144,000 local congregations with about 110,000 ministers. In these were over 40,000,000 individual members, of which more than 35,000,000 were in the Protestant bodies. The council also cooperated with about •

900

local

and

state councils of churches

which were responsible to

own state and local churches. The council carries out many of its activities through four divisions. The Di\-ision of Christian Life and Mission provides encourtheir

agement

of study

among groups and

and action

in international affairs;

education

individuals to apply Christian principles to eco-

NATIONAL DEBT—NATIONAL GUARD

57

and cultural relations; counsel and guidance to the ministries in hospitals and prisons; and coordination of activities in furtherance of religious hberty, social welfare, and

ganization founded by eminent explorers and scientists it had grown to become the largest scientific and educational society in the world, with an international membership of 3,000,000 in

stewardship. The division also maintains a consultation service on church building; administers a cooperative migrant ministry for seasonal farm workers; and encourages broad planning to meet the

the second half of the 20th century.

nomic

life

and

racial

special needs of rural

and urban churches and of home missions

The Division

institutions.

of Overseas

Ministries coordinates,

and interprets the cooperative phases of the overseas work of participating foreign mission boards and denominations; supplies medical services to foreign missionaries; and conducts a literacy program in about 200 languages. The Division of Christian Education helps the churches to develop guidance materials for local work in religious education; gives leadership in the improvement of administration of Sunday school programs; and administers about 600 leadership schools annually. It encourages weekday religious education and vacation schools and coordinates the educational work of the denominations with respect to church-related counsels,

colleges.

The Division of Christian Unity, created in 1965, includes United Church Women, who participate in activities of local interdenomi-

women; encourage observance of the annual World Day of Prayer; and engage in varied programs in missions, family hfe, race relations, and civil liberties. United national councils of church

Church Men,

also in this division, aid in the

operative programs

among

local

development of co-

groups of laymen and encourage

and education. Among other units of the council, the Department of Church World Service is a channel through which many denominations carry on a world-wide program of reUef and rehabilitation to needy and suffering persons abroad, in most cases victims of natural disasters and pohtical upheaval. It has administered services resulting in the resettlement of more than 115,000 refugees in the United States and has shipped overseas as much as 350,000,000 lb. of materials, mainly food, in one year. An activity of the Department their interest in such subjects as missions

of

Evangehsm

is

a cooperative ministry in the national parks that

provides religious services to visitors. The Broadcasting and Film Department presents radio and television messages; develops films and film strips; and provides training for both clergymen and laymen on the use of radio and television. The Department of Research carries on various research projects; promotes research by other agencies; and maintains a centre of information on church statistics.

presents

It edits the

official

Yearbook of American Churches, which

information from

all faiths.

The General Assembly of the council triennial) and the General Board (meeting between sessions of the assembly) on occasion pohcy statements, x^mong them are the council stands opposed to racial segregation in the churches and community life; beheves in and supports the right of both employers and employees to engage in collective bargaining; believes in and supports the (

issue

;

procedures of the United Nations; advocates broad international trade and the foreign-aid program of the United States; is unalterably opposed to Communism and stands against the evils, violence, and violations of human rights by Communist and other tyrannies.

The

council's General

Board consists

of both

clergymen (almost

two-thirds) and lay persons, elected or appointed by the constitu-

On

the committees supervising the

program units lay people approximately equal clergymen in numbers. Of the council's net budget, more than half comes from church bodies; the remainder is made up of proceeds from sales of materials, gifts of individuals, foundations, and corporations, and proceeds from

ent bodies.

investments.

York

Headquarters of the National Council

is

in

New

City.

Bibliography.— National Council of the Churches of Christ in the Handbook: National Aspects of Cooperative Christianit\ in the United States (1953), Working Together Through the National Council of Churches (1960), Yearbook of American Churches (annually); Triennial Report, 1963. (B. Y. L.) U.S.A.,

NATIONAL DEBT: see Debt, Public. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, a

U.S. scientific society founded in Washington, D.C., in 1888, "for the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge." From a small local or-

All

members

receive the

monthly journal, the National Geographic Magazine, and many maps issued as supplements. Annual membership dues support all of the society's activities, which have included more than 200 major scientific projects and expeditions. From the expeditions of Walter Wellman and Robert E. Peary to Richard E. Byrd and Paul A. Siple, the society has supported and encouraged arctic and antarctic exploration and published society's

In the early 1930s stratosphere balloons, launched jointly with the U.S.

firsthand accounts of explorers.

giant

its

army

air

and

at-

corps, pioneered in scientific exploration of the upper air

tained the greatest elevation reached by man up to that time (13.71 mi.). National Geographic expeditions, often cosponsored

with the Smithsonian and other institutions, have studied volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, excavated Machu Picchu, lost city of the Incas on a Peruvian mountain top, and discovered in Mexico the oldest dated work of man in the new world. The society helped explore and bring into the U.S. national park system such national treasures as the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes in Alaska, Carlsbad caverns and Pueblo Bonito in New Mexico and the giant sequoias of California. In 1958 the society presented Russell cave, Alabama in which was uncovered a record of 9,000 years of North American prehistory to the natioiial park service. {See also Alabama: History^) In 1949-56 the society and the California Institute of Technology, working with the Palomar observatory telescopes, produced for world distribution a Sky Atlas of unprecedented scope. More recent activities have included archaeological examination of the vast, long-forgotten capital of Maya civilization, Dzibilchaltun, in Yucatan, in co-operation with Tulane university, and anthropological research by Dr. and Mrs. L. S. B. Leakey in east Africa that has produced fossil re-

—

—

mains of hominids of record antiquity. Besides its expeditions, its magazine and its maps, the society fulfills the purpose for which it was organized through its school service which issues weekly bulletins to educators, librarians and students in the United States; a news service which issues daily releases on world events for press, radio and television; its illustrated books presenting scientific information in readily understandable form; globes, atlases, educational television; and occasional scientific

monographs by

its

expedition leaders.

Melville Bell Grosvenor, son, grandson and great-grandson of presidents of the society, became its president and editor in 19S7.

See also Grosvenor, Gilbert Hovey. See National Geographic Magazine, 7Sth Anniversary Issue (Jan. (M. B. G.) 1963).

NATIONAL GUARD,

the

States to a volunteer organization all

walks of

as

members

life

who

name

applied

composed

of military units.

in

the

United

of individuals

devote part of their time each

week

Older than the nation

from

to training

it

serves,

it

has the longest continuous history of any military organization Its origin can be traced back to the early in the United States. years of the 17th century when the colonists, in order to protect

and property, banded together to form militia companies These companies were equipped and trained acneeds of the time. As the nation grew, the national guard grew, and as towns sprang up and states were added to the union, additional guard units were formed for local and national their lives

(see Militia).

cordmg

to the

protection.

—

Early History. The distinction of being the oldest national guard units in the United States with unbroken lineages is shared by the 101st engineer battalion and the 182nd infantry regiment, Massachusetts national guard. These units trace their history back to Oct. 7, 1636, when the general court at Boston ordered that all military men in the area were to be formed into militia regiments. Two of these, the north regiment and the east regiment, both of which fought in the Revolutionary War, later became the 182nd infantry and the 101st engineers. Throughout the colonies, similar militia organizations were formed, and in 1775 the committee of safety of the second conti-

NATIONAL INCOME ACCOUNTING

58

Under postwar amendments to the National Defense act of 1916, the national guard was reorganized to consist of the same guard

nental congress organized them into an overall defense force. These militia provided approximately 165,000 of the 306,000 troops It was during raised for George Washington's continental army. the period 1776-90 that specific militia laws were first passed by the states for the purpose of regulating the militia and causing the

divisions that

enrollment of all free males between certain ages as a proper, natural and safe defense of a free state. These laws were based on the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confedera-

when

tion,

which declared that

was necessary power nor assume the role of

a well-regulated militia

had served during the war.

forth a completely

tablished an

new

"Army

This

act,

in setting

military policy for the United States, es-

of the United States" which consisted of the

regular army, the organized reserve corps, and the national guard

The

called into federal service.

state force under the

command

also provided for increased

national guard remained a

of state authorities.

federal

assistance

The new

for the

act

national

but should not be superior to the civil From these laws arose the a standing army in time of peace. concept of the national guard as state-supported organizations of

guard: when units reached certain minimum standards of strength, equipment and skill, they were formally recognized as eligible for

local volunteers.

The act known as

After the colonies had won their independence, the principle of the citizen-soldier was considered so important by Washington and the first congress that it was written into the constitution of the United States. Section 8, article I of the constitution empowered congress to provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union, suppress insurrections

and

repel invasions,

and

for

organizing, arming and disciplining the militia, reserving to the states the appointing of officers and the training of the militia

according to the discipline prescribed

by congress.

amendment

to the constitution (article II of the recognized the right of the citizen-soldier, in the well-regulated militia," to keep and bear arms. basic authority was to result in the establishment

The second

Bill of

Rights)

interests of "a

Ultimately this of the national

guard in its present form. Although President Washington constantly pressed congress to prepare "a uniform and well-digested plan" for the militia, no action was taken, and militia were separately formed and trained by each state. By the act of Feb. 28, 1795, congress gave the president authority to call out the militia in cases of invasion and other emergency, but federal use of state militia depended on the indiNddual state's acceptance or rejection of the president's

A step toward a uniform militia and an eventual national guard was taken by congress in 1808, when legislation provided for specific federal aid to be paid annually to the states to support their militia, although these forces still remained under state request.

control.

The name on Aug. infantry

"national guard" was

first

applied to a state militia

when New York's 7th regiment (now the 107th regiment. New York national guard), acting as an honour

16, 1824,

guard for the Marquis de Lafayette during his visit to the United States, adopted the name in tribute to his service during the Revolutionary 'War and in honour of his command of the Garde National in Paris in 1 789. By 1896 most states had adopted the title, although this change in name did not change the essential character of the guard as a state organization.

—

20th Century. Throughout the 19th century, the militia remained a generally unwieldy and sprawling force, although it played an important part in providing troops and units in each of the four wars (1812, Mexican, Civil and Spanish-American wars) In 1903 in which the United States engaged during this period. congress enacted laws whereby the federal government assumed a more direct and active part in organizing, training and equipping the militia under the same standards as those prescribed for the regular army. It was not until enactment of the National Defense act of June 3, 1916, however, that the organized militia was ofl5cially recognized as the national guard and made to conform As such, it became a component to regular army organization. of the nation's organized peace establishment and, when called into active federal service, a part of the army of the United States.

In 1916 approximately 151,000 guardsmen were called into federal service, of which 110,000 served on the Mexican border. During World War I the national guard supplied more than 380,Seventeen 000 soldiers for the American expeditionary force. guard divisions were sent overseas, of which eleven saw actual combat. Of the eight U.S. divisions rated excellent or superior by the German high command, six were national guard divisions.

The

general demobilization of units and the discharge of indi-

viduals from federal service after

World War

made

necessary to rebuild the national defense force, including the national guard. I

it

federal support. of

June

IS, 1933, created a

the National

Guard

new component

of the

of the United States.

army

This com-

ponent, while identical in personnel and organization to the national guard of the several states, was a part of the army at all times

and could be ordered into active federal service by the president whenever congress declared a national emergency, without the necessity of being called through the governors of the states.

In Aug. 1940 the president ordered the national guard of the United States to active military service. Between Sept. 16, 1940, and Oct. 1, 1941, the national guard brought into federal service more than 300,000 men in 18 combat divisions and numerous nondivisional units, including 29 air observation squadrons. These troops immediately doubled the strength of the standing army. Guardsmen supplied trained leaders for the expanding army, with an estimated 82,000 enlisted guardsmen later becoming officers. Nine divisions crossed the Atlantic to Europe and Africa, and nine went to the far reaches of the Pacific. Following World War II, national guard units were demobilized and their personnel separated from federal service and returned For a short period there actually was directly to civilian life. no national guard. On Oct. 13, 1945, the secretary of war approved the policies relating to the organization of the postwar national guard, and on June 30, 1946, the first reorganized national guard unit was federally recognized. In 1947 the air units of the national guard were organized separately from the army units and Since that time the national designated the air national guard. guard has consisted of the army national guard and the air national guard. Since 1954 both the army and the air national guard have participated in the antiaircraft defense of the United States. During the Korean War more than 183,000 guardsmen in 8 infantry divisions, 22 wings and many other units of the army and Four air national guard were ordered into active federal service. divisions and 17 wings were stationed in the United States, 2 divisions and 3 wings served in Europe, and 2 divisions (the 40th and 45th) and 2 wings (the 116th and 136th) fought in Korea. The national guard continues to have a dual status and mission.

Each

federally recognized unit

national guard of

its

own

state

is

simultaneously a part of the of the national guard of the

and

United States. The function of the national guard of the several is to provide organizations in each state, so trained and equipped as to enable them to function efiiciently at existing strength in the protection of life and property and the preservation of peace, order and public safety under competent orders of the state authorities. The duty of the national guard of the United States is to provide units of the reserve components of the army and air force, adequately organized, trained and equipped, available for mobilization in the event of war or national emergency and capable of combat operations in support of war plans of the department of defense. states

—

Bibliography. J. B. Deerin, Guide for Army National Guardsmen (1959) Herbert L. Osgood, "The System of Defence in the New England Colonies," The American Colonies in the Seventeenth Century, Historical and Pictorial Review of the vol. i, pp. 496-578 (1904-07) National Guard, vol. for each state (1939) Frederick P. Todd, "Our National Guard," Military Affairs, vol. v, summer and fall issues (1941) The Nation's National Guard, National Guard Association of the United States (1954); Annual Reports of the Chief, National Guard (E. C. E.) Bureau. ;

;

;

;

NATIONAL INCOME ACCOUNTING.

The

traditional

purpose of national income studies is to furnish measures of the Beginning approximately with the production of the nation.

NATIONAL INCOME ACCOUNTING World War

purpose has come to be conceived more broadly as that of providing a systematic account of the economic activity of the nation. Inasmuch as production is a major feature of economic activity the two aims 1930s,

and quite

explicitly since

II, their

are closely interrelated.

National Output.

—Terminology

has not become standard-

ized; the terms "national output," "income,"

"product" and "ex-

In the following penditure" are often used interchangeably. discussion national output will, in general, be employed to desigthe total of final output is National nate the common concept. or end products produced by the nation during a specified period, such as the calendar year. That is to say, it is the sum of products available for consumption or for additions to the stock of capital. Raw materials and semifinished products used up in production are

not counted separately. For instance, if flour is baked into bread, only the bread is counted. National output is expressed in monetary values, since these provide a common unit for summing the wide variety of goods (commodities and services) produced.

The bulk of the production covered by measures of national output consists of items that are intended for sale in the market. Goods provided outside the market place are usually excluded, even though they may resemble items that are included by virtue of the market criterion. For instance, the services of housewives are usually excluded while services rendered by domestics are included. However, monetary values are generally imputed to wages paid in kind, to food and fuel produced on farms for home consumption, to the services which owner-occupants derive from their homes, and sometimes also to certain services, such as the handling of bank deposits, which financial institutions render free of charge The treatment of nonmonetary items raises difto individuals. ficult problems in the measurement of the output of industrially undeveloped countries, where many types of productive activity that are channeled through the market in western countries are performed within the confines of the individual household. The above explanation of national output has been in terms of product flows, because such an approach makes clear that the goal is to measure goods available for the satisfaction of human wants. However, inasmuch as the production of goods gives rise to a simultaneous flow of incomes wages, profits, etc. national output may also be envisaged as a sum of income flows. In practice, national output measures are prepared both by summing product

—

—

flows

and by summing income flows. relationship between these two types of measures

The

to the understanding of the entire structure of national

is

basic

income

Accordingly, a somewhat more exact explanation of it will be given by reference to the operations of a typical business (The bulk of national output originates in such enterenterprise. statistics.

although certain services

prises,

—

government employees

—mainly

those of household and

also are counted as part of national out-

put.)

The

which it either Chargeable to this production are purchases of raw materials and other intermediate products from other enterprises (but not purchases of fixed plant and equipment) wages, salaries and other incomes paid out in production; indirect business taxe&, such as sales, excise and property taxes; and depreciation and kindred allowances for fixed capital used up. A residual item of profit or loss equalizes the expenses chargeable to production with its value. sells

typical business enterprise produces goods

or adds to

its

inventories.

;

Expenses chargeable to production and profits

59

NATIONAL INCOME ACCOUNTING

6o 1.

The value

of national output

nomic character of the products

is

—

shown

essentially

in terms of the ecoconsumption and adtwo

ditions to capital stock, with further subdivisions of these

shown in the same statement in terms major purchaser groups, usually consumers, business enterprises, government and foreign nations. The exact manner in which the type-of-product and the type-ofbasic categories.

It is also

of the sales of these products to

purchaser classifications are reconciled is not uniform. The aggregate broken down in this way is usually valued at market prices. 2. The value of national output is shown in terms of the various types of incomes wages and salaries, interest, rents and profits ^-originating in production. This classification is usually of the Sometimes, however, aggregate expressed net at factor prices. capital consumption allowances and indirect taxes are included, and a breakdown of the entire value of national output gross at market prices is thus provided. 3. The value of national output may be classified to show the portions of it originating in the various industries, such as agriculture, manufacturing and trade. This classification is generally given in terms of the income rather than the product flow measure. Industry breakdowns of output vary as regards the output defini-

—

market or factor price, etc.) that is used. 4. National output may be shown allocated to the various regions of a nation. To sidestep some of the special problems intion (net or gross,

volved

in

such an allocation, the total

is

often not strictly a

measure of national output, but the related aggregate of individual income receipts. 5. Some variant of this aggregate also most frequently underlies statements in which income is classified by the size of the unit income, the unit being usually the family or the single individual living separately.

Such

consumer units and the

total

income

System of Accounting.

show the number of successive income brackets.

distributions

size

—

It

in

is

apparent

that

the

output

breakdowns listed shed a great deal of light on the structure of the economy. However, the facets of the economy so illuminated remain separate, and no fully coherent picture of the whole The technique of nain terms of its component parts emerges. tional income accounting (social accounting, national accounting, etc. terminology varies) has been designed to overcome this

—

shortcoming. It helps to envisage the precise relation to one another of the various facets of the economy on which information has been obtained, and it provides a framework for the actual preparation of coherent statistical pictures of the economy. In essence, the economy is regarded as consisting of transactors, such as enterprises, households and governmental units, each such entity recording its transactions in a consistent set of accounts. For each transactor, three types of accounts are usually distinguished conforming to certain basic and distinct economic functions. The first account records its transactions as a producer along the lines sketched above in the explanation of the equivalence between the product and income flow measures. The second

—

shows

its

transactions as a recipient of net income (from

its

own

production as well as from other sources) and as a consumer, and includes a residual item of saving. The third account summarizes its transactions as a saver and investor, showing the disposition To of its total saving among financial and tangible investment. show interrelationships clearly, each transaction would be identified twice in an ideal scheme. For instance, purchases made by one transactor unit in its capacity as consumer would be shown as sales of another unit in its capacity as producer. Many problems are encountered in drawing up the specifications of this accounting scheme. Some of these arise because the basic types of accounts distinguished are not applicable to all types of transactors with equal ease. For instance, the essential features of the production account for enterprises can be envisaged by reference to the operating statement of a typical business firm. But there is no similar guide to set the pattern for the production accounts of households and governments, and experts are not

unanimous in their choice among several alternatives. As to the detail in which transactors might be classified, there is no limit in principle. In the extreme, the economy might be depicted in terms of a separate set of accounts for each transactor.

In practice, information is insufficient to implement such a scheme; moreover, so detailed a picture would be of no use. because in it one would not see the forest for the trees. Accordingly, statistical pictures of the economy in terms of interrelated accounts are confined to broad consolidations of the ultimate detail. Essential information on aspects of the economy which these consolidations do not bring out is shown in supporting tables. Many types of consolidations are possible; one deserves mention because closely related variants of it underlie the national income

many countries. In this consolidation, the accounts showing the productive activities of enterprises and other economic transactors are summed to yield twin measures of the national output one in terms of product flows, the other in terms presentations of

—

income flows. Accounts showing transactors as recipients of income including transfers, such as relief payments and taxes and as consumers of output are usually distinguished for two broad groups, households and government a consolidated receipt and expenditure account is provided for each of these groups. (The corresponding accounts for enterprise transactors are often merged with the production accounts.) Next, the saving-investof

—

—

;

for all transactors are consolidated to show such an account for the nation as a whole. Finally, an external account is provided to show transactions with foreign countries. This particular consolidation of the underlying accounting scheme is selected for statistical implementation for pragmatic reasons. It contains measures of total output, which is the focus

ment accounts

of national

income

statistics;

it

of households and governments,

shows explicitly the transactions and saving-investment transac-

tions per se, which are important for understanding the functioning of the economy; and it suppresses distinctions that are of lesser

significance or that cannot generally be quantified because statistical

information

lacking.

is

Related Systems.

—

The term national income statistics is usumeasures of national output and of its breakdowns, and to the summary descriptions of the economy that have been described. There are three bodies of statistical information, not covered by the conventional use of the term, that can be seen to be closely related to national income estimates if the national income accounting approach is adopted. 1. Interindustry relation (input-output) studies aim at a depiction of the economic process which focuses on product flows ally confined to the

among

industries.

They provide

a full accounting for these flows,

including intermediate goods, which are excluded from conventional national income statistics because the latter are concerned

with

final

output.

At a high

level of abstraction

which omits many detailed points

of comparison that are of importance in the actual use of the data,

the relationship of input-output to national income statistics may be grasped by reference to the detailed accounting scheme for

shown to underlie the latter. Inputoutput tables can be regarded as an alternative manner of sumessence, transactors are grouped on an scheme; in marizing this industry basis. 2. Moneyflow systems trace, in addition to the flows accounted for in national income statistics, financial transactions such as These are not transfers of deposits and lending and borrowing. reflected in conventional national income estimates because the latter provide only one consolidated saving-investment account for the nation as a whole in which domestic financial transactions cancel. These transactions could be introduced into national income statistics by providing separate saving-investment accounts for appropriate groups of transactors. Again, this is only a general sketch of the relationship between the two systems. Input-output and moneyflow data have been developed less extensively than national income estimates narrowly defined, partly because they require additional primary statistical information that The extent to which they have been inteis difficult to obtain. grated with the national income accounts varies from country to individual units that has been

country. 3. Statistics of national wealth are usually distinguished from those of national income, but inasmuch as wealth is largely the result of saving and investment, which are part of the national

NATIONAL INCOME ACCOUNTING income estimates, the figures

is

close relationship

between the two

apparent.

Uses of National

Income

Statistics.

sets of

— National income data

are a tool for evaluating the performance of the economy, mainly terms of the total amount and the composition of goods provided, and their distribution among various groups of the com-

lating public policy

6i

recommendations, the precise nature and

nificance of their role

is

not clearly established.

sig-

In only a few

countries have the methods reviewed been used intensively even on a technical level. Moreover, the weight which policymakers

but if it is believed that it will National income categories have been used to furnish a set of concepts in terms of which the future is viewed, and the record of recent and past developments provided by the statistics has been studied to yield clues as to the probable course

have given to recommendations based on these methods has been limited by other considerations that influence practical policies, as well as by the admitted shortcomings of the methods themselves. The conclusions these methods suggest are uncertain partly because national income data are subject to considerable error but mainly because our knowledge of the future behaviour of the economic system is imperfect. National income estimates provide only a record of past events, and there is no guarantee that reguNor will plans larities disclosed by them will persist in the future. indicated in surveys of spending intentions necessarily materialWhile improvements in the statistics and in economic knowlize. edge can be expected, it would be Unrealistic to be overly hopeful about the extent to which economic forecasts can be made more firm. The interplay of economic forces is so complex, and their connections with noneconomic factors so numerous and close, that the odds against predicting economic events with a great deal of certainty seem overwhelming. Nongovernmental uses of national income statistics also have become prominent. In particular, businessmen use the estimates to gauge the general economic climate in which their enterprises will operate. The over-all magnitudes embodied in these forecasts are used also to infer future market conditions for particular goods

of future events.

in

extent to which these economic forecasts have been elaborated has varied. Often policy recommendations have involved

sellers.

in

They are also an aid in understanding the functioning of the economy; c,?., the nature of business fluctuations, the regularithe distribution of income and the tendencies for long-term in ties

munity.

They

economic growth or retardation.

foster such understanding

essentially because they provide quantifications of

many

of the

key magnitudes with which economic reasoning on these matters deals.

Among lic

the practical uses of the data, those concerned with pubNational income estimates

policy have been most prominent.

have been used, for instance, in formulating policy recommendations relating to economic mobilization during war, to the stabilization of business activity and to economic reconstruction and development. Intelligent policy decisions in these and other matters involve the

assessment of the probable course of future events. in order, not if in-

For instance, anti-inflationary measures are flation

has prevailed

in the past,

prevail in the future.

The

only implicit forecasts of selected aspects of the economy. Sometimes they have been based explicitly upon complete descriptions ("models") of the anticipated course of the economy as a whole. While the latter approach has not been more successful, it will be outlined because it exhibits some of the logic and limitations that characterize also the

more

extent coincided with those confronted in the practical use of the

eclectic variant.

In problems relating to wartime economic mobilization; for instance, the broad technique is to estimate the total national output that can be produced under given assumptions relating to the availability of labour and other resources and probable trends in productivity. This total is then allocated among the conflicting military and civilian requirements. Next, the money demands for civilian output that would be generated at the projected level of Finally, if these demands are from supplies at exbting prices, the tax, monetary, allocation and other measures needed to bring them into equality

national income are estimated.

found

to differ

at reasonably stable prices are determined.

The phase of this analysis that deals with the probable magnitude demands at the projected level of national income usu-

of private

relies heavily on past regularities in economic behaviour, such as past relations between income and market demand. These relations are also used in gauging the effects on demand of tax But relations measures, such as specified changes in tax rates. that have obtained in the past are often modified in projecting the future, to take into account the expected effects of altered circumstances. Other techniques, such as surveys of spending intentions, can also be used to help in forecasting. Similar techniques are applied to problems of peacetime stabilization. The demand for national output is forecast on the basis If this demand is found to of foreseeable future developments. deviate from a level of output that is satisfactory from the stand-

ally

point of the stabilization goal, the fiscal, monetary and other measures necessary to stimulate or restrict demand are gauged. Projection of past relationships and surveys of spending intentions are the mainstays of this analysis also.

Use of national income data

in

problems of economic recon-

struction and development involves a similar confrontation of the

projected national output with the demands upon it and adjustment of the two to each other by means of the policy actions available to the government. In many instances an analysis of the role of international trade, aid

and investment

is

essential in

working

out a solution.

Even though national income

which individual firms are interested, either as purchasers or These evaluations aid in the formulation of investment, production, price and other policies. In addition to these and other applications, which have made national income statistics a widely used tool for practical orientation in the economic world, the data have been employed increasingly in academic studies, to test and develop hypotheses of economic theory. The problems encountered have to a large

statistics are

used widely in formu-

data.

Sources and Methods of Compilation.— Existing programs of primary data collection are not designed specifically to measure national output, its components and the other entries in the national accounts. Instead, these magnitudes must be estimated by utilizing information prepared largely for other purposes. Prominent among this information are census enumerations and sample surveys, and statistics that are by-products of various governmental activities such as the administration of social security systems, tax laws and expenditure programs. Many other sources, too varied to summarize, are also used. The basic data often depart definitionally and in coverage from the items in the national income accounts. Estimation of these items involves, accordingly, and sometimes conflicting the integration of all the available information, and the filling of data gaps by resort to partial and

—

indirect evidence. National income figures are thus subject to error not only because of inaccuracies in the basic data but also because of imperMoreover, their margin of fections in the estimating methods. error cannot be precisely quantified, because the usual mathematical techniques for measuring error are not applicable to this complex case. Estimates of the margin of error which occasionally

national income figures fall short of definitional preand incorporate a great deal of subjective judgment. The reliability of national income statistics depends on the adequacy of the primary information and the effectiveness of the estimating techniques. It varies greatly from country to country, and within each country among the several entries in the accounts and according to the time period covered. Reliability is likely to be vastly higher for advanced industrial countries than for countries in which industrial processes have not developed. This situation is so mainly because industrial economies are characterized by transactions that lend themselves to registration in statistical form, and because the problems confronting such economies

accompany cision

are likely to induce extensive data collection. Other things being equal, relative errors in broad aggregates are likely to be smaller than those in

its

separately estimated com-

NATIONAL INCOME ACCOUNTING

62

For instance, the

For any given series, estiponents, because of offsetting error. mates referring to the remote past and to very recent periods are likely to be less accurate than estimates for intervening dates. This situation is so because the primary data diminish rapidly as one explores further into the past, and because estimates for recent periods are usually made before all the source material is Similarly, quarterly and monthly series are likely to be at hand. less accurate than annual estimates. In an intensive use of the data it will be necessary to go beyond these generalizations and, mainly by an examination of the methodology underlying the estimates, form a judgment as to the order of their reliability. Thus, not only the preparation of national

allocation even

income statistics but also their use requires skill. Availability of National Income Statistics. National income estimates were prepared (in England) as early as the 17th centuPi'. But workmanlike estimates covering a span of years and built up from detailed components are largely a product of The economic problems associated with the the 20th century. depression of the 1930s and World War II made it vitally important to understand the economy and gave further impetus to the development of the statistics, largely under governmental aegis. In the postwar period, problems of economic reconstruction and development have had similar effects.

has been suggested that not all output bought by consumers be regarded as final either. No clear-cut proposals have been made, but the general idea appears to be to distinguish purchases that are direct causes of final human satisfaction from those that are only indirect conditions of it, and to exclude the latter. Opponents of the idea have argued that the proposed distinction cannot in fact be drawn; and they have not been refuted, either in logic or through the presentation of a viable classification that implements the proposed narrowing of the final product concept.

—

Originally indigenous to western industrial countries, national

income estimates are now available

for a large

number

differing widely as to needs, resources, technologies

of others,

and

institu-

The United Nations and other organizations structure. have been active in promoting international comparability, both by developing standard accounting systems and by preparing compilations in which reported series are adjusted to uniform definitional

tions.

Other noteworthy tendencies are the preparation of estimates on and a speed-up in their publication schedules. This emphasis on recency reflects the active use of the data in a less than annual basis

current business analysis.

—

Unsettled Problems. In conclusion, some outstanding unsolved problems relating to the design of national income statistics will be sketched. 1. As noted earlier, measures of national output are confined largely to output intended for sale, but marginal departures from this rule are made by imputing values to certain nonmarket items.

These imputations are a source of irritation logically, because they do not flow from any general definition of output that can be specified. Moreover, the treatment of nonmarket production constitutes an acute practical problem in the analysis of economic conditions in countries whose market economies are undeveloped and also in international comparisons. Accordingly, much thought has been devoted to nonmarket output. Some progress has been

made through

the proposal of international conventions for its treatment, and ad hoc solutions may be found to serve the needs of specific analyses. But it seems doubtful whether an operational definition of national output not

anchored to the market criterion

ever can be devised. 2. There has been a persistent tendency to advance either market or factor price as the sole basis for valuing output, to the exclusion of the other method. On the whole, the market price valuation has gained in acceptance. It expresses goods in terms of the prices at which they are actually exchanged, and hence is the

more

realistic, easily

understood and statistically convenient

method. The major

justification of factor price series is that they are the by the ultimate agents of production, such as labour and capital, and that they provide a tool for the investigation of problems involving the allocation of these productive resources among alternative uses. Indirect business taxes must be excluded, it is maintained, because they do not reflect the sers'ices of productive agents as does the sum of wages, profits and other incomes originating in production.

best available measures of the services rendered

The main objection to this argument is that it is based upon an assumption of circumstances mainly stable and competitive business conditions that do not obtain in practice. If these are absent, national output aggregates cannot be used to gauge resource

—

—

if

indirect taxes are excluded.

Iiroductive contribution of capital resources will not be reflected in the national income totals in times of reduced economic activity when profits are depressed and in some instances even negative; similarly, monopolistic practices in an industry may give rise to incomes that give an exaggerated notion of the proportion of procedure resources actually engaged there. 3. Questions have been raised as to the proper distinction between final output and intermediate products. Specifically, it has been urged that not all of the output purchased by government be

adequately

final, as is commonly done. cluded from the national output total, it products. Somewhat more tentatively,

considered

4.

Some is

of

it

should be ex-

said, as are intermediate

it

For some of the uses that are made of the data,

desirable to extend the definition of capital formation core, tangible capital formation

by

would be beyond its

it

business, to intangible items,

such as expenditures for industrial research, and to capital formation by government and consumers. Little has been done to recognize intangible capital, but capital expenditures by government have increasingly been taken into account, instead of being treated like current consumption. The acquisition of residences is the only consumer purchase that is generally recognized as capital formation. There are sound reasons for extending this treatment to other consumer durables, inasmuch as these also outlast the normal accounting period and thus constitute additions to wealth. However, the extent to which capital accounting has been applied to them in actual national income estimates has been limited. Measurement of capital formation on a gross basis, i.e., before deduction of capital consumption allowances, raises problems because it is difficult to frame a uniform definition. For instance, it is hard to draw a systematic line which will either exclude or include repair and maintenance expenditures. gross measure is insufficient because it does not

In addition, the

show net additions However, it appears difficult also to obtain formation measure that is meaningful for output

to the capital stock.

a net capital

measurement.

The conventional

capital

consumption allowances made by busi-

ness are inadequate to serve as subtrahends from gross capital formation for this purpose. To an increasing extent they are affected and made noncomparable over time by changes in tax laws.

In addition, they are usually stated in terms of the original cost of the capital goods, and hence cannot be deducted from gross capital formation, which is expressed in current prices, to obtain a meaningful indication of the net change in capital stock. The realism of the methods used to allocate capital consumption charges over the lifetime of the assets is also often in doubt. It is not easy, however, to devise alternative, more meaningful measures of capital consumption. The task of offsetting capital equipment used up against capital equipment produced is made difficult by changes in the character of the equipment, and by inadequate knowledge of the actual life span of capital goods and the time pattern according to which they are consumed. 5. Difficulties (additional to those involved in the accounting for nonmarket production) are encountered in comparing outputs pro-

duced

in situations that differ radically as to needs, resources, tech-

nologies and institutional organization.

These

difficulties arise be-

cause in these circumstances the composition and the types of goods produced are likely to be very different. If. for instance, output of commodity A in one country is double that in another while output of commodity B is one-half, it is not possible to

make an unambiguous comparison

of the outputs of

A

and B com-

NATIONALISM The

depends on the relative value that is attached to each commodity. Again, if in one time period output of transportation equipment consists of horse-drawn carriages, and in an-

bined.

result

not really possible to make a quantitaAs long as differences in tive comparison between the two. composition and kind are moderate, the methods for calculating But real national output described earlier will yield useful results. other of automobiles,

it is

little

significance attaches to the precise

when

these differences are substantial.

outcome of comparisons

Apart from problems involving the definition of output, many others have arisen concerning accounting design: what are the economic groups whose activities should be separately shown? 6.

What

types of accounts should be established?

How

transactions registered in the accounts be classified?

should the

What

part

of the information should be presented in interrelated accounts,

and what part

in

supporting tables?

are largely presentational,

While many of these

some have broader

significance.

issues

For

instance, the finances of unincorporated business are usually intermingled with the household finances of their owners, and one of the important problems of accounting design is to find a satisfactory place for unincorporated enterprise among business and household transactors. See also references under "National Income Accounting" in the Index.

—

Bibliography. International Association for Research In Income and Wealth, Bibliography on Income and Wealth (1952-54), covers the period beginning 1937 and includes references to earlier bibliographies. Contributions to the national income field can often be found in works mainlv devoted to related disciplines; e.g., A. C. Pigou, The Economics of Welfare (1924). A. L. Bowley, C. Clark, S. Kuznets and J. R. N. Stone have made outstanding contributions specifically to the development of national income statistics. J. R. Hicks, The Social Framework (1952), and R. and N. D. Ruggles, National Income Accounts and Income Analysis, 2nd ed. (1956), are introductions. The United Nations publishes international compilaI. Ohlsson, On National Accounting tions of national income data. (1953), is a comprehensive treatise. A System of National Accounts and Supporting Tables, United Nations Statistical Office (1953), is a proposal for a uniform system of national income accounts. M. Gilbert and I. B. Kravis, An International Comparison of National Products and the International Purchasing Power of Currencies (1954), considers basic problems of international income comparisons. National Income, 1954 edition, National Income Division, U.S. Department of Commerce (1954), describes the theoretical framework and statistical methodology of the United States estimates. National Income Statistics, Sources and Methods, Central Statistical Office (1956), is a simiPersonal Income by States lar statement for the United Kingdom. Since 1929, National Income Division, U.S. Department of Commerce (1956), contains a discussion of the methodology underlying regional Statistical Office of the

Income size distributions are considered in Income Distribution in the United States, By Size, 1944-1950, National Income DiviU.S. Department of Commerce (1953); S. Kuznets, Shares of Upper Income Groups in Income and Saving (1953); and T. Barna, The Redistribution of Incomes through Public Finance in 1937 (1946). The Conference on Research in Income and Wealth and the International Association for Research in Income and Wealth each publish a continuing series. Studies in Income and Wealth and Income and Wealth, respectively. Vol. 22 of Studies contains a comprehensive dis(G. Ji.) cussion of theoretical problems.

estimates. sion,

NATIONALISM,

mind

in which the supreme be due to the nation-state. Though attachments to the native soil, to parental traditions and to estabhshed territorial authorities have been known throughout history, it was only at the end of the 1 8th century that nationalism began to become a generally recognized sentiment molding public and private life and one of the great, if not the greatest, single determining factors of history. Thus nationalism is a modern movement, but, in the short span of its existence as a dominant element of societal life and organization, it has shown such a dynamic vitality and such an all-pervading character that the mistake has frequently been made of regarding nationalism as a permanent, or at least very ancient, factor of history. In reality nationalism arose as a dominant force in the 18th century in western Europe and in North America; the American and the French revolutions may be regarded as its first powerful manifestations. From the western world, after having penetrated the new countries of Latin America, it spread in the early 19th century to central Europe; thence, toward the middle of the century, to eastern and southeastern Europe, until, at the beginning of the 20th century.

of

a state

loyalty of the individual

is

felt

to

63

put its stamp on the ancient lands of Asia and Africa. Thus nationalism has become a dominating force everywhere so much so that the 19th century has been called "the age of nationalism" in Europe, while the 20th century has witnessed the rise and struggle of national movements throughout Asia and Africa. Nationalism implies the identification of the state or nation with the people, or at least the desirability of determining the extent of the state according to ethnographic principles. In the age of nationalism, but only in the age of nationahsm, the principle was generally recognized that each nationality should form a state and that the state should include the whole its state nationality. Formerly states, or territories under one administration, were not delineated by nationality; men's loyalty was not due to the nation-state, but to other, different forms of political organization: the city-state, the feudal fief and its lord, the dyit

—

—

—

nastic state, the religious

group or the

sect.

The

nation-state

was

nonexistent during the greater part of history and for a very long time it was not even regarded as an ideal. In the first IS centuries of the Christian era the ideal was the universal world-state, not loyalty to any separate pohtical entity. The Roman empire had set the great example which survived not only in the Holy Roman empire of the middle ages, but also in the res publica

christimia (Christian republic or community) and in its later secularized form of a united world civihzation and world policy as it appeared in the writings of the 17th century.

As political allegiance, before the age of nationalism, was not determined by nationality, so civilization was not thought of as During the middle ages civilization was nationally determined. looked upon as determined religiously; for all the different nationalities of Christendom as well as for those of Islam there was but one civilization Christian or Muslim and but one language Latin (or Greek) or Arabic (or Persian). Later, in the of culture periods of the Renaissance and of classicism, it was the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations which became a universal norm, valid for all peoples and all times. Still later French civilization was accepted throughout Europe as a valid civilization for educated people of all nationahties. It was only at the end of the 18th century that, for the first time, civilization was considered to be determined by nationality and the principle was put forward that a man can be educated only in his own mother tongue, not in

—

—

—

languages of other civilizations and other times, be they classical languages or the literary creations of other peoples who had reached a high degree of civilization. From the end of the ISth century on, the nationalization of education and public life went

hand ties.

in

hand with

In

tionalism

many first.

and political loyaland scholars emphasized cultural na-

the nationalization of states

cases poets

They reformed

the national language, elevated

rank of a literary language and delved deep into the national past, thus preparing the foundations for the political claims for national statehood soon to be raised by people in whom they it

to the

had kindled the

spirit of nationalism.

National feeling was evident in certain groups at certain periods, especially periods of stress and conflict, before the 18th century. Its rise was prepared by a number of complex events the creation of large, centralized states by the absolute monarchs, who de:

stroyed the feudal allegiances and thus made possible the integration of all loyalties in one centre; the secularization of life and education which fostered the development of the vernacular lan-

guages and weakened the ties of religious or sectarian loyalties; the growing economic interdependence which demanded larger territorial units, which would at the same time give the necessary scope to the dynamic spirit of the rising middle classes and their This large, unified territorial state with its capitalistic enterprise. political and economic centralization was filled in the ISth century with a new spirit an emotional fervour similar to that which in preceding periods characterized religious movements. Under the influence of the new theories of the sovereignty of the people and the rights of man, the people replaced the king as the centre of the nation. No longer was he the nation or the state; the state had become the people's state, a national state, a fatherland. Nation and state became identified, as civihzation became identified with

—

national civilization.

NATIONALISM

64

This was opposed to all the conceptions which had dominated During that pepolitical thought for the preceding 2,000 years. riod man had commonly stressed the general and the universal and had seen in unity the desirable goal. Nationalism stressed the particular and parochial, the differences and the national individualities. These tendencies became more pronounced as naIn the 17th and ISth centuries the common standards of western civilization, the regard for the universally human, the faith in reason one and the same everywhere and in common sense, the survival of the Christian and Stoic traditions tionalism developed.

—

—

were too strong to allow nationalism to develop fully and to disrupt the society of man. Thus nationalism in its beginning was thought compatible with cosmopolitan convictions and with the This was especially true in western general love of mankind. all

Europe and North America. England. The first full manifestation of modern nationalism occurred in 1 7th-century England, in the Puritan revolution. That century saw England the leading nation in the scientific spirit, in commercial enterprise, in political thought and activity. Swelled by an immense confidence in the new age, the English people felt upon their shoulders the mission of history, a sense that they were builders of destiny at a great turning point from which a new In the English true reformation and a new liberty would start.

—

revolution an optimistic

humanism and

Calvinist ethics merged;

the influence of the Old Testament gave form to the new nationalism by identifying the English people with ancient Israel. The new message, carried by the new people not only for England, but for all mankind, was expressed in the writings of John Milton

whose famous \nsion the idea of liberty was seen spreading from Britain, "celebrated for endless ages as a soil most genial "Surto the growth of liberty" to all the corners of the earth. rounded by congregated multitudes, I now imagine that I behold the nations of the earth recovering that liberty which they so long had lost; and that the people of this island are disseminating the blessings of civilization and freedom among cities, kingdoms and nations." Enghsh nationalism was thus much nearer to its religious matrix than later nationalism which rose after secularization had made in

The nationalism of the 18th century shared with however, the enthusiasm for liberty, the humanitarian character, the emphasis upon the individual and his rights and upon the

greater progress. it.

human community beyond

all

national divisions.

The

rise

of

English nationalism coincided with the rise of the English trading middle classes. It found its final expression in Locke's political philosophy and it was in that form that it influenced American and French nationalism in the following century. British North America The rising nationalism of the

—

was influenced partly by the traditions of the Puritan revolution and of Locke, and partly by the new rational interpretation given to English liberty by contemporary French philosophers. American nationalism became the typical product of the 18th century. The American settlers became a nation en-

valuable sources of creative inspiration. Under Herder's influence German romantic nationalism later stressed these factors of irrationalism and of national peculiarities. The nationalism of the French Revolution, on the other hand,

was the triumphant expression of a rational faith in common humanity and liberal progress. The famous slogan "liberty, equality, fraternity" and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen were thought valid not only for the French people, but for

—

—

He glorified the instmctive and irrational, and turned attention from the universally human and general to to the primitive past.

the peculiarities of each national tradition, regarding

them

as

peoples.

Individual liberty,

human

equality, fraternity

in the art of warfare; the nation in arms. In AmerFrance, citizen armies, untrained but filled with a new fervour, proved superior to professional armies which, though highly trained, fought without the incentive of nationalism. The revolutionary French nationahsm stressed the element of will of

phenomenon and

ica

in

—

—

formation of nations. Nations were constituted by an act of self-determination on the part of their members. The plebiscite became the instrument whereby the will of the nation was expressed. In America as well as in revolutionary France, nationalism meant the adherence to an idea, a universal progressive idea, looking toward a common future of freedom and equahty, not toward the past which had been characfree individual decision

in the

by authoritarianism and inequality. Countries. Napoleon's armies spread nationahsm throughout Europe and even into the near east; on the other side of the Atlantic it aroused the Latin Americans. But Napoleon's yoke turned the newly awakened nationalism of In Germany, where the the European peoples against France. struggle was led by writers and intellectuals, it turned not only into a rejection of Napoleon's rule but of all the principles upon which the American and the French revolutions had been based and of the liberal and humanitarian form of nationalism. German nationalism began to stress instinct against reason; the power of historical tradition against rational attempts at progress and a more just order; the historical differences between nations against The French Revolutheir common aspirations for the future. tion, liberalism and equality were regarded as a brief aberration, against which the eternal foundations of societal order would preterized

—

Germany and Other

this

vail.

This interpretation was shown to be false by the developments

British settlers

gaged in a fight for liberty and individual rights, basing that fight on current political thought, especially as expressed by Thomas Jefferson and Thomas Paine. This was a liberal and humanitarian nationalism, regarding America as the vanguard of mankind on its march to greater hberty, equality and happiness for all. The ideas of the 18th century found their first political realization in the Declaration of Independence and in the birth of the American nation. Their deep influence was felt in the French Revolution which enthroned French nationalism in place of French royalty. France. Rousseau had prepared the soil for the growth of nationalism by his stress on popular sovereignty and the general co-operation of all in forming the national will, and also by his regard for the common people as the true depository of civilization. Under his influence Herder gained a new understanding of art and civilization by emphasizing folklore, folk songs and primitive popular traditions as revealing the true creative forces of a nation. He went beyond Rousseau in his appeal to the past often

all

all peoples: these were the common cornerstones of all liberal and democratic nationalism. In their name the French nation constituted itself, overthrew the monarchy and soon began to spread the new gospel across Europe. Under their inspiration a new ritual was developed which partly took the place of the old religious ritual: festivals and flags, music and poetry, national holidays and patriotic sermons. In the most varied forms nationalism permeated all manifestations of Hfe. Like the rise of American nationalism, the rise of the French produced a new

of

of

the

19th century.

Liberal nationalism reasserted itself;

permeated more and more peoples

:

the rising middle class

it

and the

proletariat. The revolutionary wave of 1848, the year of "the spring of the peoples," seemed to realize the hopes of nationalists such as Mazzini, who had devoted his life to the unification of the Italian nation by democratic means and to the brotherhood of all free nations. Though his immediate hopes were disappointed, the 12 years from 1859 to 1871 brought the unification of Italy and Rumania, both with the help of Napoleon III, and of Germany; at the same time the 1860s saw everywhere great progress in liberalism, even in Russia and Spain. This victorious trend of liberal nationalism was, however, reversed in Germany by Bismarck. He unified Germany on a conservative and authoritarian basis and defeated German liberaUsm. The annexation of Alsace-Lorraine against the will of the inhabitants was contrary to the principle of nationalism based upon the free will of man. The people of Alsace-Lorraine were held to be German by objective factors, by race, independent of their will or of their allegiance

new

to

any nationality of

their choice.

In the second half of the 19th century nationalism disintegrated the supranational states of the Habsburgs and the Ottoman sultans, both of which were based upon prenational loyalties. In Russia the penetration of nationalism provoked a twofold attitude some nationalists advocated an acculturation of Russia to the general :

NATIONALITY They proposed a westernized destiny of progressive society. Others stressed the distinctive character of Russia, its independent and different destiny, based upon its past of autocracy and orprogress Russia,

western mankind.

of

following the

common

thodoxy. These Slavophiles, similar to and influenced by German romantic thinkers, saw Russia as a future saviour of a west under-

mined by liberalism and the heritage of the American and French revolutions. As a result of World War I, nationalism triumphed The new nation-states emerging in central and eastern Europe. from the ruins of the Habsburg and Romanov empires were, however, subject themselves to the strains of internal nationality con-

and territorial disputes with neighbouring states. Asia and Africa. World War I also stirred the masses in In 1885 Indian nationalists had Asia to nationalist demands. organized the Indian National Congress to promote a liberal nationalism, inspired by the English model. On the other hand, Japan, influenced by Bismarck's Prussia, made use of modern industrial techniques to strengthen a more authoritarian trend. After World War I the Asian peoples inaugurated their age of flicts

—

nationalism under the leadership of such powerful personalities as Kemal Atatiirk in Turkey, Saad Zaghlul in Egypt, Ibn Sa'ud in the Arabian peninsula, Gandhi in India and Sun Yat-Sen in China. Atatiirk succeeded in revitalizing and modernizing the formerly medieval structure of Turkey, replacing the Islamic monarchy by

a secular republic. The demands of Arab nationalists for Arab unity were frustrated by French and British imperialism. Yet Britain showed a gift for accommodation with the new forces. It helped create an independent Egypt and Iraq, and displayed a similar spirit in India, where the Congress had become more In China Sun Yat-Sen pleaded before his radical after 1918. death (1925) for China's co-operation with communist Russia. Lenin's triumph in Russia in Nov. 1917 meant the triumph of communism over Russian nationalism. From the

international

communism appealed to the new nationalist Asia and Africa for support in its struggle against Fascism and National Socialism in the 1930s In presented an unprecedented intensification of nationalism. their turn they influenced the older totalitarian movement of communism. In World War 11 Russian nationalism and imperialbeginning, however,

movements

in

western capitalism.

—

Bibliography. Koppel S. Pinson, A Bibliographical Introduction to Nationalism (1935); Karl W. Dcutsch, An Interdisciplinary Bibliography on Nationalism 1935-1953 (1956) Carlton J. H. Hayes, France, a Nation of Patriots (1930), The Historical Evolution of Modern Nalionaliim (1931) Royal Institute of International Affairs, Nationalism (1939); Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism (1944), Prophets and Peoples (1946), American Nationalism (1957) L. L. Snyder, The Meaning of Nationalism (1954); Boyd C. Shafcr, Nationalism: Myth and Reality (1955) R. Wittram, Das Nationale als Europdisches Problem (1954); F, C. BarRhoorn, Soviet Russian Nationalism (1956); George Antonius, The Arab Awakening (1939); Sir George Schuster and Guy Wint, India and Democracy (1941); P. W. Thayer, et al. (H. Ko.) (eds.), Nationalism and Progress in Free Asia (1956). ;

;

;

;

NATIONALITY,

As a

legal

concept, nationality

is

dis-

tinguishable from the popular use of the term to denote membership in a nation, meaning a people bound together by ethnic, reIt is also (See Nationalism.) or linguistic ties. from citizenship (q.v.), a somewhat narrower term sometimes used to denote the status of those nationals who have full political privileges. Before an act of the U.S. congress made them citizens in the full sense of the word, for example, American Indians were sometimes referred to as "noncitizen na-

ligious

distinguishable that

is

tionals."

human

beings but also companies (corporahave nationality for the purposes of law. It is in reference to natural persons, however, that the term finds most frequent use. In general, nationahty implies the duty of allegiance on the part of the person and the duty of protection on the part of the state. The UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights (see Civil Liberties) in 1948 stated that "everyone has the right to a nationality" and that "no one shall be arbitrarily de." Whether an individual possesses prived of his nationahty. the nationality of a particular state may determine whether or not

Not only

individual

tions), ships

and

aircraft

.

.

that state has a right to exercise jurisdiction over

him

in certain

If he is a national he may enjoy political and economic rights and privileges that he would not otherwise have. How one acquires nationality, how it may be lost, the possibility of statelessness and applications of the concept in international

circumstances.

legal relations are

The concept

matters of some practical importance. is found in both international law

of nationality

and national law.

It is the nation-state

which

sets the criteria,

ism reasserted themselves under the communist dictatorship. through constitutional or statutory provisions, for determining After World War II the communist leaders tried to use national- who shall be its nationals. The right of a state to confer its nationality is, however, not unlimited, for otherwise it might imism everywhere for their own purposes. On the other hand, nationaUsm in communist-controlled coun- pinge upon other states' rights to determine what persons shall be their nationals. By the jus soli, a person who is born within tries turned against the Russian claim of centralized leadership throughout the communist world. With Tito setting an example a state's territory and subject to its jurisdiction acquires that state's nationality by the fact of such birth. By the jus sanguinis, became an imin Yugoslavia, this so-called national communism portant factor and helped inspire the Hberation movements in a person. has a nationality as an inheritance from one or both of States vary in their use of these two principles. his parents. Poland and Hungary in the fall of 1956. The end of World War II also saw a mighty resurgence of Some give priority to the jus soli but also rely to some extent on nationalism throughout Asia and its first powerful manifestation the jus sanguinis; others apply principally the jus sanguinis, but This new Asian-African nationalism, which dominated not all of these exclude the jus soli. When one state cedes terriin Africa. the conference of Asian and African peoples in Bandung, Indon., tory to another, inhabitants of the region that is ceded commonly have, at the will of the acquiring state, an opportunity to acquire in 1955, made itself felt to a growing degree in the world community represented by the United Nations. A number of new that state's nationality. Practice, however, supports the idea that the individuals connations arose, some in a peaceful way as a result of timely British and U.S. concessions: India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Burma, Malaya, cerned should be allowed a free choice, with the understanding those who choose to retain their old nationality may have to that their fight hard for Ghana. Others had to the Philippines and independence in bitter colonial wars, as in French Indochina leave the territory. Still another method of acquiring nationality is through the process of naturalization (see Naturalization (Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia) and French North Africa. This progress to independence through nationalism from colo- Laws). extinction of nationality through his individual may lose An nial status was in accord with the best traditions of western liberalism as embodied in the governing principles of the League of the state of which he has been a national. He may also lose it Nations and the United Nations. But conditions in the second through naturalization in another state, but there is no universally half of the 20th century, with its rapid advances in communication, binding law which requires that a state must recognize that one foreign indicated, beyond the fragmentization of the world into nation- of its nationals, by reason of his being naturalized in a There have state, has divested himself of his former nationality. states, the need for international co-operation on a world-wide basis corresponding to the new reahty of the growing common been some treaties committing each signatory to recognize that its nationals who have migrated to the territory of another signatory destiny of mankind. See also Imperialism; Colony; Self-determination; and and become naturalized there shall be regarded as having divested references under "Nationalism" in the Index. For socialist and themselves of their original nationality. The right of expatriation has not been universally recognized, communist attitudes toward nationalism see Socialism; Comhowever, and the possibility of dual or multiple nationality remunism.

NATIONALIZATION

66

mains. Nor has the effort to eliminate statelessness been completely successful, although such an objective was considered by the Hague codification conference of 1930 under League of Na-

and by the International Law commission of the United Nations. L'nder United States legislation of the 19SOs, loss of nationality may be the result of treason, desertion from the armed forces, tions auspices

evasion of the military draft, service in the army of a foreign state or voting in an election in a foreign state. In the late l' layer from a ship surface, and to eddying and backwash in the separation zone, is a form of pressure resistance. This means that, like wave-making resistance and some types of roughness resistance, it is due to forces exerted at right angles to the hull surlation of

—

face.

Like these resistances,

it

varies usually as the square of the

resistance caused by taking the whole craft under the However, much of the gear above the water line in surface condition, such as flat decks, rails, anchors, capstans, chocks and similar fittings, are put there for operation on the surface. It is Moredifficult to streamline them for low resistance under water. over, minor irregularities which are accepted on the underwater when taken all together, major ships become, hulls of surface sources of added and unnecessary resistance on a submerged submarine moving at high speed. 5. Resistance in Shallow and Restricted Waters. The forces on a ship traversing shallow waters are governed by the motion and other dispresence of solitary waves caused by ship friction

water.

—

turbances.

If the ship

speed

is

slightly less than the solitary

speed, the ship runs uphill on the back of this wave so that drodynamic resistance is increased by the slope drag. If

wave

its it

hycan

be speeded up so as to run slightly faster than the wave, it slides downhill on the face of the wave and its resistance is reduced below that of its deepwater resistance.

The speed of progressive waves of a given length is less in shallow than in deep water. If a tug, for example, is running at a speed in shallow water at which it has a crest at the bow and another at the stern, its speed must be decreased if the two crests At the are to be kept at the advantageous positions indicated. time, the crests may be higher and the trough may be lower because waves become steeper as they enter shallow water. A fast

same

SEPARATION ZONE

ship speed.

Hydrod\Tiamic knowledge of separation phenomena and the physical laws which govern them has not progressed to the point where the onset of separation can be predicted in advance with certainty and where the magnitude of separation resistance can be It is known, however, that the pressure in such a zone than atmospheric, so that the w^ater literally sucks backward on the ship. If air can be led to the zone to displace the eddying water, the suction is removed. When a motorboat with a square or transom stern extending below the water is speeded up until the stern "clears," the backwash and eddying disappear (fig. 8). With the square stern exposed to the atmosphere, the separation resistance also disappears. 4. Resistance of Submarines. When a submarine submerges to a depth below the surface equal to four or more times its maximum diameter or its hull depth, the surface disturbance resulting

calculated. is less

—

forward motion becomes negligible and its wave-making This is a great advantage, especially at high speed, despite the increase in wetted surface and

from

its

resistance practically disappears.

—

SEPARATION ZONE AND AIR FILLED DEPRESSION ABAFT A MOTORBOAT (A) DURING SLOW SPEED AND (B) DURING HIGH SPEED. WHEN THE TRANSOM AREA IS EXPOSED TO ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE LOWER

FIG. 8.

NAVAL ARCHITECTURE craft also

squats more deeply

In fact, this increase in squat

water.

the craft to scrape it

at the stern

when

bottom even though

when running

in shallow

may it

be sufficient to cause has plenty of water under

at rest.

the clearance between the bottom of the ship and the bed of the water body is initially small, the water that flows under ship is speeded up, with an increase in friction resistance on the

When

When

the ship. ship,

the sides or walls of the channel are close to the up this flow still further.

the lateral constriction speeds

Methods of appro.ximating the increased resistance and the depth of water necessary to give the equivalent of deepwater resistance are available, based on the method of 0. Schlicting (Hydrody-

127

be varied at will, making them vastly more versatile than any known combination of screw propeller and rudder and giving the craft exceptional maneuverability. A tug fitted with one or more such propellers can exert a pull equally well in any direction with respect to

its axis.

of propulsion devices depends upon the available each engine, the need for reliability or maneuverability, the limiting draft and many other factors. By the late 1950s shaft powers of 25,000 h.p. had been applied to single screws and in excess of 50,000 h.p. on each of four screws. 8. Interactions Between Propeller and Ship. The opera-

The number

power

in

—

tion of a screw propeller involves a

number

of interactions that

by no means fully understood. Part of the water through which the propeller moves is the boundary layer moving aft past the hull, with a relative velocity less than that at a distance. An-

namics in Ship Design,

vol. ii, ch. 61, 1957). Self-propelled craft designed for efficient operation in shallow and restricted waters must have (i) provision for adequate flow

are

of water to the propellers; (2) adequate shielding to prevent drawing air from the surface; and (3) rudders of extra-large area, usually one rudder abaft each propeller, to overcome the horizontal

other part of it lies within the wave crest (or trough) that runs along above the propeller. Because of these and other effects, the

forces resulting craft being 6.

Ship

met

from the closeness of adjacent banks or of other in a channel.

Form

for

Minimum

Resistance.

—The

art

and the

science of naval architecture have not yet progressed to the point where the form of a ship to meet given requirements, including

minimum

resistance at a given speed, can be fashioned

by

a direct

method, starting with a clean sheet of paper. Nevertheless, certain general rules based upon hydrodynamics are available: (i)

The use

of easy

by the water

and

flow.

along the general paths followed Small changes of curvature in the flow lines and near the surface the flow At (2)

fair surfaces

are particularly important.

must follow the surface or the wave profile. Since most of wave-making resistance is generated by pressure disturbances near the surface, easy curvature is important there. Proof of good design in this respect is low wave crests and shallow troughs around the ship when running. (3) Most of the flow in almost any type of ship goes under the bottom rather than around the sides, hence the ship form must not interfere with it. (4) Submerged lines

the

bulbs intended to produce surface-wave systems that will partly neutralize the crests and troughs produced by pressure disturbances elsewhere require careful design and positioning. (5) Probably the most important feature in shaping the hull of a self-propelled craft

pulsion devices.

is

to provide a

So far as known,

good flow of water

to the pro-

this calls for the highest practi-

cable degree of uniformity of relative velocity over the whole

thrust-producing area, the greatest possible degree of flow opposite to the direction of advance of the blades of the propulsion device and the greatest mass density of the water in which the device is to work. Concerning the last item, it is known that the water entering the propeller disks of destroyers and other high-speed craft contains many air and gas bubbles. In the aggregate, the reduction of mass density due to them can be appreciable. 7. Action of Propulsion Devices Thrust by a ship propulsion device acting on the water (or on the air) is produced by imparting sternward acceleration to a mass of that water or air. The forward thrust is proportional to the product of the mass of fluid acted upon and the accelerating rate. For the most efficient propulsion, the mass should be large and the acceleration small. In a screw propeller, this calls for a large diameter and a small increase in relative backward velocity when water is passing through

—

the propeller.

The thrust per blade of a propulsion device is measured by the reduction in pressure on the back or advancing side of the blade and the increase in pressure on the face or after side. As a rule, the former is much larger than the latter so that the blade draws or pulls rather than pushes itself through the fluid in which it works.

Modern propulsion methods sails,

for boats and ships include oars, paddle tracks, paddle wheels, hydrauhc and pump jets, air-

screws, rotating-blade propellers and screw propellers.

Screws

are usually run in the open but for producing high thrusts at low ship speeds, as when towing, they may be surrounded by a fixed

shrouding such as the Kort nozzle. Rotating-blade propellers offer the great advantage that the magnitude and direction of thrust can

water moves at different velocities and in different directions in different parts of the propeller disk. In general, the ship drags the water along with it to a certain extent, so that its speed past the propeller is less than the ship speed. The difference is the wake velocity, and the ratio of this velocity to the ship speed is the wake fraction.

There are reduced pressures in the region forward of the propelresulting from corresponding pressures on the forward sides of the blades. These act to retard the ship, diminishing by a certain

ler,

amount 9.

the usefulness of the full propeller thrust.

Efficiency of Propulsion.

—The

efficiency with

which any

product of three separate ratios. The first is the ratio of input to output when the device is running in open water by itself, as when a model

mechanical propulsion device drives a ship

is

tested in a

ciency,

is

model

basin.

is

a

The second, known

as the hull

effi-

the ratio of the quantity representing the proportion of

useful thrust to total thrust to the quantity expressing the ratio

of the speed of advance to the ship speed.

on the device

The

third,

known

as

moment propulsion-device shaft to produce a given thrust when the is running in open water to the moment on the shaft when

the relative rotative efficiency,

the device

is

is

the ratio of the turning

operating in conjunction with the ship.

For ships having screw propellers, the

efficiency of propulsion

decreases as more propellers are added. It varies from 0.76 to 0.80 or more for a well-placed and well-designed single screw, from 0.65 to 0.72 for twin screws and from 0.60 to 0.64 for quadruple screws such as are carried by large liners and warships. In practice, the open-water efficiency for a given size of propulsion device is found to vary in almost predictable fashion with the ratio of the thrust produced to the square of the speed of adStarting with vance. This ratio is known as the thrust loading. this factor, it is possible to estimate the shaft power required to drive a ship having a 10.

Cavitation.

known

resistance at any given speed.

—Any moving submerged

body, like a screw-

propeller blade, has to push the water aside as

moves

so fast that the surrounding pressure

it

moves.

If

it

not sufficient to cause the water which has been pushed aside to close in around the body and follow its contours, or if the pressure is so low that the same thing occurs when the blade moves slowly, the water either "opens up" or it leaves the blade. In the first case, bubbles are is

formed in it, each filled with water vapour. When they move along into a region of increasing pressure, they collapse suddenly. The resulting severe pressure fluctuations may cause pieces of the metallic blade surface to break off in an action known as erosion. In the second case, a relatively large vapour-filled cavity is formed next to the blade (fig. 9). This may collapse on the blade or at a distance behind it. For screw propellers of normal form, any cavity next to the blade interferes with proper flow around it and usually has a harmful effect on thrust and propulsion. Cavitation can be minimized by proper attention to the design of the propeller. The shape selected for the section is one known to be relatively free from cavitation and one on which the reduced pressure is as uniform as possible along the chord (length) of the section, from leading to trailing edge.

NAVAL ARCHITECTURE

128

However, there are usually two or three sets of models which approximate what the designer has in mind so that with the data from these he may feel that his combination of tentative characIf the designer feels that he may he is able to spend more time on the be designed rationally by methods de-

teristics is rather well bracketed.

encounter cavitation or project, a propeller

if

may

scribed in the technical literature. 12. Model Experiments. The towing of ship models to de-

—

termine their resistance and similar characteristics was initiated in 1872 by W. Froude to take the place of limited knowledge of physical laws governing ship behaviour, complexity of the interactions encountered and lack of understanding of the effects of changes in shape and proportions. To make the procedure workable at

all,

Froude had

to separate the friction resistance

from

the total observed resistance. After subtracting the friction resistance, estimated on the basis of tests which he made by towing flat

to carry the local

planks, Froude called what was left the residuary resistance. For corresponding ship and model speeds, where the Froude numbers were the same, he extrapolated the residuary resistance on the basis that this resistance per ton of displacement was the same for both ship and model. The expanded friction and residuary resistances were then added to give the total ship resistance. In later years, techniques were developed for the testing of

thrust load at the velocity of and at the average water pressure for

propellers, for self-propelling ship models, for determining lines

RELATIVE WATER FLOW

FIG. 9.

-

—SECTION OF A SUPERCAVITATING PROPELLER

At each radius the blade

is

made wide enough

BLADE

The

use of large blade areas to delay cavitation must be balanced against the loss of efficiency caused by greater friction drag on the wider blades. that radius.

On

supercavitating propellers of special design, the blades travel

so fast that the water pressure

never sufficient to permit the flow cavity is then allowed to expand until it covers the whole back of the blade. The pressure on the back approaches absolute zero while the friction on that side disappears, since the water no longer touches it. Propeller blades of this type, with sharp leading edges and blunt or square trailing edges (fig. 9), have been used successfully on racing motorboats since the 1920s. New techniques developed in the late 19S0S permitted them to be designed by logical methods. 11. General Design and Positioning of Propellers. The propulsion device should be treated as an essential part of the ship, not as a sort of appendage to the hull, and should be designed with The flow to and from the propulsion device, whatever its form, it. is a most important feature from the standpoint of efficient propulsion as well as avoidance of objectionable vibration. Fortunately, it is possible to "see" this flow on medium and large models in circulating-water channels, to study it at length and to correct to follow the blade.

is

The vapour

—

unsatisfactory features of stage.

Model techniques

it while the ship is still in the design are also available to give the designer

a reasonably good preliminary warning of excessively large periodic forces which may be generated on the ship if corrective measures are not taken. Because of the great thrust sometimes exerted by the single blades of powerful propulsion devices and the rapid changes of pressure and velocity which take place near them, adequate clearance spaces must be allowed between these blades and the adjacent parts of the ship. Propulsion devices mounted in transverse ducts or tunnels, extending through the thin ends of the ship from one side to the other, apply transverse forces or swinging

moments when

the ship

moving or stationary. These devices greatly improve the ship's handling qualities around docks and piers. On shallow-draft vessels, screw propellers are fitted inside foreand-aft arch-shaped recesses called tunnels. A large proportion of the propeller area is often above the at-rest water line, but if air is excluded from entering, the tunnel fills with water when the propeller starts rotating, permitting the latter to develop thrust over its entire area. In many cases it is possible to select the principal features and proportions of a screw propeller by the use of one or more of the is

many

based upon test results of systematic The disadvantage of this method is that the designer is restricted to the number of blades, blade profiles and blade-section shapes of the models that have been tested. sets of series charts

series of propeller models.

wave profiles and for measuring the effects of minute changes upon the total resistance. Nevertheless, many of the old problems remain, despite all the time, thought and effort devoted Indeed, it appears that advances in knowledge to their solution. in the field of hydrodynamics raise new problems faster than the old ones are solved. In spite of this, the model-test procedure has been of great assistance to naval architects and, in general, of great engineering value. All the maritime nations of the world have ship-model testing establishments and very few large and important ships are built without first testing one or more models of them. of flow and

MANEUVERABILITY

VI.

All self-propelled craft, of

whatever

size,

shape, form or type,

are required to steer a reasonably straight course in both

smooth

and rough water, to turn so as to change course or heading or to take emergency evasive action, to start, stop and back and to perform any other desired maneuvers. Submarines are required to maneuver similarly in a vertical plane, including the operations of diving, depth keeping, hovering in one spot and surfacing. 1. Dynamic Stability of Route. The ease and reliability of ,

—

among other things, upon whether or has dynamic stability of route. A self-propelled ship that is stable in this sense will, if left to itself with no rudder angle apIf disturbed by plied, continue generally on its original course. steering of a ship depend,

not

it

some

external force,

course,

whereupon

it

may

will

it

Most

again disturbed.

swing slightly or moderately to a new continue along that course or route until

slender ships like destroyers are

dynam-

Others of fat or chubby shape, if left to themselves and then disturbed, will swing farther and farther from

ically stable in route.

the original route.

A

sign of route instability

the ship in swinging one

rudder

come

is

way

positively

unmanageable

gishness of any ship

is

is

the persistence of

after moderate corrective or opposite in

A

may beshallow water, where the slug-

applied to stop the swing.

ship of this type

intensified.

—

Steering and Turning. Steering involves corrections to bring a ship back to a given course or heading after it has deviated as a result of some disturbance. Steering by hand control is easier and more efficient if instruments in front of the steersman show almost instantly when these deviations begin. Gyrocompasses are far more satisfactory than magnetic compasses for this purpose. 2.

Further, a ship that is dynamically stable in route, but not too so, and one that is not oversteered, requires only a small rudder angle and relatively infrequent use of the rudder. Automatic steering by gyro pilot is available for all sizes and types of

much

ships.

Turning is involved when changing course, when maneuvering in formation with other ships and when following a curved channel.

NAVAL ARCHITECTURE However, the most important turning maneuver for any ship is to sheer off suddenly and to get clear of its original course when unexpectedly sighted ahead along that course. To clear its original path in the shortest distance and the least time, assuming that the ship is going too fast to be stopped completely, requires rapid laying of the rudder to the emergency

danger

is

the extension of

angle, rapid response of the ship in starting to turn and rapid motion of the ship to the right or left of the course to clear the danger

ahead. action serves not only to swing the ship in the dekeep its bow pointed inside the path

The rudder

sired direction but also to

its centre of gravity so that the inward-acting hydrodynamic force on the hull equals the outward-acting centrifugal force re-

of

129

path with its centre at 0. In the steady-state portion of the turn the inward force caused by the drift angle exactly balances, in both magnitude and moment about the centre of gravity, the outward rudder force and the centrifugal force at the centre of gravity caused by the turning

moves

at

uniform speed

in a circular

If the wind and sea were entirely quiet, the ship would continue to turn in a steady circle as long as the rudder was held at a constant angle and the speed remained constant. Ability to steer a straight course or to turn readily is achieved When in any given ship design by the use of a large rudder area. the rudder is at zero angle, it serves as a vertical stabilizing fin. When angled, the large area provides the large swinging moment

action.

necessary for good turning. 3.

Stopping and Backing.

— Stopping

an emergency, as con-

in

trasted with normal coasting and gradual retardation, is achieved by slowing the propulsion device to less than driving speed and then by reversing its direction of thrust. If reversed too rapidly it is

liable to

overload the engine, to draw air

down from

the sur-

churn the air-water mixture into excessive turbulence without developing the maximum quickly is built into a Capacity to start and stop astern thrust. craft by providing an engine that will reverse rapidly and readily and by using a propulsion device with a large thrust-producing face to the propeller in large quantities

area. 4.

and

to

Both these features are stressed in the design of tugs. Rudders and other control surfaces

Rudders and Planes.

—

are usually placed at the stern of a ship for several reasons. When placed abaft screw propellers, they benefit from the increased

When a vertical velocity in the propeller outflow jet or race. rudder is placed at the bow, it causes the ship to turn with a smaller If the rudder is drift angle and hence a larger turning radius. hydrodynamically in producIn fact, a normal ship, when moving all. The rudder also backward, receives better mechanical protection at the stern than it would at the bow. For craft that are required to back out of long slips, or even to back into harbour entrances, like the English channel ferries attached to the bow, ing a swinging

it is

ineffective

moment.

steers only indifferently or not at

Dover, a rudder is fitted at the bow. This becomes the trailing end w'hen backing, and the ship steers satisfactorily with a rudder at

at that end.

A

centreline rudder

mounted between two widely spaced wing

little or perhaps not at all from the augAdequate in the propeller outflow jets. achieved by mounting two rudders abreast, then

propellers benefits only

mented water velocity

swinging effect is one abaft each propeller. The diving planes for controlling the rise and dive angle of a submarine are placed at the stern, directly abaft the propellers, to benefit from the higher water velocity in that region (fig. 11). Bow planes, if fitted, are used principally to control the depth at

RUDDER FIG. 10.

—SUCCESSIVE POSITIONS OF A SHIP WHEN

TURNING

They are effective as control surfaces because only vertical forces, not swinging or diving moments, are

which the craft runs. suiting

from motion

in a

The amount by which

curved path.

ship heads inside the instantaneous direction of motion

is

the

the drift WATER SURFACE

angle.

shows the path, the positions and the orientation of the ship and the angles of its rudder when making a large change of Fig. 10

In the figure, the successive positions of the ship's centre marked by Gq, Gi, G2 At G2 the instantaneous Actually, because the ship is swinging as is at O2. though attached to a rotating arm, the water seems to be approaching it along curved streamlines, nearly head on at the bow and at a considerable angle inward toward the stern. This angle of relative fiow, involving cross flow at the stem from the outside heading.

of gravity are

.

.

.

.

turning centre

toward the inside of the turn, acts to reduce the effective angle of attack of the rudder. At the point C the nominal flow about the ship

is

parallel to its centreline.

To an

observer on board, the

ship appears to be turning about this point, hence

it is

called the

pivoting point. In the course of turning, especially with a large drift angle (j5), the increased hull resistance causes the ship to slow down, sometimes involving a reduction of 40% or more of the speed with

After the average ship has turned at least 90°, conditions become steady and its centre of gravity

which

it

approached the turn.

—

FIG. 11. DIVING PLANE LOCATIONS AND POSITIONS ON SUBMARINES (A) IN NEUTRAL PLANE POSITION CONFORMING TO FLOW; (B) IN DIVING PLANE POSITION; AND CC) IN RISING PLANE POSITION

NAVAL ARCHITECTURE

I30

desired and because they project from the hull and create up or

down

forces independent of the hull forces.

Control surfaces called llanking rudders are placed forward of the screw propellers on shallow-draft push boats to produce side forces when the propellers are rotating astern. They enable these craft, when pushing groups of barges i.ooo or more feet in over-all

maneuver around river bends and through channel turns. When Turning. In a turn, the inward hydrodynamic force produced by the drift angle is applied at a point well below the water line. The outward centrifugal force is applied at the length, to 5.

—

Heel

centre of gravity, usually located at or above the water line. This couple acts to heel the ship outward to an angle at which it is

balanced by the righting moment resulting from the transverse metacentric stability. The contribution of the rudder to this pattern is a force acting to reduce the angle of heel. Thus, in a steady turn, if the rudder angle is suddenly removed, the outboard heel Ships with small metacentric stability is momentarily increased. and comparatively large rudders have capsized through this cause. Submarines with large, highly streamlined fairwaters around the periscopes and masts heel inward on submerged turns, especially This is because if running at more than low or moderate speeds. a large part of the inward hydrodynamic force is generated by the This force acts inward at a level drift angle on the fairwater.

above the centre of gravity, where the outward centrifugal force is applied. The outward lateral force on a rudder mounted below^ the main hull acts at the same time to increase the inward

and rotating arms. These serve to determine the forces and moments resulting from elementary motions such as ahead motion with yawing deviations and motion at various drift angles when the centre of gravity is moving in a circular path, simulating a steady turn. The forces and moments are then fed into the equations of motion as outlined, for example, by K. S. M. Davidson and L. I. Schiff (Transactions of the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 1946) and the integrated performance is predicted therefrom. This approach has been used primarily for the determination of dynamic stability of route, which involves only fairly small angles of attack and angular velocities. When these motions become large, as they do for large course departures, this approach can be used only with large empirical corrections.

Free-running self-propelled ship models, sometimes radio concan simulate turns and other maneuvers, permitting derivation of the path of the centre of gravity, changes in forward speed, rudder angles, angles of heel and related data. Self-propelled models, supplied with power and steered by distant control from a towing carriage following, provide experimental checks on steering, dynamic stability of route, effectiveness of rudders and certain maneuvers which can be performed within the limited width of a trolled,

model

testing basin.

well

heel. 6.

ity.

Effect of Propulsion-Device Action on Maneuverabilthrusts of independent wing propellers, with offset from the centre of gravity, exert a swinging moment

—The individual

a.xes

about that centre. Ships with the rudder damaged been steered by suitable operation of the wing propellers. On some ships, pushing ahead on one screw and pulling astern on the other acts to turn the ship around almost on its own centre. Tugs with port and starboard paddle wheels driven independently, or with rotating-blade propellers, can maneuver even more readily or lost have

in this fashion.

Blades of stern propellers that encounter crossflow under the ship when swinging or yawing produce lateral forces that counteract the swinging motion and increase the diameter of the turn. If air is drawn into the upper blades of the propeller on a singlescrew ship, excess lateral forces on the lower blades swing the stern in the direction that the upper blades are moving, say from port to starboard. To a certain extent these forces can be counteracted by the rudder but for the most part the operator of a singlescrew ship must foresee their existence and make adequate allowance for them. 7. Maneuverability of Submarines in the Vertical Plane.

— Many

of the factors involved in the steering

and turning of

ships in the horizontal plane apply also to the depth keeping,

ing and diving of submarines in the vertical plane. is

much more

ris-

The problem

severe here, however, because of the extreme rela-

tive thinness of the layer of

water between the surface and the

The

situation is somewhat similar to would confront the pilot of a transport airplane if he knew that at an altitude above 500 ft. his craft would disinte-

permissible working depth. that which grate.

The undersea

run at almost constant depth for extended periods, requires reasonable dynamic stability of craft, required to

route in the vertical plane. It also requires controllability at extremely low submerged speeds so that it may hover at one spot or creep along slowly, without making any noise. Should the submarine crew lose vertical control with the craft headed for dangerous depths, a high-pressure air-blowing system serves to expel some of the water in the main-ballast tanks. The additional buoyancy thus gained checks and stops its descent. 8.

Maneuvering Predictions and Model Experiments.

—

The ultimate aim

of the naval architect is to formulate and collect and formulas by which a ship may be designed directly or by which its behaviour and performance may be predicted dirules

rectly.

The

first

are available in small part;

some data

for the

second have been derived by tests under model towing carriages

VII.

SHIPS IN

WAVES

Considered as the environment for boats and ships of all kinds and sizes, the term sea is used to denote all waters large enough for the operation of these craft, from creeks and ponds to lakes

The wind and

moving across the sea create from minute ripples to waves of gigantic size. The currents moving through it must also be taken into account in all ship operations and in some ship-design problems. The variations in density, resulting from the amount of and oceans.

the ships

a pattern of undulations ranging

in solution, determine the variable-ballast tank capacity of submarines and the ability of a submarine to "sit" on a layer salts

of dense water while largely supported by a less dense layer above.

Considering the over-all surface configuration, termed the seaway, the classical concept of a train of regular waves is highly unrealistic but it has some practical uses. The normal seaway is highly irregular, with waves of different heights and lengths traveling in many directions. For analytic purposes, it may be considered as made up of a multitude of very low waves, having the actual lengths and periods of all the sea waves and traveling in the same directions, superposed in quantity to produce the When this is done, a promising approach is to actual seaway. accept a multicomponent, random nature and to use statistical methods to define the seaway (see Waves of the Sea). The sea is also home to teeming masses of marine life, many of which are detrimental to ships. Marine borers attack wood exposed on underwater portions of the hull. Barnacles cling to the underwater hull, roughening its surface and increasing the ship's resistance to travel through the water. Sea water is highly corrosive to most materials, and severe electrochemical effects cause rapid disintegration of submerged metals that are unprotected.

—

1. Ship Motions in Waves. Treated as a rigid body, a ship partakes of six oscillatory motions in a seaway. Three are transmotions whole latory of the ship in one direction: (i) surge is the oscillation of the ship fore and aft; (2) sway is the motion from side to side; and (3) heave is the up-and-down motion. The other three oscillations are rotary: (4) roll is the angular rotation from side to side about a fore-and-aft axis; (5) pitch is

the bow-up,

bow-down motion about an athwartships

axis;

(6) yaw is the swing of the ship about a vertical axis. not necessarily oscillatory for every service condition.

is

and

Yawing All six

of these motions can and do take place simultaneously in a con-

fused sea, so the situation is most complex. The forces and moments caused by waves are balanced by three types of forces and moments opposing them: (i) those required to move the ship and cargo and the adjacent water to which kinetic energy is imparted by the ship motion; (2) those absorbed in damping the oscillatory ship motion or reducing its extent by the

NAVAL ARCHITECTURE generation of surface gravity waves, eddies, vortexes and turbulence; the energy required for setting up these disturbances is car-

away and lost; (3) those of hydrostatic or hydrodynamic nature that act to restore the ship to a position of equilibrium as, for example, when the ship rolls to an angle greater than that ried

called for 2.

by the exciting moment. Shape and Proportions.

Effect of

—The

most important

down

the increased resistance of ships running in waves appears to be a small fatness ratio; in other words, a small underwater volume compared with the ship length. This slenderness is difficult to work into ships intended to carry single factor in

cutting

cargo, but relatively easy for passenger ships.

For reduction

in

the magnitude of ship motions in waves it is important that the damping forces and moments be as large as practicable. Moderate flare in the above-water sections at

bow and

stern, large

draft and fineness of the underwater sections help to achieve this result. A deep-sea sailing yacht embodies these characteristics to a high degree.

beam compared with all

To keep

the ship reasonably dry while undergoing the rolling,

pitching and heaving motions that remain, large freeboard

is

es-

bow. In fact, to prevent slamming under the bow when it lifts out of water and then drops heavily upon the surface, the forefoot under water must also be deep. A good degree of damping is most necessary to avoid deep rolling. If this cannot be achieved by a transverse form suited to the service, such as that of a sailing yacht with a deep fin keel, it is accomplished by adding long fins on each side in the form of rollWhen placed along the lines of flow, resisting or bilge keels. these keels add little to the ship resistance in calm water. Active roll-resisting fins serve to quench the greater part of the roll on a fast ship with a reasonable expenditure of weight, space and cost. These fins, much shorter than bilge keels but extending several times as far outboard when in use, are rotated mechanically about transverse axes to produce angles of attack and girthwise forces which continually oppose the rolling motion. Since the moments of the roll-resisting forces diminish as the square of the ship speed, the active fins are ineffective at low sential, especially at the

speeds.-

Active roll-resisting tanks of U shape have been built and In these, water or other liquids can be transferred rapidly from one side of the ship to the other to counteract the rolling motion, using controllable (and reversible) axial-flow propellers placed in ducts connecting the port and starboard tanks. Considering the vertical accelerations involved, pitching and heaving, or a combination of the two, are the most objectionable tested in ships.

FIG.

131

and safeguarding of cargo. Some form of passive pitch-resisting fin may be evolved which will accomplish its primary purpose without introducing detrimental features. 3. Hydrostatic and Hydrodynamic Loads in Service. The naval architect must know the loads imposed upon a ship in all the conditions of its expected service in waves so that he may design the hull structure to withstand them. Aside from the static for passenger comfort

—

distribution of load along the length

when

the ship

is

floating

calm water, there are many other buoyancy distributions waves for exactly the same loading condition of the ship. Further, the wave action and the ship motion in waves generate dynamic forces which, under certain conditions, may be extremely important. When the bow and stern are on wave crests, with a

at rest in in

wave trough between, the ship hull sags or bends downward in the middle. As the middle body reaches a wave crest, with the ends over wave troughs, the ship bends the other way or "hogs" and the ends droop because of the greater buoyancy amidships. Waves also produce torsional moments and the hull twists in the seaway, as when the ship is traveling obliquely through waves. Both bending and twisting actions involve shear in the structural members, as when a region that was square in shape under no load When the ship takes the shape of a rhombus when deformed. rolls, racking strains are induced in the hull because the abovewater portion wants to continue to roll as the underwater portion Ship motions also induce inertia starts to roll back the other way.

forces similar to those felt in elevators

when

starting or stopping.

happens that a part of the hull and an adjacent wave surface, each parallel to and approaching the other, meet with a heavy shocklike impact known as slamming. This can occur if the bow of a ship emerges from the water on a violent up-pitch and drops down upon a rising wave surface. It can also occur if a large wave strikes an overhanging part of the ship, such as the flaring hull under the forward end of the flight deck on an airThe tremendous blow against one end of the hull craft carrier. causes the whole structure to vibrate in an action known as whipping. The strains thus caused may be as great as those encountered in sagging and hogging over large waves. Other natural loads are those caused by wind and ice. Typhoon and hurricane winds may blow with velocities of 100 knots or more. In subfreezing weather the sea spray freezes on the exposed Iceportions of the ship, thereby adding a substantial weight. breakers must be able to withstand the shock of ramming thick, solid layers of sea ice and to survive the squeezing action of pack It often

ice.

Many

of these loads

may

be reduced by judicious operation of

12.— DIAGRAM SHOWING VARIATION OF WEIGHT AND BUOYANCY ALONG THE LENGTH OF SHIPS (See

text)

NAVAL ARCHITECTURE

132

the ship; for example, by slowing down or heaving to in a storm. Ship structures are designed to withstand mo.st of them, but the exercise of good seamanship significantly lessens their intensity. 4.

—At

Variation of Buoyancy and Weight Along the Length. a given draft and trim in calm water, the upward buoyancy

forces vary from

bow

length of the ship

is

because each unit supported by a force equal to the weight of to stern in a fixed fashion

water displaced by a transverse section of unit length at that point. When summed up, all the buoyancy forces on the unit lengths equal the total ship weight. The fixed or "hardware" weights of the ship structure, the machinery, the fittings, the equipment and the fuel and stores, have a somewhat different bow-to-stern distribution when reckoned by the same unit lengths (fig, 12). If the ship is loaded with cargo, so that the fore-and-aft distribution of total weight is shown by the total hatched area in fig, i2(B~l, some unit lengths weigh less and some more than the water displaced by the immersed volume in those lengths. Fig, 12(C) indicates the irregular nature of the net weight or buoyancy forces at

all

points along the ship length.

at the ends aggravates this condition and creates hogging deformation, with the midship portion bent upCargo loaded in the middle, with the ends empty, creates a sagging of the structure, with the midship portion bent downward. As a first requirement, the ship structure must be strong enough to take care of all the nonuniform weight distribution in calm water during normal loading and unloading. The bending caused by uneven loading, in a tanker carrying liquids and floating in still water, can be sufl&cient to crack the structure or to break it in two. When the ship is in waves, the upward buoyancy forces are greatest in way of a crest and least in way of a trough while the ship and cargo weights and the distribution of these weights Since two successive waves along the length remain the same. elastic

ward and

the ends drooping.

are rarely alike,

it

is

customary to design the

hull structure to

withstand the bending moments, in both hogging and sagging, produced by some assumed "standard" series of waves. One such wave has a vertical height in feet, from trough to crest, of 1,1 times the square root of the wave length in feet. This takes care of the obser\-ed fact that short waves, the most severe for small boats and ships, have height-to-length or steepness ratios greater than those of long waves. All the "standard" waves have lengths equal to the ship length, The maximum 5. Determination of Forces and Moments.

—

is likely to encounter in service, excluding temporarily those due to above-water or underwater explosions, are the weight and buoyancy forces that act vertically, caused by gravity. The moments of greatest interest to the designer are the maximum bending moment in the vertical fore-and-aft plane, for both the hogging and the sagging conditions on the assumed "standard" wave. Slamming forces may act in almost any direction, and they are usually applied at or near the ends of the ship. To predict them it is necessary to make certain assumptions and to use certain approximate formulas not described here. Prediction of the forces and moments due to above-water or underwater explosions a possible emergency load for all ship types requires specialized knowledge and a great deal of experience, much of it of a secret or confidential status. Aside from direct or close hits, the explosive forces produce vertical and lateral bending and whipping, much as do the waves of the sea. The procedure for determining the vertical bending moment is to consider the ship poised and balanced statically on the assumed wave. This means that the buoyancy graph in fig, 12(B) is replaced by one based on a curved "standard" wave profile instead of a straight one, with a crest either at mid-length or with two crests at the ends. The wave profile must be adjusted on the ship profile until the total buoyancy forces equal the total weight of the ship, and the centre of gravity is vertically in line with the centre of buoyancy. With the ship balanced on the wave a load curve similar to that in fig. 12(C) is drawn, showing the differences between weight and buoyancy at all stations along its length. At any transverse section, the vertical shear is determined by summing up the area under the load curve from one end of the ship to

forces that a ship

—

—

is

obtained,

Dynamic Wave 6. Superposition of Calm-Water and Loads. The final forces and moments which a ship structure is designed to withstand must take account of those imposed by the static loading, such as those due to cargo, fuel and stores loaded at a pier in port (fig, 12), plus those imposed by wave action and ship motion after the ship puts to sea. In fact, under some service conditions the calm-water bending moment may exceed in magnitude the wave-and-motion movement in a seaway,

—

VIU.

A

STRENGTH OF SHIPS

it may be made, must be all the loads that may be imposed by normal service and by any seaway that may be expected during its life. It must, in fact, have a reserve of strength to

ship hull, of whatever materials

strong enough to withstand

upon

it

take care of excessive loads carelessly or negligently applied or of by unusually high, large or steep waves. The latter are encountered only on rare occasions, but they do occur. loads caused

Cargo loaded

an

the section in question. By a process known as integration of the a given station, the vertical bending moment curve

moments about

The

structural configuration, involving the disposition of

ma-

must be such that unduly under the specified

terial as well as the elasticity of that material,

bend or

the structure does not loads.

It

flex

customary to make a ship hull much

is

stiffer than, say,

the wings of a large airplane, just as the fuselage of that plane

than

stiffer

The

its

—

how

to

—

minimum

hull has the

cost

is

wings.

material must be so disposed and proportioned that the

perform

all

weight and can be built for the minimum functions acceptably, A knowledge of

its

the various parts are strained, of

among

distributed

the various

work together in the most effective manner, 1. Strength and Stiffness is

how

the applied loads are of how all of them and proportion them

members and

essential in order to place

—A

ship structure

is

sufficiently

machinery, fittings and equipment and all the cargo loads, and if it can withstand without permanent change of shape, cracking and fracture all the hydrostatic and hydrodynamic loads which can be imposed upon it in calm water or in any kind of seaway in which it is supposed It is sufficiently stiff if, under any of these service to operate. loads, it does not flex or deform unduly so as to interfere with the alignment of operation of machinery or with any other function, major or minor, A bronze screw propeller of a high-powered ship, having blades that are too thin, may deform so much when generating full thrust that its shape and propulsive characteristics are changed. If the blades are permanently bent under emergency maneuvering conditions, the propeller is not strong enough. Vibratory motion can build up to unacceptable peaks if local portions of the structure are in resonance with the periodic applied forces. In consequence, rudder plating and shell plating at the stem must be stiffened to control panting or pulsating deflections strong

if it

can support

all

the fixed loads of

its

from propeller forces. The shell at the bow is also subject to panting from wave-impact loadings; this requires extra stiffeners, called panting stringers. and ship components

to limit

the calculated strains under the heaviest contemplated

service

It is

customary

in ship structures

loading to a certain fraction of the limiting strain for the material being used at which permanent change of shape or damage will occur. The margin thus provided takes care of unusual and emergency conditions which rarely can be foreseen at the time of design. For a submarine pressure hull the collapsing depth is calculated or determined by model tests as part of the original design. It is considerably greater than the working depth, at which the calculated strains are limited to values which can be endured

—

indefinitely, 2.

Structural Configurations.

—

—The

arrangement and

dis-

position of the structural material in a hull and the proportions of all known as the configuration, are most important too-shallow ship hull, like a too-shallow bridge truss, amount of steel for strength and stiffness. A hull that is too deep also requires too much steel because of its Structural size, unless the various members are made too thin.

the structure, features.

A

requires an inordinate

NAVAL ARCHITECTURE

133 moments

the shell and the uppermost decks in resisting the bending imposed in vertical and horizontal planes.

Fig. 15 shows the hull structure for a typical transversely framed cargo ship (1953 "Mariner" class, U.S.). The construction The riveted joints at bilge strake, gunis predominantly welded. wale and main deck, just outboard of the cargo hatch, function as

crack arresters in case of progressive failure of the wide, flat, The inner bottom plating forms part of the bottom flange of the ship girder; in addition, it is made watertight so that

welded areas. it

serves as a tank top and as an additional watertight boundary

the outside plating at the bottom is pierced. The transverse and longitudinal bulkheads required for subdivision, the internal platforms and decks required for service, access and storage and the boundaries of internal tanks for liquids are utilized for structural strength wherever practicable, to avoid

if

unnecessary weight. 3.

—When

Scantlings and Strength Calculations. been sketched, conforming

tural configuration has

a struc-

satisfactorily to

the ship arrangement, the designer selects the scantlings, defined and unit weight of the individual structural members. This is done first for the midship section, where the as the size, shape, area LONGITUDINAL

—

STIFFENERS HALF FIG. 13.

vertical bending

BOTTOM

SECTION OF THE STRUCTURE OF A LARGE TANKER

moment

similar,

from

process.

time.

sisting the longitudinal

It is

important, for cost and material be placed in

and the ship where

stiffness, that the structural

The

parts of a ship structure that

The

prelimi-

by

a scientific analytic

make up

the hull girder re-

bending moments must at the same time carry the more localized loadings, such as concentrated machinery

do the most good. If there is too much material in the bottom structure and not enough in the decks, the neutral axis of the section (above and below which the moment of area through the structural members is the same) will be too close to the bot-

it

usually the greatest.

classification society rules or

material in the form of a closed box, like a ship hull with a deck, resists vertical and lateral bending and twisting all at the same

weight as well as for strength

is

nary scantlings are chosen from experience, from a ship generally

^

will

WELDED JOINT

RIVETED JOINT

II

GUNWALE ANGLE

SHEER STRAKE

STRINGER STRAKE

tom.

For a given bending deformation the upper members will be unduly strained and the lower members only partly strained. It

SECOND DECK

be advantageous to make the hull girder deeper amidships, by about one deck height, where the vertical bending moment is

may

greatest, and shallower at the ends, where it is least. Every boat or ship hull, both above and below the water, embodies a watertight boundary or shell which provides the buoyant volume to float it. Taken with a deck to which it is firmly attached, the whole forms a hollow box, a most economical and Since some efi&cient principal structural member of the hull. part of this box is in compression for bending loads, and much of it is

sides

in shear for twisting loads, the relatively thin shell

and deck

—must be prevented from

SHELL PLATING

THIRD DECK

—bottom,

buckling, crumpling and

wrinkling when it is strained. This is done by stiffening it at intervals with frames and stringers of some convenient type. They hold the flat surfaces in shape and take some of the working loads as well

(fig.

'

O/A

BILGE STRAKE

BILGE KEEL

13).

When the stiffening system of the deck and shell plating lies predominantly parallel to the principal ship axis the ship is said to be longitudinally framed. When the majority of stiffeners lie Whatever at right angles to that axis, it is transversely framed. the system of deck and shell stiffeners, they must be supplemented by deep web or belt frames in the (fig. 13 and 14), or by longitudinal stringers in the second case,

run fore and aft. These hold the primary stiffened system in shape and help to distribute concentrated loads resulting from nonuniform placing of cargo, wave action on the outside, and external blows from striking piers and quay walls and rubbing against fenders and the sides of other ships. Longitudinal framing saves hull weight because the metal in the fore-and-aft stiffeners supplements the metal in

first case,

placed transversely

FIG. 15.

are designed on the basis of local loads. Waterbulkheads are required to resist maximum water pressure when the compartment on one side is flooded. Gun and launcher foundations present special problems. They are designed by assuming various directions of impulse or recoil to find the critical direction for each important member of the foun-

verse GUNWALE ANGLE

— HALF-MIDSHIP SECTION OF A TRANSVERSELY FRAMED CARGO SHIP

Often the latter govern loads and large external water forces. the design of the part. The transverse bulkheads and the trans-

web frames

tight

dation.

fig. m.— half section of a longitudinally framed destroyer

—

The 4. Structural Design of Submarine Pressure Hulls. depths to which combat submarines are required to submerge and always-buoyant or inner in the conserving weight necessity for the hulls of cargo submarines call for correct proportioning of the structural elements and accurate selection of thicknesses for the various parts. The uniform pressure around the entire inner hull at working depth enables the designer to calculate the exact hydrodynamic loads, but the fact that the entire structure is loaded

NAVAL ARCHITECTURE

134 compression and that the

in

Investigations in the latter 1940s revealed that

in-

ner shell may be expected to fail by buckling more than makes up for the simplicity of loading.

The

form

inner-hull

CONNING TOWER

pressure-resisting

lightest

a cylinder of

is

circular section, stiffened

by

ring-

shaped frames with a longitudinal spacing of from one-fifth to onetenth

or

less

of

the

diameter,

depending upon the specified working depth and external pressure

I

fig.

16).

Whether

riveted

or welded, the plates forming the circular sections are

gether

at

their

butted tofore-and-aft

joints, so as to transmit the

com-

pression loads directly from one plate to the other. Theoretical

formulas, supplemented and confirmed by the tests of many hun-

VERTICAL KEEL

FIG. 16.

A

— HALF-MIDSHIP SECTION OF

SUBMARINE

dreds of scale models of steel, enable the designer to determine the plating thickness, the frame spacing, the form and size of the frames and the best

attaching the frames to the cylindrical

method of

shell.

At each end of the submarine hull, where it diminishes in beam and depth to facilitate propulsion, the inner hull takes the form of the frustum of a cone, with circular or elliptical transverse sections of reduced diameter. 5.

Detrimental Effects of Discontinuities The various made of elastic material are found to stretch,

parts of a ship hull

shorten, twist and flex as the external loads cause the whole hull to change shape. If the adjacent parts cannot deform locally

by about the same amount, the heavier and

stiffer

members

pull

or push on the lighter ones.

The

may

be excessive local strains, out of all proportion to the strains which would be caused normally by the principal external load. After reaching the fatigue limit the local metal may crack, buckle or break. Good structural design calls for the tapering or narrowing of members to correspond to the strength and rigidity required, and for great care in making transitions from heavy members to lighter ones along a given line of application result

of a load.

—

Materials of Construction. Wood was for many centuries most important and, in fact, the only shipbuilding material. It is still used for boats and small craft of many types, as it is easily handled and worked by local craftsmen with simple tools. However, it is a relatively weak material and is subject to rapid deterioration. Slippage along fore-and-aft flush seams is difficult to prevent. Large wooden ships had to have diagonal metal straps bolted to the planking to counteract slipping at the seams and to keep the hulls in shape. Others made use of hogging girders or 6.

the

rods running over high vertical posts to prevent the ends of Many modern metal ships have wooden weather decks to help insulate the spaces below and to provide a tie

the hulls from drooping.

good walking surface. The development of strong waterproof glues and techniques for curved members from thin laminations has greatly improved the strength and stiffness of wooden ship structures. Checking, splitting, knots and other imperfections are largely eliminated, and many short pieces can be used. Molded plywood yacht hulls made of five thin layers glued together, with the grain running in different directions, are stiff enough to hold their shape without an internal framework. The steels most widely used for hull structures are of the medium, high-tensile and special-treatment types. By far the greatest proportion of parts are of medium steel, where the working strains are small or moderate compared with the yield strain. Both high-tensile and special-treatment steels have higher yield points; the latter has ballistic and shock-resisting properties as well. They are used for parts subjected to high strains in order

building up large

to save hull weight.

many

of the

fracture casualties of that period were due to the use of steel lacking in notch toughness. This term refers to the steel's ability to absorb energy by stretching in the vicinity of sharp corners, notches and cracks, particularly at low temperatures or at high stretching rates. This quality is particularly important where all the plating seams around the girth are welded. Many ship structures have several riveted seams to permit adjustment of the strains due to butt welding and to localize progressive cracking. Specifications for shipbuilding steels of the 1950s required certain minimum limits on notch toughness and on adaptability to welding.

Aluminum alloys are used for the hulls of small and experimental craft and for large shipboard elevator platforms and simiThey are also used for the superstructures and lar structures. upper w'orks of many cargo and passenger vessels; they form the upper parts of steel hull girders which bend elastically in service. For the last-named purpose, the increased deformation or stretch of these alloys is an advantage. For a given weight, panel plates of aluminum alloy are thicker and stiffer than those of steel. They thus provide a better appearance and for many installations they do not require painting. Use of aluminum for large ship structures, such as the hull proper, in which appreciable savings in weight are to be achieved, requires reliable welding and riveting in large thicknesses. What is more, it necessitates the acceptance of increased bending deformations along the length and lowered natural frequencies of vibration as compared with similar structures of steel. Hulls of heavily reinforced concrete have been used for ships and barges in times of emergency, when steel reinforcing rods and labour trained in building construction were available and shipbuilding steel and labour having shipbuilding skills were not. Plastics reinforced with glass fibre eliminate many of the joints in a hull and greatly decrease the deterioration encountered in wooden or metal hulls. They may be coloured with pigment and they lend themselves admirably to "sticking in" stiffening members and other parts and to repairs in a similar manner when damaged. Many nonstructural parts of boats and ships of all sizes and types are easily fabricated by molding in reinforced plastic. 7. Jointing, Connections and Attachments. It is possible, with Fiberglas and similar materials, to make a small-boat hull entirely in one piece. However, as the boat becomes large enough to require a Fiberglas deck, this is made separately and attached For larger craft, the individual planks and plates to the hull. have to be joined by gluing, screwing, bolting, riveting or welding Flush seams (fore-and-aft joints) (see also Rr'et; Weldixg). and butts (girthwise joints) for smooth external hull surfaces are Screwing, bolting, riveting or possible by gluing and welding. welding require lapping the members over each other or the use of internal (and external) connecting straps, strips or other parts. Nailing for small-boat structures of wood is no longer favoured because of the difficulty in making repairs. If the limitations and advantages of each of the jointing methods are kept firmly in mind, it will be found that practically every one of them serves well in some particular application on board ship. Welding has the great advantage over riveting in that it eliminates excess metal and saves weight practically everywhere in a ship structure, sometimes as much as io'pical decca chain, line-of-position accuracies vary by day from 30 yd. at 100 mi. to 150 yd. at 2S0 mi.

At night, sky wave contamination of the ground wave

in-

creases the error to 100 yd. and 800 yd., respectively, and the

system becomes unreliable between 300 and 400 mi. Daytime accuracy is limited largely by small line-of-position crossing angles. However, these may be extended by using more than one chain of Shore line and other refractional effects and decca stations. obstacle reflections are inconsequential except when decca is employed in accurate surveys, when the relatively weak daytime sky waves must also be taken into account. A simple receiving antenna is adequate, and local reradiation is unimportant for ordinary navigation.

For hydrographic surveying a rearrangement of the conventional decca chain, in which the master station and receiver are situated in the survey ship with two stations on the coast, offers great advantages. In this system, known as two-range decca, the readings are a function of the distance from the ship to the stations ashore. Consol. Consol originated during World War II in Germany

—

under the name of sonne.

The system was

further developed and

transmitters installed with minor variations in Britain, France and Consol is a longthe United States (under the name consolan).

range system employing various frequencies between 250 and 350 No special receiver is required, except that a loop directional

kc.

sometimes used to resolve certain ambiguities. The consol system consists of a single station employing a directional antenna array that generates a multilobed horizontal radiation pattern. Over a period of one minute (or one-half minute in some applications) all lobes are rotated so that each eventually occupies the place formerly occupied by its neighbour antenna

is

As the lobes are rotated they are keyed: one lobe transmits dots and its neighbour transmits dashes. The dots and dashes are alternate and contiguous. An observer in the direction of rotation.

located in the area of a dot lobe will hear only dots until the dot

moves away and

the adjacent dash lobe approaches, the space decreasing amplitude being filled in by dashes of increasing amplitude. When the dots and dashes become equal in amplitude the observer hears a continuous tone. The process

lobe

between the

d.ots of

repeated after a short distinguishing interval. The navigator merely has to count dots or dashes in order to determine his line of position at the beginning of a sequence with respect to equisignal lines, or narrow zones, which of rotating the pattern

are

shown on

is

a consol chart.

single shift or sequence

is

The sum

60,

of dots and dashes for a and accuracy can be improved by

counting both characters and symmetrically adjusting them, if necessary, to the sum of 60. When the start of a count is on an equisignal line the count is all dots or all dashes. Semiautomatic counting devices are available. Since there are a number of lobes and corresponding equisignal lines in the system, and the lobes enclose sectors of 10° to 15°, the navigator at times

may need

positive identification of the sector

accomplished by taking radio

The range

coarse and intermediate lanes called zones and fine zones.

ing

is

lines

is

This accomplished by automatically shifting station frequencies'and frequency-mixing circuits in the receiver for an instant each third minute in order to generate much lower comparison frequencies. The coarse zones are large enough to yield approximate position-

H5

which he is situated. This bearings on the consol station. in

picture, however, is a symbolic one, unlike that of teleand proper interpretation requires considerable skill {see Radar),

VI.

ELECTRONIC AIDS FOR MARINE USE

Variations of Radar.

—

Port radar installations have been introduced in certain harbours to help traffic in poor visibility and for various subsidiary functions, such as checking the position of navigational buoys. In periods of bad visibility, pilots aboard the ships are advised of their positions in relation to the navigational marks or to the harbour configuration. However, when traffic is

heavy there is sometimes difficulty in identifying a particular ship on the harbour radar display. This may be overcome in numerous ways, one of which is to take bearings on the ship's radio transmitter.

Two

systems that operate on radar principles but that employ

active rather than passive targets are shoran position

indicator).

Transponder

(slave)

and EPI (electronic beacons,

established

ashore, return strong signals of identifiable characteristics that Shoran, operating facilitate accurate measurement of distance.

m

the 210-320 mc. band,

is

fective over a greater range, 2

mc.

EPI

actually

is

a

EPI

a line-of-sight system.

is

ef-

by virtue of ground waves, on about

mobile loran system that

is

limited to

the measurement of the length of the base line between the interrogator (master) and transponder (slave) beacons. Both systems

primarily survey tools. Sonar is the underwater counterpart of radar; however, it emThe terms echo ploys sound waves rather than radio waves. sounder. Fathometer and depth finder are commonly applied to equipment that is designed to measure distance downward only. are

The employment

of horizontally directed

beams

is

generally re-

{See also Echo Sounder.) Radux and Omega. Radux, a hyperbolic system that operated experimentally in the low- and very low-frequency bands, employed base lines of approximately 2,000 mi. Advantage was taken of the relatively high stability of sky wave propagation at stricted to military applications,

—

these frequencies to synchronize transmitters and receivers.

Phase comparison and synchronization were made on a modulation frequency of about 200 cycles. Since radux was a continuous-wave system using a single radio frequency, transmission time had to be shared among the three or more stations in a single system. This was accomplished by a synchronized system of commutation in each transmitter and receiver. Phase "memory" of the transmission that had ceased was provided by a phase-controlled crystal oscillator.

Omega evolved from the experiments with radux. Phase measurement was shifted from the 200-cycIe modulation of radux on a carrier frequency of 40 kc. to direct phase comparisons of 12-kc. master and slave station carriers. The lane width along the base line is thus reduced from 400 mi. to 7 mi., with an accompanying increase in line-of-position accuracies. For lane resolution a second frequency, offset from the main frequency, is transmitted alternately to give a low-frequency beat, the lane width of which Together with the improved accuracy is considerably greater. achieved by this change there were gained the advantages of greater transmission range and superior propagation stability. L.orac and Raydist. Lorac and raydist are short-range, continuous-wave hyperbolic systems developed primarily for accurate

—

NAVIGATION

146

surveying operations. Synchronization of the three or more stations is made unnecessary by using a single beat frequency generated between offset radio frequencies of the system. Both lorac and raydist operate principally on frequencies near 2 mc. In lorac, phase measurements are made between two separate derivations of a beat frequency that is generated in the mobile receiver and also at one of the fixed stations of a pair and retransmitted to the mobile unit as a modulation of a third radio frequency. A fi.xing system is comprised of three or more stations. The number of frequencies required is reduced by time-sharing. The raydist system is similar to loran, except that one of the transmitters is placed on the mobile station. Thus, raydist can be used as a pure distance-determining device. Neither system provides lane identification therefore, lane count from a known position must be maintained. Accuracy is limited at night by sky wave contamination of the ground wave.

power are adjusted so that each pair covers somewhat more Distance information is provided by of the route. utilizing the signals so as to establish a base line between the two pairs of stations. When signals from either end of the route

station

than

half

cannot be received, a highly stable crystal oscillator provides a

temporary "memory" signal. A transatlantic dectra installation provides accuracies of 3 mi. laterally and 6.5 mi. along the route, the lateral accuracy improving radically as the stations are approached. Variations of Radar. In aircraft radar equipment of special

—

course low-frequency radio range system was the first electronic aid to navigation to come into general use after the development

is made of the Doppler effect, which causes the received frequency of a signal reflected from the ground to differ from that of the transmitted signal by an amount proportional to the speed of the aircraft. Several downward beams having horizontal components in different directions may be utilized so that the forward, lateral and vertical velocity of the aircraft may be measured by automatic means. Doppler systems have been developed using either pulse or continuous-wave methods. The radio altimeter, which utilizes radar principles, has an advantage over barometric altimeters in that it is independent of variations in sea-level air pressure. This property enables the air

It is basically a homing system, although may be obtained by finding the intersection of the course lines of two stations. The range supplies a course on which is heard a continuous tone. As the aviator strays from the course he hears either the International Morse code character A (

navigator to relate his progress to the position of high- and lowpressure meteorological centres by noting the changes in the relative readings of his barometric and radio altimeters. Since wind direction bears a fixed relationship to pressure centres, these pressure-pattern data are useful in selecting a route. (F. B. D.)

;

VII.

ELECTRONIC AIDS TO AIR NAVIGATION

Four-Course Low-Frequency

Radio Range.

— The

four-

of the direction finder. a positional fix

or

N

(

—

).

By

—

referring to a special chart, he

mine the direction

in

is

able to deter-

is

a crossed loop or crossed

Adcock

whose four-lobed radiation pattern can be shifted by adjusting the relative amplitude and phase of the two directional elements. Along the desired course the amplitudes are made equal and since the A and N characters are interleaved, a continuous tone is heard. Elsewhere the signal amplitudes are not equal, so one character or the other predominates. No special receiver is required for the range information. Reliable service distance is limited at night because of night effect, reflections

VUI. INERTIAL

which he has strayed.

The transmitting antenna

as well as

design, use

from mountains and interference from other stations from the reduction in power made to reduce that inter-

ference.

Omnidirectional Radio Range While the four-course range simplifies travel over established routes, the omnidirectional range serves general navigation and position-finding requirements. Historically the omnidirectional beacon had

its

beginning in the

GUIDANCE SYSTEMS

Inertial guidance systems are self-contained, dead-reckoning de-

vices that are

most valuable for submarine navigation and missile

control, although their usefulness

is

not limited to these applica-

tions.

The basic data upon which the inertial system depends are the amount and direction of acceleration. If acceleration from a occurs for only a short period of time, after which becomes constant, then velocity becomes the product of elapsed time and acceleration per unit distance per unit time. However, velocity is seldom constant. The variations in acceleration, both positive and negative, throughout the duration of motion must be integrated. The variation in acceleration is continuously determined by measuring the inertia presented by a mass to a change of velocity. This integrated information, which is proporstandstill

velocity

tional to velocity, is then interpreted in a second operation to yield data that are proportional to the distance traveled. All accelera-

measurements and integration operations are performed auto-

"talking beacon," which saw experimental service in the low-fre-

tion

quency band

obvious that when very small changes in velocity and measurement of acceleration is an extremely delicate operation and requires that the reference mass be isolated from varying local effects. Reference axes, which are fixed with respect to free space, are established by three spinning gyroscopes mounted on gimbals whose axes are mutually perpendicular. Deviations from this reference frame are sensed and fed to a computer, where the information is consolidated and

in Europe. In this device a recorded voice announced the direction of transmission of a beam, in steps of several degrees, as the beam was rotated 360°. The difficulty of generating,

at

low radio frequencies, the sharp rotating beam required for

aural discrimination of the spoken information, together with night

and refractional effects, limited the success of this system. The phase-comparison omnidirectional range, developed by the U.S. Civil Aeronautics administration on both low-frequency and very high-frequency bands, is highly sensitive to amplitude changes. It employs a rotating cardioid pattern that is compared with a fixed-phase, omnidirectional pattern, the carrier of which is modu-

matically.

It is

are involved the detection

resolved into distance and direction of travel. In guided missiles the direction and distance of travel are preThe effects of selected and thereafter automatically controlled.

whose direction with respect

to the

lated at the speed of rotation of the cardioid. If the relative phase of the two patterns is established at 0° when the maximum

the earth's centre of gravity,

amplitude of the cardioid

and with the earth's rotation, present problems of considerable magnitude since they introduce a component into the indicated measurement of acceleration and direction. As in any deadreckoning method, errors are accumulative with time.

is

pointed north, then successive posi-

produce a direct indication of bearing from the transmitting station on a receiver phasemeter. The very high-frequency (108-118 mc.J omnidirectional range (VORj has been widely installed in the U.S. and, to a lesser extent, in other countries. It is sometimes combined with an interrogator-transponder beacon (DME, or distance-measuring equipment), which is similar in principle to shoran. Dectra. Dectra is an adaptation of the nominally short-range decca system to long-range lane guidance. A master and a slave, sharing the same frequency, are situated 70 to 80 mi. apart so that asymptotic hyperbolic lines extend along a desired traffic route. A second pair is similarly set up at the opposite end of the route and shares a second frequency. The route distance and tions of the cardioid will

—

free space reference varies with changes in geographical position

IX.

INTERPLANETARY NAVIGATION

three stages of an interplanetary ffight by a high-thrust rocket may be considered to be (1) the launch, when the vehicle accelerates rapidly away from the starting point; (2) the mid-

The

course phase,

when

the vehicle

is

in

free

fall,

subject only to

and planets; and (3) the apThe first and last phases can be con-

the gravitational fields of the sun

proach and landing phase. trolled by radio and radar, since the distances involved are relatively small. The mid-course phase comprises the major part of

NAVIGATION LAWS the voyage, however, and presents serious navigational difficulties.

During this phase the rocket will be traveling in an orbit, the shape of which is determined precisely by the speed and direction of its motion, that is, by its initial velocity on launching. The sort of difficulty involved in determining position and velocity in space and positions of the is illustrated by the fact that the distances

known

planets themselves are not 1,000 mi.

more than

to accuracies of

Measures of velocity based on such data, therefore, be even less accurate. references under "Navigation" in the Index.

will clearly

See also

(M.W.

— General:

Ri.)

E. W. Anderson and J. B. Parker, Obser(1956); Navigation Dictionary, U.S. Hydrographic History: A. Fontoura da Costa, A Marinharia dos Office (1956). Descobrimentos (1933) S. G. Franco, Historia del Arte y Ciencia de Navegar (1947); Harold Gatty, The Raft Book (1943); A. E. Nordenskjold, Periplus (1897) B. R. Motzo, // Compasso da Navigare (1947) E. G. R. Taylor, The Haven Finding Art (1956), The Mathematical Practitioners of Tudor and Stuart England (1954) E. G. R. Taylor and M. W. Richey, The Geometrical Seaman (1962); D. W. Waters, The Art of Navigation in England in Elizabethan and Early Stuart Times (1958). Marine Navigation: The Admiralty Manual of Navigation (H.M.S.O., 1954) American Practical Navigator (Bowditch), U.S. Hydrographic Office (195S); Radio Aids to Maritime Navigation and Hydrography, International Hydrographic Bureau (1956); H. C. Freiesleben, Navigation (1957); P. V. H. Weems and C. V. Lee, Marine Navigation (1958); F. J. Wylie (ed.), The Use of Radar at Sea (1952). Air Navigation: E. W. Anderson, The Principles of Air Navigation (1951); Air Navigation, U.S. Hydrographic Office (1955) E. Brook Williams and W. J. V. Branch, Air Navigation, Theory and Practice (1952); R. F. Hansford (ed.), Radio Aids to Civil Aviation (1960) T. C. Lyon, Practical Air Navigation (1951) P. V. H. Weems, Air Navigation (1955). Electronic Aids: U.S. Coast Guard, Electronic Navigational Aids (1945-46), Aids to Marine Navigation of the United States (1959).

Bibliography.

vational Errors

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

NAVIGATION LAWS.

Historically this expression refers

and places to

restrict

commerce

to ships of a particular nationality. Rut the expression is also used less strictly to denote laws that lay down rules of the road and in other ways regulate the actual navigation of ships; this usage is covered in Rule of the Road at Sea. In England the first navigation act was passed in 1381. Policy varied thereafter until in 1651 a navigation act was passed in order to strike a blow at the maritime supremacy of the Netherlands. The system established, which required the national trade by sea to be carried in ships under the national flag, was maintained in force (with certain later statutory amendments) for a period of two centuries. By the navigation acts, ships under the national flag were required to be owned by British subjects, and shipmasters and a proportion of the seamen were also required to be British.

Moreover, the national register for ships was established by Charles II in 1660 in order to ascertain which ships were to benefit from the acts. {See also Mercantile System.) The result of these acts was that by 1847 no produce from Asia, Africa or the United States could be imported into the United Kingdom from Europe in any ships, the object being that the trade should be direct and in British vessels. Coastal trading around the United Kingdom could be carried on only by British ships, and colonial trade was prohibited to all foreign ships except where sanctioned by a special order in council. Various restrictions were imposed on imports not carried in British ships, and orders in council laid down differential dues and restrictions on imports carried in ships of any foreign countries that imposed similar restrictions on British trade. In 1849 the navigation acts were repealed, subject to reservation of the coasting trade and subject to the proviso, intended to secure reciprocity, that if prohibitions or restrictions were imposed on British ships by other countries the privileges of the ships of those countries in British ports might be restricted. The reservation as to coasting trade was removed in 1854. However, despite these relaxations, it is still the law that a ship is not to be deemed a British ship unless it is owned wholly by British subjects, or by a body corporate established in some part be registered as such.

(Ds. B.; X.) In the United States almost immediately after the adoption of first congress recognized the necessity of a merchant fleet in time of peace to carry the commerce the constitution in 1789, the

of the new nation, as well as the necessity for shipyards from which could come ships of war in any national emergency. Thus, in 1 792 it enacted a law that provided that, in order for a vessel to be registered as a vessel of the United States and to be entitled it must be built United States, wholly by U.S. citizens, and must be commanded by a master who was a citizen of the United States, nativeborn or naturalized. In 1790 a tonnage tax that discriminated in favour of U.S. vessels was imposed.

to the protection inuring to a vessel so registered,

in the

Under various

statutes, provision

was made for

British ships are

still

required to

Further, no alien can own, nor, subject to certain reservations, may he act as master or as one of the principal

relief

by way

of reciprocity, and, consequently, after 1849, British ships were

admitted into U.S. ports on the same terms as U.S. ships were admitted into British trade. In 1878 the U.S. congress codified all of the laws of the United States, under appropriate chapter headings, into a compilation entitled Revised Statutes of the United States. Virtually all of the then existing laws of the United States affecting maritime commerce, the inspection of vessels, the licensing of merchant marine officers and the protection of merchant seamen were placed in ch.

1

to

liii.

appears that in 1886 congress became aware of the inroads that were being made by foreign vessels into the transportation As a result, of passengers between ports in the United States. a statutory prohibition to the carriage of passengers by a foreign It

;

to laws passed at various times

of the sovereign's dominions.

147

officers of a British ship.

vessel between ports in the United States

made

was enacted.

unlawful for a foreign nation to carry merchandise between ports and places in the United States in a vessel that was not built in, and registered in, the United States and owned by U.S. citizens. During the early 1930s, it became apparent that the World War I merchant fleet of the United States, including passenger vessels, Similarly, in 1920 congress

it

tankers and freighters, was becoming obsolete, and that the U.S. merchant marine was rapidly disappearing from the sea because of its inability to cope with lower construction and operation costs in foreign countries.

able a

modern

fleet

To of

correct this situation and to have availmerchant ships for national emergency,

congress enacted the Merchant Marine act of 1936. Under this act, the U.S. maritime commission is authorized to pay a construction subsidy to encourage citizens of the United States to have their vessels built in U.S. shipj'ards. The amount of this construction subsidy is usually the difference between the cost of building

abroad and the cost of building a vessel in the United built under a construction-differential subsidy must, when completed, be registered as a vessel of the United States. To further encourage citizens to operate vessels under the U.S. flag, the maritime commission is also authorized to award The amount of such payment operating differential subsidies. is the difference between the cost of operating a U.S. vessel in the foreign trade and that of operating a similar vessel under foreign registry in the same trade. (F. K. A.) After World War I, and in implementation of the terms of the peace treaty, conferences were convened under the auspices of the League of Nations with the object of facihtating and maintaining freedom of communications and of commerce. Several international conventions were adopted, the most important being the Maritime Ports convention, 1923. Under this convention each of the contracting parties undertook, subject to the principle of reciprocity, to grant the vessels of every other contracting state equahty of treatment with its own vessels, or those of any other state whatsoever, in the maritime ports situated under its sovereignty or authority. The equal treatment was in regard to freedom of access to the port, the use of the port and the full enjoyment of the benefits as to navigation and commercial operations that it offered to vessels, their cargoes and passengers. This convention did not apply to maritime coastal trade. After World War II, the Provisional United Maritime Consultative council, consisting of 18 members, including the United Kingdom, the dominions and the United States, was established at a vessel

States.

Each ship

NAVSARI— NAYAR

148

Washington, D.C., in 1946 for the purpose, among other things, of removing all forms of discriminatory action. In 1948 a conference was held at Cleneva, Switz., at which the great majority of the members of the United Nations, with the notable exception of the U.S.S.R., were present. The conference adopted a convention for the constitution of an intergovernmental consultative organization, the aims of which were to follow the hnes of those of the provisional consultative council. The Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative organization (IMCO) came into existence in 195S, with its headquarters in London, Eng. Its IMCO first formal meeting was held in Jan. 1959 in London. consists of an assembly, a council, a maritime safety committee and a secretariat. It is brought into relationship with the United Nations in accordance with art. 57 of the UN charter as the specialized agency in the field of shipping. The purposes of IMCO are to provide machinery for co-operation among governments in the field of governmental regulations and practices relating to technical matters affecting shipping engaged in international trade, to encourage the general adoption of the highest practicable standards in matters concerning maritime safety and efficiency of navigation, to encourage the removal of discriminatory and restrictive practices in international trade and to consider unfair restrictive practices by shipping concerns. Membership of IMCO consists of the governments of nearly all maritime nations and of some nonmaritime countries. See also Waters, Territorial. BiBUOCR-APHY. W. S. Lindsay, History oj Merchant Shipping (1874L. W. Maxwell, 76); Alexander Pulling, The Shipping Code (1S94) Discriminating Duties and the American Merchant Marine (1926) A. P. Higgins and C. J. Colombos, International Law of the Sea, 4th ed. (1959) N. Singh, "International Conventions of Merchant Shipping," (Ds. B.; X.) in British Shipping Laws, vol. S (1964). (Naosari), a municipality and taliika (.administra-

Bronze Age culture of the Cyclades. Its white marble and emery were exploited for the earliest major sculpture of the 7th century B.C., and it is credited with a part in the early development of Ionic architecture. During the 6th century B.C. a tyrant Lygdamis In 499 B.C. ruled Naxos in alliance with Pisistratus of Athens. a Persian fleet attacked it unsuccessfully, but in 490 it was capFour Naxian tured by the Persians and treated with severity. ships joined the expedition of Xerxes, but deserted to the Greek Delian league in Naxos was member of the 480. a side at Salamis (q.v.) but, after revolting in 471, it was captured by the Athenians and remained in their possession until 404. In 376 it saw the Athenian defeat of a Spartan fleet. After its capture, in a.d. 1207, by the Venetian Marco Sanudo, the duchy of Naxos flourAfter the War of ished till the Turks took the island in 1566. Independence it belonged to Greece. Remains of a 6th-century temple are on an island (Palati) just northwest of the town of Naxos. Naxos Island is rich in fruit trees, and exports corn, wine and oil, but its most important product is emery. (J. Bo.; X.) NAXOS, the earliest Greek colony in Sicily, was founded by Theocles from Chalcis c. 734 B.C., on the east coast, south of Tauromenium (modern Taormina), just north of the mouth of the There were already Alcantara river on modern Capo Schiso. Sicels at Tauromenium, but they cannot have offered any opposition. The adoption of the name of the Aegean island Naxos may show that there were Naxians among its founders. It soon founded Leontini and Catana (modern Catania). Naxos was the warmest In 403 B.C. ally of Athens in the Sicilian expedition (415-413). it was destroyed by the elder Dionysius of Syracuse and its territory given to the Sicels. Its exiles at last found refuge in 358 at

tive subdivision) of Bulsar district in Gujarat, India, formerly in

the streets, buildings and walls of Hellenic

—

;

;

;

;

NAVSARI

the Navsari division of the princely state of Baroda. Ues on the left bank of the Purna river, 147 mi. N. of

The town

Bombay by

rail. Pop. (1961) 51,300 (town). It was one of the early settlements of Parsees in Gujarat, where they landed after their banishment from Persia (Iran). It is still the home of their mobeds, or second sacerdotal class, and contains their most venerated fire temples. The town also has mosques, Hindu pagodas and an old (M. R. P.) palace. NAVY: see Naval Affairs (Articles on). the name of three towns in India and one

NAWABGANJ,

in Pakistan. 1. The most important lies 17 mi. N.E. of Lucknow, in BaraPop. banki district, Fyzabad division of Uttar Pradesh, India. It is contiguous with the district headquarter (1961) 27,080. town of Barabanki (q.v.), with which it forms a municipality. The

main market and educational institutions of the district are in Nawabganj. It is connected with Lucknow and Fyzabad by road. 2. A municipal town of Gonda district in the Fyzabad division of Uttar Pradesh. Pop. (1961) 6,249. It lies about 3 mi. from the north bank of the Gogra (Ghagra) river and 24 mi. S.S.E. of Gonda on the Fyzabad-Gonda road, and on a branch line of the North Eastern railway. The main occupation is trade in food grains. The town is named after Nawab Shuja ud-Daula, who built a market there. 3. A town of Bareilly district in the Rohilkhand division of Uttar Pradesh. Pop. (1961) 7,198. It lies 18 mi. N.E. of Bareilly on the Bareilly-Pilibhit road. It has an assembling market for food grains, and a large fair takes place there during the Dasahra (worship of the Ganges) festival. The town is named after Nawab Asaf ud-Daula. 4. A town in the Rajshahi district of East Pakistan on the Mahananda river, 25 mi. N.W. of Rajshahi. Pop. (1961) 29,725. It has rail and road connections and is a trade centre for rice, (B. Si.; X.) wheat, jute and silk. NAXOS, a Greek island, largest of the Cyclades (about 22 mi. by 16 mi.), lies east of Paros, with which, and adjacent smaller Rich in vines islands, it forms an eparchy. Pop. (1961 ) 16,703. and famous for its wine, it was a centre of the worship of Dionysus. According to legend the god found Ariadne asleep on its shore, when she was deserted by Theseus. The island shared the Early

Tauromenium. Systematic investigations from 1953 onward not only revealed Naxos but by means

of stratigraphic excavation several prehistoric (Siculan

documented its history and disclosed and still more primitive) periods of

occupation. See G. V. GentiU, "Naxos d'Arte,

anno

xli,

serie iv, pp.

dei primi scavi," in BoUettino ilb-iii (19S6).

alia luce

NAYAR

(Nair), a Hindu caste of the Malabar coast, southwestern India, in the state of Kerala. Before the British conquest of 1792, the Malabar coast region included a number of small, feudally organized kingdoms in each of which the royal and chiefly lineages, the militia

and most of the land managers of

villages

were

drawn from the Nayars, who ranked below the Nambutiri Brahmans or religious authorities. During British rule the Nayars tended to move into the professions and became prominent in politics,

government

service, medicine, education

and law. Many were won independence

active in support of the Congress party, which for India in 1947.

Unlike most Hindus, the Nayars traditionally followed matriUneal descent. This family unit, whose members owned property jointly, included a group of brothers and sisters together with the The oldest male latter's children and their daughters' children. was the legal head of the group. Rules of marriage and residence varied somewhat between kingdoms. Those in the central kingdoms of Calicut, Walluvanad, Palghat and Cochin were most unusual

;

a girl

was

ritually

married before puberty to either a Nayar

After the ceremony the ritual husband had no further marital relations with his nominal wife, who was free to receive as visiting husbands a number of men of her own or the Brahman caste. Correspondingly, Nayar men, most of whom led a mobile life as soldiers, might visit as many Nayar wives as they chose. Women were maintained not by their visiting husbands but by their matrilineal groups, and fathers had no rights in or obligations to their children. The Nayars of this area therefore, unlike most peoples, did not institutionalize the nuclear family of father, mother and children as a legal, residential or economic unit. The Nayars cannot, however, be said to have wholly lacked the concepts of marriage and paternity, for the ritual marriage was essential, and children were later required to observe ceremonial mourning at the death of their mother's ritual husband. Early in the British period the Nayar armies were disbanded. or a Nambutiri

Brahman man.

Perhaps partly as a result of

this change, plural marital unions

NAYARIT— NAZIM HIKMET RAN gradually died out in the 19th century. A law passed in 1896 permitted men to register their marriages and provided that the children of such unions should inherit half of the personal property of the father. Laws passed in the 1930s enforced monogamy,

permitted division of the matrihneal group's estate between its male and female members and gave children full rights of maintenance and inheritance from their fathers. By the 1960s it had become increasingly common, especially in towns, for husband and wife to leave their matrilineal homes and form separate residential

and economic units with

their children.

See E. Kathleen Gough, "The Nayars and the Definition of Marriage," Journal oj the Royal Anthropological Institute, vol. 89, (1959) Edgar Thurston, "Nayar," in Castes and Tribes of Southern India, (E. K. G.) vol. 5, pp. 283-412 (1909). ;

NAYARIT,

a Pacific state of Mexico, until 1917 the federal

territory of Tepic,

bounded by Sinaloa, Durango and

Jalisco.

The

offshore Tres Marias islands are largely undeveloped.

Area, 10,664 sq.mi. Pop. (1960) 389,929. The Southern Pacific railway of Mexico and the trunk highway from Nogales to Guadalajara cross

Running southeasterly, the Sierra Madre Occidental rises steeply from the narrow Pacific Uttoral and cuts the state into deep gorges and narrow valleys. Outstanding features are the volcanoes Ceboruco and Sanguangijey. Its chmate is generally wet, frost-free and healthful except on the hot Pacific slope. Nayarit's coastal lagoons and marshes are well known as wild bird refuges. The main river is the final leg of the Lerma, rising on the main plateau of Mexico under the name of Santiago it flows westward through Nayarit and empties north of San Bias, chief Nayarit.

;

Pacific port.

Mining

is

cultural; its

Its valley is extremely fertile. important in the sierras, but Nayarit is primarily agriproducts include maize, tobacco, sugar, cotton, beans,

woods and medicinal plants. Tepic (pop. [1960] 54,069) is the capital, 26 mi. S.E. of San which it is connected by road. It is located in a valley 3,000 ft. above sea level, and is surrounded by ranches and small farms. Tepic is a mixture of colonial charm and busthng modernity. Small villages of Cora and Huichol Indians are scattered through the sierras. (J. A. Cw.) (Naylor), (1618-1660), one of the most prominent early Quakers, was born at Ardsley, Yorkshire, in 1618. He served in the parliamentary army (1642-51) and was During this for two years quartermaster under John Lambert. period he began preaching as an Independent until in 1651, after a meeting with George Fox (g.v.) at Wakefield, he became a Quaker. For three years he worked closely with Fox and underwent a 20-week imprisonment for blasphemy in 1653. In 1655 he went to London and achieved a prominent position among Quakers there, but came under the unfortunate influence of certain overenthusiastic Quaker women who persuaded him that he was a reincarnation of Christ. Nayler and his followers traveled through the west country on their way to visit Fox in prison at Launceston, but were imprisoned at Exeter. There Fox visited him and they parted in disagreement, since Fox was then striving to free Quakers from the lawlessness of the ranters. In Oct. 1656 Nayler and his entourage entered Bristol in procession imitating Christ's entry to Jerusalem. For this he was arrested, tried before parliament and sentenced to severe punishment and imprisonment. In 1658 he acknowledged his error in a letter to parliament and was released in 1659. He was reconciled with Fox in 1660 and preached again in London until his death on the way home to Yorkshire in Oct. 1660. See E. Fogelklou, Ja-mes Nayler: the Rebel Saint (1931). THE, an international religious body with headquarters in Kansas City, Mo., with over 300,000 members, largely in the United States, Canada and the British Isles, and over 50,000 members in approximately 35 mission areas. The denomination is the product of the merger of some 15 religious bodies stemming from the 19th-century Wesleyan holiness movement. The first major merger was in 1907, coffee,

Bias, with

NAYLER

JAMES

NAZARENE, CHURCH OF

Church of the Nazarene (organized in California in 1895) with the Association of Pentecostal Churches of America (with origins in the northeastern states from 1886 to 1896) to

uniting the

149

form the Pentecostal Church of the Nazarene. The next year the Holiness Church of Christ (with origins in the southwestern states from 1894 to 1905) joined the denomination. Later mergers brought in groups from Texas, Tennessee, Scotland, North Dakota and England. The term pentecostal, because of its increasing association with "speaking in tongues," a practice foreign to the Nazarenes,

was dropped from the name of the denomi-

nation in 1919. In polity the church combines congregational autonomy with superintendency in a representational system. In worship there is emphasis on simplicity and revivalistic evangelism. In doctrine

Arminian Methodism and

the church stands in the tradition of

unique mission to be the promotion of entire sanctification as a work of grace subsequent to conversion. It is the largest of the bodies with this professed aim. The church operates a publishing house, a theological seminary, regards

its

six liberal arts colleges, several theological colleges

and numerous

mission schools and hospitals. See Manual of the Church of the Nazarene (publbhed quadrenT. L. Smith, Called Unto Holiness, the Story of the Nazarenes: (C. O. B.) the Formative Years (1962).

nially)

;

NAZARENES,

a translation of

Nazarenos and Nazoraios.

The

first

two different Greek words,

means "coming from Naza-

reth" (a village in Galilee) and is applied to Jesus in the Gospels of Mark and Luke. The second, of doubtful derivation, may be re-

used of Jesus in Matthew, (ii, 23) treats it as the equivalent of Nazarenos; in other passages its meaning is not altogether clear. According to Acts xxiv, 5 it was used of Chrislated to the term Nazirite iq.v.) and

Luke (once), John and

is

Matthew

Acts.

by Jews. In later times there was an Ebionite sect {see Ebionites) which, according to the 4th-century theologian Epiphanius, consisted of Jews who traced their ancestry back to the Jewish Christians who left Jerusalem for Pella, on the other side of the Jordan, just before the destruction of Jerusalem in a.d. 70. Epiphanius diftians

ferentiates this sect of Nazarenes

he

calls that of the

Nasaraei.

from a purely Jewish

The

relation,

if

sect

which

any, of these sects

century cannot be determined. to the Jewish (R. McQ. G.) (Hebrew Natsrat; Arabic An Nasira), a town in Lower Galilee in Israel, on the northern border of the plain of Esdraelon. Pop. (1961) 25,066. A cigarette factory (with its own large tobacco plantations), stone quarries and two mineral-water Christians of the 1st

NAZARETH

employment for most of the inhabitants. Nazareth is not mentioned in the Old Testament. In the New Testament (it is mentioned 28 times in the Gospels and Acts) it is associated with Jesus as his boyhood home, and in its synagogue he preached the sermon that led to his rejection by his fellow townsmen. Since the 6th century a number of churches and Legends and precarious religious houses have been built there. identifications persist, and visitors are shown the church of the Annunciation, the workshop of Joseph, St. Mary's well, Christ's table, etc. Only for the well can authenticity be assured. The crusaders captured Nazareth in 1099 and transferred there It was taken by Saladin bishopric of Scythopohs (Beisan). the (1187) and retaken by Frederick II (1229). On its capture by the mameluke sultan Baybars (1263), the Christian inhabitants were massacred. In 1517 it came into the possession of the Turks. Nazareth was the headquarters of the Turkish-German army during World War I and was captured by British cavalry on Sept. 20, factories furnish

1918.

In 1948 it was the headquarters of the Arab forces under Fawzi Kawukji until his army was defeated by the Jews, when Nazareth surrendered without a fight. Under Israeli rule the town was placed under a military governor, his staff and government officials being the only Jewish residents there. (E. Re; X.) (1902-1963), Turkish poet and dramatist, who exercised a strong influence on Turkish literature in the late 1930s by his mastery of language and by the introduction of a wide range of poetic themes and of a free verse technique. He was educated at Istanbul and in Moscow. Having gained some

NAZIM HIKMET RAN

NAZIRITE— NEAGH

I50 early recoKiiilion with his patriotic

poems

in

syllabic metre, he

came, in Moscow, under the induence of Russian futurists and, abandoning traditional poetic forms, he indulged in exaggerated imagery and by this means and the use of unexpected associations Later his style became quieter and tried to "depoetize" poetry. his epics on Bedreddin (the ISth-century revolutionary religious leader of Anatolia) and on the War of National Liberation show real poetic power. His plays, written in vigorous prose, are mainly His poems were translated into French by Marxist inspired. Hasan Gureh (1951). He died in Moscow on June 2, 1963. See E. Saussey, Prosateurs turcs contemporains (1935).

(F. I.)

NAZIRITE

(Nazarite"). among the ancient Hebrews, a sacred person whose separation was most commonly marked by not cutting the hair and by abstinence from wine. In Israel's early history the Nazirite was endowed with special charismatic gifts and normally held his status for life; in later times he was a man who had voluntarily vowed to undertake special religious observances for a limited period of time, the completion of which was marked by the presentation of offerings (Num. vi; I Mace, iii, 49; Acts

bihiih

(anthropomorphists),

;

NDEBELE, or Landeens.

known

his anointing Saul exhibited the ecstatic qualities of the prophets he joined (I Sam. x. 9-13; cf. xix, 18-24), and he exhibited a similar holy fury as the warrior king who led the relief of Jabeshgilead (I Sam. xi, S-11). Samson the Nazirite was a holy warrior whose special power was most closely related to his unshorn locks. This association of mysterious divine power with the growth of hair and with abstinence from wine shows that the institution of the Nazirite had its historic roots in the nature mysticism of the near east. In Israel, however, such natural powers as represented by the growth of hair were no longer treated as divine force, per se, but as signs of the power of the God of Israel and vehicles

for

it.

later Nazirite as described in Num. vi and in the Mishna was not a charismatic person. He simply retained the old requirements, added the prohibition against touching a corpse, and treated them as external signs of a vow. The minimum period of the Nazirite vow was 30 days. The priest-prophet Samuel, who was dedicated by his mother (I Sam. i, 11), did not exhibit the psychic phenomena of earlier Nazirites. In many respects he represents the bridge figure mark-

The

The Rechabites (g.v.), who resembled Nazirites in abstaining from wine, also combined a voluntary vow with a lifelong commitment. BrBLioGRAPHY. W. Eichrodt, Theologie des Alten Testaments, 5th ing the transformation of the institution.

—

vol. i, pp. 200-202; J. Pedersen, Israel, vol. iii-iv, pp. 264 ff.; G. von Rad, Der heilige Krieg im alien Israel (1951) W. R. Smith, Religion oj the Semites, rev. ed., pp. 323-33S and 479-485 (1907). (J. C. Ry.)

ed.,

;

NAZZAM,

AL- (Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Sayyar ibn Hani' iBN Ishaq) (775-846), one of the great Muslim theologians and an accomplished man of letters, historian and jurist, was born in Basra (in modern Iraq) and brought up there before moving to He was

the most illustrious student of Abu al Hudhayl 840), the great Mu'tazilite theologian of the Basra of phenomenal memory, he memorized the Koran, the Pentateuch, the Gospels and the Book of Psalms; it is told that when Ja'far, the vizier of the caliph Harun al-Rashid, questioned

Baghdad.

al 'Allaf

(d.

school.

A man

him on

Aristotle's

Metaphysics, he recited the work verbatim

forward and backward. Together with his teacher, al-Nazzam led philosophic and theological thought in Islam in one of its formaperiods. He fought Islam's battles against Thanawiyyah (Manichaeism) and Dahriyyah (materialism), and argued with Muslim sectarians like the Jabriyyah (determinists), Mitshabtive

stood for thoroughgoing ra-

See "Mu'tazilah" and "Nazzam, al" in Encyclopaedia of Islam Albert N. Nader, Le Systeme philosophique des Mu'tazila (1956) (I. R. al-F.) (1956).

was a holy man whose peculiar endowment, credited to his possession of "the Spirit of the Lord," was displayed in unusual psychic or physical qualities marked by sponIn this respect he had taneity, ecstasy and dynamic enthusiasm. much in common with the early ecstatic prophets and with diviners such as Balaam (Num. xxii-xxiv), both indigenous to the near This helps to explain why Amos mentions the prophet and east. Nazirite together as persons whose special divine vocation had been frustrated (Amos ii, 11 £f.). Both were also close to the warrior, w-ho was likewise in a sacred state while on duty. After early Nazirite

He

This gave rise to grave concern and some misunderstanding of his work. His major contribution was his insight into the problem of human freedom. Man is incapable of his actions, he held, inasmuch as they are acts of his body (or, in modern parlance, belong to the material order where natural law is necessary and constituBut, he argued, this is not to concede the point to the tive). Dahriyyah. For man is equally a ruh (spirit) which is not subject to this necessary determination but is free to resist or to acquiesce to it, thus incurring moral desert and punishment. None Knowledge of him comes from his of his works has survived. student al-Jahiz and from the Islamic heresiological writings. See also Mu'tazilites.

xxi, 24).

The

etc.

tionalism in philosophy and theology, but he also defended the political claims of the Shi'ah .sect.

a people also

known

as

Matabele, northern Zulu

(3ne section live in that part of Southern Rhodesia

as Matabeleland (pop. approx. 300,000 in the 1960s)

they speak Sindebele, a click language of the Nguni (q.v.) group of southern Bantu languages. The Ndebele originated as the tribal following of one Mzilikazi of the Natal Nguni clan of Kumalo. A military commander of the Zulu king, Shaka, he was obliged in 1822 to flee from the wrath of his master and migrated with his followers first to Basutoland and then northward to the Marico valley. In 1837, after conflict with settlers of the Transvaal republic, he moved across the Limpopo river into the present Matabeleland {see Transvaal). Here Lobengula, his successor, was able to extend the Matabele power until the establishment of There followed the the British South Africa company in 1890. Matabele war of 1893 in which Lobengula was defeated, and he died soon after. No successor was recognized and the Matabele were administered by the company as a number of separate dis;

tricts {see British South Africa Company). The Matabele state incorporated the various peoples it conquered and the nation became stratified into a superior class {Zansi) composed of the true Matabele and other peoples of Nguni origin; an intermediate class {Enhla) that comprised people of Sotho origin; and an inferior class {Lozwi or Holi) derived from the original inhabitants of Matabeleland. A man was ranked by Men of all classes were his class and then by his clan or tribe. organized into age regiments that were fighting units and also localized territorial groups. The men of a regiment, on marriage, continued to live in their fortified regimental village, and its area formed an administrative district within one of the four provinces into which Matabeleland was divided. The name Ndebele is also given by their Sotho neighbours to those Nguni tribes living west of the Transvaal Drakensberg {see Drakensberg Mountains). They numbered about 144,000 in the 1960s and are sometimes called the Transvaal Ndebele to distinguish them from the Ndebele of Southern Rhodesia. See also

Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Federation

of.

—

Bibliography. A. J. B. Hughes and J. van Velsen, Ndebele of Southern Rhodesia (1955); A. J. B. Hughes, Kin, Caste and Nation Among the Rhodesian Ndebele (1956). (G. I. J.)

NEAGH, LOUGH,

in Northern Ireland, is the largest lake Averaging 15 mi. wide and 19 mi. long, it covers 150 sq.mi. and has a catchment area of 2,200 sq.mi. Its chief feeders are the Upper Bann river, the Blackwater and the Main, and it is drained northward by the Lower Bann. The lake owes its origin to warping and faulting of the Tertiary basalt cover

in the British Isles.

it is underlain by Lough Neagh clays which were deposited in a larger lake of probably Eocene age. Its average depth is less than 40 ft. and the shores are shelving and frequently boggy. Five of the six counties of Northern Ireland

of northeast Ireland, and

share the lake shores.

Post-glacial fluctuations of lake level are

evidenced in submerged forest peats which are of great archaeological interest because from them the oldest recorded artifacts of man in Ireland have been recovered, in Toome bay. Giraldus Cambrensis, in his Topographia Hibernica {c. 1188), records a

NEAGLE— NEANDERTHAL MAN tradition that the lake came into being miraculously, "overwhelming the whole people and their flocks" as a punishment for their vices, and states that fishermen had seen the round towers of churches under the water. The legend is also recalled in the ballad

"Let Erin Remember," one of Thomas Moore's Irish Melodies. Ram's Island, in County Antrim, has a ruined round tower; there are archaeological remains also on Coney Island in County Armagh, a National trust property, which is locally believed to have given Coney Island, N.Y. its name. Lough Neagh hones, once famous,

were beheved

powers of

to be evidence of the petrifying

its

waters,

wood from which they were made is derived from the Lough Neagh clays. The lake is celebrated for its eels and has salmon and poUan, a freshwater member of the herring also

but the

silicified

family.

Flood control works have been undertaken from time

to

time, those in 1959 involving a lowering of the lake level to SO The ministry of finance. Northern Ireland, is ft. above sea level.

(E. E. E.)

the drainage authority.

NEAGLE, JOHN

(1796-1865), U.S. portrait painter, was Boston on Nov. 4, 1796, and spent his professional career Starting as an in Philadelphia, where he died on Sept. 17, 1865. apprentice coach painter, Neagle became a competent technician, but well below Gilbert Stuart and Thomas Sully; most of his large His famous "Pat Lyon at the Forge" output is monotonous. (Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts) is well above his own average; his portrait of Stuart is the best one of that fascinating personality. He also painted a few landscapes; the only example now known is his "View on the Schuylkill" (Art Institute of Chi-

born

in

cago). See Virgil Barker, "John Neagle," The Arts, 8:7-23, no. 1 (July (Vl. B.)

1925).

NEALE,

EDWARD VANSITTART

in the English co-operative

movement and

(1810-1892), leader

a Christian Sociahst,

at Bath on April 2, 1810, the son of a Buckinghamshire clergyman. He studied at Oriel college, Oxford, was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1837 and became a Christian Socialist in 1850. He founded the first co-operative store in London and advanced the capital for two builders' associations, both of which failed. On his own initiative he started the Central Co-operative

was born

agency, similar in

many

society of a later day.

respects to the Co-operative Wholesale

Also unsuccessful, this venture involved

heavy financial loss. He was an early advocate of limited and company regulation, actively promoting the Consolidation act of 1862, and was associated with the movement that resulted in the Industrial and Provident Societies act of 1876. Besides publishing pamphlets on co-operation, he served on the executive committee that developed into the Central Co-operative board, took part in forming the North of England Co-operative Wholesale society in 1863 and promoted co-operative congresses, the first of them in 1869. He advocated close relations between Neale died on co-operative associations in different countries.

him

in

liability

(A. Bri.) Human populations referred to inhabited much of Europe and the lands surrounding the Mediterranean during the extended time interval of the earher Upper Pleistotene. The name derives from a gorgelike valley above the small stream of Diissel, a tributary of the Sept. 16, 1892.

NEANDERTHAL MAN,

as Neanderthal

man

Rhine, 7 mi. east of Dijsseldorf Ger. There in the Feldhofer cave in 1856 workers encountered portions of a human skeleton; 14 pieces were eventually salvaged by a professor at the Realschule in Elberfeld, Johann Carl Fuhlrott. Following the description of the remains (by Prof. H. Schaaffhausen) a lively controversy arose as to whether their unusual morphology was normal, and hence indicative of an archaic variety of man, or whether it was merely a case of pathology in modern man {Homo sapiens). The former view was duly proved correct, especially after the discovery in 1886 of two similar skeletons in the cave of Spy (Belgium) in association with implements of chipped stone and animal bones representative of a subarctic fauna including extinct species (or extant forms no longer in the region). In the course of over a century of research on human evolution and the prehistory of man much additional information has been gained concerning these peoples, their distribution in space and time, their origin and disappearance and their ,

ways are

of

now

151

Several distinctive populations of Neanderthal folk recognized. These populations differ in certain aspects of life.

their skeletal

anatomy

as well as in their spatial

and temporal

dis-

tribution.

The first recognizedly Neanderthal peoples occur during the the Last Interglacial stage, certainly in central and southeastern Europe and probably also in western Asia. Among other features they were characterized by moderately small cranial capacity; a short, narrow and well-arched skull vault; large but last half of

somewhat separate and curved supraorbital ridges; moderately gracile and large, cheekbones with some hollowing beneath them ;

straight or only slightly curved limb bones, generally lacking en-

general pattern of the anatomy of the face and even of the skull vault of these early Neanderthal peoples was not greatly unlike that of Homo sapiens; this was also true of the bones of trunk and limbs, although these are not very well known. larged ends.

The

There was nonetheless a complex of skeletal features which distinguished them from modern human populations. Far more numerous and complete skeletal remains have been recovered of Neanderthal peoples from the succeeding initial phases of the Last Glacial stage. This is probably due in large part to the marked tendency toward utilization of cave fronts and rock shelters below cliffs for habitation sites, as well as the widespread Such peoples were practice of deliberate burial of the dead. distributed, evidently as small semi-isolated populations of relatively unsophisticated hunting and gathering Ijands with a Mousterian stone industry, from western Asia throughout much of Europe as well as along the Mediterranean littoral of northern (There is no evidence for such peoples either in Africa Africa. south of the Sahara or in eastern or southeastern Asia; however, broadly contemporaneous peoples in these areas have been sometimes referred to as Neanderthaloid since a number of features of their skull

morphology simulate those found among Neanderthal

peoples.)

Over most of

this area of distribution

such peoples resembled

quite closely early Neanderthal populations of the preceding interThis was not the case with those groups, often glacial period. classic Neanderthals, occupying the western and southwestern periphery of Europe. Over this area, including Belgium and France and westernmost Germany, Spain and Italy, were short, stout, powerfully built Neanderthal peoples characterized

called

by

a

number

of distinctive skeletal characteristics

which

set

them

apart from their contemporaries elsewhere. This was true of the brain case (very large cranial capacity; long, low and wide skull vault, flattened behind; heavy biarched supraorbital ridges), of the face (projecting and large; rounded orbits; small cheekbones with no hollowing below them due to expanded sinuses; quite large teeth and palate), of the trunk (rounded broad chest; short vertebrae with large muscular processes; long slender collarbone) and of the limbs (heavy curved thigh and forearm bones; large feet and hands but short fingers and toes; arm and leg bones with The popular conception that enlarged ends; long heel bone). these people were slouched in posture and walked with a shuffling, bent-knee gait seems to have been due in large part to the faulty reconstruction of the skull base and to the misinterpretation of certain features of the limb bones of one of the Neanderthal skeletons

discovered early in the 20th century. Such were the peoples to whom the specific name Homo neanderthalensis was applied (by W. King in 1864) following the original discovery of the type skeleton in the Feldhofer cave. (Actually two other such skulls had been found earlier in the 19th century but went unrecognized until after the Neandeirthal discovIt is now apparent, however, that these peoples represented merely the western periphery of a particular range of variation within a quite widespread human species. In fact, since such peoples were considerably like Homo sapiens the use of the distinct species name neanderthalensis may be most misleading;

ery proper.)

some workers think

it

might be applicable to the

classic

Neander-

populations referred to as classic Neanderthals became relatively isolated from other such peoples in the southwesterly parts of Europe as a consequence of the increasing severity of the climate during the initial phases of the Last Glacial thals.

It is likely that

NEARCHUS— NEBRASKA

^S2 Such

would have greatly restricted gene flow between populations, would have increased inbreeding and would have tended to bring about shifts, even drift in gene frequen-

stage.

isolation

directions because of the accidents of sampling resulting from the original population composition. Incies, especially in certain

creased selection pressures under a progressively harsher environalso have played a role, although this is still poorly understood. Since the time range of the Last Glacial is now

ment may

largely within the limits of the radiocarbon (C^*

solute dating,

it

is

now

)

method of ab-

possible to estimate the time involved in

NEAR EAST: see Middle East. NEATH (Castell-nedd), a metropolitan

borough and industown in Glamorgan, Wales, pop. (1961) 30,935, Ues on the Neath or Nedd, 3 mi. from its mouth in Swansea bay and 37 mi. VV.N.W. of Cardiff by road. The Vale of Neath, at the southwestern end of which the town stands, is a narrow valley running northeast from Neath foj- about 12 mi. with steep and lofty sides broken by small glens and waterfalls. It leads up toward the Brecon Beacons and Forest Fawr and is one of the most picturesque areas of south Wales; it has retained its beauty in spite of considerable industriahzation. Although Neath is encumbered with many bleak industrial buildings, the centre of the town is pleasant, with flower beds in the public gardens and views trial

river

such evolutionary changes. The Last Glacial seems to have begun about 75.000 5,000 years ago; a rather pronounced temperate interstadial amelioration began around 42.000 years ago and had a duration of about 10.000 years. The Neanderthals appear to have

of the

persisted fairly well into, perhaps almost to the end of. this inter-

The

i

±

probably they had disappeared by about 35,000 3,500 years ago. Hence the characteristics of the Neanderthals developed over a period of approximately 30,000 5,000 years; i.e., during 1,500 250 generations. The factors responsible for the disappearance of these and other Neanderthal peoples are unclear. In Europe nearly all cave and rock shelter sites where there was repeated human occupation reveal a sterile horizon between the last Neanderthal occupation (with Mousterian industry) and succeeding occupation by a Crostadial;

±

±

Magnon skeletal

(See

variety of Homo sapiens, characteristically European in anatomy (with an early Upper Paleolithic industry). Hence it cannot be demonstrated con-

Cro-Magnon Man.)

human populations overlapped in time in the same territory, the indigenous Neanderthals being perhaps killed off by the immigrant anatomically modern peoples, clusively whether these different

or whether the Neanderthals were no longer present, presumably having already become extinct. In southwestern Asia there are several cave sites (Skhul and Qafzeh, in present-day Israel) where skeletal remains of fundamentally anatomically modern peoples,

once regarded as a special variety of Neanderthal, have been found. These were broadly contemporaneous with other more typically Neanderthal folk. Some workers believe that the former, which were perhaps already coexisting with and were eventually to replace Neanderthals in southwestern Asia during the initial phases of the Last Glacial, represented the forerunners

Cro-Magnon populations who later replaced the Neander5ee Anthropology; Man, EvoLtTTiCN OF. See

of the

thals of Europe.

also references

under "Neanderthal

Man"

in the Index.

—

BiBLiocR-^PHY. J. Piveteau, Traite de paUontologie, vol. vii, Primates, Paleontologie humaine (1957) G. H. R. von Koenigswald (ed.), Hundert Jahre Neanderthaler, 1856-1956 (1958); E. Patte, Les neanderthaliens (1955); R. J. Braidwood, Prehistoric Men, 3rd ed. (1957) F. Bordes, "Mousterian Cultures in France," Science, vol. 134 (1961) C. L. Brace, "Refocusing on the Neanderthal Problem," Amer. Anthrop., vol. 64 (1962). (F. C Ho.) ;

;

;

NEARCHUS

(d. probably 312 B.C.), an officer in the Macedonian army under Alexander the Great. A native of Crete, he settled at Amphipolis in Macedonia. In 333 Alexander made him satrap of the newly conquered Lycia and Pamphylia. In 325, when Alexander descended the Indus to the sea, he ordered Nearchus to conduct the fleet to the head of the Persian gulf. Nearchus was then entrusted with the more difficult task of circumnavigating the Arabian peninsula from the mouth of the Eu-

phrates river to the Isthmus of HerobnpoUs (Suez), a project cut short by the death of the king {i2i). In the allocation of commands that followed immediately in Hi Nearchus obtained his

former satrapies.

In the subsequent struggles of the Diadochi or "Successors" of Alexander he took the side of Antigonus I (g.v.).

He

wrote a detailed narrative of his expedition, of which was embodied by Arrian in his Indica. See also

a full abstract

Alexander

III (the Great).

—

BiBLioGiuPHY. For ancient authorities see F. Jacoby, Fragmente der griechischen Historiker, II B, no. 133 (1929) and II D, pp. 445 £f. (1930); for editions of Indica see Arrian; on the topography see W. Tomaschek, "Topographische Erlauterung der Kiistenfahrt Nearchs vom Indus bis zum Euphrat," in Sitzungsberichte der kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien, philosophisch-historische Classe, 121 (1890). See also M. Gary and E. H. Warmington, The Ancient Explorers, pp. 62 £f. (1929); T. S. Brown, Onesicritus (1949).

hills.

port of Neath is Briton Ferry (part of the borough since 1922), which has extensive steel and tinplate works and forms an unbroken urban continuity with Neath. The importance of Briton

Ferry was enhanced by the carrying of a new road by viaducts across Briton Ferry dock and the mouth of the Neath, linking Cardiff and such towns as Bridgend, Margam, Port Talbot and

Aberavon direct with Swansea and bypassing Neath itself. Neath is a very ancient site, owing its strategic importance to its location on the river crossing and at the mouth of the Vale of Neath. The Roman fort of Nidum was estabhshed about a.d. 75 to 80 and protected the road from Caerleon to Carmarthen. Neath castle was built in the early 12 th century and burned by Llewelyn ap lorwerth in 1231; only its gateway remains. Neath abbey is an extensive 13th-century Cistercian ruin. The first known charter was granted to the town by Earl William of Gloucester, in the 12th century; other charters followed in 1280, 1340, 1359, 1397, 1421, and 1423, and the final charter was be-

stowed by James II in 1685. Serving as a market centre for a wide and prosperous countryside, Neath acquired further importance on account of local mineral resources and became a centre of the copper industry after a copper smelting works was established there in 1584 by Cornish miners. In the 17th century other nonferrous ores (as well as copper), for lead and silver extraction, were imported. After 1700 Swansea took up metal working and rapidly outpassed Neath as the most important Welsh port on the Bristol channel. Iron and coal figured largely in Neath's subsequent development and its modern economic importance is largely connected with the steel industry. Industrial establishments are mainly concerned with metallurgy and the production of metal goods. It has formed the nucleus of a small but substantial conurbation of industrial towns. Exploration of the area around Neath reveals many contrasts between modern industrialization and the surviving monuments of ancient times. George Borrow, coming in 1854 upon Neath abbey with its gloomy smoke-ridden background, likened the scene to a "Sabbath in Hell." Southeast of Briton Ferry are Aberavon and Port Talbot, brought into being largely by the coal and iron of the Afon valley. And beyond these is Margam, celebrated on the one hand for its 13th-century Cistercian abbey with its exquisite chapter house and on the other for its huge modern steel plant (opened in 1951), with an annual capacity of 1,500,000 tons. For 8-10 mi. in this southeastern direction there extends from Neath through Briton Ferry an almost continuous industrial and urbanized landscape, and for a similar distance westward is the centre of the town of Swansea. Local government in Neath is under a mayor and corporation. There are two railway stations and the town is an important road transport centre, though some of its traflBc has been affected by the new Briton Ferry bypass. (Hu. S.) NEBRASKA, styled the "Tree Planter's state" by act of the legislature, 1895, and renamed the "Cornhusker state" by legislative act in 1945, is near the centre of the United States. It is bounded on the north by South Dakota, on the east by Iowa and a corner of Missouri, on the south by Kansas, on the south and west by a corner of Colorado and on the west by Wyoming. The Missouri river flows along the eastern and northeastern border. The extreme length of the state is 428 mi. and the extreme breadth 207 mi. The area is 77,227 sq.mi., of which 615 are water surface.

NEBRASKA Nebraska was named the "Tree Planter's state" because Arbor day was originated there by J. Sterling Morton in 1872 and foresThe try was emphasized by the pioneers and their successors. name "Cornhusker" originally was applied to the University of Nebraska football team. Nebraska was the 37th state to be admitted into the union, on March 1, 1867; the state capital is

The state flower is the goldenrod, the state bird the western meadowlark and the state tree the American elm. The state flag consists of the state seal, which symbolizes commerce, industry, transportation and agriculture, and the state motto, "Equahty before the law," in gold and silver, on a dark blue field. Lincoln.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

—

Physical Features. The principal topographical feature of Nebraska, which lies approximately between 40° and 43° N. lat. and 95° and 104° W. long., is a great undulating plain, sloping gradually from the northwest to the southeast, at an average of ten feet per mile. This plain is broken along its northern and eastern borders by hilly regions. The highest point, 5,424 ft., is in Kimball county; the lowest point, 840

The

ft., is

in

Richardson county.

state's principal topographical regions are the loess, the sand-

the high plains and the badlands, with lowlands along the Missouri and Platte rivers. The loess region includes about 42,000 sq.mi. of excellent farmland in the eastern and south central parts of the state. The area is gently rolling except along the Missouri and Republican rivers and at some other points where moderate hills appear. The sandhills lie west and northwest of the loess region, with outliers extending to the southwest corner of the state. The main region of the sandhills includes about 18,000 sq.mi. and consists of low hills,

interspersed with rich valleys, lakes and fertile tablelands.

hills

The high

plains,

which

lie

west and northwest of the sandhills,

A

153 map

of Nebraska exhibits wide variations, which accounts in large measure for the diversified nature of its agriculture. The principal soil associations of the United States found asset.

in

soil

Nebraska

—

which

in

soils

are grouped geographically rather

than taxonomically

—are

soils, alluvial soils,

planosols, lithosols

chernozem soils, chestnut and sand. Except for the lithosols, which occur in the badlands, and the sand of the sandhills, these soils are extremely fertile and well suited to the proprairie soils,

duction of cultivated crops. Vegetation. Grasses originally comprised the state's principal form of vegetation. Only about 3% of the state was forested, with trees occurring principally along the streams and on the low mountain ranges of the west. The grasses varied according to

—

rainfall.

In the

more humid eastern

in

area,

Except in the range country of the central and western parts of the state, the grasslands have been converted to the production of cultivated crops.

Nebraskans have exhibited great interest in planting trees since Arbor day was first celebrated in Nebraska, and the Nebraska national forest in the sandhills is wholly man made. By the second half of the 20th century Nebraska still had only about 3% of its area in forest. Animal Life. The principal indigenous animals were those characteristic of the plains. Of these, the most plentiful was the bison, or American buffalo. Others found in great numbers were the pronghorn, mule deer, coyote, kit fox, jackrabbit, ground squirThe rel, prairie dog, skunk and, along the streams, the beaver. porcupine, wood rat and red squirrel were found in the woodlands. Birds were plentiful and, in addition to hundreds of species of songbirds, included the prairie chicken, grouse and migrating pioneer days.

—

waterfowl.

land broken occasionally by deep canyons and rugged buttes. The region includes two areas of evergreen-wooded mountains, the Wild Cat range and the Pine Ridge. The badlands, used as rangeland, occupy about 1,000 sq.mi. in the northwest corner of the

Historic Sites and Parks. Nebraska are

state.

homestead, the

drained by the Missouri river, a navigable stream which skirts the eastern border for approximately 450 mi. The principal tributaries of the Missouri in Nebraska are the Platte and its branches; the Niobrara; the Republican; the Big and state

is

and the Big and Little Nemaha. The Platte is the dominant and characteristic river and with its tributaries drains more than half of the state. Its wide terraced valley, extending across the entire state and leading to mountain passes, made it an important highway across the continent. Its channel varies from one-half to one mile in width and is filled with islands. In the summer, use of water for irrigation leaves its middle course in the state entirely dry. The sandhills contain hundreds of small lakes, particularly the area near the headwaters of the Loup and the Elkhorn rivers, the Platte's principal tributaries. The recreational facilities provided by these lakes are augmented by reservoirs resulting from the construction of numerous multipurpose dams. Artesian water exists in at least ten different counties, and the sandhills provide a significant quantity of ground water, which is Little Blue;

discharged into the lower Platte valley to supply irrigation wells. Climate. The climate of Nebraska is typical of the interior of large continents, and is characterized by light rainfall, low humidity, hot summers, cold winters and wide variations. The mean aimual precipitation varies from 27.58 in. in the eastern part of the state to 12.65 in. in the western part. Wet and dry years run in irregular cycles. Fortunately for the state's agriculture, approximately two-thirds of the annual precipitation normally occurs The in the crop-growing season, from April to August, inclusive. mean annual temperature varies from 50.5° F. (about 10° C.)

—

The mean F. (about 9° C.) in the west. is 22.5° F. in the east and 24.1° F. in the west; for July, it is 77° F. in the east and 73.8° F. in the west. The growing season between frosts varies from 164 days in the east to 48.3°

temperature for January

in the southeast to 122 in the northwest.

Soil

—A

soil

of remarkable fertility

is

Nebraska's fundamental

prairie

tall

less

characteristic.

include about 12,000 sq.mi. and consist of level stretches of table-

The

part of the state,

—particularly the bluestem — abounded; the humid western short grasses — notably grama and buffalo —were

grasses

—The

principal historic

sites

in

Homestead National Monument of America (created in 1939), located near Beatrice in Gage county, the site of Daniel Freeman's first in

the nation to be claimed, Jan.

1,

1863, under

Homestead act of 1862. Chimney Rock National Historic Site (established 1956), Morrill county, an important landmark on the overland trail. the

Scotts Bluff National

in

Monument

(established 1919), in Scotts Bluff county, an important landmark on the overland trail; the

Oregon Trail museum, associated with the monument, interprets the westward movement through the Platte valley. Arbor Lodge State park, in Otoe county, the home of J. Sterling Morton, founder of Arbor day. Ft. Kearny State park, in Kearney county, site of Ft. Kearny, an important military post and stage station on the overland trail. Ft. Robinson, in Dawes county, an important military post during the period of the Indian wars on the northern plains, and the site where Crazy Horse, famed chief of the Sioux, was killed. Ft. Atkinson, in Washington. county, site of an early military post (1819-27) which furnished protection to the fur trade of the west.

Nebraska state parks, in addition to Arbor Lodge, Ft. Kearny and Ft. Robinson, are Chadron, Victoria Springs, StoUey, Niobrara and Ponca. The state game, forestation and parks commission, which supervises these areas, also maintains more than 50 lakes and recreation grounds.

HISTORY Historical Development.

—

Francisco Vasquez de Coronado, white man to penetrate the northern plains, probably did not reach Nebraska in his fruitless search for the mythical kingdom of Quivira in the summer of 1541, but the Coronado legend has been incorporated into the literature and pageantry of the Approximately two and one-half centuries before 1803, state. when Louisiana territory, of which Nebraska was a part, was acquired by the United States, Spanish and French explorers and French fur traders occasionally entered the area that is now Nebraska. A small temporary trading post was erected by French the

first

NEBRASKA

154

traders in 1795 in what is now northeastern Nebraska. In the half-century following the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 explorers and fur traders made known to the public important

Almost all of the early explorers were unfavourably impressed with the area, and their reports gave rise to it was little more than a desert and entirely unfit facts about the region.

the belief that

for agriculture.

The

I'latto valley, the state's most important topographic feadeveloped into a significant thoroughfare to the Rocky mountains and the Pacific coast. It was first used by fur traders who, from 1S24 until the decline of the fur trade in the lS40s, followed the Platte river route to and from the trapping grounds of the mountain region. Beginning in 1835 missionaries to the Oregon country followed the same route. In 1841 the first group of Oregon homeseekers went through the Platte valley, to be followed in succeeding years by thousands of emigrants over what came to be known as the Oregon trail following the south bank of the river. In 1S47 the Mormons, led by Brigham Young, went along the opposite bank of the Platte en route to the valley of the Great Salt lake. They likewise were followed by many thousands in succeeding years. Gold seekers bound for California (1849-50) and Colorado ( 1S59 added to the traftic on the trail. Nebraska territory w^as organized in 1854, largely as a result of

ture,

)

agitation for a transcontinental railroad.

Kansas-Nebraska

bill,

POPULATION Nebraska's population grew rapidly from 28,841 in 1860 to 1,058,910 in 1890. After 1890 growth was slow, and between 1930 and 1940 the population declined from 1,377,963 to 1,315,834. In 1950 the population was 1,325,510, an increase of 0.7% over the population in 1940, and in 1960 the population was 1,411,330, an increase of 8.7% over that of 1950. The population per square mile in 1960 was 18.3, as compared with 49.7 for the United States.

The name "Nebraska,"

deriving from an Oto Indian word for "flat water,'' had long been used to designate the Platte river and surrounding territory. The final

ance organized the People's Independent or Populist party. A three-cornered fight resulted in the Democrats' getting the governorship and the Populists a majority in the legislature. By fusing with the Democrats under the leadership of William Jennings Bryan, the Populists won victories in 1894, 1896 and 1898. The Populist party died out after 1900, and political control fluctuated between the Democrats and the Republicans until 1930. During the 1930s the Democrats dominated the stale although George William Norris, nominally a Republican, remained in the U.S. senate from 1913 to 1943. The Republicans asserted control in 1940 and remained in the ascendancy until 1958 when the Democrats returned to power, electing a governor and two congressmen. In 1960 and 1962 the Democrats also elected the governor, but all congressional seats went to Republicans.

providing for two territories, became

the centre of an intense struggle in congress between the north and south, involving the extension of slavery, the removal of Indians

and rival routes for the proposed Pacific railway. The bill, signed by Pres. Franklin Pierce, May 30, 1854, provided that the new territories should be slave or free as voted by the citizens in each territory, thus reversing the policy regarding the extension of slavery established for the Louisiana territory by the Missouri Compromise (q.v.) of 1820. Nebraska territory, as organized in 1854, included the vast region from 40° N. lat. to British America, and from the Missouri

and White Earth rivers to the summit of the Rocky mountains. In 1861 and 1863 it was reduced by the creation of other territories to nearly its present boundaries.

Most of the early settlements were along the Missouri river. Bellevue (1823), the oldest permanent settlement, was important as a fur trading centre, as a missionary centre and in the administration of Indian affairs. Brownville. Nebraska City, Plattsmouth, Omaha and Florence, established in 1854, soon became important territorial towns. Omaha (q.v.) was the territorial capital. Other tow-ns of the period included Beatrice, Columbus, Falls City and Fremont. The Pacific Railroad act and the Homestead act, both passed by congress in 1862, aided white settlement. The railroads were particularly significant to Nebraska in that they made settlement away from the Missouri river possible. The great industry during the territorial period was transport by the overland trail. Over it ran freight wagons, stagecoaches and, in 1860-61, the famous pony express, whose services ended with the completion of the overland telegraph in the latter year. Trail transportation terminated in Nebraska with the construction of the Union Pacific railway in 1865-69. After turning down statehood in 1860 and 1864, the voters in 1866 approved a constitution which had been drafted by the legislature, and on March 1, 1867, Nebraska was proclaimed the 37th state. The South Platte region, which had, always opposed Omaha as the territorial capital, had a majority in the first state legislature of 1867 and passed an act providing for the relocation of the capital, to be named Lincoln, in that section. On Aug. 14. 1867, the capital commission, appointed by the legislature, located the capital at the little village of Lancaster and renamed it Lincoln (q.v.). Railroad and cow towns grew up at Grand Island, Hastings and Kearney (qq.v.) in the 1870s and at Alliance, Chadron and Norfolk in the 1880s. The Democratic party was the sole political party in Nebraska from 1854 to 1858. The Republican party won control in 1860 and retained it firmly until 1890. In that year the Farmers' alli-

Nebraska: Places of 5,000

NEBRASKA

SCENES Top

lelt:

The

IN

state capitol building. Lincoln, a 400-ft. tower on a two-story

base, completed in

1932

right: Cattle grazing on pastures at the foot of Sheridan's Gate, buttes near Hay Springs in the western part of the state

Centre

left:

ScotU

Bluff.

NEBRASKA

Dome Rock

(left)

rises

4,662

ft.

left: The business section of Lincoln the foreground is St. Mary's cathedral

ottom In

Top

Plate

the capitol building.

set

ottom right: Chimney Rock, a conical mound

of red sandston

the route of the old Oregon Trail near Bridgeport

I

Plate

II

NEBRASKA

HISTORICAL AND MODERN VIEWS OF NEBRASKA Top: A Bottom

typical sod farmhouse of the lale 19th century left: The stocltyards at Omaha, one of the largest cattle marketing centres in the U.S.

Bottom right: Administration Omaha, founded in 190S

building of

the

Municipal

University

of

NEBRASKA The governor, chief executive officer of the state, is chosen by direct vote of the people, as are the lieutenant governor, secretary Constitutional of state, auditor, treasurer and attorney general. amendments in 1962 provided for four-year terms for the governor and lieutenant governor. The other four officers elected at large serve two-year terms. The governor appoints, with legislaheads of the code departments, members of boards

tive approval,

and a few other officers. He fills vacancies in state offices arising from death, resignation or removal. The unicameral legislature of Nebraska is unique among state governments. Beginning in 1937 in accordance with an amendment adopted in 1934, it consisted of a single house of 43 nonpartisan legislators representing geographic areas that had about In 1965 it was reapportioned under equal population in 1935. federal court orders with 50

members

allocated on a strict popula-

The basis, giving greater representation to urban areas. chamber is presided over by the lieutenant governor. The legislature meets biennially in the odd-numbered years, and there is no

tion

on the length of the sessions. Administration of justice is vested in a supreme court, 18 district courts, county courts, municipal courts and justice courts. In 1962 the voters approved a constitutional amendment adopting

limit

Under this the Missouri plan of judicial selection and tenure. plan the governor fills vacancies from a list of nominees compiled by a commission of lawyers and laymen. The judges so appointed run on a nonpartisan ballot for election to subsequent terms. The supreme court consists of

Each

justice.

number

six

associate justices

district court consists of

from

County courts have one judge.

35).

have municipal courts.

The

justice courts.

Provision

is

made

I

and one chief

to 9 judges (total

Lincoln and

Omaha

for approximately 2,000

district court is the court of general, original,

and equity jurisdiction. The jurisdiction of county, municipal and justice courts is limited. Appeal to the supreme court, the court of last resort, may not be denied in any case. Of the 93 counties, 28 are of the township or supervisor type, governed by a board of supervisors of seven members, and 65 are of the precinct or commissioner type, governed by boards of comThere are about 100 inmissioners of three or five members. corporated cities and 400 incorporated villages. Two cities are governed by the commission plan, one by a modified commission plan, nine by the city-manager plan and all others by the mayorGovernment of villages is vested council form of government. in a board of trustees consisting of five members elected by popAny city with a population of 5.000 or more may ular vote. adopt a home-rule charter, although only Omaha, Lincoln and Grand Island have done so. Other governmental subdivisions include 5 public power districts, about 40 rural electrification districts and almost 500 other

in

number

At the same time, school expenditures increased more increased almost 20%; and the number of

4,500.

than

70%; enrollment

teachers increased about 17%. Approximately dren in the state attend parochial schools.

districts,

drainage districts, irrigation districts, reclamation districts, soil conservation districts, and rural fire protection districts. Nebraska has no state income tax and no general

weed eradication

metropolitan

Finance. sales tax.

utilities districts

—

The

general property tax, established in 1867,

is

supple-

mented by taxes on corporations, gasoline, liquor and cigarettes, by state licences and fees and special taxes, and by contributions from the U.S. treasury. The state has no bonded debt.

State School System. cation since 1855.

—Nebraska has provided

Most

free public edu-

of the support and control

comes from

the local school districts. From 1869 to 1955 the state exercised general supervision of education through a superintendent of pubIn 1955, as the result of a conlic instruction, an elected official. stitutional amendment adopted in 1952, this supervision was

transferred to the state department of education, consisting of an elected board of education and a commissioner of education ap-

pointed by the board. The local school districts provide approximately 90% of the support of public schools, primarily from the general property tax. The remaining support is derived from educational lands and funds, state aid by direct appropriation and federal aid. In 1949 Nebraska made an effort to reduce the number of school districts

of the chil-

—

schools, as follows: colleges of agriculture, arts and sciences, business administration, dentistry, engineering, graduate, law, medi-

Omaha), pharmacy and teachers; and schools of fine arts, The university also maintains a school of agriculture at Curtis, and agricultural experiment stations at North cine (at

journalism and nursing.

and Alliance. There are four state teachers colleges: Peru (established 1867); Kearney (1905); Wayne (1909); and Chadron (1911). They are governed by the state normal board, whose members are appointed by the governor. Other pubUcly supported institutions of higher education are: Municipal University of Omaha, supported by the city of Omaha; and junior colleges at Fairbury, McCook, Norfolk Platte, X'alentine

and

Scottsbluff, supported

The cordia

by

Omaha; Dana

college, at Blair;

College of the Sacred Heart, at ings;

local school districts.

privately supported colleges and universities are: ConTeachers college, at Seward; Creighton university, at

Midland Lutheran

Doane college, at Crete; Duchesne Omaha; Hastings college, at Hast-

college, at

Fremont; Nebraska Wesleyan Mary, at Omaha; and Union

university, at Lincoln; College of St. college, at Lincoln.

HEALTH, WELFARE AND CORRECTIONS Nebraska's original Board of Health law was enacted in 1891. It was amended over the years, and in 1953 the legislature created a seven-member board of health appointed by the governor. The board of health has responsibility for maternal and child health, local health services, preventive medical services, communicable disease control, venereal disease control, dental health, tuberculosis survey, public health nursing, public health education, laboratories, sanitation, vital statistics, hospitals, cancer control, mental health, poliomyelitis control, athletics and examining boards. There were fewer than 100 hospitals in Nebraska at the end of World War II the number was increased by more than one-third ;

in a ten-year period.

The board of control was replaced in 1961 with a department of institutions and a department of welfare, each with its own director but having one overall advisory board. The state's charitable, educational and penal institutions, of which there are 17, include the Girls' Training school, Geneva; Home for Children, Lincoln; School for the Blind, Nebraska City; School for the Deaf, Omaha; Orthopedic hospital, Lincoln; Hastings State hospital;

Lincoln State hospital; Norfolk State hospital; Nebraska Omaha; Central Nebraska Mental Hygiene Hastings; state home, Beatrice; state penitentiary, Lincoln;

Psychiatric institute, clinic,

women, York; home, Grand Island; and Hospital for the Tuberculous, Kearney. The department of welfare administers child welfare services, crippled children's services, surplus commodity distribution and state reformatory, Lincoln; state reformatory for Soldiers'

EDUCATION

14%

Colleges and Universities. The University of Nebraska, at Lincoln, established in 1869 and opened in 1871, is the state's It is governed by a principal institution of higher education. board of six regents elected by districts on nonpartisan ballots for six-year terms. The university consists of ten colleges and three

legal

units, including

155

a result of these efforts, within ten years the of districts declined from more than 6,500 to fewer than

As

the state.

and

Sailors'

the programs of old age assistance, blind assistance, aid to dependent children and aid to the disabled.

THE ECONOMY Living Conditions.

— Nebraska,

with relatively few mineral

resources, has traditionally been an agricultural state. During and after World War II, however, there began a decline in the per-

centage of the labour force employed in agriculture, and by the second half of the 20th century about 26% was so employed. Of those not employed in agriculture about

28% was employed

in

government, 16% in manufacturing and 11% in transportation. Total annual personal income of Nebraskans was trade,

20%

in

NEBRIJA— NEBULA

156 more than $2,500,000,000 In "constant" dollars, as that in 1929.

Production.

compared with $S 1,000,000 in 192'). the income was approximately twice as great as

— Although

1

importance deremains Nebraska's most important economic activity. Livestock and livestock products normally account for approximately 70% of the gross cash income from farm marketings, which, in the years following World War II, usually were about $1,000,000,000. Cattle constitute the most important source of income from Hvestock. Other livestock include swine, sheep, poultry, horses and mules. Corn is the most important crop and wheat is the second most important. Other crops are oats, barley, rye, hay, sorghum, sugar beets and potatoes. The number of farms decreased from 121,000 before World War II to 101,000 in a 15-year period, while, at the same time, the average size increased from 391.1 ac. to 470.9 ac. During the first half of the 20th century the steady progress of irrigation was of particular significance for Nebraska's agriculture, notably in combating the adverse effects of light rainfall. Water for irrigation is furnished by streams, of which the Platte, Loup, Niobrara, Republican and Elkhorn rivers are the most important, and by wells. By the second half of the 20th century more than 1,600,000 ac. were irrigated. Nebraska's leading manufacturing activity consists of the conversion of the raw products of agriculture into marketable commodities. Other manufactures include fabricated metal products, machinery, precision instruments, apparel, lumber products, chemagriculture's

clined in the years following

World War

relative

II,

it

single

icals and plastics, and stone, clay and glass products. There are about 1,500 manufacturing estabUshments in the state, and the value added by manufacture is about $500,000,000 annually. On Nov. 1, 1939, oil was discovered in Richardson county; in July 1949 oil was discovered in Cheyenne county. The state produced 1,800 bbl. of oil in 1939 and more than 20,000,000 bbl. in the 1960s. Natural gas was first produced in the state in 1951. Trade and Finance. Trade is second to agriculture as a factor in Nebraska's economy. Omaha and Lincoln are centres of wholesale trade for a large area. Numerous state and national banks and a larger number of domestic and foreign insurance companies conduct their business in Nebraska. Transportation and Communication. Missouri river navi-

—

—

gation was a leading

method

of transportation until the construc-

tion of the railroads in the 1870s,

when

river traffic declined to

During the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s

almost nothing.

it revived to a if not greater relative importance, than in the earlier period. Ten trunk railways radiate from Omaha, five of them with a network of feeders over the state. Railway mileage was about 5,700 mi. in the second half of the 20th century, as compared with more than 6,000 mi. in 1930. There

position of greater tonnage,

were numerous airports, many of them for public use, and scheduled local air service was extended to all parts of the state. The most important transportation development in Nebraska in the years 1920-60 of course was the great extension of improved highways, accompanied by a rapid increase of motor vehicles. Radio broadcasting began in 1921, and the first television station began operations in 1950. There are 20 daily newspapers and more than 250 weekly newspapers. The headquarters of the

command are located near Omaha. See also references under "Nebraska" in the Index. Bibliography. James C. Olson, History of Nebraska (1955), has "Suggested Readings" at the end of each chapter, which include the principal sources of information about the state; Nebraska State Historical Society, Proceedings and Collections (18S5 et seg.), Nebraska History (1918 et seg.); Nebraska Blue Book (biennial, 1915 et seq.) is particularly valuable on government; Federal Writers' Project, Nebraska: a Guide to the Cornhusker State (1939). Current statistics on production, employment, industry, etc., may be Obtained from the pertinent state departments; the principal figures are summarized annually in the Britannica Book of the Year, American U.S. strategic air

—

edition.

(J. C. O.)

NEBRIJA, (ELIO) ANTONIO DE (Elio Antonio Martinez de Jarava (1444P-1S22?), Spanish humanist, was the author of the first grammar of a modern European vernacular language (Arte de la lengiia castellana, 1492), Born at Lebrija, Andalusia, he signed his Latin works "Aelius Antonius Nebris-

As professor at Salamanca (1476-87; 1505-13), he reformed the teaching of Latin; he was also professor at Alcala de Henares (1513-22), His Latin grammar, Introductiones latinae (1481), was in use in Spain up to the 19th century, and his Dictionarium (1492, Latin-Spanish; Spanish-Latin, c. 1494) and Latin-Catalan, Catalan-Latin Vocabidario (1507) are of primary importance in the development of Spanish lexicography. He was an editor of the Complutensian Polyglot Bible of Cardinal Francisco Jimenez de Cisneros {q.v.). BiBLiot;R,\pnY. His Gramdtica de la lengua castellana was ed. by I. sensis."

—

Gonzales-Llubera (1926); see also N. Antonio, Bibliolheca Hispana nova, vol. i, p. 32 (1788); T. MacCrie, History of the Progress and Suppression of the Reformation in Spain (1829) F. Gonzales Olmeda, A. de Nebrija (1942). (S. G. G.) ;

NEBUCHADREZZAR

(Babylonian Nabu-kudurri-usur,

"The god Nabu has guarded the estate [succession]") was name of two kings of Babylon. Nebuchadrezzar I (reigned 1124-1103 B.C.) invaded and feated Elam,

the de-

His victory was so complete that the power of the many years. For a time he was

peoples was broken for suzerain of Assyria, hill

Nebuchadrezzar II (the Nebuchadnezzar of the Old Testament) was the eldest son of Nabopolassar, founder of the Chaldean dynasty in Babylonia, He reigned from 605 to 562 b.c. In 605 B.C., as crown prince, he defeated the Eg>'ptians under Necho II at Carchemish and won all Syria and Palestine. On hearing of his father's death, he hurriedly returned to Babylon, where he was enthroned on Sept. 6, 605 b.c. Despite the setback of a defeat by Egypt in 601 B.C., he vigorously pursued a policy of gaining full control in the west. He laid siege to Tyre for 13 years and punished Judah for its defection by capturing Jerusalem on March 16, 597 b.c Jehoiachin was taken captive to Babylon with many Jews, and Mattaniah-Zedekiah was made king in his place (see Jews). In the following year Nebuchadrezzar fought a battle with Elam and in 595 B.C. mastered a revolt in his own country. The Babylonian chronicle, a primary Jiistorical source, is lacking after his 11th year and events must be reconstructed mainly from the Old Testament. Zedekiah rebelled in 589 B.C., and Nebuchadrezzar initiated a series of expeditions in which Lachish was captured and Judah devastated. Finally Jerusalem was sacked in 587 B.C. Five years later another expedition was conducted against Judah and the Arabs. A fragmentary text implies that Nebuchadrezzar invaded Egypt in his 37th year. Nebuchadrezzar married Amytis, daughter of Astyages of Media, and in her honour built the "hanging gardens" at Babylon. His peaceful activities were primarily devoted to the embelhshment of the capital (for a description of which see Babylon). His building inscriptions from Babylon, Borsippa, Sippar, Marad and other cities, with many economic documents dated in his reign, have been published. Nebuchadrezzar died in Aug. or Sept. 562 B.C. The title of Nebuchadrezzar was also assumed by two usurpers in the reign of Darius

I.

Nidintu-Bel (Nebuchadrezzar III) ruled

Babylon from Sept. 522 b.c. until his death three months later. In August of the following year a revolt by Araka led to his recognition as king of Babylon (Nebuchadrezzar IV) until his defeat and capture by the Persians on Nov. 27. See also references under "Nebuchadrezzar" in the Index. at

See S. H. Langdon, Die Neubabylonischen Konigsinschriften (1912) D. J. Wiseman, Chronicles of Ckaldaean Kings {626-556 B.C.) (1956). (D. J. Wi.)

NEBULA, in astronomy, is a traditional term used to describe any cloudy or misty celestial object that remains fixed among the Nebulae may be bright or dark, but they are generally nonstellar, luminous patches. Compared with stars, nebulae appear stars.

much

because their spread-out light is more difficult to Thus, although there are about 5,000 naked-eye stars, only four nebulae are visible to the unaided eye. These are the two Magellanic Clouds in the southern hemisphere, and the two great spiral nebulae in the northern constellations of Andromeda and Triangulum. Like the stars, nebulae are virtually innumerable, for their number depends upon the limiting brightness to which they are fainter,

see than a point source.

NEBULA Many hundreds are known in the Milky Way, or the These are the galactic nebulae, masses of gas and dust associated with, and between, the stars of our own stellar system. Beyond the Milky Way are the extragalactic nebulae, entire stellar systems comparable to the galaxy, which populate the universe by For both galactic and extragalactic the hundreds of millions. nebulae, powerful telescopes employing photography are required for effective study (see Photography, Celestial). On the average, extragalactic nebulae have a luminosity 800,-

have been made in 1 7 1 5 by Edmund "luminous spots or patches," among them the globuwhich he had discovered in 1714. The next Hst, in this case of 16 "nebulous stars," was given in 1733 by the EngHsh divine W. Derham (1657-1735), apparently as a result of some observations he made in 1732, with a reflecting telescope, of such objects included in an earlier (1690) work by J. HeveHus (1611-87). In the first extensive survey of the southern skies made at the Cape of Good Hope in the years 175153 by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille (1713-62), a total of 42 nebulae were observed and then described in another significant list of such Shortly thereafter, another Frenchobjects published in 1755.

recorded.

seems

galaxy.

who

000,000 times that of our sun, the faintness of their light as we see it being due to the immensity of the distance it travels. Whereas light rays from the moon reach the earth in li sec, those from the nearest extragalactic nebula, the large Magellanic Cloud, The most remote, obrequire 150,000 years for the journey.

157 Halley (1656-1742),

to

listed six

lar star cluster in Hercules,

man, Charles Messier (1730-1817), while following the comet of 1758-59, noticed a nebulous object near the third-magnitude star

servable extragalactic nebulae are estimated to be at distances of 5,000,000,000 light-years. Thus modern astronomy, in dealing

with the feeblest extragalactic photons, explores with Hght as ancient as the oldest rocks on earth, A widely accepted cosmological hypothesis assumes that the universe originally consisted of a small, compact mass, and that an explosion occurred approximately 10,000,000,000 years ago, thrusting the extragalactic nebulae outward in all directions. The astronomical data on which this expanding-universe theory is {See also based are summarized in later sections of this article.

The

Cosmogony.) solar

system

earth, its

—belong

—

the fellow planets and our sun which is similar in form to

to the galaxy,

As seen from another galaxy, our solar system would be located, but much too faint and small for Our sun makes a detection, near the outer rim of the galaxy. vast numbers of spiral nebulae.

complete revolution in the galaxy in the cosmic equivalent of a

year— about 200,000,000 This article I.

II.

is

solar years.

divided into six main sections as follows:

Historical

Development

of

Nebular Photography

The Galactic Nebulae IV. The Extragalactic Nebulae V. The Extragalactic Distance Scale VI. Red Shifts and Expansion of the Universe VII. Radio Observations and Quasi-stellar Radio Sources III.

I.

Earliest Records.

known

the sky are

who included

HISTORICAL

—Historical

to

go back

in the earliest

records of luminous patches in

to

Hipparchus

known

(fl.

146-127

B.C.),

star catalogue entries for the

double star cluster in Perseus (h and x Persei) and for the "Beehive" star cluster in Cancer (Praesepe). Nearly 300 years later

Ptolemy (c. a.d. 140) Hsted five "cloudy but these objects, apparently nebulous to The earhest known record star clusters. guished from a star cluster, is the one for given by Al 964.

The

Sijfi

(903-986)

spiral in

the eye, are in reality of a nebula, as distin-

the

Andromeda nebula

of the Fixed Stars, epoch thus shares with the Magellanic

in his

Andromeda

stars" in his Almagest,

Book

Clouds the distinction of being one of the three nebulae discovered before the invention of the telescope. The Clouds of Magellan, which become visible to travelers to the southern hemisphere soon after the Torrid zone is entered, were known to the Portuguese navigators of the 15th century, and although not discovered by Magellan, the clouds are by common consent associated with his name to honour the great circumnavigator. Soon after the first use of the telescope on celestial objects in 1609 by Galileo (1564-1642), the Orion nebula was discovered in 1610 by the famous French patron of science Nicholas Peiresc (15801637). The Jesuit priest Cysatus (1588-1657), who began to survey the sky with a telescope in 1611, also discovered the same nebula (1618). It was Christiaan Huygens (1629-95), however, who not knowing of the earUer discoveries by Peiresc and Cysatus, gave in 1656 the first description and sketch of the brightest part of the Orion nebula. The Andromeda nebula also

was soon rediscovered after the invention of the telescope, in 1611 by Simon Marius (1570-1624) who described it in the oftquoted poetical words, "Like a candle seen at night through a horn."

Early Catalogues.

—The

first

attempt to catalogue nebulae

GREAT SPIRAL NEBULA (N.G.C. 598) IN THE NORTHERN CONSTELLATION OF TRIANGULUM. ONE OF THE FOUR NEBULAE VISIBLE TO THE NAKED EYE. HERE AS PHOTOGRAPHED WITH THE 48-lN. SCHMIDT TELESCOPE AT MOUNT PALOMAR OBSERVATORY, CALIF. Tauri. His discovery, later to be called the "Crab" nebula in Taurus, is now known to be the expanding gaseous remnant of the 1054 supernova (see Nova and Supernova). Messier, although much more interested in comets Louis XV nicknamed him the found that his searches could be more ef"ferret of comets" ficiently prosecuted if he noted the positions of those apparently cometary objects that did not move among the stars. In this way Messier discovered most of the brighter nebulae and clusters I"

—

—

from northern latitudes, and his final catalogue pubhshed in 1781 contained 103 entries. The Catalogues of William and John Herschel. The foregoing early catalogues of nebulae almost pale into insignificance, however, when compared with the systematic sweeps of the skies made by WilUam Herschel (1738-1822) and his son John

visible

—

158

NEBULA

Herschel { 7i):-iS7i ). With a rctlcctor of his own making, the elder Herschel begaahis illustrious career as the founder of sidereal astronomy by observing the Orion nebula in 1774. Its appearance so amazed him that he directed his attention to other nebulae, which then became objects for his lifelong study and interpretaBetween 1786 and 1S02 he discovered and catalogued, in tion. three lists, more than 2,500 nebulae. The younger Herschel proved to be his father's ablest successor in the field of nebular observation and discovery. Like his father, he constructed in 1820 his own telescope, an iS-in. speculum metal retlector, and began in 182 s to reobserve many of the nebulae found by his parent. The outcome of this second survey was a catalogue of about 2,300 nebulae, of which 525 were new. John Herschel found the field so fascinating that he resolved to extend his search to southern skies, and in 1834

he began on Table mountain near Cape Town, S.Af., a four-year survey that marked a new era in the study of celestial objects visible in the southern hemisphere. The Magellanic Clouds were for the first time subjected to a detailed examination, with the result that the larger one was found to contain more than qoo member star clusters, nebulae and stars associated with nebulosity.

while nearly 250 similar objects were counted

in

the smaller cloud.

The younger Herschel catalogued more than 1,700 other nebulae in southern skies, and for a number of them he made beautiful drawings. Upon his return to England in 1838, he set about systematizing all his own and his father's discoveries of nebulae, and in the "General Catalogue" of about 5,000 1864 in the Philosophical Transactions oj the Royal Society. This great work forms the backbone of J. L. E. Dreyer's New General Catalogue oj Nebulae (N.G.C.) (1888), which augmented by the First (1895) and Second (1908) Index Catalogues (I.C.), with a combined total of more than 13,000 entries, constitutes the standard reference list for nearly all modern observations of nebulae.

his labours

culminated

entries published in

II.

DEVELOPMENT OF NEBULAR PHOTOGRAPHY

The invention

of photography

and

revolutionized the study of nebulae. sion has the advantage over the

its

application to astronomy

Since the photographic emul-

human eye

of being able to ac-

cumulate the effect of exposure to faint light, it is therefore possible by prolonged exposure limited mainly by the nocturnal airglow of the earth's atmosphere to photograph nebular detail far too fine and faint to be seen visually with a telescope. Moreover, a photograph provides a permanent record that in most cases can be measured with a much higher precision than can

— —

be obtained by simple visual methods. These advantages were exploited by astronomers as soon as the practicable dry plate became available during the last quarter of the 19th century.

Early Photographs to 1900

The Orion nebula has

the dis-

tinction of being the first one to

be photographed, on 1880, by

82), a

Sept.

30,

Henry Draper (1837-

New

England physician.

Its priority as a subject doubtless

was due to its brightness, which would make it visible to the unaided eye were the nebula not outshone by the involved thirdmagnitude group of four stars known as the Trapezium (6 Orionis). In any case, the Orion nebula was popular with pioneers, for it was also photographed in France in 1881 by P. J. C. Janssen (1824-1907) and in England in 1883 by A. A. Common ( 18411903), who was doubly venturesome by doing nebular photography with a

series

of

silver-

up to mirror diameters of 60 in. The Pleiades nebulosity was first photographed on-glass reflectors,

in its brightest parts

stars

around the

Merope and Maia by

the

GREAT NEBULA IN CONSTELLATION OF ORION (M42, N.G.C. 1976) SURROUNDED BY GLOWING GAS CLOUD. ONE OF THE LARGER GAS-DUST COMPLEXES IN THE GALAXY. RADIATION FROM STARS EXCITES ATOMS OF GAS, CAUSING THEM TO EMIT THE FLUORESCENT LIGHT VISIBLE HERE. 200-IN.

PHOTOGRAPH

NEBULA

Plate I

Plate II

NEBULA

S

^

E « c

NEBULA brothers Paul and Prosper Henry, at Paris in 1885. About the same time in England, Isaac Roberts (1829-1904) with a 20-in. reflector began a pioneering program in nebular photography that

time revealed the true form and extent of many nebulae. His photograph in 1886 showed that the Pleiades cluster stars are enmeshed in complex clouds of wispy filaments, and that This last result the Andromeda nebula has a spiral structure. from a small reflector was a striking example of the power of photography, because the first discoveries of spiral nebular forms, for the

made

first

visually in 1845-50

by Lord Rosse (1800-67) and his asspeculum

159

mirror, which he also used under the most favourable conditions from 1909-17 in the 60-in. Mount Wilson reflector. His nebular

photographs set a new standard in photographic definition, with the result that a few of the largest and nearest spiral nebulae were resolved into their brightest stars. G. E. Hale (1868-1938), who had few peers in the perception of the value of more powerful instruments to attack fundamental astronomical problems, was able in 1919 to place in successful operation on Mt. Wilson a Programs of nebular research with this great 100-in. reflector. telescope have produced a rich harvest of results, especially for it, Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) Cepheid variable in the Andromeda nebula, M. L. Humason began in 1928 his measurement of large red shifts (see Red Shijts and Expansion of the Universe, below) in the spectra of extragalactic nebulae, and W. Baade in 1944 re-

sociates at Parsonstown, York, required the use of large

the extragalactic nebulae.

metal mirrors, up to six feet in diameter. It was J. E. Keeler (1857-1900"), however, who firmly established the great advantages of nebular photography with a reflecIn 1898-1900 at the Lick observatory, on Mt. Hamilton, tor. Calif., where more favourable observing conditions existed than in England, he expertly improved and operated Common's 36-in.

discovered in 1923 the

had been donated

reflector that

in 1895 to the first great

mountain-

top observatory by Edward Crossley (1841-1905) of Halifax, Eng. Keeler's photographs recorded in finer detail hundreds of previously unknown faint nebulae beyond the bounds of the Milky Way.

With

first

solved into stars the amorphous nuclear region of the Andromeda nebula. Thus to this one telescope we owe three of the most significant observational advances in modern astronomy: (i) the true idea of the scale of the universe, from Hubble's work on the distances and real brightnesses of extragalactic nebulae; (2)

first

of these plates, he drew two conclusions of prime importance: (i) the number of such nebulae photographable with his equipment was at least 120,000, compared to the catalogued number of less than 13,000; (2) most of these nebulae would show

From study

a spiral form.

—

Star Cameras. It was also at the Lick observatory that E. E. Barnard (1857-1923) began in i88g his epochal photography of the Milky Way with short-focus, large-aperture portrait lenses. These wide-angle cameras disclosed as no conventional telescopes could the immense richness and structural features of the clouds of stars, gas and dust that make up the galaxy. Likewise for the first time, dark nebulae appeared in a profusion of sizes and shapes on Barnard's photographs, and his systematic study of them opened a new field for modern astronomy: interstellar matter. Others quickly adopted this efficient survey technique, notably H. C. Russell (1836-1907) at Sydney, Austr., in i8go, and Max Wolf (1863-1932) at Heidelberg, Ger., in 1891. Russell's work on the southern Milky Way supplemented Barnard's in the north, while Wolf, pioneering in the photographic charting of the extragalactic nebulae, found the first rich cluster of these objects in

Coma

Berenices.

Nebular Photography After 1900 Thus nebular photography began to develop by two dissimilar techniques. One was with wide-field, lens-type star cameras (astrographs), the other with small-field reflectors. The two types were the astronomical analogues of the shotgun and rifle, with photography in the role of gunpowder. Also, the beginning of the 2oth century marked a world-wide mushrooming of construction and operation of both types of photographic telescopes, which increased steadily in size and number as advances were made in optics

and engineering.

The Harvard College observatory, Cambridge, Mass., probably exploiting the advantages of star cameras for nebular photography. Starting about 1900 in the southern hemisphere first at Arequipa, Peru, and after 1927 at Bloemfontein, S.Af., Harvard astronomers used the largest star camera the 24-in. Bruce to chart the distribution of nebulae over large areas in southern skies, and to study in detail those extragalactic bonanzas, the Magellanic Clouds. At their northern station on Oak led the field in

—

—

Ridge, Mass., similar work was done with a battery of star cameras ranging in size from a few inches in aperture up to the i6-in. Metcalf. Carried out under the general direction of Harlow Shapley from about 1930-50, these photographic surveys have yielded an immense amount of information on the extragalactic nebulae.

Reflectors.

— At

the

Mount Wilson

observatory,

Pasadena,

REFLECTED AND SCATTERED STARLIGHT OF THE PLEIADES (M45). GALACTIC NEBULA IN THE CONSTELLATION OF TAURUS. 490 LIGHT-YEARS FROM THE EARTH. STARS IN THE CLUSTER PROVIDE THE LIGHT. AND SURROUNDING CLOUDS OF FINELY DIVIDED DUST PARTICLES REFLECT AND SCATTER THE RAYS FROM THE STARS. 48-lN. PHOTOGRAPH the concept of an expanding universe, from the velocity-distance relation based on Hubble's distances and Humason 's red shifts; and (3) the recognition of two distinct stellar populations of different and evolution, from Baade's synthesis of highest-fidelity

age

and red

Calif., the reflecting telescope was developed to its potential peak of perfection, along with accessory instrumentation that has im-

photographs

measurably increased our knowledge of both galactic and extragalactic nebulae. It was there that G. W. Ritchey (1864-1945)

star cameras, the 20-in. Carnegie astrograph at the Lick observa-

figured to

the highest optical quality

the

first

large

telescope

in blue

Modern Developments.

light.

— Among the many large and modern

tory deserves special mention.

proposed by

Installed in 1939, its basic program to provide a set of first-epoch

W. H. Wright was

NEBULA

i6o

VEIL NEBULA (N.G.C. 6992 AND 6995) IN CYGNUS, A NORTHERN CONSTELLATION. THE NEBULA GLOWS AS IT COLLIDES WITH DUST AND GAS IN INTERSTELLAR SPACE. HOT BLUE LIGHT IS EMITTED FROM THE LEADING EDGE OF THE NEBULA WHERE THE HARDEST COLLISIONS OCCUR: LESS ENERGETIC COLLISIONS IN THE TRAILING EDGE CAUSE A RED

GLOW.

48-IN.

SCHMIDT PHOTOGRAPH

NEBULA

i6i

photographs of the northern two-thirds of the sky, for the most accurate measurement of galactic stellar motions with respect to

of objects differ fundamentally in every important respect, such In as distance, intrinsic size and brightness and constitution.

The full set of the background of faint extragalactic nebulae. 1,246 plates was obtained in 1947-54 by C. D. Shane and C. A.

be separately discussed.

who began

1948 to count the several millions of Although this set of plates maps the sky with high precision to about the 19th magnitude, its quality as a photographic sky atlas cannot compare with that ob-

Wirtanen,

two categories are so dissimilar that they should

fact, the

in

in.

logically

THE GALACTIC NEBULAE

extragalactic nebulae recorded.

new type of star camera. The Schmidt Telescope. Invented about 1930 by Bernhard

tained by a

—

Schmidt (1879-1935) at the Hamburg observatory, Bergedorf, Ger., the optical system that bears his name has revolutionized nebular photography. With pure genius, he placed a thin, weakly curved, aspherical lens at the centre of curvature of a spherical mirror, and in this simple but elegant way produced an optical system that would have high speed, large field and nearly colour-free images. This was a major advance in optics, and its rapid introis due in large measure to Schmidt's colleague Baade, who fully realized the importance of the discovery when he came to the Mount Wilson observatory in 193 1. At that time plans and programs were being made for a 200-in. reflector, and it was decided to build an i8-in. Schmidt camera as a pilot model sur-

duction in astronomy

vey instrument. struction after

Its

immediate success led

World War

Palomar mountain.

Its

II, of

to the design,

(i)- diffuse nebulae and (2) planetary kind includes bright and dark nebulae, but with no clear-cut division, since the two are often found thoroughly mixed together. The second kind has a characteristic appearance,

These are of two types:

The

nebulae.

first

usually a round or a symmetrical structure, with a star near the

centre of the nebula.

Diffuse Nebulae

Modern work on

interstellar

material

suggests

that

diffuse

may

be regarded from the following very general point of view. Throughout our own stellar system, of which the fundamental plane is the Milky Way, there is a thin layer of nonluminous

nebulae

and con-

the 48-in. Schmidt telescope on

performance

tests in

1948-49 so

far ex-

previous wide-field, faint-limit photographs that its first program was to survey all the sky observable from the northern hemisphere. From 1949-56, under the joint sponsorship of the National Geographic society and Palomar observatory, the 48-in.

ceeded

all

Schmidt was used to obtain the 879 plate-pairs

—

— one exposure

in

photographic Carried out under the critical supervision of R. sky atlases. Minkowski, this survey by the 48-in. Schmidt has recorded so

blue light and one in red light

in this finest of all

much new information on nebulae that source of research programs for many

it

will serve as a

— Closely following the

The 200-inch Reflector. and loo-in.

prime

years.

initial

successes

1928 was able to initiate the project that is of incalculable value for nebular research; the building of a 200-in. reflector. The funds were provided by the General Education board of the Rockefeller foundation, on the condition that the telescope be maintained by the California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, and be operated in full co-operation with the Mount Wilson observatory of of the 60-in.

reflectors.

Hale

in

A

satisfactory 200-in. the Carnegie Institution of Washington. mirror of a special Pyrex glass was successfully cast by the

Corning Glass Co. at Corning, N.Y., in 1934, and the optical surfacing was done in Pasadena during 1936-42 and 1945-47. Under the direction of I. S. Bowen the telescope with its mirror installed was given thorough optical and mechanical tests, and preliminary astronomical trials, in 1948-49. Hubble had the honour of taking the first nebular photograph on Jan. 26, 1949, with the 200-in. From about Jan. reflector, by this time named the Hale telescope. 1950 this great instrument has been in regular use on the Mount Wilson and Palomar observatories research programs, with discoveries that have already justified the cost, time and resources involved in

its

realization.

Three results of extraordinary interest for nebular research are: (1) the measurement in 1950 by Humason of a nebular red 38,000 mi. per second or nearly one-fifth the demonstration in 1952 by Baade of the need for revision upwards, by a factor not less than 2, of the extragalactic distance scale; and (3) the identification in 1953 by

shift in velocity units of

the velocity of light; (2

)

Baade and Minkowski of several of the brighter ical radio sources.

Classification of Nebulae.

optical astronom-

—As has been explained, the nebulae

naturally into two groups designated the galactic and the extragalactic. Alternate names for the latter group by far the largest are nongalactic, anagalactic, or merely galaxies. Galactic fall

—

—

near the plane of the Milky Way (the galaxy), while extragalactic nebulae or galaxies are seen, for the most part, outside the Milky Way. The division is not merely one of apparent distribution over the sky, for the two classes

nebulae are found

in or

TRIFID NEBULA (M20, N.G.C. 6514) IN THE SOUTHERN CONSTELLATION OF A BRIGHT, DIFFUSE NEBULA, IT IS AN EXAMPLE OF THE SAGITTARIUS. OBSCURING MATTER LOCALIZED IN STREAKS OR LANES. 48-IN. PHOTOGRAPH

This material, a mixture of atoms, molecules, dust partiis not uniformly distributed, but is relatively concentrated in some regions, and extremely tenuous or absent In some cases denser clouds are situated in front of a in others. They are then revealed in silhouette, bright, starry background. and photographs such as Barnard's record them as dark neb-

matter. cles

and larger masses,

ulae.

On

the other hand,

of stars,

lie in

it

often happens that single stars, or groups In this case the

the denser parts of the stratum.

stars illuminate

the surrounding cloud,

much

like

street

lights

and bright nebulae may be seen or photographed by the Mixed light coming from the particles composing the cloud. bright and dark nebulae occur in circumstances where a cloud not penetrate involved stars does the is so large that the light from in a fog,

NEBULA

l62

nebula appears to be superposed on a larger dark one; or again, the obscuring matter may be localized in streaks or lanes, which are outlined or contrasted to its boundaries, so that a

lirisjht

against the brighter aiul less opaque parts of the cloud.

—

Bright Diffuse Nebulae. The true character of these objects became known in 1S64-68 when William Huggins (1824-1910) examined several of them with his spectroscope arid found their concentrated into a few bright radiations, typical of So many more were subsea rarefied gas excited to luminescence. quently found to have a similar spectrum that for nearly half a century it was generally supposed all diffuse nebulae were- incandescent gases. In 191 2. however, V. M. Slipher of the Lowell observatory announced that the spectrum of the nebulosity around the Pleiades gave an absorption spectrum, which is a continuous, coloured band of light crossed by dark lines. Furthermore, the nebular spectrum was like that of the stars imbedded in the nebula. light highly

some overlapping,

in general it is found that stars hotter than about 20,000° C. (spectral type Bi or earlier) can excite an emission spectrum in the gases in the nebula, while cooler stars merely illuminate the nebular particles.

These results by Hubble and by Bowen stimulated an immense amount of research on the gaseous nebulae, the advance beginning about 1930 and continuing in accelerated fashion to the present. Observationally, Hubble's exploratory survey of known nebulae

was followed by

a large

number

of

more

detailed

and extensive

searches for fainter nebulae and involved stars; on the theoretical side,

Bowen's explanation of the nebular gaseous spectrum

led to

a veritable flood of analytical papers dealing with the physical

processes in the nebular gases.

Taken

together, this

work

repre-

sents a major increase in astronomical knowledge, not merely of

the interaction between stars and interstellar gas and dust, but

more generally of the structure and evolution of the Milky Way. H I and H II Regions. One of the strongest radiations from gaseous diffuse nebulae is the hydrogen alpha (Ha) line, which occurs in the red part of the spectrum at a wave length of 6,563

—

angstroms (A). This is a fortunate circumstance, because red light Thus most is less absorbed than blue in the galactic dust clouds. modern photographic searches for gaseous nebulae have been made in Ha light, usually with high-speed cameras of the Schmidt type employing colour filters or objective prisms to isolate a narrow band of wave lengths around Ha. This procedure also markedly reduces the fogging effect of the night sky airglow, which chiefly limits the search for faint objects.

A

notable application of this technique was that carried out

by

O. Struve and associates in 1937-42 at the Yerkes and McDonald observatories at Lake Geneva, Wis., and Mt. Locke, Tex. With a large and efficient nebular spectrograph of ingenious new design, they found many extremely faint Ha emission regions in the Milky Way. This observational advance was closely related to a theo-

one of high significance for galactic structure. In 1939 and 1948 B. Stromgren at the Yerkes and Copenhagen observatories worked out and then applied the theory of hydrogen ionization (electron removal) to the case of hot stars imbedded in the To him we owe the fruitful galactic stratum of gas and dust. concept of fairly sharply bounded regions inside of which there hydrogen, II, and outside, neutral hydrogen, H I. This H is ionized theory not only accounted qualitatively for the appearance of many of the nearly circular patterns and broken arcs of gaseous nebulae, but it also gave numerical values for their radii, which depended upon the gas density and the temperatures of the exciting stars. For example, in an interstellar gas of density one atom per cubic centimetre, a very hot (30,000° C.) 0-star could produce an H II region about 500 light-years in diameter, but a cooler (10,000° C.) A-star, one of only 1.5 light-years. The practical value of these "Stromgren spheres" became apparent as other Ha surveys of the Milky Way, in both northern and southern hemispheres, revealed new gaseous nebulae in large numbers, in a great range of sizes, and of spectacular complexity. But this puzzling pattern in general could be resolved into a II regions, each with hierarchy of interlocking, or overlapping, In this way, important its responsible one or more hot stars. corroborative evidence was obtained of galactic spiral structure, first found in 1951 in another manner by W. W. Morgan of Yerkes observatory. For these H II regions, as shown by W. Baade's work in 1947-50 on the Andromeda nebula, follow fairly faithfully the windings of its spiral arms. Variable Nebulae. These are of two kinds ( i ) those associated with unusual variable stars, and (2) those observed to form around novae after outburst. The former may be termed irregular, because of their structure and variability in light, while the latter are described as expanding, because their sizes increase with time. The irregularly variable nebulae comprise a small group of less than a dozen known members. Without exception, they occur in dark regions of the Milky Way and are close to peculiar variable stars. In appearance they are diffusely irregular, like Hind's nebula (N.G.C. 1555) with T Tauri, or fan-shaped like Hubble's (N.G.C. 2261) with R Monocerotis and N.G.C. 6729 with R Coronae Although Australis, or double-bowed like that with R Aquarii. retical

in

N.G.C. 6526) IN THE SOUTHERN CONSTELLATION OF THIS BRIGHT. DIFFUSE NEBULA IS SO LARGE THAT LIGHT

LAGOON NEBULA (M8. SAGITTARIUS.

FROM THE INVOLVED STARS DOES NOT PENETRATE ITS BOUNDARIES AND THE NEBULA ITSELF APPEARS TO BE SUPERPOSED ON A LARGER, DARKER ONE. 200-IN. PHOTOGRAPH

These

results,

which were

later obtained for a

diffuse nebulae, provided evidence for the

number

of other

view that some nebulae

by scattered or reflected light directly received from the stars, by emitted light indirectly excited in the nebula by ultraviolet radiation from the stars. The latter mechanism was thoroughly analyzed by I. S. Bowen in 1927, and it is of great astrophysical importance (see The Gaseous Spectrum of the shine

rather than

Nebulae, below). Before Bowen explained the origin of the nebular emission spectrum, however, Hubble in a pioneering investigation of diffuse nebulae published in 1922 discovered one of the most significant properties of these objects: whether a diffuse nebula shines by emitted light (bright-line spectrum) or by reflected or scattered light (absorption spectrum) depends upon the temperature of the star or stars concerned. Although there is

H

—

:

NEBULA

163

repeatedly photographed, there is little evidence that their parts have moved, or that their light Spectrovariations correspond with those of the involved stars. scopic study of these nebulae and stars has shown that they are II regions, for the fundamentally different from the gaseous all

these objects have been

H

nebular spectra are generally continuous as for reflection nebulae, while the stellar spectra are characteristic of average or dwarf stars. These results, obtained prior to 1945 mainly by V. M. Slipher and C. O. Lampland at the Lowell observatory in Arizona, and by E. Hubble and A. H. Joy at the Mount Wilson observatory in Cahfornia, directed attention to stars involved in dense clouds of dust and gas in the galaxy. Modern studies of their mutual interaction have provided information that probably bears directly on star formation (see Dark Nebulae, below). Expanding nebulae result from probably the most violent of all the novae. These are stars that suddenly celestial phenomena release enormous amounts of energy when they reach a critical or unstable state in their evolution. In only a few hours a normal star may flare up until it shines with a power of thousands of suns, if a common nova, or blazes with a brilhance of millions These are respectively the cosmic of suns, if a. supernova. counterparts of the terrestrial A- and H-bombs, for they explosively radiation pour out and gases at fantastically high rates. The radiation leaves the nova with the speed of light, 186,000 mi. per second, while the ejected gases move outward with velocities of a few hundreds or thousands of miles per second. Thus there is a time lapse between discovery of the nova and direct observation of its expanding gaseous nebula, which is known from spectroscopic observations to originate at the time of outburst. Depending on the amount and velocity of the gases, and the distance of the nova, the expanding nebula may not be seen or photographed until months or years after outburst. But when it can be distinguished from the fading star, measurement of the nebula's size provides one For the diameter of the best estimates of the nova's distance. of the nebula (in seconds of arc) divided by the time since outburst gives the angular rate of expansion, whereas the spectro:

scopic observations,

by Doppler's

principle, give the linear rate

of expansion (in miles per second). linear values of the

same quantity

are

Whenever both angular and known for a remote object,

a simple calculation gives its distance.

In this way distances ranging from 1,000 to S,ooo light-years have been determined for some of the best-observed common novae. With these distances and certain reasonable assumptions, it has been calculated that the expanding nebulae probably have masses nearly negligible compared to the stars that produced them. Thus the common novae, despite their spectacular performance, are not disastrously affected. They merely blow off some thin, outermost atmospheric layers, which become invisible in the astronomically brief time of less than 100 years. The Crab Nebula. Supernovae are so rare that adequate observations of their nebular gases are available for only one of the that of a.d. 1054. Its cloud of galaxy's three known supernovae expanding gas is the remarkable Crab nebula in Taurus, which is unique in being so long-lived and so large and bright compared to any possible stellar remnant. Studies by Baade and Minkowski in 1942 showed that the nebula consists of two distinct parts. One is a complex filamentary structure, possibly a distorted thin shell, known to be composed of ionized gas, while the other is Ala diffuse amorphous mass thought to be mainly electrons. though a central i5th-magnitude star, whose temperature was computed as 500,000° C, was considered as the energy source, this interpretation has been supplanted by a much more interesting one. In 1949 the Crab nebula was found by the Austrahan radioastronomers J. G. Bolton, G. J. Stanley and 0. B. Slee to be one of the brightest radio sources in the sky, and in 1952-53 its light was discovered to be polarized, by the Russian astronomers M. A. Vashakidze and V. A. Dombrovsky of the Burakan observatory. They followed up a suggestion by the Russian astrophysicist I. S. Shklovsky, who proposed to account for the unique brightness of the nebula in both optical and radio regions as the radiation of electrons accelerated in a magnetic field like that in a synchrotron. This explanation was given considerable support in a compre-

—

—

—

CRAB NEBULA (Ml. N.G.C. 1952) IN THE CONSTELLATION OF TAURUS. A THE GASEOUS REMNANT OF THE GALACTIC SUPERNOVA OF A.D. 1054. NEBULA IS 5.000 LIGHT-YEARS AWAY AND IS EXPANDING AT 700 MI. /SEC. IT IS AN INTENSE RADIO SOURCE WITH PART OF ITS LIGHT BEING POLARPHOTOGRAPHED WITH THE 200-IN. TELESCOPE AT MOUNT PALOMAH IZED. OBSERVATORY. CALIF. hensive investigation pubUshed in 1956 by J. H. Oort and T. Walraven, of Leiden University observatory. From analysis of their photoelectric polarization measurements, they concluded that the magnetic field probably Ues in the filamentary structure, and that the energies of particles accelerated in it may be high enough

make the Crab nebula a strong source of cosmic rays. This expectation was reahzed in 1963 when H. F. Friedman and his colleagues at the U.S. Naval Research laboratory, Washington, D.C., found that the Crab nebula is one of the brightest X-ray sources in the night sky (the sun, of course, being the strongest one in the entire sky). This discovery, which opened up the entirely new field of X-ray astronomy, was made by launching Aerobee rockets beyond the earth's atmosphere to a distance of more to

than 100 miles. By firing a stabiUzed rocket at just the right inand by remarkable split-second timing of their obser\'ations,

stant

same group measured the variation in the X-ray source's inmoon occulted the Crab nebula on July 7, 1964. The X-ray intensity did not suddenly disappear but instead gradually dechned to zero as the moon's edge passed in front of the nebula. Thus, it was possible to conclude that the source is not stellar but has a diameter of about 1 minute of arc, or a real size of about 1 the

tensity as the

hght-year near the centre of the nebula. Dark Nebulae. The Milky Way contains a great number of dark patches or markings, some nearly devoid of stars. A few were first noted by the Herschels, who thought they were holes gi^^ng a view into empty space beyond. Although Barnard at first agreed

—

with this idea, his extensive photographic surveys con\'inced him and others that the dark nebulae are due to nonluminous matter. Their range in apparent size is enormous from small patches of a :

NEBULA

164

few seconds or minutes of arc, and long lanes of several degrees like those in Ophiuchus and Scorpio, up to the great rift that bifurcates the Milky Way for some 120° from Cygnus to Centaurus. It might be thought that little could be learned of objects that are discerned by their apparent lack of light, but this natural Much has been found out about impression is far from true. dark nebulae from their effects on the light of stars seen through or within them. For the nonluminous material is composed of dust or smoke particles a space smog that scatters, dims, reddens and polarizes passing photons of light, as in the familiar phenomenon of sunset in a hazy atmosphere. All these effects are susceptible of measurement, and the results give information on the distances and dimensions of dark nebulae, and, of equal importance, on the particle size, density, shape and orientation. Max Wolf in the last decade of the igth century was first to show how star counts around and in a dark nebula could be used to estimate its distance and absorptive power. Outside the nebula the

—

number

of stars increases steadily with faintness; inside, at number falls below that outside. The

level of brightness, the

the principal chemical constituents, evidence has steadily accumuis much the same throughan extremely important result for nearly all astronomical researches involving distances beyond the range of direct survey, or trigonometric, methods. The reasons for the significance of this result, and how it was obtained, deserve to be

lated that the mixture of particle sizes

out the galaxy.

detailed.

This

is

—

Space Reddening of Starlight. Nearly everyone knows that the sun seems redder near the horizon than overhead, and that the sky around it is blue at normal altitudes. Both effects are due to atmospheric particles that absorb and scatter blue light much more than red. The process is known as Rayleigh scattering, after Lord Rayleigh (1842-1919), who found that the atmospheric absorption varied inversely as the fourth power of the wave length. For ex-

some mag-

nitude at which the deficiency appears indicates the distance, while the percentage deficiency gives the total absorption. The method is

crude because of the great range

in real

brightness of stars, but

by certain statistical refinements A. Pannekoek of Amsterdam showed that it could give reliable relative distances, and, with a count to faint limits, accurate absorptions. Most of the prominent dark nebulae have been investigated by this star-count method, and it has been found that the nearer ones such as those in Aquila and Taurus and the southern Coalsack are only 400 to 500 lightyears distant, while the more remote ones like those in Cygnus, Orion and Monoceros are 2,000 to 3,000 light-years away. The total absorptions generally are in the range from 30% to 95%, although there are some dark nebulae that scarcely obscure and others that are nearly opaque.

Cosmic Dust.

—The physics

of finely divided material has be-

major importance in astronomy because of its bearing on distance estimates, and on theories of star formation and

come

a subject of

evolution.

Obviously,

the

if

intensity

of

starlight

decreases

square of the distance, as would happen for light passing through obscuring matter, then distances derived from apparent brightness would be too large. It is likewise plain that the most promising place to seek an understanding faster than inversely as

the

of stellar origin and early development probably

is

in

a

dark

nebula, where conditions are favourable for formation of stars by

condensation, contraction and accretion processes in the clouds In both cases, it is vital to have as of cosmic dust particles. much knowledge as possible of the physical properties, chemical

composition and environmental matter. Pioneering

investigators

of

conditions

the

of

properties

this

of

interstellar

small

cosmic

von Seeliger (1849-1924) of Munich, Ger., and H. N. Russell (1877-1957) of Princeton, N.J. As the result of some work on the swarms of meteorites that form Saturn's rings, Seeliger in 1901 made a theoretical study of the reflection of light from small bodies, and his formulation of the problem strongly influenced much later work on reflection nebulae. Russell, however, in 1922 worked out a theory of submicroscopic particles for which reflection was small compared to scattering or absorption of light. grains were H.

He

obtained formulas that gave absorption as a function of particle size, and concluded that dimming was most pronounced for a size about 1/150,000 in., or one-third the wave length of visual light. This theory was considerably extended during 1930-35 by C. Schalen of Uppsala, Swed., who included more specific particle

RING NEBULA (M57. N.G.C. 6720) IN THE NORTHERN CONSTELLATION OF LYRA. CONSISTING MAINLY OF GASES THROWN OFF BY THE STAR IN THE CENTRE. 200-IN. PHOTOGRAPH

ample, since deep red light has twice the wave length of deep blue, it is absorbed only (^)* = Jjas much, and objects observed through long atmospheric paths appear reddened by this selective absorption. Moreover, Rayleigh also showed that this particular absorption law is characteristic of particles mainly of dust size,

observatories, tended to

or somewhat less than the wave length of light. Thus the particle mixture is more typical of the chemical composition than of contaminating larger-size dust particles, and it may be considered the same throughout the earth's atmosphere. This wave length-selective effect on light that has passed through a nontransparent medium is the means by which astronomers have been able to determine a general interstellar absorption law,

support the hypothesis of a nonmet'allic make-up, with icelike compounds of the much more abundant elements hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen. Although there was, and still is, some uncertainty regarding

size,": and kinds of particles, and to correct disFor example, particle sizes of dust tances of obscured objects. dimensions are estimated from colour observations of reflection nebulae, which are not nearly so blue relative to their illuminating

properties in the equations. stars involved in

position

copper.

From

dark nebulae, he inferred that the chemical com-

mainly metallic, with compounds of iron, zinc and Studies of bright reflection nebulae, on the other hand,

is

notably in 1935-40 by O. Struve,

Henyey

the colours and spectra of

of the Yerkes and

J.

McDonald

L.

Greenstein and L. G.

to estimate the

NEBULA composing the particles are inferred from much modern work on their abundances in stars and nebulae. To correct a distance of an obscured object, it is necessary to know the total absorption, which can be found from the selective if the absorption ratio = total/selective is known. To determine this ratio and to find out whether it is essentially the same throughout the galaxy, colour observations for a large number of objects and for a long range of wave lengths are restars as the daylight

sky

to the sun; the elements

is

quired.

programs that provided many and absorption are those carried out from about 1930-50 by J. Stebbins, C. M. Huffer and A. E. Whitford, of the Washburn observatory, Madison, Wis. By developing and applying photoelectric techniques of precision and of great sensitivity, they first determined accurate colours for more than 1,300 distant high-luminosity O- and B-stars and for most of the globular star clusters. Next, for limited lists of the brighter stars, they obtained six-colour measurements ranging from the ultraviolet to the infrared. Finally, in 1947 Whitford extended the selective absorption curve to the extreme astronomical infrared at 21,000 A, and showed that a good approximation is a

The most comprehensive

series of

of the basic data on space reddening

law giving the absorption as the reciprocal of the wave length. Although this law had already been anticipated by previous work on reflection nebulae, and from spectrophotometry of stars in dark nebulae, it was Whitford's far-infrared work that established its validity over the entire astronomical optical spectrum. This inverse wave length law provided the basis for confident calculations of the ratio of total to selective absorption, while the six-colour observations of widely distributed stars gave assurance that it was valid in many Milky Way regions. Since a few apparent exceptions have not stood the test of time, as additional and more precise data were obtained, it may be said that the discolouring dust of space possesses a remarkable uniformity of particle-size distribution, and probably of chemical composition. Interstellar Polarization.

—A

significantly

new property

of the

composing dark nebulae was discovered in 1949 by J. S. Hall of the U.S. Naval observatory at Washington, D.C., and W. A. Hiltner of the Yerkes and McDonald observatories. They found by precise photoelectric measurements that the light of

particles

highly space-reddened stars is polarized. This result means that the interstellar particles are so shaped and oriented in space that

they cause passing light waves to vibrate in a preferential plane. By 1956 polarization observations had been made for hundreds of stars of many kinds, in the northern Milky Way principally by

165

became available

for both stars

and nebulae.

These data demon-

strated that the stars of highest luminosity are generally found associated with nebulae both bright and dark, that they radiate energy at such spendthrift rates they can last only a few million years and that their motions in space average among the slowest in the galaxy. Such facts point with more than strong suspicion to a nebular origin for these stars; otherwise their association would not be so close. For the age of the galaxy is reckoned a thousand times greater, and there has been sufficient time for these stars to have moved from nebulae and to dim to comparative obscurity on the cosmic scene. While this concept seems satisfactory for supergiant stars, they To be represent but a small part of the galactic population. applicable in general, a theory of star formation needs to account for the great bulk of average-type stars like the sun, whose hydrogen mass and energy output can sustain it for several thousand million years. Since many nebulae contain clusters of stars of a wide range of brightness, it seemed reasonable to look closer at

some of

the fainter ones, and particularly at those

whose

ir-

regular light variations seemed unique for stars in dark nebulae.

From

extensive studies of groupings of these

fainter

nebular

the Russian astronomers V. Ambartsumian and P. Kholopov concluded in 1950 they are young stars of unstable behaviour, and termed them T-associations, after the prototype variables,

T Tauri, the illuminating star of Hind's variable nebula (N.G.C. 1555). In 1945 A. H. Joy of the Mount Wilson observatory reported spectroscopic observations for a number of T Tauri variables that led to their recognition as a distinctive class of emission-line objects found orfly in dark nebulae. Subsequent surveys to much fainter magnitudes, especially by G. Haro at the variable

Tonantzintla observatory, Mex., and by G. H. Herbig at the Lick observatory, resulted in the discovery by 1950 of hundreds of generally similar stars, without exception in dark nebulae. By 1952 Herbig's detailed studies of the emission-line objects, which comprise only a portion of the variables, revealed for these stars two significant facts that are consistent with the hypothesis of First, these stars appear to be rotating abrecent formation. normally fast for their size and mass; second, they are abnormally bright in blue and ultraviolet light for their temperatures. Both these properties have been predicted in theories of star formation from cosmic dust clouds: as residual rotation from turbulent motions, and as excess radiation from a contracting nebula-star interaction.

Radio Observations of Dark Nebulae.

World War

—The

development of

new

Hiltner and by Hall with A. H. Mikesell, in the southern by Elske

radio astronomy after

van P. Smith of the Harvard College observatory. This work showed that: (i) the strongest polarization occurs only for highly reddened stars whose light has been strongly absorbed; (2) the

nique for the study of dark nebulae, for two reasons. First, radio waves pass through dense dust clouds that practically blot out ordinary light. Second, the relationship between the dust and involved hydrogen gas may be found as the result of a brilUant prediction in 1944 by the young Dutch astronomer H. C. van de Hulst of the Leiden observatory. He pointed out the possibility of observing radio radiation of 21 cm. wave length from neutral hydrogen, or I, and it was first detected in the galaxy in 1951 by H. I. Ewen and E. M. Purcell, Harvard university physicists. This discovery, potentially comparable in its consequences with the invention of the telescope, has made possible detailed astrophysical investigations of some of the larger gas-dust complexes in Perseus, Taurus, Orion and Ophiuchus, notably by B. J. Bok and his younger colleagues A. E. Lilley, D. S. Heeschen and T. K. Menon. Working with the 24-ft. radio telescope at the Agassiz station of Harvard College observatory, they reported results in 1954-56 relating to the relative distributions of dust and neutral hydrogen gas, the density ratio of gas/dust and total masses. Over large areas the I gas emission is prevalent wherever the optical obscuration by dust is evident, but the smaller darkest nebulae the dust is apparently are not necessarily the best radio emitters more locally concentrated than neutral hydrogen gas. In the Orion-Taurus complex the gas/dust density ratio in the mean is The average value 100, but with a big range from 35 to 250. would indicate, for an estimated total I mass of 21,000 suns, that all the dust amounts to only about 200 solar masses. These figures, however, involve a number of simplifying assumptions

orientation of polarization planes

is

often closely the same for

fairly large regions, of the order of several

hundred

to

i

,000 light-

years; (3) there is an over-aLl strong tendency, along nearly the entire Milky Way, for alignment parallel to the galactic plane.

Interpretation of these results indicates,

first,

that the particles

probably are elongated, some four to five times longer than wide, with their major axes generally at right angles to the Milky Way plane, and second, that there is some large-scale mechanism, possibly of galactic dimensions, producing this long-axis alignment. The various explanatorj' theories of the phenomenon differ chiefly in the chemical composition assumed for the particles. If these are nearly nonconducting or dielectric, hypotheses involving spinning spicules and streaming gases have been advanced; if mainly metallic, a magnetic field. Although the mechanism of alignment cannot be considered uniquely identified, there is increasing evidence, such as the Crab nebula polarization, magnetism in stellar atmospheres and high-energy cosmic rays, that magnetic fields in the galaxy may be important elements in its structure. Star Formation. The relationship of nebulae to stellar origins has long been one of astronomy's prime problems, dating from the earliest visual observations of associated nebulae and stars. Little progress beyond philosophical speculation was possible, however, until a great deal of data on distances, dimensions, real brightnesses (luminosities), motions, masses and radiating properties

—

II provided a powerful

H

H

—

H

tech-

1

NEBULA

66

For example, normally unavoidable in a new field. the H I gas/dust density ratio could be appreciably reduced if evidence for molecular hydrogen Ho, or for hydrides like OH, or CH were found by improved microwave techniques and larger radio telescopes.

that

are

NH

appearance in a telescope resembles that of planets, for they show disks with definite edges. nebulae show no appreciable motion But unlike the planets, these among the stars, since they are generally more distant than the stars seen in the same field. Compared to diffuse gaseous nebulae, planetarics are apparently and actually much smaller, and they ordinarily have a distinguishing bright-line spectrum. Numbers and Distribution. Planetary nebulae as a class are Only about 130 were relatively scarce and unique' in the galaxy. known prior to 1940, but prismatic and Schmidt camera surveys by R. Minkowski, G. 0. Abell and A. G. Wilson at Mount Wilson and Palomar observatories, by G. Haro at Tonantzintla, Mex., and by K. G. Henize at Bloemfontein, S.Af., by 1956 had increased the their

—

number known

to nearly 600.

Many

of these later discoveries

appear starlike except on photographs taken with the largest telescopes, and a large majority are in heavily obscured regions. For these reasons there are probably many more undiscovered planetaries, and the galactic total has been estimated as high as 10,000, a small number compared to the stellar population of thousands of millions. Although some planetaries are found all along the Milky Way. but with much less concentration than the stars and gaseous diffuse nebulae, there is a marked grouping of many of the faintest ones in the Sagittarius-Scorpio region, as is the case This distribution means that the for the globular star clusters. planetaries as a system cluster around the centre of the galaxy, at distances ranging up to 30,000 light-years. Apparent Size and Structure ^In apparent size planetary nebulae range from the large Helical nebula in Aquarius, N.G.C. 7293, which is about half the diameter of the moon, down to objects of a few seconds of arc, so small they can hardly be picked

—

out

among

stars, unless their spectra are available.

First, the ions

(atoms minus

by

photographs or

shown

spectrograms that isolate Second, when the emission radiations are studied with slit-spectroscopic methods, internal motions of different amounts are found for different ions. Internal Motions. These were first found convincingly in igi6-i8by W. W. Campbell (1862-1938) and J. H. Moore (18781949) of the Lick observatory. They observed that the chief nebular lines of oxygen are not strictly single (monochromatic) in a number of planetaries. The lines appeared broadened or split into two components, which by Doppler's principle points to difcolour-filter

slitless

individual emission lines of the various elements.

—

Planetary Nebulae These are so named because

two properties of the nebular gases.

electrons) of different gases are distributed differently, as

In nearly

all

planetaries that are sufficiently large and bright, a central blue-

white star can be found. The few exceptions are more apparent than real, because these central stars are among the hottest celestial sources. They have temperatures in the range from 50,000° to 150,000° C. so that most of the energy is radiated in the far ultraviolet where it is not only invisible but also blocked The nebular gases, however, have off by the earth's atmosphere. a much lower temperature, of the order of 10,000° C. Thus the nebula may be considerably brighter to the eye or on a photograph than the central star. When planetaries are examined visually or on photographs taken with average-size telescopes, they tend to show a regular structure, which has encouraged classification and interpretation according The most common of these are to simple geometrical forms. rings, spirals and helices. H. D. Curtis (1872-1942) of the Lick observatory pioneered in this approach with the 36-in. Crossley reflector, and found in 1918 that oblate spheroidal or truncated shells, thinner at the equator than at the poles, acshells,

ferent velocities in the line of sight.

The measured

differences

ranged from 10 to 60 mi. per second among the planetaries studied, and were considered due to rotation of the nebulae. Later developments showed, however, that the effects were produced by gases that move generally outward from the central stars, the expansion These obvelocities being half the observed velocity differences. servations were far ahead of their time and remained unapproached in accuracy and completeness for nearly 30 years. In 1946 0. C. Wilson of the Mount Wilson and Palomar observatories began a systematic program of spectroscopic investigaFirst with the loo-in. tion with much more powerful equipment. and after 1953 with the 200-in., he used the large-scale slit spectrographs at the coude foci of these reflectors to obtain greatly By 1950 he had dispersed spectra of the brighter planetaries. found that no unique expansion velocity could be assigned to the same nebula, but that instead there are systematic motions related to the type of ion: those most highly excited (produced with highest energy) show smaller velocities than those of low excitaDespite these additional complexities, tion, except for hydrogen. Wilson found a model that showed promising agreement with the observations. These could be accounted for if it were assumed that the expansion velocity of any ion is the same as the hydrogenTo helium velocity in the region where the ion is produced. test this and other models, it was desirable to obtain radial In 1953 velocities for a large number of points in each nebula. the 2oo-in. coude spectrograph was therefore provided with a This device consists of a series of closely spaced shts multislit. by which radial velocities for as many as 31 sections of a nebula may be obtained from a single exposure. In preliminary reports to 1956, observations made this way strongly support the view that several of the regular planetaries are ellipsoidal because the expansion velocity varies in a regular fashion from the centre. It seems that the constituent gases are arranged in space according to their velocities, the fastest ones being found farthest out.

—

Motions in the Galaxy. The emission-line spectrum of planmade possible the fairly accurate determination of

etaries has

radial velocities for even the faintest ones,

Moore

is

likewise due the

first

extensive

and to Campbell and

list

published in 191 8.

These data were thoroughly analyzed in 1937 by L. Berman of the Lick observatory, who concluded that the planetaries participate in the general rotation of the galaxy, and that those having the highest velocities are farthest away, as expected from the simple theory of circular motion. But the location of so many of the newly discovered fainter planetaries in the region of the galactic

counted satisfactorily for the regular appearance of many planetaries. For the brighter ones in the southern hemisphere, A. D. Thackeray and D. S. Evans in 1950 reported a similar survey based on plates taken with the 74-in. reflector of the Radcliffe observatory, Pretoria, S.Af. They described the observed forms in terms of a simple disk and ring, with central symmetry about two perpendicular axes; but for about 30% of the objects they gave the

ably be inferred if additional radial velocities of a large and more random character were found for the numerous faint planetaries around the galactic centre. In 1953 a co-operative program to provide these new velocity data was undertaken at the Lick and Mount Wilson-Palomar observatories. From a preliminary report

classification as irregular.

given in 1955,

These idealized geometrical models, although useful in the exploratory or survey stages, are found to be inadequate when confronted with the most recent material obtained with the largest telescopes and improved techniques of photography and spectroscopy. R. Minkowski's photographs taken since 1950 with the 200-in. Hale telescope reveal in most cases a complex arrangement of filaments, knots, streamers and arcs that are difficult to fit into simple geometrical figures. These difficulties are due to at least

cate less galactic rotation

centre suggested an alternative interpretation of the largest vemotions in highly eccentric orbits. These could reason-

locities as

it

seems

likely that these

among

new

velocities

may

indi-

the planetaries than formerly

found, and a larger velocity dispersion in the direction of the Since these circumstances are similar to those for the globular star clusters, it is probable that they and the planetary nebulae belong to the same population group: Baade's

galactic centre.

type II. Distances,

Dimensions and Densities.

— Planetary

nebulae

are so far from the sun that direct trigonometric distance deter-

NEBULA

167

I IN ANDROMEDA (M31, N.G.C. 224). ABOUT 2.000.000 LIGHT-YEARS DISTANT AND ABOUT PORTION OF THE GALAXY SEEN HERE, ALSO VISIBLE TO THE NAKED EYE, IS 150,000 LIGHT-YEARS IN DIAMETER. LESS THAN 100.000 LIGHT-YEARS ALONG ITS MAJOR AXIS. 48-IN. SCHMIDT PHOTOGRAPH

GREAT SPIRAL NEBULA

minations are useless, while statistical treatments of transverse or proper motions are unreliable, because the field comparison stars In an used in the measurements are at comparable distances. effort to minimize these difficulties, Herman derived a set of internally consistent distances from proper motions, angular diam-

and galactic rotation theory applied to the radial velocities. In this way he obtained a scale of distances ranging from 3.000 to more than 30,000 Ught-years, but the values for individual nebulae are uncertain in some cases by factors of 2 or 3, because of the large dispersions in velocity, luminosity and diameter, and the

eters

irregular galactic absorption.

Herman's distance

scale appears to be statistically of the right two independent but indirect checks In 1950 Minkowski discussed the angular diameters of planetaries, with special reference to the more than 100 newly found ones in the direction to the galactic centre. By assuming them to be at the average distance of 30,000 light-years, he obtained the distribution of linear diameters, and found agreement

order, however, because of

on

it.

with the corresponding one obtained from Herman's distance scale. Then in 1955 Baade discovered several of the brightest planetaries in the Andromeda nebula, on plates taken with the 200-in. Hale These planetary nebulae in the spiral have apparent telescope. magnitudes of 22, which is very nearly the brightness to be expected if the galactic planetaries, with luminosities based on

Berman's distance

scale,

were viewed from a distance of 2,000,000

light-years.

The average linear diameter of the Minkowski is 30,000 astronomical units

planetaries discussed (i a.u.

= 93,000,000

by

mi.),

but this figure fails to tell the whole story of sizes of planetary It does not include, for example, the faint outer exnebulae. tensions that are often observed in the nearer and brighter ones, which may reach 200,000 a.u. in size. Also, as Minkowski points out, the observed sizes represent only the ionized part of

the

nebular mass, and the neutral part may be much larger, as found On the for the diffuse gaseous nebulae in radio observations. other hand, there are a number of sernistellar, dense planetary

NEBULA

i68

nebulae, whose small diameters and spectroscopic characteristics suggest comparison with peculiar stars having extended atmosThus there is in reality a great range among planetary pheres.

may be meaningless unless it is specified in terms of a particular density, element or degree of ionization. The densities and masses of planetary nebulae can be fairly well estimated from theories of the physical processes in gaseous nebulae, since some of the most important atomic quantities are obtainable independently of the distance. For example, the density and temperature of electrons in the nebular gas may be deduced entirely from spectroscopic observations and astrophysical theory. In fact, the procedure may be reversed and, with the addition of absolute surface brightness measurements, used to estimate distances, as first indicated by D. H. Menzel in 1931 before there was a generally accepted distance scale. For some of the bestobserved planetaries, moreover, the astrophysical results derived with and without distances are in substantial agreement. Thus diameters, and size

there is reasonable reliability for the following estimates: density of a t>'pical bright nebula: 1,000 to 10,000 ions per cubic centi-

metre; mass: one-tenth to one-fifth that of the sun. In the faint outermost parts the density may be only 100 atoms per cubic centimetre. This value has been brought down to earth by L. H. Aller of the University of Michigan observatory, who obtained and critically analyzed (in 1956) much of the best material in the field, by the statement that the density represents "a tenuity comparable to that of a few tablespoonfuls of air expanded to the size of Pikes Peak." Origin and Evolution. Planetary nebulae are so rare on the cosmic scene less than one per 10,000,000,000 stars that on the grand scale their evolution cannot be regarded as an important

—

—

stage

general

in

stellar

evolution.

—

Instead,

planetaries

draw attention

pheres

the ejection of material from the hottest stars.

:

serve

to a particular process in stellar atmos-

best to

phenomenon has been repeatedly observed

in

Since this

modern novae,

it

from was and represent the remnants of prehistoric nova outbursts. Apparent support for this view came from M. L. Humason's report in 1938 that 16 faint "old" novae are hot, blue stars like the nuclei natural to postulate that perhaps planetaries resulted

This analogy, however, breaks down completely to quantitative analysis. For the gas masses, veexpansion and lifetimes of the nebular shells are of different orders of magnitude for novae and planetaries. Despite the many assumptions involved, reasonably computed values for a typical nova outburst are: 1/100,000 solar mass for the thrownoff gas, 1, 000 mi. per second for the velocity of ejection and 50 to 100 years for the visible lifetime of the expanding nebula; corresponding figures for a representative planetary are i/io sun, 10 mi. per second and 10,000 years. Thus a planetary nebula requires for its origin and development a prolonged ejection process, one that may operate for a substantial fraction of the nebular lifetime. Although both novae and planetaries are transient phenomena on the general evolutionary scale of millions and billions of years for stars, the relative ages of nova and planetary nebular shells are those of an explosion and a slow burn. The Gaseous Spectrum of the Nebulae.^The spectra of all gaseous nebulae, diffuse and planetary, are very similar in appearance, the differences consisting chiefly in the relative inThe Unes in the spectra are sharp, tensities of the bright lines. a fact indicating a gas of low density; those of hydrogen are prominent and those of helium are usually present. But for more than 60 years following 1S64, when William Huggins first observed the spectrum of a nebula, there were several lines (a wide pair in the green at 5,007 and 4,959 A, and a close pair in the ultraviolet at 3,726 and 3,729 A), among the strongest in the spectrum, which of planetaries.

when subjected locities of

remained unidentified. Their origin was one of the most puzzling mysteries in astronomy, and for lack of a better name, they were attributed to a hypothetical element called "nebulium," although it was generally realized, because of advances in chemistry and physics that left no place in the table of known elements for foreign ones, the occurrence of the strange lines probably was to some familiar element existing under conditions peculiar to the nebulae. That this explanation is the correct one was

due

established in 1927 by lalwratory work and

I.

S.

Bowen.

quantum

He showed

theory

on the basis of

calculations

that

the

and doubly ionized oxygen atoms, which radiate light under conditions of extremely low density and long light paths a combination unmatched on the chief nebular lines are due to singly

—

earth.

—

Forbidden and Permitted Lines. To understand why certain lines occur in the nebulae and not in terrestrial sources, it is necessary to mention a few of the fundamental principles of modern atomic theory. In this concept, atoms exist in certain definite energy states, depending on their environment. The energy states may be likened to orbits in which electrons move about the nucleus, and when an electron jumps from one orbit to another, energy is absorbed, or emitted, depending on whether the jump is from an inner to an outer orbit, or the other way around. The electrons, however, do not remain in the different kinds of orbits for equal times, and it is this property of- the atom, together with its environment, which is responsible for the characteristic nebular The latter represent jumps to orbits in which elecradiations. trons can move for hours and days, whereas radiations observed in terrestrial light sources correspond to transitions between orbits in which electrons remain for only 1/100,000,000 of a second. Spectral rays from long-lived orbits are called "forbidden" hnes, those from the short-lived orbits "permitted" lines, and the reason only the latter are obtained in the laboratory is that collisions between atoms, even with the lowest obtainable densities, are so numerous (millions per second) that electrons are almost always knocked from the long-lived orbits before they have a chance to jump to an inner orbit, with the resultant emission of a forbidden line. In the nebulae, however, the extremely low densities and long hght paths allow sufficient electrons to accumulate in the long-lived orbits (called "metastable states") to yield intense forbidden lines. In addition to demPhysical Processes and Sources of Energy. onstrating the existence of an almost perfect vacuum in gaseousnebulae, the forbidden lines due to ionized atoms indicate the

—

presence in planetaries of a very high-temperature source of energy. Evidence for this conclusion is provided by two apparently unrelated features of the nebular spectrum: (1) the size of a nebula is different in different radiations, and (2) only certain of the permitted hnes of neutral oxygen and nitrogen are observed. The first of these properties, originally noted in 1908 by M. Wolf, and later (1918) extensively studied by W. H. Wright in his classically thorough investigation of the spectra of the gaseous nebulae, shows that the smallest nebular diameters correspond to the

most highly ionized atoms, and the largest to the least, in just the way to be expected from Bowen's high-temperature theory of the structure of planetary nebulae. The second feature was likewise explained by Bowen as the result of an intense concentration of energy in the far ultraviolet, characteristic of a high-tempera-

ture source, which selectively excites the observed lines fluorescent mechanism.

That the central

by a

stars of planetary nebulae

among the hottest objects known was also estabby Wright's observations of the spectra of planetary nuclei. Subsequent theoretical investigations by H. Zanstra, A. S. Eddington (1882-1944) and D. H. Menzel have fully substantiated Wright's earlier deductions from observations, and Bowen's conclusions from identification of the chief lines, that the dominating physical conditions in gaseous nebulae are extremes of low density in the nebulae and of high temperature in the central stars, which

are in reality lished

are the ultimate sources of

all

nebular radiations.

—

Abundances of the Nebular Gases. Following his explanation of the origin of the nebular lines, and the mechanism of their pro-

Bowen

1934 concluded that the gaseous nebulae, like most astronomical bodies, are largely made up of hydrogen, with hehum the next most abundant element. Further information on their chemical composition was obtained in 1939 by Bowen and By using an A. B. Wyse (1909-42) at the Lick observatory. especially powerful spectrograph in combination with an "image duction,

slicer" (invented

by Bowen

to

overcome certain

obser\'ational

diffi-

were able to record two planetary nebulae a number of faint radiations due to the

culties),

in

in

and exposures of 12

to 20 hours, they

NEBULA

THE MfLKY WAY AND MAGELLANIC CLOUDS. NEBULAE CONTAINING INNUMERABLE STARS AND MASSES WAY STELLAR SYSTEM. THE GALACTIC CENTRE LIES 30.000 LIGHT-YEARS IN THE DIRECTION OF SLIGHTLY BELOW THE CENTRE OF THE PHOTOGRAPH. (THE DARK LINES IN THE PHOTOGRAPH ARE AND ITS THREE SUPPORTS. AT THE BOTTOM RIGHT ARE THE MAGELLANIC CLOUDS. THE NEAREST DETAILED AWAY. (RIGHT) VIEW OF THE MAGELLANIC CLOUDS I

and other elements. Analysis of the intensities of these and comparison of results with similar work by H. N. Russell

metallic lines,

Abundances of Elements

OF GAS AND DUST: (LEFT) CENTRE OF THE MILKY THE BRIGHTEST STAR CLOUD TO THE LEFT AND SHADOWS OF THE PHOTOGRAPHIC PLATE HOLDER

EXTRAGALACTIC NEBULAE.

150.000 LIGHT-YEARS

NEBULA

lyo

tained to the optical threshold of the 200-in. reflector, the enumerable extragalactic nebulae would total 1,000,000,000. This number, however, has to be corrected downw-ard because of the different quality of light from the faintest extragalactic nebulae.

His younger colleague, Allan Sandage, undertook to finish the job, with the result that in 1961 the Carnegie institution of Washington, D.C., was able to issue a memorial volume, the Hubble Atlas

Although the smaller corrected number is not precisely known, it is of the order of hundreds of millions, and this figure represents a population parameter of the universe that challenges the For each one of these millions of faint flecks of imagination. light is a stellar system, or "island universe," composed of myriads of stars. Many also contain interstellar gas and dust, and some are giants in size, population and real brightness comparable to our own galaxy. Since the most numerous extragalactic nebulae are literally vanishingly faint, even the largest telescopes are hard The pressed to provide data much above the margin of error.

This folio of photographs contains high-quality reproductions of dozens of the best plates taken with the 200-in. reflector, with

farthest reaches of the universe are accordingly only sketchily scouted observationally, and there are hosts of unsolved problems and unanswered questions at this dim astronomical horizon. Chief among these is the extragalactic distance scale, which even But it is a real in the mid-1960s was uncertain by a factor of 2.

achievement of the largest telescopes that the distances of the faintest extragalactic nebulae may be estimated reliably as to order of magnitude: about 5,000,000,000 light-years. Classification. The most generally accepted scheme of classification for the extragalactic nebulae is the one proposed by Hubble in 1926. It is represented schematically in fig. 1. This system arranges in a single homogeneous pattern nearly 98% of the numerous regular nebulae that are sufficiently large and bright to show- appreciable structure on photographs taken with telescopes of moderate power; the remaining 2% or 3% that do not readily fall into the system are called irregular nebulae. The

—

basic feature of the classification is, in Hubble s words, "conspicuous evidence of rotational symmetry about dominating, central

nuclei."

As may be seen from fig. i, the regular nebulae begin the sequence as elliptical nebulae, denoted by E. Their forms range from globular to lenticular, with the degree of ellipticity indicated by numerals from o to 7, which are obtained from the relation io{a — b)la, where a and b are the major and minor axes, respectively. Statistical analysis of the frequency of occurrence of the different forms shows that there are actually globular or spherical nebulae, and that not all of the apparently round ones can be accounted for as flattened nebulae with polar axes in the line of sight. The analysis shows, however, that the lenticular objects are much more common, and that there is a definite limiting ellipticity with ratio of axes 3 to i. When the flattening becomes greater, the nebulae no longer appear as smooth, unresolved objects, and. at a certain stage of the sequence, indicated

by So,

they begin to show structure that in general is of spiral character. different spiral forms are found, however, so that the spiral nebulae are separated into two groups: the normal spirals, desig-

Two

nated by

S,

and the barred

spirals,

symbolized by SB.

Among the regular nebulae large and bright enough to classify, the spirals outnumber the ellipticals by more than 4 to i, and this fact stresses the importance of deciding which features in spirals are best suited for further subdivision, such as central concentration, relative size of arms and nucleus or number and character of condensations. After an examination of hundreds of

nebulae on photographs taken with the Mount Wilson reflectors, Hubble concluded that the most significant characteristic for classifying spirals is the degree of resolution. Depending upon circumstances, the resolution may be only into spiral structure, into clusters or clouds of stars or, at best, into individual stars. To indicate the degree of resolution the letters a, b or c are placed after S or SB; thus, a well-resolved normal spiral would be referred to as Sc. a barred one as SBc.

When

came into power showed

the 200-in. Hale telescope, completed in 1948,

operation,

its

greater hght-gathering and defining

must more detail in the brighter extragalactic nebulae that Hubble initiated a program to refine his classification system, particularly in the transitional So stage between ellipticals and spirals. Although he obtained a number of plates and made numerous notes, his death in 1933 left this work incomplete and unpublished.

so

of Galaxies.

a systematic discussion of the structural features of ellipticals, spirals

most

and

It is, in fact, an atlas and gazetteer of and nearer systems observable from the north-

irregulars.

of the larger

ern hemisphere.

Distribution.

—As

the result of extensive counts of extra-

galactic nebulae on photographs taken chiefly at the

Mount Wilson,

Palomar and Lick observatories in the northern hemisphere, and at the Harvard college observatory station in the southern hemisphere, it is known that the distribution is nonrandom over the sky and approximately uniform in depth. This last result, of great theoretical and practical value for cosmological studies, was established chiefly by Hubble's survey that quantitatively elucidated the effects of galactic obscuration, and of several great clusters of nebulae, upon the true distribution. Counts. Long before the advent of photography it was generally known from visual observations that the "white" nebulae, now called extragalactic. tended to avoid the Milky Way, and that there was appreciable clustering in high galactic latitudes, especially in Coma and Virgo close to the north pole of the galaxy. With the development of photography, more and ever more nebulae were counted, and the galactic zone of avoidance and the regions of clustering became more precisely defined. A number of early counts, among them those of J. E. Keeler (1899), E. A. Fath (1914) and H. D. Curtis (1918), suggested the general outlines of the distribution and gave hints as to the total number of nebulae within reach of certain telescopes, but the problem of nebular counts was not put on a firm quantitative basis until 1934. In that year Hubble published the results of surveys, made with the Mount Wilson reflectors, in which more than 44,000 nebulae were

—

in 1,300 sample regions rather evenly distributed over For the first time, the counts were three-fourths of the sky. With calibrated and referred to specified limiting magnitudes. all the data reduced to standard conditions, it became clear that

counted

numbers of nebulae decreased in a very regular way as the Milky Way was approached. The rate of decrease, in fact, was just that to be expected from a thin obscuring layer in which the

the

—

absorption is proportional to the light path in the stratum familiar analogy is the dimming of stars as they approach the horizon. The zone of avoidance along the galaxy is thus but the effect of looking in the plane of the stratum, where the absorption toward the is a maximum that approaches complete opacity; galactic poles, the absorption is a minimum, with the light reduced by only 20%. The more populous areas, on the other hand, represent a conspicuous tendency for the nebulae to cluster. They occur in pairs, in small to large groups of several to 100 nebulae in great clusters that include more than 500 members, as in Coma and Virgo aggregations. Hubble's classical counts to faint magnitude limits in small sample areas stimulated much interest and work in this field, but these other investigations were necessarily of a different type: they involved surveys over wider regions to brighter limits, as befitted less powerful equipment than the 60-in. and loo-in. Mount Wilson reflectors. Modem sequels in which astrographs (star cameras) and Schmidt telescopes were used are: (1) the extensive two-hemisphere Harvard surveys carried out from about 1930-50;

and the

(2) the Palomar-Schmidt programs begun in 1937; and (3) the Lick comprehensive counts undertaken in 1948. Harvard Counts. In 60° diameter zones centred on the equatorial and galactic polar caps, the Harvard counts to the i8th magnitude yielded three important results for what Shapley has called the Inner Metagalaxy, a sphere of diameter 300,000,000 lightyears. First, the region of the north equatorial polar cap around Polaris appears to be thinly veiled by galactic obscuring matter, as show-n by subnormal counts compared to the surroundings. This result provided independent supporting evidence that some of the International Polar Sequence stars of standard brightness and

—

NEBULA

FIG.

1.

171

— HUBBLES SYSTEM OF CLAS-

SrFfCATION

FOR

EXTRA6ALACT1C

NEBULAE

PRINCIPAL TYPES OF EXTRAGALACTIC NEBULAE: (TOP LEFT) AN ELLIPTICAL NEBULA IN THE CONSTELLATION OF VIRGO (M87. N.G.C. 4486). EXCEPT FOR A FEW OF THE NEAREST ONES. THESE NEBULAE ARE UNRESOLVABLE INTO STARS. EVEN BY THE LARGEST TELESCOPES. THEY RANGE FROM THE GLOBULAR FORM SHOWN HERE TO THE FLATTER LENTICULAR SHAPE. THIS IS A (TOP RIGHT) SPIRAL (S) NEBULA (N.G.C. 5364) IN VIRGO. NORMAL SPIRAL. RESOLVABLE INTO ITS BRIGHTEST STARS UNDER CERTAIN CONDITIONS. (BOTTOM LEFT) BARRED SPIRAL (SB) NEBULA (N.G.C. 1300)

(E)

THE SOUTHERN CONSTELLATION OF ERIDANUS. IT IS AN EXAMPLE OF SHOWS A BAR AS THE MOST CONSPICUOUS STRUCTURAL (BOTTOM RIGHT) IRREGULAR (IRR) EXTRAGALACTIC NEBULA FEATURE. (N.G.C. 4449), LIKE THE MAGELLANIC CLOUDS, THIS TYPE OF NEBULA SHOWS LITTLE REGULARITY OF STRUCTURE, ALTHOUGH IN MANY CASES THERE APPEAR TO BE INCIPIENT BARS AND SPIRAL ARMS. 200-IN. PHOTOIN

A SPIRAL THAT

GRAPHS

NEBULA

172

colour probably are dimmed and reddened, as had previously been suspected from precise photometric work. Second, the survey of the southern equatorial polar cap containing the Magellanic Clouds gave the first clear-cut indication, from wide, continuous-area counts, that extragalactic nebulae may have a higher degree of organization than clustering: arrangement in great, dch clouds extending throughout vast regions of space, of dimensions up to 100,000,000 light-years. Third, comparison of the counts for the

showed a systematic difference between them. In the southern cap the distribution is remarkably smooth over the sky and uniform in depth. But in the northern it is conspicuously irregular, with numerous clusters of both bright and faint nebulae that give an average population in the north nearly twice This excess is particularly pronounced as large as in the south. for the brighter objects, which are found in a broad band running through Ursa Minor and Major, Canes Venatici, Coma, Virgo and Centaurus, to which H. D, Curtis has given the apt name "canopy galactic polar caps

of galaxies,"

—

Palomar Counts. The Palomar programs, carried out by F. Zwickv and his collaborators at the California Institute of Tech-

2.000,000 light-years of the galaxy; (3) hundreds of streamerconnected double and multiple nebulae out to distances of the order of 200,000,000 to 300.000.000 light-years; (4) exceedingly faint and unresolved luminous patches in clusters and groups of Intergalactic dark matter, on the other hand, was innebulae. ferred from fewer numbers of faint background nebulae counted within foreground clusters, as if the latter contained material that absorbed the light of distant objects. Zwicky has boldly generalized these results as indicating a continuous progression of intergalactic matter ranging from a gas, through dust particles, But whether this to individual stars and dwarf stellar systems. internebular substratum comprises the major portion of the extragalactic population, as advocated by Zwicky, remains more of a question than an answer. Begun in 1948 by C. D. Shane and C. A. Wirtanen, Lick Counts. these represent the most comprehensive plan so far undertaken to achieve uniformity and completeness over the sky from the north equatorial pole to a southern declination of 23°. The basic material consists of a set of 1,246 astrograph plates on which nebulae Each could be counted to a limiting magnitude of nearly 18.5. plate was exposed two hours and covers an area of 6° X 6°. With 1° wide all plate-centres S° apart, an overlapping border at least around each plate provided the means duplicate counts in a common region for reduction of the counts to a homogeneous system. Nebulae were counted in 10-minute-of-arc squares, the numbers summed by square degrees, averaged in groups of four and used to construct "contour maps" of nebular surface density. For practical reasons, the sky was divided into nine approximately equal areas. By 1960 the counting was complete, with the final census totaling about 2,000,000 nebulae. This work, of monumental proportions in concept and effort, provides by far the best

—

—

—

basic data for

many

researches in which a detailed knowledge of The pubis important.

the distribution of extragalactic nebulae

much more exactly than before, the exand transparency of the obscuring clouds in and around the Milky Way; also, they confirm with a wealth of new data previous

lished counts dehneate,

tent

indications that clustering of nebulae

is

not only

common

but

clusters often are but subsidiary condensations in larger clouds (see sections Clusters and Superclusters, below). Numbers and Distribution in Depth. Of equal or greater importance than the delineation of regions of avoidance and of clustering is the conclusion, first reached by Hubble, that the extragalactic nebulae populate space with an approximately con-

that

—

stant density as far as telescopes can reach. This result was obtained from counts of nebulae to successively fainter limiting magnitudes. For the brightest objects, it is only necessary to

each limiting magnitude the number of nebulae whose magnitudes have been individually determined, as for example in the extensive Harvard surveys reported by Shapley. For the faintest total to

objects, on the other hand,

it is

limiting magnitudes determined

nology, Pasadena, used photographs taken with the Palomar observatory Schmidt telescopes: since 1937 with the i8-in. and after

1949 with the 48-in.

non of clustering of

Special attention

was given

to the

phenome-

extragalactic nebulae, particularly as related

between nebulae, "intergalactic matter." By 1953 Zw'icky had become convinced of the existence of such matter in both the "luminous" and "nonluminous" states. Intergalactic luminous matter was inferred from a variety of faint phenomena newly discovered by the powerful Palomar Schmidt telescopes: (i) large numbers of faint blue stars distant up to 30,000 light-years from the Milky Way plane; (2) some intrinsically very faint and small dwarf nebulae, all within about to the question of the presence of material

simpler to count nebulae to

by exposures of

different lengths,

This indirect procedure is expedient because the faintest nebulae are overwhelmingly too numerous to estimate their individual brightnesses. With the numbers of nebulae established to increasingly fainter magnitudes, it is relatively easy to test the hypothesis of constant space density. This is done by noting whether the numbers or

8R0UPING OF EXTRAGALACTIC NEBULAE: SMALL GROUP IN CONSTELLATION OF LEO (LEFT TO RIGHT: N.G.C. 3185. 3190, 3187. 3193) ABOUT 20.000.000 LIGHT-YEARS AWAY. SHOWS HOW THE MOST DIVERSE NEBULAR FORMS ARE FOUND IN CLOSE ASSOCIATION

much

by telescopes of

different light-gathering power.

of nebulae counted are proportional to the volumes of space in which they are found. More precisely, a simple calculation shows is by a factor of four when the limitby one magnitude. On the basis of all Hubble found that this condition was satisabout the 18th magnitude. At this point the red shifts

that the rate of increase

ing brightness decreases the available material, fied to

nebular spectra begin to make photographic magnitudes abnormally faint, with the result that the observed number falls below that expected on the basis of a uniform distribution. The following table, obtained from Hubble's counts of faint nebulae, in the

illustrates the total

numbers involved:

Apparent photographic magnitude Uniform aistribution, millions Observed numbers, millions .

.

NEBULA Although the numbers in parentheses represent extrapolations beyond the actual counts, it is evident that the deficiency of the observed to the expected uniform count is by a factor of 3 to 4. In his classical treatment of the subject, Hubble in 1936 used

173

AVERAGE NUMBER PER SQUARE DEGREE

these differences to interpret the nature of the red shift. He concluded that either there is a probable uniform distribution of

nebulae in depth, with the red shift not representing recession; i.e., no universal expansion, or, if outward motion is involved, "some vital factors have been neglected in the investigation." Subsequent developments disclosed these factors, and reopened the entire matter. In the vanguard of progress was the perfection of photoelectric methods of magnitude measurement for faint sources. New observations with this technique, made in 1947-49 by

Stebbins and Whitford, left little doubt that the photographic magnitude standards available to Hubble possessed serious systematic With the loo-in. reflector they were able to reach magnierrors. tude 18.5, where they found the previous standards too bright by Extension of the photoelectric measurements to 0.5 magnitude. the range of the faintest nebular counts required the use of the 200-in. Hale telescope, and in 1955 W. A. Baum reported the deter-

mination of a stellar magnitude of 23.9. However, such observations are difficult and slow, even with the largest telescope, for which Baum estimated two nights of good conditions would be required for an accuracy of 2% at magnitude 23. Nevertheless, by 1955 photoelectric standard magnitudes, in three selected areas and ranging over 10 magnitudes in two colours to magnitude 22 or 23, were reported to have been determined with satisfactory precision and freedom from systematic error. In this way the ground-

work was prepared

for further counts of the faintest nebulae.

But

by 1965 no systematic program using the largest-reflector photo1936 reconnaissance, had been undertaken. In 1952, however, J. Neyman and E. L. Scott of the

graphs, comparable to Hubble's

University of California statistical laboratory, initiated a broad, program using statistical methods to predict the num-

theoretical

bers of faint nebulae expected to different magnitude limits. Their formulation included a wide variety of models, with and without

As a result of this work, there theoretical framework especially adapted

clustering, red shift or expansion.

APPARENT PHOTOGRAPHIC MAGNITUDE

— NUMBERS

OF EXTRAGALACTIC NEBULAE TO VARIOUS LIMITING 2. MAGNITUDES. FOR DIFFERENT ASSUMPTIONS AFFECTING THE DISTRIBUTION NUMERICAL DATA FROM HUBBLES OBSERVATIONS IN DEPTH.

FIG.

the following: (i) clusters exist as open clouds, medium compact spherically symmetrical condensations, with isolated

swarms and

nebulae clearly in the minority; (2) the richest clusters may have (a as many as 10,000 members within the range from the brightest to those seven magnitudes fainter, and (b) an internal velocity dispersion of 1,500 mi. per second; (3) both luminous and dark clouds of intergalactic matter have been found concentrated toward the centres of large clusters; (4) clusters appear to be dis)

tributed uniformly and randomly in a nonexpanding universe, as inferred from studies of brightnesses and diameters of nearly 1,000 (5) there is no systematic clustering of clusters. of these and other findings by Zwicky are subject to confirmation by further, independent observations, or are susceptible Nevertheless, Zwicky and his colof alternate interpretations.

was available by 1960 a comparison of forthcoming nebular counts with various theories of the distribution in depth. An example of results from This shows that the surface the calculations is given in fig. 2. density of extragalactic nebulae near the faintest magnitude limits

rich clusters;

of the astonishingly high order of 10,000 nebulae per square degree. In the higher galactic latitudes there wiU thus be more nebulae than stars, as predicted by Hubble in 1934, and verified by him with the 200-in. reflector

in a class

to the

attainable with the largest reflectors

—

is

in 1949.

The observed and

distributions of the faintest extragalactic nebulae

stars therefore present

complementary aspects of the sky,

plane the rich star cloud provides the limiting background of threshold sources, while at its poles the piled-up population of faintest nebulae produces the distant and hazy horizon. There, strangely as at sunset, these related to our position in the galaxy.

extragalactic beacons are aglow with a

In

its

ruddy hue

— the universe's

"stop signal," the red shift. Clusters. Extensive surveys first by astrographs and later by Schmidt cameras have shown that clustering of extragalactic nebuThe most modlae is by far the rule rather than the exception. ern program, which is F. Zwicky's with the Palomar 48-in. Schmidt telescope, indicates that these clusters are to be counted in the

—

thousands. He reported in 1952 that on one plate covering about 40 squaire degrees in Coronae Borealis nearly 100 clusters could be identified. So many clusters suggests that they, instead of individual nebulae, may be the fundamental building blocks of the universe. If this is the case, then clusters of nebulae promise to provide significant information on the structure of the universe, in addition to having served as stepping stones for Hubble's extragalactic distance scale.

On the observational side, Zwicky's extensive cluster material obtained with the Palomar Schmidt telescopes from about 193756, led him to a number of conclusions regarding clusters of nebulae.

In 1956 he summarized these results,

some of which

are

Some

shown that the Palomar Schmidt photographs are by themselves as regards the recording of the faintest

laborators have

nebulous sources

in the extragalactic regions.

Neyman and E. L. Scott in a series assumed that all extragalactic nebulae are members of clusters. Using mathematical statistical methods, they sought to formulate the problem of spatial distribution of On

the theoretical side, J.

of papers beginning in 1952

nebulae in such a way that as many as possible of the basic assumptions and related postulates could be tested separately by nebular counts. They found it convenient to classify the postulates into .three groups: (i) those concerned with the distribution of nebulae 'in space; (2) those that relate events in space to what may be seen on a photograph; and (3) those connected with the unavoidable errors of counting. For the observational tests of the deductions from the theory, they used C. D. Shane's and C. A. Wirtanen's comprehensive counts of nebulae on the Lick 20-in. astrograph plates. In 1954 Neyman and Scott reached the conclusion that a hypothesis of simple clustering could represent the observations in some, but not all, respects. In particular, they found that frequencies of counts in i ° squares agreed closely with theoretical expectations, although for an unsatisfactorily large range of the observational parameters. For the same parameters, however, frequencies of counts in 10' squares could not be reconciled with those in 1° squares. The discrepancy was in the sense of the observations showing an excessive number of clusters with small angular diameters, as compared with theoretical prediction. They suggested that the most promising modifications of the model of simple clustering in order to reach agreement with observations, appeared to be inclusion of the additional hypotheses of expansion of the universe and of multiple or superclustering, together with a more thorough investigation of the

NEBULA

174 effects

due

to errors of counting.

analysis that

They

was not necessary

it

to

also found from further assume the existence of

clouds of internebular absorbing material. Supercliistirs. If only the brighter extragalactic nebulae to the I 2th or 13th magnitude are considered, they show a tendency first noted in n).'3 by J. H, Reynolds (1874-1949) tp occur in a It is a belt of average width great-circle band around the sky.

be ignored

V.

—

12° that runs nearly perpendicular to the Milky Way, which it crosses in the northern constellation of Cassiopeia and again in the southern one of Circinus. The northern arc includes the Virgo its extensions to the south in Centaurus and to the The southern but there are series of groups of bright populous, part is less nebulae in Andromeda, Pisces, Cetus, Sculptor and beyond into far-southern skies. The possibility that these brightest nebulae may form in space an extended "metagalactic" system or cloud, which may also include the galaxy, has been suggested by a number of investigators. Chief among these are three Swedish astronomers of the Lund University observatory, K. Lundmark, E. Holmberg and A. Reiz.

cluster with

north

in

From

Coma, Canes Venatici and Ursa Major.

is a phenomenon that cannot attempts to infer the structure of the universe.

tribution of extragalactic nebulae, in

THE EXTRAGALACTIC DISTANCE SCALE

Distances of extragalactic nebulae are most accurately determined from studies of objects within them that may be recognized and compared with their counterparts in the galaxy. These objects may be brightest stars, variable stars, star clusters, gaseous nebulae or novae. When these can be identified, their apparent magnitudes, m, are measured and compared with their absolute

magnitudes, M, which are assumed to be the same as those for corHow the absolute magnitudes are responding galactic objects. obtained for the "comparison" galactic objects is a long story in Here it will suffice to note that ultimately all astronomical itself. absolute magnitudes depend upon distance determinations that in principle are equivalent to trigonometric surveying. By definition,

M equals m at a distance of 32.6 light-years. Once an extragalactic object's apparent magnitude is measured and its absolute magnitude assumed known, the distance, d, is computed from the simple formula

studies during 1927-41 of single, double and multiple nebuconcluded there is good evidence for such a large-scale

log'ield a single spectral feature, an emission radiation from doubly ionized oxygen, for measurement of a red shift

brightest

Spectrograms of all these high brightness of 13th magnitude. radio stars were obtained, and their spectra were found to be peculiar, with strong ultraviolet light and faint emission bands that Nevertheless, there was little reason to redefied identification. gard these radio stars as other than galactic objects, possibly old novae or a different type of planetary nebula. It was Schmidt who finally found the key to the puzzle of the

Cygnus A;

member

its

in

of 0.46 the velocity of light.

Since optical spectra for objects

magnitude 20 are bound to be nearly drowned out by it seemed that a limit had been reached This limit, for red shifts of very distant extragalactic nebulae. however, had been extended in distance by at least a factor of 2, so that by 1960 astronomers could say that the universe had been probed out to a hazy horizon of several billions of light-years. fainter than

the night-sky airglow,

In the early 1960s radio observations of the fainter radio discrete sources rapidly

dication of size.

became more

many

Also,

precise in position and in in-

of the brighter

and larger ones were

and irregular extragalactic was found that these radio sources could be put into two classes, weak or strong emitters, with the latter showing a marked preference for very small size. In fact, even with antenna arrays of several miles extent and used as interferometers, large numbers of the discrete radio sources often could not be resolved. However, the position accuracy could now be given to better than 1 min. of arc, which encouraged optical astronomers with access to large telescopes to use them for further identifications. It was in this way that A. R. Sandage, working closely with T. A. Matthews, of the Owens Valley Radio observatory, operated by the California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, Calif., found on photographs taken late in 1960 with the 200-in. In general,

telescope, that

3C 48

it

is

a stellar object of 16th magnitude.

Al-

some very faint and small nebulosity around it, thought to be a pecuhar kind of galactic star. During 1961-62 several more "radio stars" were identified with apparently stellar optical objects, some of which also had associated with them extremely faint wisps of nebulosity. The most though there

3C 48 was

of the optical radio stars:

0.158 times the velocity of fight. This result meant that these quasi-stellar radio sources are extragalactic objects in which there occurring a release of energy on a scale far beyond any previously found or imagined. If their distances are estimated from their red shifts, the quasi-stellar sources are intrinsically brighter

by factors up to 100 times greater than any previously known extragalactic stellar system.

is

first

If quasi-stellar radio sources

with

astronomy has the means to probe to a distance many times farther than by observation of nebulae. A step in this direction was taken ordinary extragalactic in 1964 when Schmidt and Matthews reported a red shift for larger red shifts can be identified,

3C

147 of 0.545 the velocity of light. Since this object is of the ISth magnitude, there was good reason to expect that in future years radio and optical astronomers will extend their discoveries See Quasi-Stellar to still greater distances in the universe.

Radio Sources. See also references under "Nebula"

in the Index.

—

Bibliography. Galactic nebulae are treated in a number of books; one of the most readable, best illustrated and semitechnical is by B. J. and P. F. Bok, The Milky Way (1957) more technical ones are L. H. .Mler, Gaseous Nebulae (1956) and J. Dufay, Galactic Nebulae and Interstellar Matter (Eng. trans., 1957). For extragalactic nebulae, a classic work is Edwin Hubble, The Realm of the Nebulae (1936) and also valuable is the account of work at Harvard university by Harlow Shapley, Galaxies (1943) for the latter, a modern, revised edition has been published as The Inner Metagalaxy (1957). Several more recent books in French are: G. de Vaucouleurs, L' Exploration des galaxies voisines (1958); Colloques Internationaux du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Les Recherches galactiques et exlragalactiques et la photographic eleclronique (1960); and G. Courtes, Les Galaxies More specialized is F. Zwicky's Morphological Astronomy (1964). (1957), and chapters in A. Beer's Vistas in Astronomy, vol. 2 and 3 (1956 and I960), and in Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, vol. 1 and 2 (1963 and 1964). W. Baade's last work, a series of lectures at Harvard university, was edited by Cecelia PayneGaposchkin as Evolution of Stars and Galaxies (1963). An excellent review by G. R. and E. M. Burbidge, "Evidence for the Occurrence of \'io!ent Events in the Nuclei of Galaxies," was published in Reviews The most up-to-date technical of Modern Physics for October 1963. books are two compilations of symposium papers: G. C. McVittie (ed.), Problems of Extra-Galactic Research (1962) and Ivor Robinson (ed.), Quasi-Stellar Sources and Gravitational Collapse (1965). Concerned with theoretical or cosmological matters are, in order of increasing technicality, G. Gamow, The Creation of the Universe (1952) P. Couderc, The Expansion of the Universe (Eng. trans., 1952) and G. C. McVittie, General Relativity and Cosmology (1956). (N. U. M.) ;

;

;

;

NEBULAE. THEORY:

definitely identified with elliptical, spiral

nebulae.

new" spectra

"peculiar and uniquely

certain emission bands in the spectrum of 3C 273 could reasonably be ascribed to the Balmer lines of hydrogen, but red-shifted by

is

next section.

large as

is 3C273, identified by M. Schmidt of the Palomar and Mt. Wilson observatories, with the unexpectedly

interesting of these

see

Cosmogony.

For ethical implications of this term see Free For logical necessity see first Syllogism, and then Logic; Logic, History of. For God as the Necessary Being see Theism; also Rationalism. For mythology

NECESSITY.

Will and Determinism.

see Fate.

NECHO

(Neko; Gr. Nekos; Assyrian Niku) was the name two Egyptian Pharaohs of the 26th dynasty: Necho I, perhaps a Libyan by origin, was installed by the Assyrians as prince of Sais and Memphis c. 670 B.C. He rebelled and was carried captive to Nineveh but was reinstated by Ashur-

of

banipal.

(Wahibre). theson of Psamtik I, reigned 610-595 B.C. 158) tells of his attempt to link the Nile with the Red sea by a canal, and states iv, 42 that under his patronHis ambition to revive age Africa w-as first circumnavigated.

Necho

II

Herodotus

(ii,

(

)

Egyptian influence in Asia led him to march to the help of the Assyrians making their last stand at Harran. On the way he defeated and killed King Josiah of Judah, who attempted to bar

NECK—NECKER After some successes decisively beaten at in the Euphrates area, his army was Carchemish (g.v.) in 60S b.c. Four years later a Babylonian force under Nebuchadrezzar II threatened Egypt but was driven his

way

at

Megiddo

Necho died

back.

(II Kings xxiii, 29).

595

in

See also Egypt: History: Ancient

B.C.

Period. See D. J. Wiseman (ed.), Chronicles of Chaldaean Kings {626-556 (M. S. Dr.) B.C.) in the British Museum (1956).

NECK, in geology, the denuded stump of an extinct volcano. Beneath every volcano there are passages or conduits up which the volcanic materials were forced, and after the mass has been leveled by erosion there is a more or less circular pipe which marks This pipe,

the site of the crater.

with ashes or lava,

filled

is

the

characteristic of a volcanic neck.

In regions of former volcanic activity necks are the most perof all volcanic structures because the active volcanic is located deep within the earth's crust and the pipe by which it rises to the surface is of great length and traverses a great thickness of strata. This extensive pipe was usually vertical and nearly uniform in diameter for great depths; when exposed by denudation it has a circular ground plan, or if shown in vertical section (or elevation) in a cliff it is a pillar-shaped mass crossing the bedding planes of the strata nearly at right angles. It terminates upward in the remains of the volcanic cone and communicates below with the reservoir from which the lavas were emitted, represented in most cases, where it has been exposed, by a sistent

magma

large irregular

mass (a batholith or boss) of coarsely

igneous rock.

The

site of

such a neck

is

crystalline

generally indicated by

low conical hill consisting of volcanic rock, surrounded by sedimentary or igneous strata of a different kind. The low cone is due to the greater hardness and strength of the vblcanic materials and is not connected with the original shape of the volcano. a

Two

known

splendid sugar-loaf cones

in the

West

Indies, rising

as the Pitons of St. Lucia,

from the sea with almost

to a height of nearly 3,000

ft.,

vertical sides

are old volcanic necks.

In the

United States (in Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, California and other western states) geologists have observed conical volcanic hills having all the features which belong to necks. In the British Isles examples are found in Derbyshire, Fife, the Lothians and the Glasgow district with the remains of Carboniferous volcanoes in every state of preservation. Some have the conical hills of lavas and ashes well preserved {e.g., Largo Law in Fifeshire) others retain only a small part of the original volcanic pile {e.g., Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh; the Sinn of Burntisland) and of the larger number nothing remains ;

;

but the neck.

Where

the volcanic rocks are soft and easily disintegrated the may be indicated by a cup-shaped hollow.

position of a neck

necks varies considerably the smallest may be only 20 or 30 yd. in diameter, the largest are several miles. Occasionally a whole neck is composed of solid crystalline rock representing the last part of the magma which congealed within the crater. The Castle rock of Edinburgh is a neck occupied by a plug of crystaUine basalt. Necks of this kind weather down very slowly and tend to form prominent hills. A particularly famous example is Devils Tower National monument iq.v.), in Wyoming. After the eruptions terminate, gases or hot solutions given out by deep-lying masses of molten rock may find a passage upward through the materials occupying the crater, greatly modifying their mineral nature and laying down fresh deposits {see Metasomatism). A good example of secondary deposits within a volcanic neck is provided by the Cripple Creek mining district of Colorado. The ore-bearing veins are connected with volcanic rocks and part of these occupy a vertical circular pipe which is typical volcanic a neck. A phonolitic breccia, greatly altered, is the principal rock and is cut by dikes of phonolite, diabase (dolerite), etc. The country rock is mostly granite and gneiss, and blocks of these are common in the breccia. A large volcano was built up in Tertiary times on the granite plateau and has since been almost entirely removed by denudation. The gold ores were carried upward by currents of hot water derived from the volcanic magma and were deposited along cracks and fissures in the ma-

The

size of

;

i»i

which occupied the crater, and also in the surrounding rocks. See also Geology; Ore Deposits. (J. S. F.; X.) (1157-1217), English schoolman and scientist, author of De naturis reriim, was born at St. Albans, Hertfordshire, in Sept. 1157 on the same night as King Richard I. His mother, Hodierna, was foster mother to the prince, who later gave her lands in Wiltshire, which long bore her name: Knoyle Odierne. Alexander was educated at the school at St. Albans and studied at Paris (c. 1175-82). Returning to England, he was master at a monastic school at Dunstable (c. 1183-84) and then at St. Albans. He taught theology at Oxford (c. 1190) and entered the Augustinian abbey of Cirencester {c. 1200), of which he became abbot in 1213. He died at Kempsey, Worcestershire, early in 1217. His earliest work, De nominibus utensilium, is a school book, a hst of words having to do with daily life, strung together to form sentences. It contains the earliest European notice of the use of the magnetic compass as a guide to seamen. His other voluminous works, in prose and verse, which are mainly unpublished, were theological or moral. They include a grammar for biblical students {Corrogationes Promethei) and commentaries on the Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and the Song of Solomon. The two introductory books of the commentary on Ecclesiastes are entitled De naturis rerum. In the course of moralizing comments on the heavens, on animals, birds, fishes and on man he shows that he was acquainted with the new scientific knowledge that was becoming available in western Europe through the efforts of translators from the Greek and Arabic, and in his case especially through writers of the medical school of Salerno. The commentaries also show that he knew well a wide range of Latin classical writers. His works were copied and read in England till the end of the middle ages. The name Neckam is a late corruption of his nickname "Nequam." Bibliography. Sir S. Gaselee, Natural Science in England at the terials

NECKAM, ALEXANDER

—

End

of the Twelfth Century (1936) J. C. Russell, "Alexander Neckam England," English Historical Review, vol. xlvii (1932) C. H. Raskins, Sttidies in the History of Mediaeval Science (1924). (Ri. W. H.) a river of Germany, 371 km. (230 mi.) long and a right-bank tributary of the Rhine, rises in the Black Forest near ;

in

;

NECKAR,

Schwenningen am Neckar and close to the headwaters of the Danube. It flows north and then northeast along the foot of the Jurassic scarp of the Swabian Jura mountains, passing Rottweil, Rottenburg and Tiibingen. At Plochingen it changes its course, flowing away from the scarp edge to Bad Cannstatt near Stuttgart. The valley at this point is very picturesque. It becomes broader and deeper and lies between vine-clad hills. Continuing north past hills crowned by feudal castles, it flows by Heilbronn and Bad

Wimpfen

to Eberbach.

It there

takes a tortuous westerly course

and cuts through the wooded hills of the southern end of the Odenwald. Winding by Neckarsteinach and Neckargemiind between wooded heights, it sweeps beneath the Konigsstuhl (1,857 ft.), washes the walls of Heidelberg, and enters the Rhine trough from the right at Mannheim. The Neckar is canalized as far as Plochingen, and is navigable for 1,000-ton barges. The construction of a canal to link Stuttgart with

Rhine).

Ulm

is

being undertaken {see (R. E. Di.)

NECKER, JACQUES

(1732-1804), the French king Louis XVI's minister of finance, overpraised in his lifetime for his somewhat dubious skill with the public finances and unduly depreciated by historians for his alleged vacillation and lack of statesmanship in the opening phases of the French Revolution. He was born in Geneva on Sept. 30, 1732, the younger son of C. F. Necker, a lawyer from Kiistrin in Brandenburg who, after appointment to the chair of German public law in the University of Geneva, had become a citizen of the Genevan republic in Jan. 1726. At the age of 16, Jacques Necker entered the bank of his father's friend Isaac Vernet as a clerk; and in 1750 he was transferred to the bank's headquarters in Paris. On Vernet's retirement in 1762 his nephew Pierre Isaac Thellusson promoted Necker to the position of junior partner.

As

a result of adroit speculation in the

Necker became a prominent and wealthy banker. In 1764 he married Suzanne Curchod, the cultivated and talented daughter of a former Vaudois pastor

public funds and in the grain trade,

NECROSIS— NEDIM

l82

(among her earlier suitors had been the historian Edward Gibbon'). She encouraged him to cmbarlv on a public career. Geneva ap1768; and he also company. In 1772, at wife's suggestion, Neckcr transferred his banking responsi-

pointed him

became his

its

resident minister in Paris in

a director of the French East India

bilities to his brother Louis. He then acquired a reputation as a writer on financial topics by an eloge of Colbert, which won the approval of the Academie Fran(;aise (1773), and by an attack on

corn (177S). Though he was a foreigner and a Protestant, Necker was placed in virtual control of Turgot's free-trade policy

in

French finances, as director of the royal treasury, on Oct. 22. 1776; and this position was recognized by his appointment as director general of the finances on June 29, 1777. In his first ministry Necker made several cautious experiments He abolished mainmorte in social, and administrative reform. (mortmain) on the royal domains in Aug. 1779; reduced the numfrom 60 to 40; and established farmers bers of the general tax "provincial assemblies" for Berry and for Haute-Guienne with administrative powers in which the third estate had as many representatives as the clergy and the nobility combined and voting was by head (1778-79), The first and the last of these experiments met with opposition from the privileged orders and were not extended, as had been hoped, to the country as a whole. The main mistake made by Necker, however, was his misguided attempt to finance French participation in the American War of Independence without recourse to additional taxation. In trying to raise the necessary loans, Necker published in 1781 his celebrated Compte rendu an rot, claiming a surplus of 10,000,000 livres The in the hope of concealing an actual deficit of 46,000,000. opposition of the leading minister, Maurepas, and the hostility of the queen, Marie Antoinette, forced Necker to resign on May 19, 1781, He retired to St. Ouen, where he wrote his Administra-

(1933); E. Chapuisat, Necker (1938); P. Jolly, Necker (1947). For Necker's speech May S, 1789, see G. Lefebvre and A. Terroine, Recueil de documents relatifs aux stances des Hats-ginhaux, tnai-juin 1789, vol. i (19S3). For Necker's first ministry see H. Glagau, Rejormversuche und Sturz des Absolutismus in Frankreich, 1774-1788 (1908) for his second, J. Flammermont, article in Revue kistorigue, vol. xlvi (1891) for his financial policy after 1789, M, Marion, Histoire jinancihc de la France, vol. ii (1919). (A. On.) ;

;

NECROSIS

is

a

term used

from the action of bacteria.

The

cell. See also Gangrene. (F. L. A.) botany, a sweet, variably viscous liquid secreted

and cytoplasm of the

NECTAR,

in

Nectar serves as an and thus aids in effecting pollination. It is the basis of honey, produced by enzymatic action in the honeybee. See Flower: Botany: Floral Envelope (Accessory Organs); Pollination: Insect Pollination ( Entomophily) Beekeeping: The Colony: Life Cycle and Work; Honey. In Greek mythology, nectar refers to the nourishment of the gods. See Ambrosia and Nectar. NECTARINE (Primus persica var. nectarind), a smoothskinned peach known for more than 2,000 years. In tree shape and leaf characteristics the peach and nectarine are indistinguishable, but the nectarine fruits look more like plums than peaches because of the smooth skin. A velvety mat of epidermal hairs or fuzz covers the skin of peaches, while on the skin of nectarines these hairs are absent. The stones and kernels of the two fruits

by

certain glands called nectaries in plants.

insect attractant

;

Like are alike in appearance. peaches, nectarines have red, yellow or white flesh and have a

After both Calonne and Lomenie de Brienne had failed to solve the financial problems, for which Necker was at least partially responsible, Necker himself was recalled as finance minister on Aug, 26, 1788, As the decision to summon the estates-general

in

anxiety to preserve his popularity at all costs. After his final resignation (Sept. 18, 1790), he lived in retirement at Coppet

near Geneva with his daughter Germaine, Necker died at Coppet on April 9, 1804.

—E.

Mme

de Stael (g.v.).

Lavaquery, Necker, fourrier de

la

Revolution

aroma and flavour. same soil

are adapted to the

and climatic conditions suitable for peaches and require the same cultural treatments for success-

There are clingand freestone nectarines. some peach clones are

ful production.

of

assuming that the surrender of the fiscal immunities of the nobility would remove his financial anxieties. In preparing for the meeting of the estates-general, Necker had to steer a difficult course between the claims of the third estate for double representation, which were conceded by the royal council on his recommendation in Dec. 1788, and the insistence of the privileged classes on the traditional method of debate, order by order. He has often been blamed for not having clearly laid down the government's proposals for political as well as financial reform in his opening speech to the estates-general on May 5, 1789. He did, however, propose a reasoned program of social and constitutional reforms which were lost sight of in the struggle over procedure. Even the latter struggle might have been avoided if Necker's suggesSimilarly his program of tion for conciliation had been adopted. liberal concessions to the National Assembly (formed between June 10 and June 17) was drastically modified by the court reactionaries just before the "royal session" of June 23, 1789. His objective was a limited constitutional monarchy with a bicameral legislature on the English model. His dismissal, on July 11, 1789, an overt sign of court reaction, did much to provoke the disturbances in Paris which culminated in the storming of the Bastille. Having retired to Switzerland, he received the summons to return to office on July 20, 1789. In his third ministry Necker struggled ineffectively with the rapidly mounting deficit and was overshadowed by Talleyrand and Mirabeau, who dictated revolutionary finance at that stage. Necker's chief weakness as a politician was his vanity and his

Bibliography,

characteristic

They

France: History; French

had already been taken (see Revolution), Necker's main preoccupation lay in the field politics rather than in finance, though he was too complacent

characteristic changes of necrosis

are due to the activity of intracellular enzymes and consist for the most part of a breakdown of organic material of the nucleus

tion des finances to justify his policy (1784).

for 1789

pathology to describe the death

in

of a circumscribed area of tissue. It may result from loss of blood supply to an area, from toxic agents, from physical trauma or

NECTARINE (PRUNUS PERSICA VAR NECTARINA)

stone

When

crossed or self-pollinated, the resmooth skin may give rise to

sulting seeds that carry the factor for

nectarines, while those that do not carry this factor will be peaches.

Nectarines may sometimes appear on peach trees as a result of the process of bud variation or bud sporting, a vegetative deviation from the normal. Peaches occasionally occur spontaneously on nectarine trees in the same manner. Fruits of the nectarine are more subject to fungus diseases

than peaches, particularly brown rot, and when grown in humid regions must receive frequent sprays of fungicides and insecticides Stanwick, Quetta, Gold Mine, to control diseases and insects. Fireglobe and Le Grande are well-known kinds in California. In Cavalier and Garden State are betterthe eastern United States, adapted varieties for humid conditions. Cultivation of nectarines (F. P. C.) is essentially the same as for peaches (g.v.). (1681-1730), Turkish poet, whose poems NEDIM, present a vivid picture of the wealth and elegance of early 18thcentury Istanbul. Born in Istanbul, the son of a judge and brought up as a scholar, he won the patronage of the grand vizier Ibrahim Pasha, who gave him an appointment, and became a prominent He died figure in the so-called "Tulip age" under Ahmed HI. in obscure circumstances in 1730, the year of the revolution He was that rare thing a poet of the led by Patrona Halil. old school who freed himself sufficiently from its fetters to be His able to express his personality in a style of great beauty. Kasides (odes) and gazels (lyrics) are bright and colourful, and he excelled in his gay and lively sharkis, which are still sung. His masterly handling of the language has made him the most popular of divan poets.

AHMED

—

His Divan was edited by Hahl Nihad in 1922. W. Gibb, A History of Ottoman Poetry, iv (1904),

See E. J.

(F. 1.)

NEDIM PASHA—NEEDLEWORK NEDIM PASHA, MAHMUD: see Mahmud Nedim Pasha. NEEDLE:

see

Clothing Manufacture; Knitting; Net;

Sewing, Home; Sewing Machine. or work done with

NEEDLEWORK,

a needle

and thread,

generally implies a handcraft.

Plain needlework, or sewing,

discussed in the article Sewing,

Home.

the decorating of fabrics

by embroidery

is

Art needlework includes stitches or

patchwork;

Buttonhole stitch is without being passed through the fabric. used to edge cut-out designs and form bars in cut work, done on

and the various methods of forming a single thread into fabric or lace, the best known of which are knitting, crocheting and

linen.

tatting.

in

Embroidery.

— Embroidery

an art, or craft, known to all countries and periods of history, and modern embroidery, it may be pointed out, is regaining the status of an art expression. The old techniques are used with new fluidity and freedom, often with stunning effect. The design is usually marked on the fabric first, except in canvas embroidery or cross-stitch work, in which the commonest practice is to copy the design by counting stitches and background threads. Embroidery stitches, beginning with the basic ones (see fig. 1), have an infinite number of variations, combinations, uses and is

methods of execution.

For instance, tent stitch is also the petit point of canvas embroidery, and cross-stitch igros point in canvas

embroidery) looks like tent stitch crossed; the two, however, are executed differently and have distinctive needle directions. Chain stitch is commonly seen in single lines, but many oriental hangings and rugs are made of chain stitch worked in close-laid rounds or

back and

forth.

Satin stitch and long-and-short stitch, almost invariable addi-

183

work" and eyelet embroidery, are also responsible for the most opulent silk- and metal-thread effects in church vestments, hangings, etc., as well as for the colourful crewel work and for most of the older "pictures in stitches" not done in petit point. Couching stitch allows heavy yarns, even cords, to be attached tions to "white

Other forms of decoration through stitches are (i) drawn work,

which threads are pulled out of the fabric in a design Cthis includes hemstitching); (2) smocking, in which gathers are drawn up and assembled, with the help of decorative stitches, into groups to form a design; and (3) applique, in which pieces of fabric, usually in contrasting colours, are cut into designs and attached to the background with either a sewing or an embroidery stitch.

{See also Embroidery.)

Knitting and Crocheting.

— Both these

forms of needlework

require forming loops out of thread or yarn and drawing them through each other. The slender rods (needles, hooks; see below) this work is done range from wire thin (metal), fine thread, to finger thick (wood or plastic), for heavy Medium-sized plastic or metal needles and hooks and medium-weight yarns are most commonly used. Knitted fabrics have much more elasticity and pliability than crocheted ones,

by means of which used with yarns.

commonly is used for close-fitting garments, such stockings and sweaters, and draped ones, such as dresses. Crochet work, on the other hand, offers greater variety in stitch The information that follows should enable a person to design. work from printed instructions for making a simple knitted or crocheted article. The "gauge" (number of stitches and rows per inch given in such instructions results from the combination of size of yarn, size of needle and the tightness or looseness with which an individual worker forms her stitches. Ideally a stitch is just loose enough to allow the needle or hook to slip through

hence, knitting as

)

easily.

Knitting.— ¥ ^''

A MYELINATED fibre and (BOTTOM) T'lYZVrll ^,3^^ ^^^^ arrows show the direction of the electric cur-

rent

240

NERVI—NERVOUS SYSTEM

outlined assumes that the causal agent

in

propagation

is

the elec-

This tric current which flows between resting and active nerve. assumption is supported by extremely strong evidence and is accepted by those who have reservations about the part played by the sodium and potassium ions in generating the action po-

Blood; Digestion; Ear, Anatomy of; Eye, Human; Muscle AND Muscular System; Nerve; Nerve Conduction; Neurology, Comparative; Olfactory System; Smell and Taste; Spinal Cord; Touch, Sense of).

HISTOLOGY

tentials.

Unmyelinated fibres are continuous structures and the impulse propagates smoothly from one point to the next. In myelinated nerve fibres, which are present in all vertebrates and in shrimps and prawns, a different type of conduction has been evolved. Here most of the fibre is covered with an insulating layer and the excitable

membrane

is

exposed only

at the

nodes of Ranvier.

When

one node becomes active, current flows through the next node in the

manner shown

in

of the body are composed of tisturn are composed of microscopic units termed cells. Cells are specialized to perform a particular function, such as secretion (gland cell), contraction (muscle cell) or conduction

and these

sues,

some distance ahead

The

of the active point.

effect

in

The nervous system is composed of billions of The most noted investigator of the histology (microscopic anatomy) of these cells was the Spanish scientist (nerve

cell).

individual

cells.

Ramon y

Santiago

fig. 4.

In this system only the nodes generate the action potential, and the function of the myelin is to make the local electric current act at

The organs and organ systems

Nerve

Cells.

Cajal.

— Nerve

cells

or neurons are distinguished

esses (projections) that conduct nerve impulses to

body

by proc-

and from the

of the cell. Nerve impulses are physicochemical reactions sweep along the surfaces of neurons and their processes (see

is known as saltatory conduction, is that the impulse is conducted at a higher velocity and with greater economy than in an unmyelinated fibre of comparable

Nerve Conduction).

size.

tures of which are designed to transmit impulses over long dis-

of this type of propagation, which

See also Nerve; Nervous System; Synapse; Spinal Cord; (A. L. Hn.) Comparative Neurology. NERVT, PIER LUIGI (1891), internationally known Italian structural engineer,

was born

in Sondrio, Italy,

June

that

types of tances to

cells,

Similar reactions occur in many other but are most notable in neurons, the structural fea-

many

The bodies

parts of the body.

of neurons vary in diameter from 4-5/1 (microns)

21,

1S91, and graduated from the University of Bologna in 1913. He later joined the staff of the School of Architecture of Rome, teach-

ing technology and construction technique.

works are several large-span structures

MYELIN SHEATH

His most important

built in Italy

—the

mu-

nicipal stadium in Florence (1929) aircraft hangars with geodesic structure at Orvieto, Orbetello and Torre del Lago (1936-41), all ;

destroyed during World

War

NODE OF RANVIER

complex for the Turin exhibition (1948-50); the permanent headquarters of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization at Paris, in collaboration with Marcel Breuer and B. Zehrfuss, architects; and the Olympic sport palace and the Flaminio stadium, both built in Rome, and the stadium of Taormina, in Sicily. In 1956 Nervi went to the United States to lecture on his work at the invitation of several universities. He is an honorary member of the American Academy Institute of Arts and Letters (1957) and of the American Institute of Architects, and a member of the National Association of ItaUan Engineers and Architects and of the International Congress of Contemporary Architecture. II

;

a

SCHWANN CELL NEURILEMMA

(E. F. C.)

NERVO, AMADO

(1870-1919), recognized as Mexico's best modernist poet, was born in Tepic, Mex., on Aug. 27, 1870, and was originally named Amado Ruiz de Nervo. He studied at the Colegio de Jacona and at the seminary of Zamora from 1886 to 1888. Nervo's literary career was begun in Mazatlan as a newspaperman. From there he went to Mexico City in 1894, where he pubhshed his short novel EI Bachiller (1895), his first volume of poems Perlas Negras (1898) and also wrote for the Revista azul. With J. E. Valenzuela he founded the modernist periodical Revista moderna (1898-1903). From 1905 to 1918 he lived in Madrid, Spain, as secretary to the Mexican legation; and there he wrote most of his innumerable poems, essays and short stories. After a short visit to Mexico in 1918 he was appointed minister to Argentina and Uruguay. He died in Montevideo on May 24, 1919. His best poems, found in the volumes Elevacion (1914-16) and Plenitud (1917) are characterized by a deep religious feeling and a simple but perfect form. Bibliography. Genaro Estrada, Bibliograjia de Amado Nemo (1925); Alfonso Reyes (ed.), Obras complelas, 29 vol. (1920-28); Esther T. Wellman, Amado Nervo, Mexico's Religious Poet (1936);

—

Luis Leal (ed.),

Amado Nervo,

NERVOUS SYSTEM,

sus mejores cuentos (1951). (L. Ll.)

The nervous system may be divided

into (i) the central nervous system, consisting of the brain and spinal cord and (2) the peripheral nervous system, consisting of

the cranial, spinal and peripheral nerves with their sensory endings.

motor and

The anatomy and physiology of many parts of the nervous system are treated in separate articles (see Brain Circulation of ;

FIS.

1.

— DIAGRAMS

OF NERVE CELLS AND ENDINGS AT HIGH MAGNIFICA-

TIONS (A) Multipolar cell of spinal cord; (B) part of a myelinated nerve fibre; (C) unipolar cell; (D) motor end plate; (E) nonmyelinated fibre forming a free ending; (F) Pacinian corpuscle; (G) neuromuscular spindle, present In muscles near the junction of muscle and tendon

NERVOUS SYSTEM up

to 50-ioo/i (a

micron

rons are almost visible to

'")• ^^^ largest neu25,]) 06 the naked eye. The nuclei of cells con-

about

is

chromatin; chromatin in the nuclei of neurons is sparse in amount, although the nucleolus is very promicytoplasm of neurons contains a chromatinlike material nent. The called Nissl substance (named after Franz Nissl) (fig. i[A]). The cytoplasm also contains special particles called mitochondria, and a complex, lipoid structure, the Goigi apparatus (after Camillo Golgi). Both are important in metabolic processes and both tain a material

called

Thin fibrils termed neurofibrils are also present in the cytoplasm and processes of nerve cells; their significance is unknown. The processes of neurons may be only a few microns in length, are present in other types of

or they

may

away from

extend several

the cell

cells.

Processes that conduct impulses A neuron generally has

feet.

body are termed axons.

241

sensitive; e.g., the retina of the eye

most

is

activated by radiant

energy, taste buds of the tongue by chemical reactions. Receptors for the special senses (vision, hearing, balance, taste and smell) are described in other articles. Receptors for the gen(touch, pain, temperature, pressure, position and are of several varieties that differ mainly in the way The simplest are in which the nonnervous tissue is arranged. those in which a nerve fibre breaks up into fine branches that senses

eral

movement)

end

in

connective tissue or in epithelium

;

these are free nerve end-

ings (fig. i[E]).

In other receptors, the nerve fibres end in a complicated branchsurrounded by a specialized connective tissue capsule. Such endings are often called corpuscles; they are most sensitive to mechanical deformation. The nerve fibres to corpuscles are usually myelinated, but the myelin is lost before the fibre enters the coring,

Processes that conduct toward the cell body are Most neurons have many dendrites and are The neurons of the classified as multipolar cells (fig. i[A]). brain, spinal cord and autonomic ganglia are multipolar. The neu-

puscle.

rons of spinal ganglia and of the ganglia of certain cranial nerves are unipolar; that is, they have only one process (fig. i [C] ). This process divides into two branches, one of which conveys impulses from sensory endings toward the cell body, while the other con-

such as on the finger tips, there are also oval, encapsulated endings known as Meissner's corpuscles (after George Meissner) and Other types of corpuscles may believed to be touch receptors. also be present. Some receptors in skin are sensitive to mechanical deformation (pressure), others to injury (pain) and others to radiant energy (temperature). Further correlation between struc-

only one axon.

called dendrites.

veys these impulses to the brain or spinal cord. Certain neurons in ganglia of the inner ear, in one of the layers of the retina of the eye and in the olfactory mucous membrane have two procOne process conducts toward, esses and are classified as bipolar. and the other away from, the cell body. The processes of unipolar and bipolar cells are structurally similar to the axons of multipolar cells.

The

dendrites of multipolar cells are short branching processes

that contain Nissl substance

and mitochondria. The branching cell. Axons (and the processes

increases the surface area of the

of unipolar and bipolar cells) lack Nissl substance but contain mitochondria. They often extend for long distances, and have few

branches until near their terminations. If an axon is more than about one micron in diameter, it is surrounded by a whitish, lipoid sheath, the myelin or medullary sheath (fig. i[B]). This sheath is interrupted at regular intervals to form nodes of Ranvier (after Louis Ranvier), which are of fundamental importance in nerve conduction. The largest axons, with their myelin sheaths, are no more than about 20/1 in diameter. All axons of the peripheral nervous system, whether they have a myelin sheath or not, are surrounded by a thin, protoplasmic sheath, the neurilemma. This sheath is a cellular tube formed by cells of Schwann (after Theodor Schwann). It is of fundamental importance in the formation of myelin and in nerve regeneration. There are no neurilemmal cells in the central nervous system. The term nerve fibre is often used to specify an axon and its various sheaths; hence the terms myelinated fibre and nonmyelinated fibre. The gray matter of the central nervous system is composed mainly of cell bodies and fibres that, for the most part, are nonmyelinated. By contrast, white matter contains large numA nerve is a bers of myelinated fibres and relatively few cells. collection of nerve fibres that is visible to the naked eye; the constituent fibres are bound together by connective tissue. Each fibre is microscopic in size, hence hundreds or thousands of fibres are present in each nerve. Thus, according to the number of constituent fibres, a nerve may be barely visible or it may be quite thick.

Nerve Endings.

—^Nerve

carry impulses to and from nonnervous structures (such as muscle), and they end in a special way in relation to these structures. They also transmit impulses to other nerve cells

mission.

fibres

and have special endings

—

at the points of trarts-

Sensory Endings (Receptors). When skin is stimulated so that the sensation of touch is aroused, the stimulus activates certain special structures in the skin. These structures are receptors, composed of nerve fibres and nonnervous tissue, so arranged that when mechanically deformed by the stimulus, they discharge nerve impulses to the brain or to the spinal cord. Receptors are further specialized according to the type of stimulus to which they are

sensations of touch, pain and temperature can be aroused The only receptors in hairy skin are free' endings and complicated plexuses around hair follicles. In skin without hair,

The

from

skin.

ture and function

is

quite speculative.

The Pacinian corpuscle (after Filippo Pacini) has a capsule arranged in layers like an onion (fig. i[F]). This corpuscle is often large enough to be visible to the naked eye. It is present in the deeper parts of skin and in the subcutaneous tissues, and in these locations is believed to be concerned with the sensation of pressure (deep touch). Pacinian corpuscles are present in and around muscles, joints, ligaments and tendons. Other complex receptors are also found in these structures. One is the neuromuscular spindle (fig. i[G]), which is so constructed that it is deformed Hence it is sensitive to a change in if the muscle is stretched. muscle length and on that account is often called a stretch recepNeurotendinous spindles are stretch receptors in tendons. ending (after Angelo Ruffini) is a stretch receptor in ligaments and joints; it lacks a definite capsule. The various receptors in muscles, joints, ligaments and tendons are concerned with the sensations of position and movement. Free endings are also present in these structures and are believed to be associated tor.

A Ruffini

with pain. Viscera also contain receptors. Some are concerned with pain and others with sensations, but most are involved in the reflex control of visceral activity. For example, some viscera contain Pacinian corpuscles, the positions of which near blood vessels suggest that they are sensitive to changes in vessel diameter due to pulsaMany viscera and blood vessels contain endings that retion. semble stretch receptors. Those in blood vessels are activated when the vessel walls are stretched during dilatation of the vessels, and the resulting impulses are transmitted to neurons in the brain that are concerned with the reflex control of blood pressure. Motor Endings. Motor impulses to the heart, glands and smooth muscle are carried by small nerve fibres of the autonomic system. The way in which they end is still obscure. Presumably they form simple, free endings in these structures. Skeletal muscle fibres are supplied by large motor nerve fibres

—

that are axons of cells in the brain and the spinal cord. When such an axon enters a muscle (hundreds or thousands usually enter

each muscle) it divides into many smaller branches. Each branch ends on a muscle fibre as a ramification that is surrounded by muscle fibre nuclei and is termed a motor end plate or myoneural junction (fig. i[D]). The myelin sheath ends before the muscle fibre is reached, and the neurilemma becomes continuous with the cell membrane of the muscle fibre. The arrival of a nerve impulse at a motor ending is followed by the contraction of the muscle fibre.

—

Neuronal Junctions (Synapses). When an axon approaches a neuron to which it is conveying an impulse, it decreases in diameter and divides repeatedly. Each branch ends by making contact with

NERVOUS SYSTEM

242

EMBRYOLOGY Early in embryonic development, a neural tube is formed in the manner illustrated in fig. 3. This figure also shows that the head end of the neural tube early development has three and then five enlargements from which the adult brain is derived. The rest of the tube forms the spinal cord. In spite of complex changes during growth and maturation, the central nervous system retains the cavity of the neural tube. The ventricles of the adult brain develop from this cavity. Some cells in the neural tube are called spongioblasts; glial cells develop from these. Others, known as neuroblasts, give rise

m

—

FIC. 2. DIAGRAM OF A MULTIPOLAR CELL SHOWING AXON OF ANOTHER CELL SYNAPSING ON ITS SURFACE. HEAVY ARROWS INDICATE DIRECTION OF CONDUCTION

to adult neurons.

and

the surface of a dendrite or of the cell body (fig. 2), generally as a small swelling that may have a ringlike appearance. The branch may make several contacts before it ends. These contacts or junctional regions are called synapses. The axon and the cell with fused. This "contiguity without it is synapsing are not It continuity" has been demonstrated by electron microscopy. is the basis of the neuron theory; i.e., that neurons are cellular

which

Some

cells in the

neural crest develop into the

unipolar cells of the spinal ganglia, others into neurilemmal

cells,

from the basal plate, migrate to positions alongside the vertebral column and to viscera. Most of these migrating cells develop into multipolar neurons of the autonomic ganglia. Some, however, give rise to the medullary Cell division in the nervous system cells of the adrenal glands. stops at or shortly after birth. Individual cells and processes, howstill

others, together with neuroblasts

NEURAL CREST NEURAL GROOVE

units.

Some of the terminal branches of an axon may synapse with one neuron, others with another, so that one axon may make contact with hundreds of neurons. Conversely, any one neuron may have hundreds or thousands of synaptic contacts on its surface, derived from many axons. Nerve impulses usually cross synaptic juncnamely from the axon of one neuron to

tions in only one direction,

body of the next neuron. Neuroglia. The central nervous system contains blood vessels and a small amount of connective tissue around the vessels. Otherwise the nonnervous elements consist of cells known collectively as neuroglia. Glial cells differ in size and shape; nearly all have processes that weave around cells and fibres, and are frea dendrite or the cell

—

quently attached to the walls of blood vessels.

have many processes and, because of

Some

their shape, are

glial cells

known

as

Others, with fewer and shorter processes, are termed oligodendroglia. Both types develop embryologically astrocytes

(fig.

i[A]).

from cells of the neural tube. Another type of glial cell is derived embryologically from connective tissue cells carried in with blood These cells are small and have few processes; they are

vessels.

called microglia.

spinal cord

is

The lining of the cavities of the brain and the ependyma; its cells constitute a special type of

called

neuroglia.

Most

glial

cells

can act as phagocytes; that

is,

they can in-

and remove dead or injured nervous tissue. There is evidence that glial cells are also concerned with the formation of myelin. Glial cells are clinically important because all tumours that begin in the brain and spinal cord are composed of glial gest

cells.

—

Degeneration and Regeneration. Adult neurons cannot dinew cells. Hence, a neuron that is lost cannot be

vide and form

axon is destroyed, however, the cell body may it undergoes certain changes. For example, if the axon of a spinal cord neuron is severed by cutting a peripheral replaced.

If an

survive, although

nerve, the Nissl substance in that

cell disappears (chromatolysis), may reappear after several weeks or months; however, neurons confined entirely to the central nervous system generally do not survive axonal section. That part of the axon separated from the cell body degenerates; the myelin sheath and the axon swell and

but

The fragments are removed by scavenger cells, most neurUemmal cells. These cells remain The tip of that part of the axon still connected with the cell body begins to grow through the neurilemmal cord (at the rate of about one to two millimetres a day in man) and

FOURTH VENTRICLE

disintegrate.

of which are proliferating as a cellular cord.

eventually reestabUshes contact with whatever structure it had previously innervated. Function is often restored more or less completely. The myelin sheath is reformed, probably by neuri-

lemmal cells. There is no significant regeneration in the brain and spinal cord of warm-blooded animals; it may occur to a striking degree in

many

cold-blooded animals, however.

CENTRAL CANAL

— DIAGRAMMATIC

REPRESENTATION OF CERTAIN FEATURES OF THE EMBRYOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM FIG. 3.

(A— E) Cross-secti< of parts of embryos. The ectoderm Is a sheet of cells (Individual cells r shown) that grows to form a longitudinal groove. The groove deepens and closes off to form a neural tube, from which the neural crest detaches. A single neuroblast is shown in the neural crest of D, and in E this has become a unipolar celt with processes growing centrally and peripherally. A neuroblast of the basal plate in D develops an axon that In E is growing out of the spinal cord. (F-G) Longitudinal views of the front end of the neural tube showing enlargements and cavities from which the adult brain develops

NERVOUS SYSTEM ever, continue to

grow and enlarge

until after adolescence.

features in are

summa-

vertebrates include fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals and are the largest subdivision (subphylum) of the

The

All chordates have a single nerve trunk situated along the back, above the notochord or the vertebrae. This cord is a hollow, nonganglionated structure with a central, fluidfilled cavity. Its embryonic development is similar in all chorThe anterior (front) end of this tube has evolved, in dates.

phylum Chordata.

vertebrates, into a hollow brain with characteristic subdivisions.

There are also characteristic sense organs (eyes, ears, etc.) that develop in the head region of vertebrates. The rest of the tube becomes the spinal cord. it. In Amphioxus not a vertebrate, but a primitive chordate) the dorsal and ventral roots alternate; a dorsal root on one side is opposite a ventral root on the other. The dorsal roots are both sensory and motor; the ventral roots are purely motor. In fishes

spinal cord has nerve roots attached to

(the lancelet;

and higher vertebrates, dorsal and ventral roots unite to form spinal nerves, and there is an increasing tendency for dorsal roots Ventral roots are motor in all chordates. to be entirely sensory.

The

cranial nerves of chordates are special nerves associated

with the brain.

They

man arrangement

of

are

1 2

named from

man, but the huphylum example, there are two pairs of studies in

pairs does not hold throughout the

Chordata. In Amphioxus for cranial nerves. The 12th pair of cranial nerves (hypoglossal) is absent in fishes. The nth pair (accessory) is not separate in lower vertebrates, but is part of the loth pair (vagus). The first pair in most vertebrates is the "terminal nerve"; it is absent or ,

rudimentary

in

motor and sensory nerve

It also contains

groups of nerve

cells like cells

sensations, such as hearing, balance vital

functions,- such as

respiration

those of the spinal cord.

concerned with certain special and taste, and with certain

and

circulation.

This part

of the brain stem changes relatively little in ascending the ver-

tebrate scale.

The cerebellum is a part of the brain that is concerned with automatic regulation of posture and movement. Certain groups of cerebellar neurons regulate trunk muscles, others limb muscles, and still others are connected with the cerebral cortex. Hence the anatomical arrangement of the cerebellum varies greatly from species to species, depending on mode of locomotion. The cerebellum is relatively best developed in primates, especially in man. In lower vertebrates, the main nervous centres are in the front end of the brain stem, which receives impulses of the special and general sensations. it

It acts as a co-ordinating centre.

Parts of

are highly developed in birds, in which those portions devoted

to vision are relatively large.

The primitive

cerebral hemispheres are centres for smell, but

they carry out many of the functions of the brain stem. Furthermore, by virtue of a complex surface layer of nerve cells, the cerebral cortex, the hemispheres in higher vertebrates are important association centres. The increasing importance and complexity of the cerebral hemispheres are associated with two main evolutionary trends. One involves the cerebral cortex, which is first present in reptiles and is most highly developed in man (important regions of the human cerebral cortex in higher vertebrates

Basal ganglia are masses of nerve cells in the interior of the and are concerned with many stereotyped

cerebral hemispheres

movement, sensation, visceral activity and Basal ganglia are first present in amphiband are most specialized and advanced in birds, in which they are the highest level of nervous function. Basal ganglia are present and important in mammals, but are overshadowed by the increasing development and complexity of the cerebral cortex. or automatic aspects of ians

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM The term autonomic nervous system

refers to those parts of the

and peripheral nervous systems that regulate the activity of the viscera. By a very broad definition the term viscera means the heart with its special type of muscle, and any organ or structure, such as stomach or skin, that contains smooth (involuntary) muscle and glands. The term autonomic implies an autonomy that For example, skin exposed to cold air does not actually exist. becomes blanched or pale because of a reflex constriction of blood vessels in the skin. The cold air stimulates temperature receptors in the skin, and the spinal reflex, by way of autonomic fibres to blood vessels, acts to conserve heat. At the same time impulses are sent to the brain for the sensation of cold. This is an example of co-ordination of somatic and autonomic activities. The autonomic nervous system can be considered as a series of central

levels that differ in function in that the higher the level the

more

widespread and general its functions; the lower the level the more The highest level is the restricted and specific the functions. cerebral cortex, certain areas of which control or regulate all visceral functions. These areas send nerve fibres to the next level, the hypothalamus, at the base of the brain. The hypothalamus is

a co-ordinating centre for the

One

man.

The fibres in cranial nerves are of several types. Some cranial nerves are composed of but one type, others of several. There are fibres for the special senses, general sensory fibres from the head and face, special sensory and motor fibres for the branchial or gill region (primarily pharynx, larynx, facial muscles, muscles of mastication), parasympathetic fibres and motor fibres to eye muscles and tongue. The major evolutionary changes of the nervous system are found in the brain. The hind end of the brain stem (the brain stem connects the cerebral hemispheres with the spinal cord) contains

involves

emotional behaviour.

rized very briefly here.

The

The other trend

the basal ganglia.

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY The nervous systems of vertebrates have certain common and show certain evolutionary changes that

243

are concerned with speech mechanisms).

of

its

perature.

many

motor control

functions, for example,

is

of visceral activity.

regulation of

body tem-

The hypothalamus has nervous and vascular connec-

tions with the pituitary gland,

by virtue of which

it

influences the

The hypoit the entire endocrine system. thalamus also sends nerve fibres to lower centres in the brain stem that are concerned with still more specific functions; e.g., the reflex regulation of respiration, heart rate and circulation. These centres function by virtue of their connections with still lower centres, which are collections of nerve cells that send their axons into certain cranial and spinal nerves. It is characteristic of these axons that, unlike motor fibres to skeletal muscle, they synapse with multipolar cells outside the central nervous system before they reach the viscus to be supplied. These cells are collected into ganglia; hence the ganglionic level is the lowest one. The axons from the central nervous system to ganglion cells are termed preThe axons of ganglion cells are called postganglionic fibres. ganglionic fibres, and all such fibres from a particular ganglion supply a specific organ or region of the body. The preganglionic fibres that issue from the thoracic and upper lumbar levels of the spinal cord comprise the sympathetic or thoracolumbar part of the autonomic system. These fibres reach pituitary and through

by way of ventral

roots, then leave the spinal nerves These ganglia are contained trunks), one on each side of the (sympathetic in long nervetrunks vertebral column, extending from the base of the skull to the coccyx. Some preganglionic fibres continue to medullary cells of the suprarenal glands, but most synapse in the ganglia. The postganglionic fibres either go directly to adjacent viscera and blood vessels, or else return to spinal nerves and thus reach blood vessels, smooth muscle and glands of the limbs and body wall.

spinal nerves

to enter adjacent ganglia (fig. 4).

The preganglionic fibres that issue from the brain stem and sacral part of the spinal cord comprise the parasympathetic or craniosacral part of the autonomic system.

The ganglion

cells

near the organs innerapparently none vated. The go to the blood vessels, smooth muscle and glands of the limbs and body wall. Most viscera have a double motor supply, sympathetic

with which these fibres synapse are

in or

postganglionic fibres are very short

;

and parasympathetic, generally with opposing functions. There is also a physiological classification. Certain chemicals

NERVOUS SYSTEM, DISEASES OF

244

WHITE MATTER

on the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system the reader should consult Brain; Meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid; Nerve; Nerve Conduction; Nervous System; Paralysis; Spinal Cord; Tic. Other articles relating to diseases of the nerv-

ASCENDING TRACT

ous system, in addition to those cited as cross references later in

Cerebral Palsy; Dementia; Drug Addiction; Headache; Hydrocephalus; Metabolism, Diseases of; Nervous System, Surgery of; Neuralgia; Neuropharmacology and.Psychopharmacology; Neuroses; Psychiatry; Psychoses; Spine, Diseases and Disabilities of; Stroke; Vertigo

this article, include SPINAL NERVE

AND Dizziness.) The disease processes

GRAY MATTER

FIG. 4.— DIAGRAM OF REFLEX PATHS OF AUTONOMIC SYSTEM

IN

may be distinctive in each part. Diseases may attack each part separately, or two or all three together. These three parts subserve sensation and voluntary movement. There is, in addition, a partly segregated autonomic or vegetative nervous system

THORACIC (SYMPATHETIC) PORTION

that controls the viscera, blood vessels

A tensory fibre enters the spinal cord (shown In cross section) over a dorsal root and synapses with a cell, the axon of which synapses with motor cells, PreMotor fibres leave by way of a ventral root. then ascends to the brain. ganglionic synnpathetic fibre leaves the spinal nerve to synapse in a ganglion Postganglionic fibres go to adjacent viscera or back of the sympathetic trunk. to the spinal nerve

tain glands.

traumatic,

an important part of the mechanism internal environment constant; i.e., maintains temperature, fluid balance, ionic composition of the blood, etc. This maintenance is generally known as homeostasis. The parasympathetic system regulates many specific functions, such as digestion, intermediary metabolism and excretion. The sympathetic system is an important part of the mechanism by which a person reacts to stress. This system tends to act as a whole, especially when stress is of sudden onset. For example, a

may also result in increased blood pressure, pulse rate, cardiac output and blood sugar, measures designed for "fight or flight." These acute responses to stress are widespread because the sympathetic system has many connections and also because adrenaline is secondarily released into the blood stream. Stress may also be followed by more slowly developing changes in metaboUc activities and defense mechanisms, brought about by activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary system, leading to changes in the functions of the endocrine organs. See also references under "Nervous System" in the Index. BiBLiocRAPHy. W. B. Cannon, Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage (1953) S. Ramon y Cajal, Histologic du systeme nerveux de Vhomme et des vertebres (1952) E. Gardner, Fundamentals of Neurology, 3rd ed. (1958); A, W. Ham, Histology, 3rd ed. (1957); W. J. Hamilton, J. D. Boyd and H. W. Mossman, Human Embryology, 2nd ed. (1952); C. J. Herrick, Introduction to Neurology (1931); C. U. A. Kappers, G. C. Huber and E. C. Crosby, The Comparative Anatomy of the Nervous System of Vertebrates, Including Man (1936) S. W. Ranson and S. L. Clark, Anatomy of the Nervous System, 10th ed. (1959); A. S. Romer, The Vertebrate Body (1949); H. Selye, "The General Adaptation Syndrome and the Diseases of Adaptation," J. Clin. Endocrinol., 6;117 (1946); J. C. White, R. H. Smithwick and F. A. Simeone, The Autonomic Nervous System, 3rd ed. (1952); J. Z. Young, "The Organization Within Nerve Cells," Endeavour, 15:5 (1956). (E. D. G.) SYSTEM, DISEASES OF. It is convenient to consider diseases of the nervous system according to their effects on three parts of that system the brain, the spinal cord and the peripheral (sensory and motor) nerves. (For information situation that results in fear or rage

—

;

;

;

NERVOUS

—

cer-

it is anatomically separated and is disposed and ganglia along each side of the spinal canal; here local disease may attack the autonomic system alone, or part of it. In diagnosis, both the nature of the disease process ancl where it attacks must be considered. The main categories of diseases affecting the nervous system are: congenital disease, when the individual is born with some inherent defect; inflammatory and infective, when bacteria, viruses or other germs infect the nervous system; toxic and metabohc, when a poison, either from outside or as a result of some abnormal metabolism of the body, acts on the nervous system; deficiency, when some essential food factor is absent from the diet;

parasympathetic terminals; such fibres are called cholinergic. Noradrenaline is released at most postganglionic sympathetic terminals, and such fibres are called adrenergic. The sympathetic fibres to smooth muscle and sweat glands of the skin, however, are choHnergic. Adrenaline, formed by the medullary cells of the adrenal glands and released into the blood stream, has actions similar to those of noradrenaline. Hence the sympathetic system, by virtue of stimulating the release of adrenaline, can enhance its

its

and the secretion of

connected with the brain and spinal

its fibres also join in the distribution of periph-

as a series of nerves

pulses arrive, and in turn they initiate activity in the viscus or alter Acetylcholine is liberated at postganglionic its existing activity.

is

is

eral nerves, tsut part of

that are liberated at the terminals of postganglionic autonomic i.e., they are released when nerve im-

by which the body keeps

This system

cord centrally and

fibres act as transmitters;

own actions. The autonomic system

and periph-

symptoms and

signs

MOTOR FIBRE TO SKELETAL MUSCLE -^SYMPATHETIC GANGLION

POSTGANGLIONIC FIBRE

affecting the brain, spinal cord

eral nerves are in general similar, but the resulting

PREGANGLIONIC FIBRE

when injury causes

defect;

neoplastic,

when

a

new

growth or tumour, damages the system; vascular, when the blood vessels supplying essential nutriment to the system are diseased; and degenerative, when the cells or nerve fibres of the nervous system show intrinsic degeneration. Congenital diseases usually show themselves in infancy. Inflammatory, infective, toxic and metaboUc troubles may occur in any age group. This also applies to trauma, though exposure to this may be greater during the Neoplasms are comphysically active years of early adult Ufe. moner in middle and late Ufe. Vascular and degenerative diseases

more frequent in the elderly. Peripheral Nerve Disease. If peripheral nerves are diseased, those parts of the body that they supply suffer a loss of power and sensation. There may also be local changes in blood supply and sweating because the autonomic nerve fibres are carried by

are

—

peripheral nerves.

Individual peripheral nerves are commonly affected by injury causing a locahzed traumatic neuropathy. As pressure is a ready source of injury, the nerves most susceptible to this type of injury are those that at some part of their course lie near the surface of the body and in relation to bone, so that compression can easily occur. Nerves often affected by traumatic neuropathy are the ulnar nerve at the elbow, the median nerve as it passes under the firm carpal ligament to enter the palm of the hand, the radial nerve as it winds round the shaft of .the humerus, and the lateral popUteal nerve as it winds round the head of the fibula.

GeneraUzed affections of peripheral nerves (polyneuritis), where weakness, numbness and tingling at the periphery of limbs occur, External poisons that are usually toxic or metabolic in origin.

may

cause polyneuritis include arsenic, lead and mercury and a

number drugs.

of organic

There

is

compounds, some of which may be used as

individual variation in the response to these agents

and some people develop neuropathy more easily than others. Alcohol can produce a polyneuritis by interfering with the nerves' normal supply of thiamine (vitamin B^). Supplying extra thiamine will sometimes dramatically reverse this type of polyneuritis. Nutritional deficiency, both of thiamine and of another vitamin (Bx2, also called cyanocobalamin, or cobalamine), may, of itself, also produce a polyneuritis. So may the endogenous toxicmetabolic upset associated with (diabetes (see Diabetes Mel-

NERVOUS SYSTEM, DISEASES OF LiTUS Signs and Symptoms) less often it may cause a localized neuropathy of one or more nerves (mononeuritis multiplex). In the 1950s it was discovered that carcinoma, especially of the lung, may sometimes cause a generalized polyneuritis. When the small arteries supplying blood to nerves are diseased, as in the condition of polyarteritis nodosa, polyneuritis may also result, usually producing both motor and sensory symptoms, though one or the other may occasionally predominate or appear alone. Peripheral nerves originate as sensory and motor nerve roots from the spinal cord, several roots or parts of them combining to form a given nerve. Disease may attack the nerve roots and cause pain in the distribution of the root, as well as sensory and motor Such lesions are usually traumatic from pressure by nearby loss. structures, since the roots run for a short distance inside the bony spinal canal where pressure occurs from diseased vertebrae or In the upper hmb a form of intervertebral cartilaginous discs. arthritis of the neck (cervical spondylosis) in which disc and bony changes occur, may cause cervical nerve root lesions leading to brachial neuropathy and sometimes pressure on the spinal cord as well. In the lower limbs, a similar pathology of intervertebral discs causes sciatica (see Neuritis) and lumbago. Spinal Cord Disease. The spinal cord consists mainly of nerve tracts carrying impulses for sensation up to the brain and :

;

,

—

for

movement down

diseased there

is loss

to peripheral nerves

and muscles.

of power, sensation, visceral control

If

it

is

and auto-

nomic function below the

level of the disease. This is usually a may sometimes be mainly on one side of cord disease. In such cases motor function may be largely affected on one side and sensory on the opposite, since sensory nerve fibres conducting pain and heat sensation cross immediately after entering the spinal cord, while motor fibres travel up on the side they enter until they reach the brain stem. Occasionally disease may be limited to a small part of the cord so that only certain functions, motor or sensory, are altered and the spinal cord tracts as a whole are not interrupted. In this case, motor or sensory function will be affected only in the body areas suppHed by the diseased segment of cord and there may be no general loss of function below the lesion. Sometimes, also, tracts serving one function (motor, sensory or connected with the cerebellum and co-ordination) seem to be selectively diseased, producing disability limited to a function rather than to an anatomical area. As with peripheral nerves, autonomic function may also be affected in cord disease. As the spinal cord is contained in a rigid bony canal, it is readily compressed by anything that causes enlargement of the surrounding vertebrae or of the contents of the canal. Thus inflammation or tumour of the spinal bones may cause pressure on the cord with consequent interruption of sensory and motor function below the level of the compression. This not only produces weakness, numbness and possibly paresthesia in limbs and trunk below the lesion but also interferes with control of bladder and bowel function. Spinal caries (tuberculosis of the vertebrae) used to be a common cause of this but has decreased with the lessened frequency of tuberculous infection. If an intervertebral disc be-

generalized change but the

body

in unilateral

245

may

cause a necrotizing myelitis that is far more severe than the Intrinsic tumours of the cord (gliomas) original inflammation. They usually produce insidiojus signs of cord are less common. dysfunction at and below their site of origin. (See also Tumour.) Virus diseases may attack the cord, a common one being ante-

Poliomyelitis), which affects mainly the cord the so-called anterior horn cells. The result is local weakness or loss of power, usually of segmental distribution of muscles to correspond with the cord segments most severely affected. There is no sensory change. Herpes zoster virus, on the other hand (see Skin, Diseases of), is mainly sensory in incidence and attacks the posterior horn cells. Both these cause limited damage but other viruses seem to produce a general myelitis with inflammation affecting the whole thickness of the cord and its sensory and motor tracts. Subacute combined degeneration affects both motor and sensory It is astracts in the cord and also causes a peripheral neuritis. sociated with pernicious anemia (see Anemia: Anatomical Derangements of Bone Marrow) and is now known to be due specifically to vitamin Bj2 deficiency. If diagnosed early enough, it can be rapidly cured by treatment with vitamin Bjo. Multiple sclerosis (q.v.) is a disease in which a number of Hmited areas or plaques of nerve fibre degeneration occur with consequent local scarring. Its exact etiology is unknown, but one view considers it a primary virus disease with secondary effects of an allergic nature in the nervous system. The disease attacks both brain and spinal cord, but there is a form that pre.sents clinically as a purely spinal disease, causing mainly stiffness, weakness and in-co-ordination of Hmbs and trunk. The condition is then often benign and slowly progressive. Motor neuron disease (see Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis)

rior poliomyelitis (see

motor nerve

is

cells of the

—

essentially a degenerative condition, again of

that affects the selectively.

It

unknown

cause,

cells or neurons, upper and lower, be present as cord disease because motor tracts

motor nerve

may

motor cells, are affected. The result is weakness and wasting of muscles, but with no sensory change. As the lower motor cells in the cord become diseased, a characteristic flickering (fasciculation) occurs in the muscles innervated by them. Another degenerative disease, syringomyelia, causes cavitation in the cord, as well as the

As this cavity enlarges, first the senin the centre of the cord. sory fibres for pain and temperature are involved, then motor tracts and finally other sensory tracts. This sequence gives a characteristic picture at first of loss of pain and temperature sense dissociated from loss of other sensation.

Venereal Diseases:

comes displaced it may sometimes press backward on the cord and produce compression, though it more usually causes pressure on nerve roots because the displacement is more commonly at the

Syphilis) of the nervous sysboth brain and spinal cord. However, it may produce a mainly cord disease in which sensory tracts (posterior columns) are especially affected. The condition tabes dor sails characterized by widespread loss of proprioceptive (q.v.) is sensation, with consequent interruption of the reflex arc subserving tendon jerks, which are abolished, and by variable areas of pain A particular change in pupillary reactions by which the pupil loss. is small and constricts to accommodation but not to Hght (the Argyll Robertson pupil) and some degree of optic atrophy usually accompany tabes dorsalis and aid the diagnosis. This, however, is most firmly established as in all forms of neurosyphihs by the serological reactions (Wassermann reaction, etc.) in blood and

lateral edges rather than the central part of the disc.

cerebrospinal

The meninges,

or

membranes, that ensheath the

spinal cord

may

also be the seat of disease that causes secondary defects of the

cord.

A

tumour (meningioma) may cause pressure on the cord

and inflammation (meningitis ; q.v.) may pass directly to the cord or cause constriction and interference with its blood supply. It is anything that causes constriction of the cord, whether by enlargement from within or pressure from without, causes some degree of vascular insufficiency, which of itself may result in damage or even total destruction of part of the cord. This is occasionally seen as a result of acute trauma when the anterior spinal artery is suddenly occluded and severe permanent damage to a segment of the cord results. Similar secondary vascular effects may occur when the cord is much swollen from inflammation, in virus infection for instance; these vascular disturbances probable

that

Syphilis (see

tem usually

affects

—

fluid.

of degenerative and often familial diseases occur in which various tracts in the cord are selectively diseased. Thus, differing combinations of losses of motor, reflex and sensory The group is function and co-ordination causing ataxia result.

Finally a

number

referred to as Friedreich's ataxia and its variants. Brain Disease. The brain may be generally diseased by such factors as inflammation, toxins or degeneration, or it may be loIn the first case there cally affected, e.g., by injury or tumour.

—

always be some change in psychological function such as memory, concentration or emotional reactions. This is because will

the brain is the organ of adaptive behaviour; whatever the ultimate substrate of thought and emotion may be, in man they are not experienced in the absence of the brain. In local brain disease there may be little or no mental change, but local loss of neurologi-

NERVOUS SYSTEM, SURGERY OF

246 cal

function in

some part of

the

body occurs and may indicate

the exact site of the brain disease.

(idiopathic epilepsy) there

is

usually a genetic factor and a family

history reveals other cases.

—

—

Acute encephqlitis (q.v.) inflammation of the brain is usually It may be caused by virus infections, less often by bacteria. abrupt in onset or slowly ingravescent and results in delirium, stupor and coma. It involves most parts of the brain and there are rarely any local neurological abnormalities. As recovery occurs, however, and general changes in consciousness subside, local

In disease of subcortical or basal parts of the brain, various abnormalities of movement occur: there may be slowing and loss of fine movement with tremor and rigidity as in Parkinson's disease {see Parkinsonism); sudden involuntary jerks may interrupt normal smooth movement as in chorea (q.v.); or movement

abnormalities may be revealed. At the other end of the scale, a slow, generalized degeneration of brain cells may occur, causing increasing dementia and restricThis so-called presenile tion of the normal range of behaviour. dementia is probably genetically determined though its exact cause A similar generalized loss of is unknown {see also Dementia). cerebral function may occur with arterial disease of the brain,

eases are most commonly degenerative inorigin, though a form of encephalitis (encephalitis lethargica), of which there was a pan-

with cerebral syphilis or with advanced and widespread disseminated sclerosis. When the brain is repeatedly injured, as by blows on the head, even though each individual injury is slight, a cumulative effect may again produce a general mental slowing and loss of cerebral function exemplified in the "punch-drunk" condition. Sometimes, in cerebral tumour, although the disease is quite localized,

it

produces a general

the skull and brain

rise in intracranial pressure, since

membranes (meninges) form

a relatively in-

Inflammation of the meninges may cause adhesions and loss of normal circulation of the cerebrospinal fluid filling the cerebral ventricles and bathing the surface of the brain, expansible container.

with consequent rise in pressure. Such adhesions may be a prominent feature of tuberculous meningitis {see Meningitis: Nonsuppurative Meningitis). In these cases again, symptoms of genWhen disease is strictly limited eral cerebral dysfunction occur. to certain regions in the brain stem, it may sometimes produce quite general symptoms by interfering with some alerting mechanism necessary for proper cerebral and especially mental func-

writhing or flail-hke as in athetosis (q.v.).

Such

dis-

in 1918, gave rise to a number of cases and rheumatic enmay also be responsible for some. Diseases of the cerebellum result in ataxia of movement walking, limb movements, speech and eye movement may all be affected. This may be degenerative as in disseminated sclerosis, but tumours of the cerebellum or of nearby structures causing cere-

demic

cephalitis

—

common.

bellar compression are also

In the brain stem, pons and medulla oblongata, where the various tracts to and from the brain are passing down to join the spinal cord, lesions tend to produce interruptions of these tracts with

consequent loss of sensory and motor function below, together with loss of function of cranial nerves, which supply the special

movement to the face, head and neck. such lesions are tumours, they are also liable to produce a

senses and sensation and

When

general rise in intracranial pressure.

—

Diagnosis of Nervous System Disease. Apart from the symptoms and signs shov.'n by clinical examination and the history of how they developed, there are some special tests that are widely The electroencephalograph reuseful in neurological diagnosis. cords the electrical activity of the brain through the intact skull and can detect localized or lateralized abnormalities from tumours, local atrophies, vascular changes, etc., as well as certain generalized changes

from metabolic upsets, raised intracranial pressure Electro-

or intrinsic abnormalities due to idiopathic epilepsy {see

tion.

When

may become

local brain disease occurs, its exact site

determines local

The cerebral cortex on each side of the brain contains areas representing motor and sensory function on the opposite symptoms.

side of the body, since sensory

and motor

the cord but most in the medulla oblongata. or occipital, part of the cortex anteriorly, but

still

is

fibres cross,

The most

some

posterior to the great fissure of

in

posterior,

concerned with vision.

More

Rolando (cen-

various forms of common sensation are represented, while farther forward the pre-Rolandic area governs motor function. The two lateral halves of the cortex are not tral sulcus) of the cortex,

quite equipotential, for one half (the left half in right-handed

people), often called the dominant hemisphere, is involved in understanding and execution of speech and writing. Lesions in limited areas of the frontal and posterior temporal regions of this

hemisphere cause a variety of losses of organized speech called dysphasias, or aphasias (see also Speech Disorders: Inadequate Function of the Central Nervous System). There are also areas of the cortex that control important but less clear-cut functions. Areas in the parietal lobes are linked with recognition of the significance and meaning of objects, orientation of the body in space and recognition of the constituent parts and positions of outside space. These functions are shared by the two hemispheres. The anterior or frontal poles of the cortex seem associated with general manifestations of emotion and personality, as do the medial parts of the temporal lobes. Local lesions in these areas will cause localized changes in the functions represented.

cause for such local lesions cular disease and abscess

is

may

cerebral tumour.

The commonest Injury, local vas-

alsg be responsible.

Apart from loss of function, however, the cortex may react to by producing sudden abnormal discharge of nerve cells, resulting in an epileptic fit. Focal fits take the form of a sudden involuntary sensory or motor change in part of the body or in the special senses smell, taste, vision and hearing. In generalized fits consciousness is abruptly lost and the whole body is seized by convulsions (q.v.). Focal fits are a valuable indication of which part of the brain is diseased. Besides appearing as a local disease, epilepsy may occur (sometimes focal but more often generalizedj as a special disease {see Epilepsy). In this condition disease

—

encephalography). X-rays of the skull and spine may reveal bony changes that are affecting underlying nervous tissue in brain, spinal cord or nerve roots. The cerebrospinal fluid may be withdrawn at lumbar puncture; changes in the pressure, constitution and

cell

content of the fluid

ease process.

amount

small

The

fluid

of air,

may

which

may

indicate the nature of the dis-

also be

withdrawn and replaced by a and parts

will pass into the ventricles

of the space on the surface of the brain that are usually filled

then show an outline of the air-filled less opaque to X-rays than is brain tissue or the fluid. The resulting picture (an air encephalogram) will reveal local distortions or general changes in ventricular and Equally, lumbar fluid may be rebrain surface shape and size. placed by a few miUilitres of an X-ray-opaque iodized oil and a series of X-ray pictures (myelograms) may be taken that will outline the shape and size of the spinal cord and reveal any obstruction to the fluid flow {see also Radiology: Skull, Brain and Spinal Cord). The rate of conduction of impulses in certain peripheral nerves can also be measured electrically (electromyography) local loss or reduction of conduction can determine the exact Finally, the electromyogram can sample the site of the lesion. electrical activity of muscles and sometimes determine whether weakness and wasting are due to disease of the nerves supplying them or to intrinsic muscle disease. See also Diagnosis and references under "Nervous System, Disease of" in the Index.

by the

fluid.

X-rays

portions, since air

is

will

much

;

—

Bibliography. W. R. Brain, Diseases oj the Nervous System, 6th F. Elliott, E. B. C. Hughes and J. W. A. Turner, Clinical Neurology (1953); W. R. Brain and E. B. Strauss, Recent Advances in Neurology and Neuropsychiatry (1962). (C. W. M. W.) ed. (1962)

;

NERVOUS SYSTEM, SURGERY

OF.

This article dissystem, taking up the major subdivisions of the subject in the following order: brain, spinal cord and sympathetic and peripheral nerves. For informacusses the surgery of the

human nervous

anatomy of these structures, see Brain; Spinal Cord; Nerve. Brain. Evidences of surgical operations on the skull have been found in the skeletons of prehistoric man and of peoples of many later eras. Such procedures cannot be considered brain surgery tion about the

—

NERVOUS SYSTEM, SURGERY OF since they rarely,

if

ever,

were carried deeper than the cranial

bones, for experience taught the ancient physicians that penetration of the tough sheath (dura mater) covering the brain was usby bacteria a phenomenon not understood until a century ago. Only when operations were carried out under conditions that minimized the likelihood of bacterial invasion could brain surgery develop. The early success of this type of surgery was hampered by a lack of knowledge of the localization of function within the brain and spinal cord. In order to know where to make an opening through the skull to expose diseased tissue, the surgeon had to be able to interpret properly the symptoms and signs of disease of the nervous system. In the first place, the fact that one side of the

—

ually fatal because of infection

brain controlled the

body had

movements and

sensation of the opposite side

be firmly established. Then, the principle that had to do with movement, others with common cutaneous sensation and still others with vision and audiLater the location of these areas in the tion had to be proved. cortex of the big brain, or cerebrum, was demonstrated. When the of the

to

certain parts of the brain

247

passed over the head to determine the areas of maximum discharge of gamma rays from the isotope. The findings from this process, known as brain scanning, can be recorded on paper or photographic film over an outline of the head. Exposing the Brain. The purely mechanical procedure of uncovering the brain taxed the ingenuity of the first brain surgeons, for the control of bleeding from scalp arteries, which retracted when cut, and from skull bones was a serious matter. The early surgeons attempted to stop the bleeding from the scalp vessels by

—

tying a tight band around the head just above the ears. Later, clamps were applied to the layer of fibrous tissue just beneath the blood vessels' and turned back over the scalp to choke off the bleeding vessels, or clips were applied to squeeze the vessels between the scalp and fibrous layer. This fibrous layer is loosely attached to the underlying outer covering of the skull bone; it was in this

plane that the American Indians scalped their victims.

To

occipital

expose the hard coverings of the brain, the skull was pera tool similar to a carpenter's brace and bit and the hole enlarged by rongeurs, an instrument similar to a pair of pliers but with cutting, edges on the jaws so that the bone can be bitten away. However, this left a hole in the skull after recovery that sometimes caused headache and alarmed the patient

find the trouble.

blow might damage the brain. hole technique has been replaced in recent years by a trap door in the skull (technically called a bone flap) that is made

neurologist

knew

that a blindness in the right half of the visual

both eyes was associated with derangement of the left (back part of the brain) lobe, he could then decide if the condition might be relieved by an operation and could indicate precisely where the surgeon should make a hole in the skull to

field in

—

Techniques for Detecting Abnormalities. Other means soon beavailable, however, for detecting abnormal conditions in the brain. Witn these techniques the surgeon is able to locate the diseased places within the head and to plan his operation accurately. Soon after the discovery of X-rays, photographs were made of the head with those rays. In these pictures the structure of the skull bones is seen and brain conditions that involve the cranium can be recognized. But since this technique shows changes in bone only, methods by which the brain itself could be visualized had to be devised. Within the cerebrum are cavities, or ventricles, containing a watery fluid (ventricular fluid); this fluid passes about the base of the brain and is absorbed by the veins on the surface of the hemispheres. Normally these cavities are symmetrical on the two sides and have a fairly constant shape. But in the pres-

came

forated by a trephine

—

—

for fear a fall or

The

by boring holes about 4 cm. apart around the area to be exposed (fig. 1). Usually the base of the flap is at the margin of one of the muscles attached to the lower part of the skull. The bone between

ence of a tumour or other disease of the brain they may be distorted. If the fluid is removed from the cavities with a needle and is replaced by air, an X-ray photograph of the head will show the ventricles, for the X-rays pass more readily through air than brain and hence more rays reach the film through the ventricles and therefore fog their outline. This technique is termed ventriculography (or if the air is injected through the spinal canal,

pneumoencephalography) Another method of showing the contour of the brain

utilizes

an

injection of a radiopaque dye (one that stops X-rays) in the neck

(carotid) artery at the time that an X-ray photograph is made of the head. This outlines the arteries of the brain, which usuallv

have

and will show any displacement of the any collection of abnormal blood channels within the This technique is called cerebral angiography. When it was found that normal brain activity is accompanied by changes of electrical potential that can be detected by leading wires from different places on the scalp, another means of demona constant position,

vessels or brain.

strating

the

location

of

brain

disease

became

available.

The

changes in potential normally occur at constant and identical frequencies (8 to 11 per second) on the two sides of the head. Unusually slow, fast or sharp waves often indicate abnormalities in the brain; a disturbance in electrical activity localized in one area usually means that that part of the brain is diseased. This technique, called electroencephalography (q.v.), is particularly useful in studying the epilepsies. {See Epilepsy.) When radioactive isotopes were produced for use in medicine, another tool for determining the location of disease within the brain became available. Diagnostic use of the isotopes is based on the fact that tumours of the brain take up or accumulate greater

amounts of tissue.

certain radioactive substances than does normal brain Several hours after the irradiating isotopes of these sub-

stances (e.g., iodine) are given to the patient, a detecting tube

is

FIG.

I.

the holes

—SURGICAL PROCEDURE USED TO away from

this base

is

EXPOSE BRAIN

cut with a wire

(

see TEXT)

saw so

that a

horseshoe-shaped piece of bone is free except beneath the muscle. By prying up on the bone, the base of the flap is broken and the entire piece attached to muscle is then lifted up and turned away from the dura mater of the brain, using the muscle as a hinge. The edges of the cut bones are plugged with wax to stop their bleeding. Thus a large area of dura mater is uncovered, and the underlying brain can be easily exposed by cutting the dura mater with a scissors around most of the margin of the bony opening. The cortex, which is covered by the transparent pia arachnoid, or soft membrane, is thus brought into view (fig. 2). After the operative procedures on the brain have been completed, the dura mater is usually sewed together to cover the brain (fig. 3). The bone flap is replaced and held by a wire suture that is passed through the adjacent outer and inner margins of skull bone. The cut margins of the muscle at the base of the flap are

NERVOUS SYSTEM, SURGERY OF

2+8

desired size

by

Such holes are usually made beneath heavy neck muscles; consequently,

a rongeur.

the temporal muscle or the

when

the muscles are

defect so that

it

is

sewed together they cover (and protect) the

barely,

if

—

at

all.

visible.

The surgical procedures thus allow the surgeon to expose and inspect the brain. upon the disease condition a tumour, abscess, scar normal state the surgeon then proceeds to explore excise the diseased area. First, the many extremely in the soft covering of the brain are usually shrunken Excision Procedure.

—

—

a high-frequency electric current.

The underlying

far discussed

Depending or other abthe brain or small vessels

and cut with brain tissue,

which has the consistency of a soft cheese, may be cut through with a blunt instrument and a large piece of diseased tissue re-

moved. Usually it is not desirable to cut into the motor cortex, the area of the cortex that controls movements, because doing so

may

leave the patient paralyzed on one side and speechless. extent and type of the surgical procedure depends on the abnormality present in the brain. Some tumours do not invade the

The

may be removed completely. Some are invasive and only a portion of them can be excised to relieve the pressure within Abscesses usually may be removed without difficulty. the skull. Scars that cause epilepsy can often be removed completely; the abnormal tissue at the scar margins, which is responsible for the convulsions, can be mapped accurately by applying electrodes to the surface of the cortex and making a record of the brain activity during the operation (fig. 2). Many other types of brain operations may be done; for example, the outpouchings (aneurysms) of blood vessels that sometimes rupture and cause serious hemorrhages into the brain may be clipped at their base, leaving the flow of blood in the parent vessel intact. Nerves at the base of the brain may be cut to relieve excruciating pain or bouts of dizziness. Needles can be inserted under X-ray control to destroy the deeper nuclei of the brain and thereby abolish the tremor or relieve the stiffness of a shaking palsy. Finally, the normal contour of the head may be restored by filling holes in the skull bones with pieces of bone from the patient's hip or rib or with sheets of tantalum or plates of molded brain and

FIG.

sewed together.

2.

— BRAIN

Then

AFTER OPENING OF OURA MATER

the deep layer of fibrous tissue of the flap

stitched to the same layer of the scalp, usually with silk thread. Finally the superficial margins of the incision are brought together by sutures tied on the surface. Thus the scalp edges are held tois

gether in apposition so that they can heal. The cutaneous stitches may be removed in three to seven days. Occasionally if a tumour cannot be taken out completely, pressure inside the head is relieved by (1) removing the lower portion of the bone flap under the muscle and the temple .bone adjacent to the flap, and (2) incising the hard coverings of the brain in a radiating manner so as to leave a defect through which the brain

can protrude and press against the temporal muscle. The remainder of the bone flap is then replaced and wired in place, and the muscles and scalp are closed as described above. The decompression left beneath the muscle will prevent too great an increase in pressure inside the head, and yet the muscle will tend to keep the protrusion on the side of the head from becoming too large and unsightly. In certain operations

when only

a small hole in the skull is nec-

when the proposed opening is covered by muscle, the perforated by a trephine and the opening enlarged to the

essary and

bone

is

—

FIG. 3. CLOSURE OF BONE FLAP AND SCALP INCISION: (A) DURAL FLAP SUTURED: (B) BONE FLAP IN PLACE AND FASTENED WITH STAINLESS STEEL (C) SUTURING OF SKIN FLAP

WIRE:

plastic.

—

Spinal Cord. As soon as aseptic techniques and anesthesia were developed, the surgeon cut through the bony coverings of the spinal cord the spinous processes and laminae of the vertebrae and removed them with the rongeurs to expose the hard membrane. A longitudinal incision in the spinal dura mater brings into view the transparent soft coverings and the cord. Tumours that do not invade the spinal cord usually are removed easily. Invasive tumours may be partially removed and the dura mater left unsutured to relieve pressure on the nerve tracts in the cord. At times, the surgeon cuts a part of the spinal cord (cordotomy) to relieve pain in the lower parts of the body. At other times the nerve roots entering or leaving the cord are cut to eliminate pain or muscle

—

spasms. Spinal injuries that fracture the vertebrae may or may not damage the spinal cord and may cause varying degrees of paralysis. In most instances conservative measures such as a cast and the posturing extension of the spine are the only forms of treatment required. A decompressive laminectomy (excision of a lamina) is occasionally indicated if the spinal cord is compressed by blood clots or by bone fragments. Paraplegia that results from severe injuries requires a long period of rehabilitation and training but some patients make a remarkable adjustment to their disability and become economically self-supporting. An important phase of neurosurgery is the treatment of sciatica and arm pain by the removal of the protruding cartilaginous material (disc) that normally acts as a cushion between each vertebral bone. When this disc is broken as result of injury or degeneration from chronic wear and tear, it may stick out at the side of the vertebra and press against a nerve root, causing pain in the leg if the protrusion is of a disc of the lower back or in the arm if it is of the neck. Such protrusions are easily exposed surgically by separating the muscles from one side of the spinous processes and laminae at the involved site. The removal of a small portion of the adjacent laminae allows the surgeon to see the com-

NESBIT—NESSELRODE pressed and displaced nerve root so that it may be retracted to one side and the protruding disc material underneath may then be

removed.

At times the disc material degenerates and leaves the back unTo relieve stable, that is, with unnatural and painful mobility. this condition the loose joint is fused by plugging it with pieces of bone or by firmly fastening strips of bone along the spinous processes and laminae of the vertebrae on either side of the dis-

When new bone forms between these vertebrae the becomes solid. Improper or incomplete development of the spinal cord and its coverings occurs occasionally and produces a mass on the back that contains a watery fluid surrounding incompletely developed nerve roots or spinal cord. If the failure of growth has not been

eased disc. joint

may make a new covering for the cord Often, unfortunately, the defect is so great that the patient is paralyzed in the legs and has no control over the bladder or bowel. In such cases operation is futile. Sympathetic and Peripheral Nerves. A further part of the too severe the surgeon

and nerve

roots.

—

surgery of the nervous system concerns the sympathetic and peripheral nerves. The former control many of the activities of activities that the abdominal organs, the blood vessels and skin are automatically modified by the brain in response to changes in

—

Thus in the internal or external environment of the individual. a cold environment the blood vessels of the skin constrict and the hairs stand up to form "goose pimples"; both actions decrease the At times loss of heat from the skin and conserve it for the body. the sympathetic nerves may become excessively active so that

must remove a portion of them to increase the blood supply of an arm or leg or to prevent spasms of the blood the surgeon vessels.

The

— those

that supply muscles and skin and diseases as are other tissues of the arms and legs. They must be sutured together after being cut so that their nerve fibres can regenerate and innervate the muscles and skin. Such operations are relatively simple compared with those of the brain and spinal cord but require a technical skill to obtain

peripheral nerves

are subject to the

same

injuries

Even with perfect suturing, severed nerve fibres rarely regenerate so completely that normal muscle function and skin sensation are regained. See also Meninges and Cerebrospinal FLuro; Nervous System Spine, Diseases and Disabilities of. Bibliography. P. Bailey, Intracranial Tumors (1933) W. E. Dandy, "Surgery of the Brain," in Lewis' Practice of Surgery (1932) A. E. Walker, A History of Neurological Surgery (1951) G. F. Rowbotham and D. P. Hammersley, Pictorial Introduction to Neurological Surgery (1953); J. W. A. Turner, S. A. Elliot and Brodie Hughes, Clinical Neurology (1952). (A. E. Wa.)' (18S8-1924), English writer of books NESBIT, about children whose characters are as clearly defined and trueto-hfe as is their middle-class home background, with its secure moral values, and whose adventures, whether brought about by family misfortunes or through the workings of magic, are described with a blend of imagination and practicality which carries immedi?te conviction. She was born in London on Aug. IS, 1858, and educated spasmodically in France, Germany and England. In 1880 she married the Fabian journalist Hubert Bland, and, as they had to live entirely by writing, she poured out novels, stories, apposition of the nerve ends.

;

—

;

;

EDITH

poems and

articles, including

numerous verses and short

tales for

children, before she found her vocation in depicting the Bastables,

one of the most memorable families in juvenile fiction, in the stories collected as The Story of the Treasure Seekers (1899), The Would-be-Goods (1901) and New Treasure Seekers (1904). She attained an even higher level with unconventional fairy tales and magical adventures in matter-of-fact, everyday settings. Collections such as The Book of Dragons (1900), Nine Unlikely Tales (1901) and The Magic World (1912) were surpassed by the trilogy of adventures with the wonder-working "Psammead"^ fat, furry sand-fairy: Five Children and It (1902), The Phoenix and the Carpet (1904) and The Story of the Amulet (1906). Her most successful tale of magic is The Enchanted Castle (1907)

—

—

and there

is little falling-off

in

The House

of

Arden (1908), Hard-

249

Luck (1909) and The Magic City (1910). Widowed in 1914, 1917 she married Thomas Tucker. She died at New Romney,

ing's in

Kent, on May 4, 1924. Bibliography. E. Nesbit, "My School Days," serialized in The Own Paper (1896-97); D. Langley Moore, E. Nesbit: a biography, with short-title bibliography (1933) N. Streatfield, Magic and the Magician: E. Nesbit and Her Children's Books (1958); A. Bell,

—

Girls'

;

(R. L. Gr.) Inverness-shire, Scot., the largest mass of fresh largest area, has the Lomond (Loch water in the United Kingdom 27i sq.mi.), is 754 ft. deep and 22^ mi. long. It is only 52 ft. E. Nesbit (1960).

NESS, LOCH,

above sea

level, lying in the

Great Glen Fault, and

is

free of ice.

to over 700 sq.mi., the loch being fed by several considerable rivers, all known for their salmon fishing. The sharp rise and fall of the level of the loch is one reason for

The watershed extends

the scanty flora of the waters, the other being the great depths reached near the shore line. The abyssal fauna is also sparse. In common with several other very deep lochs in Scotland and Scandinavia, Loch Ness is said to be inhabited by an aquatic monster, accounts of which were much publicized in the early 1930s. Loch Ness forms part of the system of waterways linked by Thomas Telford in 1824. The village of Fort Augustus lies at the head of the loch and the town of Inverness is within a few miles of its (F. F. Dg.)

foot.

NESSELRODE, KARL ROBERT, Count

(1780-1862), Russian statesman, sole foreign minister for 34 years, was born on Dec. 13 (new style; 2, old style), 1780, in Lisbon, where his father, a member of a German family of counts of the Holy Roman empire (with their seat at Nesselrode, near Sohngen, in the duchy of Berg) was serving as Russian ambassador to Portugal. Educated in Germany and a Protestant by religion, Nesselrode never quite mastered the Russian language, but at the age of 16 he entered the Russian navy, for which his father had signed him up at his birth. He became naval aide-de-camp to the emperor Paul I, but distinguished himself neither in the navy nor, later, in the army. Early renouncing military life, he entered the diplomatic service, in which he was to make his name. Between 1801 and 1806 Nesselrode served at the embassies in Berhn and at The Hague; and in 1806 he traveled in southern Germany to report on French troops to the Russian emperor Alexander I. In Germany, meanwhile, he had become acquainted with Friedrich Gentz and with Metternich (gq.v.), whose influence made him a strong advocate of Russo-Austrian co-operation. He served as diplomatic secretary to generals M. F. Kamenski, F. W. von Buxhowden and L. A. Bennigsen in the war of 1806-07 against Napoleonic France, was present at the battle of Eylau (Feb. 1807) and assisted at the peace of Tilsit. He then went to the embassy at Paris, where he acted as intermediary between Talleyrand and Alexander and renewed his association with Metternich. Disagreeing with Count N. P. Rumyantsev, the Russian foreign minister, who wanted to incite the Slavs within the Austrian empire to rebelhon, Nesselrode was generally pro-Austrian and antiFrench in outlook; but he sought to preserve balance and peace in Europe and, after the breach of diplomatic relations in 1811, tried to persuade Alexander to open negotiations with Napoleon. In the war that followed he served at Alexander's headquarters at Vilna (Vilnius) and was present at the battle of Leipzig. Accompanying the invading army to Paris, he signed the treaty of Chaumont in 1814. (See Napoleonic Wars.) At the congress of Vienna, Nesselrode influenced Alexander to favour the Bourbon restoration and to oppose a ruinous war indemnity on France. Though his prestige was shaken somewhat by the discovery of a secret agreement between France and Austria against Russia, he was appointed director of the college of foreign On the other hand the actual conduct of foreign affairs (1816).

was entrusted to Count I. A. Kapodistrias (q.v.). Conbetween Nesselrode and Kapodistrias were reconciled by the emperor himself and Nesselrode accompanied Alexander to the congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle, Troppau, Laibach and Verona. Fiaffairs flicts

nally, in 1822,

when Kapodistrias

in the

aftermath of the

War

of Greek Independence received indefinite leave, Nesselrode became sole minister of foreign affairs, a position in which he re-

mained

until 1856.

NEST

250

Under Nicholas I, who succeeded Alexander in 1825, Nesselrode was responsible for the change in policy after 1829 by which the traditional goal of conquering Constantinople was abandoned in favour of keeping Turkey a weak power dependent on Russia (sec Eastern Qvestion 1. The treaty of Unkiar Skelessi (1833) realized this change, but it aroused great alarm in Great Britain; and Nesselrode himself negotiated the shelving of that treaty and substituted the alliance between Russia and Great Britain which resulted in the Straits convention of 1841. In 1849 it was he who suggested the decisive Russian intervention in Hungary on Austria's behalf, though he had restrained Nicholas from making an active intervention in France after the revolution of 1848 (as he had likewise restrained him after that of 1830). During the international crisis of 1853, Nesselrode prolonged negotiations as long as he could in the hope of avoiding the Crimean War {q.v.).

The

last of his important political acts, the signing of the treaty of Paris in 1856, at the end of that war, undid the results of his patient efforts to establish Russian preponderance in the Balkan

Retiring from the foreign

peninsula.

office,

he retained the im-

which he had held since 1845. Nesselrode died in St. Petersburg on March 23 (new style; 11, old style), 1862. A German translation of his autobiography (the original manuscript is in French) appeared in 1866; and 11 volumes of selections from his letters and papers (also in French) were published in 1904-12. (G. A. Ln.) perial chancellorship,

NEST. term

is

The

practice of nest building (nidification), as the used in zoology, includes all preparations for the reception

young and for their care. Common conceptions of nest making are derived from observations of birds; but mammals, reptiles, amphibians and fishes, as well as invertebrates, include species that make more or less elaborate preparation in advance for the reception of their young. The first stage of eggs or newborn

sequence is the selection of a definite site for the nest, in or on which the eggs or young are to be deposited. Two chief factors governing this preparation are the conditions of the environment and the state of the young on emergence. in this

BIRDS Not

make

some waterfowl and a few-land birds For example, auks and murres on bare ledges of rock projecting from the face of a cliff rising steeply from the sea. Species that haunt sandy wastes make little or no preparation by way of a nest. all

birds

nests;

lay eggs on bare rock or ground.

deposit single eggs

This receptacle seems originally tx) have been an adaptation for the purpose of keeping the incubating bird and the eggs from contact with cold, damp earth.

Much more elaborate are the nests of the smaller species. These, placed in hedgerows or bushes or even on the ground, are bowl-shaped structures made of fine grass interwoven with horsehair and cunningly masked by moss or lichen, as in the case of the European long-tailed titmouse. Some, like the thrush, use a foundation of clay and line the interior of the nest with a mixture wood and cow dung. Certain African weaverbirds and American Baltimore orioles or hangnests, suspend the nest (made of long grass stems and vegetable fibres) by a long fibrous strand or rope attached to the bough of a tree. Toward the end this rope is enlarged to form a spherical chamber, with an entrance at the top or side in the hangnests; and at the end of a further extension of the rope beneath the nest in the weavers. Some of the flowerpeckers of Australia build a nest of felted cotton down. A few species make a more or less extensive use of saliva as a cement for mud-built nests, as the swallow tribe, the South American ovenbird and the flamingo. The use of salivary glands in nest building reaches its maximum with the swifts which glue small twigs to the inside of a chimney to form a tiny basket or, as in the case of the Asiatic edible swifts, use saliva alone. Such nests are harvested early in the nest-building season and used by the Chinese in making bird's nest soup. Hollows in trees are used by many birds, such as the parrots and the woodpeckers, the eggs being deposited on the rotten wood at the bottom of the hole. Others, like the sand martin and the of decayed

kingfisher, drive long tunnels into the face of a sandbank, en-

larging the end of the tunnel to

form a nest chamber.

The

great-

commonly overlooked, for it would unsuited for such a task. The sand martin has very feeble feet and an extremely short beak, while the short legs, partly united toes and long pointed beak of the kingfisher seem less fitted for burrowing. ness of this achievement

be

is

ditlicult to find birds so

While there

general conformity of type characteristic of the

is

nests of the different groups of birds, there are striking exceptions

The

stork tribe, generally, is content with a simple platform of sticks; but the hammerhead stork (Scopus umbrella) builds a huge nest of mud and sticks, covered over by a roof that may be as much as six feet across and so substantial as to bear easily the weight of a man. The flamingos build a steep pedestal of mud, the top of which is scooped out to receive the eggs. Parrots nest in hollow trees, but the quaker-parrot (Myopsitlacus) of South America builds a large domed nest to the rule.

of sticks.

The chickenlike or gallinaceous birds make little more than a shallow depression in the ground. The fowllike megapodes of Celebes, New Guinea and Australia, however, build a huge mound of decaying vegetable matter, lay their eggs deep

menting mass and leave them

to

down

in the fer-

hatch by the heat generated by

decay.

One is

of the most remarkable cases of nest building among birds furnished by the hornbills, whose eggs are laid at the bottom As soon as the female has started incubation,

of a cavity in a tree.

the male closes the entrance hole with clay; he leaves open a space only wide enough for his mate to push her beak through to receive food from him. See also Bird.

OTHER NEST BUILDERS Mammals.' weaving

— Few

nests.

other

animals

are

as skilful as birds in the mammals is, how-

The harvest mouse among

ever, the rival of

most

birds,

structures in treetops or vines.

and many

The

squirrels build bulky

rabbit builds a nest in her

burrow and it with the underfur plucked from her body, in the same manner as ducks, geese and swans line the nest with down plucked from the breast. The only nest-building mammals that produce eggs are the echidna or spiny anteater Tachyglossus and the duck-billed platypus Ornithorhynchus. The nest is of the simplest character, a chamber lined with leaves and grass at the end of a long tunnel dug by the animal. Reptiles.—Among the reptiles nest building, if practised, goes little further than digging a hole in the ground and depositing the eggs within it, leaving them to their fate. The European pond tortoise, however, takes a little more trouble. She prepares the ground by watering it from the bladder and from special anal water sacs. Then, boring a hole with the tail, as one would use a stick, lines

it with her feet. When the hole is about deep the eggs are laid at the bottom, the soil is replaced and beaten down flat. The crocodile digs a hole in the sand about 2 ft. deep, lays her eggs in it and covers them. She returns periodically to sleep above the incubating eggs and is thus at hand to assist the young to escape at the time of hatching. She is warned of this by the noise they make in endeavouring to break through the shell, just as young birds announce their advent by cheeping before the shell is actually broken. When the baby crocodiles have all emerged the mother escorts them to the water. The alligator, on the other hand, builds a great mound of decaying vegetation in a marsh to a height of about 3 ft. and as much as 8 ft. in diameter. The white and hard-shelled eggs, 20 to 30 of them, are laid about 8 in. from the surface. The python, among the snakes, like Ichthyophis among the Amphibia, coils her body around the eggs until they hatch and guards her young for some time after. Amphibians Among amphibians, frogs of the genus Phyllomedusa build nests resembling those of the tailorbird. Phyllomedusa hypochondria, the IVoUenkukk of the Paraguayan Chaco, is a good example. The female carries the male upon her back while searching for a suitable leaf, which must be on a tree overhanging the water. This found, both seize it and hold the edges together with their hindfeet; the female jx)urs her eggs into the

the tortoise enlarges 5 in.

—

NEST

C:.tilnut bittern

[Ixobryckus cinnai

reeds overgrowing a rice field.

Indo

s)

nest

among

the

Nest and eggs of a robin toiius). North America

Plate

(Turdus migra-

I

Nest of a chimney swift (CAaerura pelagMucus is used to hold jca) in a well. North America sticks together.

NFST

Plate II

Nest of a sandhill crane (Grus canadensis)

in a

marsh.

North

A

Treetop

nest

(Haliaeetus sis).

BIRDS'

NESTS

of

the

northern

leucocepbalus

North America

bald

washingto

eagle

NEST

Shelflike nests made of saliva by the East Indian cave swrftlets iCoilocalia) The edible nest is used by the Chinese in making hird mj-A soup .

,

Stork nest of sticks and reeds on a chimney top Frnnce. A permanent nest, it Is enlarged annually

In

Tree trunk sectioned to she lowed-out nest of a downy

Plate III

the hol-

Hanging

nest

dpecker

caspia)

formed

of

the

Turkistan

of dried

Remara

Clay nest of the ovenblrd (Seiurus auTOcapillus) opened to sh terior and protected entrance ,

BIRDS'

NESTS

Suspended nest woven {Cacicus cela)

(Remiza

grasses and feathers

(Dendrocopus pube

of grass

by

An

NEST

Plate IV

^^

Nest of lent caterpillars

in

the branches of a tree

^^^

Nest of the red-eared turtle. ith

soil

The hole

is

Nest of the funnel-web or grass spide branch

plugged

after the

thistle

:^\"^. _ Entrance to a nest of Florida harvesting ants

Bald-faced hornets' nest cut away to sho of brood cells

Red-backed salamander guarding

arrangement

hallow marsh

EXAMPLES OF NON-AVIAN NEST BUILDING

its

NESTOR—NESTORIANS funnel thus formed while the male fertilizes them as they pass in. The gelatinous envelope of the eggs suffices to hold the leaf edges in position as they are brought together in the filling process,

which goes on

until

about 100 eggs are

Fishes.— Among the

fishes

laid.

the freshwater sticklebacks

(Gas-

and the marine IS-spine stickleback (Spinachia) build nests of weeds, the task being undertaken by the male, who uses He a secretion produced by the kidneys as a binding material. has sole charge of the eggs and young. The gourami (Osphrobubbles nest air archipelago fashions a of nemus) of the Malay toughened by a kind of saliva, and mounts guard over both eggs and young. The perchlike fishes of the family Cichlidae, both of America and the old world, as well as some of the catfishes and their relatives (siluroid fishes), carry the young in the mouth; The in some species both sexes do this, in others the male alone. male pipefish and seahorse carries the eggs and young either in The a pouch running along the belly or attached to his body. trosteus)

aspredo, a catfish of the Guianas, carries her eggs attached to the under surface of the head, belly and paired fins. The skin assumes a

spongy condition for their accommodation so that each

lies

within a depression, recalling the egg pits of the Surinam toad; in the case of aspredo, however, the pits are shallower and the larvae are not retained there. Invertebrates. Among the insects the elaborate care for the

—

eggs and young displayed by the ants, bees and wasps

known

(see Social Insects).

The

is

well

scorpions and the wolf spiders

carry their young on their backs until they can fend for themselves;

some

of the scorpions, again, like the wolf spiders, carry

their eggs closely

Among

packed within a spherical silken bag.

the marine invertebrates an antarctic sea slug {Cucu-

251

south Slavonic literary sources, official documents and oral sagas. This borrowed material is woven with considerable skill into the historical narrative, which is enlivened by the powers of vivid description, the humour and the sense of the dramatic displayed by the different compilers and is given added depth of perspective by their appreciation of the position occupied by the land of Russia within the Christian community of nations. See edition of Povest Vremennykh Let with Russian trans, and notes P. Adrianova-Perctts, 2 vol. (1950) Eng. trans, with notes by H. Cross and O. P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor (1953). (D. Ob.)

by V. S.

;

NESTOR,

Greek legend, son of Neleus and Chloris, king of Pylos (Navarino) in Elis. When all his brothers were slain by Heracles, in consequence of the refusal of Neleus to purify him for the murder of Iphitus, Nestor alone escaped. In the Iliad he is about 70 years old, having seen two generations of men flower and die. Sage and pious, his role is largely to incite the warriors to battle and to tell stories of his early exploits, by contrast with which his auditors' warlike experiences are shown to be soft and easy. After the war Nestor returned easily to Greece, avoiding the troubles and wanderings which afifticted Agamemnon, Menelaus and Odysseus (gq.v.). In the Odyssey, whose dramatic date is

in

ten years later than that of the Iliad, Nestor

Pylos, where he

maria crocea) carries the young on its back. One of the sea urchins {Hemiaster philippi) and a starfish {Asterias spirabilis)

usually referred to in the west

on the back in the case of the carry the young in brood pouches sea urchin and around the mouth in the starfish. It would seem that only arctic and antarctic species behave in this manner. In all other cases the young leave the parent as minute, free-swim-

in Iraq, Syria

—

ming larvae and undergo a complicated metamorphosis before they become fully grown. In the invertebrates the care of the young must be regarded as an entirely impersonal, unconscious act, determined by the physical peculiarities of the external environment.

borne

in

mind

in considering the origin

building in animals of

This should be

and evolution of nest

See B. R. Headstrom, The

New

in the Index.

and Revised Birds' Nests (1961). (W. P. P.; X.) (llth-12th century), Russian hagiographer and chronicler, was a monk of the Monastery of the Caves in Kiev. He was received into the monastery in or soon after 1074, and is thought to have been still alive in 1113. He wrote the lives of SS. Boris and Gleb, the sons of St. Vladimir of Russia, who were murdered in 1015, and the Hfe of St. Theodosius, abbot of the Monastery of the Caves (d. 1074). A tradition first recorded in the 13th century ascribes to him the authorship of the Povest Vremennykh Let (Russian Primary Chronicle), the most important historical work of early medieval Russia. Modern scholarship, which regards the Chronicle as a composite work, written and revised in several stages, inclines to the view that Nestor, about 1113, compiled the basic, though not the final, version of this document. The Chronicle, extant in several medieval manuscripts, the earliest dated 1377, was compiled in Kiev. It relates in detail the earliest history of the Russian people down to the second decade of the 12th century. Emphasis is laid on the foundation of the Kievan state, ascribed to the advent of Varangians from Scandinavia in the second half of the 9th century, the subsequent wars and treaties between the Russians and Byzantium, the conversion of Russia to Christianity c. 988, the cultural achievements of the reign of Yaroslav of Kiev (1019-54) and the wars against the Turkic nomads of the steppe. Written partly in Old Church Slavonic, partly in the Old Russian language based on the spoken vernacular, the Chronicle includes material from translated Byzantine chronicles, west and

NESTOR

still

ruling in

Church.

Most

of

its

and

members

Iran.

—

as

the

Assyrian or Nestorian

—

numbering perhaps 100,000 live There are about 3,000 in the United

The cathohcos-patriarch, Mar Eshai Shimun XXI (b. 1909), who was exiled from Iraq in 1940, resides in San Francisco. The liturgical language of the church is Syriac. There is a variety of rites. In the communion service three different States.

anaphorae are used: of Addai and Mari, of Theodore of Mopsuestia, and of Nestorius. Origins and Early History. The condemnation of Nestorius (q.v.) and his teaching by the ecumenical Council of Ephesus was strongly resented in the churches of Asia Minor and Syria.

—

Though

all levels.

See also references under "Nest"

is

by Telemachus. Ovid parodied his antique garrulity, making him 200 years old and putting into his mouth a long and gruesome account of the famous battle between the Lapithae and the Centaurs [Metamorphoses, 12). (T. V. B.) NESTORIANS, historically, were those Christians of Asia Minor and Syria who refused to accept the condemnation of Nestorius and his teachings by the Council of Ephesus (431). In modern times they are represented by the Church of the East, visited

is

these churches finally accepted the decision of the council, there remained a considerable minority unwilling to conform. The

centre of resistance was the renowned theological school of Edessa (q.v.) in eastern Syria (modern Urfa, Turk.), a school rigorously adhering to the Antiochene tradition as represented by Nestorius. Theodore of Mopsuestia, "the Interpreter," was regarded there as the main authority in all matters of faith. As early as 457 some teachers were compelled to leave the school, moving across the border into Persia. The Edessa school was closed by imperial order in 489, and a small but vigorous Nestorian remnant migrated

to Persia.

The

Christian church in Persia was by that time a comparatively

large body, but its connection with the churches in the west, within

the limits of the it

Roman

was represented

empire, had always been loose, although

at the first ecumenical council (Nicaea, 325).

The

full independence of the church in Persia was formally proclaimed by local councils held at Seleucia in 410 and at Markabta The bishop of Seleucia-Ctesiphon (the capital of the in 424. Sassanid kingdom) was acknowledged as the supreme head of the church in the realm "the great metropolitan and the head of all bishops." The primary reason for this declaration of independence seems to have been political; relations between Persia and the Roman empire were strained and inimical, and administrative links with the foreign churches would expose the church to suspicion on the part of the government. There was also a national motive: the church in Persia was Syriac-speaking, only shghtly touched by Greek culture. On the other hand, it was theologically dependent upon the school of Edessa, commonly known as "the

—

school of the Persians."

Under pressure from Barsauma (Barsumas),

a refugee

from

NESTORIANS

252

Edessa and bishop of Nisibis (Nisibin), the council of the Persian church at Beth Lapat (or Jundishapur ), in 4S4, aclcnowledged Theodore (q.v.) of Mopsuestia as the guardian of right faith. Accordingly, the teaching of the Western churches was censured as erroneous.

After several years of internal struggle, the allegiance

Theodore was recontimied once more under the patriarch

to

Babai (497-502). Since that time the Christian church in Persia has been Nestorian. This name of course was never officially used it was a discriminatory label, invented by enemies (probably The ofi&cial name, still retained, is simply the Monophysites). "the Church of the East." Christians have always been a minority in Persia, and the church

—

went through a period of troubles and persecutions. But finally was recognized as a kind of national minority and, as such. obtained legal status. By the end of the 5th century there were seven metropolitan provinces in Persia proper and several bishin Arabia (especially in the state of Hira) and in oprics abroad India. The church's intellectual centre was the new school in It Nisibin, which carried on the venerable traditions of Edessa. was at once a school and a community under rigid discipline; its it

—

statutes (496) are preserved. The program was restricted to the study of theology, primarily of the Bible. Theodore was regarded

and his exegetical writings were closely Greek learning was disavowed, though Aristotelian logic

as the chief authority,

followed.

was admitted; indeed the main logical treatises of Aristotle, together with Porphyry's famous "Introduction," had been transIt was primarily lated into Syriac at Edessa, by Bishop Ibas. through Syriac translations that the Arabs became acquainted with Greek thought. In the course of time, other schools of the same type were established in the country.

The church was

greatly strengthened by the wise leadership of

Mar Aba

I (in office 540-552), a convert from Zoroastrianism, an able scholar and efficient ruler, and also by the renewal of monasticism, on the Egyptian pattern, guided by Abraham of Kaskar (491/2-586), the founder or restorer of the monastery on Mt. Izala, near Nisibin. Another great leader was Mar Babai the Great (569-628), a monk of Mt. Izala, who was

the patriarch

in charge of the

vacant patriarchate

in the troubled years of the

Khosrau II and his struggle with Byzantium. Babai was a scholar, and his treatise on Christology, The Book of Union, is still regarded as an authoritative exposition of doc-

reign of

trine in the Church of the East. On the whole, the doctrine was gradually stiffened, in opposition to the growing spread of Monophysitism and, indeed, in response to the formal condemnation of Theodore and Ibas by the fifth ecumenical council (553) (see Council: Second Council oj Constantinople [533]). Moreover, there was defection within the church itself. Hanana, head of the Nisibin school in 572-610, advocated the acceptance of the Council of Chalcedon and actually replaced Theodore with St.

John Chrysostom

in the field of exegesis. Though he was strongly censured he continued in the school till his death. From the Arab Conquest to the Mongol Invasion. The Arab conquest of Persia, completed by 651, did not change the legal status of the church there. In spite of certain restrictions, the church in the caliphate was recognized as a separate national group and was granted legal protection. Nestorian scholars played a prominent role in the formation of Arab culture, and the patriarchs occasionally gained influence with the rulers. After the foundation of the new capital, Baghdad (762), under the Abbasid dynasty, the residence of the patriarch was transferred

—

there.

For more than three centuries the Church of the East prospered under the caliphate, and some modern scholars have suggested that this very prosperity was the main reason for its ultimate decline. The church became worldly and its standards were lowered. It lost leadership in the cultural life. Externally, however, it expanded greatly. By the end of the 10th century there were 15 metropoUtan provinces in the caliphate itself and 5 beyond the border, including those as far away as India and China. Nestorians spread also to Egypt, where Christianity was under Monophysite control. Nestorian missions were an important move, but they represented rather a spreading, with the shift and migra-

tion of population, than an organized propagation of faith.

In

many

places Christian communities retained their foreign character and were not integrated into the native life. In many cases Christianization was superficial. Western travelers of the 13th century speak of the ignorance and superstition of Nestorian clergy in the Mongol empire. In China there was a considerable

Nestorian Christian community in the 8th century, but it did not survive the fall of the T'ang dynasty in the early 10th. The spread of Christianity in central Asia was of another character. Certain Tatar tribes were almost entirely converted to Nestorian Christianity, Christian expansion reaching almost to Lake Baikal. The Mongol invasion of Asia did not destroy the church. Prior to their conversion to Islam, the Mongols were tolerant in religion, and western travelers to the Mongol realm found Christians well established there, even at the court of the Great Khan. The conquest of Baghdad (1258) by Hulagu did not affect the Church of the East. It is uncertain whether Hulagu himself was a baptized Christian, but his wife certainly was, and the Mongol dynasty of the Il-khans in Persia was closely allied with the Christian kingdoms of Armenia and Georgia. Kublai Khan was favourably disposed toward Christians. But the situation was ambiguous. The Mongol attitude was controlled by political calculations they had to choose between Islam and the Christian west. The victory of Islam and the collapse of the crusades by the end of the 13th century led finally to their adoption of Islam, and the fate of Christianity in the east was decided. The Church of the East was reduced in size and numbers, and during the 14th century its defeat was sealed by Nestorian communities lingered on in the raids of Tamerlane. a few towns of Mesopotamia, but were concentrated mainly in Kurdistan, in the area between the Tigris and Lakes Van and ;

Urmia, partly in Turkey and partly in Persia. Modern Times. The church was split in 1551, and one group went over to Rome. Since that time the Nestorian group has been denoted as Assyrian, while the Uniate group is commonly described as Chaldean {see Roman Catholic Church Organization: The Catholic Eastern Rites) The Nestorian church in India

—

:

.

Rome

(1599), then split, half its membership transferring allegiance to the Syrian Orthodox Monophysite) paallied itself

with

(

1653) (see Malabar Christians). In the 19th century the tiny Nestorian remnant in Kurdistan was rediscovered by western Protestants, who were eager to counteract the influence of the Roman Catholic missions in the area and also to raise the cultural level of the neglected Christian group. It seemed that this was the oldest church in Christendom, using the original language of the Gospels (Syriac = still Aramaic). Both British and American societies were at work. The "Archbishop of Canterbury's Assyrian Mission" began its activities in 1881, the purpose being to reform or to renew the The question of formal intercommunion church from within. with the Anglican Church was raised in 1912. The work of the Presbyterian mission of the United States led to the formation of the Syrian Evangefical Church in Iran, now called the Evangelical Church of Iran. A considerable group of Nestorians in northern Iran, led by bishop Mar Yonan (Jonas) of Supurghan and Urmia, was reunited with the Orthodox Church in Russia (189S), and a Russian missionary centre was established in Urmia. The Assyrians suffered heavy losses during World War I through massacre, disease and exposure. It is estimated that up to one-third of the nation perished at that period. A considerable group migrated to Mesopotamia and others left for the United

triarch of Antioch

(

There is still a group resident in Iran. For poUtical reasons the patriarch of the Assyrians was compelled to leave for England and later for the United States. See also Syriac Language; Syrlac Literature; and references under "Nestorians" in the Index. States.

—

Bibliography. The most comprehensive historic survey of the Nestorian Church is by Cardinal Eugene Tisserant, L'&glise nestorienne, originally in Dictionnaire de theologie catholique, tome xi, 157-288, 313-323 (1930), reprinted in Recueil Cardinal Eugene Tisserant, ed. by I, 139-317 (1956). It contains ample bibliography and references to primary sources. Of older literature must be suggested

Sever Pop, tome J.

Labourt, Le Christianisme dans V Empire Perse sous

la

dynastie

NESTORIUS Sassanide (1904); Aubrey R. Vine, The Nestorian Churches (1937); W. A. Wigram, An Introduction to the History 0} the Assyrian Church (1910) Laurence Edward Browne, The Eclipse of Christianity in Asia John Stewart, Nestorian Missionary Enterprise Edinburgh (1933) (1928) W. Bartold, Zur Geschichte des Christentums in Miltel-Asien P. bis zur mongolischen Eroberugn, hsgK. von Dr. A. StUbe (1901) Pelliot, "Chretiens d'Asie centrale et d'Extreme-Orient," in T'oung Pao, XV, 623-644 (1914) Alphonse Mingana, The Early Spread of Christianity in Central Asia and the Far East (1925), The Early Spread of Christianity in India (1926) Arthur Christopher Moule, Christians in China Before 1550 {19iO), Nestorians in China (1940) P. Yoshio Saeld, The Nestorian Documents and Relics in China (1951) John Foster, The Church of the T'ang Dynasty (1939) G. P. Badger, The Nestorians and Their Ritual, 2 vol. (1952) A. Grant, History of the Nestorians (1955) A. J. Maclean and W. H. Brown, The Catholikos of the East, ;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

P. Kawerau, America und die orienlalischen His People (1892) Kirchen (1958); David F. Abramtsov, "The Assyrians of Persia and the Russian Orthodox Church" in One Church, vol. xiv, 5-6, 155-169 (May /June 1960) Bertold Spuler, "Die Nestorianische Kirche," in Handbuck der Orientalisk, vol. viii, pp. 120-169 (1961) W. de Vries, Die Sakramenten-Theologie bei den Nestorianern, "Orientalia ChrisPaul Krueger, "Symbolik der Syrischen tiana Analecta," 133 (1947) Kirche," in Symbolik des Orthodoxen und Orienlalischen Christentums, (G. V. F.) ss, 125-142 (1962). ;

;

;

;

NESTORIUS

451), patriarch of Constantinople and heresiarch, was born (exact date unknown) and spent his early Euphratensis (present-day Maras in Germanicia in Syria years at He studied at Antioch, probably as the pupil of southern Turkey) Theodore of Mopsuestia, and imbibed the principles of the famous (d.

c.

.

school there. He became a monk at the nearby Euprepius monastery and, after being ordained priest, acquired a great reputation for asceticism, orthodoxy and eloquence. Mainly because of this Theodosius II nominated him to the see of Constantinople in 428. His debut was a stormy one, for he immediately set to work extirpating heretics of every sort, showing leniency only to Pelagians. A crisis, however, developed when his theological

253

of the incarnation, representing Christ as a God-inspired man rather than as God-made-man. Hence Cyril (Anathema iii, viii)

could condemn anyone who "divides the hypostases after the union connecting them by a mere association in dignity or authority or rule, and not rather by a conjunction of real union," or who asserts that "the man assumed" {i.e., the human nature) is to be co-worshiped along with God the Word, instead of the Word-made-flesh being adored with a single, indivisible worship; .

.

.

while the Chalcedonian definition outlawed "those who presume to rend the mystery of the incarnation into a duality of Sons." Since the 5th century all the principal branches of the Christian church have united in condemning Nestorianism as thus defined, affirming

a single person, "at once wholly human and wholly the so-called Nestorian church (see Nestorians) is not Nestorian in the strict sense, although it venerates Nestorius' name and refuses to accept the title Theotokos. Teaching. It is questionable whether NesNestorius' torius himself ever taught, or intended to teach, the heresy named after him. Admittedly he gave colour to his opponents' accusathat Christ

divine.

is

Even

—

Own

tions by his habit of speaking of Christ's natures as "the God" and "the man" or "him who assumed" and "him who was assumed" respectively, by insisting on a loose, voluntary union between them defined as synapheia ("conjunction") rather than henosis ("union"), and by his suspicious attitude, illustrated by his critique of the Theotokos, toward the communicatio idiomatum, i.e., the convention by which, in view of the absolute oneness of

Christ's person, the attributes, experiences, etc., of each of his The fact natures could properly be predicated of the other. remains, however, that he was convinced of, and repeatedly affirmed, the perfect unity of the incarnate Lord, repudiated any suggestion of there being two persons or two Sons existing side by side in his being, and scornfully rejected the charge of being

chaplain, Anastasius,

virtually an adoptionist.

Virgin the

His authentic teaching, it would seem, though expounded in crudely provocative terms, showed little difference from, or advance on, that of his great predecessors in the Antiochene school, Diodore of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia, who had been admired as orthodox in their lifetime. Like theirs, his Christology was of the "Word-man" type rather than the "Word-flesh" type accepted

denounced the practice of giving the Blessed Theotokos ("God-bearer"), and Nestorius, who had already expressed doubts on the subject, rushed to his support. Orthodox theologians had long used the title, which the growing title

cult of the Virgin

made

highly popular; but Nestorius considered it compromised Christ's full hu-

that, unless carefully qualified,

manity.

In the controversy which flared up Nestorius' opponents found

an

ally in Cyril of Alexandria,

who, much more

alive to the pohtical

was only too eager to make capital for his own see {see Cyril, Saint). Both sides appealed to Pope Celestine I, whom Nestorius' tactlessness had already aUenated, and in Aug. 430 a Roman synod decided that correct Christology required the use of Theotokos and requested Nestorius to disown his errors. When Cyril, who had been charged to execute the sentence, produced a string of provocative anathemas for him to subscribe, Nestorius and his Antiochene-minded friends took alarm, and he persuaded the emperor to convene a general council. When it met, however, at Ephesus in June 431, he found himself hopelessly outmaneuvered by Cyril {see Council; Council of Ephesus [4JJ]). His teaching was condemned and he himself deposed from his see. Theodosius was induced to ratify these decisions, and Nestorius after languishing in his old monastery near Antioch was exiled in 436 to Upper Egypt, where he died, protesting his orthodoxy, c. 451. Apart from bis apologetic Book of Heracleides, a Syriac version of which came to light c. 1895, only fragments of his sermons and letters survive. A Syriac anaphora bearing his name is probably inauthentic. Nestorianism. Nestorius is reckoned one of the principal heretics in Christology, and the heresy traditionally linked with his name, Nestorianism, was formally condemned at the Councils of Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451). Whereas orthodox Christology holds that Christ incarnate has two natures, divine and human, ineffably united in one person or hypostasis (the "hypostatic union"), Nestorianism so stresses their independence as to suggest that they are in effect two persons or hypostases loosely joined by a moral union. It envisages the divine Word as having associated with himself at the incarnation a complete, independently existing man, and thus approximates to adoptionism {q.v.). From the orthodox point of view it therefore denies the reality issues,

—

Alexandrian school and sponsored in particular by Cyril. latter started with the idea of the eternal Word who at the incarnation became "enfleshed," the former tended to hold the divine and human natures apart, emphasizing their completeness and independence, and thus was faced with the difificult problem of explaining their union. The motive for tliis distinctive approach was twofold: to safeguard the impassibiUty of the Word, in the

Whereas the

and to ensure in the interests of sound soteriology that Christ should have hved a genuinely human hfe of growth, temptation and suffering. In particular the Antiochenes rejected the Alexandrian view that the Lord's humanity was vivified by its union with the Word, with the result that in the field of eucharistic doctrine Nestorius was unfairly charged by Cyril with teaching cannibalism, since the sacramental body consumed by the faithful

was according

to

him

the

body of

a

mere man.

own original contribution was the suggestion that, each nature subsisting in its own prosopon {i.e., external, undivided presentation), there was at the incarnation a mutual exchange of prosopa resulting in the emergence of a common prosopon. Thus "prosopon of union," by which he in effect understood the historical figure of the Gospels, was identical with neither the prosopon of the Word nor the prosopon of the humanity but resulted from the coming together of the two. Modern estimates of Nestorius' teaching differ widely, some applauding its honest attempt to do justice to the reaUty of Nestorius'

humanity and incarnate Hfe, others condemning it either more radically, for failing to recognize that the subject of the God-man must be the divine Word and for thus opening a door to Nestorianism proper. There can be no doubt, however, that it was far removed from the latter in Nestorius was the victim at once of his intention at any rate. own intolerant temperament and of the rivalries between great sees which was a feature of the times. It was ironical that very Christ's

for its internal difficulties or,

NESTROY— NET

254

soon after his condemnation several important elements in his doctrine, such as the conception of two natures itself, came to be recognized as indispensable to sound Christology and were incorporated in the Chalcedonian definition.

same period was recovered from the bog of Ordrup, Denmark. In Australia the geographical distribution of net types among the aborigines suggests that knotted nets may have come before knotless. But netting appears to have remained completely unknown in southwest Australia and in Tasmania. Primitive netting was fabricated with thread or cord made from a wide range of vegetable twist net of the

BiBLiocRAPHY.^Greek fragments of Nestorius' writinRS ed. by F. Loofs, Nestoriana (1905). Syriac teitt of The Book of Hercleides, ed. French trans, by F. Nau (1910) Eng. trans, by P. Bedjan (1910) G. R. Driver and L. Hodpson (1926). See also J. F. Bethune-Baker, Nestorius and His Teaching (1908); T. Camclot, "Dc Nestorius i Eutychis" in A. Grillmcier and H. Bacht, Das Konzil von Chalkedon, vol. i. pp. 21,1-242 (1951); F. Loofs, Nestorius and His Place in the History of Christian Doctrine (1914); R. V. Sellers, Two Ancient Christologies (1940). (J. N. D. K.)

by

;

;

NESTROY, JOHANN NEPOMUK EDUARD AMBROSIUS (1801-1862), Austria's greatest comic dramatist and who dominated

a brilliant character actor

{e.g., bark, bast, cotton, coconut, leaves, roots, stems) and

fibres

the Viennese popular

stage in the mid-19th century, was born at Vienna on Dec. 7, 1801. He made his debut as an opera singer in Vienna in 1822 and from

1823 to 1831 had engagements in Amsterdam, Briinn, Graz and Pressburg, gradually abandoning operatic for dramatic roles. In 1831 he returned to Vienna and became the leading character acFrom 1854 until his retiretor and comic dramatist of his day. ment in 1860 he managed the Carl-Theater. He died at Graz on

May

25. 1862.

Nestroy represents the last phase of the Viennese popular drama which originated in the 1 7th century. In his comedies the pathos and humour of his contemporary F. Raimund are replaced by satire, irony and parody (C. F. Hebbel and Richard Wagner were among his victims) and by a realistic portrayal of Viennese types and manners. His plays abound in memorable aphorisms. Der base Geist Lumpazivagabundus (1833), Die beiden Nachtwandler (1836), Dcts Mddl aus der Vorstadt (1841) and Einen Jux will er sich machen (1842) are typical examples of his work.

—

Bibliography. Werke, ed. by F. Brukner and O. Rommel, IS vol. (1924-30) ed. by O. Rommel, 6 vol. (1948-49) ed. by P. Reimann, 2 vol. (1962); ed. by H. Weigel, 1 vol. (1962). See also K. Kraus, Nestroy und die Nachwelt (1912) F. H. Mautner, Nestroy und seine Kunst (1937); O. Rommel, Die Alt-Wiener Volkskomodie (1952); O. F. de Battaglia, Johann Nestroy (1962) E. Fischer, "J- Nestroy," in Sinn und Form, xiv, 3 (1962). (C. P. Mag.) ;

;

;

;

NET,

a fabric of thread, cord or wire, the intersections of

which are looped or knotted so as to form a mesh. Netting, intimately related to weaving, knitting, plaiting and lacemaking, is one of the most ancient and universal of arts. Primitive Nets.—Widespread distribution among primitive peoples of the main types of net supports the belief that netting was one of man's first inventions. The early stages in the manufacture and use of nets are difficult to trace because materials were perishable and tools simple

;

but there

is

strong evidence that nets

were employed in southern Europe from upper Paleolithic times to answer the needs of a hunting, fishing and food-gathering economy. The oldest known piece of netting in Europe was found near Korpilahti, Finland, in 1914. It was part of a knotted seine net (see below) made from twined threads of plant bast and used by Mesohthic fishermen. An example of the oldest basic form of knotless net, consisting of simple loops, was discovered at a Neolithic site in Schotz, Switz., and a more complex loop-and-

BAS-RELIEF FROM NINEVEH. 7TH CENTURY B.C.. SHOWING A NET USED BY THE ASSYRIANS IN HUNTING. IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON

animal tissues

{e.g., hide,

sinew,

Needles and mesh gauges for netmaking were of wood, bone, ivory, antler

hair, intestine, baleen).

and PERUVIAN MANUSCRIPT (17TH CENTURY) SHOWING AN INCA BOY HUNTING BIRDS WITH A NET. IN THE

shell.

Many

specialized forms of netwere developed for articles such as hammocks and snowshoe ROYAL LIBRARY. COPENHAGEN lacings; but, apart from carrying nets, the most important nets are those for hunting and fishing. Lines of land nets were early adopted to capture animals driven into them by beaters. Primitive fishermen evolved numerous ting

varieties of nets suited to the conditions of river, estuary, shore

These varieties may be described as self-acting, i.e., stationary nets fixed so as to entangle fish in their meshes or trap them in chambers; and manipulated, i.e., nets handled by one or or open sea.

more persons. This second group embraces framed or unframed hand nets, seine nets with floats and sinkers, weighted cast nets and trawl nets. (D. M. Bo.) Modern Nets are made both from vegetable fibres {e.g., cotton, hemp, flax, manila, sisal) and from man-made fibres {e.g., nylon, polyester, polypropylene and polyethylene). The man-

made

whereas the vegetable fibres be treated against rot with substances such as tar. Three types of net, all with diamond-shaped mesh, are used for fishing: have

fibres are inherently rotproof

to

and trap nets. sometimes called drift nets, entrap fish by their gills. trammel net, composed of t*o outer panels of large-mesh netting enclosing an inner panel of smaller mesh netting, entangles the fish in pockets formed by the passing of the inner net through the mesh of the outer net or "wall." The size of the fish trapped depends on the coarseness or fineness of the meshing. Gill nets can be used at the surface, at mid-water or at the bottom of the water (salt or fresh) according to the adjustment of floats at the top and of lead sinkers at the bottom of the nets, seine nets

gill

Gill nets,

A

variant, the

net.

Seine nets are large nets used for enclosing schools of fish and meshed not to entangle them by the gills. Some, called beach seines, can be hauled onto the beach with their contents; others, called purse seines, are operated from boats in deep water far from shore. The two ends of the net are hauled are sufficiently fine

aboard the boat and the catch is secured by closing the bottom of the net with a rope called a purse-seine line. Seine nets are always operated at the surface and are fitted with floats at their upper edge to ensure buoyancy and with leads or chain at the bottom so that they hang in the water to maximum depth. They catch sardines, herring, pilchards, salmon, tuna, etc., and can enclose at one time schools of fish weighing up to 100,000 lb. They are called ring nets in Scotland and are there sometimes operated by two boats. Variants of the seine are the trawl net, the Danish seine and the wing or vinge trawl. These are dragged along the seabed, from which they scoop up, for example, cod, haddock, plaice and sole. Trap nets, staked to the shore or in estuaries, form a labyrinthlike chamber into which fish swim. The mesh must be fine enough to prevent the escape of fish of marketable size and enough coarse to allow unmarketable fish to swim through.

NETBALL—NETHERLANDIC LANGUAGE Salmon, trout and eels are their principal catch. A floating trap net, used especially in North America, has buoys and anchors instead of stakes. Eel traps and lobster traps, consisting of a framework covered with netting, are also forms of trap net. Nets used for purposes other than fishing are made of the same materials but are often square meshed, especially those used for sports, e.g., tennis nets, cricket practice nets and goal nets. Netting is used in horticulture for supporting peas and beans, for protecting crops from birds and frost and for the bags in which produce is marketed; in industry as safety netting for workers; in transport for securing loads on vehicles, hoisting cargoes aboard Netting made ship and for parcel racks on trains and aircraft. from wire differs from netting made from fibres in that the wires are twisted at the intersections and not knotted.

—

Manufacture. Net is still made (in small quantities) by the method of forked needle and mesh pin, but most commer-

ancient

machine manufactured. A netting machine England in 1778 by William Horton, William An early 19th-century Ross, Thomas Davies and John Golby. incomplete French model by Joseph Jacquard is in the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, Paris. The first machine efficient enough to commence a new netmaking industry was designed by James cial

production

was patented

is

in

Paterson of Musselburgh, Scot., who established a net factory there about 1820, but his early form of machine was imperfect, the knots it formed slipped readily and, there being much prejudice against machine nets, the demand for his products was small. In 1835 Walter Ritchie, also a native of Musselburgh, patented a machine involving a method of forming the ordinary hand knot; and this became the foundation of an extensive and flourishing industry. Another form of net loom was invented and patented in France by Onesiphore Pecqueur in 1840; and again in France and in Great Britain in 1849. This was subsequently often improved, principally by Baudouin and Jouannin. In the United States a manufacturer of cotton yarns at Canton, Mass., initiated net manufacture for the fisheries about 1844; and the success of his experiments in cotton twine resulted in the first netting machine in the United States starting production in 18S8 and the later development of improved models for handling heavy twines. Modern netting machines are manufactured in the United States, the United Kingdom, Finland, France and Japan. Improvements make it possible to manufacture nets with double knots as well as with single knots; double knotting is often desirable because of the slipperincss of

man-made

fibres.

See also references under "Net" in the Index. (E. F. Gu.) B3LI0GRAPHY. C. Singer, E. J. Holmyard, A. R. Hall (eds.), A

—

History of Technology, vol. i, part ii, ch. 8 (1958); J. G. D. Clark, Prehistoric Europe: the Economic Basis (1952) J. Hornell, Fishing in Many Waters (1950); O. Nordland, Primitive Scandinavian Tex;

in Knotless Netting (1961) D. S. Basketry Techniques," /. Polynes.

Davidson, "Australian Netting and Soc, vol. 42, no. 168 (1933); F. W. Hodge (ed.), Handbook oj American Indians North of Mexico (1907) J. H. Steward (ed.), Handbook of South American Indians (6 vol.), vol. 5 (1949); H. Kristjonsson (ed.), Modern Fishing Gear tiles

;

;

of the

World (1957).

NETBALL, a popular game in English

girls'

schools,

is

similar

Basketball: Women's Basketplayed on a hard-surfaced rectangular outdoor court measuring 100 ft. by SO ft. with half circles 16 ft. in radius marked at either end for shooting. The goal posts stand 10 ft. high with circular rings, or baskets, and nets at the top for the ball to pass through. The ball is usually of leather, about 27 in. in circumference and weighs 14 to 16 oz. The game is played between two teams of seven players each to girls' basketball in the U.S. {see ball).

It is

two attacks and two defenses. The ball hand from player to player and no one may run with it. The centre players try to pass the ball up the court into the circle for the attackers to shoot. The defenders, by guarding their opponents and by intercepting, try to prevent goals from being scored. three centre players,

must be passed hand

to

The game is played for IS or 20 min. each way with a S-min. break at half-time. (C. T. E.) The game called netball in the United States is similar to volleyball (q.v.) except that the ball is thrown and caught instead of being batted. The player may not walk with the ball, which must

be thrown from the place where of serve

if

the foul

to the serving side ball, a

it is

255

caught.

The penalty

is

loss

committed by the serving side or one point committed by the receiving side. As in volley-

is

if

game may be played on

a time instead of a point basis.

(M. D. Ha.) Netherlandic is the national language of Holland (kingdom of the Netherlands) and one of the two national languages (besides French) of Belgium. Popular English usage applies the term "Dutch" to the Netherlandic of Holland and "Flemish" to the Netherlandic of Belgium, but in actual fact they are the same language. In its various forms, standard and dialectal, Netherlandic is the indigenous language of most of Holland (all but the Frisian-speaking province of Friesland), of northern Belgium and of a small part of France immediately to the west of Belgium. Netherlandic is also used as the language of administration in the colonies of Holland, and a derivative of it (with slightly different sounds, simplified grammar, but similar vocabulary) is the Afrikaans spoken besides English in the Republic of South Africa. As a written language, Netherlandic is quite uniform; it differs in Holland and Belgium no more than written English does in As a spoken language, the United States and Great Britain. however, it exists in far more varieties than does the English of North America. At one extreme is Standard Netherlandic {Algemeen Beschaafd Nederlands "General Cultured Netherlandic"), which is used for public and official purposes and is the language

NETHERLANDIC LANGUAGE.

of instruction in schools

and

universities.

It is

everywhere quite

uniform, except that speakers usually show by their accent the general area from which they come. At the other extreme are the local dialects, used among family and friends and with others from the same village. Some dialects are very similar to the standard language, while others are markedly different from it. Sounds and Spelling. Netherlandic has three classes of vowels and diphthongs: (1) six checked vowels, which are short and occur only before consonants; (2) thirteen free vowels, most of them long, which can occur in all positions (though three are found only in foreign words) and (3) a vowel that occurs only in

— ;

unstressed position. Usual

u

NETHERLANDS

256

Of the stops and spirants, p, t, f, s, ch are fortis and voiceless, while b, d, v, z, g are lenis and weakly voiced, k is usually fortis and A usually lenis; but sec below. The contrast between lenis and fortis is suspended before pause, where only fortis stops and spirants occur. The spelling shows this in the case of v and 2; li'zcti "give, read," but ik geef, ik lees "I give, I read"; it does not show it in the case of 6, d, g: hebben, redden, Icggen "have, save, lay," but ik heb, ik red, ik leg "I have, I save, I lay," pronounced hep, ret, lech. In normal transition, fortis stops and spirants become lenis before a following b or d: dat boek "that book," pronounced dad boek; vijj dagen "five days," pronounced vijv dagen: poctsdoek "polishing cloth," pronounced poedzdoek; and similarly, ik ben "I am," with lenis k. On the other hand, lenis spirants become fortis after any preceding fortis stop or spirant: hct vuiir "the fire," pronounced het juur; op zee "at sea,"

gevcn,

pronounced op see; vijj ganzen "five geese," pronounced vijj chaiizen; and similarly, vijj honden "five dogs," with fortis h. When these assimilations would give long consonants, they are simplified: dat ding "that thing," pronounced dading; vijj vingers "five fingers," pronounced vijfingers; zes zakken "six sacks," pronounced zesakken. History. Together with English, Frisian and German, Netherlandic belongs to the West Germanic group of languages. (See Germanic Languages.) It is descended primarily from the speech of the Franks who entered this area in the 4th and Sth

—

centuries; in historical studies

it

is

therefore often called

Low

same time, it shows a few non-Frankish features ("Inguaeonisms"), which were probably borrowed from the former Germanic inhabitants of the coast. Documents written in Netherlandic do not begin to appear until the end of the 12 th century. From the immediately preceding period there are only a few glosses, the names and occasional words that appear in Latin documents, and the single sentence hebban olla uogala nestas bigiimian kinase hi[c} enda thu "all birds have begun [their] nests save I and thou." The development of Standard Netherlandic is closely tied to the political and economic history of the area. During the 13th and 14th centuries Flanders (in western Belgium) was culturally predominant, and Bruges the leading city. Toward the end of the 14th century the cultural centre began to shift eastward to Brabant, with Antwerp as the leading city. By the middle of the 16th century the speech of this region was well on its way to becoming standard for the whole area. Then came the revolt against Spain, in which the northern province of Holland played the leading role. Holland's cultural importance was greatly increased by the fact that many of the most influential southern families fled to the north, above all to Amsterdam, especially after the fall of Antwerp (1585). The political split between the United Netherlands in the north and the Spanish Netherlands in the south had far-reaching linguisIn the prosperous and vigorous north a standard lantic effects. Frankish.

.\t

the

guage rapidly developed, based on the speech of the big cities of the province of Holland (especially Amsterdam) but also showing the influence of the culturally important refugees from Brabant. This has continued to develop as the standard language, down to the present. In the south, French came more and more to prevail among the upper classes. The less privileged classes continued to use dialectal Netherlandic, but no supradialectal standard was developed.

The

predominance of French increased during the peFrench rule (1795-1814), abated somewhat during the years when Belgium and Holland were united independently cultural

riod of

(1815-30), but rose again after the founding of the kingdom of Belgium in 1830. At this time French was the only official language, used exclusively in government, courts and schools. Then there began a long struggle to give Netherlandic equal status with French, ending with the Language act of 1938, which made it the only official language of the northern part of Belgium. During these years of struggle there were attempts to set up a standard Flemish, different from that of the north; but in the end the standard Netherlandic that had become established in Holland was accepted for northern Belgium as well.

The close relationship of Netherlandic with English is most two languages: plug "plug," long "tongue," kan "can," btocd "blood," doen "do," grns "grass," hand "hand," man "man," naam "name," lip "lip," recht "right," winter "winter," jaar "year." Former /- and s- are now ;;- and z-: vinger "finger," zingen "sing"; former th and d have coalesced as d: diej "thief," diep "deep": former al, ol before d, I have changed to ou: koud "cold," botit "bolt"; former ft has changed to cht: zacht "soft." Former sk (English sh) gives sch initially: schip "ship," but ss or s elsewhere: vis "fish," plural vissen; former hs (English x) has also given ss or s: vos "fox," plural vossen. Dialects. At the border separating Holland or Belgium from Germany, the use of the standard language changes abruptly: Netherlandic is used to the west, German to the east. In the local speech, however, there is no such change: from the point of view ob\'ious in the consonants of the

—

of village dialects, the entire Netherlandic-German territory

the North sea to the Alps

is

a single dialect area

from

with only gradual

from one village to the next. In an area bounded roughly by Amsterdam, The Hague and Rotterdam, the local dialects are relatively uniform and do not differ greatly from the standard language. But north, east or south of this area, the local dialects diverge more and more from the standard language, until finally the two become mutually uninteltransitions

By

tradition, dialects are

named

after the provinces in Groningen, Limburgs in Limburg, etc. In actual fact there are no sharp boundaries between dialects, but only more or less gradual transitions; and the relatively sharp transitions do not necessarily occur at provincial ligible.

which they are spoken: Gronings

in

borders.

The use

of dialect varies markedly.

Hague-Rotterdam, most

In the area .A,msterdam-The

rural inhabitants are puzzled at the sug-

gestion that they speak a "dialect."

Their speech is so similar to the standard language that they are not aware of any real differences. Even a few miles from this area, however, the differences become so great that everyone is fully aware of them. The result is that, throughout most of Holland, the vast majority of people in effect speak two closely related but distinct languages: Standard Netherlandic and local dialect, in varying degrees of proficiency.

In Netherlandic Belgium the use of Standard Netherlandic

is

much more limited, and that of local dialect is much more exterisive. Some of the better educated speak the standard language fluently and use it regularly, while others prefer French. The educated use dialect almost exclusively, and are often able to handle the standard language only with difficulty. less well

See also references under "Netherlandic Language"

in the Index.

—

Bibliography. General: C. B. van Haeringen, Netherlandic Language Research, 2nd ed. (1960). Pronunciation : E. Blancquaert, Practische Uilspraakleer van de N ederlandse Taal, 4th ed. (19S3) L. P. H. Eijkman, Phonetiek van het Nederlands, 2nd ed. (1955). Grammar: E. Kruisinga, A Grammar of Modern Dutch (1924). History: M. Schonfeld, Historische Grammatica van het Nederlands, 6th ed. by A. van Loey (1960) C. G. N. de Vooys, Geschiedenis van de Nederlandse Taal, 5th ed. (1952) M. J. van der Meer, Historische Grammalik der niederlijndischen Sprache (1927). Dialects: A. Weijnen, Nederlandse Dialectkunde (1958) E. Blancquaert (ed.). Reeks Nederlandse Dialectatlassen (1926 et seq.) L. Grootaers and G. G. Kloeke (eds.), Taalatlas van Noord- en Zuid-Nederland (1939 et seq.). (W. G. Mn.) ;

;

;

;

;

NETHERLANDS, THE (Nederland; officially KoninKRijK DER Nederlanden, popularly Holland), a constitutional monarchy of northwestern Europe, bounded on the east by the Federal Republic of Germany, on the south by Belgium and on the west and north by the North sea. Its maximum length from north to south is 190 mi. and its greatest breadth is 160 mi. The coast line including estuaries is about 429 mi., which length is increased to 1,076 mi. if the coasts of close-lying islands are included.

The

Belgian municipahty of Baarle-Hertog forms an enclave within the

Dutch territory. The area of the country has shown a continual variation. It has been decreased by coastal erosion and flooding by sea; on the other hand, these losses have been overcompensated by extensive silting and by artificial land reclamation, especially in the IJsselmeer area. The total land area of the Netherlands was estimated to be 13,967 sq.mi. by 1963. Approximately two-fifths of the country lies be-

NETHERLANDS

The Peace palace, seal

of the

International Court of Justice, The

Plate

I

H

A

typical farm in Giethoorn (Overijssel province), a scattered water village interlaced wfith tree-planted canals which are Ihe chief

means

of local

transportation

SCENES OF THE NETHERLANDS

Quaint old houses and one of the many small bridges that span the treeshadowed canals of Delft, an ancient town in South Holland known for its pottery

A

section of the Singel

ground)

Amsterdam showing

the flower market (fon and the 17th-oentury Munttoren or Mint tower (right background) canal

in

NETHERLANDS

TlateII

cattle market at Purmerend, situated In the rich pastoral polder regions of North Holland, from which famed HolstelnFrleslan cattle are exported

The

A workshop

One of the many flower fields that extend between Leiden and Haarle flower bulbs form an Important export commodity

of the Philips Industrial complex in Eindhoven which ranks among the world's largest suppliers of radio and electronic equipment

Unloading herring for the mainstay of the economy

fish

auction at IJmuiden.

Fishing

Porters, wearing traditional guild costume, carrying Edam cheeses to the market welghhouse in Alkmaar. Cheese is one of Holland's principal exports

is

a

The port

of

Tulip and other

Rotterdam on the Nieuwe IVIaas, a commercial centra and one of the largest seaports in the world

of the Netherlands

INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE OF THE NETHERLANDS

NETHERLANDS low

sea level

and without protection by dunes and dikes would be

subject to tidal inundation twice daily.

A

large part of the re-

composed of sandy regions and rarely rises above 300 ft. except in south Limburg. Through the centre of the country flow in close proximity and roughly parallel three great rivers, which have formed a wide alluvial plain. The capital of the Netherlands is Amsterdam, though The Hague ('s Gravenhage) is the seat of the government; the principal resimainder

is

dence of the sovereign is at Soestdijk, in Utrecht province. This article is subdivided mainly as follows: I. Physical Geography 1. Geology and Structure 2. Dikes and Polders 3. 4.

II.

Animal The People

III.

Life

Archaeology

IV. History A. Early History, to 1384 B. Burgundian and Habsburg Periods, to 1S79 C. The United Provinces D. Batavian Republic and the Napoleonic Regimes E. Kingdom of the Netherlands V. Population VI. Administration and Social Conditions 1.

Constitution and Government

2.

Political Parties

3.

Trade Unions

4.

7.

Taxation Living Conditions Welfare Services Health

8.

Justice

9.

Education Defense

5.

6.

10.

VII.

The Economy B. Trade and Finance C. Transport and Communications I.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Geology and Structure.

—The geology of the Netherlands

most natural physical features date from the Quaternary stages (Pleistocene and Holocene periods), and their deposits cover most of the country in considerable depth. Tertiary sediments and earlier Mesozoic rocks are only met in borings on the east and south of the country or in rare outcrops in south Limburg and in the eastern part of the country. Carboniferous strata in which Coal Measures occur approach the surface in the northeastern part of south Limburg and, less closely, in De Peel region (between North Brabant and Limburg). In Limburg near Kerkrade these measures, lying close to the surface, have been worked since the middle of the 13th century. The Limburg mines work Coal Measures at a depth of 300 to more than 1,000 ft., while De Peel region coal lies at depths between 2,000 and 3,000 ft. Permian and Triassic rocks underlie a great part of the country They contain beds and domes of salt, at considerable depths. which are exploited at Hengelo in Overijssel and near Winschoten in Groningen, and considerable quantities of oil and gas, chiefly at Schoonebeek (Drenthe) and near The Hague. During the Pliocene period, the forerunners of the Rhine, Meuse (Maas) and Scheldt rivers deposited huge quantities of sediment, is

saw the return of sea

level to approxi-

mately its present position. Then followed the initiation and subsequent development of an offshore bar, which was breached by the estuaries of the Scheldt, Meuse and Rhine but swept unbroken from the Hook of Holland to Den Helder and then continued in what are now the Frisian Islands. In time this bar was covered with sand dunes. The large lagoon behind the bar was partly filled up by a delta of river clay, built up by the Rhine and Meuse; partly, too, extensive peat areas developed in it, which were in some places covered by marine clay, where for a time the sea had breached the bar. According to its geological history the Netherlands can be roughly divided into the following four areas: The Southern Limburg Plateau. This small plateau, thrusting for about 20 mi. between Belgium and Germany, and to the north reaching to about the town of Sittard, forms the oldest and most mountainous part of the country. Except for the valley of the

Meuse, it consists of Cretaceous rocks, generally rising to more than 300 ft. and at some places in the south to more than 1,000 ft. The plateau is dissected by deep valleys with swift streams. Its surface is covered with a fine aeohan soil loess) that is suited to wheat and sugar beet; the valleys are used for meadowland. Underlying Carboniferous deposits, a continuation of those in Belgium, have led to coal miiung. The Sand Areas of the South and East. There at least three subareas may be distinguished: the most extensive of these is the nonglaciated region of North Brabant and northern Limburg, sloping gradually from southeast to northwest, with altitudes that rarely exceed 150 ft. The broad alluvial valleys of various streams and patches of peat bog, of which many are now reclaimed, form In the central the most characteristic elements of this subarea. part of the country there is a sandy region with alternating glaThe most westerly of these is the cial ridges and broad valleys. narrow belt of moraine hills of Gooiland and Utrecht, running from the Zuider Zee to the (Lower Rhine) Neder Rijn. The region is strongly wooded and the northern part is an extensive resi(

—

A. Production

1.

257

postglacial period

—

Climate Vegetation

5.

The

relatively simple, as

dential district.

The

ridge sinks to the east into the Geldersche

Between this plain and Veluwe plateau, consisting of some places to more than still covered by heaths and woods a residential and recreational disThe valley of the IJssel consists of a rather narrow belt of clay along the river, on both sides accompanied by a broader

valley, a region consisting

mostly of sands.

the broad valley of the IJssel

trict.

river

belt of low-lying sands.

the

lies

a complex of glacial ridges that 300 ft. For its greater part it is and it serves to a high degree as

rise at

Across the valley of the IJssel the sandy

regions of eastern Gelderland and Overijssel equally contain a

num-

ber of glacial ridges, separated by broad alluvial plains. Formerly these plains were often marshy but, now drained, they are mostly

used for meadows. To the north of this latter region

is

the boulder clay plateau of

Drenthe and the eastern half of Friesland,

Formerly an area of

extensive heaths, notably in Drenthe, it is now mostly reclaimed A series of depressions through which the meltfor agriculture. ing water of the ice sheet was carried off border the plateau east

and south. The sandy soil of these depressions was formerly covered by peat bogs as a result of insufficient natural drainage and the high level of the ground water. The peat has now been removed, giving rise to a special style of agriculture. The Alluvial Plain of the Rhine and the Meuse. The broad

—

mostly sand, over the area. In the succeeding Pleistocene period alluvial plain that stretches out through the central Netherlands is ice spread over the northern part during the third Riss) glaciation, The in fact a delta of the Rhine and its divergent distributaries. depositing, in the provinces of Drenthe, Friesland and Groningen, Rhine itself divides soon after entering Dutch territory into the large areas of boulder clay. Another legacy are the glacial ridges Waal and a more northerly stream, the Lower Rhine, later called { stuwwallen) of Gelderland, Utrecht and Overijssel, which are the. Lek, At Arnhem the Rhine throws off an important distributary, result of the folding up of the western slopes of the preglacial A third the IJssel, which flows northward into the Zuider Zee, river valleys by the advancing ice sheet. Another element of the glaciated landscape is the broad depressions by which the melting great river, the Meuse (Maas), flowing first north through Limmiles several and winds water of the regressing ice sheet flowed off to the sea. Equally, burg, turns westward just below Nijmegen south of the Waal, The rivers are slow moving and meandering the alluvial plain of the Rhine and Meuse rivers served this function. The glaciated regions, as well as the provinces of North and deposit much silt. They are diked along considerable (

Brabant and Limburg, that were not reached by the ice were covered by aeolian deposits (dekzanden) during a dry

later partly

part of the glacial period.

stretches, usually at villages

and

some distance from

their arable land are

along the river.

The

their

summer

beds.

The

mostly situated on sandy levees

interior parts of this area lie at a

lower

NETHERLANDS

258

west to northeast, Texel, Vlie-

Ameland, Rottumer-

Terschelling,

land,

Schiermonikoog and

The

oog.

three enclose a

first

shallow stretch of tidal sea, the Zee, which led formerly into the Zuider Zee but was separated from it in 1932 by the

Wadden

dike).

(enclosing

Afsluitdijk

The dam

connects North Holland with Friesland is 18i mi. long and carries a motor road. The northeastern coastal belt of Friesland and Groningen to the

German

that

frontier

is

made

places

in

and

poldered. largely of

exten-

also

is

Land reclamation the more suitable

sively diked.

the

entire

The

area

zone

is

consists

heavy clays and

less

extensive districts of peat. 2.

Dikes and Polders.

—To

a

great extent the physiogeographical structure of the

country also

pattern of human The southern parts Brabant and Limburg and the

decided the occupation. of

boulder clay plateau of Drenthe (with many megalithic monuments) form the oldest inhabited parts of the country. The lower and more marshy sand regions of the eastern sections of the country were occupied at a later stage, as

somewhat

was the inner side

From

of the belt of the dunes. these

sandy

radiated delta

first

and

areas to

finally

belt of peat

the to

settlement river

the

and marine

clay

coastal

clay.

In

the extreme north, in Friesland

and Groningen, the earliest inhabitants settled on the unprotected marsh, but about the 1st century A. D. marine transgressions compelled them to build extensive mounds. Perhaps even as early as 8th and 9th century attempts the MODERN PROVINCES. MAJOR CITIES AND DRAINAGE OF THE NETHERLANDS were made to secure greater The protection by building dikes, and about the end of the 13th level and often show a marshy character ikomgronden). century different regions of the coastal belt were enclosed by delta of the Rhine and the Meuse consists of fluvial clay that continues into the peat it

and marine clay of the coastal

finally merges.

The Coastal

belt,

with which

—This

can be divided into several zones. Stretching northeast from the Belgian frontier it is deeply indented by the wide estuaries of the West and East Schelde (Scheldt and by those of the Rhine-Meuse, such as the Grevelingen and the Haringvliet. These estuaries themselves divide about the large islands of Walcheren, South and North Beveland, Schouwen-Duiveland, Tholen and Goeree-Overflakkee. Most of this area (including the islands), which is protected by dikes or sand dunes, is impoldered. Land reclamation has been in progress there for many centuries; the soil, a fertile marine clay, is suitable for arable farming. From the Hook of Holland a coast of sand dunes runs northward in a continuous sweep to Den Helder at the northern tip of the mainland. All its hinterland is below sea level; it is mostly protected by dikes and includes much polder land. Much of the surface area is peat or clay (on the bottom of the reclaimed lakes) and is suitable for various types Belt.

)

of agriculture.

Stretching from the tip of North Holland in a northeasterly curve are the Frisian Islands (q.v.). They comprise, from south-

Later dikes as protection against either the sea or the rivers. other dikes were built, sometimes as a consequence of flooding by which many villages often were

after the bursting of a dike,

devastated or even whole areas disappeared. In this manner the area southeast of Rotterdam was profoundly changed after floodMost ings in the 14th and the first half of the 15th century. later dikes form part of successive reclamations, as for example the greater part of the isle of South Beveland, the whole isle of

Overflakkee and extensive parts of Groningen and the southern part of South Holland, The most extensive undertaking by mid20th century was the reclamation of a large part of the Zuider Zee {q.v.). Under a reclamation law (June 14, 1918) this was begun in the early 1920s with the creation of various polders; viz., the Wieringer meer, the Northeast Polder and East Flevoland. The reclamation of a fourth polder (South Flevoland) was begun After the catastrophe of Feb. 1953, created by storm in 1960. tides, in which 1,835 persons were drowned and 450,000 ac. of land flooded, a Delta commission was established to explore the possibilities of seahng off the Schelde and Rhine estuaries in South Holland and Zeeland. The Delta project, scheduled for completion in 1978, was accepted in 1957 and it was planned to dam

NETHERLANDS

259

the estuaries and to shorten the southern coast hne; dike building would eventually close the mouths of the Haringvliet, Grevelingen

somewhat intermingled, especially in the western part of the country, which has been highly urbanized since the end of the middle

and East Schelde. The problem that

ages. first

arose from the

embankment

of the var-

and 13th centuries was Since the the artificial removal of the superfluous precipitation. beginning of the 13th century a complicated organization of the landholders has gradually developed to deal with this problem, by which the smallest units (polders) directly or indirectly (by the way of storage basins) have their superfluous water removed to the Formerly numerous windmills hfted the water sea or the rivers. from the land. Another form of reclamation consists of the breakup of the wasteland in the sand areas. A most spectacular piece of reclamation in this field was that of the extensive peat bog in the northeastern part of the country, which was already started at the beginning of the 17th century. ious parts of the coastal belt in the 12th

After the peat was dug off, the sterile sandy subsoil has been changed into arable land by means of manure and artificial In this way an extensive district of arable land was added to the Netherlands. (See Land Reclamation.) fertilizers.

Climate.

—The

climate is rather uniform throughout the Netherlands, although in general the northern provinces are colder than the central and southern parts of the country. The prevailing winds are westerly and southwesterly, with a late spring period of High winds are fairly frequent in coastal cool northerly winds. areas. The mean winter temperature is around freezing and mean summer temperature about 21° C. (70° F.). Mean average rain3.

fall

varies between 22

and 32

in.;

the wettest parts are the regions

behind the dunes, the sandy areas in the middle of the country and southern Limburg. Marsh mists and sea fogs are common, particularly in winter. (H. J. Ke.) 4. Vegetation. Coniferous plantations cover 7% of the coun-

—

and occupy 70% of the total woodland area. Deciduous woods are of three main kinds oak-birch on poor sandy soils oak-birchbeech on richer soils; mixed woods of oak, ash, hornbeam, cherry, etc., on the rich loam and chalk soils in the east and south. In the wetter places ash, alder, elm and willow trees are conspicuous. try

;

:

The extensive

coastal dunes carry a varied flora: in the north, where the soil is poor in hme, their lichen carpet has been colonized by heaths, while the southern dunes, rich in hme, support scrub with common and sea buckthorn, privet, rose and spindle. Inland there are dry (Calhina) and wet (Erica) heaths, with crowberry in the north, and fens, swamps and sphagnum bogs. The salt marshes may be occupied mainly by Salicornia, salt-marsh grass, mud rush, or Artemisia, together with the cord-grass Spartina

townsendii.

Characteristic Atlantic

species are bellflower, bell

heather, myrtle and bog asphodel.

(V.

W.)

Animal Life.—The

fauna of the Netherlands is characteristically western European. It shows a greater variety on the higher land than in the lower wetter areas. Fox, pine marten and tree frog are found only in the south and east. The southern part of Limburg, where there is limestone, has a fauna of its own with dormouse, midwife toad and wall lizard. In the national parks and nature reserves rare plants and animals are protected; e.g., red deer in the forests and heathlands of the Hoge Veluwe National park (2i sq.mi.) bearded tit, purple heron, Savi's warbler and other marsh and water birds in the Naardermeer nature reserve (one of the most important bird sanctuaries in Europe) spoonbill on Texel Island (its most northerly breeding place) halophytes (salt-loving plants) and marsh and water birds on the Bosplaat sands of Terschelhng Island. The change in the IJselmeer from salt to fresh water, following the closing of the Zuider Zee by a dike in 1932, has brought about interesting changes in the flora and fauna of that body of water. (X.) 5.

;

U.

THE PEOPLE

The modern Dutch people

are descended from a few German north of the Netherlands, the

tribes, chiefly the Frisians in the

Saxons

in the east

origin, in the south.

The

Frisians arrived before the Christian era

came with the barbarian invasions in the 4th century In the course of many centuries these elements have become

the others A.D.

and the Franks, who were of more southern

In the 17th century began a small and gradual influx into first Portuguese, later German), of French Huguenots and of Malays and Eurasians from the (former) Neth-

the towns of Jews (at

erlands East Indies. Throughout history dwellers in the inland areas of the Netherlands have confined themselves largely to self-sufficient agriculture and to small industries; the spread of industry in the eastern ahd

southern sandy regions is due to the availability of cheap labour. In most aspects of their hfe the people are divided along confessional lines. According to 1959 estimates they were 44.5% Protestant, of whom about three-quarters (including the royal family) belonged to the Netherland Reformed Church (Neder-

Hervormde Kerk) and the rest to a smaller Reformed body and such smaller groups as Mennonites and Lutherans. The Roman Cathohc Church claimed 38% of adherents; and 17% of The proportion the population subscribed to no denomination. lanse

of

Roman

Catholics

is

slowly increasing because their higher birth

rate coincides with the higher Protestant emigration rate.

Political

and ideological lines. Religion and ideology exert influence also on schools, trade unions, and even the national broadoccupational and recreational societies casting and television systems, which are divided into several de-

parties are divided along confessional

nominational branches in more or less sharp competition. The Dutch people are also characterized by a strong family hfe and therefore greatly prefer one-family houses to flats, which have only begun to be built fairly extensively since World War II. The Dutch set much store by privacy and private initiative; they appreciate the moral value of autonomy and responsibility. Nevertheless, lack of space has obliged them to accept a high degree of material and social organization. Their rights are safeguarded by their strong democratic spirit, manifested in a long history of municipal government, water-defense corporations and, among the Protestants, by the Calvinistic church order which has penetrated all their denominations. In general the Dutch are tolerant, sturdy and somewhat phlegmatic. Their artistic awareness is more visual than auditive which, added to the fact that their language is not widely spoken, may account for the superiority of their painting and architecture over their literature. The average cultural standard is high; illiteracy is almost unknown and over 60% of young people receive secondary education. There are many regional variations in Dutch life which play an important part in culture. These have, naturally, maintained themselves best in the rural areas and among the fishing population.

See also Netherlandic Language; Dutch Literature; Painting. For an account of the evolution of the Reformed (H. D. de V. R.) Church see Reformed Churches, The.

lU.

Remains

ARCHAEOLOGY

—The

oldest remains of human industry Countries are Clactonian and Acheulean flints from gravels in the Mons (Hainaut) region of Belgium dating from the Middle Paleohthic Mousterian industry third (Riss) glaciation. is very well represented in Belgian alluvial and cave deposits (Hainaut, Liege and Brabant). Human (Neanderthal) fossils have also been found, especially in the cave at Spy. The Upper Paleohthic inhabitants (homo sapiens) of the northern provinces of the Netherlands were reindeer hunters, fishermen and food

Paleolithic

Low

in the

who appeared in the final phase of the last glaciation (c. They left flint implements closely related to the Hamburgian industry of northwest Germany. The Upper Paleogatherers,

10000

lithic

B.C.).

cultures in Belgium represent the northwesternmost limit of

the classic Aurignacian, Perigordian and Magdalenian industries as in France, Spain, Switzerland and southern Germany. The Countries have no Upper Paleohthic cave art; but some ob-

known

Low

French style. During the final Paleolithic phase (AUerod oscillation and younger Dryas, c. 9000-8000 B.C.) there were three cultures in the Low Countries, of which two appeared both in the Netherlands and jects are decorated in typical

NETHERLANDS

26o

the Tjonger group (so called from the Tjonger [Frieslandl), related to the British Cheddar and Creswellian cultures; the Ahrensburgian, which derives from the Hamburgian; and, in southern Belgium only, the epi-Magdalenian.

in

Belgium,

\'iz.,

river in Frisia

—

c.

Mesolithic Food Gatherers. During Mesolithic times (80004000 B.C.), which include the preboreal, the boreal and part of

the Atlantic period, three groups of cultures are found. The first, the Maglemosian people, lived near lakes and rivers in the Netherlands, Flanders and most of the north European plain. Their remains consist largely of bone and antler points and harpoons. fire-hollowed canoe of about 6000 B.C. discovered near Pesse, Drenthe, in 1955 probably belongs to this culture. The second group, the Tardenoisians, lived on high plateaus and in sandy They were hunters of regions throughout the Low Countries. small game and their remains consist of arrowheads and parts of Lastly composite implements made of geometrical microliths.

A

there were the people

who

lived in the forests,

whose characteristic

remains are heavy tools suitable for woodworking, such as axes and adzes. These arc found in Frisia (northern Netherlands) and around Liege (Belgium). Danubian Farmers. Farming people from central Europe settled in the Dutch province of Limburg and in the Hesbaye disThey trict (^Belgium) at the end of the 5th millennium B.C. brought the Neohthic way of life, based on agriculture and stock-

—

Excavation has shown that their village consisted of They cultivated stables and barns. cereals on loess soil cleared of forest by the slash-and-burn method and bred pigs, sheep and cattle. Among their most typical remains are shards of pottery decorated with wavy and angular incised lines and adzes made of pohshed hard or volcanic rock. Spread of Neolithic Life. After a few centuries the Danubians departed and were replaced by a second wave of Central European immigrants whose arrival originated two civiUzations the Funnel-Beaker culture in the Netherlands and the Michelsberg Both date from the third millennium B.C. The Belin Belgium. gian Michelsberg culture is much the same as the German, but it has also some aflnnities with the Windmill Hill culture of Great Britain. Among its most important remains are the flint mines of the Mons region (Spiennes), the products of which were used over a wide area. Its most characteristic feature is its pottery, with tulip beakers and flat baking disks. The remains of the FunnelBeaker culture in the Netherlands are found mainly in the eastern provinces, especially Drenthe. There are numerous large megalithic passage graves, and pottery remains consist of funnel beakers, collared flasks, buckets and bowls decorated with deep horizontal and vertical grooves forming geometrical patterns. Excavations along the North sea coasts have revealed a series of farmers' and fishermen's settlements. These seem, however, to belong to an autochthonous Mesolithic population which had adopted the Neolithic way of hfe; their remains show strong Funnel-Beaker and western Neohthic influences. Late Neolithic Migrations. The end of the Neolithic period in the Netherlands is marked by a series of invasions and migrations. WarUke herdsmen arrived in the Netherlands from the east about 2200 B.C. Avoiding the Funnel-Beaker area, they settled in the Veluwe (Guelders) and at the western Umit of the northern sandy areas. They buried their dead in single graves under barrows and left battle-axes of hard stone and cord-impressed beakers. About 200D B.C. groups of prospectors of the Bell-Beaker civilization arrived, settling along the Belgian and Dutch coasts and in the provinces of Gelderland (Guelders) and Drenthe in the eastern Netherlands. They introduced the first metal objects. Some of them traveled on to the British Isles. The Bronze Age (1600-600 B.C.) was a quiet period for the Low Countries as they lay outside the main trade routes. The breeding. large,

wooden long houses,

—

—

period is chiefly memorable for its comphcated timber-structured grave barrows. At the end of the Early Bronze age, people came from the British Isles to settle in the northern provinces of Belgium and the Netherlands. They cremated their dead and put the bones into urns which they placed under barrows. Typical of their rough funerary urns are those of Hilversum and Drakenstein.

Late Bronze Age: Urn Field Invasions.

—During the Late Bronze

Age, bronze weapons and implements began to be imported into the Low Countries from many parts of central and northern Europe, including the British Isles. Urn field people (probably Celtic), so called from their custom of putting the cremated bones of their dead into urns, came from Switzerland and the Rhineland to settle

northern Belgium and the southern Netherlands; i.e., south of Waal and Rijn rivers. Their equipment and grave goods In Flanders and central Belgium the genuine urn field tradition of flat graves was kept; while toward the north, barrows were adopted from the autochthonous population. North of the rivers came a large Germanic Urn field immigration originating

in

the Maas,

were poor.

from northwest Germany. The Iron Age. This period (600 B.C. to the Roman conquest, 12 B.C. onward) was very quiet north of the three rivers; the population of agriculturists and herdsmen continued the traditions of urn field times. About the beginning of the 3rd century B.C. the lower coastal stretch of Frisia was inhabited for the first time, by a population of cattle breeders. In order to protect themselves and their cattle from the high tidal floods, these new people built their villages on artificial mounds or terpen. The systematically excavated terp of Ezinge has yielded much information about their life. The area south of the rivers, however, presents In the 7th century B.C. a group of Celtic a different picture. (Hallstatt) warriors, probably from Bavaria, conquered central Belgium and established their rule over the autochthonous popuThe Hallstatt influence was also felt in northern Belgium lation.

—

and the southern Netherlands; here there are a number of graves of chieftains, containing rich grave goods, including golden trinDuring the La kets, mostly imported from the Mediterranean. cultural groups south of the great

Tene period there were three

In the northernmost, the urn field traditions were still carried on, but the pottery was strongly influenced by the French rivers.

Marne

civiUzation.

pottery, metal

The

objects

strongest La Tene influence shows and gold ornaments of Hainaut.

in the

The

Ardennes formed part of the Eifel-Hunsriick civilization. These last people built numerous hill forts {oppida) surrounded by stone

and earthen

walls.

Low Countries ended with the conquest by Nero Claudius Drusus of the regions north of the (S. J. deL.) Rhine (12 B.C. onward). The

prehistoric period in the

IV.

HISTORY

name Netherlands, or Low Coungenerally understood to include not only the territory of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, with which the nonhistorical sections of this article are concerned, but also what is now Belgium For

historical purposes, the

tries, is

ig.v.) as well as parts of northeastern France and Luxembourg. Belgium, however, though it was not constituted as an independent kingdom till 1831, had a distinct history of its own from 1579, when the southern provinces of the Low Countries began to be separated from the northern. Here, therefore, the history of the Low Countries will be surveyed as a whole down to 1579; thenceforward the article wiU be concerned with the history of the

northern area. A.

Roman

Early History, to 1384

—

In 57 B.C. the Romans entered the northern borderlands of Gaul. There they found Celtic tribes: the Morini and the Menapii in the coastal belt west of the Scheldt, the Nervii in Hainaut and in Brabant east of the Scheldt and the Aduatuci in Namur. The Eburones, who were probably Germanic and who hved in the rest of Belgium and along the Rhine, were annihilated in war against the Romans. Their territory was then occupied, with the permission of the Romans, by other Germanic tribes, about the beginning of the Christian era: the Tungri in Limburg, the Toxandri in northern Brabant, the Cugerni and the Ubii in the Rhineland. In the region of the Rhine delta and to the north of that area the Romans encountered mainly the Batavi and the Frisians {g.v.}, who were subjugated by Nero Claudius Drusus in a.d. 12. The Low Countries thus became part of the Roman empire for more than 400 years: revolts such as those of the Frisians (a.d. 28 and 47) and of the Batavi under

Occupation.

NETHERLANDS Gaius Julius Civilis dominance.

Roman

(a.d.

rule left clear

69) did not permanently break

and

Roman

lasting traces

and exercised a strong

The

original centres of this

influence on the material civilization.

Gallo-Roman civilization were the military camps, which in many cases were also centres of government. The network of roads and waterways connecting these camps remained important in later centuries. Such centres were founded along the Rhine border at Trajectum ad Rhenum (Utrecht) and at Noviomagus (Nijmegen)—and also in the interior at Aduatuca Tungrorum (Tongres), at Trajectum ad Mosam (Maastricht) and at Turnacum (Tournai). There were also numerous nonmilitary settlements and landed estates (villae), especially along the middle Meuse and in Limburg. Stimulated by commerce, industries developed; e.g., iron mining, stone quarrying, pottery glazing and metalwork. One of the most important industrial regions was the

—

—

Meuse

valley.

The Franks.— In the first half of the Sth century a.d. the Romans evacuated the Low Countries. The Sahan Franks (q.v.), who since the 4th century had been established as dediticii, or subjects of the Romans, in Toxandria (northern Brabant), used this opportunity to make themselves masters; they advanced in a southwesterly direction, settled in the area of Tournai and penetrated into Gaul. There, in the latter years of the Sth century, Clovis, at the head of the united Sahan Franks, created the Prankish realm of the Merovingians, which thus had its centre outside the Low Countries. The Belgian territories, which in this way became borderlands of the Frankish dominion, stayed under Frankish rule, but they were very thinly populated. The Frisians meanwhile penetrated into the Rhine delta, and the coastal area was still very scantily peopled. This situation continued into the 7th century but was reversed toward the end of it: when Austrasia (q.v^) emerged as the most important part of the regnum Francorum, eastern Belgium (the middle Meuse area and the Ardennes) became one of its centres. Thereafter the Frisians were forced back behind the Rhine, and Utrecht was incorporated in the Frankish realm, at first provisionally but later definitely by Charles Martel, the mayor of the palace. In the Sth century, when the Austrasian CaroUngians came to power, Frankish rule was extended over the whole of Frisia. Thus the Low Countries except for a Saxon area in the east were absorbed into the Frankish empire. The form of government and administration which had been inaugurated under the Merovingians, and was continued under the Carolingians, provided the foundation for later institutions. Subsistence was mainly from agriculture, though there were a few industries (metal on the middle Meuse and pottery in Hainaut and Namur) and some commerce (at Quentovic and at Dorestad), which was directed partly toward England, Scandina\da and northern France. Some municipal centres of Roman times continued to exist (Arras, Tournai, Maastricht, Utrecht). Outside the centres of miUtary and civil government there had been few traces of Christianity in Roman days. With the estab-

protected

—

—

lishment of the Frankish realm and the conversion of Clovis, Christianity began to penetrate into the interior of the Low Countries, and a few dioceses (Therouanne, Tournai, Tongres)

were established in Belgium. The lasting Christianization of the southern Netherlands, however, was not achieved till the 7th century, largely thanks to missionaries belonging to the regular clergy (St.

Amandus,

St.

Omer).

In the river deltas and in Frisia, the

Anglo-Saxon

St. Willibrord (q.v.) began to preach the Gospel 690, choosing Utrecht and later also Echteriiach as his bases. In the north, evangelization was possible only with the support of c.

the Frankish conquerors of Frisia. St. Willibrord's carried farther by St. Boniface (q.v.).

work was

Christianization in the Low Countries was accompanied by monastic foundations, especially in the south (Elnone, Echternach, St. Vaast, St. Wandru, etc.) in the north, only the monasterium of Utrecht was of importance. A beginning was also made with the building of churches, mainly endowed by great landowners. While the south was evangehzed by the Frankish mission and the north by the Anglo-Saxon, a third group of missionaries, the Irish;

261

importance to the Low Countries in general because of its influence over Franks and Anglo-Saxons ahke. In the latter part of the Sth century, only the region east of the river IJssel (the modern province of Overijssel and the eastern part of Gelderland) remained outside the Frankish empire. St. Lebuinus tried in vain to propagate Christianity in this Saxon area, which was converted only after Charlemagne (q.v.) had finally subdued the Saxons at the end of the century. St. Liudger, of Frisian origin, then preached in the neighbouring Westphaha, where the diocese of Miinster was estabHshed, and became its bishop. Pacification, Christianization and the development of the Frankish governmental and juridical institutions (feudahsm, Scottish,

was

also of

Low Counmost important results of Charlemagne's rule (768-814). he was not at Aachen, Charlemagne resided frequently at

tribal laws, administrative organization) were, for the tries,

the

When

Herstal on the Meuse north of Liege or at other places in the southern Netherlands, less often at Nijmegen.

The accession of the Austrasian Carolingians to power, the conquest of Frisia and the subjection of Saxony gave to the Low Countries south of the Rhine delta a central position in the Frankish empire, which they retained under the emperor Louis I the Pious. In his reign (814-840), however, peace was more and more disturbed by the devastating incursions of the Vikings, or Northmen and toward the end of the 9th century these raids were penetrating ever deeper into the interior. Not until the be;

ginning of the 10th century did peace return. The disputes among the sons and successors of Louis the Pious and the resulting divisions of the Frankish realm likewise had a disturbing effect on the Low Countries. The treaty of Verdun (843 ), which assigned the West Frankish kingdom (Francia Occi-

France) to Charles II the Bald and the East Frankish (Francia Orientalis, or Germany) to Louis the German, gave the Middle kingdom (Francia Media) to the emperor Lothair I. This Middle kingdom included the Low Countries except the regions west of the Scheldt (the later counties of Artois and Flanders), which went to Charles the Bald; but after Lothair I's death (S5S) the Middle kingdom was once more divided. The northern part, which included the Low Countries, again with the exception of Artois and Flanders, went to the second Lothair (a younger son of Lothair I), after whom it came to be known as Lotharii regnmn, or Lotharingia (see Lorraine). Lotharingia was in turn partitioned between West and East Franks (870), attached in its entirety to the East Frankish kingdom (S80), restored as an independent kingdom for the East Frankish king Arnulf's illegitimate son Zwentibold (895), attached again to the East Frankish kingdom (900) and even transferred by the local nobility to the West Frankish king Charles III the Simple (911). In 925, however, the Low Countries, once ' [raadpensionaris or salaried councilor) ,

Only men prepared to follow the prince's directives were appointed to the standing committee of the states-general, which from 1630 onward adminisFrederick Henry moreover maintained a tered foreign affairs. fashionable court at The Hague and was interested in painting and architecture. His court however did not become the centre of that republic as in Oldenbarnevelt's days.

Dutch

cixilization which, retaining its essentially bourgeois char-

achievements in all fields. At the same time Dutch economy developed at an astonishing pace into unchallenged European supremacy. Dutch settlements were established in the East and West Indies and in South and North America. including New Amsterdam, which later became New York city {see Dutch East India Company; Dutch West India Company). All this makes Frederick Henry's time of office one of the most brilliant periods in the history of the republic. When the war with Spain had been resumed in 1621, the Dutch had at first been unable to halt Spanish raids in the eastern and northern provinces; and in June 1625 they had lost the important town of Breda. After 1625, however, they were fairly successful acter, in this period reached its greatest

The stadholder of Friesland, Ernest Casimir of Nassau-Dietz, took Oldenzaal in 1626, and Frederick Henry captured Grol in 1627. Then the capture of the Mexican silver fleet from the Spaniards by Piet Hein in 1628 provided the Dutch with the money that they so badly needed; and in 1629 Frederick Henry was able to besiege and take 's Hertogenbosch, thus carrying the war south of the big rivers and opening the possibility of reconquering the southern Netherlands. This prospect met with some encouragement in the southern Netherlands themselves, but the Dutch campaign of 1632, which was intended to strengthen the southerners' opposition to Spain, petered out after some initial successes, the most notable of which was the capture of Maastricht in August, Peace negotiations between the southern and the northern Netherlands failed in 1633. When France, under the ministry of the cardinal de Richelieu, was about to enter the war openly against Spain, the states-genin defending their small territory.

eral and the French agreed to divide the southern Netherlands between them and promised to make peace only "jointly and by common consent" (treaty of Paris, Feb. 1635), It proved impossible, however, to conquer the southern Netherlands. Frederick Henry took Breda in 1637 but failed in his attack on Antwerp in 1638 and achieved only two more successes in the remaining ten years of the war: the capture of Sas van Ghent in 1644 and of Hulst in 1645. At sea, on the other hand, Spanish power received a smashing blow when on Oct. 21, 1639, a great fleet of warships and transports was destroyed in the Downs by Maarten Tromp. During the 1640s Frederick Henry's position grew gradually weaker. Holland was not prepared sufficiently to support his attacks on the southern Netherlands and also regarded with aversion the dynastic policies that he was pursuing. In 1641 Frederick Henry succeeded in marrying his 14-year-old son, later prince of Orange as William II, to Mary, daughter of Charles I of England a marriage which enhanced the glory of his house but laid on him the burden of supporting the English king in his domestic conflicts. Holland insisted on making peace as soon as possible, and when Frederick Henry died on March 14, 1647, the peace negotiations, started against his wishes in 1646, were about to lead to results. On Jan. 30, 1648, the Dutch and the Spaniards signed the peace of Miinster; since the French remained at war with Spain the Dutch signature to this peace was a clear violation of

—

the treaty of 1635. The peace of Miinster confirmed the settleof 1609 and extended it insofar as the Dutch were allowed

ment

to keep the border districts of Flanders, Brabant and Limburg which they had conquered in the recent warfare and which were

known as the Generality lands being under the authority of the states-general, without separate representation as provinces). then

(

The Scheldt moreover was to be kept closed. The Spanish king had at last recognized Dutch independence. William U of Orange. Frederick Henry was succeeded in all

—

his offices and dignities by his son William II of Orange, an able young man whose dynastic and military ambitions brought him into a grave conflict with the republican and pacific rulers of Holland. He seems to have intended to start a new war against Spain on France's side and, after forcing Philip IV of Spain into peace

with Louis XIW to intervene, in conjunction with France, in the English Civil War on behalf of the Stuarts; but the issue which actually brought the repubhc to the verge of civil war was of a

more hmited

Holland wanted in 1649 to reduce the army and the states-general refused. After long but fruitless negotiations Holland simply dismissed a number of commanders of companies which were paid out of Holland's contribution to the states-general (June 4, 1650). The next day William II had himself ordered by the states-general "to prevent disturbances," but Holland refused to submit. At the end of July the stadholder put six leading members of the estates of Holland into prison and marched his troops on Amsterdam. Warned in time, Amsterdam was not taken but accepted a compromise, and the six prisoners were set free. It is doubtful whether this solution could have lasted, but William II suddenly died of smallpox on Nov. 6, 1650. Eight days later, on Nov. 14 (new style; 4, old style), his son William III of Orange was born. First Stadholderless Period. The years from 1651 to 1672 are generally called the "first stadholderless period," The term is misleading in two respects: (1) because though Holland, Zeeland. Utrecht, Gelderland and Overijssel did not appoint a stadholder during these years, Friesland and Groningen did appoint one and 2 because the term may be wrongly taken as implying that a government without a stadholder was abnormal. In fact, the provinces were certairfly allowed not to appoint a stadholder: if 1588 be taken as the beginning of the republic as an independent state and 1795 as its end, it can be shown that, out of 207 years, in no less than 67 years some important provinces were stadholderless. Nevertheless, in 1650 the decision of five provinces not to appoint a successor to William II and not to make any arrangements concerning his son was unprecedented. It is to be explained by the fear which Wilham II's policies had aroused and by the idea that a stadholder was essentially a military leader and thus superfluous in peacetime. Holland made an attempt to lay the foundation for a new form of government by summoning to The Hague the so-called grand assembly Jan.-Aug. 1651), which, although composed in the same way as the states-general, was to have power to work out a new constitution. But as the other pro\inces refused to authorize their deputies to take binding decisions the assembly was just weak as as the states-general and no new constitutional rules were defined. Actual power then reverted to the ruling urban oligarchies of Holland, whose leading statesman, Johan de Witt (q.v.), was appointed grand pensionary of Holland in 1653 and remained in office until 1672. A highly cultured man with a keen scientific mind, an excellent mathematician, well-read in the classics and supported by original political theorists of whom Spinoza is the best-known, De Witt yet pursued conservative policies designed to maintain, not to increase, the economic power and nature.

further, but William 11

—

;

(

)

(

political influence of the republic.

Two

threatened his system and finally wrecked the house of Orange.

The

Anglo-Dutch

War (May

closely related factors it:

English hostility and

1652-April 1654; see also Dutch Wars for the naval wars with England discussed below) was caused by economic and colonial rivalry and by the English Commonwealth's distrust of the influence which the Orangist party in the Netherlands, closely linked with the interests of the deposed Stuart dynasty, was apparently still exercising. It was a naval war in which the Dutch, although led by such distinguished commanders as Maarten Tromp and Michiel de Ruyter, finally had to \ield. Oliver Cromwell, however, then protector of the Commonwealth, was averse to continuing the war against a Protestant repubhc and first

NETHERLANDS concluded the treaty of Westminster (April 1654) on the understanding that the Dutch would pay compensation for damage to English commercial interests overseas and would guarantee that the prince of Orange should never again be in a position to further As De Witt would not ask the states-general the Stuart cause. to bar the house of Orange, only the estates of Holland passed the so-called Act of Seclusion (May 4, 1654), which excluded the prince of Orange from the office of stadholder of Holland. Thereafter Dutch foreign policy was more successful. De Witt intervened in the Danish-Swedish war of 1657-60 and brought about a settlement which secured the safety of the Baltic trade. to the Enghsh throne in 1660 had The restoration of Charles no immediate effect on Dutch domestic poUcy, though the estates Seclusion. As Charles was unwillHolland repealed the Act of of

H

ing to conclude an alliance with the republic,

De Witt

established

more friendly relations with France (alliance of 1662). Then, after attacks by the English Africa company on Dutch possessions in west Africa and in North America (New Netherland with New Amsterdam), a second Anglo-Dutch war was officially declared in 1665. This was purely a commercial war in which the Dutch had The French supported their allies against the the upper hand. bishop of Mijnster, Bernhard von Galen, who as an ally of England attacked the eastern provinces. Peace negotiations, opened at Breda in April 1667, proceeded rapidly after the Dutch raid on the Medway (June), and the peace of Breda, concluded on July 31 (N.S.) was a compromise: New Netherland was ceded to England; Surinam (central Guiana) and Run (Pulau Run in the Banda islands) went to the Dutch. Meanwhile Louis XIV of France had begun his War of DevoluThis tion by invading the Spanish Netherlands in May 1667. threat to the security of the United Provinces gave Charles II of

England an opportunity of breaking the Franco-Dutch alliance. left De Witt no choice but to sign an anti-French alliance with England which became a triple alliance on Sweden's accession to Charles however very soon turned to Louis XIV for it (1668). subsidies and in 1670 concluded the secret treaty of Dover (g.v.), whereupon both kings prepared for a decisive blow against the completely isolated republic. In the face of this threat, William III of Orange was in Feb. 1672 provisionally appointed captaingeneral for one campaign. In March and April the two kings declared war; and in June a magnificent French army under Louis XIV himself occupied the greater part of the repubhc, though it Then, in July, WiUiam of Orange was did not enter Holland. appointed stadholder by Zeeland and Holland and full captainand admiral-general of the union. Irresistible popular movements forced the oligarchs to give him all the rights and offices of his ancestors. On Aug. 20, just after having resigned his office of grand pensionary, De Witt was murdered at The Hague by an Orangist mob.

He

William

III of

Orange.

—One of the

first

decisions of the

new

stadholder was his refusal of the humihating peace terms offered by England and France. Louis XIV did not succeed in conquering Holland; the Dutch fleet maintained its supremacy over the Enghsh navy in a series of battles. In 1674 Charles II had to make peace: the treaty of Westminster, concluded on Feb. 19 (N.S.), was based on the status quo ante bellum but secured recognition by the Dutch of British sovereignty in the narrow seas Anglo(straits between Great Britain, Ireland and France). Dutch relations were to be improved further when William married Mary, the elder daughter of Charles's heir presumptive, James, duke of York 1677). Meanwhile Spain and Austria had allied themselves with the Dutch in 1673, and Brandenburg and Denmark were also supporting them in the continuing war against the French, who in 1674 had to withdraw from all the republic's territory except Maastricht. No decisive battles, however, were fought, and the peace treaties of Nijmegen (1678-79) were advantageous both for the Dutch and for France. The Franco-Dutch treaty was signed on Aug. 10, 1678. From 1678 to 1685 William found support for his anti-French policy neither in the republic nor among the other powers. But after 1685 resistance to Louis XIV's aggressive designs grew again, and in 1688, with the backing of the states-general, William (

269

on the expedition that won him the English crown in 1689 (see William III). Thenceforward he became the leader of the coalition against French imperialism (see Grand Alliance, War OF THE). His policy, though it was essential for the safety of the republic, in the long run exhausted the republic's reserves and forced it to concentrate so exclusively on the war on land that it neglected its fleet and let England's sea power eclipse its own. WilKam's domestic policy was moreover designed only to secure for himself the power and the money that his expensive foreign policy required. To this end he often resorted to unscrupulous set off

practices,

including corruption.

The

internal

situation

of

the

Netherlands deteriorated, and the republic, while still performing tasks of great international importance, was on the decline.

—

Second Stadholderless Period. William III died childon March 19 (N.S.; 8, O.S.), 1702. His nephew, John William

less

and Groningen, was a minor, and Thus once again the majority of the provinces remained stadholderless. Power reverted to the urban oligarchies and their representative, Friso, stadholder of Friesland

the five other provinces were not prepared to appoint him.

the grand pensionary of Holland, Antonius Heinsius (q.v.).

Heincontinued the foreign policy of WiUiam III. During the War of the Spanish Succession (q.v.), the republic acted for the last time as one of the great powers, bore the brunt of the fighting and maintained a large army; but Heinsius was unable to compete with Great Britain's diplomatic superiority and resigned himself to signing the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. This treaty, it was thought in Holland, gave England the fruits of the victory won by the Dutch. The only concrete gain was the right to maintain a military barrier (see Barrier Treaty) against France in the southern Netherlands which moreover were to be transferred from Spanish to Austrian sovereignty. But as French policies changed and the Dutch generally neglected their defenses, the barrier never served a useful purpose. From 1713 Heinsius sought to avoid international commitments. The states-general subscribed to the conservative triple alliance with Great Britain and France in 1717 but kept out of the ensuing After Heinsius' death (1720) one of his diplomatic conflicts. successors, Simon van Slingelandt, grand pensionary from 1727 to 1736, took action when the East India company, which had been established by the Austrians at Ostend in 1722 (see Ostend Comsius

—

pany), threatened Dutch economic supremacy in the southern Netherlands as well as in India: in collaboration with Great Britain and France he secured its dissolution in 1731. During the

War

of the Austrian Succession (q.v.) the republic, despite its alhance with Great Britain and Austria, tried to stay out of the fighting as long as possible, even after the French had taken many of the Dutch barrier towns (1744), won the battle of Fontenoy, captured the rest of the barrier (1745) and conquered nearly all of the Austrian Netherlands 1746). In April 1747, however, the French invaded Dutch Flanders; they had no intention of conquering the republic, but merely wanted to force it to make peace Reminiscences of 1672 then brought about a complete officially. change. (

The

internal situation

had gradually been deteriorating: the

treasury of the union was exhausted; taxes in the provinces, especially in Holland, were extraordinarily high but were farmed out

and did not yield enough; and the navy and army were neglected. A grand assembly, convened in 1716, had broken up in 1717 without having been able to improve the constitution, and the rule of the patrician families had degenerated to a narrow oUgarchy which shamelessly abused its position to increase its wealth. From about 1730, moreover, the Dutch economy had begun to stagnate: the tendency to specialize in financial transactions rather than in the carr>ing trade, growing competition from British and French industries and the decline of the Amsterdam staple market together led to increasing unemployment on the one hand and to the increasing wealth of a few capitahsts on the other. The repubhc was still a rich country, but its wealth was less equally divided than in the 17th century. In economic power, no longer supreme in Europe, it was to cede the first place to Great Britain and the second to France before the end of the 18th century. Politically it was already virtually powerless when the French invasion of

NETHERLANDS

270

ative

other provinces and made captain- and admiral-general of the union. His power was greater than that of any of his predecessors but he was completely incapable of using it. He was unsuccessful as a general, did nothing to improve the Dutch defenses and was quite unequal to the task of improving the constitution and the financial system and of bringing about the reforms needed in

to

—

order to grant some influence in local and pro\-incial government By making it clear that only to larger groups of the population. substantial British military and financial support could prevent the republic from falling into French hands. William IV obliged the British, who had wanted to continue the war, to sign the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. William V of Orange and

—

the Patriots. On his death in succeeded as stadholder by his three-year-old son Wilham V. During the latter's minority his mother (until her death in 1759) and then the provincial estates acted as regents. They maintained Dutch neutrality during the Seven Years' War In 1766 Wila policy which was highly profitable commercially. liam V was declared of age. The last of the stadholders. he was the least able of them. His excessive conservatism made him use his great power exclusively to perpetuate the existing constitutional

nSl William IV was

paralysis and to protect the oligarchy against increasing resistance,

but his identification with the interests of the ruling classes did not make him acceptable even to them. He was unable to strengthen the army and navy, though he did his best to carry- out some reforms in this field. The few reasonable decisions that he took

were inspired by

his intelligent

and

spirited wife,

whom

England was becoming distasteful to large sections of the popuwhich thought British expansion overseas just as intolerable as Louis XIV's megalomania and rejoiced at seeing it beaten by the American Revolution. For the first time in Dutch history nationalistic feelings, caused by frustration and despair about the

lation

decline of the republic, gave rise to a

new

which, In

—

The Hague to the great James Harris (afterward 1st

party.

This w-as the Patriot party. As yet it was not properly constituted, but the men who later became its leaders helped the oligarchs to undermine William V's authority. They were jubilant when in 1780 Great Britain, refusing any longer to tolerate the highly profitable carr\ing trade of the Dutch merchants with America and France, declared war on the republic. But the British blockaded the Dutch coast and captured Dutch colonies, and the Dutch economy received blows from which it never recovered. During the negotiations preceding the peace of Paris (the Anglo-Dutch treaty was signed in May 1784) France hardly supported the states-general, who had to cede Nagapatinam in southern India to the British and to grant them the right of navigating through the Moluccas. Denounced by the Patriot movement for his political mistakes, for his lack of energy and for his inability or perhaps unwillingness to beat Great Britain, William V left The Hague in anger in 1785. Thenceforward democratic movements sprang up everywhere, but mainly in Utrecht and in Holland, and the power of the oligarchies was broken in several towns. It is remarkable that the Patriots, although partly democrats and all of them supporters of the French alliance, were influenced by English rather than by French political theories. What really inspired them, however, was not abstract ideology but the desire to reform the system of government in a supposedly conserv-

relief of the British

earl of

ambassador, Sir

Malmesbury),

Thousands of

Patriots found refuge in France,

End

—

Old Republic. The restored Orangist regime and was effectively opposed by the great banking houses, which refused loans. It was unable to strengthen the army and could hardly put up any resistance when in Jan. 795 the French revolutionaries, who had declared war on the stadholder in 1793. invaded the republic. It was thus the army of Gen. Charles Pichegru that brought the revolution for which the Patriots had been hoping since 1787. (See French Revolutionary Wars.) In May 1 795 Franco-Dutch relations were defined in a treaty according to w-hich the Dutch were to pay 100,000,000 guilders, to cede some territory and to allow the French to occupy some important fortresses. A treaty of alliance w-as concluded at the same time, bringing the Dutch into war against Great Britain. In the following years the British conquered all the Dutch colonies, and the war dealt another serious blow to the shattered economy. Nevertheless, plans for thorough reforms were made in an atmosphere of great rejoicing and hope. A national assembly was elected (1796) and charged to draft a new constitution, but was frustrated by the paralyzing conflicts between the radical "unitarians" and the moderate "federalists." A series of coups d'etat supported by France led to the institution of a new form of government (April

was

of the

rootless

1

1798).

D. Batavian Republic and the Napoleonic Regimes

Wilhelmina of

he distrusted because of her will power. William's incompetence and the Anglophile policy that he pursued brought about a fundamental change in the structure of the Dutch political parties. Traditionally the prince of Orange found support among all classes except the patrician oligarchy and w'as regarded by the lower middle classes and the workmen as a counBut as the revolution of 1747 terpoise to the urban aristocracy. had not brought about any reform, the bourgeoisie gradually lost ability confidence in the stadholder's to introduce a more demoMoreover the close connection with cratic system of government. Prussia,

way through

the restoration of those democratic practices it was thought, the stadholders and the regents had nullified. 1787 the development of the Patriot party was suddenly stopped. The king of Prussia, Frederick William II, on the pretext of an insult offered to his sister Princess Wilhelmina, sent an army which met no resistance and brought the stadholder back

747 aroused for a moment the old passions. William IV of Orange. John William Friso's posthumous son William I\' of Orange, stadholder of Fricsland from 1711. of Groningen from 171S and of Gclderland from 1722 and the husband of George II of England's eldest daughter Anne from 1734. was in April-May 1747 elevated to the stadholdership of all the 1

The new regime

of 1798, officially called the Batavian Republic,

was modeled on that of the Directory in France. It was regarded with indifference by a population now gravely suffering from the economic slump in many towns one-third or even one-half of the inhabitants depended on charity. Then, in Oct. 1801, at the behest of Napoleon Bonaparte, then first consul of the French Republic, a more conservative government was set up, in which some OrangThis prepared the way for the ists were allowed to take part. reconciliation of the old political parties, oUgarchs and Orangists. In March 1805 the system of government was changed once more: the Batavian RepubUc was renamed Bata\ian Commonwealth, and executive power was given to a kind of dictator called the council pensionary, Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck, who was appointed to that function, was an extremely able man and carried out many overdue and lasting reforms. Very soon, however, in June 1806, the Batavian Commonwealth had to make place for the Kingdom of Holland under Napoleon's brother Louis (see Bonaparte), This monarchy lasted until July 1810, when Holland was incorporated into Napoleon's French empire and divided into departements : Bouches-du-Rhin, Deux-Nethes (these two including :

some

Belgian

territory),

Bouches-de-l'Escaut,

Bouches-de-la-

Meuse, Zuiderzee, Yssel-Superieur, Bouches-de-l'Yssel, Frise and Ems-Occidental, When news of Napoleon's defeat in the battle of Leipzig reached Holland at the end of Oct. 1813 a national revolt broke out, which immediately called for the return from exile He was of the prince of Orange, William V's son William VI. to return, however, not as stadholder but as sovereign prince.

(E, H, K.)

E.

William

I.

—

Kingdom of the Netherlands

It

was only after some hesitation that the prince

of Orange, in Dec. 1813, accepted the

title

of sovereign prince

of the Netherlands, for he disliked the popular origin of his new sovereignty. He was inaugurated (without any coronation) in 30, 1814, by an assembly of notables who on the day before had approved the first written constitution of the fundamental law retained many institutions of the This state.

Amsterdam on March

French period and established a constitutional monarchy and a centralized state with a single legislature, uniformity in adminis-

NETHERLANDS and the fiscal system and legal equality for The one-chamber parliament kept the old all recognized creeds. name of states-general and was elected by indirect vote, repreIt had very senting only the upper and upper-middle classes. limited rights, and the sovereign, whose progressive economic policy could not win a majority in it, was in fact to bypass it as much as possible and to govern mainly by orders in council, as the ministers were responsible to him only. In July 1814 William undertook the provisional government of the southern Belgic provinces of the Netherlands, which the Austrians had lost to the French Revolutionary armies in 1794 and which the European powers were intending to transfer, together with the former bishopric of Liege, to the sovereign principahty. The congress of Vienna, however, had not yet ratified the transfer when William, on March 16, 1815, at the news of Napoleon's return to France from Elba, proclaimed himself king of the Nethertration, justice, finance

lands.

The congress soon confirmed

the creation of the

new

king-

dom, with its increased territory; and in Aug. 1815 a new fundamental law came into force. The principles of the new law remained as firmly monarchical as those of 1814, but the states-general then consisted of two chambers and the seat of the government was to alternate yearly between The Hague and Brussels, Moreover, in exchange for his hereditary territories in Germany, William received Luxembourg as a grand duchy. Though the kingdom and the grand duchy were in personal union only, Wilham proceeded to treat Luxembourg (a member of the German con-

Dutch province.

federation) as a

The kingdom difficult

of the united Netherlands was launched in very

circumstances.

an economic

crisis,

While Europe

there was a

in general

was undergoing

clash of interests

within

the

kingdom between the predominantly commercial north and the Also the clergy and the ruling class

highly industrialized south.

of the ancien regime resented the

new

state's

system of rehgious

and pohtical equality. Nevertheless the king, dedicating himself to the task of government, tried to give a sound basis to the union through a pohcy of economic welfare. These very endeavours vexed the north, which clung to the archaic system of free stapletrade and found its spokesman in G. K. van Hogendorp, to whose activities at the end of the French period the king owed his throne. Through new institutions such as the General company (1822) and the Netherlands Trading company 1824) the king promoted industry and commerce, including colonial trade. Later Dutch historians (P. Geyl, C. Gerretson and L. Verberne) have stressed this positive side of William's reign as a real con(

tribution to the viability of the

new

state: they point to his care

which north and south ahke were interested on a large scale, and to the important economic recovery made by the whole country. They also stress the fact that the kingdom's manifest difficulties cannot all be attributed to the generally overstressed opposition between the so-called Calvinistic northern and Cathohc southern parts of the country there were numerous Roman Catholics in the north as well as in the south; and the language decrees of 1819 and 1822, favouring Dutch as opposed to French as the official language, were in force only in the Flemish regions, where they served to strengthen national feelings among for agriculture, in

:

the lower classes.

These so-called "Great Netherlands" historians regard the Belgian revolution of 1830 as the second rupture (after the split between north and south in the 16th century)

in what ought to be to the "Belgicist" and whose opinion the kingdom of the united Netherlands had no chance of survival and the emergence of the Belgian nation was inevitable. The kingdom set up by the congress of Vienna was a somewhat artificial creation, but its disastrous end was brought about mainly by misconceptions and by the narrow self-interest of the various groups, both in the north and in the south, combined with the effect of tactless and presumptuous measures taken by the king. It was William I's great misfortune that two parties of the south which had originally opposed one another joined hands in 1828 in a common resistance to his meddlesome and autocratic government: the Roman Catholics, shifting under the influence of

a whole.

They

offer a useful corrective

"Little Netherlands" historians in

271

the French abbi

Hugues

Felicite

Robert de Lamennais toward a

and the Liberals, eager to achieve and similar reforms. At first the BelBelgium: History) did not aim at an independent Belgian state and might have been satisfied with a redress of grievances, but hesitations and tactless measures by the king and his government, together with revolutionary influences from France, brought about the rapid disintegration of the Netherlands union. The Flemish provinces followed the rebellion of Brussels reluctantly and only after the government had suffered reverses, while Dutch public opinion on the whole welcomed the breakup of the union. Yet even after the great powers had recognized Belgian independence (1831-32) and had forced the Dutch to renounce hostilities (Convention of London, May 1833), the sort of Liberal Catholicism,

ministerial responsibihty

gian rebels of 1830 {see

king persisted in refusing to accept the conditions of the separation till 1838. Meanwhile the Belgians remained in occupation of Luxembourg and Limburg (except Maastricht) and the Dutch had to maintain large forces in case war should break out again. This strained the Dutch finances more and more, but the king's secret "amortization syndicate" enabled him to withhold the adminisAlso the tration of public money from parliamentary control. so-called "plantation" or "cultures" system, which guaranteed to the government large quantities of East Indian agricultural produce obtained by forced labour, prevented an immediate public bankruptcy. On the whole the financial policy of this "merchantking" must be considered the dark side of his courageous and farseeing economic projects. Under the settlement of 1839 between the Netherlands and Belgium (treaty of London) part of Limburg was restored to the Dutch, while the Belgians retained part of

Luxembourg.

The Belgian revolution and its repercussions brought a resurgence of national sentiment to the Dutch people the diminished Netherlands kingdom began to awake from its religious, cultural and political apathy. In 1834 a group of orthodox Calvinists, the Separatists, seceded from the Dutch Reformed Church, whose "liberal" and "enHghtened" spirit corresponded to WilHam's Erastian ideas of enlightened absolutism. The foundation of the monthly De Gids by E. J. Potgieter and R. C. Bakhuizen van den Brink in 1837 signified a literary revival of a rationalistic and liberal character, whereas the religious and literary movement known as the "Reveil," with G. Groen van Prinsterer as one of its leaders, represented the romantic conservatism of the Restoration. The nation was definitely turning away from the ideas which King William I personified, and in 1840, as a result of increasing opposi:

by the Liberals, the constitution was revised. Though this was by no means radical and greatly disappointed the Liberals, to the king it meant the end of his reign. He abdicated voluntarily a few weeks afterward (Oct. 7, 1840), in favour of his tion

revision

son.

—

William II. During William II's reign (1840-49) the liberal trend gathered strength while the new king, at first mildly progressive, gravitated more and more toward conservatism. His minister F. A. van Hall succeeded in stabilizing the pubUc finances. The king, whose Belgian experiences had contributed to his good relations with Roman CathoUcs, won the good will of that community by revoking soipe restrictive decrees that his father had passed; and the Calvinist Separatists were also treated more leniently. The Liberals grew more and more discontented, but the largely conservative second chamber rejected without discussion a motion sponsored by J. R. Thorbecke (g.v.) and eight other

Liberal

members

for

Meanwhile, signs of a

the revision of the constitution

(1844).

Netherlands were discernible during the "hungry forties," when more than one-third of the population had to receive outside relief. These signs were exploited by former friends of the capricious king in their criticism of him, which moreover was made easier by his own personal behaviour. Finally, under the influence of revolutionary events in France and Germany, the king in March 1848 made a characteristic volte-face: bypassing his cabinet and the majority in parliament, he convened a commission of convinced Liberals, who, unIt was der Thorbecke's direction, drew up a new constitution. accepted that very year by parliament. social disturbance in the

NETHERLANDS

272

The constitution of 1848 established the inviolability of the sovereign; ministerial responsibility; direct elections to the second chamber, to the pro\-incial estates and to municipal councils; an extension of the power of parliament and new or enlarged rights of free assembly and public meeting, education and religion. William II, who was said to have turned from a conservative into a ;

Liberal within 24 hours, died a year later, on

was succeeded by

William

March

17, 1849,

and

his eldest son.

—

William III. though he did not sympathize wth the new constitution, bowed unwillingly to the changed circumstances. After some hesitation he appointed Thorbecke, whom he came near to hating, as his principal minister. Thorbecke consolidated the constitution: he drafted important organic laws regulating the electoral system and the provincial and municipal administrations. In April 1S53, however, when a Protestant deputation presented a petition against Pope Pius IX's restoration of the Roman Catholic hierarchy in the Netherlands, the king, against Thorbecke's ad\ice, addressed it in terms derogatory to Catholics. The second chamber approved Thorbecke's attitude, but Thorbecke nevertheless resigned. The episode exemplified the personal authority of the king, who in fact, after Thorbecke's second ministry (1862-66), was to rule through his cabinet without or against parliamentary majorities till 1868. Thereafter no Dutch ministry ignored parliamentary disapproval, though the king's influence could still be considerable whenever there was no working maIII.

jority in parliament.

—

and Parties. In the time of Thorbecke, who and last cabinet in 1871, there were no political parties in the proper sense but only "clubs" in the second chamber, backed at best by embryonic electoral organizations in the country. The political movements vaguely represented in these clubs were (1) the Liberals led by the typical "lone-wolf" Thorbecke, who was adverse to political parties; (2) the Conservative Liberals, who did not constitute a club as such and whose most prominent spokesman. F. A. van Hall, headed the cabinet twice (1853-57 and 1860-61) between Thorbecke's first and second ministry; (3) the Conservatives proper, who opposed the constitution of 1848 and represented a diminishing reactionary minority but enjoyed the king's sympathy; and (4) the increasing group of "Antirevolutionaries," who under Groen van Prinsterer's leadership were developing from a position close to the Conservatives into a constructive and efficient political body with orthodox Protestant principles and were recruiting most of their followers from among "the people behind the electorate," namely, the classes not yet enfranchised. The Roman Catholics (about one-third of the population) long failed to constitute a club of their own and adhered Political Clubs

formed

his third

partly to the Conservative Liberals, partly to the Liberals.

About 1870 the Conservative Liberals merged with the dwindling Conservatives, but this combination, in which Jan Heemskerk played a leading part in the 1870s and '80s, did not establish an efand eventually disappeared. The first party proper was the Antirevolutionary party, founded in 1878 by Abraham Kuyper (g.v.). Though after Thorbecke's death (1872) the "Young Liberals," including Samuel van Houten, J. Kappeyne van de Coppello and Hendrik Goeman Borgesius, won fective political organization

political

government circles, the Liberals as a whole were too divided to achieve an efficient organization: the "Liberal union" of 1885 united only a minority of them. The Roman Cath-

influence in

much

who by

time had formed their own parliamentary club, could not yet be induced to form a political party: the attempts of olics,

this

—

Herman Schaepman

in this direction were unsuccessful not because of dissension on such problems as the extension of the franchise and collaboration with the Calvinists. At the end of William Ill's reign the Socialists had one seat in the second chamber and their political organization was only in a provisional stage. The Education Question and the Coalition Ministry of 1888-91. least

—^The question of education gradually became in

Dutch

politics.

The

a

dominant factor

constitution of 1848 had given freedom of

teaching but made the government responsible for public elementary instruction; and the Education act of 1857 had laid down that the public elementary school was to educate the child in "all Christian

and

social virtues."

It

was hoped that

this provision

would

meet the objections of the orthodox

to the nondcnominational, or, It did nothing of the sort, however, and, when in 1878 the Liberals under Kappeyne van de Coppello revised the act of 1857 without making any concessions to religious scruples, the agitation gathered strength. The Roman Catholics, who had benefited from the constitution of 1848 and had long supported a more or less liberal policy, began to desert the Liberals. Both orthodox Calvinists and Catholics maintained that it was unfair to make people pay for the upkeep of nondenominational state schools when conscience required them to send their children to private denominational ones instead; but their demand that the state should give financial support to private denominational schools as well as to the nondenominational ones was strenuously resisted by the Liberals, who regarded denominational schools as seedbeds of national disruption and invoked the

as they said, "godless" state schools.

—

constitution against the demand.

In 1887 the constitution was changed to permit an extension of This more than doubled the electorate, raising it to

the franchise.

—

about 300,000, with the result that the Liberals divided as they were among themselves had to give way to the representatives of the lower classes. The first coalition ministry between the Antirevolutionaries and the Roman Catholics 1888-91 ), of which the Calvinist Aeneas Baron Mackay was the head and the Catholic Schaepman the mainspring, was an entirely unprecedented combination which indeed owed its existence chiefly to reaction against the education policy of the Liberals. After an attempt to introduce the possibility of state support for private denominational schools into the reWsion (1887) of the constitution had been defeated by the first chamber, the government took the view that such support need not be regarded as unconstitutional; and in 1889 a new Education act brought the first modest subsidies for denominational

—

(

The dominance of the Liberals was already diminishing when William III died on Nov. 2Z, 1890. Economic and Social Development 1849-90. Not only in po-

schools.

—

,

was William

heyday of liberalism— despite the king's own preferences. Following the Enghsh example, Thorbecke during his first ministry had introduced navigation acts to facilitate international commerce; and in 1862 free trade was initiated. In the 1860s likewise a number of excise duties were abolished. On the other hand it was the state which built the railways to be exploited by private concerns 1860). Thorbecke's second ministry sponsored the construction of the North Sea canal linking Amsterdam to IJmuiden (completed 1876) and of the Nieuwe Waterweg (New waterway) from Rotterdam to Hook of Holland (completed 1871). Thorbecke was also the founder of the polytechnic school at Delft and of the burgher high school, a new htical matters

Ill's reign the

{

type of secondary school for the middle classes. The "cultures" system, surviving in the colonies from William I's time, was attacked both because of the hardship that it inflicted on the indigenous population and because it contradicted liberal economic theory: free labour was advocated in the interests of the

Javanese workers and the Dutch capitaUsts alike. On this point, however, Thorbecke did not agree with his more radical minister for the colonies, I. D. Fransen van de Putte; and it was not until 1870 that the system was abohshed for all crops except coffee, government plantations of which were maintained for some more decades.

At the same time the methods of modern capitalism were apTwente and North Brabant and to The pulse of industrial life was quickening in the '70s and '80s, but the lack of sufficient capital still retarded

plied to the textile industry in

the steel industry.

the progress of the "industrial revolution."

The first Social legislation was likewise late in development. law against child labour was passed in 1874 and was not very effective, but in 1889 the coalition ministry put greater restrictions on From the late 1860s the employment of women and children. trade unions were springing up, but the general Netherlands Workmen's association of 1871 was inspired by hberal ideas and paThe orthodox Calvinist labourers tronized by the employers. seceded from the association and formed a trade union of their own, Patrimonium, in 1876. The Socialists' first national labour organization was the Social

NETHERLANDS Democratic union (ISSH, a body also politically active under the leadership of the ex-pastor Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis, a spectacular fighter who was put in prison for some months for Idse-majeste (he was prosecuted for publishing an article disrespectful of the king). The Roman Catholics began to form unions about 1889, inspired by the priest Alphons Ariens. (H. A. Bo.) Accession of Queen Wilhelmina. With William III the

—

male line of the house of Orange-Nassau became extinct, so that on his death the kingdom of the Netherlands passed to his daughter Wilhelmina (g.v.). The personal union between the Netherlands and Luxembourg, however, was then ended, as the grand duchy reverted to the ducal house of Nassau-Weilburg. The new queen was only ten years old in 1890. Consequently her mother, Emma of Waldeck-Pyrmont, whom William III had married as his second wife in 1879, acted as regent till Wilhelmina came of age on Aug. 31, 1898. Wilhelmina was married in 1901 to Henry, duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and a daughter, JuHana, was born in 1909. Thus the house of Orange, surviving only in a female line and confronted with republican sentiments in the parthe left, came gradually to consolidate itself as the constitupower envisaged by the Liberals of 1848 i.e., as a monarchy that would exert its authority mainly in times of cabinet crisis. Internal Affairs, 1890-1913. In the opening period of Wilhelmina 's reign cabinets remained regularly in office for the four years between elections to the second chamber. The only break in this regularity occurred between the elections of 1905 and those of 1909, when Theodoor de Meester's government had to be replaced by a coaUtion after less than three years of office. This ties of

tional

;

—

governmental regularity, however, did not mean that political life developed on regular lines. The Dutch economy was slowly reviving. From the 1870s Amsterdam and Rotterdam had both had direct access to the North sea, and their trade was benefiting from a twofold stream of products: (1) from the Netherlands East Indies, freely exploited by international capital; and 2 from the big new German industries of the Ruhr. By the later lS90s, moreover, agriculture, which had undergone a great crisis in 1885, was prospering because of modern methods of production and distribution, in which the farmers' cooperatives played a conspicuous part (mostly concentrating on At the same time larger firms grew up in the dairy produce). textile and shipbuilding industries, attracting many more people to the towns and greatly increasing the number of unskilled workSome industries even emerged from the beginning in the form ers. of large producing and exporting units, spanning the whole world and sometimes working in combination with British firms; e.g., margarine Van den Bergh petroleum Royal Dutch and electric apparatus (Philips). These developments promoted the growth of organized labour on the one hand and the large-scale integration of finance, trade and industry on the other. A simultaneous revival can likewise be traced both in the arts (hterature, painting and architecture) and in the hfe of the most important rehgious groups. In the latter case this revival had a bearing on politics. The Roman Catholic population, which constituted a large minority in the western cities and an overwhelming majority in the southern areas, had begun to take pohtical action as a distinct force on its own account in the 1880s, under the powerful spell of Schaepman. Despite strong opposition from other politicians on the Roman Catholic side, Schaepman sought (

(

)

)

,

(

)

273

he had seceded from the Dutch Reformed Church, which he accused of yielding to heterodox opinions of a few; and finally, in 1897 he had forced the right wing of his own Antirevolutionary party to split off from the majority. This right wing formed a party of its own, the Christian Historical union, led by A. F. de Savornin Lohman. Meanwhile the nascent socialist movement was being penetrated by a number of atheist intellectuals, who gave it a revolutionary, republican and anticlerical slant, with a strong tendency to anarchThis individuahstic and anarchist trend effected the Social Democratic union under Nieuwenhuis and to counter it the parliamentarians and Marxists under Pieter Jelles Troelstra set up a new Social Democratic Labour party, which practically ousted the Social Democratic union after 1900 and founded its own trade

ism.

;

union organization in 1906. Both forms of socialism, however, had some aSinity with bourgeois liberalism in their intellectual attitude, which alienated both Kuyper's Calvinistic "small people" and the Roman Cathohcs.

The

first

coalition

government of

Roman

Catholics and Calvin-

1888-91 see above) had marked the end of an era in which Liberal or Conservative Liberal groupings had been supreme in Dutch public Hfe; though there were Liberal governments in the succeeding decade to 1901 (the "last ten Liberal years") the Liberals were too much divided among themselves to reverse the new course of affairs. Moreover the advent of the coalition had shown that the political system could no longer be built only upon the parliamentary groups the organization of the masses became important. With this development the question of universal suffrage came to the forefront. When the Liberal minister J. P. R. Tak van Poortvliet proposed in 1894 to extend the franchise to nearly general suffrage, he raised an issue that was to test the coherence of the various parties severely. The Liberals, indeed, were evenists

(

;

:

tually to be split into three sections:

the conservative section,

Tak; the radical section, for Tak; and finally the strong wing under M, W. F. Treub, who as an alderman in Amsterdam was working out a program of his own, municipalizing the telephone service and the water supply (previously run by against radical

After a limited extension of the franchise,

private companies).

had been enacted in 1896, the Christian parties and the majority of the Liberals were more raising the electorate to about 700,000,

or less satisfied; but Treub's adherents continued to stand for uniformed a party of their own, as Liberal

versal suffrage and, in 1901

,

Democrats. The Socialists also concentrated their activities on the campaign for universal suffrage, organizing huge demonstrations in 1912 and 1913. This enhanced their popularity, so that their representation in parhament rose from 2 seats in 1897 to 16 in 1913 (out of 100). The Roman Cathohcs, who had had 25 seats in 1888 but only 17 in 1905, had 25 again in 1913; but Kuyper's Antirevolutionaries fell from 25 seats (1888) to 11 (1913), while the Christian Historicals rose from 6 (1897) to 10. The Liberal representation slowly declined from 46 in 1888 to 38 in 1913 (only in 1905 increased to 55).

N. G. Pierson's cabinet of 1897-1901 was important for the soinaugurated. This extension of governmenthe tal activity was to remain characteristic of the next decades Christian parties supported it against the Conservative Liberals, cial legislation that it

:

while the Social Democrats for the most part stood critically aloof. When the government in 1898 proposed that the state should run an insurance scheme against industrial accidents, the

not only to collaborate with the Calvinists in the struggle for private schools but also to promote the formation of Roman Catholic trade unions in accordance with Pope Leo XIII's encyclical Rerum

implicit threat of centralization caused employers to react by building up organizations of their own, and the government, faiUng to win a majority in parliament, had to change the bill in a decen-

Novarum

trahzing direction.

(

1891

).

These Catholic unions organized themselves on

The new employers'

unions, however, having

a nationwide scale in 1909.

originally been designed to oppose the workers' unions, later

Trade unionism played its role also in the Calvinistic north, where Abraham Kuyper likewise worked for democratic reforms. Yet, though Kuyper took the chair at the first Christian-Social congress in 1891 in order to arrange terms between his party and the Protestant workers, no really effective Calvinist trade union came into being until 1909. Kuyper, however, combined a progressive social policy with insistence on Calvinist orthodoxy, and the result was a double schism in the Calvinist ranks: already in 1886

to collaborate with them.

came

In social affairs, furthermore, a tradition grew up of endowing private institutions with some governmental executive tasks. This practice apf)ealed to progressive Roman Catholics and Calvinists and was accepted by SociaUsts insofar as did not undermine the role of the government as the final instance but the conservative elements in the religious groups united with the Liberals in opposing it as prejudicial ahke to personal

it

;

liberty

and to the constitution.

NETHERLANDS

274 The

period of Kuyper's ministry of Calvinists and Catholics (1901-OS) was especially eventful. At home the ministry had to face the great strike movement of 1903. This started when the railwaymen, in sympathy with a strike in Amsterdam harbour, refused to handle goods from ships there: their action spread fast throughout the country and developed into pressure on the railway boards to improve labour conditions. The Ku>per government then intervened, making a political issue out of the social unrest with a bill to ban strikes of goverrmient employees as well as of railwaymen. In the face of strong Socialist opposition this bill was passed, and a new strike, intended to be a general one, broke down. KuNqper was also instrumental in settling at university level the old struggle for denominational schools: "private" universities received official recognition. The attempt of the Socialists and Liberals to take reUgion out of Dutch politics had failed.

Hostile to Kuyper. the Socialists backed the Liberals in the elecThere followed an extraparliamentary cabinet with a Liberal tendency under Theodoor de Meester, but this cabinet resigned in Dec. 1907. Then in Feb. 1908 the Christian coalition tions of 1905.

was brought back

to office

instead of Ku>'per at

its

— with Theodoor Heemskerk. however,

head.

Winning 60

seats at the elections

of 1909. the coalition resumed the task of social legislation and in 1910 proposed a system of social insurance chiefly for benefit of sick and aged workers. Discussions on this took up most of parliament's time

till

1913.

—

of Neutrality and World War I. From 1899 became of increasing importance. A first international peace conference, convened at The Hague in 1899 by Queen Wilhelmina and the Russian emperor Nicholas II, had little effect

The Policy

foreign policy

Great Britain and the United States). There was a remarkable German project for a North Sea pact in 1908 to secure for Germany the benevolent neutrality of Netherlands in the event of war; but the Dutch government assented to it only after France had done so too. thus making the pact ineffectual. When World War I broke out in 1914 the policy of neutrality was put to the test. The army was mobilized for four years and the frontiers were closed (even so. temporary homes had to be found for thousands of Belgian refugees from Antwerp and its vicinity).

Commercial

activity

was severely

restricted: the Brit-

extended the list of contraband goods by an order in council of Aug. 20. 1914, and exercised their right of search on Dutch ships; Germany declared all British waters a war area (Feb. 4, 1915), thus exposing neutral ships to the threat of torpedoing; and the Allies retaliated with a blockade of Germany which formally limited Dutch imports to the quantities estimated necessary Germany's declaration of unrestricced for home consumption. U-boat warfare in 1917 made matters even worse. When the Allies tried to charter all Dutch vessels not needed for Dutch importation, the Netherlands objected, since necessary imports for the Netherlands and for Germany alike were often carried in the same ships; then all Dutch ships in the harbours of the Allies were ish

requisitioned

On

by

right of angary.

it seemed likely that one or another of would violate Dutch territory or demand such measures from the Dutch government as would provoke retaliation from the other side. In particular the question of the transit of sand and gravel from Germany across Dutch Limburg to Belgium nearly led to war: the Dutch allowed the transit of these materials

various occasions

the belligerents

for road repairs but objected to their being sent for the reinforce-

1918 the German general Erich Ludenmeasures to secure luirestricted use

but bore witness at least to the alarming predicament of a smaU country surrounded by great powers in rivalry. A reconsideration of the neutrahty that the Dutch had traditionally maintained since

ment

of fortresses;

dorff

wanted

Napoleon's time seemed to be necessary, and in 1905 the queen broached the possibility of foreign alHances in a note to the prime minister Kuv^jer. Apart from the embarrassment felt when the Russians had sought permission for their ships to bunker in the Netherlands East Indies during the Russo-Japanese War, it was clear that Dutch neutrality could be maintained only so long as none of the European powers attacked the Netherlands and at this very moment the German general staff was planning to send its armies through the southern part of the Netherlands if war should break out with France.

The extraparliamentary cabinet under the Liberal P. W. A. Cort van der Linden, in office from Aug. 1913. instituted general unemplo>Tnent insurance with governmental subsidies (Aug. 1914) and took several financial measures (loans, paper money, exchange regulations, prohibition of export of gold but neither these nor other emergency provisions, such as the Committee of National Aid, the rationing of food and fuel and a National Overseas Trading trust, were remedies against famine and epidemics prevalent during the later years of the war. The wartime truce on which the parties had agreed in 1914 was seriously strained by the growing contrast between the economic distress of the masses and the ostentatious spending of ill-gotten riches by a handful of speculators. This contrast strengthened the tendency toward greater democratization. A far-reaching revision of the constitution was achieved in 1917: on the one hand the schools controversy w-as finally solved by granting state subsidies to the private schools on the same basis as to the pubUc (mostly communal) schools; on the other, universal male suffrage was adopted, with proportional representation. The ensuing elections, held in July 1918). resulted in a clear majority for the old Calvinist-Catholic coalition, and two months later C. J. M. Ruys de Beerenbrouck formed the first cabinet in the kingdom's history to be headed by a Roman Catholic. The Netherlands Between the Wars, 1918-40. Though the example of the German revolution stirred the left wing of the Social Democrats under Troelstra, who seemed ready to assume power on Nov. 11, 1918, the majority of the Social Democratic party as well as of the Socialist trade unions refused to follow this revolutionarj' drift. Ruys de Beerenbrouck's government therefore, including as it did a new- ministry for labour affairs under the Catholic P. J. M. Aalberse, remained in power to pursue a social program of its own. While the masses were demonstrating for Queen Wilhelmina and against revolutionary socialism, the old Socialist demand of the eight-hour working day was conceded at first by private firms, before the revised labour law of 1921. A Council of Labour was set up. and the insurance laws on labour accidents and old-age pensions were renovated. Women's suffrage

;

The East Indian

colonies were believed to be the object of Gerexpansion, though as yet the island of Java was alone of major economic importance and parts of Sumatra were stiU only under precarious control; and the first signs of Indonesian nationalism were appearing. Consequently the new "ethical policy" for the colonies was introduced, with special emphasis on better

man

educational facilities for the Indonesians. The export trade of the Netherlands East Indies doubled itself between 1900 and 1914

and greatly enhanced Dutch prosperity. On the other hand the German transit trade on the Dutch rivers was also a considerable source of wealth for the Netherlands, and it was undoubtedly difficult for many Dutchmen to resist the fascination of Germany's prestige, while anti-British feelings had been stimulated by sympathy for the Boers in the South African War. Strategically and economically the country was extremely vulnerable, and the strengthening of its defenses was therefore imperative. This became, from 1911, the special concern of Hendrikus Colijn (g.v.). Already in 1898 universal military service had been introduced, and in 1901 the reorganization of the army had been started. The long coast line called for special attention: in 1911 a new fortress was built at Flushing. Further measures, however, could be carried out only to a limited extent in the face of objections from the Belgians, who feared the closing of the Scheldt, and from the British, who feared that such measures might eventually serve Germany's purposes. Though commercial interests remained of importance, foreign relations became more and more subject to purely pohtical considerations, as can be seen from the several pacts of arbitration concluded between 1904 and 1913 (Denmark. Portugal, France,

of the

and

in

to take military

Dutch railways

for

Germany.

)

;

(

—

—

was established in 1919. Three postwar problems

in the international field

had to be

NETHERLANDS settled: the claims to

Dutch Flanders and Limburg

raised

by the

Belgian annexationists; the victorious Allies' demand for the extradition of the German ex-emperor William II, who had fled to the Netherlands in Nov. 1918; and the Netherlands' entry into the League of Nations, which was then being organized by the Allies. steadfastly rejected the demand for extradition but gave assurances that William II would not use his refuge in the Netherlands as a base from which to attempt to recover Germany (March 1920). Relations with Belgium, however, remained difficult, even though the Paris peace conference had dismissed the Belgian claims to Dutch territory: the Belgians still resented the sovereignty of the Netherlands over the left bank of the Scheldt estuary in the west and over part of the Meuse valley in the east. A treaty drawn up in 1920, involving concessions by the Netherlands, was signed at last in 192S, and the second chamber approved it in 1926; but after vehement popular protests it was repudiated

The Dutch

by the first chamber in 1927. Membership in the League of Nations, which the government regarded as a safeguard for Dutch neutrality, was represented by some of the opposition parties in the 1920s as a reason for urging disarmament. This gave rise to a long dispute, which was complicated by the rise in the government's expenditure in nonmilitary directions. Apart from the cost of its social and educational commitments, the government had to face an economic crisis (192023) and to find money for mining, for the railways (organized in one national company in 1920) and for air transport (first flight to Indonesia, 1923

).

from 1922, became Ruys de Beerenbrouck's second

Colijn, leader of the Antirevolutionary party

finance minister in Aug. 1923 in

cabinet (formed in Sept. 1922). A speciaUst on Indonesian and military affairs as well as finance, Colijn proposed a series of

economy measures, mostly in the field tion, while at the same time he wanted for Indonesian waters.

He

of social welfare to build

and educa-

some more

cruisers

succeeded in restoring the gold basis

navy bill was rejected by the combined opposition of the Socialists, the leftist Liberals and some Catholics (Oct. 1923). The government then tried to resign but was finally kept in office because no alternative government could be found. After the elections of July 1925, however, a new ministry was of the gulden, but the

formed under Cohjn, but

it fell

in the following

November, when

the left joined with the Christian Historicals to vote against the maintenance of a Dutch legation at the Vatican. The left correctly

foresaw that this issue would terminate the Calvinist-

Cathohc

coalition.

governments from 1926 to 1939 were to depend on the Liberals no less than on the confessional parties, while the Socialists remained in opposition. The distribution of the 100 seats in the second chamber was fairly constant throughout the period: after the elections of 1929, which can be taken as typical, the Roman Catholics had 30 seats, the Social Democrats 24, the Antirevolutionaries 12, the Christian All subsequent

for their majorities

Historicals 11, the right-wing Liberals 8, the left-wing Liberals 7 and the Communists 2, with 6 others. General discontent

parliamentary stalemate, exacerbated by the world economic crisis, caused a pohtical reorientation in the 1930s. There was revolutionary murmuring against the government's economy measures, a mutiny broke out on a ship of the East Indian navy (Feb. 1933) and, in reaction, people began looking for a "strong man." Some thought to find him in Colijn, who, after D. J. de Geer's first ministry (1926-29) and Ruys de Beerenbrouck's third (1929-33), became prime minister for the second time in May 1933 and formed three more ministries in succession (July 1935May 1937, June 1937-June 1939 and July 25-27, 1939). His merit was that he combined democratic principles and staunch Calvinism with a Conservative Liberal approach to economics. Some extremist opinion, on the other hand, saw the "strong man" in Anton Mussert, leader of the National Socialist or Nazi movement, which for a short moment, in the provincial elections of 1935, enlisted 8% of the voters; and simultaneously the Communists gained in strength. The Social Democratic party, however, then turned away from its revolutionary, antinationahst tradition and adopted a program envisaging a welfare state having to choose beat this

:

275

tween revolution and democracy, which it had formerly regarded as virtually identical, it chose democracy. This decision was due

menace of fascism abroad, partly to the influence had been progressively recon-

partly to a reaction against the antidemocratic or national socialism at of the trade unions,

home and

whose

interests

ciled with those of the state

by

legislation for sickness insurance,

and for collective bargaindemocracy thus brought together a united All parties backed the anti-Fascist and anti-Communist front. for protection of agricultural workers

ing.

The defense

of

policy of sanctions against Italy at the time of the Italo-Ethiopian the clamour for disarmament was silenced when Germany

War;

began rearming; and the Dutch Nazi movement was discredited. Another symptom of the change was the entry of the Socialists into the cabinet for the first time, when D. J. de Geer formed his second coalition ministry in Aug. 1939. Colonial policy meanwhile was marked by a certain readiness A to meet the demands of the rising Indonesian nationalism. volksraad ("people's council"), set up in 1918 in accordance with an enactment of 1916, included Indonesian members, some of them elected by local councils. Proposals for enlarging Indonesian membership and for giving greater independence to the governor general were passed by parHament ( 1925 only with a conservative amendment. This watering-down of the original bill evoked protests both from the Islamic and Sociahst sections of the Indonesian nationalist movement and from the Socialists in the Netherlands, and a rebellion broke out in Java in Nov. 1926. Nationalist leaders such as Mohammed Hatta and Sukarno were arrested and )

interned for varying periods in the following years. A petition of the volksraad for a round-table conference at which the whole position of Indonesia could be discussed was rejected by the Dutch

government

in 1936.

—

World War II. The German invasion of the Netherlands began on May 10, 1940. The centre of Rotterdam was completely destroyed by aerial bombardment on May 14, and the Dutch armies had to capitulate after five days of fighting. The royal family and the government- went into exile in London. In the occupied Netherlands a German administration was set up, and Arthur Seyss-Inquart, as Reichskommissar, tried with increasing severity to bring the country into conformity with the Nazi patParliament and parties were dissolved, Dutch Nazis were tern. nominated to various posts and the process of integrating the Dutch economy with the German started with the compulsory delivery of huge quantities of foodstuffs and culminated in the deportation of thousands of men to labour in German factories. The "Labour Front" absorbed the trade unions one by one, and a to

Chamber

and the arts Of the Jewish population only about one-tenth

of Cultural Activities subjected literature

Nazi ideology.

survived.

The distribution movement in June

of illegal newspapers started the resistance 1940.

There followed

strikes,

such as those

against the deportation of Jews (Amsterdam, Feb. 1941) and against the retention of Dutch soldiers as prisoners of war (May

1943) and the railway strike during and after the battle of Arnhem (1944). The resistance movement was supported by the overof the people, though hundreds were put to death or imprisoned. Contact with the London government was maintained throughout the war. The worst experiences of the population came in the winter of 1944-45, when the Allied and German forces were fighting over the country. The island of

whelming majority

Walcheren was flooded when the Allies bombarded the dike at Westkapelle in the struggle for Antwerp, the Germans resorted to thoroughgoing terrorism and food and fuel were quite unobtainable to civilians except by scavenging or expensive barter. {See also appropriate subsections of

World War

II.)

De Geer was relieved of the prime ministership in London after an abortive attempt to mediate between Great Britain and Germany (Sept. 1940). His successor, Pieter Gerbrandy, in close contact with Queen Wilhelmina, continued the struggle. When the Japanese attacked Indonesia, the Netherlands East Indian navy under Adm. Karel Doorman perished in the battle of the Java sea (1942) and Indonesia, too, fell under enemy occupation. Until the Netherlands and Indonesia were liberated

by the

Allies,

NETHERLANDS

276

the government in exile exerted its authority through its control over the remainder of the na\'y and merchant marine and the

taker government of Catholics and Calvinists, under Beel, took Then, however, the Cathoffice till the elections of March 1959.

Caribbean colonies.

olic

The Postwar Situation and the Accession of Juliana. the defeat of the German armies (May 1945) Gerbrandy's ernment returned

10 the

Netherlands and offered

its

—On gov-

resignation

interim government under Willem Schermerhorn. formed in June 1945. included representatives of all parties except the Communists, who considered insufficient the one seat to the queen.

An

be rebuilt. The offered to them. Economic and social life had productive capacity of the country had been reduced by 60%, stocks of all kinds were almost exhausted and only 63% of the Deported workers and prisoners houses remained undamaged. to

had to be brought back and employment or unemployment subvention to be guaranteed; financial regulations were needed for internal and external commerce; salaries and prices were fixed. In the first postwar years the Netherlands was economically dependent on the United States, and it was aid under the Marshall plan (1947) that made possible the rebuilding of Dutch industry.

Meanwhile a special tribunal to deal with traitors, collaborators and war criminals was set up. Also, the Dutch claimed some frontier territory from Germany by way of indemnity and were able to annex some areas in April 1949. (In April 1960, however, the village? of Elten, Dinxperlo and Tuddern were retroceded to Germany, w'hile some minor concessions were made to the Netherlands in return.

Wartime

discussions about the future of political, social and

found expression in Schermerhorn's People's movement Volksbeweging) of 1945, which formulated a socialistic program based on respect for the individual and belief in the need for spiritual and moral rejuvenation. Within it people of various parties and groups co-operated, and it influenced the reconstruction of national life. Trade unions and employers agreed on the means to maintain social peace and productivity. Queen Wilhelmina. after being obliged by ill-health to relinquish her royal powers on two occasions (Oct.-Dec. 1947 and May-Aug. 1948; to her daughter Juliana as regent, finally abdicated on Sept. 4, 1948, whereupon Juliana became queen of the religious life I

Netherlands.

Internal Politics After World

War

II.

—The churches and

the political parties began gradually to renounce the idea that

party and denomination must automatically coincide. A new political group, the Party of Labour 1946), included former Social Democrats, left-wing Liberals, progressive Roman CathoHcs and Calvinists and stressed its nondenominational character; but its basis was narrower than that of the People's movement because the majority of the Catholic party kept away from it. The divid(

ing line between religious and nonreligious parties remained in being, but

The

was much more

fluid

than

it

had been.

results of four successive elections to the

second chamber

(May 1946. July 1948. June 1952 and June 1956) enabled Roman Cathohcs and the Socialists of the Party of Labour, gether, to command an effective majority in parliament. Thus

the to-

the

ministry of the Catholic Louis Beel (Aug. 1946-Aug. 1948) and the four ministries of the Socialist Willem Drees (Aug. 1948Jan. 1951, March 1951-June 1952, Sept. 1952-June 1956 and Oct. 19S6-Dec. 1958) consisted of coalitions in which these two parties shared most of the portfolios. A system of tripartite economic councils on which government, employers and employees were represented was set up. culminating in a Social Economic council as an advisory chamber and the development of the welfare state was promoted by a further extension of old-age pensions and unemplo>Tnent insurance, side by side with collective wage-fixing. This expansion of the state's control over economic life, however, provoked a re\'ival of Liberal feeling and was the real reason why the Liberals, having participated in the cabinets of 1948 and 19S1, left the coalition in 1952, though they made the Indonesian question their pretext for leaving. The growing demand for greater freedom in private enterprise moreover benefited the Liberal party in the elections, in which their strength rose from 6% of the votes in 1945 to 12% in 1959 (it fell however to 10% in 1963). When Drees resigned on a fiscal question in Dec. 1958 a carefirst

;

party inclined to the Liberal view on the matter of wages, with the result that the postwar Labour-Catholic coalition broke up. In May 1959 a new coalition ministry under the Cathohc Jan Eduard de Quay was formed, in which all the major parties except the Socialists took part the Antirevolutionaries and the Christian (

Historicals had respectively fact,

9.4% and 8.1% of

the vote).

In

the differences between government and opposition were

largely a matter of degree rather than of principle, except in the

case of the Communists, who for a short time after the hberation strongly influenced a section of the trade unions and were able

widespread At the elections of

to organize

strikes.

May

15, 1963, the Cathohcs slightly increased their strength, obtaining 50 seats out of a total of ISO, while the Socialists declined from 48 seats to 43. The Liberals also fell, from 19 seats to 16. The newly formed Farmers' party gained 3 seats. The Communist vote, which had declined between 1946 and 1959 from 10.5% to 2.4%, increased to 2.8% in 1963 (4 seats instead of 3 in 1959). A 69-day cabinet crisis was resolved

on July 23 when Victor G. M. Marijnen, a Catholic, formed a new coalition government comprising the Catholics, the Liberals, the Antirevolutionaries and the Christian Historicals. Marijnen's government survived the crisis of 1964, which arose from the unconstitutional engagement and marriage of the queen's daughter, Princess Irene, to Prince Hugo Carlos of Bourbon-Parma, a Carlist pretender to the Spanish throne.

External Affairs.

—The greatest problem

in foreign policy

was

presented by the independence movement in Indonesia. The Japanese surrender (1945) left a power vacuum in the Netherlands East Indies which was filled only slowly by the arrival of British and Dutch forces. Meanwhile Sukarno, Hatta and other Indonesian nationalists proclaimed a republic, which soon established The Dutch government at its authority over Java and Sumatra. first refused any contact with the republicans and, even after discussions had taken place with more moderate leaders such as Sutan Sjahrir (April 1946), continued to dispatch large forces to IndoHoping to create a United States of Indonesia that would nesia. be a partner in a Netherlands-Indonesian union, the Dutch sought to bring a number of states into being beside Sukarno's repubhc; and H. J. van Mook, as lieutenant governor general, proceeded to recognize 15 such additional states, as approved by a special commission under Schermerhorn. Yet neither the right in the Netherlands, led by Gerbrandy, nor the republican extremists in Indonesia were satisfied by the "Renville" agreement of Jan, 1948 (so named from the U.S. ship on which it was reached), and a second military action was launched in December. Though this was stopped at the behest of the United Nations Security council, guerrilla fighting went on. Finally the round-table conference that had been demanded in 1936 met at The Hague; and under the agreement of Nov. 1949 sovereignty was conceded to Indonesia. Yet no solution could be found for the symbolic function of the monarchy at the head of a loose union of the Netherlands with a federal Indonesia. In fact Sukarno's republic absorbed the partner states of the federation and, having thus enforced a centralized Indonesian state, declared the union with the Netherlands null and void (1954). All Dutch economic and educational activities in Indonesia were gradually brought to an end; some Dutchmen were brought to trial for subversive activities; and at last the former "colonialists" were virtually expelled. The Indonesian claim to Netherl; ids New Guinea (West Irian), as part of the East Indian inheritance, led to the breaking-off of diplomatic relations in Aug. 1960 and a Dutch-Indonesian agreement for the temporary administration of that territory by the United Nations (Oct. 1962 j. {See Indonesia, Republic of; New Guinea.) Meanwhile Queen Juliana had in Dec. 1954 signed the new Statute of the Realm, whereby the colonial status of Surinam and the Netherlands Antilles was abolished. These territories and the Netherlands proper were recognized by the statute as fully autonomous parts of a single kingdom. Apart from the Indonesian question, the foreign policy of the Netherlands after World War II clearlv showed that the idea of

NETHERLANDS had replaced that of neutrality. A member of the United Nations from 194S, the Netherlands in 1950 sent a contingent to the U.N. forces in the Korean War. The Netherlands also joined the North Atlantic Treaty organization, the Council of Europe, the European Defense Community and the Western European union. In the sphere of international economic cooperation, plans for the Benelux union (Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg) had already been put forward during the war association

(1944), but subsequently the divergent interests of agriculture to full integration. The same problem arose with regard to Germany from 1957, when the integration of the six countries of the European Economic Community in a "common market" came under discussion (the Netherlands having been a

proved an obstacle

member

of the

European Coal and

V.

Steel

Conmiunity from 1952 (F. DE J.)

).

POPULATION

The population of the Netherlands (1960 census) was 964. The average density was 821 per square mile. This

11,461,-

density,

in the world, was chiefly the result of an intense concentration within the two provinces of North and South Holland (1,832 and 2,194 per square mile). Between the years 1830 (the date of the separation of Belgium from the Netherlands) and 1962 the population of the Netherlands

one of the highest

rose by 9,000,000. The greater part of this increase took place during the 20th century, mainly through the birth rate exceeding the death rate. In the years after World War II there was a large increase in the birth rate and between 1945 and 1956 it averaged approximately 1% of the population yearly. A high proportion (37.4% in 1954, 38% in 1963) of the population is within the age group under 20. Following Indonesian independence about 200,000 Dutch nationals were repatriated to the Netherlands. As a result of this population increase and of accompanying postwar economic difficulties, emigration, which was only moderate before 1939, increased for a time after the war (62,737 in 1956). But above all the Netherlands was compelled to pursue an intensified industrialization.

The

start of industrialization in the

Netherlands was rather late, but during the 20th century there was an increasing drift into urban areas and in 1962 the 98 towns of more than 20,000 inhabitants contained about 60% of the population. Of the working population in 1960 numbering more than 4,000,000 (about 3,241,000 male and 920,000 female) 41% worked in industry, 11% in agriculture and fisheries and 48% in

—

—

other services. The highest concentrations of population are found in South Holland, southern North Holland and the greater part of Utrecht, an area which is less than one-fifth of the country, but which contains about 43% of the total population. Most of the largest

towns are to be found there, six of which have more than 100,000 The area is of a complex structure, comprising the strongly industrialized port districts of Rotterdam and Amsterdam. The towns of Utrecht, Haarlem, Leiden, Hilversum, Delft, Dordrecht and Amersfoort, the most eastern outpost of this area, are also much industrialized, as is the commune of Velsen at the mouth of the North Sea canal. The Hague, as the seat of government, ic an administrative as well as a residential and industrial centre. The environs of Haarlem (Kennemerland) and the Gooiland, and the sandy area of the glacial region of Utrecht comprise a densely populated residential region. Outside this main area, industry is spreading all over the region of the glacial ridges in the central part of the country. Although this region is predominantly one of mixed farming in addition to some traditional centres of industry (e.g., Deventer, Apeldoorn, Arnhem, etc.), new small centres of industry (often in old towns) have developed. The most industrialized and thus densely populated is the district of Twente, the centre of Dutch cotton milling, with Enschede (1963 est. 130,256), Almelo (53,812) and Hengelo inhabitants.

(64,009) as the largest towns. In the province of North Brabant and the adjacent sandy parts Limburg and Gelderland, the abundance of superfluous labour on many of the small holdings has fostered the growth of of north

light industries.

The

chief industrial

town in

this region is

Eind-

277

hoven, which has risen from a modest market centre of 6,448 (1912) to a town of (1963 est.) 174,612. Tilburg (141,580), Breda (113,193), Nijmegen (136,111), 's Hertogenbosch (75,091, the largest cattle market in the Netherlands) and Helmond (44,025) have taken part in this industrialization. Another area with a relatively high density of population is southern Limburg, where the fertile loess plateaus and the coal mines support a density up The agglomerations Heerlento 1,100 persons per square mile. Kerkrade (150,000^ and Sittard-Geleen (70,000) are the principal mining centres. A second densely populated area clusters around the industrial town of Maastricht (93,409). The most sparsely populated regions are Zeeland and the ad-

NETHERLANDS

278

exercised jointly by the sovereign and by the states-general. It consists of a lower house tweede kainer, or second chamber) of 150 members elected for four years by direct,

and commodity boards

compulsor\' universal suffrage (of persons 2i years of age and olden through a system of proportional representation: and of an

Kathotieke Volkspartij), which takes as its basis the principles of natural moral law and divine revelation; the Antirevolutionary party Anti-Revolutionaire Partij). which is Calvinist and accepts the Bible as the source of truth with regard to political as well as religious aims and is opposed to the principles

power

Legislative

is

(

upper house ieerste kamer, or first chamber of 75 members sitting for six years: every three years half of the latter resign. Members of the first chamber are elected by the provincial estates. Members of both chambers must have attained the age of 30. I

compulsory for all elections of the states-general and of the provincial estates and municipal councils. Bills are sent by the sovereign to the second chamber after con-

Voting

is

sultation with the council of state.

Public discussion

is

preceded

by committees or departments. The second chamber may pass or defeat bills and has also the right of amendment. The first chamber, although it may discuss bills passed by the second,

by

inquiries

can thereafter only accept or reject them. In the latter case, it returns them to the sovereign to be reconsidered. Bills passed by

both chambers become acts through the signature of the sovereign. right of the second chamber to initiate legislation is seldom used. Control of the state's finances is entrusted to the auditing

The

Rekenkamer) consisting of three life members. Under the constitution the kingdom of the Netherlands includes Surinam and the Netherlands Antilles

court {Algemene

,

Overseas Territories.

—

Legislation (q.v.). which have complete domestic independence. concerning the whole kingdom {e.g., on defense) is passed only after consultation with the overseas representatives. The former Indonesian possessions now constitute the independent Republic

of Indonesia.

—

Local Government. The Netherlands is divided into 11 provsee Table with identical legal structures. Each province is governed by a representative assembly known as the provincial states provinciate staten). composed of 35-82 members (depending on the number of inhabitants) and elected for four years with inces

)

(

i

pow'er to establish provincial regulations, which generally require

approval of the crown. a royal commissioner,

Its executive consists of six

members with

who

together constitute the council of deputed states igedeputeerde staten), which supervises municipal

administration and the water boards. Both provincial and deputed states are presided over by the royal commissioner, who is responsible for the implementation of their decisions and for the maintenance of public order in his province. The unit of local government is the municipality ( gemeente). gemeenteraad conIts principal organ is the municipal council (

)

.

members (according to the number of inhabitants). can institute bylaws with penalties for their infringement and

sisting of 7-45 It

may

be called upon to execute the laws and decrees of the central and provincial governments. The municipal executive is composed of a burgomaster, appointed by the crown for six years, and two to six aldermen elected for four years by the council from its members. The burgomaster is responsible for public order and the council appoints a town clerk and a treasurer. Municipal co-operation is regulated by the Joint Organization act (1950) and assisted by the Union of Netherlands Municipalities, created in 1912.

The water boards {waterschappen)

control water, dikes and which require the approval of Usually there is a board landowners from among themselves: and an execu-

certain roads, through ordinances

the deputed states of the pro\ances.

by local committee consisting of a dike reeve idijkgraafKa.nd other reeves hoogheemraden charged with daily administration. The water board is one of the oldest forms of legal corporation in the elected tive

(

)

Netherlands.

People's party

(

produktschappen)

,

which are

—The principal parties are:

i

the government and the highest executive

body

There are also industrial boards

of (

pubUc

industrial

bedrijfsschappen)

set

up by

the Catholic-

i

i

French revolution; the Christian Historical union {ChrisUnie), which is Protestant and considers the government to be the servant of God in the history of nations; the Political Reformed party (Staatkundig Gerejormeerde Partij). also Protestant, which stands for government entirely based on God's law revealed in Scripture; the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie), which is liberal and lays stress on the individual liberty and responsibility of man; the Labour party Partij van de Arbeid). a democraticsocialist party with a moderate socialist program; the Netherlands Communist party iCommunistische Partij van Nederland), with a dogmatic Marxist program; and, finally, the Pacifist Socialist party Pacifistisch Socialiitische Partij), founded in 1957, with general disarmament as its principal aim. 3. Trade Unions. The trade union movement in the Netherlands derives from mid-1 9th-century workmen's associations. Federation began in 1893. with the nonsectarian unions. Next, partly in reaction against them, came the socialist federation in 1905 (membership at mid-20th century, over 510,000), Cathohc unions, organized on a local and diocesan basis and not according to trades, were federated in groups in 1924 and, after a period of internal disagreement, were united in the Catholic Workers' movement Nederlanse Katholieke Arbeidersbeweging, 410,000), The Christian National Federation of Trade Unions (Christelijk Nationaal Vakverbond, 220,000) was formed largely in reaction against the syndicalist tendencies of the late 19th century. There are also nonaffiliated unions, with a membership of about 250,000. Membership in a union is not a condition of employment. The unions have greatly contributed to the creation of a body of social legislation and to the general improvement of social conditions. Apart from the sphere of terms of employment, the federations are represented in numerous social and economic organs which act as advisory bodies to the government; they are also of the

telijk-Historische

(

{

(

—

t

co-partners in the sphere of public law.

Taxation.

—

Taxation in the Netherlands consists chiefly of and indirect taxes, excise and customs duties. The most corporation income 1 important direct taxes are the following di\adend tax on share and bond dividends tax on net profits 2 (3) directors" tax on income derived from directorship of a company; (4) real estate tax on the sales value of property; (5) personal property and rental value tax, le\'ied on the rental value of dwelling houses and the value of the furniture therein; (6) indi\adual income tax, on income both of residents and of non4.

direct

:

;

(

(

)

)

residents with resources in the Netherlands,

The

principal indi-

on sales or turnover, levied upon delivery of goods by a manufacturer or trader to another manufacturer or trader or to a consumer. Also subject to this tax are the importation of goods and the rendering of services for payment. Estate, transfer and donation duties, regulated by the Succession act, are collected from heirs or recipients. The Benelux countries apply a common tariff of import duties to merchandise on importation into the various territories, in accordance with their customs agreement, the rates being moderate. As members of the Common Market, these countries keep their rect tax

is

that

policy in harmony with the obligations of the treaty of Rome. Living Conditions: Wages and Wage Policy. Before World War II. employers and employees were free to fix wages and other conditions of employment by joint consultation. Govtariff

Purely functional decentralization is met with in the statutory organization of industry and trade, based on the Industrial Organization act, 1950, which provides a legal basis on which industry and trade can regulate their own affairs. A central statutory body, the social and economic council Sociaal-Ecojwmische Raad). consists of 45 members appointed by the crown and by the organizations of employers and employees. It is both an advisory body to organization.

organized industry. 2. Political Parties.

—

5.

ernment intervention was restricted to a few exceptional cases. However, in 1945 the Extraordinary EmplojTnent Relations decree college van rijksinstituted a board of government conciliators bemiddelaars). which became the chief executive organ of wage policy. After 1955 the tendency was toward a freer wage policy, giving organized industrj' and trade unions a greater part in wage (

NETHERLANDS determination.

However, the ultimate decisive power remained

with the central government. In the 20th century extensive legislation acSocial Insurance. cumulated in this field, comprising the Industrial Accidents Insurance act, 1921; the Agricultural Accidents Insurance act, 1922; the Seamen's Accidents act, 1919; the Disability act, 1913; the Unemployment act, 1949; the Children's Allowance act, 1939 (revised 1962); the Sickness Insurance act, 1930; and the Sick-Fund decree, 1941. Some acts set a wage limit which is periodically revised in the light of the national price index figures. Administration of the system is partly in the hands of the social insurance bank and the regional labour boards and partly entrusted to the 26 occupational associations established by the employers' and employees' unions. General supervision rests with the social in-

—

surance council. Pensions. The General Old Age Insurance act, which came into operation on Jan. 1, 19S7, provides for compulsory old age insurance through contributions by all persons between IS and 65 years of age. Pensions may be claimed at the age of 65 and fluctuate with the wage index figures. The act is administered by the social insurance bank, contributions being collected by the income tax authorities. The General Widows' and Orphans' act (1959) allows a pension varying with the age of the widow and the number of her children.

—

There are

number of private industrial penUnder the Industrial Pension Funds act (1949)

also a considerable

sion schemes.

the minister of social affairs

may

declare that participation in the

branch fund is compulsory for a whole branch of industry, provided that he is so requested by a representative body of that branch. The Pension Funds and Savings Funds act (1954) contains regulations with which an employer has to comply once he has set up a fund for his company. Separate regulations, laid down in the Superannuation act (1922), apply to old age and disContributions are made by abihty pensions for civil servants. both the civil servants and the authorities, and the amount of pension is correlated with the length of service and the latest salary. Protection of Workers.— Adult male workers are limited by law to a 48-hour week and an 8^-hour day; but by the early 1960s a 45-hour week was being worked throughout industry, trade and the civil service. Special regulations apply to dangerous or unhealthy work and to overtime. There is legislation for the safety of workers, the prevention of industrial accidents and for special groups. Supervision of the observance of labour protection legisis entrusted to the labour inspectorate. Housing. The Housing act (1901 ), frequently amended, is the It provides legal basis for improvement of housing conditions. for municipal bylaws laying down detailed rules for house construction, for the best use of land and for municipal financial support to local housing societies. Drastic government intervention

lation

—

was necessitated by the destruction and damage of World War II. This control was gradually relaxed; and by the 1960s municipalities and housing societies were the chief initiators of building. The total number of dwellings increased from 2,109,000 in 1945 to nearly 3,000,000 in the early 1960s. 6. Welfare Services. Social work in the Netherlands is of long standing, though before the 20th century it was mainly confined to religious and private charity, concentrating on such groups With the as neglected children, old persons and delinquents. growth of the social insurance system there developed various

—

kinds of aid of a more individual trend, in which stress was rather on personal guidance than on the material element. After World War II the development of social work was impressive. Institutions can be classified as denominational (Protestant, Roman Cathohc and humanist) or organizational. The latter group include the Central Council for Homemakers' Services, the National Federation for Child Welfare, the Netherlands Federation for Care of the Aged and the Netherlands Family council. Local collaboration between voluntary organizations and public authorities

is

affairs (set

up

effected in

by

social councils.

The ministry

of social

1952) has mainly co-ordinating, stimulating and it regulates subsidies to the various services

subsidizing functions; or to village

and

district centres, etc.

The

organizations usually

279

receive provincial and municipal as well as state subsidies.

State legislation concerning poor relief

is represented by the In accordance with tradition this act starts from the principle that aid given by churches and private bodies comes With the rise first and that public assistance is only subsidiary. of social insurance the importance of the act is for those groups

Poor act

(

1912

).

which do not come under the provisions of social legislation. 7. Health. Health services are the care both of the government (including provincial and municipal authorities) and of pri-

—

vate organizations.

Supervision of public health is the responsithrough five divisions: medical,

bility of a directorate operating

There pharmaceutical, veterinary, licensing and mental health. are also specialized state institutions such as the institute for public Municipal health and the institute for drinking water supplies. activities comprise medical supervision of schools and disease con-

The most important

trol.

private organizations are the "Cross"

associations, which originally

had the improvement of home nurs-

They are Protestant, Roman Cathnonsectarian and have nearly 2,000,000 members. Their activities consist chiefly of preventive health care (operation of health centres, baby clinics and advice bureaus) and of home nursing as their principal purpose.

olic or

Other private organizations specialize rheumatism, etc. Hospitals, sanatoriums mental diseases are mainly run by private or-

ing through district nurses. in tuberculosis, cancer,

and

institutions for

ganizations; about

25%

tion of the Netherlands

of hospitals are municipal. is

among

The popula-

the healthiest in the world

and

the average life expectancy of a Dutch child born at nud-20th century was more than 70 years. 8. Justice. The judiciary occupies a position of independence

—

because judges are appointed for

life;

furthermore under the con-

must be adjudicated upon by judges unless the parties agree to settlement by arbitration. In general, professional judges try both civil and criminal cases; trial by jury stitution all civil disputes

is

unknown

few

civil

in the

Netherlands.

Laymen may

preside only in a

cases and in cases concerned with administrative justice. courts comprise 62 magistrates' courts, 19 district

The ordinary

courts, 5 courts of appeal

The with

and the supreme court at The Hague.

magistrates' courts (kantongerechten) are competent to deal all

ordinary

civil

cases involving

amounts up

to 500 guldens,

besides disputes relating to leases, rents and labour contracts.

These courts can also try minor criminal

The

district courts

cases.

{arrondissementsrechtbanken) are compeall civil cases not left to the magis-

tent in the first instance in

and in all serious criminal cases. These courts also adjudicate on appeals against magistrates' courts' decisions. They consist of a number of chambers, some with three members, some trates' courts

with one, constituted by speciahst judges for: (1) petty offenses (politierechter)

;

(2)

cases involving juveniles

[kinderrechter)

and (3) economic cases of a criminal nature (economische poliThe president of the court has the power to give tierechter). immediate decisions in civil cases in summary procedure.

The courts of appeal (gerechtshoven) decide in the first instance on tax matters only. Their principal task is to consider appeals against the judgments of the district courts. They are divided into chambers consisting of three judges. The supreme court {De Hoge Road der Nederlanden) has three chambers, for civil, criminal and tax cases, and also tries ministers, high civil servants, members of parliament, etc. Its chief function, however, is to interpret rules of law in the last instance and to guarantee the uniform application of the law throughout the kingdom. To this end it has the power to reverse decisions of lower courts which it judges to be at variance with the law {cassatie). but it may only consider appeals in cases where appeal to Its judgment is confined to a lower court is no longer possible. points of law. Although its decisions have not the force of binding precedent, they are generally taken mto consideration by lower courts in similar cases.

Legal assistance for parties to civil cases is compulsory except In lower courts the legal representative is called procureur; in general, legal counsel is given by advocaten. In both civil and criminal cases free legal aid is given to persons without means. in magistrates' courts.

NETHERLANDS

2»0

—

The Public Prosecutor's OfUce. Only in criminal cases can the public prosecutor's office institute proceedinRs; it is not obliged to prosecute every case of which

a

it

However,

takes copnizance.

wronged party may petition a court of appeal to prosecute;

office

such an order

may

also

to order the be given by the

The public prosecutor's office consists of the attorney general and the solicitors general, who are attached, respectively, to the supreme court; and the public prosecutors and

minister of justice.

deputy prosecutors attached to the courts of appeal and to the lower courts. Administrative Justice. Courts concerned with the dispensation of administrative justice exist in certain special fields. There are courts dealing with social insurance laws and with regulations for civil servants. Appeals against the judgments of these courts are dealt with by the central council of appeal a different council

—

;

of appeal deals exclusively with appeals against decisions of statu-

tory trade-organization bodies.

—

The Police act (1956) distinguishes between state Police. and municipal police. The state police corps comes under the minister of justice and is commanded by an inspector general. The corps is divided into districts and these into

police {Rijkspoiitie)

groups

subdivided into posts);

(the latter often

it

serves

all

municipalities with less than 10,000 inhabitants besides those with

between 10,000 and 25,000 inhabitants which are listed in the The remaining municipalities of this latter group and all those with more than 25.000 inhabitants have police forces of their own, controlled by the burgomaster. The military corps of royal constabulary (Koninklijke Marechaussee) is charged with act.

certain civil police tasks, such as guarding the frontiers: especially charged with guarding the royal family.

it is

also

Other duties

include the keeping of law and order and the investigation of

armed forces. Education: Primary Education.

offenses in the 9.

down

—The

constitution

lays

primary education (fulfilling certain conditions imposed by law) is to be defrayed from public funds on the same scale as public education. State primary schools are run by the municipalities; voluntary schools by the organizations which set them up. The costs of both state and voluntary primary education are mainly borne by the municipalities; teachers' salaries are reimbursed by the state. State supervision is exercised by the schools' inspectorate. Primary education (compulsory since 1900) is free throughout the period of obligatory schooling (7-15 years of age). In the early 1960s more than 1,500,000 pupils in nearly 8,000 schools (21% municipal) were receiving ordinary education. There were also 500 special schools for children with physical or mental handicaps. Infant education, which is not compulsory, is given in about 4,000 schools (75% voluntary) to more than 400,000 children in the age group 4-7 years. Preparatory Higher and Secondary Education. In this field, state and voluntary schools are not on the same financial footing. The oldest type of school is the gymnasium, developed from the former Latin school. It provides a six-year course; pupils may choose either the A stream, which stresses Latin and Greek, or the B stream, concentrating on the exact sciences. The Hogere Burthat the cost of voluntary general

—

gerschool (H.B.S.) gives a broad, general five-year course; it too has an A stream (literary and economic and a B stream (stressing the exact sciences). The lyceum is a combination of the other

more than 450 agricultural and horticultural primary and secondary schools, while more than 50,000 young people learn crafts or trades through apprenticeships. University Education.— The Netherlands has six universities: Leiden (founded 1575), Groningen (1614) and Utrecht (1636), all state universities; Amsterdam (municipal, 1632); the Free (X'rije) University of Amsterdam (Orthodox Protestant, 1880); Nijmegen (Roman Catholic, 1923). There are two state institutes of technology (Delft and Eindhoven); and two schools of economics, Rotterdamse Economische Hoogeschool (private, nonsectarian) and Tilburg (private, Roman Catholic). The agriculof Wageningen is run by tural University Landbouwhogeschool the state. The total number of university students is more than 35,000. of whom about one-sixth are women. As a rule, universities have faculties of theology, law, medicine, mathematics, natural sciences, literature and philosophy. The universities of Amsterdam and Groningen also have faculties of economics and of political and social sciences. A degree in dentistry can be obtained at Groningen and Utrecht; the latter university has also a faculty of veterinary science. The expenditure of the state institutions is fully borne by the state; voluntary institutions receive state support varying from 70% to 90% of their costs. Student life is highly organized, both on the local and the (

national level. 10.

Defense.

)

—

During the 19th century the armed forces were of various components, viz., a standing army of volunmihtia mainly volunteers and the local civic guards. A

made up teers, a

(

)

system of universal military training came into force in the 20th century. As provided in the Compulsory Service act (1920), all able-bodied men, on reaching the age of 20, are enlisted for military service. Army training is of 18 months' duration, cadre and specialized categories serving an additional period. Primary training may be followed up by periodical refresher courses. Regular officers are trained at the Royal Military academy at Breda; there is also a school for regular noncommissioned officers. The naval forces of the Netherlands, drastically reduced during World War II, consist of a fleet of postwar-designed cruisers, destroyers, submarines, aircraft patrol boats and an aircraft carrier. The navy incorporates the naval air service and the royal marine corps.

The naval

officers' training institute is at

Den

Helder, the

main naval base in the Netherlands. The royal air force, which had also lost most of its craft during World War II, was gradually re-equipped with modern squadrons of jet fighters, fighter-bombers and other types. It has 13 operational air bases. The three women's voluntary auxiliary corps (attached to the army, navy and air force function mainly in the field of liaison and medical care. The Netherlands' post-World War II forces were built up according to the country's NATO obligations; and they are also )

responsible for the defense of the oversea possessions. Civil Defense.

— Under the responsibihty of the royal commis-

sioners and the burgomasters, civil defense corps are set

up and

In addition, undertakings of a certain A number of mobisize are obliged to provide for self-protection. lized military units were created to assist in the defense of the in(P. W. v. W.) terior and to support the civil defense corps. trained for emergencies.

VII.

THE ECONOMY

)

two

an initial course of one or two years choose either the gymnasium stream or the H.B.S. stream. There were about 450 of these types of schools in the early 1960s, with more than 170,000 pupils, about one-third of

its

in the sense that after

pupils

whom

were

girls.

The foregoing types Other

tjTDes,

Although agricultural products form an important part of the national exports, the Netherlands is a highly industrialized country. Next to the export of industrial products, the export of services (shipping, investment, brokerage, etc) contributes to the balance of payments,

of school prepare pupils for universities.

which do not, are the commercial day schools, which

give a three-

or

four-year course stressing

modern languages,

mathematics and commercial sciences; and the girls' secondary schools, which provide a five-year course. Commercial training is also given in commercial evening schools. Technical and Vocational Education. In this field there are about 1,370 schools and courses (technical, advanced technical, domestic, etc.), with about 450,000 pupils. In addition, there are

—

A. Production

The agricultural prosperity of the Netherlands probably owes more to the ingenuity and labours of its engineers and farmers than to the natural fertility of the soil, which is rather poor. The total of farm and horticultural land is about 5,700,000 ac, approximately 70% of the country's area; of this, nearly two-fifths is plowland, about three-fifths grassland and 340,000 ac. horticultural area. Woodland covered 690,000 ac. in 1961 and infertile regions, 525,000 ac.

NETHERLANDS Arable Farming.

—The main

agricultural area comprises parts

from Zeeland to GroThose of the southwest Zeeland, northwestern North Brabant and the islands of South Holland) and along the Frisian and Groningen coast are composed of heavy marine clays which, after preparation, yield good grain (especially wheat and barley) and root crops. A second agricultural area is formed by the former peat-bog regions of Groningen, Drenthe and northeastern The specialized farming of this region produces Overijssel. cereals, especially rye, oats for fodder and potatoes. A third and new agricultural region consists of the reclaimed Zuider Zee polders with wheat as their main crop. In the polder lands of North and South Holland and in western Utrecht, arable farming is mainly restricted to the surface of drained lakes. The rest is rich pasture which supports a dairy and cattle industry. In the south, because of the proximity of large communal centres, there is an emphasis on market gardening. The polders of Friesland are cattle-raising areas and rival those of North and South Holland. The clays of the central river deltas do not offer such good farming land as the marine clays. Large districts are therefore given over to grazing land, though where conditions have been improved there is mixed farming and horticulture. A part of this region (especially the Betuwe) is also one of the principal orchard districts. The sands and gravels of southern and eastern Netherlands have a somewhat poor soil. Cultivation, through clearing and reclaiming of local peat areas and marshes, drainage and irrigation, has been much extended during the 20th century. The sand regions have become the most important region of cattle farming, and at 's Hertogenbosch and Zwolle the largest cattle markets of the country are held. Farming is of a mixed type; the arable land is planted with rye, oats and potatoes, which are all used for fodder. Next to horned cattle, pigs and of the reclaimed polder lands of the coast

ningen.

{

make up

poultry

the livestock.

Southern Limburg forms a district apart. Instead of sand, it possesses a high proportion of fertile loams which are roughly half arable and half pasture.

The development

dustrial area stimulated dairy

of the region as an in-

farming and market gardening.

On the whole the farms of the Netherlands are of small and medium size. In the clay regions, where farming is mostly arable, the holdings

250

have an average

ac. are frequent.

size of

100 ac; holdings larger than many small farms still

In the sandy regions

occur, but through reallocation and the buying ings this

up of small holdmore and more farms are attaining the size that is normal for type, about 40 ac. Holdings of the former peat-bog region

have an average size of about 70 ac. The area under wheat has increased, partly as a consequence of the reclaiming of the Zuider Zee polders. Similarly, the area under oats is increasing with more intensive cultivation. Of the other crops, potatoes are grown for human consumption, for seed and for commercial preparations such as potato flour, glucose and dextrine. Sugar beets and fodder beets are grown particularly in the north and the southwest. Traditional crops like madder and rapeseed, chicory, hemp and even flax have either vanished or are in decHne, being supplanted by caraway, poppy and colza and espe-

by seed potatoes. Agricultural processing making of strawboard and cellulose. Both these cially

products are

much

also includes the industries,

whose

exported, are concentrated in the northeast,

especially in the former peat-bog region (Veenkolonien).

—

Horticulture. Horticulture, long an important aspect of Dutch agricultural life, became in the 20th century a principal item in the export trade. The area under market gardening in the 1960s was about 340,000 ac. It flourishes particularly in the provinces of North and South Holland. A strong regional specialization occurs. In the region between Rotterdam and The Hague Westland and to the north of Rotterdam the growing of (

)

vegetables under glass predominates.

The

inner side of the dunes

between Leiden and Haarlem is almost entirely devoted to bulb growing (principally tulips, hyacinths, daffodils, gladioli, crocuses and narcissuses). The region north of Alkmaar specializes in cabbage, that between Hoorn and Enkhuizen in fruit and flower seeds. There are also some local centres for flower growing (Aalsmeer) and for pot plants and shrubs (Boskoop). Main

281

centres of horticulture elsewhere are in Zeeland, western

North

Brabant and Limburg. Cultivation of fruit has developed considerably throughout the whole country. Pasture or arable orchards predominate in southern Limburg and on the river-clay districts of Gelderland and western Utrecht. Orchards of apples, pears and plums, among which grow various bush fruits, are found particularly in Zeeland (South Beveland), in the west of North Brabant and in South Holland.

—

Animal Husbandry. Animal husbandry is mainly concerned with the production of milk and its derivative products. There is also considerable breeding and export of dairy cattle famed Holstein-Frisian cows). The supply of meat for the home market is obtained by fattening part of the dairy herd, which in the early 1960s exceeded 3,800,000 head. Special breeds of beef cattle do not occur in the Netherlands. The oldest centre of the dairying industry is the pasture polders of North and South Holland and of western Utrecht. More important, however, for the production of butter, cheese and other milk products are the dairy farms of Friesland and the sandy regions. This production is almost entirely centred on about 500 dairy factories, of which almost 70% (

are co-operative.

Pigs (between 2,500,000 and 3,000,000) are of two kinds: the Dutch pork pig, bred chiefly for the home market, and the bacon and ham pig for export. They form part of the mixed-farming economy of Overijssel, Gelderland and North Brabant. Poultry raising and egg production are important in the same areas. Forestry. Although the government has planted large forests

—

sandy regions, especially

in Drenthe, forestry plays only a small part in the economy of the Netherlands. Fisheries. From the middle ages, herring fishing was a prin-

in the

—

cipal occupation of the Dutch. During the 20th century, chiefly because the country failed to keep its fleet modernized, deep-sea fishery tended to decline the rich fishing grounds of the North sea were favoured in preference to more distant grounds. Herring constitutes the chief catch, with plaice, sole, cod and mackerel of less importance. Chief fishing ports are IJmuiden, mainly for fresh fish, and Scheveningen and Vlaardingen for herring. Coastal fisheries concentrate on mussels, oysters and shrimps. Industry. The industrialization of the Netherlands, though retarded by a lack of natural resources and by a paucity of coal, grew steadily after the mid-1 9th century. An increasing popula;

—

tion

and limited land made

essential to exploit

it

economic

re-

sources other than commerce.

Local agriculture and tropical products were developed and the traditional industries such as shipbuilding, textiles and paper production were modernized. As a commercial country, the Netherlands had an abundance of private capital. Initially the emphasis was upon the technical im-

provement of

existing industries in the ports. The agricultural resources of the Netherlands were adapted to milk processing, margarine manufacture, potato-flour milling and strawboard production. Later, capital and scientific research were applied to technical industries which required a minimum of raw material,

such as electrical and radio equipment, synthetic fibres, and comAt the beginning of the 20th century the introduction of heavier basic industries began with the exploitation of the Limburg coal field and, later, of the salt beds in eastern Overijssel, near Hengelo, and Groningen (Delfzijl). As a result coking, chemical and, later, iron and steel industries have developed.

ponent parts.

Damage and Indonesia,

loss in World War II was aggravated by the loss of by shortages of both dollars and sterling and by a lack

of skilled labour.

Further industrialization of the country

sary in view of the great increase of population

more dependent upon a close that of western Europe and

integration of a

(

neces-

became more and Dutch industry with )

comprehensive liberalization of from such plans as the Euro-

trade, together with financial support

pean Recovery program till 1954. The percentage of population engaged in industry rose steadily from about 34% of the working population in 1899 to more than 40% in the early 1960s (see. Population, above).

World War

Industrial production rose considerably after

II, especially

satisfactorily.

from 1954, while labour productivity rose it was even necessary to import workers

After 1955

NETHERLANDS

2»2 to

meet a labour shortage. The chief industrial regions are North and South Holland and Utrecht. Outside Holland and Utrecht there are industrialized regions in North Brabant, parts of Gelderland. Overijssel. Groningen and southern Limburg. Industry is largely based on medium-sized or small private undertakings. After 1960 there were about 10,500 undertakings tof 10 or more workers) with a labour force exceeding 1 .000.000. Governmental policy has been

the linen industry developed in the Twente district. In the lyth century this industry turned its attention to cotton, and gradually Twente and North Brabant became the chief textile areas, with the woolen and linen manufacture concentrated in North Brabant. Other textile manufactures were rayon, lace and carpets. Hosiery is made in many towns, and ready-made clothing especially at .Amsterdam. Groningen and in the Twente district. Other Industries. Leather and footwear are produced in the

stimulate further industrialization, especially in those parts where economic development is lagging, as in the northern prov-

towns of North Brabant and also at Nijmegen in Gelderland; production after World War II was roughly adequate to home demands. A timber trade, chiefly concentrated in the towns of North ar>d South Holland, especially at Zaandam, produces wood for building and supplies the pulp and paper industries. The latter is supplemented by the production of strawboard from cereal straw.

from other European countries

to

inces.

—

Mining. Fuel and Power. Coal, in the south of Limburg, is worked by state and private enterprise, the latter by a concession from the state. Technically the industry is well advanced. The refining of petroleum was not important in the Netherlands before World War II. Of the total oil import in 1938, about 26% was crude oil. In postwar years domestic production was increased, chiefly from the Schoonebeek oil field in Drenthe, and later from the western part of the Netherlands, around Rijswijk. In the early 1960s about 20,000,000 tons were imported annually and refined at Pernis, along the New waterway. By 1960 the Netherlands was already the most important exporter, after Great Britain, of petroleum products in Europe.

Natural gas was discovered in the Netherlands in 194S. It remained economically unimportant till the Slochteren field, in the province of Groningen, was discovered in 1960. Proven reserves are 1,100,000,000,000 cubic metres, which is about half the west European total. The state and the state-owned coal mining company, together with the two leading oil companies in the Dutch market, share the ownership of the gas distribution company, thus making a well-balanced energy policy possible. Inland distribution started in 1964; export to Germany and other countries was the subject of negotiation. To increase consumption an aluminum Prospecting for oil and natural plant was projected in Delfzijl. gas was taking place in the Frisian isles and adjacent seas. Electricity is furnished by thermoelectric plants which are fired by coal or oil. The annual consumption is 15,500,000,000 kw.hr. Metallurgy.— Despite its great lack of mineral deposits, during the 20th century the Netherlands has built up a metal industry. Between 1930 and 1950 the number of workers rose by 95%. Iron smelting was begun in 1924 at IJmuiden with ore chiefly from Spain and Sweden, and steel is produced there and in Utrecht. Nevertheless, steel is imported from Belgium, Germany and Great Britain for shipbuilding). Tin and zinc are smelted. Shipbuilding. Shipbuilding and repairing has long been one of the Netherlands' chief industries. Numerous shipyards are found along the rivers between Schiedam and Dordrecht in the southwest, at Amsterdam and, to a lesser extent. Hoogezand-Sappemeer (Groningen), which specializes in smaller vessels (coasters). In the mid-1960s there were nearly 200 shipyards with more than 25 workers. Shipyards have tended to switch to the more profitable (

—

business of petrochemical plant construction. Engineering. The Dutch metal industry

—

been created shipbuilding and maintenance of the has

chiefly as an ancillary to merchant navy. At first the engineering industry specialized in marine engines, and in machinery for domestic and colonial industries and for public works, such as oil-well equipment, tin dredges, pumps and metal constructions such as bridges and house frames (the latter in particular at Gorinchem, Dordrecht). Lighter electrical and wireless equipment have since become important. Chief centres are at Eindhoven and Nijmegen. Since World War II the aircraft industry, including the manufacture of component parts and specialized technical equipment, has developed increasingly. Chemicals. The Dutch chemical industry developed in connection with the salt deposits at Boekelo Overijssel and at Delfzijl (Groningen). Nitrogenous and phosphate fertilizers, cOal derivatives, refinery products, paints and pharmaceuticals, etc. are also manufactured or processed. Textiles. The manufacture of woolen cloth in most of the medieval towns, but in particular at Leiden, was formerly the Netherlands' most important industry, which benefited from the immigration of skilled workers from Flanders in the 16th century. Later

—

(

—

)

—

The rubber industry expanded after World War II, chiefly in the production of tires The Hague, Enschede, 's Hertogenbosch and other consumer articles. Food industries are principally concerned (

)

with sugar (manufacturing and refining), milk products and vegetable oils; cigars are made. The diamond-cutting industry of Amsterdam declined greatly after World War II.

—

Tourism. Receipts from tourism are significant to the economy and by the early 1960s more than 4,000,000 tourists from abroad were visiting the Netherlands annually. The coast line of the North sea with its broad beaches of sand are popular vacation areas. Scheveningen, Zandvoort and Noordwijk are the chief seaside resorts. The Frisian islands have also become popular holiday The many lakes and broad waterways of Friesland are places. good for yachting, as are the broad estuaries of the southwest. The Netherlands has many old towns of which Amsterdam (with its canals). Delft, Leiden, Gouda. Alkmaar. Zierikzee, The Hague and Maastricht are of great interest. Outside the provinces of North and South Holland are many remarkable, and mostly smaller, old towns, and many rural regions (in particular the province of Drenthe and the eastern part of Gelderland still offer an unspoiled landscape. The new polders in the Zuider Zee region, as interesting examples of new developments, attract many sightseers. )

B.

Foreign Trade.

Trade and Finance

—The Netherlands shows the characteristics of and industriaUzed country, which has by

a densely populated

increasing population been compelled to

stimulate

its

its

exports.

Nevertheless, imports exceed exports, though the cover of visible imports by exports is increasing (1938, 73%; 1962, 88%). Imports are largely made up of agricultural raw materials, particularly linseed, peanuts for chemical production, maize (corn) for fodder and wheat for human consumption; mineral raw materials, mineral oil and chemical raw materials; hides, raw rubber and rubber produce wood, chiefly timber for constructional pur;

poses; textiles and clothing; base metals, chiefly iron and steel, and finished

machinery and

rolling stock.

Exports comprise agricul-

tural produce, chiefly dairy products, vegetables, flowers, bacon,

stock guts and oils; chemicals, mainly coke and fertilizers; paper and wood products; textiles, chiefly cotton goods and rayon yarns; metal products, such as ships, dredgers, instruments, radio and electrical

equipment and

tin.

In the early 1960s Belgium and Luxembourg, the Federal Republic of Germany, the United States and Britain were the Netherlands' chief suppliers. Its exports go mainly to Germany, Belgium

and Luxembourg, Britain and the United States. The Royal Netherlands Industries fair (Koninklijke Nederlandse Jaarbuers organizes the important spring and autumn fairs at Utrecht and other specialized trade events. Currency and Finance. The monetary unit, the gulden (q.v.) or guilder (/ designating the ancient florin) dates from 1798; it is divided into 100 cents. The Netherlands was the last country to abandon the gold standard (Sept. 19, 1936). The gulden was devalued with the pound in Sept. 1949; its exchange rate in relation to the U.S. dollar fell from / 2.65 to 3.80 and in relation to the pound was fixed at / 10.64. In 1961 the gulden was revalued; its relation to the dollar was fixed at / 3.62 or / 10.90 to the pound. The Netherlands bank, founded in 1814, was for long a private )

—

NETHERLANDS was nationalized on Aug. 1, 1948. government's banker, and the state, in return for

283

acted as the privilege of

alone were 28,200,000 tons downstream and 27,600,000 tons upstream in 1938, to be compared with 25,033,000 and 53,388,000 in 1961.

possesses about 40 joint-stock banks, of which the larger are intimately concerned with industrial financing; farmers" credit banks, serving agricultural co-operatives, form a

Sea-Going Shipping. The Dutch have long been a seafaring people, though during the Napoleonic wars their flag practically disappeared from the seas. A revival of their maritime impor-

institution but

It its

issuing notes, shared in the profits.

The Netherlands

substantial section of

Budget.

Dutch banking.

—The Netherlands budget

is divided into ordinary and on the revenue and expenditure side. Until 1931 budgets usually showed a surplus. As a result of the economic depression of the earlier 1930s this was transformed into a small deficit. With the devaluation of the gulden in 1936. however, revenue began to increase, and in the years after World War II a surplus was once more being recorded. Postwar budgets had

capital services, both

traffic figures

—

tance began in the latter part of the 19th century, when several shipping lines were estabhshed. In spite of severe damage during World War II, the mercantile fleet by Jan. 1963 comprised 1,525 ships of 5,037,000 gross registered tons. The earnings of the

Dutch merchant navy were second only

to revenue derived from investments abroad. A particular feature of the Dutch merchant fleet is the many small vessels (coasters), which are mostly engaged in carrier trade many of these are based on Groningen. ;

The

to provide for increasing expenditure particularly for education, social services, defense, construction of houses, roads

and dikes

(Delta project) and agriculture.

The local provincial and communal authorities possess some deautonomy and derive small revenue from various types of taxation, mostly supplemented by grants from the state. A chief responsibihty of these local bodies is the maintenance of local roads, etc., public health, education and the police. gree of financial

The national debt steadily increased after the 19th century. The 1938 total of / 3,986,000,000 had increased about five-fold by the early 1960s C.

Railways.

and included £974,000,000 of foreign debt.

Transport and Communications

—The Dutch railway network (Nederlandsche Spoor-

wegen, a limited Uability company with the state as sole shareholder) has been maintained at an economic length. The total length in the early 1960s was 2,021 mi., of which about 1,009 mi. were electrified. Passenger traffic is of greatest importance, and little bulk freight is handled by rail. Roads. The development of the road system was handicapped in many areas by the nature of the land surface which is broken by large rivers and estuaries. Just before World War II considerable progress was made toward a national network by the building of many bridges for road traffic. Roads comprise main state highways, secondary and third-class roads; motorways are growing in importance. The road system, relative to others in Europe, is

—

well developed.

—

Inland Waterways. The artificial waterways were constructed originally for land drainage rather than for the carriage of goods. Later, with the considerable stretches of na\igable rivers, they were found very suitable for carrying both domestic and transit goods and their network was extended. Open rivers and the main shipping canals are mostly state controlled, except in the northeast, where they are partly administered by the provincial authorities. The total length of navigable waterways was 3,600 mi.; the length navigable by barges carrying more than 1,500 tons was 1,081 mi. (which includes 429 mi. in the IJsselmeer and

Delta areas).

Of the main systems

and

its

offshoots

is

the

most important and can carry barges with a capacity of 4,000 tons. is connected to the sea by the North Sea canal. Another large canal (for vessels of more than 2,000 tons) connects with the Waal at Tiel, and smaller canals lead to Rotterdam, which also has an artificial connection with the sea by the New water-

A

of the

Rotterdam

district

(Rotterdam, Vlaardingen, Hook of Holland, Schiedam and Dordrecht) and Amsterdam. The Port district of Rotterdam comprises a large series of docks on the southern side of the New waterway at the mouth of which there are new docks of large capacity (Europoort). Amsterdam benefited from the cutting of the North Sea canal across the centre of North Holland and from its artificial connection with the Rhine. Of the remaining ports Delfzijl (on the Ems), Flushing (on the isle of Walcheren) and Harlingen (on the Wadden zee) are the most important. In cargo traffic Rotterdam overshadows all other ports of the country, its chief rival being Antwerp rather than any Dutch port.

much as Amsterdam, its nearest Dutch Through Rotterdam also passes by far the greater part of transit traffic that makes up about 40% of the total imports It

handles eight times as

competitor.

and

30%

of the total exports.

Airways.

—

The Royal Dutch airlines (Koninklijke Luchtvaart Maatschappij or K.L.M.), founded in 1919 with government aid as a private enterprise, provides regular air services throughout Europe and between Europe and America, to the near and far east and to Australia. Telecommunications, Radio and Television. The post office, telegraph and telephone systems are operated by the postal administration. Radio broadcasting is controlled by five noncommercial associate companies (owned by religious or political organizations) which under a charter of 1947 merged their facilities in the Nederlandsche Radio Unie (Netherlands Radio union). They each retain autonomy in planning and transmission during They also control the hours allotted by government decree. Nederlandse Televiesie Stichtung (Netherlands Television foundation). Overseas broadcasting is carried on by Radio Nederland Wereldomroep (Netherlands World Broadcasting), controlled by the ministry of education, arts and sciences. See also references under "Netherlands, The" and "Holland" in (H. J. Ke.) the Index.

—

—

Bibliography. General and Geographical Works: Jaarcijfers voor Nederland (annual) and other official periodicals published by the H. Riemens, Les Centraal bureau voor de Statistiek (The Hague) Pays-Bas dans le monde (1939) B. Landheer, The Netherlands in a Changing World (1947) C. HamUton, Holland To-day (1950) G. J. Renier, The Dutch Nation (1944) G. J. A. Mulder (ed.), Handboek der Geografie van Nederland, 6 vol. (1949-59) H. J. Keuning, Het Nederlandse Volk in zijn Woongebied (1947), Mozaiek der Functies A. J. Pannekoek, Geologische Geschiedenis van Nederland (1955) (1956); C. H. Edelman, Soils 0} the Netherlands (1950), De Nederlandse geest (1941) A. A. Beekman, Nederland als polderland, 3rd ed. (1932); A. J. P. van den Broek, "La Population des Pays-Bas," Tijdschrijt of the Nedherlands Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, vol. SS ;

that of the Rhine

Amsterdam

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

is that of the Meuse, the Juliana canal and North Brabant; this Unks central and western Netherlands with southern Limburg and the eastern Belgian system. In the eastern and northern provinces many smaller canals carry agricultural goods. The Twente canal, which connects the industrial Twente district with the Rhine system, and the new canal system in the northern provinces (from Delfzijl-Groningen to Harlingen and Lemmer) take ships up to 1,350 tons. Before World War II the Dutch inland fleet was the largest of

way.

Dutch ports are the ports

chief

second system

the canals

of

western Europe, with around 20,000 craft (4,454,000 ton capacity). In the early 1960s it possessed more than 19,000 vessels of about 5,3 2 5, 000-ton capacity. The waterways are responsible for more than half of the internal traffic of the country. They also play an extremely important part in transit trade. Rhine-borne

(1938).

The People: K. Ishwaran, Family Life in the Netherlands (1959); Gadourek, A Dutch Community (1956) J. Y. and D. L. Keur, The Deeply Rooted (1955) E. W. Hofstee, Rural Life and Rural Welfare in the Netherlands (1957) Population Research in the Zuyderzee TerI.

;

;

;

ritory (1954).

Archaeology: S. J. de Laet, The Low Countries (1958); S. J. de Laet and W. Glasbergen, De Voorgeschiedenis der Lage Landen (19S9) "Honderd Eeuwen Nederland," Antiquity and Survival, vol. ii, no. S and 6, ed. by J. E. Bogaers el al. (1959). History: For the history of the Low Countries as a whole, see J. F. Niermeyer (ed.) et ai., Algemene Geschiedenis der Nederlanden, 12 vol. (1949-58). This work largely supersedes P. J. Blok's classic on the history of the northern territories, Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Volk (1892-96; 3rd ed., 4 vol., 1923; Eng. trans., History of the People ;

NETHERLANDS ANTILLES—NETTLE

284

of the Netherlands, S vol., 1898-1912) and also supplements H. Pircnne's standard Histoire de Belgique, 7 vol. (1900-32), which is especially valuable for the southern. For the political history of the northern Netherlands see further I. H. Gosses and N. Japikse, Handboek tot de Staatkundige Geschiedenis van Nederland, 3rd ed. (1946), of which the recasting by I. H, Gosses and R. R. Post, Handboek tot de Staatkundige Geschiedenis van der Sederlanden (1959 et seq.), takes account of the south as well. For the United Provinces see P. Geyl, Geschiedenis van de S ederlandsche Slam, 2 vol., 2nd ed. (1948^9; partial Eng. trans.. The Revolt of the Netherlands, 155S-1609, 2nd ed., 1958, and The Netherlands Divided, 1609-1648, 1936), with the synopsis of Geyl's views in his Debates With Historians (1955). There is also I. Schoffcr, A Short History of the Netherlands (1956). See also A. A. Beckman I. Strubbe and et al., Geschiedkundige Alias van Nederland (1911-39) L. Voet, De Chronologic van de Middeleeuwen en de Modernen Tijden in de Nederlanden (1960). Administration and Social Conditions: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Digest of the Netherlands (5 vol.). Government and constitution: P. J. Oud, Het Constitiitioneel Recht van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden, 2 vol. (1947-48), Nederlands Bestiiursrecht (2 vol., 1953; supp., 1958; also covers living conditions, public finance, welfare services, education, defense). Political parties and trade unions: "PoHtiek," Repertorium der sociale wetenschappen (1958). Justice: "Rechtswetcnschap," Repertorium der sociale wetenschappen (1958). The Economy: D. J. Maltha, Agriculture in the Netherlands (1948) Congress issue of the Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie (July 1960); M. Weisglas, Nederlands economisch kerstel (1946); Netherlands Ministry of Finance, Memorandum on the Conditions of the Netherlands State's Finance (1955) P. J. Oud, Het Conslutioneel Recht van het Koninkrijk der Nederlands (1947) J. T. Shotwell (ed.), Governments of Continental Europe (1940). Current history and statistics are summarized annually in Britannica ;

;

;

;

Book

of the Year.

NETHERLANDS ANTILLES

(Nederlandse Antillen), two widely separated groups of Caribbean islands in the Lesser The southern group, comprising Curagao (q.v.), Aruba and Bonaire, lies less than 60 mi. off the Venezuelan coast. The

Antilles.

Area, Population and Principal Towns Island

NETTLE TREE—NETWORK THEORY irritation.

may

the effect

for

last

months

and has been credited with the ability to kill a horse by inducing a sudden rage. In southern and western United

3. Identification is the determination of a mathematical or model from measurements of an actual system. For example, the dynamic characteristics of an airplane are measured by firing a bullet from the craft and observing the oscillation which results from the reaction force; or the characteristics of an industrial process can be evaluated by feeding into it a small randomly varying signal or an automobile driver can measure road conditions and vehicle dynamics by continual small perturbations of the

analytical

there

States

are other nettles, U. chamaedryoides southeastern states, U. holosericea of the western states

among them the

of

and

the

nettle

closely

allied

;

western wood

(Hesperocnide tenella) of

(LAPORTEA

CANA.

densis)

Three species of nettle are wild and abundant

in the British

and the Roman nettle U. pilidijera also an anlargely restricted to southern Europe. The small nettle {U. urens) once had some use as a fibre. The eradication of the annual species of nettle can be accomplished by cutting off the tops before flowering, to prevent the (

;

,

nual,

setting of seed. The perennials are more difficult to eradicate; spraying with 2,4-D in bright weather or with chlordane provides

the most effective control {see also

Weed: Control

of Weeds).

(N, Tr.; X.) TREE, the name sometimes applied to certain trees of the genus Celtis, belonging to the elm family (Ulmaceae), especially to C. australis, common in Eurasia and northern Africa. The best-known species have usually obliquely ovate or lance-shaped leaves, toothed, rough-hairy above and marked by three prominent veins. The flowers are inconspicuous; the fruit is succulent, drupelike, a character that serves to separate the genus from the elms. It is a rapidly growing tree, from 30 to 40 ft. high, with a remarkably sweet fruit, recalling a small black cherry, and was one of the plants to which the term lotus was applied by Dioscorides and the older authors. The wood, compact and hard like its North American relative, the hackberry (q.v.), is used for many purposes.

NETTLE

The Austrahan

nettle or stinging tree

and the wood nettle of

North America belong to the family Urticaceae (see Nettle). is a branch of engineering theory concerned with the evaluation of the properties of interconnections (networks) of basic components and with the synthesis of such interconnections for prescribed system characteristics. Network theory has been developed primarily by electrical engineers, particularly for the design of the systems for electrical power distribution and telephone transmission, but has subsequently been applied to the design or understanding of systems for water and gas distribution, industrial automation, missile and vehicle guidance and control, and automobile or aircraft traffic control. Other eastern

NETWORK THEORY

applications include such systems as those involved in the spread

communicable diseases and

seeing and hearing. analysis, synthesis 1.

e.g.,

The

and

in various

human

functions such as

three elements of network theory are

identification.

Analysis is the evaluation of the properties of a given system; the determination of the behaviour of an electrical power dis-

tribution system involving thousands of individual components including local loads, distribution lines, generators and protective

A typical analysis problem is the determination of the performance of the system when a short circuit occurs at one point. 2. Synthesis is the design of a system for specified performance. A classical problem in network synthesis is the design of electric circuits to separate 480 telephone conversations carried simultaneously on a single cable. At the sending end, the signals are combined by shifting each to a different portion of the frequency spectrum. With normal speech involving frequency components from 100-4,000 cycles per second (c.p.s.), one signal is transmitted from 0-4,000 c.p.s., one from 4,000-8,000 c.p.s., one from 8,000devices.

network theory has developed from the work in mechanics by I. Newton, J. L. Lagrange and W. R. Hamilton, and the original studies of electric circuits by G. R. Kirchhoff. Until the advent of transcontinental telephone systems at the beginning of the 20th century, network theory emphasized the dynamic properties of vibrating mechanical systems. The field is now a central element of electrical engineering, with fundamental classical

Isles and across Europe: the stinging nettle {U. dioica), a hairy perennial with male and female flowers on separate plants; the small nettle (U. urens), which is annual, has male and female flowers on the same plant and is also often a naturalized weed in

of

steering-wheel position. Historically,

California.

North America

285

12,000 c.p.s., and so on. At the receiving end, the signals must be separated by electrical networks, each of which transmits only one of the incoming messages.

In treelike Australian relatives (Laportea), instant

contributions in synthesis aspects from Ronald Foster, Wilhelm Cauer, 0. Brune and S. Darlington. The rapid technological de-

velopment during and following World War II included an expansion of network theory to encompass nonlinear networks fwith analysis based on the work in nonlinear mechanics by L. Poincare in France and by P. P. Lyapunov, A..N. Krylov and N. Bogoliuboff in Russia), feedback networks (with work developing from the pioneering efforts of H. S. Black, H. Nyquist and H. W. Bode at the Bell Telephone laboratories during the 1920s and 1930s), and such diverse areas as switching circuits and finite automata. The basic analytic techniques of network theory are concerned with the evaluation of mathematical models (e.g., sets of differential equations or the response of the system to a specified input signal) for the interconnection of the basic electrical components: resistors, capacitors, inductors, transformers, and voltage and current sources. Analysis is based on Kirchhoff's two laws which state that 1 ) the instantaneous sum of the currents entering any node of the network must be zero, and (2) the instantaneous sum of the drops in voltage around any closed loop must be zero. When these two laws are combined with the voltage-current relation for each element, differential equations can be written for the system (

without the direct utilization of the principle of the conservation of energy. The number of equations which must be written to describe network behaviour and the particular equations which can be used are determined from considerations of mathematical Network theory also includes a large number of topology. theorems which permit simplification of the analysis in many special cases of importance. In the basic synthesis problem, with the input and output signals given, a network is to be realized by a suitable interconnection of the available components. In 1931 Brune showed that any specified driving-point impedance function (the ratio voltage to current at a single pair of terminals) can be realized if the impedance is a positive real function of the complex frequency .j. In subsequent work, the necessary and sufficient conditions were established for the realization of a wide variety of different network functions (e.g., the ratio of output voltage to input voltage, and the ratio of output current to input voltage). Network theory has been extended to the study of feedback configurations, systems in which a portion of the output signal is compared with the input, with the difference used to control the output. Such systems are fundamental in automation (q.v.) and automatic control since the accuracy of the over-all transmission (the ratio of output to input) can be made insensitive to changes in the characteristics of the motor element. As a result of this insensitivity, engineering systems can operate properly even when the environment varies radically (e.g., as the weather around an aircraft changes, as a space vehicle passes from outer space into the relatively dense atmosphere or as the road conditions for an automobile vary from dry to icy). The analysis and synthesis of feedback systems is complicated by the stability problem, which is fundamental in network theory. Physical systems may oscillate out of control either because of

NEUBER—NEUCHATEL

286

the feedback of energy from the output to a preceding point in the system (as in the case of ataxia observed in a man when he is an element of a feedback loop), or because of excitation of the

system

at its natural resonant frequency.

up

to speed, uncontrolled vibrations occur

at

a

frequency lower than the normal

(As a motor

is

brought

the motor resonates operating frequency.)

if

tests for stability in linear time-invariant systems (systems described by linear differential equations) were formulated by E. J. Routh in I8S3 and for feedback systems by Nyquist

Mathematical

Fundamental contributions to the much more difficult problem of the stability of nonlinear systems have been made by Poincare and Lyapunov, but the general problem of stability analysis and associated design techniques to insure stability still provide fundamental research problems in network theory. BiBLiocRArnY. For introductory technical treatment: W. A. Lynch in 1928.

—

G. Truxal, Introductory System Analysis (1961). For advanced treatment: S. Seshu and N. Balabanian, Linear Network Analysis (1950); E. .\. Guillemin, Synthesis oj Passive Networks (1957); D. F. Tuttle, Network Synthesis (195S). (J. G. Tl.)

and

J.

technical

NEUBER, (FRIEDERIKE) CAROLINE (nee Weissenborn) (1697-1760), one of the earliest and best-known German actress-managers, was born in Reichenbach, Saxony, March 9, 1697. She and her husband Johann served their theatrical apprenticeship in various companies of strolling players until, in 1727, they acquired a royal patent enabling them to form their own acting company with headquarters first in Leipzig, later in Hamburg. Johann Christoph Gottsched, the Leipzig literary critic and advocate of pseudoclassic drama, persuaded the Neubers to include German translations and imitations of French classic plays in their repertory. Frau Neuber crusaded for Gottsched's program Their association has been until 1739 when she broke with him. regarded as the turning point in German theatre history and the modern German

start of

acting.

Petersburg in 1740, Frau Neuber German audiences. The long and actress came to an end when the outbreak of the third Silesian war forced her to quit the stage. She died in poverty at Laubegast near Dresden on Nov. 30. 1760. (A. M. N.) a town of Germany, headquarters of the Bezirk district) of the same name which after partition of the nation following World War II became part of the German Democratic Republic. It lies at the outflow of the Tollense See about 134 km. (S3 mi.) N. of Berhn and is a rail and road junction. Pop. (1961 est.) 35,905. Neubrandenburg was incorporated in After an ill-fated

visit to St.

failed to regain the patronage of

struggle to reassert herself as a producer

NEUBRANDENBURG, {

1248.

It

was severely damaged

many medieval

district capital in 1952.

has a

new town

late in

World War

brick buildings only a few remain. centre.

II,

It

and of

became

a

has been much rebuilt and Manufactures include foodstuffs, build-

Since then

it

ing materials, paper, agricultural machinery, chemicals and leather.

NEUCHATEL,

a

canton and town of western Switzerland,

summit of the area is Mont Racine, 4,731 ft., in the Tete-de-Ran range. The canton, with an area of 500 sq.mi., most of which is reckoned productive, had a population of 154,000 in 1962 (about two-thirds Protestant and one-third Catholic, all French-speaking). It consists, for the situated in the central Jura; the loftiest

most

part, of the longitudinal ridges and valleys characteristic of the Jura (q.v.), while its drainage is unequally divided between the Lake of Neuchatel (leading to the Rhine) and the Doubs river

(leading to the Rhone). The canton can be di\aded into three (1) an area along the shore of the lake, called Le Vignoble (from its vineyards), which varies from about 1,500 ft. to 2,300 ft. above sea level; (2) an intermediate region, Les Vallees, consisting of the two principal valleys of the canton (the Val de Ruz, watered by the Seyon, and the Val de Travers, watered by the Areuse) which He at a height of about 2,300 ft. to 3,000 ft. regions:

level; and (3) the highest region, known as Les Montagnes Neuchateloises (3,000 ft. to 3,500 ft.), and mainly composed of the long valley in which stand the industrial centres of La Chaux-de-Fonds {q.v.), Le Locle, La Sagne, Les Ponts-deMartel and La Brevine.

above sea

The main railway

line,

Paris-Pontarher-Neuchatel-Bern-Inter-

traverses the canton while La Chaux-de-Fonds and Le Locle are connected by rail with Morteau and Besanqon in France. Other Hnes hnk Neuchatel, the cantonal capital, with La Chaux-de-Fonds and Le Locle, as well as with Lausanne (for Geneva and the Valais to the south) and Biel (for Basel and Ziirich to the north). There are also a number of local railways. The canton is served by an excellent road network. The most valuable mineral product is asphalt, concentrated in the Val de Travers. The wine of Le Vignoble is plentiful and of excellent quality. The most characteristic industry is w'atchmaking, which has been prominent since the early 18th century in the highland valleys of La Chaux-de-Fonds, Le Locle and Fleurier. The canton is divided into 6 administrative districts, which comprise 62 communes. All elective offices are held for four years. The legislature or grand conseil consists of members elected in proportion to population, and the executive or conseil d'etat consists of five permanent conseillers. The canton in 1963 sent five

laken-Milan,

representatives to the national council (Nationalrat), the lower chamber of the Swiss parliament. It sends, as do all the other

members

of the Confederation,

states iStdnderat)

History.

,

two members to the council of

the upper chamber.

— Novum

Castellum (Neuchatel) was first recorded in the will (loll) of Rudolf III, the last king of Burgundy, on whose death 1032) that kingdom reverted to the western empire. About 1034, Conrad II, the Salic emperor, gave the town and its territories to Ulrich von Fenis, count of a neighbouring fief, and although the numerous medieval feudal divisions cannot be traced in modern poHtical geography, the nucleus of Neuchatel canton was then created. The dynasty gradually increased its dominions, so that by 1373, when Count Louis died, it held practically all the area occupied by the present canton, with the exception of the lordship of Valangin. which was held by a cadet line of the house till about 1592. The dynasty ended with the death of Count Louis' daughter, Isabelle, and the estate was inherited by her nephew, Conrad, lord of Freiburg im Breisgau in the German Rhineland. During Isabelle's reign, in 1406, Neuchatel entered into union with Bern, and therein played an important part in shaping Swiss destiny. In 1504 it passed through marriage to the ducal house of Orleans-Longueville. The Reformation was introduced there by Guillaume Farel {q.v.) in 1530. It became a principality and remained a possession of Orleans-Longueville until A struggle arose as to 1707, when that house became extinct. the succession and, finally, the parhament of Neuchatel decided the first king of Prussia. The nominal in favour of Frederick I, role of the Prussian king (for the country enjoyed practical independence) lasted until 1848, with a brief interval from 1806 to 1814, when the principality was held by Marshal L. A. Berthier by virtue of a grant from Napoleon. In 1814 its admission into the Swiss Confederation was proposed and in 1815 it became the 21st canton and the only nonrepublican member. The hereditary rulers of Neuchatel were the last to maintain their position in Switzerland. This anomaly led in 1848 to the estabhshment (attempted in 1831) of a republican form of government, brought about by a peaceful revolution. A royal attempt to regain power in 1856 was easily defeated and finally, after long negotiations, Conthe king of Prussia renounced his claims to sovereignty. sequently in 1857 Neuchatel became a full repubhcan member of the Swiss Confederation. Neuchatel, the cantonal capital, is situated on the lake of the same name. Pop. ( 1 960) 33 ,430, mainly Protestant and all Frenchspeaking. The town is built partly on the slopes of Chaumont (3,871 ft.), and partly on land reclaimed from the lake, supplemented by the growth of alluvial deposits; later an artificial embankment added much ground, which is now the site of fine promenades, quays and a harbour, official institutions and schools. The castle (dating from the 12th to the 16th centuries and now (

the seat of the cantonal administration) and the adjoining medieval Collegiate Church of Notre Dame (now Protestant) are

on a hill. They were originally founded when Ulrich II, count of Neuchatel, took up his residence in the town, to which granted in 1214 a charter of Hberties. The Collegiate church he built

NEUCHATEL, LAKE OF—NEUMANN monumental tomb of the counts of Neuchatel (erected There are a number of fine 17th- and ISth-century in 1372). patrician dwellings, including the Palais du Dupeyrou (176S), and fountains. The hotel de ville or town hall ( 1 782-90) is in classic

Territorially, Bulgaria's western frontier

contains the

style.

Among

the buildings on the quays are the College Latin, with

des Beaux-Arts, with modern Swiss paintings and various antiquities (including the collection of P. J. E. Desor relating to old lake dwellings, and the the public library (1835); the

Musee

notable collection of automated dolls created by Pierre JaquetDroz [1721-90] and his son Henri-Louis [1752-91]); a hall dedicated to Ferdinand Hodler; and a modern education centre comprising the university (founded as an academy in 1838), the

gymnasium, the

institute of physics

and the Swiss Laboratory of

Horological Research.

NEUCHATEL, LAKE OF

(G. Pd.) (Ger.

Neuenburgersee)

and Morat, connected by are survivors of a former glacial lake in the lower Aare lakes of Neuchatel, Biel (Bienne)

Neuchatel

is

the largest lake wholly in Switzerland.

The

287 was adjusted

in favour

new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, that is, the future Yugoslavia, which gained: (1) an area in the north, west of Vidin; (2) the town of Tsaribrod with adjacent areas, making any of the

Bulgarian advance on Nish over the Pirot area more difficult; (3) the upper part of the Dragovishtitsa valley, due west of Sofia; and (4) the western half of the salient in the Strumitsa valley which Bulgaria had acquired under the treaty of Bucharest in 1913 (see Balkan Wars). More serious, however, were Bulgaria's losses in the south, where not only a small area in the Rhodope mountains southwest of Pashmakli but also the whole of western Thrace had to be ceded to Greece, so that Bulgaria's immediate access to the Aegean sea at Dedeagatch, the country's major gain under the treaty of Bucharest, was forfeited. For ethnic reasons, however, Bulgaria received a slight accession of territory on the

canals,

southeastern frontier, at Turkey's expense, in the area northwest of Edirne. Altogether, Bulgaria lost about 300,000 people, not

valley.

all

.

Its total area

83 sq.mi. divided among the cantons of Neuchatel, Vaud, Fribourg and Bern (about 2 sq.mi.). It is about 23^ mi. long, from 3| to 5 mi. wide, its greatest depth is 502 ft., and its surface is 1,427 ft. above sea level. The Thiele or Zihl river enters at its southwestern end and issues from it at its northeastern end, but it also receives the Areuse and Seyon (northwest) and the Broye is

On its southeastern shore is the picturesque and town of Estavayer. At the southwestern extremity of the lake is Yverdon, the Eburodunum of the Romans and the residence (1806-25) of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, the humanistThe northwestern shore is far more thickly settled, educator. where from southwest to northeast the towns are Grandson, Cortaillod, Serrieres and Neuchatel itself. On the north shore is La Tene {q.v.), famous for prehistoric finds, which gives its name to the late Iron Age culture. There are steamer services between the lakeside towns. NEUHOF, THEODOR, Baron von (1694-1756), German adventurer, for a short time nominal king of Corsica, was born at Cologne on Aug. 24, 1694, the son of a WestphaUan nobleman. Educated at the court of France, he served first in the French army, then in the Bavarian. Gortz, minister to Charles XII of Sweden, having discovered Neuhof's capacity for intrigue, sent him to England and to negotiate with Cardinal Alberoni in Spain, where he was made colonel and married one of the queen's ladies-in-waiting. Deserting his wife soon afterward, he went to France and became mixed up in John Law's financial affairs; then he wandered about Europe under various disguises. At Genoa he made the acquaintance of some Corsican prisoners and exiles, and persuaded them that he could free their country from Genoese tyranny if they would make him king of the island. With their help and that of certain merchants in Tunis he landed in Corsica in March 1736, where the islanders, beheving that he had the support of several of the powers, proclaimed him king as Theodore I. He forthwith issued edicts, instituted an order of knighthood and waged war on the Genoese, at first with some success. He was soon defeated; civil war broke out in the island; and he left Corsica in Nov. 1736, ostensibly for foreign assistance. He returned to Corsica in 1738 and 1743, but in the face of combined Genoese and French hostihty he attempted no military action. Imprisoned for debt in London, he regained his freedom by mortgaging his "kingdom" of Corsica and subsisted on the charity of Horace Walpole and other friends until his death in London on Dec. 11, 1756. Bibliography. Accounts of Neuhot diverge greatly. The Memoirs of Corsica (1768) by "Colonel Frederick," who claimed to be his son but was apparently a Polish adventurer otherwise known as Viglia(northeast).

historic httle

—

wischi (perhaps properly Wieloweyski) are misleading. See A. Le Glay, Theodore de Neuhoff, rot de Corse (1907) ; A. Vallance, The Summer King (1956).

of them Bulgars. Bulgaria was allowed to maintain a regular army of 20,000 men, together with 10,000 gendarmes and 3,000 frontier guards. This total of 33,000 was not enough to keep order in the country, which consequently suffered serious internal disturbances.

The

clause of the treaty deahng with reparations constituted

most reaUstic approach

to the matter in the peacemaking after attempt was made to seize or to distribute the Bulgarian merchant marine {cf. the treatment of the German, the Austrian and the Hungarian under the treaties of Versailles, St. Germain and Trianon) the amount to be paid was fixed at the lump sum of 2,250,000,000 gold francs; and a reparation commission, consisting of French, British and Italian representatives, was set up with authority to reduce the amount on a simple majority vote. Eventually the commission remitted 75% of the amount fixed; and the annual sum required to meet the charges on the outstanding 550,000,000 gold francs of the debt, payable over 60 years, was well within the capacity of the new Bulgarian

the

World War

I.

No

;

state.

W. V. Temperley and v (1921).

See H. vol. iv

(ed.),

A

History of the Peace Conference,

NEUILLY-SUR-SEINE, a fashionable northwestern suburb of Paris, France, departement of Seine, stands on the right bank of the Seine river, 8 km. (5 mi.) west of Notre Dame cathedral, and on both sides of the Avenue de Neuilly. Pop. (1962) 72,570. It is chiefly residential, and notable for its large areas of open spaces, mainly the remains of former estates. The 18thcentury bridge was rebuilt 1935-46. A large modern office building occupies the site of the chateau de Villiers. The chateau de Neuilly, a favourite residence of Louis Philippe I, was burned in riots in 1848. There are many hospitals and clinics. Neuilly is served by the Paris electric railway, the Metro. Perfumes, chemicals, medicines, plastic materials, automobile parts, electric fittings and aircraft are made on the outskirts and on the He de la Grande Jatte. (H. DE S.-R.) (1687-1753), (JOHANN) German architect of diverse talents, a master of the late baroque style, was born in Eger, Bohemia, in 1687. In 1709 he emigrated to Wiirzburg, where he learned his profession. Neumann had an astonishing combination of talents. He designed palaces, housing, public buildings, bridges, a water system, fireworks and more than 100 churches. He ran a glass factorj', became a colonel of engineers and was a professor of architecture. A stolid and conventional man, he produced works brUliant in design and elegant

NEUMANN,

BALTHASAR

in engineering.

Neumann

the dreamer would conceive the most intricate and

original interiors;

a

maximum

Neumann

of security

the builder realized them, achieving

from a minimum of material.

He

directed

,

TREATY

NEUILLY, OF, the peace treaty concluded between Bulgaria on the one hand and the Allied powers and their associates on the other after World War I. Signed by the Bulgarian prime minister Aleksandr Stamboliski at Neuilly, outside Paris, on Nov. 27, 1919, it came into force on Aug. 9, 1920.

squadrons of painters, sculptors, woodcarvers, iron founders and landscape gardeners in creating the sumptuously harmonious decoration of his masterpieces. The Residenz palace in Wiirzburg (1719^6), designed by Neumann and Germain Boffrand, is one of the great palaces of the baroque period. Neumann's church of Vierzehnheiligen (1743-71), decorated in pink, gold and w-hite, is a triumph in rococo styling. Among his other works are the

NEUMANN—NEUNKIRCHEN Werneck (i 733-45 745-92) and Kappele

episcopal palaces of Bruchsal (1728-49) and

and the pilgrimage churches of Neresheim near Wiirzluirg .S",,

Max H

(

(i

1747-50).

\tui Ficctli'n, Hallhasar

Neumann

(iQS3)-

(J- P- C.)

NEUMANN, FRANZ ERNST

(1798-1895), German minand mathematician who formulated the law that the e.m.f. generated in any closed circuit is a function of the rate of change in number of magnetic lines of force, was born at

eralogist, physicist

Neumann's earlier papers on 11, 1798. crystallography led to his appointment as Privatdozent at Konigsand in 1829 ordinary, extraordinary, berg, where in 1S2S he became {See Physical Units; professor of mineralogy and physics.

Joachimsthal on Sept.

Introduction of Electrical Standards.) Devoting himself next to optics, he produced memoirs which entitle him to a high place among the early searchers after a dynamiIn 1S32, by the aid of a particular hypothesis cal theory of light. as to the constitution of the ether, he reached results agreeing with A. L. Cauchy, and succeeded in deducing laws obtained by those of double refraction resembling those of A. J. Fresnel. He made contributions to the mathematical theory of electrodynamics, and in papers published in 1S45 and 1847 established mathematically

His

the laws of the induction of electric currents.

last publication

was on spherical harmonics (Beitrdge zur Theorie der Kugeljunktionen, 1878).

Neumann

died at Konigsberg on

May

23,

were published in three volumes (1906-28). See Luise Neumann, Franz Neumann (1929)

Neumann

;

1895.

His works

A. Wangerin, Franz

(1907).

NEUMANN, JOHN NEPOMUCENE

(1811-1860),

development of large high-speed digital computers and such applications as the design of the hydrogen bomb and long-range weather forecasting, as well as in doing important work on a variety of military problems, including the atomic bomb. From 1955 to the time of his death on Feb. 8, 1957, he was a member of the U.S. Atomic Energy commission, earning its $50,(I. E. S.) 000 Enrico Fermi award in 1956. See S. Thomas, Men of Space (1960). (1898-1962), German stigmatic, was born in the Bavarian village of Konnersreuth as the eldest daughter of a country tailor on April 8, 1898. At the age of 20 she underwent a severe nervous shock through the outbreak of a fire and subsequently suffered from hysterical paralysis, blindness and gastric troubles for several years. In 1926 a blood-coloured serum began to ooze from her eyes, and during Lent of the same

in the applied

NEUMANN, THERESE

year the stigmata (wounds resembling those of Christ in hands, Throughout the next 30 years these feet and side) appeared. continued to bleed on many Fridays, especially in Passiontide, and were accompanied by trances and other striking phenomena Following her stigmatization, which attracted many visitors. Therese claimed to live without food or drink, being sustained only by Holy Communion. At the request of her bishop she was subjected to a fortnight's investigation in 1927. Later the church authorities recognized this to have been inconclusive, as hysterical known to be able to sustain a complete fast for more

subjects are

than three weeks; in 1932 and 1937 she was requested to submit to another examination but refused, alleging that her father forbade her to do so. Hence her bishop issued no more permits for visits to her, which nevertheless reached a new peak in the years after II, when U.S. soldiers and others came to Konnersreuth in large numbers. After 1950 the Passion ecstasies became much less frequent, though she continued to be visited by thousands each year until her death at Konnersreuth on Sept. 18, 1962. The controversy

Bohemian-U.S. Roman Catholic bishop of Philadelphia, the first American Catholic prelate proposed for canonization (1886), was born in Prachatitz, Bohemia, on March 28, 1811. He studied at the Gymnasium at Budweis. the diocesan seminary of Budweis and the University of Prague, emerging with a reputation for a His zeal clear, penetrating, analyzing mind and for solid piety. for the American missions took him to New York, where he was ordained priest in June 1836. Neumann joined the Redemptorists in 1840, his holiness of life and administrative abilities winning for

World War

him the post of superior of St! Philomena's parish in Pittsburgh, Pa., and later command of all Redemptorists in the United States. He became rector of St. Alphonsus' parish, Baltimore, Md., in 1851, and was named by Pope Pius IX in March 1852 to rule the see of Philadelphia. For eight years Neumann worked to build churches, schools and asylums, legislating for his priests and people and visiting every corner of his spiritual domain. He combated trusteeism; was the first prelate to organize a diocesan school

a town of Germany, Land (state) of Schleswig-Holstein, which after partition of the nation following

and introduced the diocesan-wide celebration of the devotion called the Forty Hours. A deep personal love of God and a resolve to lead others to him were the goals of Neumann's life. He died on Jan. 5, 1860, and in He was 1921 Pope Benedict XV declared his virtues heroic. system

;

beatified Oct. 13, 1963. See Michael J. Curley, C.SS.R., Venerable John Neumann, (1952), with bibliography; Johann Berger, C.SS.R., Leben und des hochseligen Johannes Nep. Neumann (1883), Eng. trans, by Grimm, C.SS.R., Life of the Right Reverend John N. Neumann

C.SS.R.

Wirken Eugene (1884)

(M. J. C.) (1903-1957), was one of the outstanding mathematicians of the 20th century and Born in Budapest, Hung., a scientist of extraordinary breadth. Dec. 28, 1903, he was a general scientific prodigy and took a doctorate in mathematics in 1926 in Budapest. By 1933 (three years after coming to the U.S.), when he assumed the position he held

NEUMANN, JOHN (JANOS) VON

about the supernatural or purely neurotic origin of the phenomena continues. See H. C. Graef, The Case of Therese Neumann (1951). (H. C. G.) see Musical Notation.

NEUMES: NEUMUNSTER,

World War II became part of the Federal Republic of Germany, Pop. (1961) 75,045. lies 66 km. (41 mi.) N. of Hamburg by road. Its name derived from novum monasterium ("new minster"), the church of the monastery that was founded in 1125 by the Augustine missionary ViceHn, known as the apostle of the Wends; St. Vicelin's church (1829) is in the town,

which was chartered in

1870.

Neumijnster,

which suffered heavy

air-raid

damage during

has been rebuilt on modern lines. There are many schools, including one for textile engineering, and a textile museum noted for its collection of ancient textiles. A large public park has a zoological garden for native animals, Neumiinster is a rail and

World War

II,

road junction on the main routes from Hamburg to Kiel and Denmark. More than half the inhabitants are employed in industry (textiles, leather, chemical fibres, switch gears and paper) and the (R. U.) Bundesbahn (Federal Railways) repair plant.

NEUNKIRCHEN,

Advanced

a town of Germany in the Saarland, 1957 became part of the Federal Republic of Germany, stands on the Blies, 20 km. (12 mi.) by road N.E. of Saarbriicken. Pop. (1961) 45,625. Blast furnaces and pit derricks dominate the town which is surrounded on all sides by extensive woods. In addition to many administrative buildings and a new town hall, there are a park with a zoo, sports grounds and one of the most modern

Study (Princeton, N.J.), he had already an international reputation based on contributions to operator, quantum, set and game theories. He may well be remembered longest for his work in pure mathematics during 1933-43, and notably for founding the theory of operator rings, a high point of the axiomatic and in-

indoor swimming baths in West Germany. Neunkirchen is a junction on the railway from Saarbriicken to Mainz and has the steepThe town is a centre of est tram (streetcar) route in Europe. mining, industry, communications and of cultural life for eastern Saarland. Besides coal mines and ironworks there are sawmills,

tegrative tendencies characteristic of 20th-century mathematics. This work showed that analysis was subject to these trends and that it had interesting and unsuspected connections with algebra and geometry. During and after World War II he engaged mainly

breweries and textile factories. Neunkirchen was first mentioned There is evidence of early iron founding (1595) and in 1281. ironworks rebuilt in 1652. The town gained civic rights in 1922.

for the rest of his life as professor at the Institute for

which

in

(K. F. H.)

NEUQUEN—NEURITIS NEUQUEN,

an inland province of Argentina on the Chilean Pop. {I960) frontier, between the Colorado and Limay rivers. 109,021; area 36,324 sq.mi. (94,079 sq.km.). The greater part of the territory is mountainous, with fertile, well-watered valleys and valuable forests. The eastern part, however, contains large plains showing only stunted vegetation and having numerous saline deposits. The long droughts that prevail in this region have deterred agricultural settlement.

Nevertheless, agriculture and stock raisThe temperature of the

ing provide the chief sources of wealth.

Andean region

summer

is

is

hot.

summer, but on The Neuquen, which meets

The

the lower plains the

cold even in

68th meridian to form the Rio Negro,

is

the

Limay near

the

the principal river of the

group of beautiful lakes in the higher Andean valleys is the celebrated Nahuel Huapi iq.v.; lion grass"), which lies partly in the southwestern angle of the province, and partly in Rio Negro and Chile. It is the source of the Rio Limay and receives the overflow from two smaller neighbouring lakes. The territory of Neuquen, officially created in 1884, was proprovince.

largest of a

to the status of a province in 1955. The population is concentrated in a few small towns on the rivers and in some colonies The provincial capital, in the fertile districts of the Andes. Neuquen (pop. [1956 est.] 9,892), was founded on Sept. 12, 1904. capital Rio Near the is the Negro dam, source of irrigation for a

moted

large area. The province is reached by a light-draft river steamer which ascends the Rio Negro to the capital, at the confluence of the Limay and Neuquen, and by railway from Bahia Blanca to Zapala, via Neuquen. (Ge. P.) NEURALGIA. A symptom, not a disease, neuralgia is manifested by pain along the course of a nerve. Various forms are distinguished according to the nerve affected: suboccipital neuralgia when the pain is in the back of the head and neck, intercostal neuralgia when it is between the ribs, etc. Strictly speaking, the term is restricted to those nerve pains for which no specific cause and no evidence of impaired function of the nerve can be found. Actually the word is often employed for pain caused by local nerve damage when pain is the prominent symptom. Most sciatic neuralgia, for example, is attributable to mechanical compression and stretching of a sensory root of the sciatic nerve from displacement of an intervertebral disc within the spinal canal. Neuralgic pain is frequently the forerunner of hidden organic disease, and the first consideration in treatment is the search for a definitive cause.

Characteristically the pain of neuralgia

is

sharp, acute, darting

The attacks, commonly brief in themselves, may succeed each other without respite for hours or days, robbing the victim of appetite and sleep and reducing him to a state of exhaustion and mental depression. Neuralgia of a nonspecific kind tends to occur during states of debility and malnutrition from any cause and in association with infections. Exposure, chilling and fatigue and paroxysmal.

sometimes precipitating causes. Treatment for relief of symptoms

are

many

cases proving refractory to

as well as can be,

by ordinary

all

is

sometimes of

measures.

Pain

is

little

use,

controlled,

analgesics, together with hypnotics

if required for sleep, avoiding narcotics if at all possible. Hot or cold apphcations, diathermy or repeated local anesthesia with pro-

For ex(Novocaine) may be beneficial. tremely severe or prolonged attacks, palliative operations on sensory nerves, roots or their central cormections have been resorted to with differing success. Trigeminal Neuralgia. In this condition, also called tic douloureux, the pain is strictly confined to one or all of the three divisions of the main sensory nerve of the face. Pain appears in caine hydrochloride

—

the lower jaw, cheek, tongue and temple, in the upper jaw, cheek and side of the nose or in the forehead, depending on the division affected.

The

flashing, stabbing, boring pains, usually lasting less

than a minute, are excruciating, and the sufferer commonly recoils from his agony with a spasmodic facial contortion. Characterstimulation of circumscribed areas of the face or mouth, eating, talking or even the lightest touch may provoke an explosion of neuralgic pain. There is little, if any, discomfort during the intervals between paroxysms. The condition, for which no cause can usually be found, afflicts the elderly by preference and may have spontaneous remissions. Medical therapy is undependistically,

289

Injection of the affected branch with alcohol gives prompt relief but rarely for more than a year or two. Cutting of the sensory roots within the skull affords able, but surgical treatment

is

effective.

almost certain permanent freedom from pain. Atypical Facial Neuralgia. This differs from trigeminal neuralgia in that the pain, although felt in the face, tends to be more diffuse, is duller in quality, persists for minutes or hours and The nature of is not ordinarily provoked by sensory stimulation. the condition is obscure but it seems probable that it is a disorder of the sympathetic nervous system and may be a variant of migraine (q.v.). Some cases respond to a regimen of treatment for migraine, but most are more intractable. All do poorly with surgical treatment. A variety of paroxysmal, unilateral nocturnal neuralgic pain involving the eye and temple, often called histamine

—

headache in the United States, is a closely related condition. Postherpetic Neuralgia. This is merely the continuation for weeks, months or sometimes years of the nerve-root pain which

—

present in the region of the skin eruption during the acute stage This distressing sequel of the disease of an attack of shingles. is

mostly elderly persons. X-ray therapy appears to benefit Otherwise, once established, the pain stubbornly (R. B. R.) resists treatment. See Skin, Diseases of. (Neuropathy) denotes a disease of nerves. CharNEURITIS acteristic of neuritis are pain and tenderness; impaired sensation, strength and areflexia and abnormal circulation and sweating in the distribution of the diseased nerve or nerves. Neuritis of the special sense organs and viscera has other, but equally specific, affects

some

patients.

;

characteristics.

A unique feature of the nerve cell is its extraordinary length. In its course a nerve may lie next to skin or bone; it may pass through muscles or tunnels; proximally its roots lie in relation to the spinal column and distally its fibres diminish in calibre. Nerve fibres All these anatomic vicissitudes represent hazards. are sites of elaborate enzymatic systems that can be blocked by toxins or can fail through lack of specific vitamins. Nerve fibres are richly supplied with blood vessels, and disease of these vessels may have devastating effects. Nerve fibres are housed in connective tissue that

may become

invaded by tumours, events that [See also Nerve;

infected, scarred,

may

edematous or

cause injury to nerve fibres.

Nervous System, Diseases

of.)

There are many causes of neuritis, but in general it may be said when neuritis affects one nerve (mononeuritis) or a plexus

that

of nerves (plexitis) the cause

commonly

is

a

mechanical one; that

several single nerves are affected simultaneously (mononeuritis multiplex) the cause often is a vascular or allergic one;

when

and that when nerves are affected

diffusely (multiple neuritis) the

cause often is toxic, metabolic, viral or allergic. Electromyography, a procedure by which changes in the electric potential of muscle may be recorded through stimulation of its nerve, is of decisive help in the diagnosis of neuritis.

Mononeuritis and Plexitis.

—

Bell's palsy (neuropathy of the exposure to a draft. The facial nerve passes through a bony canal that can accommodate little more than the nerve and its attendant blood vessels, and in about twoIf thirds of the cases of Bell's palsy the nerve is injured here. continuity of the fibres is interrupted, they must grow anew. Growing fibres and their branches often arrive at a wrong destination, and this results in extraneous movements that ever after betray an facial nerve) often follows

old Bell's palsy.

One of the nerves most commonly aflSicted is the ulnar, which serves the hand and arm. In about two-thirds of the cases this nerve is injured at the elbow, where it lies between skin and

The nerve again becomes vulnerable at the wrist, and ulnar neuropathy therefore is conspicuous among the occupational neubone.

ropathies.

The median ries large

nerve, serving muscles of hand and forearm, carcomplements of sensory and vasomotor fibres and is The commonest cause of median

especially intolerant of injury.

is compression of the nerve in the carpal (wrist) tunnel. convincingly demonstrated by electromyography. Slight injury to the nerve at higher levels may result in a prolonged and

neuritis

This

is

distressing affliction of the

hand known

as causalgia.

NEUROLOGY—NEUROLOGY, COMPARATIVE

290

The radial nerve spirals the humerus the hone of the upper arm) immediately under the skin and here is subject to compression. The wrist and ftnper drop that results is sometimes called Saturday nipht paralysis, A small cutaneous branch of the radial nerve may be compressed at the wrist by the band of a wrist watch, with re(

ternal stimuli including touch, temperature changes, chemical sub-

and contraction of muscle. The stimulus typically produces a change in the part of the cell to which it is applied or in the receptor, and is followed by a wave of change that progresses to points distant from that of impact. stances, pain-producing contacts

The power

sulting chiralgia paraesthetica.

In at least half of 400 cases of neuropathy of the brachial plexus that were reviewed, the brachial plexus (the great nerve plexus of the neck and shoulder,

armi^it,

where meet

all

arm and hand) was injured by

by a stimulus is and represents another characteristic of living probably possess it in some degree, but nervous tissue especially is adapted for the reception and 111

of transfer of an impulse initiated

called conductivity

matter.

All living cells

the nerves supplying

traction or compression.

I

1

1

,

1

ll

In a fifth of the cases, cancer of the breast or lung had invaded RECEPTOR CELL

the plexus.

Involvement of the thigh and

leg")

or

Among

neuritis.

sciatic

nerve (the great nerve supplying the

its roots accounts for about 40'^r of cases of the causes are protrusion of intervertebral disks,

and trauma of the nerve itself. Crossed leg palsy is caused by wedging of the common peroneal nerve (serving the anterior muscles of the leg) between the head When prolonged squatting of the fibula and the opposite knee. compresses the nerve between the head of the fibula and the tendon of the biceps femoris muscle, a foot drop results, sometimes called arthritis of the spine

gardener's paralysis. Numbness of the lateral aspect of the thigh because of neuritis of the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve is known as meralgia

The nerve

paraesthetica.

usually

is

injured where

it

traverses or

passes under the inguinal ligament.

—

Mononeuritis Multiplex. When several isolated and even widely separated nerves are involved simultaneously, it is usually found that trouble has started within the nerve itself. This may occur in leprosy (q.v.). in serum paralysis, in periarteritis nodosa and in porphyria tq.v.). Multiple Peripheral Neuritis. This term (also polyneuritis

—

or polyneuropathy) denotes diffuse and symmetrical involvement of nerves. Symptoms usually begin in the feet, then in the hands,

then progress upward. The usual causes are bacterial, viral, chemand metabolic poisons, allergy or the lack of substances that Associated with

MUSCLE CELL LippiNcoTT

FIG,

I,

conduction of stimuli. The response may be accomplished by another part of the same cell, which may or may not be modified for that purpose, or by specialized cells connected with the receptors by conducting fibres. The structure that has the capacity for response is called the effector.

— SIMPLE

RECEPTOR. EFFEC-

INVERTEBRATES

rOR SYSTEM

— These

Some animals consist of a single cell. protozoans possess a system of delicate threads or fibrils that interfibrils cilia. These locomotory whiplike connect the bases of centre in a small body, the motorium, which is situated near the Co-ordinated movements of the cilia adapted to propel gullet. the animal forward or backward indicate the presence of a special conducting mechanism; this is provided by the fibrils, which conProtozoans.

stitute a primitive

—

neuromotor system.

Sponges. In sponges, which consist of many cells, no nervous structures have been identified. These animals have a system of channels with inlet and outlet pores through which a current of water may pass through their bodies. Minute organisms that serve for food are extracted

movements

from the water by

cells lining the channels.

of sponges consist of opening

and closing

ical

The

are needed to support the function of nerves.

the pores that govern the circulating stream. These movements are accomplished by very simple contractile cells that appear to be activated by direct stimulation without the intervention of

multiple neuritis

may

be the Guillain-Barre syndrome, in which is elevated without in-

the content of protein of the spinal fluid

crease in the

number

Treatment include

of cells.

of Neuritis.

management

—The general principles of treatment

of the underlying cause, care of the afflicted

and physical therapy. forms of therapy include the administration of BAL (2,3-dimercapto-l-propanol) in the treatment of arsenical poly-

limbs, application of heat, adequate nutrition Specific

neuritis; of

ment

EDTA

(

ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) in the treat-

serum and the neuritides of collagen diseases; and of vitamins of the B complex in the treatment of neuropathies associated with poor nutrition, (H, W, Wn,) of lead poisoning; of cortisone in the treatment of

paralysis

NEUROLOGY

is

the area of science that deals with the

See Nerve; Nerve Conduction; Nervous System; Nervous System, Diseases of; Nervous System, Surgery OF, NEUROLOGY, COMPARATIVE. The field of compara five neurology comprises the nervous mechanism and activities of all animal types, from the most primitive to man. Nearly all living organisms are sensitive to sudden changes in environmental conditions. This property of sensitivity is one of the fundamental characteristics of living matter and is termed irritability. Changes in environment, which may be of many kinds, act as stimuli; nervous system.

because of the irritability of living matter, a stimulus results in some form of response that usually is advantageous to the organism.

—

chief

nervous elements. Such musclelike elements have been designated independent effectors. Another example of an independent effector afforded by the minute stinging organs of jellyfishes and related animals. These organs also react directly to stimuli and serve to paralyze or ensnare the prey. In the larger jellyfishes the threadlike lances that the stinging organs discharge can penetrate the human skin and inflict painful injuries. In the higher animals more is

form of muscles, glands and electric organs are activated by impulses transmitted to them by nervous specialized effectors in the

tissue,

Coelenterates.

—The coelenterates,

mals, also possess effectors in the

muscles, whose cells can change their shape rapidly. Certain of these muscles may respond directly to stimuli but as a rule muscle responds to a nervous impulse. In the tentacles of sea anemones and related animals a simple apparatus is receptor-effector

found that consists of a sensory cell and muscle.

The sensory

cell

RECEPTOR CELL

reaches the

external surface and constitutes

a receptor. The receptor is stimulated by mechanical impact or by dissolved substances, such as meat juices, in the water. The

Introduction. Stimuli as a rule are localized as to point of impact, and all animals except the lowest forms possess special cells or aggregations of cells for the reception of different types

deep part of the receptor

Such specialized cells are called receptors; in their most elaborate form, such as the eye and the organ of hearing of higher animals, they constitute the special sense organs. Both in man and in lower animals there are many t>'pes of simpler organized receptors that are activated by a variety of external and in-

ess has

of stimuli.

jellyfishes and related aniform of well-differentiated

GANGLION CELL

cell

gives rise to a fibrous process that

serves as a conductor.

This proc-

FIG.

2.

— COMPLEX

RECEPTOR-EF-

numerous branches that FECTOR SYSTEM OF SEA ANEMONE form a plexus in the layers beneath the surface and end in relation to the muscles in the deep layers. The plexus spreads the stimulus so that a widespread response of muscle is produced from a localized stimulus.

NEUROLOGY, COMPARATIVE This response results

in

movements

of the tentacles to carry food

The combination of specialized receptor cells and to the mouth. muscle makes possible relatively quick movements in response to slight stimuli.

A

further elaboration of the receptor-conductor-eiTector appa-

ratus,

cludes

found

in

hydroid polyps, sea anemones and jellyfishes. innerve cells and their processes which are

primitive

interposed between the receptors and effectors.

Each of these

numerous branching fibres that form an beneath the surface of the animal and penetrate There is good histological evidence that to internal structures. the processes of the nerve cells do not fuse but only interlace or run parallel with each other. They have points of contact at which the nerve impulse is transmitted from one fibre to another. Such a point of contact between individual nerve cells or their processes

primitive nerve cells has intricate plexus

known

as a synapse. Synaptic junctions are characteristic features of the nervous systems of higher animals, and in these animals they serve as oneway valves that transmit impulses in only one direction. In the jellyfishes, however, transmission may be in either direction. An impulse initiated at any point, accordingly, may spread through the entire nerve plexus to all parts of the body, in contrast w^th the manner of its spread in the greater part of the nervous system of higher animals in which the one-way synaptic connections direct the impulses into specific channels. is

Higher Invertebrates.

—

The nervous system of animals above the jellyfishes assumes such a variety of forms that only a few examples can be given. In all of the bilaterally symmetrical animals, however, it is made up of specific nerve cells, which, with their processes, long and short, are known as neurons. Typically the cell bodies are grouped into masses called nerve centres, whereas the longer processes are collected into bundles in a central nervous axis that connects the nerve centres with each other and into peripheral bundles known as nerves. The nen.'e centres and connecting bundles form a central nervous system. The nerves connect the peripherally or internally situated receptor and effector organs with the central nervous apparatus. As represented in segmented invertebrates such as the earthworm and the insects, the central nervous system comprises an anterior collection of nerve cells and fibres, usually called the brain and two elongated strands of nerve fibres and groups of cells extending throughout most of the length of the body. The groups of nerve cells, called ganglia, constitute nerve centres that occur in pairs, one pair for each body segment. Each pair is interconnected by short transverse bundles of nerve fibres MOTOR FIBRE

motor neuron.

Such

291

neurons from receptor to effector constitutes a reflex arc. the simplest comprising two elements and their synaptic connection in the nerve centre. A third type of neuron situated between the sensory and the motor neurons is also found in the earthworm. It is known as the internuncial neuron and serves as an adjustor. Such neurons occur only within the brain and the nerve cord and its centres, extending lengthwise from one nerve centre to another and conducting impulses that influence the activities of segments of the body remote from the point of stimulation. Even in the worms there is some degree of control by the anterior nerve centres over other parts of the nervous system. After the brain of an earthworm is removed the animal can eat and crawl, right itself and perform other functions normally. It is restless and active, however, its anterior BODY SEGMENTS segments are lifted upward and it requires a much longer time to burrow than the normal worm. or

a chain of

Marine Clam Worm.

—The

clam worm. Nereis, whose nervous system is built on the same general plan, has few sensory cells mouth in the skin but possesses several

pairs of eyes and feelers

and ten- ^"v

stimulated by fig. 4.— side view of brain and chemical substances. These all anterior nerves of the earth*°'"' are attached to the head region and their nerves are connected with the brain. When the brain are

that

tacles

removed, the animal loses sensitivity to Ught and chemical it ceases to feed and to burrow and it becomes overactive. Much more definitely than in the earthworm the brain of the clam worm is a sensory centre that normally exercises a restraining These centres, situated control over the chief motor centres. in a nerve centre beneath the antennal nerve gullet, have connections with the —COMPOUND EYE segmental nerve centres.

is

changes;

Insects. THORACIC GANGLION

FIBRE

central

nervous system

The brain region,

is

results.

situated in the head

above the digestive tube,

but is connected to an enlarged nerve centre at the anterior end of the nerve cord by a strand of SENSORY nerve fibres that passes down_ _ __^^gi5^^^j ward on either side of the forward uNTEBsucKUNGEBpart of the allmcutary canal. In FIG. 3. TRANSVERSE SECTION the invertebrates the nerve cord THROUGH VENTRAL BODY WALL AND lies beneath the digestive tract. A GANGLION OF CENTRAL NERVOUS Earthworm.— In the earthSYSTEM OF THE EARTHWORM ,. worm a pair of, ganglia occurs in each of the segments of the body. From these ganglia, and from the brain, nerves pass to the adjacent body parts, to the muscles and to the skin. The earthworm has sensory cells in the skin, especially in the anterior part of the body. The outer ends of these cells reach the external surface and are modified as receptors. Their inner ends are elongated as small nerve fibres that collect together to form nerves, which extend to the nerve centres. Within the latter these fibres make synaptic connections with the cell bodies, or their processes, of a second set of neurons whose long fibres become included in the nerves and are distributed to muscle'. A stimulus appUed to the skin may produce a muscular movement, the nervous mechanism involved consisting of receptor or sensory neuron, connections in the nerve centre and an effector

—

jj^j ^f

VENTRAL NERVE CORD

tivc.

— Some

of the activi-

^^^^ j^^j^^j^ ^^^ j^j^j,^. Much of the behaviour of

insects is of this typt. Such animals have no basis of learning but rest on a structural pattern of the nervous system which is preformed in each individual. Instinctive acts require only an ap-

abdominal GANGLIA

propriate stimulus to start them

so that a ladderlike pattern of the

GANGLION

INFERIOR GANGLION -^

3so"e^d".on° ^b»'c"u«. of cambbidge university p«ess

bbi*d''e"-z"o"os*y

— NERVOUS

but are much more complicated than reflexes. Bees, for example, build their combs and do other things instinctively and without training, but their nervous system also is adaptable to some degree so that they can learn to find their way and are helped by their fellows. Even higher animals perform many inolfactory nerve stinctive acts, such as the suckling FIG.

5.

HORSEFLY

young mammals or the crying newborn infant.

of

OLFACTORY BULB

of a

ENDBRAIN

VERTEBRATES

BETWEENBRAIN

.

The the

central nervous system of

(animals

vertebrates

spinal

of

axis

with

cartilaginous

medulla oblongata,"

or

bony segments)

consists of a cord surrounded by the vertebrae and a brain situated in the head. spinal

Spinal cord is

is

Cord

The

spinal

largely a reflex organ but

influenced

SPINAL CORD

"";

m?

by impulses from

the brain centres. It also relays to the brain sensory impulses brought

by the spinal ner\'es. In the motor activities of the cord are more strongly inbv the brain than in lower vertebrates. In addition there

mammals fluenced

-BRAIN OF HAGFISH

NEUROLOGY, COMPARATIVE

292

motor pathway, originating in the cerebral cortex, the impulses of which result from integrations at the highest levels of the nervous system rather than at rellex levels. The relative functional importance of the sensory and some of the motor systems of the brain varies in different species. Also is

a voluntary

many water

.

OLfACTORV NERVE

vertebrates, such as

have a special system of ggnsofy Qrgans and nerve centres,

fishes, OLFACTORY BULB ,

the

lateral

system, that

line

The

BETWEENBRAIN

is

lacking in air-breathing animals. BETWEENBRAIN

relative size of the nerve cen-

BETWEENBRAIN MIDBRAIN

tres of the brain corresponds with

the importance of such centres to

CEREBELLUM CEREBELLUM

the different groups of animals; CEREBELLUM

for example, in birds, which have

extremely good visual powers, the NERVE ROOTS OF

gptic ccntres are large, whereas

the lateral hne centres are ab-

OBLONGATA

MEDULLA OBLONGATA

MEDULLA OBLONGATA

sent.

Through observation and experimental studies most of the functional regions and related fi-

OBLONGATA SPINAL CORD

FIG. 9.

bre bundles of the vertebrate brain have been determined and their activities investigated.

— In

Brain. -BRAIN OF LAMPREY

the

all

worms and

animals from insects

to

the

an important and characteristic part of always situated at the anterior end of the animal and with it are connected the principal sense organs of the body. In man and other higher animals the brain is thus associated with the organs of sight, hearing, smell and taste. The development of these special receptors and of the brain has prohighest forms the brain the nervous system.

is

It is

gressed hand in hand in the evoThis process lutionary process. has involved transformation of

olfactory nerve

several of the sense organs of the

olfactory bulb

-

-

head from surface receptors, which require contact of the stimulus with the

body surface,

which come from more or

ofmusbrain/

—

portance; in man it is so extensive as to hide the remainder of the brain when viewed from

The

neurons and

constitutes the adjustor appara-

mote points although they must

tus, which is at the same time the most complex and also of the

As the distance receptors become increasingly important the brain becomes a more complex switch-

board to meet the needs of creased sensory reception.

-BRAIN OF YOUNG SALMON

in-

With the development within

it of internuncial neurons the brain becomes in the higher animals the centre for increasingly complex nervous activi-

more and more ties.

The

brain comprises five divisions (see below) whose relative with the sensory equipment and other variables of the

size varies

different groups of vertebrates.

Paired nerves are attached both

highest order in the nervous sys-

tem.

The

complex

brain stem consists of

reflex centres

and

their

connecting fibre bundles, many of the centres having connections with the cerebral cortex as well as with the lower centres.

MEDULU OBLONGATA

SPINAL CORD

Mammals, Including Man.

—The

cortex of

mammals

is di-

vided into sensory, motor and asThe sensory sociation areas. -BRAIN OF LIZARD areas receive relayed impulses, such as visual and auditory, from centres in a subdivision of the betweenbrain called the thalamus. The motor areas give rise to fibres that reach lower centres related to motor activity. The association areas are small in lower mammals, but in man they constitute the greater part of the cortex. In these areas more complex patterns

of

integration

are

to the brain

and the spinal cord. The spinal nerves include both sensory and motor fibres and are similar in all vertebrates but in vary number. The nerves connected with the brain are made up of diverse combinations of sensory and motor fibres and some

formed from impulses supplied by other centres, cortical and

are entirely sensory or entirely motor. Each of the five divisions of the brain, termed the endbrain (telencephalon), betweenbrain (diencephalon), midbrain (mesen-

bruip, in which the integrations occur,

cephalon), cerebellum

in size until in the higher

(metencephalon) and medulla oblongata (myelencephalon), has characteristic structural patterns and func-

OLFACTORY STALK

cortex consists en-

tirely of internuncial

less re-

impinge on the specialized structures, such as the eye or the ear, CEREBELLUM to be effective. There is reason to believe that the distance receptors have nerve roots, evolved from the contact recep- ofmedulu oblongata tor type and with this transformation the brain has also undergone a far-reaching development. MEDULLA oblongata

OF SALAMANDER

tions. Part of the endbrain and all of the betweenbrain, midbrain and medulla oblongata constitute the basis of the entire organ; collectively these subdivisions are termed the brain stem (see Brain). Lower Vertebrates. In all but the lowest vertebrates a covering layer, the mantle or pallium, is superposed on the deep part of the endbrain, and a cerebellum is found above the anterior part of the medulla oblongata. From the pallium the cerebral cortex This is lacking in fishes and lower urodeles but is differentiated. beginning with the frog and upward through the animal series OLFACTORY BULB it assumes increasing size and im-

above.

to

distance receptors, the stimuli of

— BRAIN

thalamic.

The

in

frontal lobe of the cere-

lower

most complex is

MEDULLA OBLONGATA

very small

mammals but

increases

apes it forms a large subdivision of the

_

_^^^

^^

comparative

fig.

11.

_

^

^

„„„,„

neurology.- vol.

,„.„ s,

isss

brain of golden eagle

NEUROPHARMACOLOGY AND PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY brain.

In

man

it

is

especially prominent

and includes the cortex

involved in the highest activities of the human mind. Other lobes of the cerebral cortex also increase in size and complexity from the lower to the higher mammals. In the ascending scale, from the lowest to the highest animals

and man, the nervous system becomes increasingly complex in

The

OLFACTORY BULB structure.

reach CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE

_.

it .

impulses

provide /. ,

an

that

increasing

..

,.

"

amount of mformation regardmg environmental

and

conditions,

the brain exercises an increasing

293

memories" of man as stored in folklore and books. The mind, of which the brain is the organ, can analyze, synthesize and project to the future; it is capable of imagination and other qualities that give man predominance by reason of the complexity of the cerebral cortex and its connections. See also Brain; Nerve; Nerve Conduction; Nervous System; Spinal Cord. "racial

—

BiBi-KicRAPny, C. U. Ariens Kappers, G. C. Huber and E. C. Crosby, Comparative Anatomy of the Nervous System oj Vertebrates, Including (19.16) J. F, Fulton, Physiology of the Nervous System (1949) C. J, Herrick, Neurological Foundations of Animal Behaviour (1924) C, J, Herrick, The Brain of the Tiger Salamander (1948); Libbie H. Hyman, The Invertebrates, vol. i (1940), vol. 2 (1951) G. H, Parker, The Elementary Nervous System (1919) C, L, Prosser (ed,). Comparative Animal Phvsiology (1950); S, W, Ranson, The Anatomy of the Nervous System, 10th ed,, rev. by S. L, Clark (1959). (O. Ll,)

Man

;

;

;

;

dominance over the

activities of

lower nerve centres.

In

mammals

dominance

as well as

over

man

lower

the

centres

may

express itself in inhibitions modifications of behaviour that result from integrations of

CEREBELLUM q^

impulses from the most important sense organs or from memMEouLLA OBLONGATA

Q^y gf pagf experiencBs. integrations

FIG. 12.

—

Such

may overcome

or

modify

responscs organized at ""nV^snJTn'o.t" lower levels; for example, an individual with social training may BRAIN OF RAT suppress so purely a reflex act as NO RAT.-

p.

BLAKis.

may

take explosive force. Some acquired functions such as speech, recognition of spoken are localized in furthermore, various skills, or written words and one or the other hemispheres of the cerebrum. In right-handed a sneeze,

which

in the untrained

person

persons the so-called dominant hemisphere handed persons it is the right.

Trends in the Nervous System.

is

the left; in left-

—Comparative

studies of the

nervous system by anatomical and physiological methods have

re-

vealed the following trends: increase in the speed of conduction of stimuH and the impulses resulting from them for example, the

—

rate of conduction in the nerve plexus of the jellyfish attains a

maximum

speed of 120 cm. (48 in.) per second, whereas in a human nerve it may be more than 100 times as fast; integration of impulses so that a given stimulus may result in increased response or in failure to respond; modification of the pattern of response; dominance by the brain as a result of connection with it of the most important sensory organs; and control of motor centres by the brain through the action of its adjuster mechanism. The human brain is the most intricate mechanism in nature. It comprises pathways of many degrees of complexity, from a relatively simple reflex arc, illustrated by the pathway involved in constriction of the pupil in response to light (sensory impulses emanating from receptor cells in the retina of the eye travel along the optic nerve to a specific centre in the midbrain, which in turn relays these impulses to a motor centre from where new impulses are dispatched to the muscles of the iris to cause constriction), to extremely complex integrations that affect behaviour.

These latter integrations may involve not only present experience and the individual's memories of his own past, but also CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE OF FOREBRAIN PARIETAL LOBE

FRONTAL LOBEOCCIPITAL LOBE

OLFACTORY BULB

CEREBELLUM

BETWEEN BRAIN MIDBRAIN

MEDULLA OBLONGATA FIG. 13.

— MEDIAL VIEW OF HUMAN

BRAIN

;

NEUROPHARMACOLOGY AND PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY,

the general names of the sciences concerned with the action of drugs on the central nervous system, A number of drugs that influence the higher brain centres have been known for many years. Examples are the general anesthetics, the pain-relieving opiates, alcohol and the sleep-producing hypCernotics, all classified as central nervous system depressants.

and amphetamine have upon the nervous system. These drugs generally

tain other drugs such as strychnine, caffeine

a stimulant effect

do not produce

in

man

behaviour changes useful in psychiatric

therapy.

Therapeutic agents useful in mental illness were not discovered middle of the 20th century. With the discovery of the neuropharmacologic drugs reserpine and chlorpromazine, some of the major forms of mental illness involving thinking disturbances, especially the schizophrenias, showed definite improvement with drug therapy. These were the first modern drugs used as tranquilMany tranquilizing, or ataraxic, drugs izers in mental patients. are available. In most mental institutions the use of these drugs has revolutionized the handhng of mentally disturbed patients. The ataraxic drugs differ from the hypnotic barbiturates in that their primary action is not on the cerebral cortex but on the lower Their principal effect is to make emotional levels of the brain. stress less disturbing while at the same time allowing the patient Patients receiving such medication are not deto remain alert. pressed and lethargic as they would be after barbiturates; rather they seem willing to exercise and care for their personal needs. In addition, some types of neuropharmacologic agents are useful in overactive states such as epilepsy and paralysis agitans. The anticonvulsant drugs diphenylhydantoin sodium (Dilantin) and trimethadione (Tridione) and the antiparkinsonian drug trihexyphenidyl (Artane) are examples. Concomitant with the introduction of tranquilizing drugs into psychiatric practice was the discovery in 1943 of the remarkable psychotomimetic effects of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-2S, or iV,yV-diethyl-lysergamide) by the Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann. This compound when ingested in minute amounts produces hallucinations, depersonalization and thinking disturbances that have features in common with those of schizophrenia and paranoia. Other less potent hallucinogens include bufotenine from Piptadenia peregrina, harmine from Peganum harmala and mescaUne from Lophophora williamsii. It is apparent that with the possession of drugs that can either cause or suppress hallucinations the experimental pharmacologist, the animal behaviour psychologist and the psychiatrist can combine their skills to study brain functions in health (normal behaviour patterns) and in mental disease (abnormal behaviour patterns). until the

The extensive investigations made in neuropharmacology have involved study of the chemical constituents of different areas of the brain (neurochemistry) as these may be influenced by psychopharmacologic drugs. These behavioural drugs influence the electrical activity of the brain as recorded in the electroencephalogram normally and in mental illness. Thus the neuropharmacologic agents have provided tools for the study of normal nervous functions at the chemical, electrical and behavioural levels. Perhaps the most significant aspect of the discovery of these neuropharmacologic agents was the demonstration that it is pos-

NEUROPTERA

294 modify by drug therapy changes of mental disease. This and it lent new impetus to the ness. See also Tranquilizing pharmacology. sible to

some

of the baffling behaviour

tral surface; the maxillae,

was

major medical milestone,

fit

a

organic concept of mental

ill-

Drugs; Psychiatry; Psycho-

— H.

A. Abramsen (ed), Neuropharmacology, i, ii and iii conference (1954, 19,v\ 1956); N. S. Kline (ed.), Psychopharmacolosy, Publication no. 42, .American Association for the .Advancement of Science (1956); H. E. Himwich (cd.), Psychopharmacology, Publication no. 46, American .Association for the Advancement of Science (1957); G. B. Koellc, "The Pharmacology of Mescaline and D-Lysergic .Acid Diethylamide (LSD)," New Engl. J. Med., 258:1-8

Bibliography.

(19.58); H. E. Himwich, "PsychopharmacoloKic Drugs," Science, 127:59-72 (1958); J. C. Krantz, Jr. and C. J. Carr, "Drugs in the Treatment of the Mentally III" in Pharmacologic Principles of Medical Practice, pp. 756-810 (1961); R. M. Feathcrstone and A. Simon, A Pharmacologic .ipproach to the Study of the Mind (1959); J. P. Dewsbcrv, "Schizophrenia and the Psychotomimetic Drugs," En-

deavour,' pp. :0-:4, vol. 19, no. 73 (Jan. 1960).

(C. J. C.)

NEUROPTERA,

an order of insects that includes the alder It flies, snake files, ant lion flies, lacewings and their allies. comprises about 4,500 species of small to rather large soft-bodied insects with usually elongate antennae and two pairs of similar, net-veined, membranous wings; the wings are closed roofiike over the body when at rest and the hind pair is usually without a plicated posterior lobe.

The mouth

parts are for biting, the tarsi

are five-segmented, and there are All no cerci or tail filaments. Neuroptera undergo complete metamorphosis, and the larvae are active and predatory with

free

and are generally enclosed

Neuroptera are

weak

FIG. all

insects of

1.

—GREEN

is

definitely

of the adults;

known

many

respecting the specific nature of the food

are nocturnal in habits and are attracted to

while most of the day-flying species are rarely seen on the

lights,

wing.

Geographical Distribution.

— Certain families of Neuroptera

Chrysopidae, for example, are found in almost all extensive areas of land except New Zealand; Sialidae have an almost world-wide though discontinuous range; while the Raphidiidae are mainly restricted to the northern hemisphere. Several famihes, on the other hand, are almost confined to Australia, which has a more diverse fauna of Planipennia than any other region of the globe, although the Megaloptera are represented there only by a few species. There are 13 families of Neuroptera in the United States but only 7 in the British Isles. Geological Distribution. Megaloptera are evidently an archaic group but their fossil remains, unless very perfect, are difficult to identify. The earliest undoubted remains of this suborder have been found in the Permian rocks of the U.S.S.R. The Planipennia first appear as fossils in Permian beds of the U.S.S.R. are nearly world-wide in their distribution.

—

Economic Importance. Neuroptera as a whole are distinctly man in their larval stages. Larvae of alder flies and

°''"'*^'

flies form food for trout and other fishes, while those of upon many soft-bodied noxious insects. In Europe and North America the most beneficial sorts are the brown lacewings, green lacewings and the dustywings. In Australia larvae of the moth lacewings destroy numbers of chafer beetle

dobson

the Planipennia prey

are rarely abundant as individuals. In the adult stage, they feed mostly upon soft-bodied insects or liquid

matter such as honeydew. Most of the species have beautiful net-veined wings that often exhibit a complex reticulation formed by numerous accessory veins. In the larval stages neuropterans are exclusively predaceous.

grubs in the

soil.

RELATIONSHIPS The order may be divided

GENERAL FEATURES

Planipennia.

The eggs of Neuroptera are ovoid and in several families, including the green lacewings, the female exudes a sticky secretion that she draws out into a hairhke stalk upon which the egg is laid for safety.

Little

beneficial to

LACEWING (CHRYS-

They

flight.

markable for the fact that six of their eight excretory tubes become transformed into silk glands, the silk being emitted through an anal spinneret. Larvae of all Neuroptera are carnivorous and prey mostly upon other forms of insect Hfe. When mature those of the Planipennia construct silken cocoons and, prior to the emergence of the adult insect, the pupa cuts open the cocoon with its mandibles and, being mobile, often travels some little distance before the imago emerges.

and Australia.

the appendages

in silken cocoons.

which closely resemble the mandibles, way the two sets of appendages

in this

—

well-developed antennae, sense organs and legs; they are mostly terrestrial, but some are aquatic.

The pupae have

one into each groove;

function aj a pair of tubes through which the body juices of victims are sucked out. Larvae of the Planipennia are further re-

The

larvae are mostly terrestrial or arboreal and in Planipennia are all characterized by the greatly drawn out mandibles and maxillae, which are used for seizing and perforating the prey. The mandibles are grooved along their venthe suborder

Suborder Megaloptera.

AND CLASSIFICATION into

two suborders, Megaloptera and

—

This suborder is characterized by no tendency to fork at the margins of the wings, the third vein in the wing radial sector) with few branches; larvae with biting mouth parts; and pupae not enclosed in true cocoons. This group includes a small number of archaic insects separable into two superfamilies comprising about 200 species throughout veins with

little

or

(

the world.

Superfamily Sialoidea, all with aquatic larvae, include the alder ; family Sialidae) so called because in England the adults often frequent alders along the banks of streams. Their larvae respire by means of seven or eight pairs of slender, jointed, abdominal gills. The genus Stalls is widely distributed with many North American sp)ecies and two British. Also included are the large dobson flies (q.v.), belonging to the family CorydaUdae and found in North and South America and in parts of the old world. Smaller members of the same family are often known in America flies {q.v.

as fish

,

flies {q.v.).

Superfamily Raphidiodea or snake flies are distinguished by the elongate prothorax and by the very long ovipositor in the female. They are terrestrial insects whose larvae are found under the bark of trees and feed on scale insects and aphids. Suborder Planipennia. This suborder is characterized by veins with evident forking at the margins of the wings, third vein (radial sector) usually with numerous branches; larvae with piercing mouth parts; and pupae enclosed in cocoons. Included here are most of the Neuroptera. They are nearly all

—

PAIR OF PINE NEEDLES SHOWING POSITIONS IN WHICH EGGS ARE LAID (INDICATED BY ARROWS) NATURAL SIZE

FIG. 2.

— LIFE CYCLE OF

terrestrial insects, only a small

THE BROWN LACEWING (HEMEROBIUS STIGMA)

aquatic in their larval stages.

number being partially or truly Planipennia are divided into 16

NEUROSES families of

which only the most important are mentioned.

stoutly

species

which

They

acters.

moth lacewings

built,

differ

from the lacewings

in certain venational char-

are widespread in the tropics but are represented in

Europe by only one species and are absent from North America. Sisyndae, which also have aquatic larvae, differ from the Osmylidae in having very few cross veins to the wings, besides being much smaller in size. They are brown or fuscous insects found along the borders of rivers that contain the freshwater sponge upon which their larvae feed and live. Three species of Sisyra occur in Great Britain, and this genus, along with Climacia, is

found in the United States. Mantispidae or mantis flies {q.v.) are easily distinguished by the elongate thorax and the prehensile forelegs, which resemble in form those of the common mantis (q.v.) and are likewise used for seizing other insects that serve as their prey.

The

larvae of the

European Mantispa styriaca are predacious upon young Lycosa and during development they undergo striking changes of form. The family is mainly tropical but occurs in southern Europe and in much of the United States. Psychopsidae have very broad, rounded wings supported by a Many are stout midrib and with a densely reticulated venation. insects of striking beauty. Their larvae have been found beneath the bark of trees. The family has a wide discontinuous range occurring in South Africa, Tibet, China and Austraha. Nemoptcridae differ from all other Neuroptera in having very spiders

long threadhke or ribbonlike hind wings.

Their larvae occur in

caves, on the floors of buildings,

among

debris,

where they

etc.,

prey upon smaller forms of inThe family occurs in sect life.

many

of the

warmer

parts of the

world, including southern Europe,

but

is

absent from North Amer-

ica.

Myrmetiontidae

or

ant

(q.v.) flies bear a general

blance

to

knobbed antennae. Almost abundant in the warmer parts of the world, about though

species

occur in the United

States, several occur in Europe,

—

by differences in venation. Their larvae either hide away on the ground or live concealed on the bark of trees. They are chiefly tropical insects, only a few species occurring in southern Europe and North America. Coniopterygidae or mealywings (q.v.), number about 70 species and are the smallest and most aberrant of all Neuroptera. They are covered with a white powdery secretion, their wings have comparatively few veins and the hind wings are much reduced in size. Their larvae roam about plants, preying upon aphids, scale insects and mites. Many species are found in the United States but only a few species are found in Great Britain. as

Bibliography.

— For

NSW

;

NEUROSES

are psychological disorders which arise from a unsuccessful attempt to deal with inner conflicts and stressful life situations. They are adaptive in that they aim at the resolution of opposing forces within the personality through

person's

The anxbe experienced directly or manifested in the form of bodily discomfort, phobias, obsessional thoughts, compulsive acts, mild depression, altered states of consciousness or physical complaints in the absence of organic and structural pathology. The neuroses represent attempts to obtain partial gratification for imthe discharge of accumulated inner tension and anxiety. iety

may

pulses and drives in a in

an

manner which was more or less successful development. The disorders are benign

earlier period of

disturbances within the personality and are to be differentiated from psychoses (q.v.) in that total disorganization and loss of contact with reality do not occur. Although recognizable neurotic syndromes have been described since the Hippocratic period, the tendency for many centuries was to consider the illness a result of

With

simulation.

demonic possession or

willful

the development of scientific medicine based

on pathology, the 19th century considered neuroses as a primaryThe French functional disorder of the central nervous system. neurologist Jean Martin Charcot (q.v.) laid the foundations for a psychological understanding of neuroses through the use of hypThe notic techniques for the treatment of hysterical disorders. psychological approach was further developed by Sigmund Freud unconscious forces within (q.v.), who demonstrated the effect of the mind, the symbolic meaning of neurotic symptoms, the significant etiological agents in childhood experience, the importance of unacceptable repressed sexual and aggressive drives and a technique of treatment based on psychological principles. The modern psychiatric outlook is largely based on the discoveries of Freudian

internally.

one being found as far north as Sweden, but none are found in NEMOPISTHA IMPERATRIX FIG. 3. the British Isles. Their larvae, (NEMOPTERIDAE) called ant lions or doodlebugs, live on the ground, where some make pitlike snares for entrapping their prey, while others hide away under stones or debris. Ascalap/iidae are closely related to the preceding family but can be distinguished easily by their much longer antennae as well

North American Neuroptera consult the M. Carpenter, Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts

lowing; Raphidiodea, F.

(1956). For British species consult F. J. Killinpton, "Monograph of the British Neuroptera," Ray Society (1936-37). Accounts of the larvae are given by C. L. Withycombe, Trans. Enl. Soc. (1924), pt. 3-i (1925). Australian forms are discussed by K. C. McKeown in "Australian Insects," Australian Zoological Handbook no. 6, Roval Zool. Soc. of (1942) R. J. Tillyard, The Insects of Australia and New Zealand (1926). (A. D. I.; F. M. Cr.)

Freud divided the neuroses into two major categories, the actual neuroses and the psychoneuroses. Although not universally accepted, this division is useful in understanding and classification. The actual neuroses include symptomatic disorders which are primarily reactions to acute stressful situations and arise as a result of excessive stimulation originating either environmentally or

short

65

;

psychoanalysis.

lion

resem-

and have

dragonflies

Nat. Hist. Surv., Amer. Enl. Soc, vol. Ixvi (1939); Myrmeleontidac, X. Banks, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoology, vol. 68, no. 1 (1927); Hemerobiidae and related families, F. M. Carpenter, Proc. Amer. .Acad. Arts Sri., vol. 74, no. 7 (1940) Chrysopidae, R. C. Smith, Mem. 58, Cornell Agric. Exp. Sta. (1922). Sisyridae, S. I. Parfin and A. B. Gurney, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. 105 ;

are confined to Australia; they are mothlike insects with primitive venation. Their larvae live in the soil where they prey upon those of chafer beetles, to which they bear a close general resemblance. Hemerobiidae and Chrysopidae, the brown and the green lacewings, are widely distributed and fairly numerous in species. Their larvae roam about vegetation preying upon mites, aphids, thrips and other soft-bodied insects (see Lacewing Fly). Osmylidae have aquatic larvae. They are medium- to large-sized

Ithonidae or

large,

295

Sialidae, H. H, Ross, Bull. III. vol. 71, no. 2 (1936) vol. 21, art. 3 (1937); Mantispidae, J. Rehn, Trans.

folSci.,

Symptoms

are simply the discharge of accumulated tension

rather than an attempt at the resolution of psychological conflict.

The traumatic neuroses

— such

War

as

the

"shell

shock" of World

I, the combat fatigue of World War II or the emotional disorders following civilian disaster are essentially neuroses of this

—

The symptoms

type.

are an attempt to deal with catastrophic ex-

magnitude that the personality has no recourse but the immediate dissipation of the accumulated tension. reactions are short-lived These and usually disappear with the removal of the stressful situation. ternal events of such

The

actual neuroses also include reactions to endogenous stresses,

stimuli which arise within the organism. If a weakened personality becomes flooded by sexual or aggressive excitation, a that

is,

paniclike state insufficient

may

result.

When

a state of overstimulation and

motor discharge becomes chronic,

diffuse

symptoms

such as general fatigue, tension, dizziness, insomnia, pressures and pain in the head, neck and back occur. This general state of exhaustion and bodily preoccupation is characteristic of neurasthenia and hypochondriasis. These actual neurotic reactions may in turn become converted into psychoneurotic reactions in which the symptomatic response

NEUROSES

296

The reaction in carries a more elaborate psychological contetU. the psychoneurotic condition is a result of the meaning of the stimulus rather than its magnitude. An objectively insignificant stress may produce a psychoneurotic reaction in a person who is particularly vulnerable because of his inability to handle such frustrations. To illustrate, in wartime a traumatic neurosis may

a

develop following prolonged and threatening bombardment during combat. .\ psychoneurosis may intervene when under similar conditions the death of a comrade arouses intolerable feelings of guilt in a soldier for whom the event recapitulates a childhood jealousy of an older brother. Since Freud first distinguished the two neuroses, clinical experience has demonstrated that most actual or traumatic neuroses are frequently elaborated into psycho-

structure becomes consolidated as a habitual

neuroses.

CAUSATION Evaluation of Factors.

— Modern

psychiatry considers

many

Although in a particular patient one factor may be more important than others, all must be evaluated in attempting to understand the origins of neuroses. Since these factors fall into a complementary series, it is unlikely that a single linear relation between specific cause and end result factors in the causation of the neuroses.

will

be found.

—

Socio-Economic and Cultural Factors. These may be causative in the development of neuroses because of the presence of confiicting and opposing values within a society. A person may strive toward the gratification of ends, such as "belongingness" and competitiveness, which are essentially contradictory. The satisfaction of one value may make it impossible to satisfy the other. A group of neo-Freudian psychiatrists have tended to re-

consistent

ture.

The

situation is

mode

of handling emotional diftkulties in the fu-

early attempt to resolve the problems of the Oedipal

by regression

called

is

neurosis, and it which occur during the adult

the infantile

a forerunner of similar reactions

neurosis.

Following the resolution of the Oedipus complex the character situations in later

— Should

tions, the character defenses

the person

may

mode

of relating to

life.

Precipitating Stress.

living provide

no major

frustra-

prove adequate for adaptation and

then remain free of a symptomatic neurosis unless

a precipitating stressful event occurs.

—

Interrelations. The five causative factors are related to one another dialectically; that is, in order for a symptomatic neurosis to occur, one factor may be quite significant while another may not. Thus, socio-cultural factors may be of minimal importance but the parental influences may be markedly traumatic, or the resolution of the Oedipus complex may have left only minor psychological scarring while the precipitating event may present a major and insurmountable frustration. Psychopathology of Neurotic Conflict. The causative factors in neuroses were described above in a primarily chronological manner. The shifts in forces as they occur in the development of the adult neurosis can be understood as a retracing of a similar

—

ances in personality.

sequence. The precipitating event is the actual life stress with which the person has difficulty in coping. It may be either a temptation or frustration, and the stress itself may penetrate consciousness only dimly. Following a period of unsuccessful attempts at adaptation through fantasy or action, a regression to earlier adaptive pattern occurs. The patterns, which resemble the infantile neurosis, were a source of gratification in early life and are thus called into play to help the person adjust to the immedi-

Horney

ate stress.

late the findings of psychoanalysis to the social sciences in order

mutual interactions between culture and disturbAmong these. Erich Fromm and Karen have considered neurotic conflict to be primarily

to elucidate the

(q.v.)

the result of reactions to social institutions.

One type

of social organization or ethnic group

neurotic responses either by

own nature

its

may

or by

encourage

its

mode

of

Attitudes toward class position, urbansharp transitions in prevailing social codes, and prejudicial attitudes toward minority groups affect the development and content of neuroses. It is well established that social position relating to a larger group. ization,

type of treatment a neurotic patient

affects to a large extent the will seek for his illness.

—

Constitution. Although psychiatry does not deny the significance of heredity, this factor is not credited with the overwhelming importance attached to it prior to the 20th century. A therapeutically oriented psychiatry is inclined to minimize hereditary influences and to deal more with experiential factors subject to observation and change. Parental Attitudes and Early Childhood Experiences. These are considered to play a critical role in the development of faulty

—

Such regressive maneuvers consume great energy, since the worked out on an unconscious level. Much effort expended in keeping the nature of the conflict removed from awareness, because the original wishes and impulses which make up the content of the primary conflict were and continue to be struggles are is

highly unacceptable to the

self.

of the adult neurosis thus

is

which

strive

mechanisms

fulfillment.

itself is a

symbolically expressed compromise of

the conflict between unacceptable impulses and prohibitive refor both opposing forces. Neurosis, Normality and Psychosis. The distinction between normal and neurotic expression is not so great as is com-

straints, permitting partial expression

monly

by the ego

attitude of love, acceptance and security in the family tends

toward

The symptom

patterns of neurotic interaction. The experiences of the child in the family setting determine to a large extent the subsequent

An

irrational quality

to the fact that the

used to handle psychological stress, though appropriate to the unique childhood situation, are not suitable for adult life. The extent of the neurotic disability is determined by the amount of energy expended in keeping repressed and inactive the impulses

personality development. to foster healthy behaviour patterns.

The apparently

due

—

believed. It must be realized that all persons share similar childhood experiences, and the repression of primitive impulses is a universal phenomenon in human development. Thus there is a potentiality for a neurotic reaction in most so-called

the environment

presents to the person a stress which stimulates his unique vul-

come

nerability.

sensitized in later

Oedipus Situation.

life.

—The

parental attitudes and the constitu-

tional predispositions converge at the time of the

development of

the Oedipus complex (see Psychoanalysis) to create the basic personality pattern with which the person handles situations of stress subsequently. At the ages of three to five, the child begins to develop a close, positive

bond with the parent

normal persons, and

when

Inconsistency, rejection and deprivation tend to create areas of vulnerability which may be-

it

is

likely to arise

In most instances, however, such neurotic reactions are not because they are either socially acceptable, psychologically rationalized as idiosyncrasies, or transient in apclinically significant,

pearance so that they appear as

trivial

occurrences such as dreams,

errors or slips in speech.

sive techniques

The differentiation between neuroses and psychoses is more meaningful, though here too it is frequently difficult to make a rigid and meticulous distinction. For legal, social and therapeutic purposes, many psychiatrists feel a distinction is justified. In the psychoses the degree of social disorganization and loss of contact with reality is of major proportions. In contrast to the neuroses, the inner assessment of external reality in the psychoses is greatly impaired, and reality is imbued with attributes which are projec-

in

tions of inner experiences.

and

and

of the op-

jealousy toward the parent of the parents have been relatively nontraumatic, and if the parental attitudes during this stage, called by Freud the Oedipus situation, are not excessively prohibitive or stimulating, this phase of development posite sex

the

is

same

sex.

to resent If

feel

the previous

relationships with

Should trauma occur, regreswhich have been found useful in handling stress early phases of development are again used and may become

passed through harmoniously.

The

neurotic, unlike the psychotic,

NEUROSES does not form delusions or hallucinations, nor does he engage in forms of thinking which are bizarre and grossly illogical. The distinction is greatest in the area of social adaptiveness. The neurotic is often able to continue to function within the social unit, and others

The

may remain unaware

of the extent of his suffering.

psychotic, on the other hand,

is

much more

obviously a mis-

and markedly dissimilar in attitude and action to those around him. This does not imply that the criteria for diagnosis are social and cultural, although it is frequently stated that a particular reaction which appears in one social group as extreme deviance may be positively sanctioned and accepted in another. Though cultural relativity must be taken into account, the differentiation between neuroses and psychoses is ultimately made on the basis of the inner psychological attitudes and fit,

a threat to himself or to others,

classifications of neurotic disorders

involving major bodily dysfunction was a common type of psychiby the middle of the 20th century it had largely dis-

atric illness,

appeared as a clinical entity, and most neurotic illness appeared to be based on disorders in character structures and personality types. Though a tendency to classify on the basis of predominant symptom complexes remained, symptomatic manifestations were found to be secondary to defects in total personality development. In 1952 a standard nomenclature was adopted by the American Psychiatric association. Neurotic disorders and personality disorders were differentiated largely on the basis of clinical clustering rather than on the basis of etiological antecedents. In the standard nomenclature the psychoneurotic disorders are classified as follows: (i) anxiety reaction, (2) phobic reaction, (3) dissociative reaction, (4) conversion reaction, (5) obessivecompulsive reaction and (6) depressive reaction. Anxiety Reaction Anxiety is a diffuse fear which is not

—

restricted to definite situations or objects.

It is subjectively experi-

enced as dread, apprehension or tension and may arise in any situation in which the integrity of the personality is threatened. The anxiety is not controlled by any specific psychological defense mechanism as in other neurotic reactions. Anxiety frequently arises when there is a failure of repression of forbidden sexual impulses or aggressive urges, usually in association with major life adjustments related to shifts in vocational, interpersonal, sexual or marital adaptations. The patient is in a constant or periodic state of apprehensive expectancy. Since defense mechanisms are not brought into play to handle the anxiety, it can be considered the simplest type of neurosis from a structural point of view. The tension is frequently expressed in the form of insomnia, outbursts of irritability, agitation, palpitations of the heart and fears of death or "insanity."

These patients are frequently famust expend in man-

tigued as a result of the excessive effort they

aging the distressing fear.

more acute form and

is expressed in concomitants such

Occasionally the an.xiety

results in physiological

as nausea, diarrhea, urinary frequency, suffocating sensations, di-

lated pupils, perspiration

and hyperventilation.

—

A phobic reaction resembles an anxiety reaction in that the discomfort experienced by the patient is also fear. In this condition, however, the fear is of a definite external situation. The anxiety of phobic patients has Phobic Reaction (Anxiety Hysteria).

become detached from a

specific inner idea, object or situation

and

displaced to a symbolic idea or external situation in the form of a specific neurotic fear. The patient cannot avoid experiencing acute is

exposed to the external situation which he fears, consciously aware that no actual danger exists. is derived from unconscious sources, such as forbidden impulses and wishes of a sexual and aggressive nature; and is displaced to an object which is symbolic of the fulfillment of the threatening wish. The commonly observed forms of phobic discomfort if he even though he

If

and impulses.

scious tendencies

—

Dissociative Reaction. At times a person may handle his anxiety in such a manner as to obliterate certain functions of the personality, such as consciousness or memory. Though this is essentially a neurotic disturbance, the extent of the dissociation oc-

casionally

One

may

of the

reach psychotic proportions.

commonest is

is amnesia. awareness of highly un-

of the dissociative reactions

a blotting out of

These are experiences involving great terror, which have aroused great

as in military combat, or experiences

have been inadequate

because of the multiplicity of causal factors, the general overlapping of clinical syndromes and the changing historical aspect of the Whereas in the 19th century massive hysteria neurotic illness.

The

if he avoids the phobic he were to carry out a phobic activity it would unconsciously mean to him that he was performing the forbidden activity and gratifying the forbidden wish. The anxiety and suffering serve as a form of self-punishment for the uncon-

object or situation.

pleasant memories.

TYPES OF PSYCHONEUROTIC DISORDERS

a

of open places (agora[)hobia). The phobic patient can control his anxiety

Dissociative amnesia

behaviour.

Most

297

places (claustrophobia), fear of high places (acrophobia) and fear

is

is

fear actually

reactions include fear of venereal disease, fear of small enclosed

shame,

guilt or loss of self-esteem.

Amnesic patients frequently accept their loss of memory indifand casually, indicating that a valuable protective function is performed by the reaction. Dissociative reactions also are characterized by disturbances of consciousness such as dream states, stupor, coma and sleepwalking. Such phenomena are usually preceded by strong emotional experiences and represent the wishful reliving of an unacceptable fantasy in a dramatic and colourful manner. In the dissociative fugue there is a temporary loss of personal identity, and actions are performed which in the patient's normal The patient state would be firmly prohibited by the conscience. may protect himself against punishment by assuming a false identity, later developing an amnesia for the experience when he referently

turns to his usual

self.

Although there appears

to

be a conscious deliberate element in

behaviour, the dissociative reactions are actually motivated and set in action by parts of the mind that do not involve conscious volition. Conversion Reaction. In the conversion reactions anxiety, the patient's

—

instead of being consciously experienced either diffusely as in the

anxiety reactions or displaced as in the phobias,

is

"converted"

into symptoms involving organs or parts of the body innervated by either the sensory or motor nerves. The symptoms serve to prevent or lessen conscious anxiety, and usually are symbohc of the underlying mental conflict. Such hysterical symptoms repre-

Thus, an esmental content is converted into a somatic expression. wish of a female patient to withhold medication from her dying father and thus hasten his death is converted into a hysterical paralysis of an arm; this partially serves to carry out the wish and also to punish the patient for entertaining the wish. The form of the conversion symptom may be determined by a somatic symptom which is contiguous to the conflictual situation. In the above e.xample, the symptom began when the woman's arm fell asleep while she watched over her father in his illness. Persons with a hysterical type of personality are prone to selfdisplay and dramatic behaviour. Many are adept at ruling others sent an attempt to resolve a conflict symbohcally.

sentially

To

illustrate, the

by bids for sympathy or attention or indirectly by frightenby appearing pitiful and appealing. Egocentricity, predilection for fantasy and daydreaming, emotional Uabihty and suggestibility are predominant character traits. directly

ing others or

physical symptoms may be either sensory or motor. Among sensory symptoms are pain, anesthesia, numbness and disturbances such of the special senses as blindness or deafness.

The

common

The symptoms

are found to have a specific symbolic relation to

psychologic conflict, and they differ from organic disturbances by revealing absence of neurological findings upon physical examination. The motor disturbances common among them paralyses, tics, tremors, inability to speak (aphonia) and writer's cramp also occur without demonstrable physiological or anatomical

—

change.

The patient with a hysterical conversion reaction may utilize symptom to provide himself with secondary gratifications. The

the

secondary gain

is

the material, emotional and social advantage

NEUROSES, EXPERIMENTAL

298

contributed by the symptom. The presence of the symptom permits a self-justifiable escape from anxiety-provoking life situations. The symptom also provides dependent satisfactions of a regressive nature as a result of the sympathy with which the sick are frequently treated.

The

successful conversion reaction, like the dissociative reac-

tion, is

accompanied by a marked absence of anxiety or conscious

concern.

Though

the patient

may

the disability

may

mobilize concern in others,

appear tranquil and content.

Obsessive-Compulsive Reaction.

— In

See also Hysteria.

this reaction the anxiety

is associated with the pre.';ence in consciousness of unpleasant and morbid thoughts or repetitive impulses to perform apparently meaningless and ritualistic acts. Although the patient may regard his ideas and behaviour as unreasonable, he is unable to

control them.

ceremonial

may

Either the obsessive thought or the compulsive arise singly or both may appear in sequence. The

patient regularly repudiates the distressing thoughts, which are

often highly repugnant and concerned with violently aggressive or sexually perverse impulses. However, the more he struggles to dispel his thoughts, the more insistently do they intrude. Great fear may be associated with such ruminations, and a ritualistic act frequently serves as an attempt at

mastery of the

fear.

Al-

though patients may fear that they are likely to act out the disturbing impulses, an obsessively neurotic patient almost never carries out the thought against which his conscience rebels so Occasionally the preoccupations or circular speculations

may

on abstruse

be with absurd

trivialities

religious or philosophical is-

sues.

The

pressive reaction and the appearance of guilt and self-accusations.

A

neurotic reaction results when the lost or abandoned person is regarded ambivalently, that is, when intense feelings of both love and hate are experienced toward the other person, and the hatred In depression, since is felt to be unacceptable and thus repressed. guilt prevents the outward expression of rage, the hatred is turned on the self, accounting for the feelings of unworthiness and occasional thoughts of self-destruction. Depressive feelings may arise in situations of helplessness, frustration and great loss of self-esteem. In persons who are habitually inhibited in the expression of aggressive impulses, a depressive reaction may intervene if an external situation mobilizes the expression of such forbidden impulses. In contrast to the compulsive person, who handles his guilt by rituals of expiation, the melancholic attempts to handle his guilt by turning his hostility against his own person. The more malignant symptoms which accompany

psychotic depressions, such as suicide attempts, profound stupor and physical debility, are absent. Character Neuroses. A large group of personality disturb-

—

ances in which the defect is expressed primarily in the character rather than in symptoms are described as character neuroses or neurotic characters. The patient may not suffer from any of the usual psychological

is characterconstant doubt, vacillation and adherence to They tend to be overconscientious and inhibited in the expression of pleasure and in the capacity for relaxation. A tendency toward checking and rechecking of the simplest acts contributes toward lack of productivity and

TREATMENT

inflexibility,

the consumption of

much energy

in

unprofitable and wasteful

labour.

recurrent thought

may

be the direct expression of a primitive impulse or it may represent a substitute or concealment for it. A further attempt to handle the guilt and anxiety associated with the impulse is provided by the compulsive act. Should the act be obstructed in some manner, the patient will experience anxiety directly. Although most compulsive rituals are rather simple such as persistent handwashing, counting, touching or the repetition of stereotyped words or phrases occasionally elaborately formalized and time-consuming ceremonials are necessitated. The compulsive acts are similar to the magical expiatory rituals of nonliterate societies and similarly attempt to deal with potentially threatening situations. The predominant psychological mechanisms utilized by the compulsive patient are undoing and isolation. The compulsive act is an attempt at undoing, since the action essentially nullifies any harm the patient feels he may cause by his wishes. The mechanism has originated in early childhood and is related to the child's propensity for utilizing magical fantasies and superstitions to master disorganizing traumatic states within the developing ego. Isolation is observed in the separation of the obsessive wish from any emotional content aside from anxiety. The wish is reacted to as

—

—

were alien to the total personality. Depressive Reaction. A psychotic depression is a major disturbance involving the entire personality and disrupting contact between the patient's self and external reality. The neurotic depressive reaction is a less malignant condition, which may be precipitated by the loss of a valued person, object or idea. The emotional state is characterized by melancholy, brooding, hopelessness and an attitude of self-criticism and self-depreciation. Psychological processes, such as thought, and physical activity are retarded. There is a lack of initiative, curtailed concentration and preoccupation with feelings of guilt for past failures which are exaggerated beyond their just proportions. if it

—

Commonly, the depressive reaction follows the loss through abandonment or death of someone to whom the patient was closely

manifest generalized patho-

The inner psychological problems are expressed in interaction with the environment rather than in symptom formation.

personality of obsessive-compulsive patients

by

as anxiety, depression, obses-

may

logical patterns of action or behaviour.

The treatment

excessive standards of morality.

The

symptoms such

sions or compulsions, but instead

strongly.

ized

attached, and in this regard it resembles a normal reaction of grief; the difference resides in the prolongation and severity of the de-

of the neuroses takes

two main forms:

it is

di-

rected either toward the alleviation of environmental pressures or

toward effecting changes within the person which allow him to cope with his external and internal conflicts more suitably. In the acute traumatic neuroses environmental manipulation is the most desirable treatment. Temporary removal from the scene of battle during combat is effective for many in whom the neurosis was primarily a reaction to a stress of overwhelming magnitude. Treatment directed toward the individual may be either somatic Somatic treatment is essentially sjTnptomatic, or psychological. in that no attempt is made to eradicate the roots of the psychoneurotic condition. Therapy is directed toward ameliorating the discomfort associated with the symptoms through the use of sedation, postural relaxation or pharmacological tranquilizing agents. The symptoms frequently recur when somatic treatment stops. Psychotherapy is an attempt to deal with the patient through psychological means either through the use of reassurance and suggestion or through the provision of insight and understanding of the conflicts. In both forms of psychotherapy the essential vehicle the communicative potential of the doctor-patient relationship. Psychoanalysis is the most thorough form of insight psychotherapy, and various modifications of psychoanalytic techniques and principles are commonly used in the treatment of the neuroses. See also Defense Mechanisms; Ego; Personality; Psychiatry; Psychoanalysis; Psychology, Abnormal; Psychotherapy. Bibliography. S. Freud, Introductory Lectures to Psychoanalysis, pt. iii (1920) O. S. English and M. J. Pearson, Common Neuroses of Children and Adults (1937) K. Homey, The Neurotic Personality of Our Time (1936) A. Noyes and L. Kolb, Modern Clinical Psychiatry, O. Fenichel, The Psychoanalytic Theory of Sth ed., ch. xxx (1958) (Hy. T.) Neurosis (jg^S) is

—

;

;

;

;

.

NEUROSES, EXPERIMENTAL

are complex behavioural disturbances in animals, primarily emotional in character, produced experimentally by behavioural methods as opposed to direct assault on the nervous system by drugs, poisons, brain lesions or other physical or chemical agents. Historical Background. The first experimental neuroses

—

were discovered by accident. During the normal course of his research on conditioned salivation reflexes in dogs, Ivan Petrovich Pavlov and his co-workers occasionally noted that the general beA haviour of an experimental subject might change radically.

NEUROSES, EXPERIMENTAL previously manageable and co-operative dog would become unmanageable and unco-operative. Changes in behaviour were dra-

matic and included frequent vocalizations, restlessness or inactivof the experimental situation and everything ity, avoidance associated with it, insomnia or somnolence and loss of appetite. Also noted were physiological symptoms including changes in heart rate, breathing rate and changes in the frequency of micturition and defecation; the nature of the symptom varied with the individual dog.

The

following description of the onset of an experimental neuprofound changes in behaviour that typically

rosis illustrates the

In the experiment reported, the dog was being trained when a luminous circle was projected onto a screen (directly in front of the animal) and not to salivate when an ellipse was shown. This training was accomplished by giving the dog a small quantity of food whenever the circle appeared but withholding the food whenever the ellipse was presented. Eventually, the animal learned to salivate when the circle was presented and occurred.

to salivate

when the ellipse was shown. After this differentiahad been established, the shape of the ellipse was approximated by stages to that of the circle by changing the ratios of the semiaxes until the ratio 9:8 was reached. At this point the differences between the circle and ellipse were so minimal that the ability of the animal to tell the difference between them practically disnot to salivate tion

appeared;

the animal's discriminating ability became severely animal's behaviour soon changed drastically. Pavlov

i.e.,

The

taxed.

wrote

to the conditioned stimulus altogether

(as in the case reported

above) identified an inhibitory neurosis. Conversely, a tendency that is, to respond to respond to any change in the environment identified an excitatory neurosis. at the slightest provocation Pavlov found that some dogs tended to exhibit inhibitory reacSuch findings tions, while others developed excitatory neuroses. led him to develop a nervous system typology to which dogs were assigned depending on their symptoms. Since Pavlov's classic studies, the meaning of the term experimental neurosis has changed greatly. It has been applied, both as a descriptive and as an explanatory concept, to widely divergent forms of behaviour possibly sharing some common elements, however) observed in a great many species (e.g., sound-induced con-

—

—

(

vulsive seizures in rats and aggressive resist! veness in the pig). Such an extension in meaning has been an almost inevitable con-

sequence of the great world-wide interest in behavioural disturbances that followed Pavlov's pioneering studies, and the hundreds of research studies that resulted. Because of this extension in meaning, however, the term has acquired an omnibus character, and the establishment of defining criteria acceptable to most Accordingly, the workers in this area has not been possible. term experimental neurosis has tended to fall into disuse in favour of purely behavioural descriptions of less complex experimentally produced changes in emotional (and other forms of behaviour. In effect, researchers have tended to analyze experimental neu)

After three weeks of work upon this differentiation [i.e., ellipse 9:8 versus circle] not only did the discrimination fail to improve, but it became considerably worse, and finally disappeared altogether. At the same time the behavior of the animal underwent an abrupt change. The hitherto quiet dog began to squeal in its stand, kept wriggling about, tore off with its teeth the apparatus for mechanical stimulation of the skin, and bit through the tubes connecting the animal's room with the observer, a behavior which never happened before. On being taken into the experimental room the dog now barked violently, which was also contrary to its usual custom in short it presented all the symptoms of a condition of acute neurosis. On testing the cruder differentiations they also were found to be destroyed, even the one with the ratio {Conditioned Reflexes, p. 291, Oxford University of the semi-axes 2:1. ;

Press,

299

Pavlov identified two types of neuroses, inhibitory and excitatory, distinguished from each other in terms of the performance of the animal in the conditioning situation. A failure to respond

London, 1927.)

In addition to difficult discriminations Pavlov found that sudden changes in the experimental procedure or the use of painful stimuli might also cause similar behavioural disturbances. As Pavlov's choice of the term neurosis was unfortunate. pointed out by H. S. Liddell, F. A. Beach and others, the term implies that behavioural disturbances in other animals are analogous Although a few into behavioural or psychic disorders in man. vestigators believe that such is the case, most are unwilhng to make such an assumption. The consensus is that much more compelling evidence is needed to estabhsh the hypothesis that human neuroses are fundamentally the same as those of other animals; a position that such is the case is more an act of faith than anything else. In

human

beings, the distinctive character of neurotic

symptoms

related to a relatively high level of abihty to tliink, introspect

is

and

Nevertheless, most investigators note that the types of stress that tend to induce abnormal behaviour in other animals, and the types of therapy that tend to be beneficial for them, often show instructive resemblances to stimuli that induce corresponding changes in people. Pavlov's subsequent descriptions of behavioural disorders in other dogs, together with an enumeration of some of the variables that affected such responses, estabUshed the first meaning of the imagine.

—

term experimental neurosis its historical or classical meaning. For Pavlov, an experimental neurosis was said to exist when previously learned conditioned reactions were disrupted and the animal became more or less useless as an experimental subject unless given a vacation or unless other steps were taken {e.g., injections of bromide had a beneficial effect on some dogs). Once a neurosis had occurred the animal's disturbances were not confined to the laboratory but might also be observed in his pen and in his relations with humans or with other animals. Also, once established, a neurosis might last a week, a month or even years in the absence of remedial treatment.

roses into simpler,

more conceptually manageable component

parts,

and to study these parts intensively in the laboratory. Experimental techniques uniquely suited for producing select symptoms at will have been developed, and factors influencing rather limited but well-defined behavioural disorders continue to be investigated Studies of conditioned emotional rein a variety of disciplines. sponses of the fear or anxiety variety, conditioned avoidance responses, conditioned reactions to punishment, conditioned conflict behaviour, conditioned physiological reactions and studies of body resulting from psychophysiological stress have largely replaced the broader study of experimental neurosis. Nevertheless, as pointed out by R. W. Russell and Liddell, the

damage

term experimental neurosis is important because of its historical significance and because later observations of experimentally produced behavioural abnormalities in animals may be referred to the systematic writings of Pavlov on this subject. Also, a number of investigators have continued Pavlov's classical methods for studying experimental neuroses in animals.

—

Extensions of Pavlov's Work. W. H. Gantt, at the Johns Hopkins university, and Liddell, at Cornell university, continued and extended Pavlov's work in the United States. They and their co-workers, after about 1930, worked to verify Pavlov's findings and to investigate further the variables that influence classically defined experimental neuroses and associated conditioning phe-

nomena

in a variety of

mammals.

Gantt thoroughly investigated the visceral and autonomic conditioned reactions (primarily heart rate, respiration, sexual functions) that accompany motor or sahvary conditioned responses in dogs. tion

—

He

studied these reactions

for periods ranging

tant finding

from

was that heart

rate

5 is

—

their onset, course

to 14 years in dogs.

a

much more

and dura-

One impor-

sensitive indicator

of conditioning effects than overt emotional reactions or condi-

tioned motor or secretory responses. Not only were conditioned increases in heart rate estabhshed sooner, but also they continued to occur in

many

subjects long after overt emotional, sahvary or

motor components had been extinguished (in one case, even after an 18-month vacation from the experimental regimen). Another important finding was that neurotic symptoms not previously observed might occur several years after the original behavioural trauma. Gantt reported spontaneous sexual erections in

a dog, for example, both in the sound-proof enclosure in which the dog was placed for conditioning or observation and at the country retreat where the animals were taken for periods of rest and vacation. This symptom (as well as very frequent urination)

NEUROSES, EXPERIMENTAL

:oo

became most pronounced about two years after the main experimentation had been completed, and frequently appeared whenever an event reminiscent of the early conditioning procedure occurred (e.g., the appearance of Gantt at the country retreat). Liddell extended Pavlovian conditioning methods to other mammals. He and his co-workers studied experimental neuroses in the goat, sheep, rabbit and pig as well as in the dog, but the sheep was his standard experimental subject. After preliminary attempts to establish conditioned salivation in sheep and goats, he abandoned this procedure in favour of the defensive leg-flexion conditioned reflex.

In this procedure a signal, usually a sound or light, is turned on for a few seconds before the onset of a momentary mild shock The signal and shock are terminated to a foreleg of the animal. Eventually, leg-flexion, which initially occurs only at together. the

moment

that the shock

is

given, begins to occur at the

moment

turned on. At this point the animal is said to have acquired a conditioned leg-flexion reflex. Liddell has emphasized the mildness of the shock, which, he indicates, is barely perceptible to the human hand. Although the animal starts slightly when the shock is delivered, it soon quiets down. Using this procedure Liddell has produced marked behavioural deviations in his subjects. The animals develop highly stereotyped responses which vary widely from somnolence and immobility to hypersensitivity and overactivity, both in and out of the signal

is

Such sheep will occasionally lose the experimental situation. their gregarious tendencies and stray away from the main flock. In at least one case this tendency caused the death of an animal, which, separated from the main flock, fell victim to maurading dogs.

The is

to

Maier trained

rats to

jump

across a space to one of two distinc-

tive stimulus cards in order to receive a food reward.

If the ani-

mal jumped to the correct card, the card fell over and the animal landed on a platform where a piece of food was found. A jump to the incorrect card resulted in a bump on the nose (the incorrect card was locked in place) and a fall into a net below. The correct card was changed from right to left, at random, to prevent the animal from learning to jump always to one side.

The animals

readily learned to

jump

to the correct card.

Then

was changed so that the previously correct card was locked in place during 50% of the trials, randomly determined. With this change in procedure a jump to the card previously designated correct resulted in a bump to the nose and a fall into the net on half the trials. After a few trials with the changed procedure, the animals showed great hesitancy before jumping, and eventually stopped jumping altogether. Maier then forced the animals to jump by directing a jet of air at them, or by applying an electric current to the stand. Under these conditions the animals soon developed abnormal jumping responses, punctuated by stereotypy, and some animals showed violent running fits (after leaping to the floor instead of jumping the procedure

to a card), or convulsive seizures.

Maier argued that the seizures of his rats were caused by the engendered in them when forced to make a choice in the unsolvable choice situation. Although conflict may play a role, C. T. Morgan, F. W. Finger and J. Wolpe are unconvinced of the Morgan, for example, pronecessity of a conflict formulation. duced similar convulsions in rats by exposing them to the sound frequencies produced by a hissing air stream, in the absence of any conflict

conflict.

by Liddell by control experiments in which sheep were subjected the same procedures known to produce abnormal behaviour in relative nonsignificance of the level of shock used

illustrated

Lichtenstein and

Masserman produced feeding inhibitions in The procedure involves shocking or blow-

dogs, cats and monkeys.

ing a stream of air at the animal or exposing

it

to a so-called psy-

A

with the difference that the conditioned stimulus or signal was omitted. Under these conditions the sheep did not become neurotic. That is, if the sheep were spared from having to listen to or see the conditioned stimulus (sound or light) they did not become behaviourally disturbed by the shock, even after

chologically traumatic stimulus at the

moment food

psychologically traumatic stimulus

a fear-arousing but physi-

hundreds of trials. This does not mean that the animal would not eventually become neurotic, however, if shocks were given indefinitely. More than anything else. Liddell's findings demonstrate that very specific

be intensely hungry.

this species,

conditioned stimuli (e.g., a tone) result more readily in neuroses when paired with mild shock than do very diffuse conditioned stimuli (e.g., features of the experimental room, the time of day, persons present during conditioning). If a neurosis were estab-

conditioned stimulus, however, it undoubtedly would be much more pervasive and much more diffi-

lished to such a

diffuse

remedy.

This expectation is in line with other research which has shown that emotional behaviour conditioned to a diffuse, ambiguous stimulus situation lasts longer and is harder to eradicate than are behavioural disorders conditioned to a clearly defined conditioned stimulus. Liddell emphasized the temporal relations between the various phases of the conditioning procedure in the production of experimental neuroses. Two types of reproducible abnormal responses that are dependent upon the duration of the interval between trials have been observed in sheep and goats. The first is a forced extensor rigidity of the foreleg to which the shock electrodes are taped; this symptom occurs when a regimen of ten conditioning trials each day, separated by two minutes each, is employed. The second type is an increase in the number of leg flexions, beginning with the onset of the conditioned stimulus and continuing until the shock is delivered this symptom is seen when the same number of daily trials is given (i.e., ten) but the interval between trials The first case was likened by Liddell is extended to seven minutes. to Pavlov's inhibitory neurosis, the latter to Pavlov's excitatory cult to

;

neurosis.

J.

—

Other Approaches. N. R. F. Maier, B. W. Lichtenstein and H. Masserman among others, produced atypical responses in cats, dogs and monkeys using conditioning methods other

rats,

than those of Pavlov.

is

is

taken.

innocuous stimulus. Monkeys, for example, seem afraid of toy snakes. When a feeding inhibition is established, the animal refuses to eat in the experimental situation, even though he should cally

The animal may

also refuse food in its

home

cage.

The most

was the by prefrontal was reconditioned after the operation

striking result of Lichtenstein's experiments

alleviation of the learned feeding inhibition in dogs

lobotomy.

The

inhibition

and alleviated again by a second posterior cut. Finally, the response was again conditioned and alleviated once more after a third sectioning of the forebrain.

Masserman emphasized the role of motivational conflicts, or conamong basic needs of the animal, as causative factors in the

flicts

development of experimental neuroses. His dynamic formulations reflect his psychoanalytic orientation and are couched in terms to make them applicable to human as well as to animal behavioural disorders. The need for a conflict formulation, however, is not established. Wolpe showed that the same sort of behavioural disorders reported by Masserman may be produced by shocking cats or directing air at them, even though these disagreeable events are never associated with eating or food getting. Perhaps the most instructive outcome of Masserman's work is his determination of therapeutic procedures which appear to have beneficial effects in people and other animals. This, of course, should not be taken as prima facie evidence that the dynamics underlying the observed changes in behaviour are identical. Theories About Causes. Many theories attempt to explain experimental neurosis. Perhaps the most frequently quoted are those of Pavlov, Gantt and Liddell. Pavlov believed that behavioural disturbances in both man and animal are caused by a conflict between cortical processes of excitation and inhibition which, under normal conditions, are kept in balance. His theory can be understood best perhaps, in the terms

—

of a conditioning experiment.

In the circle-ellipse experiment noted above the cells of the salivary gland presumably were stimulated (ultimately by cortical brain cells whenever the circle was presented; this stimulation de)

NEUSIEDLER LAKE—NEUSS fined a cortical excitatory process.

Secretion of saliva presumably

was inhibited whenever the

was presented;

cortical inhibitory process.

ellipse

When

this defined a the stimulation entering the

from the circle and the ellipse became so and inhibitory processes tended to be aroused simultaneously (e.g., when the semiaxes of the elHpse were in the ratio of 9:8), the pronounced conflict between these processes became too much for the animal's nervous system, and excentral nervous system

similar that both excitatory

perimental neurosis resulted. Cortical conflicts might occur also, Pavlov believed, if either

excitatory or inhibitory processes

tory overstraining might occur

if

became overstrained.

Excitaconditioned stimuli of greater

normal were introduced during a conditioning experiment; inhibitory overstraining, if the animal were forced to intensity than

301

derstanding of a phenomenon as complex as experimental neurosis, however defined. An adequate theory should also assign due weight to genetic constitutional factors, innate behavioural tendencies, and to the tendency to misconnect causes and events (i.e., to learn "superstitions").

pler emotional reactions

Happily, the investigation of such simrole played by genetic and other is being vigorously pur-

and the

variables in disturbed emotional behaviour

sued in many laboratories. See also Conditioning; Emotion;

Neuroses; Psychology,

Experimental.

Bibliography. — 0.

D. Anderson and R. Parmenter, "A Long-Term Study of the Experimental Neurosis in the Sheep and Dog," Psyckosom. Med. Monogr., vol. ii (1941) W. H. Gantt (ed.). Physiological Bases of Psychiatry (1958), Experimental Basis for Neurotic Behaviour (1944) J. McV. Hunt (ed.). Personality and the Behavior Disorders, vol. i, ch. 12-14 (1944) E. J. Kempf (ed.), "Comparative Conditioned Neuroses," Ann. N.Y. Acad. Set., vol, 56 (1953); H. S. Liddell, "The Experimental Neurosis," Ann. Rev. Physiol., vol. 9 (1947), Emotional Hazards in Animals and Man (1956) J. H. Masserman, Behavior and Neurosis: an Experimental Psychoanalytic Approach to Psychobiolog;

;

wait longer than usual for a reinforcement

vation experiments.

(A reinforcement

is

e.g., food during salian object or event that

Animal Behaviour.) Gantt enunciated two principles that he considers fundamental

eUcits an unlearned response or reflex; see

for understanding the causes of experimental neurosis

—principles

evolved from his intensive, long-term study of individual dogs. The first he terms schizokinesis and the second autokinesis. Schizokinesis refers essentially to the animal's propensity to overreact, autonomically, during the process of acquiring adjustThus, Gantt considive reactions (e.g., conditioned responses). ers as pathological the persistence of conditioned heart-rate responses long after overt conditioned reactions have disappeared. He suggests that other autonomic effects associated with conditioning (such as'increased stomach acidity and the release of adrenahn by the adrenal medulla may disturb the normal functioning of the organism and pave the way for later behavioural pathology. The term autokinesis refers to another organismic propensity which further contributes to the formation of behavioural disorders. This is the tendency for earlier traces of long-past incidents to undergo dynamic change in the nervous system to ferment, as it were) and eventually make their presence known as new symptoms which may appear years after the original disturbance. Unlike schizokinesis, however, autokinesis may also work in favour of the organism. Gantt suggests that autokinesis may be responsible for long-term effects of therapeutic efforts which may not be )

(

visible in the short run.

Liddell's theory emphasizes the strains

and

stresses of the con-

ditioning situation itself as instrumental in causing experimental

He was greatly impressed by the resistance of his animals to Pavlovian conditioning. He sees the whole conditioning procedure as stressful, constantly taxing the nervous system of the animal, forcing it to maintain a state of readiness or vigilance. This state has been compared to what H. Selye termed the alarm neurosis.

reaction, the first stage of the organism's physiological response

The

imposed on the animal by the chamber and restraining harness used during conditioning, and the animal's self-imposed restriction in attending and responding to the monotonous and regular conditioned signals, inevitably followed by relatively inconsequential amounts of shock or food, are the to stress.

restriction

;

;

(1943), Current Psychiatric Therapies, 3 vol. (1961-63) P. Pavlov, Conditioned Reflexes, trans, by G. V. Anrep (1927) R. W.

ical Principles

L

;

of 'Conflict' and 'Experimental NeuPsychol., vol. 41 (1950) J. Wolpe, Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition (1958); P. L. Broadhurst, "Determinants of Emotionality in the Rat," Brit. J. Psychol., vol. 49 (1958) R, Metzner, Learning Theory and the Therapy of Neurosis (1961), (L, S, O,) Russell,

"The Comparative Study

rosis,' " Brit. J.

;

;

NEUSIEDLER LAKE

(Neusiedlersee; Hungarian FerTo), situated in Burgenland (east Austria) and northwest Hungary, is slightly sahne, very shallow (2-10 ft, deep), and its level and size (about 125 sq,mi,) vary with climatic fluctuations. In 1742, 1811, 1865 and 1871 it almost completely disappeared. Its origin is not completely established, but it was formed during the Pleistocene probably as the result of tectonic subsidence which brought its present bed below groundwater level. Neolithic and Bronze Age finds do not indicate Pfahlbauten (pile dwelUngs) but A canal (dug 1873-95) a smaller size lake in prehistoric times, links its southern part with the Repce, a Danube tributary, and drains or adds water according to the seasons,

A

protected area

heavy growth of reeds around its banks constitutes a noted bird sanctuary sheltering about 250 species. The lake has a beneficial influence on agriculture as a regulator of climate and ground water, and its reed resources, at present inadequately utiUzed, provide raw materials for cellulose manufacture and various building materials. The lake is fished, mainly for carp, and serves Major places on its as a recreation area for nearby Vienna, shores are Neusiedl, Podersdorf (the main summer resort) and since 1935, the

(K, A, S,) the wine centre of Rust, NEUSS, a town of Germany in the Land (state) of North Rhine-WestphaUa which after partition of the nation following

World War

II

became part

of the Federal

RepubUc

of

Germany,

centre at the junction of railway Unes to Cologne, Viersen, Zevenaar (the Netherlands), Diiren and Rheydt, bank of the Rhine, opposite Diisseldorf, near the west Neuss lies It is

an important

traffic

tions, respectively, in the

connected by the Erft canal, and its harbour makes Its population (92,916 Neuss was founded as a in 1961) is predominantly Catholic. Roman fortress (the Novaesium of Tacitus) it was later captured by the Franks and was renamed Niusa, The town, which was chartered 1187-90, was unsuccessfully besieged by Charles the Bold (1474-75) it was sacked by Alessandro Farnese in 1586 and passed to Prussia in 1816. Now an important industrial centre its various enterprises include the manufacture of machinery, screws, rivets, chemicals, concrete, rope, ceramics and bricks. Neuss is also an important grain market and food-processing

haviour.

centre.

its neurosis, according to Liddell. He suggests that the conditioned signal triggers innate, tense, preparatory reactions in the animal (i.e., vigilance) which, in the animal's natural environment, prepares it for fight or flight. Moreover, the effects of re-

sources of

peatedly triggering the vigilance reaction (day after day and month after month) generally tend to be cumulative. Gantt's and Liddell's theories point up the reahty and primacy of autonomic conditioning, and the effects of monotonous provoca-

to

development of abnormal animal beThe degree to which these findings may be generaUzed man, however, remains an open question, which further research

should

settle.

Many other theories have been proposed to explain experimental neuroses, both as classically defined by Pavlov and as defined by some of the later workers. Notwithstanding the extant theories, most workers

in the area of emotional behaviour agree that a betunderstanding of the more elemental emotional reactions of animals (e.g., conditioned "fear," conditioned avoidance behaviour, conditioned punishment reactions) must precede a better unter

with which it

it is

accessible to small ocean-going vessels.

;

;

The Quirinus church (damaged during World War II) is a fine example of the transition from the Round to the Pointed style. The Romanesque Obertor (a massive gatehouse), part of the medieval town fortifications, houses the Clemens-Sels museum, which contains Roman antiquities, medieval pictures and sculptures, numerous documents of local history and a modern section. The "Neusser Kirmes," a famous Rhineland Schtitsenfest (rifle marksmanship contest) takes place at the end of August. (I.

F.)

NEUSTADT AN DER WEINSTRASSE— NEUIRALITY

"^02

NEUSTADT AN DER WEINSTRASSE

(formerly

town of Germany in the Land (State") of Rhineland-l'alatinate which after partition of the nation following World War II became part of the Federal Republic 14 mi.) W. of of Germany. Pop. ( 1961 31,567. It lies 22 km. Speyer at the junction of railway lines to Worms, Weissenburg and Kaiserslautern. Its convenient location and picturesque setting under the eastern slope of the Haardt mountains at the mouth of the Speyerbach have made it a favourite tourist resort. Neustadt is the centre of the Pfalz wine trade and the famous Deutsche

Neustadt an dkr Haakdt),

a

(

)

The Weintesvjest (wine festival) is held annually in October. training and research institute of viticulture and horticulture is of international repute. The town was chartered in 1275 and its historic buildings include the Casimirianum (the seat of Heidelberg university, 1 578-83, now a popular convention hall), the Stadthaus (formerly a Jesuit college) and the 14th-century Gothic Abbey church (Stiftskirch). Apart from the wine trade, economic activities include food processing and the manufacture of metal products, textiles, paper and concrete. NEUSTRELITZ, a town of Germany which after partition

World War

became part of Neubrandenburg Bezirk (district) in the German Democratic Republic. Pop. (1961)27,663. It is situated on the Zierker See, 107 km. (67 mi.) N. of Berlin by road. Extensive agricultural land surrounds the tow'n. which was severely damaged in the last days of World War of the nation following

II

A similar policy, known as the avoidance of "entangling alliances" or as "i.solationism," was advocated for the United States by Presidents Washington and Jefferson and pursued during the European wars between France and Great Britain after the French Revolution, and for a century after the peace of 1815. President Wilson sought to depart from this policy after the United States entered World War I but the senate's rejection of the League of Nations and of the alliance with France and Great Britain against Germany resulted in a continuance of the neutralist policy until World War II. After World War

United States not only abandoned this North Atlantic Treaty organization and other alliances against Communism but also criticized other pursuing neutralist policy. a It was sometimes sugstates for gested in congress that economic assistance should not be given to neutralist countries but only to American allies. This attitude, however, began to change in 1956 as the power situation between the great blocs was becoming more evenly balanced, as the pracII the

policy itself by creating the

difficulties of the neutralist states became more obvious, Union began to give economic aid to these states and became apparent that unless the west continued to give them aid, the neutralist states would become wholly dependent upon the Communist bloc. Neutralism and Neutrality. Neutralism is often confused tical

as the Soviet as

it

—

with neutrality q.v. but the two terms have distinct meanings. Neutralism refers to the foreign policy of a state in time of peace II. while neutrahty is a term of international law referring to the ties rules that states are obliged to follow during a legal state of war Neustrelitz was incorporated in 1736 and until 1918 it was the in which they are not belligerents. Their neutral status implies residence of the grand dukes of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. NEUSTRIA, in the Merovingian period of French history, strict impartiaUty and abstention from any assistance to either enjoyment of rights of maritime trade with was the western Frankish kingdom as opposed to Austrasia {q.v.'), belligerent and the all belligerents subject to the danger of belligerent capture and the eastern kingdom. The term appears in the chronicle of the condemnation of neutral ships for carriage of contraband, breach pseudo-Fredegarius (mid-7th century). While Austrasia, by derDuring the 19th century the of blockade or unneutral service. ivation, was the land in the east, Neustria was the "new" (Fr. United States not only pursued a policy of neutralism but it also neiif ; German tien) land; i.e., the whole area colonized by the Franks since their settlement in the north and northeast of Gaul. carefully observed the obligations and demanded the rights of A similar distinction was made in the Lombard kingdom in north- neutrality during wars between other states. Neutralist states have justified their position not only for pracern Italy, where the names "Austria" (= Austrasia) and "Neustical reasons but also in principle on the ground that everyone tria" denoted the territory to the east and to the west, respecshould be presumed innocent until proven guilty. In accord with In Frankish history the 7th century tively, of the Adda river. was marked by rivalry between Austrasia and Neustria, whose this principle they have declined to assume in advance that the king often also ruled over Burgundy. The victory of Pepin of United States, the Soviet Union or any other country is intending to embark upon an aggressive action or other violation of the Herstal. mayor of the palace in Austrasia, over the Neustrians at charter before an incident arises and, therefore, have refused to Tertry in 6S7 assured the ultimate ascendancy of Austrasia. In the later Merovingian period the names Neustria and Francia enter alliances or collective defense arrangements directed against were used interchangeably by Neustrian writers to designate the particular states. They have also declined to assume that the kingdom of which they were subjects, thus betraying their con- ideology or the pohtical or economic system with which a nation conducts its domestic affairs violates its international obligations; viction that Neustria formed the heart and core of the Frankish lands. Later the name Neustria came to denote a much smaller they assert that this attitude accords with the United Nations charter provision that forbids intervention in matters essentially area, the territory between the Seine and the Loire; and when, in the middle of the 9th century, the Bretons gained control of the within the domestic jurisdiction of any state. It would therefore districts of Nantes and Rennes, the name Neustria was used to seem that a policy of neutralism is entirely in accord with the denote a still more restricted area. Indeed, in the Uth and 12th obligations of members but neutrality in the conventional centuries certain writers used "Neustria" synonymously with "Norsense is forbidden if the functions, as it is supposed to, in demandy." In the same way the name "Austrasia," superseded in termining the innocent and guilty party in hostilities. (Q. W.) its former location by "Lotharingia" under the Carolingians (see As understood at the beginning of the 20th Lorraine), was sometimes later used to denote the land originally century, when it held an honoured place among the situations settled by the Hessian Franks iCIiutti); i.e., the valley of the regulated by international law, neutrality could be defined as the Main river, still later called Franconia. legal position of third states which, in a war between two others or groups of others, chose to remain apart from the conflict, but Bibliography. A. Longnon, Atlas historique de la France (1907) in doing so had certain rights and duties that had to be respected F. Lot, Naissance de la France (1948) G. Kurth, Etudes franques, vol. i P. Kretschmer, "Austria und Neustria," Glotta, vol. xxvi (1919) by the belligerents and observed toward them. War was then a (1938), (C.-E. P.) legal procedure over the initiation of which the unorganized comIn the two decades following World War II munity of nations exercised no control. When a state found its this term came to mean the policy of nonalignment with major rights violated or its just claims denied, it might have recourse alhed systems as pursued by India, Burma, the United Arab States not directly involved in the to force to vindicate them. Republic. Yugoslavia and most of the new Asian and African conflict thereupon declared their neutrality and adopted a position states. These countries refused to align themselves with the of impartiality toward the belligerents. Historical Background. It was one thing for the neutral Communist bloc led by the Soviet Union or with the western bloc led by the United States, but they were not "isolationist"; state not to take sides between the belligerent governments and as members of the United Nations they took an active interest in quite another to be willing to abandon its trade with the citizens international problems. of the belligerent countries. Early in the 18th century, Holland, (

)

A

junction on the Berlin-Stralsund railway, economic activiinclude foodstuffs, wood and engineering manufactures.

UN

UN

NEUTRALITY.

—

;

;

;

NEUTRALISM.

—

NEUTRALITY Sweden and other maritime countries

they should have the right to continue their normal trade relations with the countries at war, and they resisted the restrictions that the belligerents sought to impose upon them. By the time of Vattel's treatise on the law of nations in 1758 the rights of neutrals were defined along general lines, but new situations were constantly arising to create controversies. The United States had scarcely won its independence when it found in 1793 that both Great Britain and France were violating its rights as a neutral, capturing its vessels on grounds of alleged breach of blockade and carriage of contraband. The situation led to hostihties with France in 1798 and became so acute in 1812 that the United States, harried by the "paper blockades" of both belligerents, declared war against Great Britain as the worst offender. Paradoxically enough, when the United States was at war in 1861-65 it extended the scope of the existing rules of blockade and contraband (qq.v.), and in the famous case of the "Alabama" held Great Britain to account for allowing the construction of a Confederate cruiser in its neutral ports. (For a statement on neutrality stemming from the Crimean War see Paris,

Declaration

felt that

of.)

At the end of the Napoleonic Wars the great powers that were represented at the Congress of Vienna agreed upon the principle of the perpetual neutrality of Switzerland and thereafter Switzerland successfully maintained its neutraUty. In 1839 the great powers of Europe also recognized Belgium as a perpetually neutral state and bound themselves to intervene if either party to a war violated that neutrahty. During the Franco-German War of 1870-71 the neutrality of Belgium was reafiSrmed by treaties concluded by France, Prussia and Great Britain.

—

1907 New Conditions and New Rules. The opening of the 20th century found the conflict between beUigerent and neutral interests even more acute than a century earUer. Nations still retained the right to go to war at will, but with the advance of science the instruments of war had become more destructive and :

the

commerce

flicts

more extensive, with resulting conThe second Hague conference of 1907 sought

of neutrals far

of interest.

compromise the conflicting interests, adopting two separate conventions, one deahng with the rights and duties of neutral states in war on land, the second deaUng with the rights and duties to

of neutral states in naval war. The adoption of the first convention offered little difiiculty, since the principle of the inviolability

was already well established; but the second was comphcated by questions of naval power, the size of merchant marines, colonial possessions and other factors bearing upon the success of naval warfare. The outstanding controversies were concerned with the scope of contraband and the effectiveness of blockade. The United States, anticipating the status of a neutral, sought to have the rules drafted as much as possible in favour of neutral commerce; Great Britain, anticipating involvement in a war, pressed for restrictions upon commerce in the interest of the effectiveness of naval power. Lists of contraband were drawn up, but it was difficult to determine what should be done with articles that were susceptible of use in war as vvell as for purposes of peace. Belligerents must not blockade neutral ports; but what if goods ostensibly destined to a neutral port were to be transshipped to a neighbouring belligerent country? Could neutral vessels be destroyed when captured for carriage of contraband or breach of blockade under circumstances when they could not be taken into a beUigerent port for adjudication? These and numerous other questions were left unsettled by the convention and were taken up a year later at the London Naval conference but the compromises there reached, embodied in the Declaration of London, had not yet been ratified when war broke out in 1914. Breakdown of Neutrality Elaborate as were the provisions of the agreements adopted at The Hague in 1907 they proved unequal to the strain put upon them when war broke out in 1914. Germany's violation of the neutrality of Belgium at the opening of the war proved to be a forecast of what was to come. Great Britain pressed hard upon the neutral rights of the United States by diverting vessels for search in port, requisitioning them and extending the rules of blockade and contraband. Germany pressed even harder with submarine attacks upon passenger ships. The of neutral territory

—

303

sinking of the "Lusitania" in 1915, followed by the renewal of submarine warfare against merchant ships in 1917, finally led the United States to declare war. Before that, however, on Oct. 16, 1916, President Wilson, harassed by both belligerents, had come to the conclusion that it was time to put an end to the right to

make

war. The "business of neutrality," he said, was over. No nation must henceforth be permitted to set in motion forces so destructive to the normal commerce of peaceful nations. War by

very nature put the neutral state in a position where it must abandon its neutral rights or fight to maintain them. Such was the intent of the covenant of the League of Nations. The members of the League undertook to act collectively to protect one another. A state that resorted to war in disregard of its pledges of pacific settlement was held to have committed an act of war against all other members of the League, which were pledged to discontinue trade and financial relations with it. Neutrality was now at an end. An individual state might still have its

either

recourse to force, but the collective action taken against it, in whatever form, would not be "war" in the old technical sense. The council of the League explicitly declared in 1920 that, "The idea of neutrality of members of the League of Nations is not compatible with the other principle that all the members of the League will have to act in common to cause their covenants to be respected."

Under these circumstances it is of interest to note that Geneva was chosen as the permanent seat of the League because of SwitThe League council in 1920 recognized Switzerland's permanently neutral status and agreed that no military force would be required of it in the event of a breach of the covenant (see Switzerland: History). Neutrality Revived.—The United States, the former chamzerland's neutrahty.

pion of neutral rights, refused to ratify the treaty of Versailles, which embodied the covenant of the League of Nations. What then would be its rights as a neutral in the event of collective action

by the League? If it insisted upon trading with a state against which the sanctions of art. 16 of the covenant were being applied, the sanctions could not be effective. Advocates of the League argued that there was a moral obhgation upon the United States to forego claiming its neutral rights under such circumstances. The moral obligation was held to have been given legal force by the provisions of the Pact of Paris of 1928 (see Kellogg Pact), which condemned recourse to war and renounced it as an instrument of national policy. But the imphed exception of the right of self-defense left the situation somewhat uncertain; and under the circumstances the American repubhcs, meeting in Havana in 1928, felt it desirable to adopt a formal convention on maritime neutrahty, based largely upon the Hague convention of 1907, with an exception in favour of states having obhgations previously undertaken. War between Bolivia and Paraguay raised issues as to the appUcabihty of the convention, with the result that the Argen-

made provision that, in case of nona state with the obhgations of nonaggression and pacific settlement, the contracting parties would "adopt in their tine antiwar treaty of 1933

comphance by

common and solidary attitude," thus reinif the League of Nations should fail to act. Neutrality on the Eve of World War II.— As the clouds of war grew darker with the attack by Japan upon China in 1931 and the attack by Italy upon Ethiopia in 1935 the debate among jurists became more acute. The leading European jurists, and many American jurists also, looked upon neutraUty as fundamentally immoral because it represented a refusal to distinguish between right and wrong in the conduct of states; other American jurists found it impractical to make the distinction and advocated poUcies of restriction upon traditional neutral rights. The U.S. congress responded to the appeal that the country must not be drawn into a war by the commercial interests of its citizens seeking the profits of neutral trade with the belUgerents, as was said to have been the case in Worid War I. A law of 1935 made it illegal to export arms, ammunition or implements of war from any place in the United States to any port of the beUigerent states or to any neutral port for transshipment to a belUgerent country; and a later section made it unlawful for American citizens to travel as character as neutrals a

stating neutrahty

NEUTRALITY

304

passengers on vessels of a belliRcrent nation (except at their own risk), thus preventing loss of American lives by another "Lusitania" disaster. A year later, in 1936, a second law made it illegal •to make any loan or extend any credit to a belligerent, thus depriving banker.s and munitions makers of any business interest in Again, in 1937, a "cash-and-carry" plan provided that certain articles and materials, as determined by the president, were to be paid for before leaving the United States and were to be transported in the vessels of some other country. The president was to determine when a state of war existed and issue a proclamation to that effect. All three laws clearly indicated that no discrimination would be made between the possible belligerents on ground of acts of aggression in violation of the Kellogg pact. Neutrality During World War II. When war broke out in 1939 there was a temporary revival of the traditional law of neuThe League of Nations found it impossible to put into trality. effect the provisions of the covenant under the circumstances of

the outcome was put into

of the war.

effect;

it

—

The smaller European such a bold challenge to its authority. powers were permitted to remain neutral for a time, but only while gathering their forces. powers were Axis the In the western hemisphere the United States took the lead in proclaiming its neutrality, going so far as to announce that it was "on terms of friendship and amity with the contending powers," no distinction being made between them in line with the implications of the Kellogg pact. Following the lead of the United States the American republics, in accordance with decisions taken at the conferences held in 1936 and 1938, met at Panama on Sept. 23, 1939, and issued a general declaration of neutrality, setting forth certain standards they proposed to follow and creating an InterAmerican Neutrality committee to formulate recommendations with respect to problems that might arise. At the same time the Declaration of Panama was issued; it proclaimed that "as a measure of continental self-protection" the American republics were entitled to have the waters adjacent to the American continents A free from the commission of hostile acts by the belligerents. "zone of security" was marked off, defining the area from which beUigerent operations were to be excluded. No measures of enforcement were provided in the declaration, but the use of the term "self-protection" indicated that a violation of the declaration would not be taken Ughtly. Great Britain protested against this extension of neutral rights, which, it insisted, required its specific assent to become binding. In Hke manner the German government held that the zone of security could not be regarded as in force until accepted. Within three months of the issuance of the declaration the

German

damaged

an took refuge in the harbour

battleship "Graf Spee,"

in

engagement with three British cruisers, of Montevideo. Having exhausted its permissible stay the vessel left the harbour and by prearrangement with a German merchant ship was scuttled at a point within the river claimed by Uruguay to be within its territorial waters.

On

the continent of

Europe one violation of neutrality suc-

On Feb. 17, 1940, a British destroyer pursued the transport "Altmark" into Norwegian territorial waters

ceeded another.

German

decks hundreds of officers and men belonging merchant ships captured and sunk by German warships. Norway protested, but two months later the country as a whole was occupied by German troops. The occupation of Denmark by Germany and that of Greece by Italy followed. On May 10, the German government, alleging that it was in possession of evidence that the Allies were about to attack through Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg, invaded these three neutral On its part Great Britain occupied Icestates without warning.

and rescued from

its

to various British

land in order to forestall a German invasion of the island. Yugoslavia, refusing to depart from its position of neutrality, was occupied by the Axis armies on April 6, 1941. Endless controversies developed over the scope of contraband goods, whether absolute or conditional, and the effectiveness of

blockade.

Goods such

as rubber, which had never been classified were now found to have great value making the lists of the Declaration of Lon-

as contraband in earlier wars, for military purposes,

don meaningless.

The

earlier doctrine of the "ultimate destina-

tion" of cargoes left the neutral

open market of a neutral

state.

free to sell its goods in

But what

if

the

a neutral state ad-

jacent to Germany should transship the goods to the enemy Would not that constitute an indirect violation of the state? blockaded enemy ports? Even a guarantee from the neutral state that the goods would be consumed in the country still left the neutral state a larger portion of its own domestic produce to transship to Germany. So argued Great Britain on both points. The meeting of foreign ministers of the

American republics

at

Panama

in

1939 protested the placing of foodstuffs and clothing intended for New civilian populations on lists of contraband, but to no avail. circumstances had arisen and war, said both belligerents, was not what it used to be. The United States, as the leading neutral, yielded on most points; or rather, with the experience of World War I behind it, the dominant opinion in congress was that it was better to abandon the "freedom of the seas" than to risk a conflict in the interest of But its sympathy with the commerce of its individual citizens. the Allied powers grew stronger with each new incident. In July, 1940, a meeting of foreign ministers of the American repuWics was held at Havana at which, in anticipation of a possible victory of Germany, a system of regional defense was adopted, accompanied by a convention providing for the provisional administration of European colonies and possessions in the Americas, clearly indicating the realization that a victory of Germany would be a danger to the western hemisphere. More directly contrary to its status of neutrality were the negotiations of the United States with Great Britain by which SO destroyers, described as "out-of-date," were exchanged for the lease of naval bases on British islands in the Caribbean. The fact that Germany chose to overlook the transaction rather than risk an open break with the United States did not make the act any the less

a violation of neutral duty, and the allegation of self-defense justification except in anticipation of a German

was without victory.

But the exchange of destroyers for naval bases was a minor compared with the passage of the LendLease act on March 11, 1941, by which congress authorized the

violation of neutraHty

president to lease, lend or otherwise dispose of defense articles to the government of any country whose defense the president deemed

United States. This act was justified on the ground that Germany had violated the Kellogg pact, thus permitting other parties such as the United States to discriminate against it. NeutraHty was now at an end except to the extent of vital to the defense of the

Two months later the "Robin was sunk by a German submarine on the high seas, the passengers and crew being left afloat in small hfeboats. The president, in describing the act to congress, branded the sinking of the "Robin Moor" as "the act of an international

a formal declaration to that effect.

Moor,"

a neutral U.S. vessel,

outlaw."

NeutraHty ended for the United States with the Japanese attack at Pearl Harbor on Dec. 7, 1941. A month or more later the foreign ministers of the American repubHcs met at Rio de Janeiro, and, after reaffirming their pledge that an act of aggression against one of them would be considered as an act of aggression against all, recommended the breaking of diplomatic relations with the Axis powers.

A number

of

them promptly declared war, but even

for

was over. For other states, previously neuthe status ceased to have any technical meaning. Effect of the Charter of the United Nations.—The under-

the rest neutrality tral,

had been League of Nations, was that the old have recourse to armed force was, ex-

lying assumption of the charter of the United Nations, as that of the covenant of the right of individual states to

cept in case of individual or collective self-defense, the prerogative of the collective group acting through the Security council, looking to the suppression of acts of aggression and the mainte-

nance of the general peace. Such collective action as might be decided upon by the Security council would not be "war" in the technical sense, so that states not participating in the measures taken would not be "neutral" in the traditional sense. While there is no obHgation, except by special agreement, for every member to take part in miHtary measures of enforcement, there is the

NEUTRALIZATION— NEUTRON obligation of affording mutual assistance in carrying out the meas-

upon by the Security council, which would preclude any claim of the traditional neutral rights. But what if a conflict of ideologies and military policies between the leading members of the United Nations should reach the point where the system of collective security might prove to be unworkable? What then would be the attitude of third states that could not risk taking sides between the two powerful contenders, now become more powerful with the discovery of a weapon of devastating power? A new position of "neutralism" developed, not one of claiming rights as against the two possible belligerents, but a position of remaining as completely aloof as possible from the impending conflict, which might at any time pass from that of a cold war to a lighting one over which it was clear that the Security council could exercise no control {see Neutralism). A war in violation of the provisions of the charter could not be expected to keep within the traditional laws of war. The atomic bomb had eUminated the old distinctions between combatants and noncombatants, making the risk of participating even in discusures decided

sions of the Security council too great for the defenseless nation.

new

was given by the Declaration of the 14-nation conference at Geneva in 1962 by which Laos was recognized as a neutral state and on its part pledged itself to remain neutral. Meanwhile Switzerland, while Specific apphcation of the

not a

member

status of neutrahty

of the United Nations, retained

its

old status as a

neutral under the covenant of the League of Nations, and Austria,

on becoming a member of the United Nations, was recognized as having a similar status. See War; International Law, Public; United Nations. See also references under "Neutrality" in the Index. Bibliography.

—

C. G. Fenwick, The Neutrality Laws of the United Stales (1913), American Neutrality: Trial and Failure (1940), International Law, 3d ed. (1948) P. C. Jessup and others, Neutrality, Its History, Economics and Law, with bibhography (1935-36); Harvard Research in International Law, "Rights and Duties of Neutral States in Naval and Aerial War" and "Rights and Duties of States in Case of Aggression"; Am. Jour. Int. Law, vol. ii, supp., pp. 175, 823 (1939) F. Deak and P. C. Jessup (eds.). Collection of Neutrality Lifws, Regulations and Treaties of Various Countries (1939) Q. Wright, The Role ;

;

;

of International

Law

War (1962) (C. G. Fk.) a setting of limitations upon the

in the Elimination of

NEUTRALIZATION

is

belligerent capacities of a sovereign state,

comes bound not

to

do or to

.

which thereupon be-

suffer certain things, such as the

building of fortifications or the presence or passage of

armed

forces in a defined area. This area is usually smaller than the whole territory of the state, but a similar situation may be created in respect of a whole state, when that state undertakes not to take part in wars except in self-defense. The resulting situation is in this case commonly called perpetual neutrahty. For instance, when Austria's status was regulated by the state treaty of 19SS, Austria unilaterally and voluntarily declared by a separate instrument that it would be perpetually neutral, defend its neutrality, join no military alliances and allow no foreign bases on Austrian territory. The state treaty prohibited Austria from possessing atomic and similar weapons. NeutraHzation agreements affect other states, if and so far as these assume obligations in the event of a breach of the agreement or if they undertake them-

from certain actions. bound by a neutralization agreement which it has not signed, and therefore the only way to ensure complete immunity from attack is by a universally signed convention. In practice, considerations of geography and comparative power determine what signatures are necessary to make a particular agreement effective. Neutralization, which is the outcome of agreement, is to be distinguished from neutrality (q.v.), which is an attitude adopted by a state at will, in face of a particular situation, and for no specifically prescribed period as, for instance, with Sweden or the Repubhc of Ireland during World War II, these states choosing to

selves to abstain

A

state

is

not, of course,

—

remain outside the contest. Among islands, Corfu was neutralized upon its cession to Greece in 1863, Sfjitsbergen (Svalbard) and Ahvenanmaa (the Aland Islands) were neutrahzed in 1920 and 1921 respectively. Norway undertook in 1920, by a convention signed by eight other states,

305

not to build a naval base in Spitsbergen or to use it for any military purposes. Russia, which acquired Ahvenanmaa from Sweden in 1809, agreed in 18S6, upon the insistence of Sweden and other powers, not to fortify the islands or to maintain any military or naval establishment in them. After World War I Finland, to which the islands then passed, gave a similar pledge in a convention signed in 1921 in company with nine other states (excluding the U.S.S.R.); this promise was repeated in 1947 in the peace treaty with Finland. Instruments declaring the neutrahty of whole states were signed

Belgium in 1839, of Luxemand of the Vatican city-state in 1929 (the last was signed only by the Holy See and Italy). Switzerland continued to maintain its neutrality, but Belgium abandoned that attitude after World War I and Luxembourg after World War II. in respect of Switzerland in 1815, of

bourg

in 1867

NEUTRON,

(P. J. A. C.)

a particle in the atomic nucleus

The discovery opening the way for

electrical charge.

tant part in

which has no

of the neutron played an impor-

the utilization of nuclear energy. Fission of the atomic nuclei of various isotopes of uranium, plu-

tonium, etc., it was learned, could be induced by bombarding them with the neutral particles. In this process, additional neutrons are released,

making possible the

so-called chain reaction.

This is the during World War II. Also, the released energy has been harnessed for industrial use by controUing the reaction so as to prevent it from going substantially beyond the point where the chain reaction is self-sustaining. The neutron and the proton are now considered to be the basic

principle of the fission

bomb developed

building materials of which all atomic nuclei are composed. The neutron has a mass slightly greater than that of the proton. History. Following publication in 1911 of his concept of the atom as a structure built around a nucleus. Lord Rutherford conducted experimental studies of the atomic disintegration of light elements. In 1920, in a lecture to the Royal Society, he offered laboratory proof that the long-range particle emitted by nitrogen under bombardment with alpha rays is the proton, which is the nucleus of the hydrogen atom and part of the nucleus of all other atoms. The proton is the simplest of all nuclei, and carries a posi-

—

tive electrical charge.

With the discovery of this first nuclear reaction, Rutherford's nuclear hypothesis was further validated. He then offered still another hypothesis. The observed reactions of the proton, he said, were consistent with the supposition that it was linked with another, still undiscovered constituent in the nucleus a particle that

—

was

electrically neutral.

In 1932, Sir James Chadwick demonstrated that the radiation created when beryllium is bombarded by alpha particles consists of a stream of nuclear particles carrying no electrical charge. Rutherford's hypothetical particle, now an estabhshed fact, was named the neutron. Earlier, Frederic Joliot and Mme. Irene Joliot-Curie in Paris had investigated this penetrating radiation emitted by beryUium when bombarded by alpha particles. They found that the radiation which had previously been interpreted by W. Bothe and H. Becker as a gamma radiation (see Radioactivity), was capable of propelHng hydrogen nuclei (protons) with very high speed. Chadwick, after a thorough experimental inall the properties of the new radiation, came to the conclusion that it must consist of neutral particles of a mass nearly equal to that of the proton. The major argument in this conclusion was the speed given by the newly discovered particle to various atomic nuclei in collisions. The assumption of a massive particle rather than a gamma ray brought order into the experimental observations.

vestigation of

It

was soon found that neutrons, because of

their lack of electric

charge, are particularly effective in causing nuclear transforma-

Atom; Nucleus).

In 1934 Enrico Fermi and his collaborators showed that nearly every element in the periodic table may undergo a nuclear transformation when bombarded by neuIn many cases, radioactive isotopes of the elements are trons. formed in this way {see Isotope; Radioactive Isotopes). Slow neutrons were found particularly useful in producing these transformations. tions {see

NEUTRON

3o6

Fermi found that uranium was among the elements in which neutron bombardment induced transformations. This element was investigated in greater detail by Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn in Berlin in subseciuent years. Their results were difficult to interpret, until late in lO.^S Hahn and F. Strassmann found that at least one of the radioactive elements formed by bombardment of uranium was an isotope of barium. This was immediately interpreted by Otto Frisch and Meitner (also two weeks later and independently, by Hahn and Strassmann themselves) as indicating that the uranium nucleus had been split into two massive fragments, a process later called fission. The important technical developments resulting from this discovery will be described in a later section of this article.

counterpart in the atomic nucleus, the proton. The neutron, as already mentioned, has no electric charge, whereas the proton has one positive elementary charge (1.6 X 10~'^ coulombs). This causes great differences in the passage of the two particles through matter: a fast-moving proton ejects electrons from atoms which it encounters, and thereby produces

heavy ionization along its path with consequent loss of energy. Because of this, the track of a proton can easily be observed in a cloud chamber. The neutron, having no electric charge, cannot produce ions but can only make direct collisions with atomic nuclei. Its track, therefore, cannot be observed, but the presence of neutrons can be deduced from the visible tracks in a cloud chamber of charged recoil nuclei which have been set in motion by neutron impact. (See Detection of Neutrons, below.) Another consequence of the absence of ionization is that neutrons do not lose energy so long as they do not collide with atomic nuclei. Since such collisions are very rare, a neutron travels far Protons, on the other through matter before losing its speed. hand, travel only very short distances because they lose their energy by ionization. For instance, a proton with a velocity of 3 X 10^ cm. /sec, which is the order of magnitude of the velocities common in nuclear physics, will travel about 0.005 cm. in a material such as iron or copper. A neutron of the same velocity will travel about S cm. before it makes its first collision with a nucleus, and since it loses only a fraction of its energy in each collision, it will continue to travel for 10 to 100 times this distance before it is finally captured by a nucleus. Neutrons are, therefore, very pene-

—The mass of the neutron

is very nearly the same as that In the physical scale of atomic weights (in which the isotope C^- has a mass of exactly 12), the mass of the neutron is 1.00867. On the same scale, the mass of the hydrogen atom is 1.00797 and that of the proton 1.00728. The neutron is, therefore, slightly heavier than the proton and even slightly heavier than the hydrogen atom (proton plus electron). The fact has two important consequences. First of all it makes the neutron unstable and subject to beta disintegration (see below).

Mass.

of the proton.

The second consequence

is

that the neutron cannot be consid-

ered as a proton and an electron bound together in some way. Therefore, the neutron and the proton have to be regarded as fun-

damental particles which are closely related to each other in a manner the details of which were still unknown as of the mid-1960s, although by that time much was known of the forces between them. The view then gaining currency was that protons and neutrons were simply two different charge states of the same entity called the nucleon.

—

Spin, Magnetic Moment and Statistics. Just like the more familiar fundamental particles, the electron and the proton, the neu-

has properties which are analogous to of the spin (angular momentum) is ^{hllir), where h is Planck's constant, just as for proton and electron. It also shares with proton and electron the property of obeying Fermi-Dirac statistics, which makes it impossible for two neutrons in an atom to be in the same quantum state. The value of the spin and the fact that neutrons obey Fermi-Dirac tron has a "spin";

i.e.,

those of a spinning top.

statistics are further

M

netons).

Beta Decay.

— According to the theory of radioactive beta decay +

—

Properties of Free Neutrons. It is appropriate to discuss the properties of the neutron by comparing them with those of its

trating.

neutron as a combination of electron and proton. The neutron has a magnetic moment whose direction is opposite to that of its spin, as if a negative electric charge were revolving The value of the magnetic in the rotation of the spinning top. moment has been measured with great accuracy and is 1.9135 nuof the clear magnetons. This is defined in terms of the mass proton as eh/4TvMc. The proton has a positive magnetic moment were revolving) whose value is 2.7928 nucharge (as if a positive clear magnetons. The magnetic moment of the electron is negative and is almost one Bohr magneton (about 1,840 nuclear mag-

it

The value

arguments against the interpretation of the

+

?, (see RADioAcrrviTY), the process taking place is n -^ p P~ indicating the formation of a proton p, negative electron j3~ and antineutrino v. respectively. This fundamental process was first

observed for free neutrons in 1949. A. H. Snell and collaborators Oak Ridge, Tenn., detected the simultaneous occurrence of a proton and an electron coming from the decay of neutrons in a high intensity beam issuing from the nuclear reactor (see Nuclear Energy, below). In 1950 John M. Robson at Chalk River in Canada observed the decay of the neutron and also measured the energy spectrum of the decay electrons. In a sensitive mass spectrometer he identified the heavy particles as protons. The negative particles in coincidence with the protons were detected in a beta ray spectrometer which measured the electron energy. The observed maximum energy of the decay electrons gives a value for the mass of the neutron which compares very well with the ijiore accurate measurements (see above) made from observations on numerous nuclear transmutations in which all the masses and energies, except the neutron's mass, are known. Free neutrons decay according to the usual laws of radioactive decay. Robson deduced a value for the half life of the neutron of 10.2 min., in excellent agreement with the value estimated from at

the theory of beta decay.

Wave

Properties.

— Quantum

mechanics postulates that every

wave properties with a characteristic wave length X = h/mv, where X is the wave length, h is Planck's constant, and

particle exhibits

mv

is

the

momentum

of the particle.

Neutrons are no exception

property gave rise to an active field of reExperimental methods for obtaining search in neutron optics. monochromatic neutrons, or neutrons of a single momentum, and

and the existence of

this

ways of measuring their diffraction by crystals were devised, much Because neutrons are as X-rays were used to study crystals. strongly scattered by lighter nuclei, as mentioned below, they help to disclose the part taken by light atoms in crystal lattices where X-rays are affected scarcely at all. Promising results are found in the study of magnetic substances. As the neutron has a magnetic moment but no electric charge, passage of a neutron beam through strongly magnetized iron causes the neutrons to show polarization A slow neutron of effects not exhibited by other particle waves. kinetic energy 0.13 electron volts has a particle wave length of 10~8 cm. A). Neutrons that, as a result of collisions, have 1

d

X

come

into equilibrium with their surroundings are called thermal Their average energy is about 0.025 electron volts;

neutrons.

hence, their particle wave lengths are about 5 A. The marked resonance absorption of slow neutrons appears to be closely linked with this wave nature of the neutron and its likelihood of being captured for appreciable lengths of time within the potential barrier of a nucleus.

Neutrons ent theory,

as

all

—

Building Blocks of Nuclei. According to prescomposed of neutrons and protons. This

nuclei are

theory replaced the older one. now completely discarded, that protons and electrons were the building stones of the nucleus. Even before the discovery of the neutron, this older theory had encountered grave difficulties. For example, according to quantum mechanics, electrons cannot be compressed into such a small space as Additional arguments arise from the spin atomic nuclei, and the peculiar phenomena

the inside of a nucleus.

and the

statistics of

connected with beta radioactivity. The proton-neutron hypothesis has met with considerable success, however, and has been used to explain a number of fundamenIt is well established that protons tal properties of atomic nuclei.

NEUTRON and neutrons inside the nucleus can be considered to conform to

quantum mechanics. According to the proton-neutron hypothesis the atomic number Z (charge) of a nucleus is equal to the number of protons contained in it. The mass number A, i.e., the integer nearest to the atomic mass, is the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons since each of these particles contributes about one atomic mass the laws of

The isotopes of a given element, therefore, all contain same number of protons but varying numbers of neutrons; unit.

the for

any isotope of the element carbon contains 6 protons, the most abundant isotope C^' contains in addition 6 neutrons, while the less abundant stable isotope C^^ contains 7 neutrons, the radioactive isotope C^* contains 8 neutrons and C^^ instance, whereas

contains only S neutrons. Perhaps the most important information about a nucleus is provided by its exact weight. From it the binding energy of the nucleus can be deduced, with the help of Einstein's relation, E = mc^. For instance, the helium nucleus has a mass of 4.00288. Since its atomic number is 2 and its mass number 4, it contains 2 neutrons and 2 protons the combined weight of these 4 particles is 4.03300. The difference between this and the weight of the helium nucleus represents the binding energy with which the 4 particles are held together in the nucleus. The energy represented by this mass difference is tremendous. The formation of 4 g. of helium from 2 g. of hydrogen and 2 g. of neutrons would release as much energy as the burning of about 100 tons of coal if such a process of fusion could be brought about. A binding of this tremendous strength cannot be the result of electric forces; moreover, no such forces act on neutrons anyway, because of the absence of electric charge. Gravitational forces are even more inadequate to account for the strong binding. A new force must therefore be assumed, which is known as nuclear force. The exact character of nuclear forces was only partially known as of the mid-1960s; however, it was known that they act only over very short distances, having a range of about 3 X 10~^^ cm. and being negligible outside this range. The exploration of nuclear forces is the prime objective of nuclear physics. The scattering of neutrons of various velocities by protons has given fundamental information about nuclear forces. Neutron-neutron and proton-proton forces are found to be about equal within the nucleus, and there is a strong tendency for equal numbers of neutrons and protons to form the lighter atoms. In the heavier atoms, the number of neutrons exceeds that of protons. For example, uranium-238 has 92 protons and 146 neutrons; uranium-23S has the same number of protons but only 143 neutrons. The separation energy of a neutron, or the energy that must be supplied to extract a neutron from a nucleus, ranges from S to 13 Mev (million electron volts) except for some of the lighter elements to be mentioned below. Neutron Production. Since the neutron is not stable and is readily captured by a nucleus (see Properties of Free Neutrons, above, and Nuclear Reactions Produced by Neutrons, below), few neutrons are found in nature in the free state, i.e., outside of atomic nuclei. Therefore, if an experimenter wishes to work with neutrons, he must produce them by means of nuclear reactions. ;

—

These reactions

fall into three t)rpes: (1) reactions initiated by an energetic charged particle, such as the nucleus of light or heavy

hydrogen or helium, commonly called proton, deuteron and alpha respectively; (2) reactions initiated by (electro-magnetic radiation); (3) nuclear fission.

particle,

gamma

rays

—

Reactions Produced by Charged Particles. This type of reaction was historically the first method to produce neutrons and, until 1942, the only way to produce them in quantity. It is still the most versatile method, being capable of producing neutrons of specified kinetic energy. Chadwick, in his first experiments, obtained neutrons by bombarding beryllium or boron with alpha particles, according to the nuclear equation He* -f Be^ — C'^ >•

Q

+

where Q, the increase in kinetic energy, is in this case S.76 Mev. With the growing prevalence of high-energy accelerators, neutrons were mostly produced by bombarding various atomic nuclei-with deuterons and sometimes with protons, accelerated in a cyclotron or some similar device. This has the advantage that n^

-{-

307

number of particles obtainable is very much greater than the number of alpha particles emitted by available amounts of radiothe

active material, and neutrons of

from natural sources are

much

available.

higher energies than those This has led to a great expan-

sion in the nuclear particles being studied (see Particles, Elementary). Particular nuclear reactions useful for the production

of neutrons will be discussed below.

One of the prime considerations for choosing a particular nuis the yield. This depends sensitively on the kinetic energy of the bombarding particle, and on the nature of the bombarding particle as well as that clear reaction for the production of neutrons

The bombardment of berylHum with deuterons gives in general a higher yield than any other combination of nuclei. However, even for this reaction, the yield is very small of the target nucleus.

and changes rapidly with the energy of the deuterons:

at

1

Mev

deuteron energy, it is about 1 neutron for 100,000 deuterons; at 10 Mev, about 1 in 1,000, and further increase of the deuteron energy, to 40 Mev is expected to increase the yield to about 1 in 100. The yields are so small because the deuteron loses kinetic energy continuously by ionizing the atoms of beryllium through which it passes, and in general it will have lost all its energy before it has had a chance to hit a beryllium nucleus and disintegrate it. A cyclotron may give a current of deuterons of about 100 microamperes; if the deuteron energy is 10 Mev, this will produce about 10^^ neutrons per second. The yield from the bombardment of beryllium with alpha particles is about 1 neutron for 4,000 alpha particles (if the alpha particles comes from radon). One curie of radon (i.e., the amount which is in radioactive equilibrium with 1 g. of radium), intimately mixed with beryllium will give about 10,000,000 neutrons per second. An average cyclotron is thus equivalent in neutron production to about 100,000 curies, i.e., to the radioactive rays from 100 kg. of radium. At very low energy the yield decreases rapidly. The reason is that the incident particle (deuteron or alpha particle) cannot come close to the beryllium nucleus because there is a strong electrostatic repulsion between them, and there is not sufficient kinetic energy to overcome this repulsion. For instance, the yield for deuterons of 500,000 ev (electron volts) on beryllium is only 1 neutron per 2,000,000 deuterons, and at 250,000 ev it is immeasurably small. Neutrons can also be produced by deuteron bombardment of other light nuclei such as deuterium, lithium, boron, nitrogen, etc.

The

yields are usually smaller

by

a factor of between

two and ten

than the yields from beryllium at the same energy. In any nuclear reaction energy is either released or absorbed. When neutrons are produced from deuterons, there is normally an energy release because the proton is not very strongly bound to the neutron in the deuteron and can be bound more strongly to the target nucleus. For instance, with a beryllium target, the energy release is 4 Mev; with a deuterium target, 3 Mev. Higher energy releases are obtained from lithium or boron targets, namely 15 and 13 Mev, respectively. These targets can, therefore, be used to produce very high energy neutrons from deuterons of quite low kinetic energy, which can be accelerated by apparatus of only moderate size and cost. Still higher energy neutrons can be obtained by deuteron bombardment of tritium, the hydrogen isotope of mass 3, with an energy release of 18 Mev; this reaction is also useful because of its high yield at deuteron energies of a few hundred thousand volts. An important problem in experiments on fast neutrons is the obtaining of neutrons of a well-defined energy (monochromatic neutrons). In general, a nuclear reaction will give neutrons of many different energies because the residual nucleus (which remains after emission of the neutron) can be left in several different energy states. Thus, the deuteron bombardment of boron gives, besides the fast neutron group with 13 Mev energy release, at least 3 other groups with energy releases of 9, 6 and 4 Mev, respectively; the reaction with hthium gives neutrons of all energies below the maximum, and that with beryllium also gives many energy groups. On the other hand, the reaction between two deuterons is satis-

NEUTRON

3o8

factory because in this case the residual nucleus (helium 3) does not have any excited states. The deuteron-deuteron reaction

+

H-(rf,«)He' 3.28 Mev has, therefore, been an important reaction for producing monochromatic neutrons. The reaction between tritium and the deuteron also fulfils this criterion and at the same time gives very high energy neutrons according to the reaction H^ ((/,«) He'' -1-17.6 Mev, where H^ stands for tritium and d for deuteron.

Neutrons can also be produced by bombarding a nucleus with protons. In this case energy is always absorbed and the reaction, therefore, begins to take place only above a certain kinetic energy

Measurement of this threshvaluable in making accurate comparisons between the masses of atomic nuclei and has given an accurate value of the mass of the neutron. The reaction between lithium 7 and a proton

it has been slowed down. Accordingly, the yield of nuclear reactions produced by a charged nuclear particle is only of the order

in 1,000 or less (see Reactions Produced by Charged Parti1 above) on the other hand, the yield of nuclear reactions from very slow neutrons is nearly 100%; almost every neutron which is

of

cles,

;

produced

will

some nuclear

ultimately be captured by a nucleus and will produce reaction.

Several types of reaction between neutrons and atomic nuclei will be discussed below. Which of these reactions takes place in any given collision between neutron and nucleus is a matter of chance; the probability of any given type of reaction depends on

of the proton, the threshold energy.

the particular nucleus with which the neutron collides, and on the

old energy

velocity of the neutron.

is

— 1.65 Mev gives monochromatic neutrons with high and is valuable for the accurate study of neutrons of moderately low kinetic energy, so long as the energy of the incident Li"(^,n")Be^ yield,

protons

is

not too high.

—

Neutron Production by Gamma Rays.- Neutrons can be reby gamma rays, i.e., by electromagnetic radiation of e.xtremely short wave length. The energy of one quantum of gamma radiation, liv, must be greater than the energy with which the neutron is bound to the rest of the nucleus. In most nuclei leased from nuclei

energy is about 8 Mev; notable exceptions are Be^(7,«)Be® — 1.67 Mev and deuterium 'H.^(y,n)H^ — which the separation energies are 1.67 and 2.23 Mev,

this separation

bep.-llium

2.23

Mev

for

respectively.

The

is very small, even for gamma rays of Average yields are about 1 neutron for 1 ,000 gamma material is provided to absorb the gamma rays (this requires a thickness of several centimetres of iron or about a metre of berN'llium in thin layers, the yield is proportionally less. The efficiency of gamma rays in producing neutrons usually rises with increasing gamma-ray energy and reaches a maximum at a gamma-ray energy of about IS to 20 Mev per quantum. Neutron Production by Fission. In the fission of uranium and other hea\n.' nuclei, neutrons are emitted. This is the basis of the nuclear chain reaction which is the most economical means of pro-

yield of neutrons

high energy. rays

if sufficient

"i

;

—

ducing large quantities of neutrons. The fission of uranium can be induced by neutrons; in each fission one neutron is absorbed whereas more than one neutron is emitted. Each of the emitted neutrons can in turn produce fission in another uranium nucleus provided (1) the neutrons are not absorbed by other nuclei, and (2) a sufficient amount of uranium is used to prevent escape of the neutrons. In this way a nuclear chain reaction is obtained in which neutrons are continuously produced by fission and in turn cause fission in other nuclei. There is virtually no limit to the number of neutrons that can be produced in this way. The only practical limitation comes from the considerable amount of energy released in fission which must be dissipated. If 100,000 kw. can be dissipated or used in production of useful power, more than lO^* neutrons per second are produced; one such reactor thus gives a neutron production equivalent to the output of 1,000,000 cyclotrons. However, for experimental purposes it is necessary to remember that the neutrons will be distributed over a larger area, making their density per unit area not much greater than that from a cyclotron, and the neutrons also will be of lower energy, in general, than those from a cyclotron. In addition, in working with larger numbers of neutrons, the health hazards must be considered. But despite these shortcomings, intense beams of neutrons from nuclear reactors are commonly used for experiments.

—

Nuclear Reactions Produced by Neutrons. The most important physical property of neutrons is the absence of electric charge. This enables them to approach an atomic nucleus without being repelled by its positive charge. Therefore, a neutron can enter an atomic nucleus no matter whether it is fast or slow. On

Some reactions, notably the capture of neutrons with the emission of gamma radiation, are enhanced by reducing the velocity of the neutrons while others can be initiated only by fast neutrons. Scatteri?ig of Neutrons. The simplest process which may occur when a neutron hits an atomic nucleus is scattering, i.e., a change of the direction in which the neutron moves. This scattering may be elastic like the collision between two biUiard balls; in this case, the kinetic energies of the neutron and the nucleus after the collision add up to the kinetic energy of the neutron before the collision; or the scattering may be inelastic, i.e., kinetic energy may be lost and transformed into internal energy of the bombarded

—

nucleus.

At relatively low neutron energy, elastic scattering takes place between neutrons and protons, although neutron capture to create deuterons also occurs. A neutron of nearly any en-

in collisions

ergy

may

give rise to resonant capture, with radiation of

gamma

rays and consequent loss of kinetic energy of the neutron. Above about 0.1 Mev. inelastic scattering becomes rapidly more imporelastic scattering when fast neutrons In the majority of cases, a very large fraction of the kinetic energy is lost in inelastic collisions, so that the neutrons emerge after the collisions with an average kinetic energy of about one-quarter of their initial energy or less. The remainder of the energy has been transformed into excitation energy of the nucleus and usually appears afterward in the form of

tant

and predominates over

collide with heax-y nuclei.

gamma

rays.

At very high neutron

energies,

above 100 Mev, new

fission proc-

esses begin, resulting in the production of "stars" in photographic

emulsions. This is the experimental region in which many of the so-called strange particles originate. In the mid-1960s these particles were still the object of detailed study. Collisions between neutrons and atomic nuclei are, of course, relatively rare because of the very small size of the atomic nucleus. size can be determined from the frequency of collisions with The frequency of collisions is commonly measured terms of the effective cross section, i.e., the target area which the nucleus appears to present to the neutron. If the cross section

This

fast neutrons.

in

is ing a pre-Tertiarv' basement complex which is exposed in the cores of many of the mountain systems. Van Bemmelen regards the metamorphic rocks of Japen Island in Geehink bay and of the Cyclop (or Cyclops) mountains as remnants of an old Melanesian continent to the north, sediments from which were deposited in a great geosynchne which occupied much of New Guinea from Silurian to mid-Tertian,- times. This long period of subsidence was interrupted by a number of orogenic movements and the intrusion of plutonic rocks. Highly metamorphosed rocks associated with these intrusions occur over large areas of the central mountain complex, in the Owen Stanley range and in the Northern ranges (or Northern Di\iding range, includbut these rocks ing the Van Rees range and the Foja range were already intensely deformed before the plutonic intrusions occurred. The present vigorous reUef of much of the central and tain system of western

by

relatively

,

)

is largely the result of intense orogenic movements which, beginning in the Oligocene, extended into the Pleistocene. Much of the central portion of the island and the entire eastern Secondary ''tail" is occupied by a remarkable mountain system. and Tertiary rocks are folded in an east-west, or east-southeast to west-northwest direction. There is no e\idence of overthrust or nappe structures and the main movements appear to have been vertical folding appears to have been secondary to the raising up of the old pre-Tertiary basement complex. The central mountain system is a great horsthke structure with upturned edges and abrupt step-faulted margins to the north and south, the latter The Northern ranges, which are being extremely precipitous. separated from the central mountain system by a broad depression of Tertiar>- deposits thickly overlain by allu\ium. reveal a some-

eastern portions

:

in which the pre-Terdary basement is exbordered on the north by another east-west depression which reaches the sea on either side of the fault-bounded Cyclop mountains. To the south the Digoel-Fly lowland, regarded by T. W. Edgeworth David as the main axis of the depression, is a low dissected plateau sloping southward from the central mountain system, in which the rivers have cut wide valleys. Farther south the pre-Tertiary basement appears in a number of low hiUs near Merauke, marking in Van Bemmelen's opinion the margin of the

what similar structure posed:

it is

Austrahan continent.

NEW GUINEA

;+2

The eastern "tail" differs from the central mountains in haxinn been much more actively volcanic in the peolopically recent past and it still contains a number of active volcanoes. Active volcanism is also present in a chain of islands off the northern coast curving eastward into New Britain and New Ireland. Widespread coral limestones occur in many outlying islands off the northeast coast.

The western

peninsula, the N'oRclkop or Bird's Head, by conmore strongly folded

trast consists of lightly folded Tertiary rocks,

low northern mountains where the pre-Tertiary basement Along the north coast is a zone of recent volagain appears. canism. a continuation of the volcanic arc of the Indonesian island of Halmahera in the Moluccas, which contains the volcano Umsini in the .-\rfak mountains. Physiography. Three major divisions of the island can be distinguished, each containing several structural elements; these are generally topographically continuous from one division to another, although their structural relations are far from clear. The \'ogelkop is almost completely cut off from the mainland by the shallow Teloek Beraoe McCluer gulf); to the north is a mountain complex. An extensive lowland borders the gulf and a narrow neck of mountains connects with the Northern ranges and the Snow mountains in the body of the island. Other isolated mountains appear in the Bombarai peninsula to the south of the gulf. The trend of the northern Vogelkop mountains is continued in the island of Japen in Geelvink bay and isolated mountains along the north coast (Cyclop mountains). Elsewhere the north coast of the body of the island is bordered by a plain, rising southward to the complex Northern ranges; the ranges east of Sepik river constitute a topographic continuation. South of the Northern ranges lies a great median depression, the Meervlakte ), occupied by the Rouffaer and so-called Lake plain Idenburg rivers, tributaries of the Mamberamo which tlows to the north coast; a low sill separates this zone from the similar extenTo the south of this median sive lowland of the Sepik river. depression is a great mountainous zone about 100 mi. in breadth and still little known. It consists of a series of ranges trending roughly east to west and arranged in echelon formation. These include the Nassau and Orange (Oranje) ranges, forming the Snow mountains, which are continued eastward in the Star (Sterren) and Digoel ranges and. in the Australian-administered territories, in the Hindenburg, \'ictor Emanuel, MuUer and Bismarck ranges. The headstreams of the Digoel river and Fly river have carved great gorges through several ranges, many of which rise above 10,000 ft. Much of the Snow mountains Ues above 12,000 ft., and the system rises above the snow line (about 14,500 ft.) in a number of great peaks. Carstensz top (16,535 ft.) is the highest

in the

—

(

(

point in the whole of the southwest Pacific; it was climbed in 1937 by the A. H. Colijn expedition which approached from the south. is

The

a series

system lies on the southern side and there of precipitous drops to crest of the

Ranges east of the Sepik and in the Huon peninsula, together with Ramu and Markham valleys, continue the topographic features of the northern portion of the main body. Near Mt. Hagen the central cordillcra system becomes narrower and is penetrated by several broad valleys, but it broadens eastward in the Bismarck range of the trust territory, where Mt. Wilhelm 15,400 ft.) also The foothill zone to the south reaches rises above the snow line. the coast at the head of the Gulf of Papua, and to the east the Owen Stanley range Mt. Albert Edward, 13,100 ft.) takes up most of the tail, but along the Port Moresby coast there are numerous small and swampy coastal plains. About 14S° E., the west-northwest to east-southeast direction is resumed, and the In 1951 a transition is marked by further volcanic activity. pelean eruption {see Volcanism of Mt. Lamington (5,850 ft.) the

(

(

)

caused much loss of life. Volcanicity continues in the D'Entrecasteaux Islands and in Buka and Bougainville islands. Climate and Soils. New Guinea experiences the uniformly hot and humid climate of equatorial regions, but elevation produces a marked lowering of temperature, and the highlands have a much modified climate. Rainfall is heavy, only a small part receiving On the north coast precipitation is less than 60 in. annually. generally about 100 in., but many places receive much more. November-April is the season of the northwest monsoon, which brings heavy rain to all parts and especially to the north coast

—

of

New

Guinea and the Bismarck archipelago.

the south coasts of

New

Britain and

New

main

district of

island that stand athwart the winds.

western

New

Guinea and

number

precipitation increases rapidly to east

and west.

noxes; temperatures in March or April and in October or November average around 27.8° C. (82° F.) falling to around 26.7° C. (80° F.) in July and January. On the south coast, where there is a pronounced dry season, the annual range is greater; the highest

mean monthly temperatures

are recorded in

when they

fall

to about 25.6° C.

(

Coastal soils are often too sandy or The best soils are those of the volcanic areas, the Gazelle peninsula of northeastern New Britain being outstanding. opportunities for agriculture. coralline.

of ancient volcanic

The Fly river up its delta. marked by a change trend of the main structural

greatly enlarged.

of

actively building tail is

elements.

Volcanic activity reappears in a string of islands off the north coast, and is continued through the "Rabaul arc" and into

the

Bismarck archipelago.

December and Janu-

in June and July 78° F.). The daily range is also greater on the south coast, particularly during the dry season. Under the continuously high temperature and the heavy, welldistributed rainfall, the soils are badly leached and offer limited

and the lowest

ary, attaining 27.8° C. (82° F.),

enormous areas during the period from October to April, when the numerous small lakes become

The

In the

Temperatures at lowland stations fluctuate slightly around the 27° C. (S0° F.) mark throughout the year; the annual range is seldom more than about 8° C. (15° F.) and is less than the Stations on the northern coasts show a typical diurnal range. equatorial regime with temperature maxima following the equi-

mountains; one of these extinct volcanoes, Mt. Bosavi (Besavi) rises to 9.500 ft. To the south the Digoel and Fly rivers flood

is

is

and those parts

in the vicinity of Port

zone becomes broader, and in western Papua it is punctuated a

Ireland,

Merauke Moresby the period of the southeast trades is a dry season; Merauke receives about 60 in. annually and Port Moresby only 40 in., though of the

the alluvial lowlands of the southern coast. Eastward the foothill

by

May-October

the season of the southeast trades, which bring torrential rain to

NEW GUINEA AND ADMINISTRATIVELY RELATED AREAS

NEW GUINEA —

The natural vegetation of New Guinea comprises a great wealth of plant species, and much of the island is still botanically unexplored. Vestiges of the eucalyptus vegetation of Vegetation.

Australia are found in parts of southern Papua, but Indo-Malayan elements are generally dominant. More than two-thirds of the

below 6,000 development of equatorial Many of rain forest, with numerous epiphytes and woody vines. the larger trees have extensive buttress roots, such as the numer-

island ft.;

is

Lowland

forested.

rain forest occurs widely

exhibits the typical multistory

it

343

Negrito) occur sporadically; they differ serologically from the majority of the New Guinea people and also from other world groups so far examined, (See Papuan; Negritos.) The population is probably the result of migrations and mixture, but whence and when they came is unknown. Cultural Characteristics. The languages spoken may be di-

—

vided into two groups Melanesian and the so-called Papuan or non-Melanesian. Those falling within the first category are found in many of the eastern island clusters, in the Schouten Islands :

Wewak, in the Markham valley, and in some villages along the northern coast, Papuan types are many; they differ from Melanesian in vocabulary and grammar, and the number of

ous species of Dipterocarpus. In areas of defective drainage the rain forest is replaced by swamp forest, and along the coasts and Another in tidal estuaries mangroves and nipa palms abound. common tree of the coastal and riverine swampy tracts where the

northeast of

not brackish is the food-supplying sago palm, which covers Above extensive areas along the Fly, Sepik and Ramu rivers. 3,000 ft. the rain forest in some valleys is replaced by a more mixed forest containing various species of the coniferous genera PodoSeveral of the highland valleys are not carpus and Araucaria.

Despite the great diversity of cultural patterns in New Guinea, the economic, social and political organization is basically similar throughout the island and has much in common with that in Melanesia to the east. Chieftainship is rare and leadership is often based on age and achievement. Widespread systems of ceremonial exchange occur; initiation ceremonies are elaborate and are, in many areas, associated with ceremonial clubhouses for men, Except for a few unfavourably situated communities, the

water

is

forested, but carry a grassland vegetation

which

is

probably as

as a product of nature; cutting and clearing of subsequent burning of the debris greatly encourage

much man-made the forest and

the spread of the tough and pernicious spear grass, or kunai. As cutting and burning are widely practised by the indigenous peoples in their system of shifting cultivation, the rain forest has

been considerably modified in many areas. In certain areas on the southern margin of the island, where the rainfall is markedly seasonal, grasslands with occasional trees also occur; an extensive tract of such savannahke vegetation extends from the middle Fly toward the western New Guinea border. At about 6,000 ft. the rain forest is replaced by temperate rain forest, in which the trees are thickly encrusted with lichens and festooned with streamers of moss the forest floor consists of a layer of moss and decayed vegetation many feet thick. At about 11,000 ft. a specialized alpine forest with stunted conifers, tree ferns and shrubs replaces the temperate rain forest, the limit of tree growth being at about ;

12,000

ft.

Animal Life.—The

fauna of

New

Guinea shows strong Aus-

mammals; of more than 100 species, all are marsupials except the echidna or spiny anteater (a primitive egg-laying mammal also found in Australia) and the bats and introduced rodents. The New Guinea environment, however, has greatly encouraged the development of arboreal forms;

tralian affinities, particularly

the tree kangaroo

clude

is

among

the

the largest indigenous mammal. The birds inof the principal Australian families, but

many representatives

region, and Perhaps the best known are the birds of paradise, whose brilliant and colourful plumage made them much sought after in former times. Their capture and ex(D. W. F.) port, however, is now rigorously prohibited.

there are also

numerous species from the Malayan

many remarkable endemic

species.

ANTHROPOLOGY New

Guinea is a region of considerable racial and cultural diversity. Before 1939 some research was carried out in widely separated areas along the coasts and the Fly and Sepik rivers. and on some of the adjacent islands the Bismarck and Louisiade archipelagoes, and the Trobriand and D'Entrecasteaux islands. After 1948, a number of intensive studies were made, especially in the central highlands, where the population exceeds 500,000 and where the cultures differ from those of the Sepik to the north of these highlands and of the Fly and Strickland rivers to the :

southwest.

—

Racial Types The view that the inhabitants of New Guinea must be closely related to the Negroes of Africa, because of their dark skin and eyes, frizzly hair and long heads, is no longer valid. In general, they have a distinctive serological pattern which excludes affinity with African Negroes, as well as with Indonesians,

MongoHans and Caucasians, The eastern extremity of New Guinea may be equated with Melanesia, Ethnic hnks with Austrahan aborigines are unlikely. The natives are not predominantly dolichocephalic; medium and short skulls occur and also light skins. Stature is short, about 5 ft, for highlanders and slightly taller for coastal natives, Pygmoid groups (usually called Polynesians,

linguistic stocks is

unknown.

Sweet is one of subsistence horticulture and pig keeping. potatoes are the staple on the highlands; elsewhere taros, yams and bananas are important. Among the Abelam of the Sepik district, very large yams are grown, decorated at harvest, and distributed in competitive exchanges by the men. In general, rights

economy

over land are vested in kin groups.

when bush is to be cleared and who may lend sections to other

The

leader usually decides

allocates plots kin, affines

and

among dependents friends. The ele-

but in situations demanding and canoe Underlying such construction, neighbours and kin co-operate.

mentary family

more

is

an economic

unit,

labour, such as clearing, fencing, housebuilding

assistance

is

the principle of reciprocity.

considerably and a good deal of local Much of the trade is conducted through the institution of the "ceremonial partnership" or "trade friendship" in which two men enter into a compact to exchange necessaries and gifts and extend mutual hospitahty and protec-

Natural resources

differ

specialization has developed.

of Karkar Island, north of Madang, obtain vegefrom the mainland in return for fish; the Motu near Port to journey west to the Gulf of Papua to exchange pots for sago; the Wogeo of the Schouten Islands export their nets and Canarium almonds to the mainland for tobacco, utensils, The Tubetube (Engineer group) is shells, plumes and cosmetics. tion.

The people

tables

Moresby used

poor in

all

resources except clay deposits; the inhabitants trade what they need, and act as middlemen over a wide

their pots for

and media in restricted contexts. Such valuables, along with pigs and food, constitute wealth, but only area.

to

Shells of different kinds function as stores of wealth

some extent

as exchange

confer prestige when distributed to others; e.g., at feasts, rites, in marriage payments and ceremonial exchange, A classic example by B, K, MaHnowski, is the kula of the

of the last, described

Massim, linking island communities in a circuit of exchange in which red shell necklaces are handed on from partner to partner in a clockwise direction in return for

seas voyages for this purpose are

white armlets.

made and opportunity

Long overis

taken to

trade in food and artifacts, many of which are of very fine workmanship. It is impossible to do justice here to the richness of

New

Guinea art, particularly in the Gulf of Papua, the Sepik disand the Bismarck archipelago, but notable are the carvings, masks and superbly painted fagades of the Abelam clubhouses, the fretted prow-boards of the Trobriands, and the delicately incised Hme gourds, spatulas, daggers and shields of the Massim and Sepik, Apart from the production of pohshed greenstone blades, the highlands are relatively poor in the graphic and plastic arts but are noted for the glowing headdresses of bird-of-paradise plumes worn by the men on ceremonial occasions. trict

Social Organization. tions ranging

from SO

—Villages

are usually small with popula-

to 300, but larger groupings of 500 to 1,000

occur in the Sepik area. The settlement pattern varies houses cluster in a compact group and are sometimes palisaded (eastern highlands") or encircle or line a ceremonial ground (Trobriands :

may

,

NEW GUINEA

344

and the latmul on the Sepik river). In the central and western highlands the homestead pattern prevails. Whatever the distribution of huts, it is common for close kin (usually connected uniSometimes a hamlet, village lineally) to build near one another. or neighbourhood consists only of the male members of a clan or lineage with their wives and children; sometimes it is composed of a number of clans or clan sections, and members of the community are linked by cognatic and affinal ties. In much of the Bismarck archipelago and Massim area, descent and inheritance are matrilineal, but on the mainland it is much In some communities, such as the difficult to generalize. Garia of Madang, unilineal descent groups are only weakly developed, and a man maintains relations with a wide range of kin. Nonunilineal or ambilineal descent, in w^hich membership can be claimed in the descent groups of either parent, has been reported in what was formerly Netherlands New Guinea and among the Huli (central highlands). On the whole, most of the kinship systems so far studied show a bias toward a patrilineal reckoning of descent, but there is considerable flexibility in affiliation; genealogies are of shallow generation depth, and great importance is

more

attached to

The

affinal

village is

and uterine relationships.

an autonomous political unit.

lations are for the

most part characterized by

Intercommunity reand fighting,

hostility

with intermittent periods of truce; alliances with neighbours are often temporary. Distinctions of rank occur in only a few areas (northern Massim and

Manam

Island); elsewhere societies are

and status is determined by kinship, age and achieveftient. With few exceptions authority is vested in the elders of small localized clans or subclans and they act as an informal counegalitarian,

cil

in matters affecting the

community

certain individuals achieve a

as a whole.

Among

these,

dominant role as leaders on the basis and especially the ability to accumu-

of prowess in warfare, oratory

manipulate and distribute wealth. They act as entrepreneurs economic activities and rituals, and are able to exercise some

late,

in

influence in the settlement of disputes.

Ritual and Belief. in spirits.

They

or rivers; they

—These vary, but

there

is

widespread belief

are frequently associated with parts of the bush

may assume

the guise of animals; and, along with

may be impersonated in initiation ceremonies. Fully developed ancestor cults do not obtain, except perhaps in Manus (in the Admiralty group), but a belief in spirits of the dead appears to be universal. Sacrifices are sometimes made to them in connection with warfare, gardening and hunting; and mortuary ceremonies are often complex, involving the distribution of food ancestors,

and valuables. Fertility cults associated with sacred flutes occur on the highlands and nearly everywhere elaborate initiation rites for men take place. Complex systems of productive magic for economic and other activities are typical, and behef in sorcery and black magic is also widespread. Indeed, accusations of sorcery are among the most frequent causes of intervillage hostilities. Cultural phenomena of New Guinea and of much of Melanesia are the so-called cargo cults (g.v.), of which the Vailala Madness (rebellion) of the Purari delta and the Taro cult of the Orokaiva people near Buna were early examples. During and after World War II many forms of these cults appeared; in general, they postulate the disappearance of the Europeans and the acquisition of their cargo (wealth) by the natives. (P. M. K.) ;

HISTORY

—

Early European Contacts. For 400 years the history of New Guinea is of discovery, exploration and tentative annexation, as one European nation after another led the world in navigation and commerce. A Portuguese, Antonio d'Abreu, sighted the coast in 1512, but discovery is usually attributed to the Spaniard, Jorge de Menezes, who landed on the north coast in 152 7. Inigo Ortiz de Retes gave New Guinea its name in 1545, and claimed it for Spain. The subsequent supremacy of Dutch sea power brought William Jansz (1605-06), Luis Vaez de Torres (1606), Jacques le Maire and WiUiam Schouten (1616) and Abel Tasman (1642). The Dutch East India company claimed a large, undefined part of the mainland for the Netherlands in 1660, but failed to estabhsh a profitable trade.

William Dampier (1699-1700) and Philip Carteret (1767) were first Englishmen to navigate these waters, and charted the now known as New Britain, New Ireland and Buka. Later English visitors were James Cook (1770), T. Forrester (1774), Lieut. T. G. Shortland (1788-89), J. Hunter and J. McCluer (1791). New Guinea came within the monopoly area of the English East India company, which for some years after 1793 maintained a garrison at Restoration bay. A claim of annexation was made, but nothing came of it. L. A. de Bougainville initiated a In 1828 the Dutch governseries of French expeditions in 1768. ment erected Fort de Bus, and declared northwest New Guinea the

islands

Twenty years later, the frontier was stated from Cape Bonpland to the north coast. the 1840s European interest in the rest of the island steadily increased. The most notable explorers of this period were F. P. Blackwood (1842-46), Owen Stanley (1846-50), Charles Yule (1846) and J. Moresby (1873). Both Yule and Moresby claimed part of the empire. to run

From

the southern coast for the British empire, but the imperial gov-

ernment repudiated their actions. The first German investigators were Gustav Schleinitz and Otto Finsch. E. Teysmann, P. van der Crab and others led expeditions on behalf of the Dutch East Indies government. A pioneer scientific survey was made by A. R. Wallace in 1858, and in the same year the Utrecht Mission society settled at Port Dorey. Twelve years later the London Missionary society sent Samuel MacFarlane and A. W. Murray from the Loyalty Islands to Darnley Island in Torres strait. A station opened at Port Moresby in 1874 became the centre of mission activity on the mainland, to which came during the 1870s W. G. Lawes and James Chalmers (g.v.), two outstanding personalities. By this time, expressions of the European interest in the riches of New Guinea had become more definite. From the 1840s miscellaneous traders, often unscrupulous and belligerent, took trepang, cedar, ebony, sandalwood, rubber, pearls and copra. Two abortive enterprises, the New Guinea company (1867) and the New Guinea Prospecting association (1871), were formed in Sydney; wild stories of gold discoveries caused a rush to the

1877.

As so often happened

in the history of

Mai-Kusa

New

river in

Guinea, the

resources of the island had been exaggerated far beyond reality.

From

1857,

when

Hamburg firm of J. C. Godeffroy was German commercial power in the South

the

established in Samoa,

In 1880 the Deutsche SeehandelPacific had steadily grown. geschaft was formed in Berlin to exploit New Guinea resources. This expression of German interest considerably strengthened opinion in Australia that Great Britain should annex eastern New Guinea. There was, too, fear of French expansion, and growing hope among Australian capitahsts that the island promised riches. The consequent feeling reached a climax in March-April 1883 when Sir Thomas Mcllwraith, premier of Queensland, caused eastern New Guinea to be annexed in the name of Great Britain. The British cabinet again determined to disallow annexation. However, in 1884 Bismarck announced that he would protect German traders in the Pacific, where they possessed commercial This step moved the British government to preponderance. authorize the declaration of a temporary protectorate over an undefined area of southeastern New Guinea (Nov. 6, 1884). Ten days later the German flag was raised on the northeast coast. West New Guinea. The adjustments of 1884-85 established the meridian 141° E. as the division between West (Netherlands) New Guinea and the areas annexed by both Germany and Great Britain, a division shghtly altered in 1895 by the substitution of the Fly river as part of the boundary with the British territory. The basis of the original Dutch claim to New Guinea had been the nominal suzerainty of the sultan of Tidore, a Dutch dependency, over a vague area of the western part of the island. Southwest New Guinea was officially purchased from the sultan by the Netherlands in 1905. West New Guinea was attached to the

—

Amboina residency

in 1911,

and after many years' negotiation, the

northwest division was legally transferred to the Netherlands when Indonesia became independent in 1949. During World War II the Japanese conquered all but the extreme southeast coast hne. Gen. Douglas MacArthur's headquarters were established at Hollandia (Kota Baru) for a time.

NEW GUINEA Following the establishment of Indonesia, the new republic asserted that West New Guinea (Irian Barat; West Irian) should be released by the Dutch. Indonesia pressed its claim with great vigour throughout the IQSOs; the issue became important in the republic's domestic politics and exacerbated its relations with the Netherlands and Australia. Matters came to a head early in 1962, when Indonesia threatened to invade West New Guinea unless its administration was quickly handed over by the Dutch. A number of armed clashes followed between Dutch and Indonesian forces, but by the end of July the two countries had negotiated an agreement (signed at UN headquarters Aug. 15, 1962) under which the Dutch handed over the administration of West New Guinea to the UN on Oct. 1 while provision was made for the administration to be transferred to Indonesia on May 1, 1963, and for a plebiscite to be held by 1969 to decide the area's future. Accordingly, Indonesia took over the administration on May 1, 1963. Trust Territory. The area annexed by Bismarck in 1884 comprised the Bismarck archipelago (New Britain, New Ireland and the Admiralty islands), the northern Solomon islands and the mainland between 2° 15' S. and 8° S. and 141° to 148° E. The ,

UN

—

mainland division was known as Kaiser Wilhelmsland. In May 1885 the Neu-Guinea Kompanie was given an imperial charter of protection over the entire area.

Rights of sovereignty and ad-

ministration were vested in the company, although any laws had

made by the German parliament. The company's early years were unsuccessful. The science of tropical agriculture was then insufficiently developed; native labour was inefficient; the importation of Chinese coohes became unworkable; disease killed natives, Europeans and cattle. At the company's request, its adto be

German government between 1889 and 1893. The seat of government was removed from Finsch Harbour to Stephanscourt, then to Friedrich-Wilhelms Harbour (Madang), and finally to Herbertshohe (Kokopo). The German government ultimately assumed full control in 1899, when Rudolf von Benningsen was appointed governor. The following years were marked by greater stability in the plantation economy. The chief crop was copra, which was harvested extensively along the coast and on the islands. Notable progress was made in various scientific inquiries such as botanical research, tropical medicine and anthropology. Following the declaration of war in Aug. 1914 Australian troops landed on the eastern shores of the Gazelle peninsula. Within a week the Germans capitulated and until 1921 the status quo was maintained by the Austrahan military administration. Former German New Guinea was then assigned to Australia as a mandate under the League of Nations. The New Guinea act, 1920 (proclaimed May 1921), established a civil administration and introduced a new set of ordinances. These aimed at achieving justice ministrative functions were taken over by the

before the law; preservation of rights of cultivation, barter, fishing and hunting; and protection of tribal institutions. The supply of opium, intoxicating hquor, ammunition and firearms to the natives was forbidden. When Australia took over, only a small part of the territory

was under even partial control, but gradually district officers, patrol officers and the indispensable native constabulary pushed farther into the interior. An area would be put first under "partial influence," then "influence" and finally "control." Penetration was accelerated by the gold rushes to Edie Creek in 1925, and later to the headwaters of the Purari and Ramu rivers. Roman Catholic, Lutheran and Seventh-day Adventist missions were established south of the Bismarck ranges by the mid- 1930s. One problem facing the administration was the development of a trained civil service. Constant reorganization was necessary, and although a cadet system was instituted in 1926, the pressure of the gold rushes forced its suspension soon after, and it was not resumed until 1939. Copra remained the basis of the economy, but by 1938 experiments had also been made with kapok, tobacco, wood pulp and coir fibre; these were all grown on the islands rather than on the mainland. The administration aimed at strict and just control of the native indenture system, and attempted, during the later 1930s, to enforce a provision requiring the labourconsent. Nevertheless, there was some criticism of this fea-

er's

345

ture of the administration before the

Mandates commission.

Education lay chiefly in the hands of the missions. Central hospitals and medical patrols were established to protect native health. In 1942 the territory was invaded and partially occupied by the By April the civil administration was suspended in Japanese. both Papua and the mandated territory and replaced by the Australian New Guinea Administrative unit. Following the Japanese surrender, civil administration was progressively restored between Oct. 1945 and June 1946, and since then the two sections have formed one administrative unit. On Dec. 13, 1946, the UN general assembly approved the agreement by which the trust (i.e., former mandated; territory remained under Australian supervision. Papua. The administrative system established immediately

—

after the declaration of a British protectorate over the southeast

of the island (1884) provided that the Australian colonies should take political and financial responsibility, while Great Britain un-

dertook to provide a special commissioner to lead the local government. This arrangement having proved' unsatisfactory, it was altered by the British New Guinea (Queensland) act of 1887. Queensland (with the financial assistance of New South Wales and Victoria) was to supervise the administration and report back to the imperial parliament; after ten years this "joint control" was to cease through Great Britain's withdrawal, the area was to be at once formally annexed and a heutenant governor appointed. From 1887 to 1897 Papua was administered lay Sir William MacGregor. With the assistance of a legislative and an executive coiincil, both nominated by himself, he created a framework of government of which a notable feature was the role played by natives, both in the constabulary and as village police. Moreover, in administering justice an attempt was made to allow for native concepts. MacGregor determinedly tackled the essential features of colonial policy native agriculture, land regulation, the protection of native labour and the preservation of the village unit. Although he has been accused of arrogance, his achievement appears, under the circumstances, to have been worthy of note. From 1898 to 1903, during Sir George le Hunte's lieutenant

—

governorship, control passed to the Commonwealth of Australia. The chief policy development was the improvement in health However, after the status and title of Papua were services. defined in the Papua act, 1905, a more Uvely interest appeared in Austraha. This was expressed by the appointment of the 1906 royal commission, which emphasized the desirability of European investment and settlement. Liberal terms for long leasehold were offered to prospective settlers in a lands ordinance of the same year.

combined with H. P. (Sir Hubert) Murray. As he the extent to which held office for more than 30 years (1907^0) his personality and abilities constitute the history of Papua was considerable. In pursuit of native welfare his basic policies were broadly the same as MacGregor's for example, the Natives Plantation ordinance fostered indigenous agriculture and revenue

The next

lieutenant governor (which office he

that of chief justice)

was

J.

:

with some success, for in the following years not only copra but The policy of coffee, rice and rubber were grown by Papuans. was kept to the forefront, and partially realized by Financial strinthe successful introduction of village councils. gency restricted provision of health and, even more, educational indirect rule

facilities.

Murray, however, was concerned not only with native welfare but also with economic development. During his term of office

from 1,467 to 63,609. economic progress never came as fast or as easily as Murray hoped and many was insufficient to abpeople expected. The Australian market sorb the production of copra and rubber, hence there was a great need for cheap freighting of these products so they could compete in the world market. However, from 1921 to 1925 freight charges were forced up by the Navigation act, which required that all exports be shipped through Sydney, and limited competition among the shipping lines. Papua was barely recovering from the effects the

number

But these

of acres under cultivation rose

figures give a rather false impression, for

of the act,

when the world depression

severe blows.

Gold and,

of the 1930s dealt further

to a lesser extent, copper

added to the

NEW GUINEA

346

But it was oil which aroused Murray's highest hopes; hopes which remained unrealized in the early 1960s despite tremendous sums spent in investigation. The post-World War II years saw a quickening of oft'icial concern with i'apua. In July 1945 the minister for territories, E. J. Ward, announced his intention to establish a new labour policy which would aim at the abolition of the indenture system an ideal of Sir Hubert Murray. A new post of administrator of the combined territories was created, the office being held first by J. K.. Murray and then 1952 by D. M. Cleland. The foundation of the value of exports.

—

)

(

School of Pacific Administration (1946) and the South Pacific commission 1 1947 represented further moves toward an efficient and informed administration. P. M. C. Hasluck, minister for territories from 1951, reversed earher hints that R. G. Menzies' ) might be partial to European, as Liberal governments (1949against native, welfare. Nevertheless there developed various elements a strong settler interest, native awareness of politics, an I

—

—

which administration well-meaning but irredeemably paternalist threatened to join with economic instability to produce a difficult colonial situation. In Australia criticism of the administration and suggestions for any change in the island's pohtical status were gen(O. M. R.) erally regarded with suspicion.

POPULATION Despite the large size of the island, the population of New Guinea is scanty, a rellection of the extreme difficulties presented by the environment; the way of life of many New Guinea peoples makes dense populations impossible. The total population (,1961 est.) of New Guinea, including that of several small island groups

Administrative divisions

NEW GUINEA

347

employment are to be found. The total number of workers in paid employment in the late lOSOs was only about 80,000, of whom more than half were employed in the trust territory of New Guinea; about 21,000 were employed in the territory of Papua and about 16,000 in Netherlands New Guinea. In the Australian territories the employment of indigenous workers is limited to two years, with the possibility of an extension for a further year except in the case of natives from the highlands recruited to work in the coastal lowlands. The European coconut and rubber estates account for almost half the total native employment in the Austrahan territories, but in Netherlands New Guinea most native workers were employed in building and

acquired from native owners except by the administration. Agriculture. Subsistence agriculture is predominant in the economic life of New Guinea, the traditional food crops including, sweet potatoes, taros, yams and bananas, grown on small garden

construction, and in domestic service.

an export market

for western-type

Minimum

rates of

pay

for

most

classes of native

workers are

determined by ordinances in all territories; minimum standards of housing are also specified where this is provided by employers, There are no real trade unions but there as is usually the case. are workers' associations in the Australian territories, velopment is being encouraged by the administration.

whose de-

—

Welfare Services. The principal welfare services are provided by the respective departments of health and by the misIn the Austrahan territories simple medical treatment is sions. provided free in village dispensaries, and medical patrols penetrate into the outlying areas. Most of the larger centres have hospitals for indigenes operated by the administration, which also assists those operated by the missions through grants-in-aid and Broadly similar arrangements existed the provision of supplies. in the

Netherlands territory. In the territories of Papua and

Justice.

—

for native matters deal with civil actions in

New which

Guinea, courts all

the parties

—

plots under a system of shifting cultivation, or bush fallow. Near towns, and where transport facihties are available, surplus foodstuffs

may

be offered for sale, and some cash crops are usually In certain restricted parts of the island, generally on

cultivated.

the coastal areas of better

soil,

European estate agriculture

is

found, and there the cultivation of similar crops has also been taken up by native smallholders, with governmental support. The greatest development of commercial agriculture largely directed to the growth of is in the trust territory, where owes much to the former German administration. Coconuts are the most important crop; there are about 350 estates totaling 350,000 ac, approximately half of which are in New Britain and New Ireland; the greatest concentration is in the Gazelle peninsula. In the years after World War II there was marked increase in planting by native growers, A leading activity in the estate agriculture

is the cultivation of cacao by native growers organized into co-operatives, and by the early 1960s about 10,000 had been planted. Cacao is also grown by small holders in other parts of New Guinea territory, and there is a small production of coffee and tea in the highlands. Labour shortages operate against the extension of estate agriculture, and the provision of labour for

Gazelle peninsula

ac.

many problems. In Papua territory coconut estates are less numerous than in New Guinea territory, but about 30,000 ac. are under rubber. Ten estates in the vicinity of Kanosia and Sogeri, within easy reach of Port Moresby, produce about two-thirds of the annual output of about 4,000 tons. Comexisting estates presents

and with breaches of the native regulations; courts The of petty sessions try summary and nonindictable offenses. highest judicial authority is the supreme court of the territories maintained the by Internal order is and New Guinea. of Papua Royal Papua and New Guinea constabulary, whose native members are recruited by voluntary enlistment. Judicial organization in Netherlands New Guinea had much in common with that of the

mercial agriculture in West New Guinea is on a much more Hmited scale; the total area under coconuts is estimated at about 25,000 ac. The only livestock kept by the indigenous population of New Guinea consists of pigs and poultry; cattle are few in number and are kept entirely by Europeans. Fishing is universal around the

former Netherlands Indies, justice in certain areas being adminis-

hindered by physical obstacles, a very limited labour supply of low productivity and, before World War II, the preoccupation of the two administrations with other interests. For the Netherlands, New Guinea was never more than a distant and thinly populated marginal territory of the populous Netherlands Indies, and Australia's main concern was with strategic considerations. It was only after 1945 that the two administrations allocated enough funds to make a modest rate of economic development possible. It was clear that for some time to come the main stimulus to economic development must be provided by nonindigenous peoples, but both governments were endeavouring to promote a higher level of indigenous economic activity, consistent with their policies of

Mining. The principal mineral product is petroleum, which is produced by a mixed British, Dutch and U.S. company in the Klamono, Wasian and Mogoi areas of the Vogelkop peninsula in West New Guinea. Petroleum was discovered shortly before World War II, but the search for further oilfields was disappointing. At the end of the 1950s production was about 500,000 tons a year but by the early 1960s it had decHned to around 150,000 tons; crude oil is shipped from Sorong for refining in Austraha. Considerable effort has been expended on the search for oil in the Austrahan territories, principally at the head of the Gulf of Papua. The main mineral product of the Australian territories is gold, which is largely produced from alluvial deposits in the WauBulolo area in the trust territory of New Guinea, though a little is also produced from the Kieta area of Bougainville Island. Annual production declined from almost 300,000 oz. in 1940 to less than 50,000 oz., and only one of the former eight dredges was still working in the early 1960s. Manufacturing Industries. Because of limited markets, lack of power and poor transport facilities, industrial development is on a very small scale and is largely confined to the processing of The main activities are copra drying and local raw materials. crushing, cacao fermentation and sawmilHng; there is also a plywood factory in the Bulolo valley, one of the main centres of timber production. Small food and drink plants are found at Lae, Rabaul and Port Moresby and in some of the larger centres in West New Guinea. Manokwari on the Vogelkop peninsula has a sawmill, a shipyard and a small oxygen plant, and there are a number of industrial activities at Sorong in connection with petroleum production. Trade and Finance. The bulk of the trading activities has been in the hands of Europeans, and to a lesser extent of Asians. External trade is small and in both Australian and western terri-

easing the transition from a multiplicity of self-sufficient village economies to a commercialized, territorial economy. The greater

low

are indigenes,

tered in conformity with native customary law. Education. The provision of educational facilities for a sparse

—

and scattered population, much of which has limited contact with European activity, has presented many problems. Both adminiswhere there trations provide different facilities in the urban areas from those has been the greatest contact with European activities manual and techVillage schools stress basic in the rural areas. nical skills, but in the Austrahan territories literacy in Enghsh is In the towns the educational facihties are also a major aim. broadly similar to those of the Netherlands and Australia, respectively, but intermediate and secondary education is still on a rather limited scale. In West New Guinea education has been largely in the hands of the missions, whose activities were subsidized. In the Australian territories government schools are relatively more

— —

important, although the missions

still

serve the largest

number

of

pupils.

part of the native land

is

of

held in

New

Guinea has been greatly

communal

fishing

is

confined to the vicinities of the

—

—

THE ECONOMY The economic development

coasts, but commercial major settlements.

tenure; no land can be

—

an excess of imports over exports, indicative of the economic development in the island. However, the adverse trade balance is comparatively slight for the trust territories there

level of

is

NEWHAM— NEW HAMPSHIRE

3+8 New

Guinea, which generates by far the larger proportion of the exports of the Austrahan-adnunislered portion of the island. The principal items in the export trade are copra and coconut oil, rubber, cocoa beans, gold and plywood. The trade of Papua territory is almost entirely with .Australia, but the trust territory is heavily dependent upon the United Kin(;dom as a buyer for its exports. Crude petroleum, copra and nutmeg are the principal Both the Netherlands and Ausexports of West New Guinea. tralian governments paid a large subsidy to maintain the administory of

tration of their respective territories.

ography (1951).

For reviews of publications, and occasional articles, and New Zealand (twice-yearly, 1940

sie Historical Studies, Australia et seq.).

NEWHAM,

one of the i2 London boroughs that came into 1, 1965, under the provisions of the London Government Act iy63. These boroughs constitute Greater London {see London). Newham, in the east, is composed of the former county boroughs of East Ham and West Ham; the small part of the former municipal borough of Barking that was west of the River Roding from the county of Essex and the two small sections of the former metropolitan borough of Woolwich that were north of the Thames. See Barking; East Ham; West existence on April

(

—

Communications. Transport faciUties are poor or nonexistent over much of New Guinea, and the lack of such facilities is prob-

I

;

ably the biggest obstacle to economic development. There are no railways, and roads are confined to the immediate vicinity of the towns. After World War II there was a growing awareness of the

Ham Woolwich.

desirability of a better road system, and there was a considerable extension of roads suitable for cross-country vehicles such as jeeps

one of the original 13, being the ninth to ratify the constitution.

in the Australian territories.

To some

extent the shortcomings

made good by a remarkable development of commercial impact is slight. Most estates are dependent upon coastal shipping for their supplies and for trans-

of land transport are air transport, but its

Commercial activity

thus largely confined to the immediate vicinity of the coasts. The principal ports are Rabaul, Lae, Madang, Kavieng (in New Ireland), Port Moresby. Salamaua and Samarai in the Australian territories, and porting their produce.

is

Kota Baru, Sorong, and Merauke in West New Guinea. There are about 6,000 telephones in the Australian territories.

The Australian Broadcasting commission operates a station at Port Moresby. External communications are by means of radio telegraphy; an administrative radio telephone channel connects

See also references under "New Guinea" in the Index. (D. W. F.) Bibliography. Geography and General: R. W. van Bemmelen, The Geology oj Indonesia, 3 vol. (1948); T. W. Edgeworth David, The Port Moresby and Kota Baru.

—

Geology oj the Commonwealth oj Australia (1950); T. P. Fry, Lavj and Administralion in New Guinea (1950); D. F. Thompson, "Wartime Exploration in Dutch New Guinea," Geogr. J., vol. cxix (1953) O. H. K. Spate, "Changing Agriculture in New Guinea," American Geographical Review, vol. Ixiii (1953) E. M. O. Laurie and J. E. Hill, List oj Land Mammals oj New Guinea, Celebes and Adjacent Islands (1954) H. G. Verhoeff, Netherlands New Guinea, 3 vol. (1958) R. W. Robson, Handbook oj Papua and New Guinea, 2nd ed. (1958) J. Wilkes (ed.). New Guinea and Australia (1959) Annual Reports of the Territories of Papua and New Guinea, and Netherlands New Guinea; Quarterly Bulletin of the South Pacific Commission. Anthropology: C. G. Seligmann, The Melanesians oj British New Guinea (1910); R. Thurnwald, "Banaro Society," Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Asso., vol. iii (1916) B. Malinowski, Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922), Coral Gardens and Their Magic, 2 vol. (1935); P. Wirz, Die Marind-anim von Hollandisch-Siid-Neu Guinea (1922,

;

NEW HAMPSHIRE, state,"

is

one of the

known as the "Granite group of the United States and

popularly

New England

It is bounded north by the Canadian province of Quebec; east by Maine, and by the Atlantic ocean; southeast and south by Massachusetts; west and northwest by Vermont (from which it is separated by the Connecticut river the low-water mark on the west bank of the Connecticut is New Hampshire's west boundary), and by Halls stream, which separates it from Quebec. The state has an area of 9,304 sq.mi., of which 290 sq.mi. are water surface; it is the 44th state in size. The state flag of New Hampshire is a field of blue on which is a representation of the state seal surrounded by a wreath of laurel leaves with nine stars interspersed.

—

The

state flower

is

the purple lilac (Syritiga vulgaris), the state

bird (unofficial) the purple finch. is

at

Concord

The

capital of

New Hampshire

(q.v.).

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

—

Physical Features. In the north-central portion of the state, which lies between approximately 42° 40' and 45° 18' N., and between 70° 37' and 72° 37' W., the White mountains (q.v.), a continuation of the Appalachian system, rise abruptly in several short ranges and in outlying mountain masses from a base level of

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

1925); W. E. Armstrong, Rossel Island (1928); F. E. Williams, Orokaiva Society (1930), Drama of Orokolo (1940) R. Fortune, Sorcerers of Dobu (1932) H. Powdermaker, Life in Lesu (1933) M. Mead, Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies (1935), "Kinship in the Admiralty Islands," Anthrop. Pap. Amer. Mus., vol. xxxiv (1934) and "The Mountain Arapesh," Anthrop. Pap. Amer. Mus., vol. xxxvi, xxxvii, xl (1938, 1940, 1947); G. Bateson, Naven (1936); R. Firth, Art and Lije in New Guinea (1936); G. F. Vicedom and H. Tischner, Die Mbowamb, 3 vol. (1943-48); H. I. Hogbin, Transformation Scene (1951); C. S. Belshaw, The Great Village (1957); G. J. Held, The Papuans of Waropen (1958); P. Worsley, The Trumpet Shall Sound (1957) L. Pospisil, Kapaukn Papuans and their Law (1958) M. Reav, The Kuma (1959) R. F. Mahen, New Men of Papua (1961). Oceania (quarterly) should be consulted for reports by F. L. Bell, R. and C. Berndt, K. Buridge, A. Capell, L. T. Champness, H. Hogbin, P. M. Kaberry, N. W. G. Macintosh, M. J. Meggitt, K. E. Read, C. H. Wedg;

;

;

;

;

;

wood

et al.

History : J. C. Beaglehole, Exploration of the Pacific, 2nd ed. (1948) E. S. de Klerck, History oj the Netherlands East Indies, 2 vol. (1938) k. Hyma, The Dutch in the Far East (1942) G. J. Held, De Papoea Cultuur Improvisator (1951) R. Neuhauss, Deutsch Neu-Guinea, 3 vol. (1911) S. W. Reed, The Making oj Modern New Guinea (1943) F. W. Eggleston (ed.). The Australian Mandate jor New Guinea (1928); D. C. Gordon, The Australian Frontier in New Guinea, 1870-1885 (1951) C. D. Rowley, The Australians in German New Guinea, 19141921 (1958) J. D. Legge, .Australian Colonial Policy (1951). Annual Reports, 1889-1900, are contained in British Parliamentary Papers and continued in Parliamentary Papers oj the Commonwealth oj Australia. The latter also have Annual Reports on the mandated ;

;

;

;

;

;

;

(trust) territory since 1921.

For an extensive bibliography,

see C.

R. H. Taylor, A Pacific Bibli-

700 to 1,500 ft. The highest peak, Mt. Washington (q.v.), attains an elevation of 6,288 ft. The principal ranges, the Presidential, the Franconia and the Carter-Moriah, have a northeastern and southwestern trend. The Presidential, in the northeastern part of the region, is separated from the Franconia on the southwest by the Crawford or White mountain notch, about 2,000 ft. in depth, in which the Ammonoosuc and Saco rivers find a. passage, and from the Carter-Moriah, parallel to it on the east, by the GlenEllis and Peabody rivers, the former noted for its beautiful falls. On the Presidential range, which is about 20 mi. in length, are Mt. Washington and nine other peaks exceeding 5,000 ft. in height. On the Franconia, a much shorter range, are Mt. Lafayette, 5,249 ft.; Mt. Lincoln, 5,108 ft.; and four others exceeding 4,000 ft. The highest peak on the Carter-Moriah range is Carter Dome, 4,843 ft.; but seven others exceed 4,000 ft. Separating Franconia and Pemigewasset ranges is the Franconia notch, overlooking which from the upper cliffs of Profile mountain is the Great Stone Face, immortalized by Nathaniel Hawthorne. The part of the state that lies north of the White mountains is occupied by ridges and wide rolling valleys, the ridges rising occasionally to heights of 2,000 ft. or more. South of the mountains a plateaulike surface a part of the New England uplands extends from the intervales of the Connecticut river to the eastern border of the Merrimack valley. Between the Merrimack valley and the sea is the only low surface in the state; a considerable portion of this region is less than 500 ft. above sea level. The seashore, about 18 mi. in length, is mainly a low sandy beach. The only harbour is at Portsmouth near the mouth of the Piscataqua. About nine miles from the shore are the bleak and nearly barren Isles of Shoals, divided between New Hampshire and Maine. The lakes and ponds, numbering several hundred, were formed by glacial action; and the scenery of many of them is scarcely The largest and most less attractive than that of the mountains. widely known is Lake Winnipesaukee, 20 mi. long and 12 mi. wide, The rivers with their dotted by 274 islands, mostly verdant.

—

NEW HAMPSHIRE

HISTORICAL, INDUSTRIAL Top hit: Two-room

cabi

AND CITY SCENES

IN

Plate

NEW HAMPSHIRE

I

Plate II

NEW

HAAfPSHIRE

VIEWS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE Top left: Pinkham notch; in the backgroi the man ravine. IVIt. Washington Top right: The John Paul Jones house. Portsmouth,

ski

trails of

Tucker-

erected in 1758. It was a boardinghouse when Jones lived there while supervising construction of the "Ranger" for the continental navy Centre right: Stack of pulpwood for paper mill on Upper Ammonoosuc river at Groveton

I ittom left: Mt. Washington cog railway taking tourists to the summit Mountains in the background are Adams and of the Presidential range. This railway was the first of its kind in the world and was Jefferson. later adapted for the Swiss Alps >ttom right: The Old Man of the Mountain (Great Stone Face) in th» White mountains is New Hampshire's best-known natural wonder

NEW HAMPSHIRE numerous falls and the lakes with their high altitudes furnish a the Merrimack, vast amount of water power for manufacturing in particular, into which many of the larger lakes, including Win-

—

349

or the national government.

The

largest

is

the White Mountain

National forest.

HISTORY

nipesaukee, find an outlet.

Climate.

—The

winters are usually long and severe, and the summers cool and fine. The mean annual temperature ranges from about 40° F. (about 4.4° C.) at only moderate elevations in the

White mountain region and farther north

8.3° C.) at low altitudes in the southeast.

of temperature occur in the deep

mountain

times rises to 102° F. or above in

The

to 47° F.

summer and

(about

greatest extremes

valleys,

where

falls to

it

some-

—38°

F.

higher up on the mountains it is never so warm, and along the seacoast both extremes are considerably less. The mean precipitation for the entire state is about 40 in. The or below in winter;

even throughout the year, but summer and autumn and spring. Among the mountains and in the northern part of the state the annual fall of snow is from 7 to 8 ft., but in the southeast corner it is little more than one-half that amount. The prevailing winds are generally northwest, but in the vicinity of the sea they are southeast during distribution

is

are slightly wetter than winter

summer.

—

the bottomlands of the

New Hampshire is confined Merrimack and Connecticut

the southeaster!! section

is

Soil.

Fertile soil in

largely to rivers.

In

also a moderately productive soil de-

rived largely from the disintegration of slate. Elsewhere south of the mountains, the surface soil is mostly hardpan or till, this being deepest on the drumUns. In the mountain region the soil

mostly a sandy loam composed of disintegrated granite gneiss and organic matter. Vegetation. Flowering shrubs and vines are found in abandoned fields and pastures and beside the roads, chiefly wild grapes, pin cherry and chokecherry, sweet fern, red osier, American elder, several varieties of sumacs, sheep laurel or lambkill, elderberries, blackberries, blueberries, both lowbush and highbush, and raspis

—

berries.

laurel is commonest in the Monadnock area, dogwood is confined chiefly to the lower Conregion. The wild flowers of the state include

Mountain

while the flowering

necticut valley goldenrod, asters, fireweed, paintbrush, daisies, black-eyed Susans, painted and purple trilHums, fringed gentian, blue, yellow and white violets, trailing arbutus, lady's-slippers, Indian pipe, several varieties of honeysuckle, lilies, blue flag iris, ferns and bracken.

On

the higher elevations are found, alpine plants, such as Labrador tea, mountain sandwort, cinquefoil, as well as arctic rushes,

sedges and lichens. Animal Life. Deer and bear are the most abundant of the

—

and there are a few moose. Mink, beaver, raccoon, pine marten, otter, Canadian lynx and fisher inhabit the state, although the last two are decreasing in number. Red and gray squirrels, striped chipmunks, skunks, porcupines, moles, shrews, wood and meadow mice, the fox and the cottontail are common, while snowshoe rabbits are found in the northern part. Historic Sites, Parks and Recreation. New Hampshire has many places of historical interest. Among them are the Woodman institute in Dover, which includes the Dam Garrison, built in 1675, and the Gilman-Clifford, or Garrison, house (1650-58) in Exeter, of which a part is claimed to be at least the secondoldest house in the state. Portsmouth has the Jackson house (1664), the Warner house (1718), the John Paul Jones house (1758), the Wentworth Gardner house (1760), the Moffat-Ladd house (1763), the John Langdon house (1784) and St. John's church (1807), all open to the pubhc in the summer months. larger animals,

—

Nearby, in New Castle, is Ft. Constitution, formerly Ft. WiUiam and Mary, where on Dec. 14 and 15, 1774, New Hampshire patriots captured powder and arms, some of which was later used at the battle of Bunker Hill. At Peterborough is the MacDowell colony for creative artists; the Saint-Gaudens memorial is at Cornish. The state maintains 40 state parks, wayside picnic areas and historic sites, among which are the Hampton Beach, Crawford Notch and Franconia Notch parks and the Daniel Webster memorial (Franklin), Wentworth Coolidge mansion (Portsmouth) and Franklin Pierce homestead (Hillsborough) historic sites. About 805,000 ac. of forest are publicly owned, by towns, the state

Martin Pring was at the mouth of the Piscataqua in 1603 and, returning to England in the same year, gave an account of the New England coast from Casco bay to Cape Cod bay. Samuel de Champlain discovered the Isles of Shoals and sailed along the New Hampshire coast in 1605, and much more information concerning this part of the new world was gathered in 1614 by Capt. John Smith, who in his Description of New England refers to the convenient harbour at the mouth of the Piscataqua and praises the country back from the rocky shore. Colonization. Under the leadership of Sir Ferdinando Gorges there was formed in 1620 the Council for New England, which procured from King James I a grant of all the country from sea to sea between latitude 40° and 48° N., and which made nine grants bearing upon the history of New Hampshire. The first of these grants was to John Mason, who has been called "the founder of New Hampshire," on March 9, 1622. The name New Hampshire was first applied to a grant which lay between the Merrimack and Piscataqua, and given to Mason on Nov. 7, 1629. The first settlement of which there is indisputable evidence was established in 1623 by David Thomson at Little harbour, now in the town of Rye. Thomson was the head of a company which was organized for fishing and trading and whose entire stock was He built a house on Odiorne's to be held jointly for five years. point overlooking Little harbour, and, although he moved to an island in Boston harbour in 1626, he may have continued to

—

superintend the business of the company until the expiration of the five-year term. At least there was a settlement there which was assessed in 1628, and it may not have been completely aban-

doned when colonists sent over by the Lacouia company, which had received a grant on Nov. 17, 1629, arrived in 1630. The Laconia company received its first grant under the erroneous impression that the Piscataqua river had its source in or near Lake Champlain, and its principal object was to establish an extensive fur trade with the Iroquois Indians. The company sent over colonists who occupied the house left standing by Thomson and, not far away, built Mason hall or the Great house in what is now Portsmouth, a name (for the entire settlement) that replaced Strawberry Banke in 1653. Edward Hilton with a few, associates appears to have established a settlement on Dover point about the time of Thomson's arrival at Little harbour, and in the Hilton grant of 1630 it is stated that he had already built houses and planted there; as early as 1630 this settlement was named Dover. In 1638 the Rev. John Wheelwright, an Antinomian leader who had been banished from Massachusetts, founded Exeter on land claimed to have been bought by him from the Indians. In the same year Massachusetts encouraged friendly Puritans to settle Hampton on the same purchase, and about a year later this colony organized Hampton as a town with the right to send a deputy to the general court.

Serious dissensions had already arisen between Puritan and Anglican factions in Dover, and Capt. John Underbill, another Antinomian, became for a time a leader of the Puritan faction. Puritan Massachusetts was naturally hostile to the Antinomians Unat Exeter as well as to the Anglicans at Strawberry Banke. der these conditions Massachusetts discovered a new claim for its northern boundary. The charter of that colony was drafted under the impression that the Merrimack flowed east for its entire course, but now an investigation was in progress which was to show that its source in Lake Winnipesaukee was several miles north of any of the four settlements in New Hampshire. Accordingly, Massachusetts resolved to make the most of the clause in the charter which described the northern boundary as three English miles north of the Merrimack river, "or to the northward of any and every part thereof," to ignore the conflicting grants to Mason and to extend its jurisdiction over the offending settlements.

The

heirs of

Mason

protested, but

little

was done about the

NEW HAMPSHIRE

350

matter during the period of Puritan ascendancy in the mother country. Immediately after the resignation of Richard Cromwell, however, Robert Tufton Mason (a grandson of the original proprietor), who had become sole heir in 1655, began petitioning, The commission first parliament and later the king, for relief. appointed by the king in 1664 to hear and determine complaints in New England decided that Mason's lands were not within the jurisdiction of Massachusetts and made an attempt to set up a government under which his claims could be tried, but this was a failure. Mason then petitioned again, and this time Massachusetts was requested to send agents to England to answer his complaints. They arrived in Dec. 1676, and the case was tried before the lords chief justices of the king's bench and

common

pleas in April 1677.

Mason presented no

claim to the right of government, and as to the title to the lands claimed by him the court decided that this was a question between him and the several tenants to be determined by the local court having jurisdiction in such matters. Thereupon Mason, in Jan. 1679, petitioned the king to appoint

who should have jurisdiction over all the lands that he claimed, and on Sept. 18 of that year New Hampshire was constituted a separate province with a government vested in a president and council appointed by the king and an assembly chosen by the people. Provincial Period.— From 1686 to 1689 New Hampshire formed a part of the dominion of New England, which, after the first few months, w-as under Sir Edmund Andros as governor genThere being no provincial authority in New Hampshire eral. at the close of this period, a convention of the leading citizens of a governor

four towns attempted to establish one. Upon the failure of attempt, a temporary nominal union with Massachusetts was formed, but in 1692 Samuel Allen, the assign of Mason, caused a royal government to be established with his son-in-law, John Usher, as lieutenant governor, and during the remainder of the colonial era New Hampshire was separate from Massachusetts except that from 1699 to 1741 the two had the same governor. The boundary disputes between Massachusetts and New Hampshire were long and bitter. Both provinces granted townships within the disputed territory; Massachusetts arrested men there who refused to pay taxes to its officers, and sought to defer the settlement of the dispute. New Hampshire, being on more friendly terms with the home government, finally petitioned the king to decide the matter, and in 1737 a royal order referred it to a commission to be composed of councilors from New York. Nova This body agreed upon the eastern Scotia and Rhode Island. boundary but evaded deciding on the southern one. Both parties then appealed to the king, and in 1741 the king in council confirmed the decision of the commission in regard to the eastern boundary and established a southern boundary very favourable to New Hampshire. The western boundary was not yet defined, and as early as 1749 a controversy over that arose with New York. The governor of New Hampshire made 138 grants in the disputed territory which were rapidly settled, but there was a reluctance to incur the expense of a contest with so powerful a neighbour as New York. In 1764 New York procured a royal order declaring the western boundary of New Hampshire to be the western bank of the Connecticut river. Revolution and Independence. At the outbreak of the American Revolution New Hampshire had about 80,000 inhabitants, the great majority of whom were Loyalists, or Tories, during the struggle. By June 1 775 the once popular governor Sir John Wentworth was a refugee; on Jan. 5, 1776, the fifth provincial congress established a provisional government; on June IS the first assembly elected under that government declared for independence; and on Aug. 16, 1777, the important victory at Bennington, Vt., was won by New Hampshire and Vermont troops under the command of Gen. John Stark, who had a commission from its

this

—

New

Hampshire.

Six states had ratified the federal constitution

the New Hampshire convention met at Exeter on Feb. 13, 1788, to accept or reject that instrument, and so great was the opposition to it among the delegates from the central part of the state that after a discussion of ten days the leaders in favour of

when

dared not risk a decisive vote but procured an adorder that certain delegates who had been instructed it might consult their constituents. Eight states had ratified when the convention reassembled at Concord on June 1 7, and four days later, when a motion to ratify was carried by a vote of 57 to 47, adoption by the necessary nine states was assured. Statehood. The American Revolution left the state heavily burdened with debt and many of its citizens threatened with ratification

journment

in

to vote against

—

debtor's prison.

manded amount

of

the

As

a

means

legislature

to the state's debt;

of relief, a

the issue

number of citizens demoney equal in was refused, an armed

of paper

and, as this

mob numbering

about 200 surrounded the meetinghouse in Exeter in which the legislature was in session, toward evening on Sept. 20, 1786. But Gen, John Sullivan (q.v.) was at the time president of the state; and on Sept. 21 he, with 2,000 or more mihtia and volunteers, captured 39 of the leaders and suppressed the revolt without bloodshed. National elections in New Hampshire were carried by the Federalists until 1816, except in 1804 when Pres. Thomas Jefferson won by a small majority; but within this period of Federalist

supremacy

Democrat-Republicans elected from 180S to 1812 inclusive except in 1809. In 1816 the Democrats won both state and national elections; and out of the transition from Federalist to Democratic control, which was effected under the leadership of William Plumer 1759-1 850), a prominent politician in New Hampshire for half a century, arose the famous Dartmouth college case. As the trustees of this instiin national politics the

the governor

(

fill vacancies in their numDemocrats attempted to gain control by converting it into a state university and increasing the number of trustees, but when the case reached the U.S. supreme court that body pronounced (1819) the charter a contract which the federal constitution forbade the state to violate. Heretofore the Federalist regime had

tution were Federalists with the right to ber, the

taxed the people to support the Congregational Church, but now the Baptists, Methodists and Universalists joined the Democrats

and in 1819 this state support was abolished by the Toleration act. Because of Daniel Webster's eloquently successful arguments in the Dartmouth college case, and because his party had favoured the support of the Congregational Church by pubhc taxation, he became very unpopular in this his native state. Accordingly, his denunciation of Pres. Andrew Jackson's bank pohcy added strength to the Jacksonian democracy, and, later, his Whig connections were the greatest source of the Whig party's weakness in New Hampshire. John Quincy Adams was an intimate friend of Wilham Plumer, the Democratic leader, and carried the state in both 1824 and 1828. The Whigs never won a national or state election, and often their vote was only about one-half that of the DemoBut the Democrats broke into two factions in 1846 over crats. the Knowthe question of slavery (see Hale, John Parker) Nothing party elected a governor in 1855 and 1856; and thencontrol of the state passed to the Repubhcan party, which held it until the presidential election of 1912 and 1916 when the Democrats won. Thereafter the state returned to its Repiiblican tradition until 1936, 1940 and 1944 when it supported Franklin D. Roosevelt. The state government remained Republican although In 1962 John W. a Democratic governor was elected in 1922. King became the first Democratic governor elected in 40 years, and Thomas J. Mclntyre the first Democratic U.S. senator in 30 ;

years.

New Hampshire services during in the 26th or

sent more than 20,000 men into the armed World War I. Many New Hampshire men were "Yankee" division. The Portsmouth navy yard

was involved with building submarines and small boats and in repairing warships. About 60,000 men and women of New Hampshire served in the armed forces during World War II. The state was the site of the Bretton Woods conference (July 1944), at which representatives of 44 nations drew up plans for the International Monetary fund and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. The industrial centres of New Hampshire suffered especially during the depression years of 1929-36. Many industrial plants decreased the number of employees and in some cases discon-

NEW HAMPSHIRE tinued operation, especially in Hillsborough county and in the The depression was less severe outside the cotton industries. industrial centres, and there was a considerable return of people towns and farms. After 1936 conditions to small city areas from

improved, especially in Manchester, where the Amoskeag mills Increased inwere partly used by many small manufacturers. dustrial diversification in the 19S0s and 1960s saw the estabhshment of new plants in smaller communities, as well as in the larger cities, and New Hampshire became the only New England state to gain in manufacturing employment. At the same time the increase in nonmanufacturing

employment was

the highest in the

region.

(instead of March), and those doing

elected for two-year terms.

Judiciary For the administration of justice the state has a supreme court and a superior court, and each county has a probate court. The supreme court consists of a chief justice and four associate justices; the superior court comprises a chief justice and five associate justices. The supreme court sits at Concord on the first Tuesday of every month except July and August, while the superior, court holds two or three sessions a year in each of the ten counties. Each county has a single probate judge, who has decisions regarding adoption of children and similar judicial func-

tant were those providing for biennial (instead of annual) state

November

the state constitution, and senate districts were redrawn for the Both senators and representatives are time since 1915.

first

jurisdiction over the probating of wills, insolvency proceedings,

GOVERNMENT New Hampshire was the first of the original states to establish This was a government wholly independent of Great Britain. designed to be only temporary but was in operation from Jan. 5, 1776, to June 2, 1784. The constitution provided for a general court consisting of a senate and a house of representatives and made the council a body advisory to the state president. The 1784 instrument was amended in 1792; with the amendments adopted in that year it is in large measure the constitution of For 60 years there was no change whatever, and only today. three amendments, those of 1852 (removing the property qualifications of representatives, senators and the governor), were adopted until 1877, when 12 amendments were adopted; the most imporelections in

351

reapportioned in accordance with the 1960 census, as required by

away

with the previous requirement that representatives, senators and the governor "be of the Protestant religion." Five amendments were ratified in 1889, four in 1902 and four in 1912. Most important of those adopted in 1912 was one providing for the election of the governor and members of the council by a plurality instead In 1956 two amendments became effective, one to permit the legislature to authorize absentee voting in primary elections and one to allow the governor to transact official business while absent from the state in line of duty. New Hampshire is the only state in which amendments to the constitution may be proposed only by a constitutional convention, and once in seven years at the general election a popular vote is By an taken on the necessity of a revision of the constitution. of a majority vote.

tions.

Supreme, superior and probate judges are appointed by

the governor and council to serve until they are 70 years of age.

The

1963 established 37 district courts to concourts, administered by a committee of three district court judges appointed by the supreme legislature in

solidate 87

court.

autonomous Tnunicipal

—

Finance. The chief sources of the income of the state government are the gasoline tax, motor vehicle and operators' licence fees, taxes on beer and taxes on or sale of liquor (sold in state liquor stores), the tobacco tax and income derived from the regulation of betting on horse racing. New Hampshire, the first state since 1894 to establish a legal sweepstakes, adopted a sweepstakes bill in 1963, effective 1964. Receipts were earmarked for education. The law provided for $3 tickets, to be drawn in lotteries held twice a year, to be sold (at local option) at state-operated hquor stores and at the state's two racetracks.

Local Government.

—Local

affairs are

administered by coun-

(ten in number), towns (townships), village districts and In each county a convention, composed of representatives cities. ties

from the towns, meets every two years to levy taxes and to authorize expenditures for grounds and buildings whenever more than $1,000 is required. For the discharge of other county functions the qualified electors of each county elect every two years three commissioners, a sheriff, a solicitor, a treasurer, a register of deeds and a register of probate; two auditors also are appointed

approved on April 9, 1909, provision was made for direct nominations of candidates at primaries. The government of the state was extensively reorganized as a result of legislation passed

annually by the supreme court. The county commissioners have the care of all county property, as well as of county paupers; and once every four years they are required to visit each town of their county, inspect the taxable property therein, determine

in 1949.

whether

act

—

Executive. There is a governor's council of five members, one from each councilor district, which has advisory duties and shares with the governor most of his powers. There is no lieutenThe governor and the councilors are elected for ant governor. terms of two years. The governor and council appoint all judicial the attorney general, comptroller, important administraboards and commissions and the medical referees; they have power to pardon offenses; and they may exercise some control over expenditure through the constitutional requirement of the Regovernor's warrant for drawing money from the treasury. organization legislation in 1961 placed many existing agencies in three new departments: health and welfare; resources and economic development; and safety. The governor may veto within five days, besides Sunday, after it has been presented to him any bill or resolution of which he disapproves, and a two-thirds vote of the members of both houses is required to pass over his veto. General Court. A senate and a house of representatives, which together constitute the general court, meet at Concord on the first Wednesday in January of every odd-numbered year, and at such other times as the governor may appoint for a special session, principally for the making of laws and for the election

it

is

incorrectly assessed and report to the state- board In each town a regular annual meeting of the

of equalization.

is called on the second Tuesday in March for transaction of miscellaneous business and the election of

qualified electors

the

town

officers.

POPULATION

officers,

tive

—

and the state treasurer. The senate is composed of 24 members, one from each senatorial district. Membership in the house of representatives varies from not less than 375 to not more than 400 according to a plan adopted in 1931, by which towns having fewer than 600 inhabitants elect representatives according to a special schedule. In 1961 the house was of the secretary of state

New Hampshire

in 1790 was 141,885; in 1840 it was 284,574; in 1880. 346,991; in 1910, 430,572; in 1940, and in 606,921. The last figure 1960, in 1950, 533,242; 491,524; represented an increase of 13.8% over the population in 1950. The population per square mile in 1960 was 67.3, as compared with 59.1 in 1950 and with 49.6 for the U.S. in 1960. The urban area of New Hampshire in 1940 comprised 11 cities, the smallest having a population of more than 6,000, and 7 towns (townships) classified as urban under special rule. The popula-

The population

of

was 283,225, or 57.6% of the state total. The population of the same area in 1950 was 301,249, or 6.4% more than in 1940, and represented 56.5% of the state total. According to the census of 1960 the state had two standard metropohtan Lawrence-Haverhill (shared with Massachusetts) statistical areas tion of this area

—

and Manchester.

New Hampshire

residents in these areas totaled

107,637, or 17.7%, of the total population of the state. The urban population (1960) was 353,766, or 58.3% of the state total. Analysis of the federal census of 1790 indicated that in that year better than two-thirds of the population of New Hampshire was of English or Welsh origin. There were small percentages of

Scotch, Irish, Scotch-Irish, Germans,

Dutch and French.

While

NEW HAMPSHIRE

352

foreign immiRration, especially Irish, to the state began in the tirst hall of the I'Hh century, the ethnic composition changed

Hy the middle of the 20th century French1S60. Canadians represented one of the largest ethnic groups in the

niost after

In the order of size the with the English-Welsh. other ethnic groups are English, from both England and Canada, Irish, Poles, Greeks, Scotch, Italians, Germans, Russians, Swedes, state, along

New

Hampshire: Places of 5,000 or More PopuJalion {I960 Census)* Place

NEW HARMONY^NEW HAVEN borough, Carroll and Coos counties. Mica, first mined in Grafton, Grafton county, in 1803, was later found in other parts of the state in such quantities that for 60 years during the 19th century New Hampshire was the largest producer of mica in the United States. In the 1960s large reserves of thorium were reported in the state. Manufactures. Since the beginning of the 20th century New Hampshire's chief source of employment and income has been in manufacturing. There were 1,618 manufacturing establishments in 1904, and 50 years later there were 1,609 1954 census For the same period the number of persons of manufactures). employed increased slightly, from 68,032 to 77,071, the value

—

(

added by manufacture multiplied, from $50,400,000 to $408,800,000, and payrolls rose from $30,700,000 to $245,300,000. By the 1960s the number of plants was below 1,200, but the number of employees had increased to well over 80,000 and payrolls to over $350,000,000. Until the late 1940s textiles and leather products (chiefly boots and shoes) were the major manufactures. After that time some cotton and woolen mills ceased operation or

moved

south.

New

industries, especially the production of elec-

and electronic goods, partly replaced textiles. Other important industries in New Hampshire are nonelectrical machinery, pulp, paper and paper products, lumber and wood products, and printing and publishing. Most of the manufacturing centres of the state are south of Lake Winnipesaukee. An exception is Berlin, the chief manufacturing centre north of the White mountains, important for its manufacture of paper and wood pulp. Transportation and Communications. Most of the railways in the state are owned or leased by the Boston and Maine. This company was the first to operate a railway within the state, service being maintained between Boston, Mass., and Dover, N.H., as early as 1842, Railway mileage decreased from more than trical

—

1,200 mi. in the 1920s to less than 1,000 mi. in the second half

There were over 14,000 mi. of public roads, which better than two-thirds were surfaced. daily newspapers and about 40 weeklies are published in New Hampshire. The New Hampshire Gazette, founded in .1756, is claimed to be the oldest continuously published newspaper in the United States; it is printed as a part of the Portsmouth Herald. There are two television stations in the state, and broadcasting facilities for two out-of-state stations are located in Winchester and on top of Mt. Washington. Of the 25 radiobroadcasting stations, two are both and FM. See also New England and references under "New Hampshire" of the 20th century. of

Ten

AM

in the Index.

Bibliography.

—

New

C. H. Hitchcock, Geology of Hampshire Hampshire Beautiful (1923) J. F. Colby, W. Nutting, of the Constitution of the State of New Hampshire (1902), contains a historical sketch of the constitution of the state; the Manual for the Use of the General Court; the Reports of the various state departments and boards; L. S. Morris, The Government of Hampshire (1922). A bibliography of local history is found in O. G. Hammond's Check List of Hampshire Local History (1925). See also

(1874-78)

;

New

;

Manual

New

New

Belknap, The History of New Hampshire (1784-92) E. S. Bowles, Let Me Show You New Hampshire (1938) J. D. Squires, The Granite State of the United States, 4 vol. (1956) New Hampshire Provincial, State and Town Papers (1867-1943) F. B. Sanborn, New Hampshire, in the "American Commonwealths Series" (1904); W. H. Fry, New Hampshire as a Royal Province (1908) H. Pillsbury, New Hampshire,

J.

;

;

;

;

;

5 vol.

(1927).

land, set out orchards

churches, shops and factories. tories

for

353

and vineyards and

They

built

residences,

two

also built separate dormi-

men and women because "Father" Rapp advocated

was not enforced. Soon a winery, brewery, distillery, looms, smithy, battery and other industries to supply frontier merchandise were in production. Rappite traders carried their products on all midwestern rivers, and their trade-mark, the Rappite rose, soon came to be a guarantee of celibacy, though the practice

quality.

But neighbouring frontiersmen were suspicious of clannish, German-speaking Harmonie and its celibacy; or perhaps they were jealous of its prosperity. Besides, the market was smaller than Rapp had expected, and by 1824 Rappite leaders were ready to sell out and return to Pennsylvania. The buyer was Robert Owen iq.v.), British reformer who came to the U.S. to found a perfect co-operative community which would be based on his plan for the ultimate salvation of all mankind through "rational" thinking, co-operation and free education. In 1825 he bought Rapp's ready-built Harmonie with cash and notes, renamed it New Harmony and invited all to join him in Utopia and live at his expense until they could carry out his program and become self-supporting. William Maclure (q.v.), a geologist, businessman and philanthropist, who joined Owen and agreed to finance the schools, brought and paid his own teachers and supplied scientific equipment and a library. Owen was adept at publicity. Myriads of persons talked of joining him and more than 1,000 actually arrived. With few exceptions, however, they were incompetent, greedy or daydreaming misfits. They ate Owen's rations, argued about their own government and debated the merits of Owen's "new system" while the farms and factories lay idle. By May 182 7 Owen's available cash had been expended on payments for the land and groceries for his followers. Maclure paid the last Rappite note in 1828 and Owen returned to Great Britain. Maclure's teachers and the best of Owen's recruits, including his sons, stayed on and developed one of the most notable pre-Civil

War

cultural centres in the U.S.

In the 20th century

community. a

charming but

its

New Harmony

is basically an agricultural population has remained less than 2.000 original Rappite buildings have made it understood monument to an interesting phase (R. E. Ba.)

Although

(1,121 in 1960),

its

many

little

of the U.S. past.

NEWHAVEN,

a seaport and urban district in the Lewes parhamentary division of East Sussex, Eng., 7 mi. S.S.E. of Lewes by road, on the English channel at the mouth of the Ouse; after a great storm in 1570 the river shifted westward from its original outlet at Seaford to enter the sea at Meeching, which became known as the "new" haven. Pop. (1961) 8,419. Area 2.8 sq.mi. A fort dominates the entrance to the harbour, which was first

granted to Newhaven in 1713. It is the English terminus (since 1843) of a cross-channel steamer service to Dieppe, and there is a large trade with the continent. There is some hght industry (on a factory estate) and boatbuilding. The sandy beach offers bathSt. Michael's parish church is one of the earliest ing facilities. Norman churches in England. a city and port of entry in southwestern

NEW HAVEN,

a town of Posey county in southwestern Indiana, U.S., about 22 mi. N.W. of Evansville is situated on the

Connecticut, U.S., on Long Island sound at the mouth of the Quinnipiac river, is about 70 mi. E.N.E. of New York city. It is the seat of Yale university (g.v.). It was originally settled in 1638 by about 500 English Puritans under the leadership of John Davenport and Theophilus Eaton. Most of the settlers had come from England the previous year

Wabash

and had wintered

Current statistics on production, employment, industry, etc., may be obtained from the pertinent state departments; the principal figures are summarized annually in the Britannica Book of the Year, American edition. (H. W. K.; W. E. Ss.; P. M. M.)

NEW HARMONY,

river. In the 19th century it was the scene of two famous experimental co-operative communities. The site, a tree-studded meadow safely above flood stage of the Wabash, was occupied by prehistoric Mound Builders and later became a camping ground for Piankashaw and Kickapoo Indians. In 1814 it was bought by the followers of George Rapp, a German Pietist preacher who had led disciples to the U.S. in 1803. Their original colony in western Pennsylvania had prospered but Rapp

elected to

move westward. On the Wabash the Rappites named it Harmonie. They planted the

out their town and

laid

rich

Originally in the Massachusetts Bay colony. an Indian word meaning "long water land," in 1640 the settlement was renamed for the port city of Newhaven In 1643 New Haven and three adjacent towns, toin England. gether with Stamford. 30 mi. W., and Southold on Long Island, joined to form the New Haven colony, of which Eaton was governor until his death in 1658. Strong Puritan sympathies made the colony a refuge, in 1661, for Col. Edward Whalley and Col. William Goffe, two ofticers in Cromwell's army, who had been members of the court that condemned Charles I and fled to New called Quinnipiac,

NEW

:5+

HEBRIDES

England seeking sanctuary. Although the political consc(]uenccs of this sympathetic action arc disinitcd, within four years New Haven colony was assimilated into Connecticut colony, which had been based on Hartford and enjoyed a royal charter. In 1701. however, \cw Haven became co-capital with Hartford, a position it maintained in both colony and state until 1S73, when Hartford became the sole seat of government. A collector of the port was appointed in "oO and thereafter a flourishing shipping trade grew up with the West Indies, Newfoundland and other American ports. During the American Revolution New Haven, strongly supporting the Continental cause, was sacked (July 5, 1779) by Loyalist forces under Gen. William Tryon, colonial governor of New York. Tryon. however, was driven off before he could burn the town. New Haven was incorporated as a city in 1784 and, following the War of 1812 during which many local seafarers turned to privateering, trade with ports throughout the world sprang up and manufacturing began to make itself felt as an important part of the economy. Around 1830 immigrants began to arrive from Ireland and Bavaria. A wave of Italian immigration commenced in 1870, and a decade later, partly as a result of pogroms in Russia, eastern European Jews began arriving in considerable numbers. Slavery was gradually eliminated in Connecticut after 1784, and by 1820 there were over 600 Negroes in New Haven; in the decades before the American Civil War the city was an important centre 1

of abolitionist sentiment.

hot and wet at w'estern,

Much

as

all

the

The

climate

is

seasons, though eastern slopes are drier than

southeasterly trades are the prevailing winds.

of the group

covered by dense rain forest, but drier reBlack earths and brown forest forma-

is

gions have savanna woods.

tions appear to be the principal soil groups.

Abundant bird

life

contrasts with the sparse land fauna.

The People.

—

A complex settler community of Europeans, and Polynesians, legally divided into French and British, has been imposed on the native Melanesians. The Europeans are dominant. The Asians are prosperous, the Chinese socially assimilating to the Europeans and contrasting with the isolationist Vietnamese who are former coolies. Polynesian Wallis islanders entered the group as plantation labourers in the mid-20th century. Traditionally organized in mutually hostile tribes, the natives now seek adjustment to European intrusion. Remote villages with few European contacts, apart from missionaries, have achieved temporary adjustment, but most natives are resentful of white wealth; hence the growth of antisettler cults to acquire power either through neopagan rituals or elaborate organization. Resentment is less and adjustment better around Vila, the capital, where the natives are acquiring greater wealth. Basically the Melanesians want higher standards and a voice in their own .\sians

destiny.

—

History. Originally found by the Portuguese navigator Pedro Fernandez de Quiros 1606), rediscovered by the French explorer Louis de Bougainville 1768) and chartered by the English captain James Cook (1774), the New Hebrides were exclusively British commercially until 1870. Subsequently French interest developed rapidly, leading to a policy of mutual exclusiveness (convention of 1878), rudimentary joint control (mixed naval commission, 1887), and finally the condominium (1906 protocol). In 1940 the local French were Gen, Charles de Gaulle's first overseas adherents and the group escaped Japanese invasion, becoming a major Allied (

These waves of immigration greatly facilitated the economic growth of the area, as did the proverbial Yankee ingenuity. New Haven was where Eli Whitney developed interchangeable parts for firearms, thus helping to usher in the principle of mass production; where Charles Goodyear discovered vulcanized rubber; and where Samuel Colt improved his invention of the repeating revolver. In the second half of the 20th century New Haven industries included shipbuilding and the manufacture of firearms, ammunition, aircraft parts, hardware tools, rubber goods, watches, clocks, textiles and paper products. The cultural life of New Haven is a blend of contributions from Yankees and later immigrants. The Puritans' deep interest in education led to the founding in 1660 of Hopkins grammar school, which still exists. Yale university, founded (1701) as the Collegiate School of Connecticut in Saybrook, moved to New Haven in 1716. Other institutions of higher learning in New Haven inAlbertus Magnus college (Roman Catholic, 1925) for women; Southern Connecticut State college, founded (1893) as New Haven Normal school; and New Haven (junior) college clude

(1920).

Although much of the area's cultural activities depend upon Yale's art gallery, drama and music schools, and its famed Peabody Museum of Natural History, New Haven has its own symphony orchestra, and in 1958 it instituted a community-wide festival of arts. For years Broadway plays and musicals have used the old Shubert theatre for public tryouts before opening in New York. Pop. (1960) 152,048; standard metropolitan statistical area (New Haven, Branford, East Haven, Guilford, Hamden, North Haven, Orange, West Haven and Woodbridge") 311,681, In 1963 Bethany and North Branford towns, pop. (1960) 9,155, were added. For comparative population figures see table in Connecticut: Population. (R. A. Dl.) HEBRIDES, a western Pacific island group consisting of 12 principal islands lying about 500 mi. W. of Fiji and 250 mi. N.E. of New Caledonia. It has a multiracial society governed jointly by France and Great Britain. Area 5,700 sq.mi.; pop. (1960 est.) 60.474, including Europeans, Vietnamese, Chinese, Tahitians, Wallis islanders. New Caledonians and Melane-

NEW

sians.

canic cone and there are three active volcanoes.

—

Physical Geography. Diversification characterizes the rewhich ranges from rugged mountains and high plateaus to rolling hills and low plateaus, with coastal terraces and offshore coral reefs. Sedimentary and coral limestones with volcanics preponderate and the frequent earthquakes indicate structural instability lief,

(see also Pacific Islands).

Some

islands comprise a single vol-

(

base.

The first settlers were sandalwooders (1843) and missionaries 1848) followed by cotton planters about 1868. Cotton gave way to bananas and coffee after 1880, only to be replaced by coconuts and maize (corn) in the first decade of the 20th century. Unprecedented prosperity, based on copra, cocoa and coffee produced by cheap Vietnamese labour, occurred in the 1920s, but this vanished during the world depression. Although only a minor revival occurred before World War II, the postwar period witnessed a (

tremendous boom.

—

Government. While exercising joint sovereignty over the indigenous people, the corulers retain separate responsibility for their nationals. Under the 1914 protocol (ratified 1922) authority is vested in the French and British high commissioners who are represented in Vila by resident commissioners. These officials jointly control the condominium administration, whose sphere is defined in the protocol and by their respective national authorities. This tripartite arrangement is continued into local affairs by parallel

national

district

agents, jointly

supervising village chiefs

and land cases with the condominium courts centring on the joint court undisputes involving settlers are taken der a neutral president, but Representative institubefore the appropriate national court. tions are confined to a few elected village councils and the French national advisory council. The Economy. The economy of the New Hebrides is based primarily on copra production. The group is. however, a marginal copra producer suffering from high costs, low productivity and distance from the market. Although there is a labour shortage and wages are the highest in the Pacific, the planters continue to rely on obsolete cultivation practices depending on ample cheap labour, while native methods are extremely primitive. Equally poor procor councils of elders.

Jurisdiction over native

lies

—

essing causes dependence on the unrewarding French market for Improvement is slow as boom profits were soap-grade copra. Copra (44% largely exported and capital is therefore short. native-produced) provides 85% of the condominium's exports, but some cocoa (17% native-grown) and coffee are also planted. New Hebridean commerce is dominated by two concerns, one

NEW IRELAND— NEW Australian and the other French.

Australia supplies

59%

of the

condominium's imports, largely foodstuffs, gasoline and textiles, Vila, handling while 95% of the exports are taken by France. 49% of the total trade, and Santo are the group's ports of entry.

—

Bibliography, E. A. de la Rue, Les Nouvelles-Hihrides (1945); Guiart, Les Noiivelles-H^hrides (1955); L. Robson (ed.). Pacific Islands Year Book (1932); Colonial Reports, New Hebrides (biannual, 1949). (Jo. M. B.) J.

NEW

IRELAND,

an island of the Bismarck archipelago (q.v.). is situated to the north of New Britain, from which it is separated by St. George's channel. With the adjacent islands it forms an administrative district of the Australian Trust Territory Area (including adjacent of New Guinea (see New Guinea). islands) 3,800 sq.mi. Pop. ( 1962) 40,659, of whom a small number are European or Chinese. The island is 220 mi. long but very narrow, The southern portion attains a breadth of 30 mi. but the prolongation which extends northwestward for almost 130 mi. is nowhere wider than 15 mi. and in places narrows to about 5 mi. Unlike New Britain (q.v.) the island contains no active across. volcanoes, but it is rugged and mountainous, especially in the

Limestone rise to 6,430 ft. mountains and plateaus occupy much of the long northwest peninsouth where the Rossel mountains sula,

is

generally a fringe of coastal plain, of raised coral

and

at the constrictions the coasts are separated only

but there

or alluvium,

by low saddles. Commercial development

is

practically confined to copra pro-

duction, especially on the east coast.

In addition to the planta-

(more than 72,000 ac. in the 1960s) there has been an increasing production from native groves. Most of the inhabitants The administrative centre and live in the north of the island. chief port is Kavieng at the northern end connected by a motor road along the east coast to Samo. The southern portion of the island is administered from Namatanai, on the east coast. New Ireland was first discovered by the Dutch navigators Jacob Le Maire and William Schouten in 1616. An attempt to colonize Annexed by Germany in 1884, it was renamed it failed in 1880. New Mecklenburg. After World War I it was mandated to Australia. In Jan. 1942 it was occupied by the Japanese; it was re(D. W. F.) occupied by Australia in 1945. JERSEY, usually referred to as the "Garden state" tions

NEW

because of its many truck farms, is located along the eastern seaboard of the United States about 38° N. of the equator. It is bounded on the north by New York, on the west by Pennsylvania, on the south by the Delaware river bay which separates it from Delaware, and on the east by the Atlantic ocean and the Hudson river. New Jersey ranks 46th in size among the states and measures 166 mi. in length from the northernmost to the southernmost extremities, 60 mi. in width at its greatest girth and 32 mi. at its narrowest. It has a total area of 7,836 sq.mi., of which 315 sq.mi. consist of lakes and other inland water areas. New Jersey, one of the 13 original colonies, became the third state of the union on Dec. 18, 1787; its state capital is Trenton. The red oak has been adopted as the state's official tree, the purple violet as the official flower

The its

and the eastern goldfinch as the

state's flag is buff-coloured

centre.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY —Though New Jersey is

Physical Features. is

official bird.

with the blue seal of the state in

small in area,

it

Viewed from above it looks like a of descending steps from the mountains in the northwest

geologically interesting.

series

marshes along the eastern and southeastern seacoasts. has been estimated that the state's land masses are more than 1,000.000.000 years old and record the geological cycle of rock formation and decay through the phases of mountain building, erosion, flooding, re-emergence, the Ice Age and the subsequent to the tidal It

breakdown after the

glaciers receded.

The Appalachian mounThese moun-

tains cut across the northwest corner of the state.

level and contain High Point (1.803 ft.), the state's highest elevation. Alongside this mountain range, but just south and east of it, is a small belt of highlands about 400 ft. lower in average elevation, which covers

tains

vary from 1,200 to 1,500

ft.

above sea

JERSEY

355

about one-seventh of the state's area. The remainder of the northeastern and north-central portions of the state are a lowland area that varies between 200 and 800 ft. in elevation. The rest of the state, that is, somewhat more than half of it (4,400 sq.mi.). consists of a flat coastal plain mostly less than 100 ft. above sea level, of which about one-eighth is tidal marshland, usually flooded at high tides, lying between the barrier beaches of the coastline and the actual mainland. The average mean elevation of the state is only 250 ft. above sea level. The four "steps" or belts correspond closely to the major geoThe great glaciers of the Ice logical epochs of land formation. Age covered a little more than one-third of the state and left large deposits of debris in an irregular line roughly from just west of Staten Island southwestward to Pennsylvania. The Delaware river, from its junction with the Neversink river to the capes, flows along the western and southern borders of the state for 245 mi.

The Hudson

river drains only a small part of

the state, but has contributed materially to its economic development. The principal stream of the highlands and Triassic lowland, the Passaic, rising in Morris county, passes through a in the

gap

traprock at Little Falls, descends 40 ft. and at Paterson ft. as the Great falls of the Passaic and, bending south-

drops "0

ward, empties into Newark bay. The Hackensack river enters the state about 5 mi. W. of the Hudson, flows almost parallel with The it and empties into Newark bay, having a length of 34 mi. Raritan. the largest stream lying wholly within New Jersey, flows eastward through the centre of the state. Among the highlands

numerous lakes of which the largest are Lake Hopatcong, in Morris and Sussex counties, and Greenwood lake, partly in New York and partly in New Jersey. are

Soil The soils of New Jersey generally follow the "steps" of elevation that descend from the mountains in the northwest to the coastal plain in the southern and eastern parts of the state. In the

northwestern mountains the soil is regarded as heavy; that is, containing large amounts of sandstone and limestone. The soil of the northern highlands area is also heavy, but includes granite loams and gneiss in addition to limestone, while the southern highlands soil has large quantities of shale and red sandstone as well as traprock. The lowlands tend to be a mixture of loams, sand loams and greensand marl. The coastal plain is composed mostly of sand soils with pockets of loam.

Climate.— New Jersey's climate varies greatly between the northern and southern parts of the state, largely because of the higher elevation in the north and the dominating effect of the AtThe lantic ocean over the southern coastal plain and lowlands. average annual temperature is about 50° F. in the extreme north and about 55° in the extreme south, less than 200 mi. away. In the north the winter temperatures average about 28° F. while In southern New Jersey the winter the summer averages 70°. temperatures average about 35° and the average summer temperature is 71°. For the state as a whole the winter temperatures average just above the freezing point (3i°) and in the summer generally tend to be reasonably comfortable (average of 74°) though high humidity prevails almost all year round. The length of the growing season in the state is about ISS days in the northwest and about 203 days along the southeastern coast. The annual average rainfall is about 46 in. for the state as a whole, though southern New Jersey averages only 36 in. while

northern

New

Jersey usually exceeds 50 in. The vegetation of northern New Jersey does not vary much from that of the surrounding states, and in the south, especially in the pine forests, there are many examples of Plants commonly found plant life common to North America. in the state include the honeysuckle, beach plum, wild azalea,

—

Vegetation.

wintergreen and cardinal flower. Slightly over 30% of the state consists of wasteland, much of which is in scrub forests. About tw-o-fifths of the state's area is in forest growths of varThe largest forest region is the pine barrens, which ious kinds. covers more than 1,200,000 ac, and includes a very large part of the southern half of the state. The pine barrens is composed of many varieties of pine, including areas of badly stunted growth

and white cedar

in

the swamps.

The next

largest forest area

NEW

356

the major river valleys.

comprises about 500,000 cipal growth is oak, but there are also birch, maple, walnut and chestnut. Finally, in the mountains of the and highlands of the north central part of the state, about 500,000 additional acres of forest lands in which ac. in

common

trees

to

North America may be found.

of these forests are ferns,

many herbaceous

The

JERSEY

prin-

ash. elm,

northwest there are

almost

all

Throughout all and the

plants, holly

usual wild tlowers native to the eastern United States. Animal Life. -In the pine forest and the mountains deer, bear and wildcat are common. Other animals often seen in New Jersey

—

squirrels, chipmunks, rabbits, opossums, raccoons, foxes, muskrats and woodchucks. Snakes also are commonly found, most especially in the south. Many migratory birds pass over the state as do the shore and land birds which populate the south-

are

ern forests.

State Parks, Forests

and Historic

Sites.

—New

Jersey has

In the parks are preserved sites of historic significance,

native plants and animals and sanctuaries for wildlife. Hunting is not allowed, although fishing is permitted under state regulations.

Some

of the parks are Allaire (1,277 ac.) in

Monmouth

county,

Middlesex county. High Point (10.935 in Sussex county, Parvin (1,025 ac.) in Salem county. Ringac. wood Manor (579 ac.) in Passaic county and Washington Cross-

Cheesequake (975

ac.) in

)

ing (372 ac.) in

Mercer county.

Eleven state forests, with a total area of more than 150,000 ac, occupy the least-developed sections, such as the mountain area in the north and the lowlands in the pine barrens. These forests provide facilities for camping, picnicking, bathing and water sports, and serve as laboratories for the study of wildlife and also forest plantings. The Wharton tract, covering more than 90.000 ac, was acquired by the state in 1954 as a state forest. Other forests are Bass River forest (9,270 ac.) in Burlington and Ocean counties, Lebanon forest (22,216 ac.) in Burlington and Ocean counties and Stokes forest (12,429 ac.) in Sussex county. The state parks and forests are under the supervision of the department of conservation and economic development. The state's historic sites serve as reminders of New Jersey's stirring past. A monument at Freehold commemorates a battle of the Revolutionary War fought on June 2S, 1778, in which Molly Pitcher figured. Other signs of the Revolutionary period include the Old Barracks at Trenton, built in 1758 to quarter British troops and later occupied by the Continental army; the Wallace house at Somerville. which served as General Washington's headquarters during the winter of 1778-79; and the Morristown National Historical park, which includes Fort Nonsense and Jockey Hollow with replicas of the quarters occupied by the Continental army during two winters. Another famous landmark is the Berrien house at Rocky Hill, where Washington wrote in 1783 the farewell address to his troops. a time in

Nassau

hall (built in

The Continental congress met for 1756) at Princeton university. An-

other important colonial landmark was the home of Col. William Richards, restored in 1874 by Joseph Wharton. The Edison re-

search laboratory, established in 1887 by Thomas A. Edison at a national monument in 1956.

West Orange, became

HISTORY Exploration and Settlement.— The Lenni Lenape Indians Delawares by the first settlers), a tribe of the Algonkian group, early inhabited the region now known as New Jersey. In 1758 the dwindling tribe moved to a reservation at Brotherton,

(called

now

called Indian Mills, in Burlington county.

In 1524 Giovanni da Verrazano, a Florentine explorer who sailed New Jersey shore, but it was not until 1609 that Henry Hudson, employed by the Dutch East India company, dispatched a party to explore Newark bay. He then for France, touched the

"Half Moon'' up the river now known as the Dutch claims. Nine years later a Dutch trading post was located at Bergen. Cornelius Jacobsen Mey in 1614, and later Cornelius Hendricksen, explored the Delaware river. By 1623 New Netherland (that part of North America between New France, or Canada, and Virginia) was established as a

sailed his ship the

Hudson and

established

Fort Christina on the west bank of the Delaware near the present site of Wilmington. Colonial Rule. In 1664 King Charles II of England granted to his brother James, duke of York, the vast Dutch holdings that

—

New

Jersey. The region between the was soon transferred by the duke to John, Lord Berkeley, and Sir George Carteret. By this grant the duke of York created the colony of New Jersey or New Caesarea, named in honour of Carteret, a Royalist, who as its governor had defended the Isle of Jersey for the crown during the English Civil War.

included the present state of

Hudson and Delaware

rivers

To

attract immigrants the proprietors in Feb. 1665 published "Concessions and Agreements by which they provided for a governor, a governor's council and an assembly chosen by the freemen and empowered to levy taxes. Meanwhile Gov. Richard Nicolls of New York, ignorant of the grant to Berkeley and Carteret, had confirmed sales to settlers of sites which later became Elizabethtown, Middletown and Shrewsbury. In 1669 trouble between the proprietary governor and the inhabitants of the last two towns over quitrents caused the nullification of the grants made by Nicolls. Four years later the Dutch fleet brought New Jersey under Dutch control, but England reacquired it by the treaty of Westminster, Feb. 9, 1674. The eastern half of the state was restored to Carteret's proprietorship. Berkeley had sold to John Fenwicke and Edward Byllynge, Quakers, his lands which subsequently were acquired by William Penn, Gawen Lawrie and Nicholas Lucas. By the "quintipartite deed" of July 1676, the province east of a line from Little Egg harbour to a point on the Delaware river in 41° 40' N. (East Jersey) was assigned to Carteret, and that west of this line (West Jersey), about five-eighths of the whole, In to the Quaker associates (first Quaker colony in America). 1677. 230 Quakers from London and Yorkshire founded a settlement which became Burlington. West Jersey was never actually governed under the liberal "Concessions and Agreements." presumably drafted by Penn, because Byllynge 's title to the land conveyed to him alone the right to govern. Byllynge commissioned Samuel Jennings as deputy governor with the consent of the other proprietors. Jennings called the first assembly which passed fundamental laws providing for a governor and council. In 1680, after Philip Carteret, the governor of East Jersey, had been forcibly carried to New York and imprisoned. Sir Edmund .'\ndros appeared before the East Jersey assembly as governor, but the deputies refused to pass the measures he recommended. A New York jury freed Carteret of charges of illegal exercise of authority and the duke of York recalled Andros from New York. In 1682 the province, which Sir George Carteret had bequeathed to eight trustees to administer for the benefit of his creditors, was purchased at public auction by Penn and 11 associates for £3.400. Each sold one-half of his share, thus making 24 proprietors whom the duke of York authorized to govern the province. They directed the appointment of the American Board of Proprietors (1684) who with the deputy governor cared for such proprietary interests as approval of legislation and grant of lands. In 1686 Perth .•\mboy, the newiy created port of East Jersey, became its seat of government. After becoming king in 16S5. James II determined to unite New York, New Jersey and the New England colonies extended accordingly the authority of Andi^ps, now viceroy of New England. In April 1702 the proprietors transferred to the crown all of their rights of jurisdiction but retained their rights to the soil. The provinces of East and West Jersey were then united and governed as a royal province. Until 1738 New \ork and New Jersey had the same governor; thereafter each had its own. The legislature met alternately at Burlington and Perth Amboy until 1790 when Trenton became the capital. The diverse population of the colony grew steadily and at the time of the Revolutionary War it was estimated at 138,000. Those settlers who previously had acquired land grants were in constant conflict with the proprietors. A continuous discord pretheir

established 23 state parks with an area totaling apprcximately

27,000 ac.

province, and soon Fort Nassau was built at the present site of Fifteen years later Swedish settlers were trading at

Gloucester.

"

—

NEW

JERSEY

Plate

VIEWS OF NEW JERSEY Top

left: Scene in Hunterdon county, northwest New Jersey, a dairying and vegetable-farming area Top right: Marine terminal and rail yards, Camden Bottom le/t: Loading tomatoes on a farm near Camden where fertile.

loamy

Bottom

soil

is

suited to truclc gardening

right: Harvey S. Firestone IVIemorial library, erected at Princeton

university

in

194S

1

I'LATE II

NEW

AERIAL VIEWS OF Jersey City, with the Hudson river in the foreground and Pulaski Skyway leading to the Holland tunnel on the extreme right

Top:

JERSEY

TWO NEW JERSEY thi

Bottom:

CITIES

Atlantic City, showing the farr.ous boardwalk and resort hotels

NEW

JERSEY

between the royal governors and the assemblies, which, coupled with British commercial restriction, became a factor favouring vailed

the Revolution.

The Revolution. War period.

—New Jersey was active during the

Revolu-

In 1774, following the action of the other colonies, a committee of correspondence and local committees

voted by

A

tionary

were organized to disseminate information, and on July 21 a provincial congress met at New Brunswick and selected delegates to the first continental congress at Philadelphia. In June 1776 Gov. William Franklin was arrested by the provincial congress, thus ending the royal authority. A constitution was adopted on July New Jersey's people were divided. The loyalists, or 2, 1776. Tories, had early organized six battalions, while other groups supported the patriots. British sympathizers in the Revolution engaged in guerrilla action, and their "pine barren robbers" conducted raids in southern New Jersey. Important battles of the war were fought in New Jersey. Late in 1776 General Washington, commander in chief of the Continental forces, unable any longer to hold the lower Hudson, retreated to the Delaware near Trenton and, by commandeering all available boats, won for his dispirited troops the river as defense against their pursuers. Recrossing with 2,500 men on Dec. 25, he surprised three Hessian regiments next morning and took 1,000 prisoners and 1 ,000 stands of arms. Outmaneuvering Lord Cornwallis, the British commander, Washington defeated a detachment of Cornwallis' army at Princeton on Jan. 3, 1777. As the British army was retreating from Philadelphia to New York, Washington's forces engaged it in the indecisive battle of Monmouth on June 28, 1778. During the war the Continental army crossed the state four times, and Washington twice had his winter quarters at Morristown. Delegates from the state attended both the Annapolis convention (q.v.) in 1786 and the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia in 1787.

At the

latter,

New

Jersey leadership sponsored the

small states' position (New Jersey plan) in opposition to the Virginia or large states' plan. The New Jersey plan left its imprint in the provision of the federal constitution for equal representation for large and small states in the national senate and for the supremacy of federal law (see Constitutional Convention [U.S.]).

On Dec.

18, 1787,

New

Jersey became the third state

to ratify the federal constitution.

19th Century.— On Aug. 22. 1787, John Fitch demonstrated on the Delaware the first steamboat, and 31 years later the Vail works near Morristown built the machinery for the "Savannah," the

first

steamboat

to cross the Atlantic.

In 1794, under the aus-

357

before being voted by their successors in which the Republican party had gained a majority; in 1868 the Democratic legislature sought in vain to withdraw the ratification of the 14th amendment its

Republican-controlled predecessor. war followed the Civil War. The Pennsylvania

hitter railway

was charged with virtually monopolizing the route between New York city and Philadelphia as a result of a 999-year lease through which it had gained control of the properties of comrailroad

panies previously granted monopolistic privileges. In 1873 the state opened the route to other railroads. This same period was marked by great cultural, scientific and industrial development.

Modern Times. to

—

With no limit fixed either to capitalization or bonded indebtedness, and with a policy of encouraging the hold-

company

ing

structure, coupled with a tax rate lower for large than for small corporations. New Jersey by 1904 had chartered 3 of the 7 largest trusts and had "mothered" 150 of the 298 next largest business organizations in the U.S. A growing concern over the effects of industrialism led to direct primaries (1907. 1911), a new ballot form (1911), the election of Woodrow Wilson as governor (1911-13) and the passage in 1913 of the "Seven Sisters" acts for eliminating the power of trusts to create monopoly, limit production, fix prices and restrain trade. New laws limited public

service franchises to 20 years, subject to municipal referendum.

PoUtical power has usually been shared by the two major parbut between 1914 and 1965 the Democrats never gained conand only five times had control of the house.

ties,

trol of the senate

In presidential elections since 1900 the state voted Democratic in 1912 (Woodrow Wilson), 1932, 1936 and 1940 F. D. Roosevelt), 1960 (J. F. Kennedy) and 1964 (L. B. Johnson). (

New Jersey produced great quanwar materiel during World War II. Important embarkaEuropean theatre of war were at Fort Dix and Camp Kilmer. The U.S. signal corps had its headquarters during the war at Fort Monmouth. A constitutional convention, delegates to which had been popularly elected in 1947, assembled in New Brunswick and prepared a new constitution which the voters approved and which on Jan. 1, 1948, replaced the 103-year-old constitution. For the first time in more than 100 years the electorate beginning in Nov. 1949 could re-elect a governor and for the first time in 40 years the Republicans held the governorship for two successive terms. Legislative An

tities

intensely industrial state,

of

tion points for soldiers going to the

sessions in 1948-51 enacted the basic measures for effecting the

structural changes required under the new constitution. New Jersey had the lowest per capita state taxes of any state in

the union at mid-20th century.

In the decade between 1950 and

pices of Alexander Hamilton's Society for the Establishment of

1960, construction, both industrial and residential, boomed.

Useful Manufactures, chartered by the legislature in 1791, a calico-printing factory inaugurated at the Great falls of the Passaic the first factory town in the U.S., now Paterson. In 1806 the first interstate railroad bridge was opened at Trenton. This material progress was interrupted by the War of 1812, which in the beginning was very unpopular, especially amdng the Quakers. After the war the construction of the Morris (1824-38) and the

Robert B. Meyner became the first Democratic governor ceed himself when he was re-elected in 1957.

Delaware and Raritan (1826-38) canals and the completion of New Jersey's first railway, the Camden and Amboy (1834), provided facilities for a widespread industrial development. Agitation for democratic reform culminated in a constitutional convention at Trenton (May 14-June 27, 1844), which drafted a new frame of government by which New Jersey abolished property qualifications for suffrage, modified the basis of representation in

the assembly,

separated the legislative, executive and judicial

powers and provided for the direct election of the governor. Opinion in New Jersey was divided on the question of slavery. The underground railroad transported fugitives to freedom, but when the American Civil War broke out, 18 people in New Jersey were legally still slaves. In 1860 three of the state's electoral votes went to Democrat Stephen Douglas and four to Abraham Lincoln, and New Jersey was one of the three states which voted for Lincoln's opponent in 1864. The state furnished 88,305 men for the Union cause and incurred extraordinary expenditures to the amount of $2,894,385. Ratifications of the 13th and 15th amendments were each first refused by the respective legislatures

Gov. to suc-

GOVERNMENT After claring

New

its

Jersey joined with the other Colonies in 1776 in deindependence, it set up a new form of government that

established almost absolute legislative supremacy.

This in a modisecond constitution of 1844 and lasted till pressures generated by dynamic changes in 1947 forced the adoption of a third constitution. Executive The 1947 constitution created a powerful governor, elected at large by the people, who serves a four-year term and is eligible for immediate re-election once and may serve additional terms after a lapse of one administration. The governor appoints fied

form was continued

in the

—

all

the state's executive officers,

all

risdictions extend farther than one

the judicial officers whose jucommunity, the county prose-

cutors (district attorneys) and certain other county officials. The governor also prepares the annual budget, and may call special sessions of the legislature at will or of the senate separately.

He

has the right to veto acts of the legislature and specific terms in appropriation bills but only within 10 days of their submission to

him while the

legislature is in session or within 45 days after it adjourns sine die. He is empowered to supersede a county prosecutor as well as specifically order local police to move against specific offenses or offenders, and he has full powers of investigation concerning state and local administration. He is commander

NEW

3S8

JERSEY

^uard and chairman ex which certihes all elections. Finally, he is empowered to make temporary appointments to the U.S. senate. In the event of his death, resignation or removal from office, he is

Of this sum, about 10% was derived from the federal government and about 50% from state tax sources. Motor fuels, motor vehicle and operators licences, tobacco products, alcoholic beverages and property were the chief

succeeded by the president of the senate.

sources of tax revenues. The state's annual disbursements totaled slightly more than the general fund receipts and the state had a bonded debt of a little more than $200,000,000. Approximately

otVicio of the

in chief of the state's national

state board of canvassers,

The

constitution requires that

all

slate administrative units be

organized into not more than 20 departments whose heads are appointed by the governor and who serve at his pleasure. The only exceptions are the attorney general and the secretary of state, whose terms must coincide with that of the governor. Legislature. The state has a bicameral legislature composed The general assembly comof a general assembly and a senate. prises 60 members apportioned among the counties every ten years each county has at least one although population, basis on the of Senate membership of 21, one from each seat in the chamber. county, was increased in 1965 to 29, apportioned by population. Terms of oflice are two years for assemblymen and four for senators, with half the senators elected every two years. The once extensive powers of the legislature were considerably reduced by the 1947 constitution. Under that constitution, the

—

legislature enacts

all

state laws; adopts, approves or revises the

than $700,000,000 annually.

29'i of the state's revenues was being spent 26% on education, slightly more than 10% on and about 8% on public welfare. The state's and 1960s was more than four times as great to

World War

greater pace.

among well

on highways, about health and hospitals

income in the 1950s as it had been prior

II, but expenditures had multiplied at an even New Jersey's per capita income had long been

the highest in the nation, and in 1960

it

was about $2,200,

above the national average.

POPULATION The population

New

Jersey in the first federal census, 1790, ninth among the 18 states and territories that then composed the union, and the population was In 1850 the population of the state was classified as 100% rural. of

This

was 184,139.

made

it

it 19th in size among a total of 37; the state was 82.4% of its inhabitants as rural in character dwellers. The next decade was the penonurban considered were the populariod of the most rapid growth in the state's history At the beginning tion increased 37.3% between 1850 and 1860.

fixes all taxes; apexecutive or judicial override a governor's officer by the veto by a two-thirds majority of both houses. The senate, acting alone, confirms or rejects the executive and judicial appointments

489,555, making

of the governor.

of the 20th century the state had advanced to 16th in rank of population with a total of 1,883,669 persons according to the 1900 census. The complexion of the state had been completely altered

state budget; enacts

appropriation

all

bills;

may remove any impeachment process; and may

points the state auditor;

meets annually, usually from January until late spring, and then reassembles 45 days after its adjournment for a "veto session"; i.e., to consider all bills the governor has vetoed. Judiciary. The New Jersey court system has been hailed by judiciary experts as the best and most flexible in the United States. At the head of the system is the supreme court, composed of a powerful chief justice and six associate justices. The supreme court is the final court of appeal in New Jersey and must finally decide all constitutional questions. Its members are appointed by the governor for an initial seven-year probationary term, after which they may be reappointed on a permanent basis, during their good behaviour, until the compulsory retirement age of 70. Immediately below the supreme court is the superior court, composed of three divisions: law, appeals and chancery. The law division hears civil and criminal cases; the chancery division equity cases; the appeals division hears appeals from the law and chan-

The

legislature

—

cery divisions and also from the lower courts.

method

of

The

qualifications,

appointment and reappointment and terms for justice

of the superior court are the same as those for the supreme court. The lesser courts in the state are the county courts and the district courts, the judges of which are appointed by the governor;

municipal courts appointed by local mayors; and the county surThe county courts rogates are elected at large in each county. handle all types of cases and review the actions of the district and covering only parts of courts, The district municipal courts. counties, handle only those civil cases in

which the amount of dam-

than $3,000 or the crime is a misdemeanor. The municipal courts judge motor vehicle code violations and other lesser offenses. Local Government. County government in New Jersey is a hybrid of past and present customs of government in that it is composed of the old and large board of chosen freeholders (37 in Atlantic county, for example in some areas and small boards (as few as 3) in others. The freeholders nominally operate and direct ages claimed

is

less

—

)

county government, but as many officials are either elected at large or appointed by the state the freeholders control little more than the county welfare institutions and some lesser clerical functions. Since the 1947 constitution was adopted, municipal home rule has been the practice in New Jersey, whose more than 500 communities choose between 16 different combinations of the mayorcouncil, mayor-commission or council-manager types of municipal government. The most prevalent type is the mayor-commission form first advocated by Gov. Woodrow Wilson in 1911. Finance and Taxation. In the second half of the 20th century, the state's general treasury fund receipts amounted to more

—

still

—

classified

—

since 1850

—

character.

in

1900

New

Jersey was classified as 70.6% urban in

The economically depressed decade between 1930 and

—

1940 was the slowest in population growth in New Jersey in 1940 the population was only 2.9%. greater than it had been in 1930. The 1950 population showed a total of 4,835,329 persons living within the state, making New Jersey eighth in size of population the states. It was then nearly 87% urban in classification. In 1950 there were two complete standard metropolitan areas

among

(Atlantic City and Trenton) and Bergen, Essex, Hudson, MiddleSomerset and Union counties were a part of

sex, Morris, Passaic,

the New York-Northeastern New Jersey standard metropolitan area; they contained nearly three-fourths of the total population. By 1960 the standard metropolitan statistical areas housed 78.9%

of the total population. In 1960 New Jersey had a total population of 6,066,782, an increase of 1,231,453 or 25.5% over 1950. It

ranked eighth among the states. The population per square mile

in 1960, highest of the states,

compared with 49.6 for the U.S. as a whole. The 1960 urban population was 5,359,035 or 88.3% of the total. Distribution by colour and nativity, according to the 1960 census, was as follows: 81.3% native white; 10.0% foreign-born white; and 8.7% nonwhite. In line with the rest of the U.S. the percentage of persons 65 years old or over was increasing, being 9.1% in 1960. The percentage of the population 14 years old and over that was in the labour force was steadily decreasing, the result of prolonged was

774.2, as

schooling for that age group. The population is not uniformly distributed across the state, but is concentrated in the urban belts opposite New York city and Philadelphia, with greater concentration opposite New York. Two-thirds of the population of the state live within 30 air miles of that city. Population density runs from an average of 40,000 persons per square mile in the industrial cities in the northeastern part of the state to sections of the state that have no people at all —in fact, almost one-fourth of the whole state's area is free of

human The

habitation. over-all complexion of the state's population has changed slowly so that in 1960 New Jersey families tended to be older on the average and have fewer children than those of several decades

previously.

Also, the

number

of

women

increased

more

rapidly

than that of men.

The differ

basic characteristics of

New

Jersey's population tend to

somewhat from the general national tendencies

race, religion

and degrees of concentration.

In

New

in regard to Jersey there

NEW New

Jersey: Places of 5,000 or Population

1960 Total state

.

Asbury Park Atlantic City

Audubon Barrington

.

Bergenfield

.

BernardsviUe Bloomficid Bloomingdale .

Bound Brook Bridgeton Burlington Butler

.

CaldweU

.

.

.

.

Camden Carlstadt Carteret

.

Cedar Grove

Chatham

,

Cherry Hill Clark

(forr

.

Cliffside

Clifton Closter

Park

.

.

Collingswood Cranford Cresskill

Dover

.

Dumont Dunellen East Orange East Paterson East Rutherford

Eatontown

.

Edison t Elizabeth

Emerson En^lewood Ewing

.

.

Fair Fair

Haven

.

Lawn

.

Fairview

Fanwood Florham Park Fort Lee Freehold Garfield

Garwood Glassboro Glen Ridge Glen Rock Gloucester City .

.

.

Guttenberg

.

Hackensack Hackettstown

Haddon Haddonfield. Haddon Heights

Haledon Hamilton

.

Hammonton Harrison

Hasbrouck Heighti

Hawthorne Highland Park .

Hillsdale Hillside.

.

Hoboken Irvington Jersey City

Keansburg Kearny Kenibvorth

.

.

.

Keyport

Lakewood

.

Leonia Levittown Lincoln Park Linden .

.

.

Lindenwold

.

Little Falls . Little Ferry Little Silver.

Livingston Lodi

.

Long Branch Lyndhurst Madison ,

Manville Maple Shade§ Maplewoodll Margate City

Matawan Maywood Metuchen

.

Middlesex

.

Middletown Midland Park

6,066,782 17,366 59,544 10,440 7,943 74,215 35,005 11,853 5,190 27,203 5,515 51,867 5,293 7,965 7,981 10,263 20,966 12,687 5,414 6,942 117,159 6,042 20,502 1 4,603 9,517

31,522t 12,195t 17,642 82,084 7,767 17,370 26,424 7,290 13,034 18,882 6,840 77,259 19,344 7,769 10,334

44,799t 107,698 6,849 26,057 26,628 5,678 36,421 9,399 7,963 7,222

21,815 9,140 29,253 5,426 10,253 8,322 12,896 15,511 5,118 30,521 5,276 1 7,099 13,201 9,260 6,161 65,035 9,854 11,743 13,046 17,735 11,049 8,734 22,304 48,441 59,379 276,101 6,854 37,472 8,379 6,440 13,004 8,384 11,861 6,048 39,931 7,335 9,730t 6,175 5,202

23,124t 23,502 26,228 21,867t 15,122 10,995 12,947t

23,977t 9,474 5,097 11,460 14,041 10,520 39,675 7,543

1950 4,835,329 17,094 61,657 9,531 2,651

77,203 32,019 5,213 4,636 17,647 3,956 49,307 3,251 7,662 7,163 8,374 18,378 12,051

4,050 6,270 124,555 5,591 13,030 8,022t 7,391

10,358 4,352t 17,116 64,511 3,376 15,800 1 8,602 3,534 11,174 13,013 6,291 79,340 15,386 7,438 3,044 16,348t 112,817 1,744 23,145 16,840t 3,560 23,885 8,661 3,228 2,385 ~ 11,648 7,550 27,550 4,622 5,867 7,620 7,145 14,357 5,566 29,219 3,894 12,379t 10,495 7,287 6,204

41,156t 8,411 13,490 9,181 14,816 9,721 4,127

21,007t 50,676 59,201 299,017 5,559 39,952 4,922

3,376 30,644 3,479 6,405 4,955 2,595 9,932 15,392 23,090 19,980t 10,417 8,597 6,560t 25,201 4,715 3,739 8,667

9,879 5,943 16,203 5,164

1940

JERSEY More Population

359 {,1960

Census)*

NEW

36o

JERSEY

more Protestants than Roman Catholics, although the ratios are closer than in the nation as a whole. Likewise, New Jersey one of the 11 major areas in the I'nited States in which the is are

There is a reversal in is concentrated. the state of the traditional trend of Negroes and foreign born to concentrate in industrial cities and towns. Agricultural southern New Jersey proportionately has more Negroes than does industrial northern New Jersey, and the coastal portions of the state have nation's Jewish population

many

proportionately almost as ized areas.

In

some

Negroes constitute

foreign born as do the industrial-

sections of the southern part of the state

a virtual majority of the residents.

Roman

Catholicism tends to be the major religious affiliation of the people in the industrialized cities and towns, while Protestantism usually predominates in the suburban, residential and agricultural portions of the state. In the northeastern part of New Jersey the populace is largely comprised of persons who were born elsewhere than in New Jersey, but the number of nonnative-born diminishes sharply toward the

south and west.

most

In the farm areas of the state the people are

al-

entirely native born.

History and Administration.

— Public education

in

New

Jer-

sey progressed steadily throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Early in the state's history the legislature gave consideration to funds for public schools, and in 1846 the post of state superintendent of public schools was established. The state constitution was amended in 18o7 to require that "the Legislature shall provide for the maintenance of free public schools for the instruction of all children in the State between the ages of 5 and 18" with the re-

compulsory education law was enacted in 1867. Later, and vocational schools were established, and special were made available for crippled, blind, deaf and sub-

sult that a

facilities

;

ark are the college of pharmacy; the Newark college of arts and sciences; the school of business; the college of nursing; and the school of law. In Camden are the College of South Jersey and the South Jersey division of the school of law. Included in the university are the state agricultural experiment station, the Eagleton

Urban Studies centre and

Institute of Politics, the

the Rutgers

University press. In 1855 the first New Jersey state normal school (now Trenton was established by an act of the legislature at State college Trenton. Other teachers colleges are at Glassboro (1923), Jersey City (1946), Upper Montclair (1908), Union (1855) and Paterson (1855). In 1958 the six were designated as state colleges but continued to train teachers for the elementary and secondary schools. Among the other institutions of higher learning are Seton Hall university at South Orange, Newark, Jersey City and Paterson (Roman Catholic; 1856) Fairleigh Dickinson university at Rutherford, Teaneck and Madison (nonsectarian; 1941); Drew university at Madison (Methodist; 1867); Stevens Institute of Technology at Hoboken (nonsectarian; 1870 j Newark College of Engineering at Newark (state and municipal control; 1881); Caldwell College for Women at Caldwell (Roman Catholic; 1939) College of St. Elizabeth at Convent Station (Roman Catholic; 1899J; Georgian Court college at Lakewood (Roman Catholic; )

;

;

1908); Monmouth college at West Long Branch (nonsectarian; 1933); Rider college at Trenton (nonsectarian; 1865); St. Peter's college at Jersey City (Roman Catholic; 1872); Bloomfield college at Bloomfield fPresbyterian; 1868); and Upsala college at East Orange (Lutheran; 1893).

HEALTH, WELFARE AND CORRECTIONS

normal children. Administration of the New Jersey schools is delegated to a state board of education and a commissioner of education appointed by the governor. A county superintendent of schools, appointed by the state board of education upon the recommendation of the state commissioner of education, has supervision over the public schools in each of the 21 counties. However, each city has a superintend-

who

Doug-

(founded as the New Jersey College for Women); the graduate school of library service; the graduate school of soand the graduate school of arts and sciences. In Newcial work lass college

;

EDUCATION

industrial

the college of agriculture; the graduate school of education;

department of health is an outgrowth of a sanitary set up in 1865 and converted into a board of health in In 1954 the board became an eight-member public health council, two of whose members must be physicians and another a

The

state

commission 1877.

dentist.

The

council

members, who are appointed by the gov-

ernor, serve without pay.

The

council

is

charged with establishing

Each municipality

and enforcing the state sanitary code as well as fixing the qualificaLocal health boards may tions for health and food inspectors.

efforts

establish higher, but not lower, standards than the state code

ent

exercises authority over the schools in the local area.

is theoretically also a school district, though to provide better facilities have caused some municipal boards to merge and form combined districts. There are two basic types of school boards in the state, one primarily designed for cities and the other for small municipalities. In the cities the mayor appoints the members of the board. In the small municipalities voters elect the members. The boards direct the finances and general policies of the school districts, select teachers, administrative personnel and materials and prescribe the curriculum. The boards also may expel pupils. The budgets of city boards are approved by a board of school estimates composed of members of the school board and the municipal council; in small municipalities the budget is adopted by voter action in a special election. In the 1960s, New Jersey was spending more than $500 annually per pupil far above the national average. Universities and Colleges. Higher education has its roots in the colonial period. Princeton university, one of the nation's finest liberal arts universities for men, was established as the College of New Jersey at Princeton in 1746 (see Princeton University). Rutgers, the state university, was founded as Queens college at New Brunswick in 1766; in 1825 its name was changed to Rutgers college in honour of Col. Henry Rutgers. The New Jersey legislature in 1864 selected the Rutgers Scientific school to be the landgrant college of the state. In 18S0 the legislature established the New Jersey agricultural experiment station which was located on the Rutgers college farm. In 1917 Rutgers became the state uniThe versity; in 1945 the title was extended to all its divisions. corporate name was changed to Rutgers-the State university, in 1956. Rutgers now comprises these major units in New Brunswick: the college of arts and sciences, including the school of chemistry and the school of journalism; the college of engineering;

— —

by

and with the state's permission. The state officially approves fluoridation of municipal water supplies, though less than 10% of the communities in the state had done so by 1960. About one-fifth of the state's communities have full- or part-time health officers, but only 13 counties have such an official. A special health problem in New Jersey is that Fifteen counties maintain extermination of mosquito control. local ordinance

commissions. Public welfare activities

in New Jersey are handled by the state department of institutions and agencies or the county boards of licenses and inspects all hospitals, The state freeholders. chosen nursing homes and sanatoria in addition to operating institutions for the insane, mentally deficient, feeble-minded and tubercular. Further, the state maintains diagnostic centres for juvenile and sex offenders and homes for aged public servants and veterans. The state commission for the blind administers the education of the visually handicapped and assists them financially when necessary. The state board of child welfare cares for neglected and dependent children; the bureau of assistance aids the aged, disabled and indigent. County governments and often the larger municipal governments aid in the welfare work of the state. Most counties and

municipalities

support

or

New

maintain general hospitals.

Several

Jersey have special hospitals or asylums for the treatment of chronic illnesses or mental disorders and clinics and welfare stations for the treatment of alcoholism and The counties and the for child-care and other welfare problems. municipalities augment the state's welfare payments to the aged, counties of northern

disabled and destitute.

NEW

JERSEY

The state has reformatories near Clinton and at Annandale and Bordentown; reform schools near Jamesburg and at Trenton; a state prison at Trenton and prison farms at Rahway and Leesburg.

THE ECONOMY Living Conditions.

New

Jersey, though in

concentration

is

—Living conditions generally are good

in

some northern areas where the population

greatest housing tends to

some places substandard conditions

be inadequate and

prevail.

in

In the second half

of the 20th century urban renewal projects and new local housing and sanitation standards ordinances were rapidly eliminating the

substandard areas. Newark, the largest city in the state, located in wholly urban Essex county, proportionately has had more federal housing aid than any other city in the United States (see Newark). Vast housing developments sprang up in the northeastern counties of the state as the move to suburbs extended outward from New York city into northern New Jersey. Extensive housing developments exist also all along the Delaware river and bay shore lines southward from Trenton to Gloucester City

below Camden. Industry. Aside from the thousands of persons who work in the urban areas of New York city and Philadelphia, the state's people are engaged in those activities common to a major indusDuring the second half of the 20th century more than trial state. 35% of the state's workers were employed by more than 12,000 concerns. Of the remaining labour force, manufacturing different about 17% were engaged in trade, 1S% in services, 6% in con-

—

struction activities,

and insurance utilities,

3%

services,

in

transportation operations,

3%

in the

with the balance divided

5%

all

the other classifica-

Essex and Hudson counties, and shipbuilding is exclusive to Hudson and Camden counties. Transportation, fabricating, mais in

and clothing industries are also of great im-

In the latter half of the 20th century, the factories of the state produced nearly $5,000,000,000 worth of finished goods annually. After World War II, many industrial research centres

portance.

in

New

Jersey.

—The farms of the

state include about 1,500,000 land of varying fertility which is concentrated on producing cash crops, chiefly products that may be readily canned or frozen, In a typical year, the total for the nearby metropolitan centres. value of the state's crops exceeds $150,000,000, with a crop volume measured in hundreds of thousands of tons. Principal crops ac. of

are sweet corn, peppers, tomatoes, asparagus, beets, beans, melons and potatoes. In addition, the state produces large quantities of berries of

all

kinds, grapes, apples (nearly 4,000,000 bu. a year)

and peaches (nearly 2,500,000 bu. a year). Livestock and livestock products are also important to the agricultural economy. Eggs, a major agricultural product, exceed 2,500,000,000 annually. Milk production is more than 1,000,000,000 lb. yearly. Meat production is less spectacular, though chickens and broilers are of major importance. Fisheries. The commercial aspects of fishing are largely confined to clam digging and hard- and soft-shell mussel trawling off the marshes of the three southernmost counties fronting on Delaware bay. Otherwise, most of the rest of the fishing done is of a sporting nature and is classified as part of the vacation industry. Mining. New Jersey is rich in a few mineral resources. Its

—

—

zinc deposits are

than

20%

among

—

vacation industry principally is spread in an ever-widening belt along the Atlantic coast line from the Atlantic Highlands off lower Hudson river bay southward to Cape May, with principal concentrations in

Ocean and Atlantic counties. There, several cities and offer fine, wide, safe, sandy beaches and cool, moderwhich to swim, boat or fish. This "New Jersey Riviera"

many towns ate surf in

has

its finest facilities

at Atlantic City (q.v.). a

centre with eight miles of boardwalks, large

year-round resort piers and

amusement

convention hall. Off these resorts are some of the finest sport fishing grounds in the world, especially for bluefish, weakfish, bonita. tuna, marlin and striped bass. a large

Transportation and Communication. and

—

Its

many transpormake New

geographical location helped

among

New

Middlesex, Union and Essex counties; auto and aircraft produc-

Agriculture.

significant minerals.

Jersey a crossroads of the eastern section of the nation. The network of railroads number 23, including eight trunk lines; the

tion are mainly in Bergen county; the electrical supplies industry

were established

Annual quantities of clay produced for and terra-cotta ware total many millions of tons, as does stone, sand, gravel and lime production. The average annual value of all mineral products produced in New Jersey is a little less than $100,000,000, which, compared with other phases of the state's economy, makes mining a small operation. Resorts. Another important New Jersey industry is vacation recreation. Aside from the smaller (but often year-round) vacation industries found along the state's more than 700 lakes, the

most

brick, tile

tation facilities

within overnight hauling distance of 30% of the national populaThe average weekly wage of a New Jersey resident emtion. ployed in manufacturing is among the highest in the U.S. The greater part of the important chemical industry is located

chine, ferrous metal

operation in the second half of the 20th century. Building materials minerals are the most developed and are commercially the

in finance

Jersey because of its proximity to major markets, easy access to transport facilities and a The state is well located for generally favourable tax climate. servicing a market consisting of more than 12 states, and it is

in

the state are iron ore, building materials, lime, greensand marl, peat and semiprecious stones. Iron has been mined in New Jersey for nearly 300 years, and great quantities of magnetite ore are found throughout the northern two-thirds of the state; the industry declined after the Civil War, and only a few mines were in

communications industries and

tions except farming.

Industries have concentrated in

361

the finest in the world, assaying at

pure ore; the Ogdensberg zinc mines

are especially famous for their richness.

more

Sussex county Other minerals found in in

its

trackage per square mile exceeds that of any other state. Eight freight terminals handle cargo bound for all parts of the world. The state is favourably located for shipping near the port of New York (see also Port) and with its own port facilities along Port Newark handles export and import the Delaware river.

tonnage of major economic significance. There are ports also Camden and Trenton. There are approximately 30,000 mi. of modern highways and roads in the state, which pioneered in building the clover-leaf The two princircle, the dual highway and the elevated highway. cipal highways in the state system are the New Jersey turnpike and the Garden State parkway. The turnpike, operated by the New Jersey Turnpike authority, is a 131-mi. toll road extending from the George Washington bridge in the north to the Delaware Memorial bridge to the south and with a spur to the Holland tunnel and a link to the Pennsylvania turnpike. The parkway, also a toll road, is 173 mi. in length and is operated under the direction of the New' Jersey Highway authority. It extends from the New at

York

state line in the north to

Cape

May

in the south.

There are approximately 100 commercial airports and private Newark and Teterboro, operating as landing fields in the state. passenger and air freight terminals, are the largest. Both television and radio experiments have been conducted in Stations WJZ (later WCBS) and the laboratories of the state. WOR. initially in Newark, were pioneers in the field of radio. Research in television has been done by the Radio Corporation of America research laboratory in Princeton and the Allen B. Dumont laboratory in Clifton. There are more than 250 newspapers in the state, of which about 25 are daily. See also references under "New Jersey" in the Index.

—

Bibliography. Geography: For fuller descriptions consult the United States Geological Survey, Bulletins 177 and 301 as well as the Final Report of the New Jersey Geological Survey and the Annual Reports of the New Jersey Slate Museum. For a listing of the state parks consult Fitzgerald's Legislative Manual (annual) and the individual publications of the parks themselves or the general pamphlet materials obtainable from the state Department of Conservation. History: For further historical details see the Outline History of New Jersey (1950) by the New Jersey History Committee; E. J. Fisher, New Jersey as a Royal Province, 1738-1776 (1911) E. P. Fanner, The Province of New Jersey, 1664-1738 (190S); W. E. Sackett, Modern Battles of Trenton and the New Jersey Archives by the New Jersey Historical (1895) Association for specific areas or periods. Government: For a thorough ;

;

NEW

362

JERSEY

TEA—NEW LONDON

New

Jersey government consult Bennett M. Rich, The Government and Administration oj New Jeney (1057), which contains a thorough bibliography for the detailed asijecls of specific phases of state government, as well as Fitzgerald's Legislative Manual (annual) for administrative details. Other useful sources are the Reports of state commissions and agencies. Education: The Report of the Commission to Survey Public Education (1928) is useful as are the Annual Reports of the state Department of Education and the somewhat more recent state Board of Education study on Opportunities for Higher Education in New Jersey (1958), Health and Welfare: The best sources are the special reports of the Department of Institutions and

study of

Agencies dealing with Public Health Resources in. New Jersey (1947) the Report on Mental Deficiency in New Jersey (1954) by a select commission to study the problem, while Paul T. Stafford generally covers public assistance in his work Government and the Needy (1941). Economy: The Reports of the Department of Conservation and Development generally give the most accurate and current picture of the state's economy as do the Reports and Studies of the state Tax Commission. General works such as those by the Department of Economics and Social Institutions of Princeton University may be very helpful as also might the Reports of the state Department of Agriculture, the Commission on Water Supply, the Utilities Commission, the Turnpike Authority, and the publication New Jersey Business by the state Department of Conservation and Economic Development in conjunction with the Rutgers School of Business Administration. Other useful books on New Jersey are the Federal Writers' Project book New Jersey (1939), the state's Department of Public Instruction study. New Jersey, Its History, Resources and Life (1940), and John T. Cunningham, This is New Jersey (1953), among many others. There are numerous specialized works on special areas of the state listed in many of the above. Current statistics on production, employment, industry, etc., may be obtained from the pertinent state departments the principal figures are summarized annually in the Britannica Book of the Year, American edition. (D. N. A.; M. P. M.) (Ceanothus americanus) a North ;

;

NEW JERSEY TEA

,

American shrub of the buckthorn family (Rhamnaceae), called also Indian or Walpole tea and redroot, native to dry open woods and gravelly banks from Manitoba southward to Florida and Texas. Its low, branching stems, one to three feet high, which spring from a dark red root, bear ovate, three-ribbed, somewhat downy, toothed leaves and attractive white flowers in umbellike clusters. During the American Revolutionary War the leaves were used as tea.

See also Ceanothus.

NEW KENSINGTON,

a city of Westmoreland county in western Pennsylvania, U.S., about 18 mi. N.E. of Pittsburgh, is located on the Allegheny river. Situated in the centre of a coal-mining district, the city has been a leading producer of aluminum since 1892 and is one of the

homes of that industry. Manufactures include, besides aluminum products, tubing, conduits, steel castings, water heaters, earliest

and textiles. Kensington was laid out in 1891 on the site of Ft. Crawford of the American Revolutionary period by a group of Pittsburgh capitalists interested in the reduction of aluminum. Incorporated as a borough in 1892, it absorbed neighbouring Parnassus in 1931 and became a city in 1933. For comparative population figures see table in Pennsylvania: /"opz/Za/ion. (M. R. Wo.) REINA (18381898), English chemist whose law of octaves anticipated later discoveries concerning the periodic law {q.v.), was born in Southwark in 1838. He studied under August W. von Hofmann in the Royal College of Chemistry, London. Of Italian extraction on his glass

New

NEWLANDS, JOHN ALEXANDER

mother's side, he fought as a volunteer in the cause of Italian freedom, under Giuseppe Garibaldi in 1860. Later he was employed as an industrial chemist. Nevvlands was one of the first to propound the conception of periodicity

among

the chemical elements, his earliest contribu-

form of a letter published in the In the succeeding year he showed, in the same journal, that if the elements be arranged in the order of their atomic weights, those having consecutive numbers frequently either belong to the same group or occupy similar position to the question taking the

Chemical News

in

Feb. 1863.

and he pointed out that each eighth element starting from a given one is in this arrangement a kind of repetition of the first, like the eighth note of an octave in music. The law of octaves thus enunciated was at first ignored or treated with ridicule as a fantastic notion unworthy of serious consideration, bbt the idea, subsequently elaborated by D. I. tions in different groups,

Mendeleyev

{q.v.) and other investigators of the periodic law, modern chemical Newlands collected his various papers on the elemefits in a little volume entitled Discovery oj the Periodic Law (1884). He was awarded the Davy medal of the Royal society in 1887. He died in London on July 29, 1898. LAWS, rules for the government of Spain's American colonies, were promulgated by Charles I of Spain on Nov. 20, 1542, to remedy problems resulting from imperial expansion and from continued abuse of the Indians. Purportedly inspired by Father

took

its

place as an important generalization in

theory.

NEW

Bartolome de Las Casas, these laws provided for; (1) an adminisAmerican colonies; (2) checking an feudalism; and (3) more humane treatment for the

trative reorganization of the

incipient

Indians.

One

series of clauses dealt with administrative divisions

and the operation of the courts and bureaucracy. Feudalism was to be controlled by reducing the powers of the Spanish overlords in regard to their encomiendas the system by which they collected tribute from specified Indian villages in return for protecting and Christianizing them. Encomiendas were to be examined for possible reductions in size, some were to be abolished, no new ones were to be granted and they could no longer be inherited. The laws provided for more humane treatment of the Indians by forbidding their enslavement and branding; releasing slaves held under defective titles; abohshing compulsory Indian service; controlling the working conditions of porters and pearl divers; grant,

ing Indians special privileges in the law courts; freeing the remaining Indians of the

them

West Indies from

payments and making powers supervising Indian affairs and in collecting tribute

legally equal to Spaniards; and, finally, enlarging the

of royal officials in

tribute for the crown.

The New laws proved unenforceable.

Spaniards in Peru re-

volted and beheaded the viceroy. In Mexico the laws were not even proclaimed. Petitions of protest flooded Spain. In 1545 and 1546 the more unpopular sections of the laws were revoked, particularly those that affected existing encomiendas. initial

setback, continued pressure

until the

encomienda disappeared

Despite this

was maintained by the crown

in the 18th century.

Connecticut, U.S.,

(M. D. Be.) and port of entry in southeastern about 50 mi. E. of New Haven, is situated on

Long Island sound

at the

NEW LONDON,

a city

mouth

of the

Thames

river.

Originally

Nameaug by the Indians and Pequot by white settlers when founded by John Winthrop the Younger in 1646, its name was changed to New London in 1658. In 1709 the first printing press During the American Revoin Connecticut was established there. lution New London's privateers irritated British commanders so much they dispatched a landing force under Benedict Arnold which set fire to the city and nearly wiped it out on Sept. 6, 1781. Soon rebuilt, it was incorporated as a city in 1784. New London has one of the deepest harbours on the Atlantic coast and its early history was decisively influenced by the sea. During the 19th century it was a leading whaling and sealing port and, before being blockaded during the War of 1812, had a large trade with the West Indies and the Mediterranean. In the 20th century the New London area became the site of a U.S. navy submarine base with Maits school for submariners and underwater sound laboratory. jor industries include shipbuilding and the manufacture. of clothprinting presses, engines, ing, pharmaceuticals, paper products, furniture and metal fabrications. Among the educational facilities of New London are Connecticut college (1911) for women, the U.S. Coast Guard academy (1876) and Mitchell (junior) college (1938). Notable buildings include old Fort Trumbull at the harbour entrance, the old town mill (1650), Hempstead house (1678), Huguenot house (1759), the county courthouse (1784) and the New London lighthouse (1760). The annual Yale-Harvard boat races are held on the Thames in June. Pop. (1960) 34,182; New London-Groton-Norwich standard metropoHtan statistical area (New London and Norwich cities and East Lyme, Groton, Ledyard, Montville, Preston, Stonington and Waterford towns), 156,913, Griswold, Lisbon, Old Lyme and Sprague towns, pop, (1960) 14,068, were added in 1963. For comparative population figures see table in Connecticut: Population. (W. D. Lo.) called

NEW MADRID— NEWMAN NEW MADRID, sissippi river is

small town on the right bank of the Misthe seat of New Madrid county. Mo. It originated a

as an Indian trading post about 1783. In 1789 Col. George Morgan of New Jersey received a large land grant from the Spanish minister to the U.S. as part of a plan to attach western settlers He laid to the Spanish province of Louisiana; hence the name. out an elaborate townsite extending for four miles along the river; it has several times been relocated because of floods and changes The town grew rapidly in farming and in the course of the river. trade after the purchase of the Louisiana territory by the U.S. in but was set back by a series of severe earthquakes in 1803,

1811-12.

The

city played a

minor

role in the

American

Civil

War

in 1862.

the loss of Forts Henry and Donelson made their base at Columbus, Ky., untenable, the Confederates withdrew downriver 60 mi. to Island No. 10, a heavily fortified position of great natural

When

strength at a sharp bend in the river. New Madrid, seven miles farther down the river on a reverse bend, was also occupied. The Federals immediately pushed downriver, employing the amphibious tactics that were proving so effective on western waters. Maj.

Gen. John Pope worked his way southward through the Missouri of 20,000 while Commodore A. H. Foote headed downstream with his flotilla of ironclads, wooden gunboats, transports and barges. Pope outflanked New Madrid by occupying Point Pleasant eight miles below, and when the Confederates withdrew across the river to safety, he occupied the post. But he could not move farther so long as the Confederates controlled the When naval bombardment failed to river below Island No. 10. reduce the defenses at the Island stronghold, two ironclads, the 'Carondelet" and the "Pittsburgh," ran the batteries on April 4 and 7. Meanwhile, the army cut a shallow canal across the peninsula in front of the island and enabled light draft transports and supply barges to avoid the heavy guns and bring supplies and support to Pope. The Confederates, trapped between Federal forces and unable to escape into Tennessee because of the high water in the swamps, had no choice but to surrender.

swamps with an army

See Phillips Melville, "The Carondelet Runs the Gantlet," American Writers' Program, Missouri (1941). Heritage, vol. x, no. 6 (Oct. 1959) (C. W. Te.) ;

NEWMAN, JOHN HENRY

(1801-1890^ Tractarian Church of England and then one of the most inRoman Catholic converts of the 19th century, was born

leader in the fluential

After an education in an evangelical Trinity college. Oxford, he was made a fellow of Alban hall in 1825; and vicar of St. Mary's, Oxford, in 1828. Under the influence of John Keble and Richard Hurrell Froude (qq.v.) he became a

London on home and at in

Feb. 21, 1801.

Oriel college, Oxford, in 1822; vice-principal of

convinced high churchman. When the Oxford movement (q.v.) began he was its effective organizer and intellectual leader, supplying the most acute thought produced by that movement. His editing of the Tracts for the Times and his contributing of 24

among them were less significant for the influence of the movement than his books, especially the Lectures on the Prophettracts

of the Church (1837), the classic statement of the Tractarian doctrine of authority; the University Sermons (1843), similarly classical for the theory of religious beliefs; and above all his Parochial and Plain Sermons (1834^2), which in their ical Office

published form took the principles of the movement, in their best expression, into the country at large. In 1838 and 1839 Newman was beginning to exercise far-reaching influence in the Church of England, because the stress upon the dogmatic authority of the

church was felt to be a much-needed reemphasis in a new liberal age; because he seemed so decisively to know what he stood for and where he was going; because in the quality of his personal devotion his followers found a man who practised what he preached; and because he had been endowed with the gift of writing sensitive and sometimes magical prose. Newman was contending that the Church of England represented true catholicity and that the test of this cathohcity (as against Rome upon the one side and what he termed "the popular Protestants" upon the other) lay in the teaching of the ancient and undivided church of the Fathers. From 1834 onward this via

363

media was beginning to be attacked on the ground that it undervalued the Reformation; and when in 1838-39 Newman and Keble edited and published Froude's Remains, in which the Reformation was violently denounced, moderate men began to suspect their leader. Their worst fears were confirmed in 1841 by Newman's Tract 90, which, in reconciling the Thirty-Nine Articles with the teaching of the ancient and undivided church, appeared to some to assert that the articles were not incompatible with the doctrines of the Council of Trent; and Newmans extreme disciple, W. G. Ward (q.v. claimed that this was indeed the consequence. Bishop )

,

Richard Bagot of Oxford requested that the tracts be suspended; and in the distress of the consequent denunciations Newman increasingly withdrew into isolation, his confidence in himself shattered and his belief in the catholicity of the English church weakening. He moved out of Oxford to his chapelry of Littlemore, where he gathered a few intimate disciples and established a He resigned St. Mary's Oxford on Sept. 18, quasi monastery. 1843, and preached his last Anghcan sermon ("The Parting of Friends") in Littlemore church a week later. He delayed long, because his intellectual integrity found an obstacle in the historical contrast between the early church and the modern Roman Catholic Church; but meditating upon the idea of development, a word then much discussed in connection with biological evolution, he applied the law of historical development to the Christian society and tried to show (to himself as much as to others) that the early and undivided church had developed rightly into the modern Roman Catholic Church, and that the Protestant churches represented a break in this development, both in doctrine and in devotion. These meditations removed the obstacle and on Oct. 9, 1845, he was received at Littlemore into the Roman Catholic Church, publishing a few weeks later his Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine. New-man went to Rome to be ordained to the priesthood and after some uncertainties founded the Oratory at Birmingham in 1848. He was suspect to the more rigorous among Roman Cathohc clergy because of the quasi-liberal spirit which he seemed to have brought with him (his mode of expressing the idea of doctrinal development, his teaching on the nature of faith) and therefore, though in fact he was no liberal in any normal sense of the word, his early career as a Roman Catholic priest was marked by a series of frustrations, as he at least felt them to be. In 1852-53 he was convicted of libeling the immoral Italian priest Achilli. He was summoned to Ireland to be the first rector of the new Catholic university in Dublin, but the task was in the conditions impossible, and the only useful result was his lectures on the Idea of a University (1852). His part in the Rambler, and in the endeavour of Lord Acton iq.v.) to encourage critical scholarship among Catholics, rendered him further suspect and caused a breach with H. E. Manning, once himself a Tractarian and soon to be the new archbishop of Westminster. One of Newman's articles ("On Consulting the Faithful in Matters of Doctrine") was delated He attempted to found a to Rome on suspicion of heresy. Catholic hostel at Oxford and was thwarted by the opposition of

Manning.

by these experiences delivered in 1864 by an unwarranted attack from Charles Kingsley upon his moral teaching. Kingsley in effect challenged him to justify the honesty of his life as an Anglican. And

From

the sense of frustration engendered

Newman was

though he treated Kingsley more hardly than was justified, the resulting history of his religious opinions. Apologia pro vita sua 1864) was read and approved far beyond the limits of the Roman Catholic Church; and by its fairness, candour, interest and the beauty of some passages recaptured that almost national status which he had once held. Though the Apologia was not liked by Manning and those who thought with him. because it seemed to show the quasi-Uberal spirit which they feared, it assured Newman's stature in the Roman CathoHc Church; and the new pope (Leo XIII) made him a cardinal (1879). Meanwhile he had (

,

expressed opposition to a definition of papal infalhbility in 1S70, though himself a believer in the doctrine, and had pubhshed his most important book of theology since 1845, An Essay in Aid of a Grammar of Assent (1870), which contains a further consideration

NEWMARKET— NEW MEXICO

364

to show how faith can possess evidence which can never be more than probable. He died at Hirmint;ham on Aug. 11, 1S90. and is buried (with his closest friend. Ambrose St. John) at Rednal, the

of the nature of faith

certainty

rest

when

it

and an attempt

rises out of

house of the Oratory.

Newman's delicacy.

portraits

He was

show a face of sensitivity and aesthetic most famous are his contributions in

a poet

—

the Lyr,i Apostolica of his Anglican days, including the hymn "Lead, kindly light." written in 1S32 when he was becalmed in the

between Sardinia and Corsica, and The Dream of Gerontius (1S65). based upon the requiem offices and including such wellknown hymns as "Praise to the holiest in the height" and "Firmly and his thought as a philosopher or theolo1 believe and truly" gian was never far from the poetic apprehension. He was always strait

—

conscious of the limitations of prose and aware of the necessity for parable and analogy, and logical theologians sometimes found him elusive or thought him muddled. But his was a mind of penetration

and power, trained upon

Aristotle,

Hume, Bishop Joseph

Butler and Richard Whately, and his superficial contempt for logic and dialectic blinded some readers into the error of thinking his mind illogical. His intellectual defect was rather that of oversubtlety; he enjoyed the niceties of argumentation, was inchned to be captivated by the twists of his own ingenuity, and had a habit of using the rediictio ad absurdum in dangerous places. Newman's mind at its best is probably to be found in parts of the Parochial and Plain Sermons or the University Sermons, at its worst in the Essay on Ecclesiastical Miracles of 1S43. His sensitive nature, though it made him lovable to his few intimates, made him prickly and resentful of pubhc criticism, and his distresses under the suspicions of his opponents, whether Anglicans defending the Reformation or ultramontanes attacking his Roman theology, weakened his confidence and prevented him from becoming the leader which he was otherwise so well equipped Nevertheless as the effective creator of the Oxford moveto be. ment he helped to transform the Church of England; and as the upholder of a theory of doctrinal development he helped Cathohc theology to become more reconciled to the findings of the new critical scholarship, while in England the Apologia was important in helping to break down the cruder prejudices of Englishmen against Catholic priests. In both churches his influence has been momentous. Bibliography. The most important works by Newman have been mentioned above. They have been reprinted, a few of them often, but as Newman was in the habit of making substantial alterations when

—

re-editing, their text-history needs care:

see J.

Rickaby, Index

to

the

of John Henry Cardinal Newman (1914). of his letters as an .Anglican were published by Anne Mozley, 2 vol., 2nd ed. (1898) his correspondence with Keble and others was edited from the Birmingham Oratory in 1917; his correspondence with William Froude by G. H. Harper in 1933. C. S. Dessain (ed.), The (1961- ) is Letters and Diaries of John Henry Newman, vol. xidefinitive. For his life see the bibliography of the article Oxford Movement W. P. Ward, The Life of John Henry, Cardinal Newman,

Works

Many

;

;

(1927); M. Trevor, Newman, 2 vol. (1962). For his thought, see J. Guitton, La philosophie de Newman (1933) M. Nedoncelle, La philosophie religieuse de John Henry Newman (1946); S. P. Juergens, Newman on the Psychology of Faith in the Individual (1928); A. D. Culler, The Imperial Intellect (1955); O. Chadwick, From Bossuet to Newman: the Idea of Doctrinal Development (1957); J. H. Walgrave, Newman: the Theologian (1960). (W. 0. C.) the "gateway to East Anglia," a market 2

vol.,

new

ed.

;

NE'WMARKET,

town and urban district of West Suffolk, Eng., 13 mi. E.N.E. of Cambridge by road. Pop. 1961 11,207. Though the town is in West Suffolk, and Suffolk is its postal address, the rural district is in Cambridgeshire. Newmarket, on the main London to Norwich road, is the home of the Jockey club and has been celebrated for its horse races from the time of James I, Charles I instituted the Two of the five "classic" races are first cup race there in 1634. held there in the spring namely, the Two Thousand Guineas (colts) and the One Thousand Guineas (fillies) both for three-year olds and in the autumn two of the most popular handicap races, the Cesarewitch and the Cambridgeshire. Besides the breeding, training, racing and selling of racehorses, light industry in the form of caravan trailer manufacture and the making of electronic and (

)

—

—

(

)

magnetic devices has been established.

There are two racecourses on Newmarket heath, southwest of Rowley Mile course, used in the spring and autumn, and the July course, used in the summer. The Rowley Mile intersects the Devil's ditch or dike, an earthwork extending 7\ mi. from Wood Ditton to Reach, which is thought to have been built by the East Angiians as a defense against the Mercians about the 6th century a.d. and which later formed the boundary of East AngUa. The district contains chalk downland with its peculiar flora and fauna, and Wicken fen, a nature reserve belonging to the National the town; the

trust.

(J.

Cr.)

NEW MEXICO,

the "Land of Enchantment" or "Sunshine one of the states of the United States, is located in the southwestern part of the country. Roughly rectangular in shape, it is bounded north by Colorado, east by Oklahoma and Texas, south by Texas and the republic of Mexico and west by Arizona. Its length north and south is 391 mi., its width east and west 344 mi.; the total area is 121,666 sq.mi, (of which only 156 sq.mi. are water surface), making it fifth in area among the states. New Mexico was admitted to the union in 1912 as the 47th state. The state,"

is a field of yellow containing in its centre the ancient Zia sun symbol in red. The state flower is the yucca flower, the bird the road runner (Geococcyx californianus), the state song "0, Fair New Mexico." The capital is at Santa Fe (g.v.).

state flag

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY —The borders of New Mexico

Physical Features.

(lat.

31° 20'

by deep canyons; in the central part faulted mountains surround comparaBetween the Rio tively level areas formed of alluvial deposits. Grande and the Pecos valleys the mountains form a more continuous range than on the west side of the Rio Grande, where the to 37° N.; long. 103° to 109°

W.)

are high plateaus cut

elevated areas carry the continental divide. The Sangre de Cristo mass, an extension of the Colorado mountains, lies slightly east of the north-central part of New Mexico

Rio Grande. South of this northern mass two series of ranges extend to the southern boundary: nearest the Rio Grande the Sandia, Manzano, San Andres, Oscura and Organ mountains; farther east the Pedernal, White, Sacramento and Guadalupe east of the

mountains.

West of the Rio Grande the San Juan mountains dominate the country north of the Chama river; a somewhat smaller mass, the Jemez mountains, lies between the Chama and the Jemez river. The Puerco river separates the Jemez mountains from the Mt. Taylor mountains, which carry the main divide southwesterly to the Zuni mountains and on into one of the largest mountain masses in the state, with the Black range closest to the Rio Grande and MogoUons, the San Mateo and the Magdalena

as outlying In the extreme southwestern part of the state the mountains terminate in several parallel ridges: the Burro,

the

ridges toward the west.

Big Hatchet and Peloncillo mountains.

The major

divides,

following the tops of the ridges and the

high plateaus, run generally north and south. The most important are the divides between the Pecos and the Canadian valleys; between the Pecos and Tularosa valleys; between the Tularosa and the Rio Grande; and between the Rio Grande and the San Juan,

Colorado and Gila valleys. rivers are the only important bodies of water, but the Rio Grande and the Canadian have been dammed to form the Elephant Butte and Caballo reservoirs on the Rio Grande, and Conchas reservoir on the Canadian; primarily useful for irrigation, these reservoirs also offer fishing and water sports. The Cimarron, tributary to the Arkansas, and North Canadian rivers rise in the northeastern part of the state, in Union county. The Canadian, also tributary to the Arkansas, flows through Colfax, Mora, San Miguel and Quay counties, draining the eastern slope of the Sangre de Cristo range, the southern flank of which drains into the Pecos Little

The

southward across the state. The Rio Grande, the only important river that does not have its source in the state, enters New Mexico through a deep canyon just east of the 106th meridian and flows south through the centre of the state. On the western side of the continental divide the prin-

river; this in turn flows

cipal rivers are the

San Juan, Little Colorado and Gila, tributaries

NEW MEXICO

SCENES Top: Acoma, Pueblo

IN

Indian village on a mesa 357 ft. above the plains. was an ancient village when Spanish explorers first saw it in 1540 Bottom lelt: Stoolt raising along the Chisum trail Centre right: Palace of the Governors at Santa Fe. It was built in 1609

I

Plate

NEW MEXICO 10 and was

the seat of government for

300

years.

In

1909

it

became

an archaeological and historical centre operated by the state light: Venus' Needle, 207-ft. high sandstone column near Gallup

Bottom

I

NEW MEXICO

rLATK 11

VIEWS OF NEW MEXICO Top hit: Church Top right: Street

at

Los Alamos, nuclear in Taos

e)

nent testing area

scene

Centre leh: Rio Grande near Taos,

norlh-(

Centre right: State capitol

Bottom: The Big Room, ntral

New Mexico

at Santa Fe. completed n 1953 largest of the numerous undergrc

Carlsbad Caverns National park

NEW MEXICO of the Colorado, which flows into the Gulf of California. Climate. The climate of New Mexico is generally sunny and

—

relatively dry

(average rainfall 14.3

in.)

but with considerable

Extremes of temperature range Winter average temperature is about 39°

variation depending on altitude.

from 110°

to

—29°

F.

the south and 29° in the north; summer averages are about 77° and 68°, respectively. Prevailing summer winds blow from

in

the southeast, bringing the summer rains from the Gulf of Mexico. Occasional winter winds from the northwest bring cold, especially to the northwest quarter of the state. Relative humidity is low;

Albuquerque, in the centre of the 247^ and a maximum of SSi^J).

—The

state,

New Mexico

has a winter

minimum

of

contain a large amount of mineral matter and a small amount of organic matter; the alluvial soils are deep and very productive when irrigated. Soil.

soils

of

generally

—

Vegetation and Animal Life Altitude, determining climate, also largely determines the distribution of plants and animals. Six zones are recognized, ranging generally from southern valleys of less than 3,000 ft. above sea level to above the timber The tallest peak, line, where only arctic lichens and grasses grow. Wheeler peak in the Sangre de Cristo range above Taos, rises to 13.600

ft.

Lower Sonoran Zone.

—The

lowest zone,

Lower Sonoran,

is

characterized by mesquite, creosote bush, yucca, desert willow, Cottonwood, many varieties of cactus and Spanish bayonet. There are

many

species of mice, rats, squirrels, skunks and bats; also the

New Mexico desert fox and weasel and the Mexican Birds include the scaled quail, Scott's oriole, the sparrow,

coyote, the

badger.

the western mockingbird and the road runner. This zone covers about 18,000 sq.mi. of the state's most fertile land, which is very

productive with irrigation. Upper Sonoran Zone.

—The

zone above, the Upper Sonoran, is the largest, covering about and with irrigation is Its natural growth consists of pifion and the most productive. juniper trees and blue grama, galleta, buffalo and porcupine These wide grassy grasses, which make fine range for cattle. plains extend eastward into Texas as the Staked plains (Llano Estacado). Several species of deer, antelope, coyote, wolves and prairie dogs are common to the area; mountain sheep, which had almost disappeared, are coming back with protection. Upper Zones. The three zones above the Upper Sonoran Transition, Canadian and Hudsonian bear fine timber. Above 8,000 ft., ponderosa pine is replaced by several varieties of fir and spruce, all varied by scrub oak and quaking aspen which covers burned over areas with its delicate green in summer, its golden yellow in autumn. These forests offer good hunting of deer and, in some places, elk. Black and brown bears are found there, and mountain lions prey on smaller animals and domestic stock. In the Arctic-Alpine zone, above 12,000 ft., only a few grasses, lichens and alpine sedges grow. Parks, Monuments and Recreation. New Mexico possesses many attractions for tourists, among them the Carlsbad Caverns

from 3,000

to 7,500

ft.

of altitude,

92,000 sq.mi., three-quarters of the state,

—

—

—

National park (q.v.), at Carlsbad. The state also embraces nine national monuments: Aztec ruins, at Aztec; Bandelier, near Santa Fe; Capulin mountain, near Raton; Chaco canyon, near Bloomfield; El Morro, at El Morro; Ft. Union, near Watrous; Gila cliff dwellings, near Silver City; Gran Quivira, at Gran Quivira; and White Sands, near Alamogordo. State parks are Hyde, at Santa Fe; Bottomless lakes, near Roswell; Conchas dam, Tucumcari; Kit Carson memorial, Taos; City of Rocks, near Deming; and BlueState monuments are Mesilla plaza, water lake, near Grants. Mesilla; El Palacio, Santa Fe; Abo, near Mountainair; Pecos, Pecos; Coronado, near Bernalillo; Quarai, near Mountainair;

Jemez, Jemez Springs; Lincoln, Lincoln.

HISTORY Prehistory.

— In New Mexico and other areas of the southwest

two distinct prehistoric Indian cultures touched: the agrarian, docile early groups, and the later aggressive and nomadic Navaho and Apache. The Sandia cave and Folsom men represent the earliest evidences of human life discovered on the peripheries of at least

365

For at least 10.000 years man has inhabited New Mexico. Pre-Pueblo Hohokam and Salado Indians The Anasazi built cities. were agriculturalists and irrigators. Among their more interesting ruins are those in the San Juan valApproximately 1,000 years ago came the ley and Chaco canyon. Navaho and then the Apache. Exploration. Recorded history began between 1525 and 1543 when Spanish explorations extending from Florida to California paved the way for Spain's colonization of Florida and New Mexico in the 16th and 17th centuries, Texas and California in the 18th. The first explorer to cross the continent was Alvar Niinez Cabeza de Vaca, who, with three companions, reached the Gulf of California and went on to Mexico City, capital of the viceroyalty of New Spain. There his reports inspired Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza to undertake explorations to the north. He sent out an expedition headed by a Franciscan friar, Marcos de Niza, which reached the Zuiii pueblos in western New Mexico and brought back such dazzling though untrue reports of wealth the myth of the Seven Golden Cities of Cibola) that in 1540 Francisco Coronado, with a well-equipped force of 300 soldiers, marched north over the same trail. Coronado proceeded to the Rio Grande and established winter quarters near Bernalillo. His lieutenants conquered the pueblos as far north as Taos and pushed as far west as the Grand canyon. Coronado himself reached mid-Kansas. Coronado found no gold, but the friars converted many Pueblo Indians, who farmed small irrigated plots of land and were generally peaceful. His reports, circulated in Mexico, inspired missionaries, and in 1581 Augustin Rodriguez, a Franciscan friar, led an expedition into New Mexico. Rodriguez' military escort soon returned to Mexico, however, leaving the friars behind, and in 1582 Antonio de Espejo set out to rescue them. In this year the name New Mexico was applied to the Rio Grande pueblos, and it appeared in a contract made in 1595 with Juan de Ofiate for the the North .American continent.

—

(

)

(

colonization of the area.

Colonization.

—Onate's expedition entered New Mexico

at the

pass (present El Paso) and proceeded up the Rio Grande to its There Ofiate established San confluence with the Chama river. los Caballeros as his capital, and the first mass was said there on Sept. 9, 1598. Santa Fe, the present capital of New MexTo Ofiate may be attributed the permaico, was founded in 1610. nent settlement of the area. His conquest and settlement were

Juan de

described in Villagra's Historia del Nuevo Mejico, an epic poem, the first poem written about any section of the U.S., published at Alcala de Henares, Spain, in 1610. New Mexico remained a frontier mission field until the 19th century. Twenty friars were serving there in 1624, there were 43

churches and Christian Indians were counted as 3.400, The total Spanish population was only 2,000, an indication that the colony had not become an important source of wealth. The friars, pressing hard to eradicate the Indians' traditional beliefs, aroused such opposition that in 1680 the Pueblos revolted, killed many Spanish settlers, including priests, and drove the rest south to El Paso. In 1692 Spanish troops under Diego de Vargas re-entered New Mexico, occupied the whole province and by 1696 had peaceably Later the Spanish kings confirmed re-established Spanish rule.

by royal grants which are the During the 18th century colonists from Mexico continued to enter New Mexico and were granted lands as groups or as individuals. They founded such enduring towns as Socorro in the south, Don Fernando de Taos near Taos pueblo, Santa Cruz north of Santa Fe and others less important. Albuquerque {q.v.), founded in 1706, became the centre of southern New Mexico, with a population of 4,020 by 1799. The total population of the province, which extended from Louisiana to California, was then about 30,000, including 20,000 Spanish and Warlike Indians, especially Navaho, 10,000 peaceful Indians, Apache and Comanche (gg.v.) nomads, harried Spanish towns and Indian pueblos alike. Spain offered the Indians, the towns and pueblos little protection, as the Spanish empire was breaking up. Mexican Rule. By 1823 the old viceroyalty of New Spain had attained its independence and had become the repubUc of Mexico. This change was little noted in New Mexico, which was the Pueblos' ownership of their lands

basis of their present holdings.

—

NEW MEXICO

;66 beginniiis to look eastward.

The Mexiran government had

lepal-

ized trade with the Missouri valley towns, which had been dis-

couraged by Siiain, and in 1S21 the lirst annual caravan left MisTrade over the Santa souri for Santa I"e isee Santa 1'e Trail) Fe trail grew in value from $15,000 in 1822 to $450,000 in 1843. The republic of Texas, established in 1836. claimed the Rio Grande as its western boundary and, tempted by the rich Santa Fe trade, invaded New Mexico in 1841; but the badly organized Texas-Santa Fe expedition was easily defeated by New Mexicans under Gov. Manuel .Armijo, Territorial Period.— War between the United States and Mexico broke out in 1846, and during that year the army of the west entered New Mexico under Stephen Watts Kearny, Kearny took formal possession of New Mexico at Las Vegas on Aug. 15, 1846, promising all inhabitants who would take the oath of allegiance to the United States amnesty and full citizenship, with freedom of religion and property rights. Three days later Kearny occupied Santa Fe, where he established a military government and appointed Charles Bent civil governor. Bent was assassinated in a short-lived rebellion in Taos on Jan. 19, IS47. Congress on Sept. 9, 1S50, created the territory of New Mexico, extending from meridian 103° on the east to the territory of California at approximately meridian 114°. Part of the Compromise of 1850, the act included provision for Texan surrender of claims to the New Mexico panhandle or lands of the upper Rio Grande in exchange for federal payment of $10,000,000 to Texas. In 1861 the line between New Mexico and Colorado was drawn at 37° N. lat.; the territory of Arizona was created in 1863 of the western half of New Mexico. During the American Civil War, a Confederate force under Brig. Gen. H. H. Sibley invaded New Mexico, hoping to reach the Cali.

fornia gold fields. They advanced up the Rio Grande and took Santa Fe, but Col. E. R. S. Canby's Union troops, reinforced by the 1st Colorado volunteers, met and decisively defeated them at Apache canyon on March 28, 1862,

The period following

American occupation was marked by the solution of the Indian problem and by the economic development of the territory. The Navahos, defeated in 1865, were esthe

tablished in 1868 on a large reservation that crosses the

New

Mexico-Arizona boundary. The Apaches, in ISSO, were settled on two reservations in Arizona and two in New Mexico, the Mescalero in the southern part of the state, and the Jicarilla in the northwest, lands which these tribes still hold. The United States had confirmed the Spanish and Mexican land grants to the Pueblo Indians, to individuals and to groups of Spanish settlers, but it took years and special courts to settle these complicated claims. The settlement of the Indian troubles and the building of railways into the west brought increased population, the building of towns, the opening of mines and the introduction of cattle from Texas into eastern New Mexico. Spanish and Mexican ranchers had run sheep, and conflicts between cattle- and sheepmen over the use of water and the open range sometimes led to armed conflict. But the cattle wars common to other parts of the west were few in New Mexico. Most publicized was the Lincoln County War, 1877-80, which caused the U.S. government to dispatch Gen. Lewis (Lew) Wallace iq.v.) to Santa Fe as territorial governor in an attempt to restore order. The Atlantic and Pacific railroad (later the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe) reached Albuquerque in 1880, building toward California. Later it connected with the Southern Pacific at Deming and ran a branch line to El Paso. New Mexico now had transcontinental roads. In 1891 a public-school system was established. English, the official language since 1846, was beginning to reach the Spanish-speaking majority of the population. Statehood.— Constant efforts to secure statehood were finally successful; congress passed an enabling act on June 20, 1910; a constitution was drafted and approved; and on Jan, 6, 1912, New Mexico was formally admitted as a state. Since the location of the Manhattan District project in New Mexico in 1942, atomic research laboratories and related developments have led to great population changes in the state. Establishment of scientific centres at Los Alamos, Albuquerque and

Roswell caused an influx of highly trained scientists, technicians and supporting personnel, including military and service industries. These new elements, coming from all the states and from many foreign countries, have radically altered the political colour of the state, and vast government expenditures (such as an annual payroll of $30,000,000 at Los Alamos) have led to a great increase in the state's per capita income. Part of this economic advance has been due to the discovery of oil, gas and uranium on Indian lands, which has made the Navaho, Laguna and Jicarilla Apache wealthy; their wealth is owned tribally and is largely devoted to education and improvement of living conditions.

Two

world wars greatly affected the state's Indian and Spanish English has become more widely and better spoken; the young men have seen the world; many have profited by educational opportunities; in general, they have become fully integrated peoples.

into the

American scene.

New^ Mexico has voted Democratic

in presidential elections ex-

cept in 1920, 1924, 1928, 1952 and 1956.

GOVERNMENT constitution adopted in 1911 remains the basis of the New Mexican State government, though some amendments have been approved by the voters.

The

The state legislature is composed of a senate of 32 members (one for each county) and a house of representatives having 77. members. Annual sessions were prescribed by constitutional

amendment approved by the voters in 1964. elected for two years and senators for four.

Representatives are The governor may three-fifths of the legislature. The governor possesses the veto power, which can be overridden by a two-thirds vote of the legislative members present and voting. The people have the right of referendum.

and must do so on request of

call special sessions,

A direct primary was established in 1938 but in 1949 was changed to a preprimary nominating convention. The state has two senators and two representatives in the national congress. The

ten elective executive officials

—governor,

lieutenant govattorney general, commissioner of public lands and three corporation commissioners

ernor,

secretary of

—are elected

state,

auditor,

for two-year terms.

and are

treasurer,

They may

serve two consecu-

two years. State boards, departments, agencies and commissions include a department of finance and administration, an advisory board on deposits and investments, and commissions on forest conserva-

tive terms

tion,

eligible for re-election after

youth, Indian

affairs,

alcoholism, fair

employment

practices,

five-member highway commission, members of which serve overlapping six-year terms, and a five-member board of regents, with six-year overlapping terms, for institutions of higher educaa

tion.

There are

S

supreme court

terms of eight years; 12

justices elected

one

at a time for

district judges, elected in the ten judicial

who also serve as juvenile judges; probate judges elected in each county for two-year terms; and justices of the peace elected in each precinct for two-year terms. The cost of state government rose from $22,300,000 in 1938 to about $250,000,000 annually in the 1950s and 1960s. A constitutional amendment limiting property tax to 20 mills necessitated a sales tax in 1935, a severance tax in 1937, a compensating tax in 1939 and a tobacco tax in 1943. The state's revenue comes primarily from the sales tax, gasoline tax and oil and gas rentals and districts for six years,

royalties.

POPULATION The population

New

Mexico in 1850 was 61,547; in 1910, 327,301; in 1940, 531,818; in 1950, 681,187; and in 1960, 951.023. This last figure represented an increase of 39.6 9o over the population in 1950. The population per square mile in 1960 was 7.8 as compared with 4.4 in 1940 and 5.6 in 1950, and with 49.6 for the United States in 1960. Of the 1960 population, 626.479, or 65.9%, lived in incorporated places of 2,500 or more, as compared with 46.2% in 1950 and with 33.2% in 1940 when these places constituted the urban of

NEW MEXICO area.

The

state has one standard metropolitan statistical area,

Albuquerque (Bernalillo county).

This area had a population of

27.6% of the total population of the state in 1960. The number of households in 1960 was 251,209 as compared with 177,128 in 1950. The average population per household had declined from 4.1 in 1940 to 3.8 in 1950 and to 3.7 in 1960. Of the total 1960 population, 5.4% was 65 years old or over, and 54.1% of the population 14 years old and over was in the labour force. Of the total number of employed persons, 7.1% was engaged in agriculture, 6.7% in mining, 9.3% in construction, 7.5% in manufacturing, 4.2% in transportation and 19.2% in 262,199, or

wholesale and retail trade. New Mexico's ethnic composition

is

a fair cross section of the

United States except for the fact that the usual mixture is based on Indian and Spanish elements rather than Anglo-Saxon. The state's Indians number around 55,000, and a considerable portion of the population has Spanish names. Since the first census of 1850, immigrants from the states and foreign countries have included a preponderance of Germans, with the addition of Jewish, Italian, eastern European and middle eastern persons and some orientals, mostly from China and Japan. Most of the state's English-speaking people have come from the states. Mexicans have come across the border, especially after World War II. Both Indian and Spanish cultures have left traces in architecture and the other arts, including household furnishings, speech, dress and foods. New Mexico's Indian population in 1960 was 56,255 including Navahos, Apaches and Pueblos. Indians, declared citizens by act of congress in 1924, were granted the vote in New Mexico in 1948. Their economic contribution to the state is considerable as stockmen, farmers, craftsmen and workers in many lines of industry. Contemporary pueblo villages are Zuni, near Gallup; Acoma and Laguna, near Albuquerque; and the eastern pueblos of the Rio Grande and its tributaries. Mescalero, the chief Mescalero Apache village, is south of Ruidoso. Jicarilla Apache headquar-

New

Mexico: Places of 5,000 or More Population {I960 census)*

367

NEW ORLEANS

;68 Slate

provision

is

made

unemployment compensation.

for

There is a joint federal and stale program of financial aid to dependent children, and child welfare services of the state provide both financial and social services to dependent children.

THE ECONOMY Agriculture.

—The area

Grande contains about The Rio (irande valley and

Catron county, contain an acreage of about 330,000. In Curry, Roosevelt, Quay, Harding, Union and Colfax counties an average rainfall of about 14.3 in. permits dry farming; over the rest of the state, crops are dependent upon irrigation and hence are confined to the river valleys where irrigation is practicable: the Rio Grande, San Juan, Pecos, Gila, Canadian and their tributaries. Since prehistoric times man has attempted to bring usable Early Pueblo Indians practised limited water to New Mexico. irrigation. The white settlers used windmills, artesian wells and privately financed irrigation, begun in the 1880s. The Reclamait.

principally

in

tion act of 1902 ultimately resulted in a

number

of publicly

fi-

nanced dams that make possible irrigation of more than 500.000 The Navajo dam and reservoir, ac. Waste and silt are problems. dedicated in 1962 as a unit of the Colorado river storage system, was planned to irrigate about 110,000 ac. of Navaho land in the northwestern part of the state. Value of the major crops of New Mexico approaches $100,000,000 annually; total cropland, including minor crops, is about 1,000,000 ac. The leading cash crop is cotton, followed by grain The chief sorghums, hay, winter wheat, corn and dry beans. farm animals are cattle, sheep, horses, mules and hogs; the number of horses and mules declines steadily. Livestock brings New Mexico farmers and ranchers more than half again as much income as do crops. Industry. Manufacturing increased slowly in the first half In 1899, 175 establishments employed of the 20th century. 2,600 persons, paid them $1,290,000 and added $2,062,000 to value by manufacture. Comparable figures in the second half of the 20th century were 700; 15,000; $72,000,000; and $150,000,000. The great increase occurred after the census of 1939, when value added by manufacture was only $8,640,000. The chief industries were food and kindred products, stone, clay and glass, printing and publishing, chemical and allied products and petroleum products. Mining. New Mexico is important as a source of minerals, ranking about eighth (in value of minerals produced) among the states. By the second half of the 20th century its mineral products were valued at more than $550,000,000 annually, chief among them being petroleum, natural gas and natural gas liquids, potash, copper and uranium. All of these except copper are comparatively new sources of mineral wealth, the state being known in its earlier years as a source of metals, headed by gold, silver, copper, lead and zinc. Gold was discovered in the Fray Cristobal mountains in 1683 by Pedro de Abalos, and in 1833 the Ortiz mine, the first gold lode discovered and worked west of the Mississippi, was located. Peak gold production was reached in 1915, with 70,681 oz. production dropped during World War I, reached a new high in 1938 and thereafter declined (to around 5,000 oz. in the 1960s). Silver mines were worked as early as the 1 7th century. Production reached a high point of 2,005,531 oz. in 1915 and 1,400,876 oz. in 1939 and then declined to less than 500,000 oz. in the 1960s. Copper remains a leading mineral. Lead ranged above an annual production of 20,000,000 lb. during the depression years 1929-33, then declined to 9,340,000 lb. in 1949, worth $1,470,032; by the 1960s it was mined in negligible quantities. Zinc reached a production of 119,048,000 lb. in 1943, declined to 58,692,000 lb. in 1949 and by the 1960s it, too, was of little importance. Coal production showed a similar decline from 14,133,000 tons in 1917 to 1,354,000 tons in 1949 to less than 500,000 tons in the 1960s.

—

—

The petroleum and until the

nation in output of perlite. New Mexico contains more

natural gas industry did not get under way by the second half of the century oil and more than five times as much yearly as the

1930s, but

gas were valued at next most valuable mineral product. Principal oil fields are located in Lea, Eddy, Chaves and San Juan counties. Potash

than two-thirds

of

the United

known uranium ore reserves, estimated at 54,900,000,000 0.26% uranium oxide. Production in the first year

States'

east of the Rio

four-fifths of the state's cropland.

the area west of

mining, also dating from the 1930s, increased ten times in value between the early 1940s and the early 1960s; the state produces aliout 90"^ of the potash mined in the United States. It leads the

tons averaging

of record, 1950, was valued at about $61,000; by the 1960s it was more than $60,000,000 annually. Chief uranium-producing counties

are Valencia, where the spectacular developments near Grants

much attention, McKinley, San Juan and Socorro. Transportation and Communications. In the second

attracted

—

New

of the 20th century six railroads operated in

half

Mexico, the

most important being the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe railway. Commercial air transportation was provided by transcontinental and regional lines; Albuquerque was the junction airport. Improved surface highways increased from about 2,100 mi. in 1929 to 9,154 mi. in 1948 and to nearly 14,000 in the early 1960s. A motorized state police was established in 1933. The ports of entry, established to collect the commercial mileage tax instituted in 1933, were placed under the state police as registration stations. New Mexico had 16 daily papers and about 45 weeklies in the second half of the 20th century. In addition, there were many trade, professional, technical and religious publications, most of which had a state-wide circulation. The New Mexico Historical Review, published by the New Mexico Historical society; the New Mexico Quarterly Review, published by the University of New Mexico; and the New Mexico Magazine, a state publication, are well known. See also references under "New Mexico" in the Index. BiBLiOGR.^PHY. J. Gregg, Commerce of the Prairies (1845); J. M. The Conquest of Calijornia and New Mexico, 1846-1847 (1847) W. M. F. W. Blackmar, Spanish Institulions of the Southwest (1891) R. E. Xicholl, Observations of a Ranchwoman in New Mexico (1898) Twitchell, Spanish Archives of New Mexico (1914), Old Santa Fe (1925) F. A. Dominguez, The Missions of New Mexico, 1776, ed. and

—

Cutts,

;

;

;

;

bv E. B. Adams and F. A. Chavez (1956) P. E. Goddard, Indians of the Southwest, 2nd ed. (1921) R. B. Townshend, The Tenderfoot in New Mexico (1924); C. F. Coan, A History of New Mexico (1925); W. L. Comfort, Apache J. S. Ligon, Wild Life of New Mexico (1927) (19.51); A. B. Thomas, Forgotten Frontiers (1932); A. B. Hulbert, Southwest on the Turquoise Trail (1933) A. B. Thomas, After Coronado (19.55) E. Fergusson, Dancing Gods (1931) H. Fergusson, Rio Grande (1933) O. La Farge, Laughing Boy (1934), The Enemy Gods trans,

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

(1937) R. Laughlin, Caballeros (1945) R. Dickey, New Mexico Village Arts (1949); P. Horgan, Great River (1954), The Centuries of Santa Fe (1957) M. G. Fulton and P. Horgan (eds.), New Mexico's Own Chronicle (1937) C. W. Hackett (ed.). Historical Documents (1926-27) W. W. H. Davis, El Gringo (1938) A. M. Cleaveland, No Life for a Lady (1941); S. A. Northrop, Minerals of New Mexico (1959) Three New Mexico Chronicles, trans, and ed. by H. B. Carroll el al. (1942); J. M. Espinosa, Crusaders of the Rio Grande (1942); C. Kluckhohn and D. Leighton, The Navaho (1946) Thomas C. Don\. \V. Thompson, They nelly, The Government of New Mexico (1947) Were Open Range Days (1946) J. H. Toulouse, The Mission of San Gregorio de Abo (1949) H. E. Bolton, Coronado on the Turquoise Trail (1949) and other volumes of "Coronado Cuarto Centennial Publications," ed. bv G. P. Hammond; R. P. Bieber and A. B. Bender (eds.), Exploring Southwestern Trails 1S46-1S54 (1938) and other ;

;

;

.

;

.

.

;

;

;

;

;

;

.

.

.

;

of "The Southwest Historical Series"; New Mexico Historical Review (1926 el seq.); Southwestern Historical Quarterly (1897 el New Mexico Historical Society, Publications in History; 1950 seq.) New Mexico State Business Directory; J. Miller, New Mexico: a Guide to the Colorful State, ed. by H. G. Alsberg (1953); W. A. Keleher, The Maxwell Land Grant (1942), The Fabulous Frontier (1945), Tur-

volumes ;

moil in New Mexico, 1846-1868 (19S1), Violence in Lincoln County, 1869-1881 (1957). Current statistics on production, employment, industry, etc., may be obtained from the pertinent state departments; the principal figures are summarized annually in the Britannica Book of the Year, American (E. Fe.) a city of Louisiana, U.S., situated on the east bank of the Mississippi river about 107 mi. from its mouth. It is located along a bend in the river, which accounts for its The boundaries of the parish popular name, "Crescent city." edition.

NEW

ORLEANS,

(county) of Orleans and the city of New Orleans are the same, with a land area of 198.8 sq.mi. The boundary line is very irregular; approximately Lake Pontchartrain on the north and Lake Borgne on the east, the two being connected by a channel called the Rigolets; the parish of St. Bernard and the Mississippi

NEW ORLEANS

Plate

I

The Courtyard of the Deux Soeurs in the French quarter. It is said that the Lou Purchase agreement was signed by the representatives of Napoleon and the U.S.

The Union railway passenger ten

THE FRENCH QUARTER AND TRANSPORTATION CENTRES

story walk-up on St. Peter street shows the illwork for which the French quarter is noted

Pontalba apartments.

NEW ORLEANS

Plate II

The new Federal

Office building adjoins the

Union Pa

ger terminal

The Civic centre, with

its

state and federal

government buildings, and the Hospital Medical comple

THE MODERN CITY

ling

from the Greater

New

Orleans Mississippi

River bridge to

NEW ORLEANS on the south; and the river and Jefferson parish on the west. The population of the city in 1960 was 627,525, an increase of 10% from 1950. That of the standard metropolitan statistical area (Jefferson, Orleans, St. Bernard and St. Tammany parishes) was 907,123, an increase of i2.i% in the decade. (For comparative population figures for the city see table in Louisiana Populariver

:

tion.)

The soil in the New Orleans area is an alluvial deposit from the river and therefore has its greatest elevation at the river bank, where the ground behind the levees is from 10 to IS ft. above the mean level of the Gulf of Mexico; but the lower parts of the city Built on the narrow ridge of land at the are below gulf level. river bank, the growing city first expanded along the river front and later, the cypress swamps between the river and Lake Pontchartrain having been cleared and drained, into that area. The river approaches New Orleans flowing eastward, turns rather abruptly to the south at the upper municipal limits, then eastward as it passes the modern city, and finally northward in one of the sharpest bends to be found in the lower river, near the site of the original city, now called the vieux carre or French quarter. The difficulties involved in building a city on such a site Drainage, sanitation and a as that of New Orleans were great. satisfactory water supply were not realized until nearly two centuries after the establishment of the first settlement, and in the Modern interim yellow fever and cholera took frightful tolls. engineering and sanitation finally triumphed and the city overexistence. these former threats to its came It is noted for its mild and balmy winters; the summers are uniformly warm but extreme heat is unknown. The highest temperature recorded by the weather bureau is 102° F.; a temperature of 100° F. is seldom reached because of the cool breezes from the Gulf of Mexico. History. The city of La Nouvelle Orleans was founded by a French governor of Louisiana, Jean Baptiste le Moyne, sieur de Bienville, and was named in honour of the regent, the due d'Orleans. The site chosen was on an elevation along the east bank of the river between the head of Bayou St. John and the river. Among its advantages were the higher land, accessibility by two main waterways (the Mississippi and the lakes), and by Bayou St. John for the small craft of that day. On the other side of the river it was not far to Bayou Barataria, which later was destined to become the rendezvous of the famous pirates, Jean and Pierre Laffite, and which offered access to the gulf without stemming the

—

current of the Mississippi. is some doubt as to the exact date of the founding of Orleans but it is generally given as 1718. Louisiana at that time was held by a company organized by John Law {q.v.), who returned it to the crown in 1731. In the meantime, however, it was proposed that the headquarters of the company should be moved away from the barren coast country and in 1722 New Orleans became the capital of the colony. At this time the city

There

New

had only about 100 houses and 500 inhabitants. It was laid out in approximately a parallelogram, 4,000 ft. long on the river by 1,800 ft. in depth, divided into regular squares 300 ft. on each side. In 1724 the streets were named. The houses were rude cabins of split cypress boards, roofed with cypress bark. They were separated from one another by willow copses and weed-grown ponds swarming with reptiles. Two squares on the river front near the centre of the city were set apart for military and ecclesiastical uses. The front was the Place d'Armes, now Jackson square; the rear one was early occupied by a church. In 1726 a monastery was erected to the east of the church for the Capuchin monks, who had arrived two years earlier. A company of Ursuline nuns came to New Orleans in 1727. At the same time the Jesuits arrived and received a large tract of land from Bienville. This tract, bounded by what is now Common, Tchoupitoulas, Annunciation and Terpsichore streets, was later added to by donation and purchase and extended to Felicity street. There the Jesuits cultivated myrtle, the wax of which was then a staple article of commerce, and oranges, figs, indigo and probably sugar cane. When the order was suppressed for political reasons in 1763 its great plantation was confiscated by the king of Spain; the

369

Jesuits did not return to Louisiana until 1837.

Many

storms and disasters occurred during the early years of In 1719 the river rose to a great height and the site to a depth of a few inches. In 1722 a hurricane destroyed 30 houses and damaged crops. German colonists who had settled on the banks of the Arkansas managed to reach New Orleans and there implored Bienville to send them back to their homes. He persuaded them to establish themselves along the river above the city, and thus was formed the nucleus of the the city.

was completely inundated

settlement, which to this day is called the German coast. There were few women of good character in the colony in the early days; and many of the better class of settlers, missing their

German

home that

life,

if

desired to return to France.

was

the settlement

wives to in 1724,

possible.

It

thus became imperative

to survive, the

When

men must have good

make homes for them. he promised to send a group of young The "casket

Bienville left the colony

women

as soon as

girls" {filles h la cassette), so called

of the small chests of clothes and linens allotted to

because

them by the

French government, arrived in 1727 and during the period of courtship were placed under the care of the Ursuline nuns whose convent had been established in the same year. Some of the distinguished families of modern New Orleans claim to be descended from these marriages. The nuns were first domiciled in Bienville's former home but in 1730 their own house on Chartres and Ursuline streets was completed. This is one of the oldest

buildings in the United States west of the Alleghenies.

In 1763 the treaty of Paris was concluded between France and England, by which England gained all the territory east of the Mississippi except the Isle of Orleans. By a secret treaty of had given the Isle of Orleans and all of 3, 1762, Louis

XV

Nov.

Louisiana west of the Mississippi to his cousin, Charles III of Spain. It was not until Oct. 1764 that the French king notified the governor of the colony of the transfer and ordered him to surrender Louisiana to accredited Spanish commissioners when they should present themselves. The news was not well received in New Orleans. In 1783 the treaty of Paris confirmed Spain in possession of this territory and granted free and open navigation of the Mississippi river to the subjects of Great Britain and the United States. In 1788 and again in 1794 fires destroyed large portions of the city. By the first, 19 squares were devastated and 856 houses were burned. The second fire destroyed 212 houses and caused a loss estimated at $2,600,000. Rebuilding with brick instead of wood resulted in a more permanent city. During this period the Spanish merchant, Almonaster y Rojas, was the greatest

benefactor of

fortune for

many

New

Orleans; he gave freely of his private

purposes.

He

rented in perpetuity the squares row of brick buildings to

flanking the Place d'Armes and erected a

be used as shops and retail stores. These were replaced in 1845 by the Pontalba buildings, which bear the name of their builder, He rebuilt the Charity Baroness Pontalba, Rojas' daughter. hospital, which had been destroyed by a hurricane, and a chapel Through his generosity the cathedral for the Ursuline nuns. was completed in 1794; it was constructed of bricks and had much the same appearance as today except in details of the belfry

and towers.

A

the city in 1795

town hall, or hall of the Cabildo, presented to was the seat of Spanish rule and is now the state

museum. Before the cultivation of sugar cane the staple crop of Louisiana caterpillar plague in 1793 and the two years following caused such extensive damage that its cultivation was temporarily abandoned. In 1794 fetienne de Bore, whose plantation is now within the city limits, succeeded in making granulated sugar and thereafter the production of sugar cane increased considerably. By the treaty of Madrid, signed in Oct. 1795, Spain and the United States agreed that New Orleans should be open to the Americans as a port of deposit for three years; the produce was to be free of duty but a reasonable price for storage was to be paid. The commerce of New Orleans increased greatly and

had been indigo but a

the levee was the scene of noisy, bustling business.

From 1800

to 1803 Louisiana was again a French possession 1803 the territory was purchased by the United States (see Louisiana Purchase). This transfer had a further bene-

and

in

NEW ORLEANS

370

on trade. The first half of that year showed an inin tonnage over that of 1802; exports exceeded $2,000,000 and imports $2,500,000. The flatboat trade with the upper valley also increased enormously. Above the vieiix carri commercial houses were erected and this newer portion of the ticial effect

crease of

37%

Many of the street business centre. first owners or of the first use of the locality. Gravier street bears the name of its original owner, Poydras that of a philanthropist; Magazine was so named because became names are reminders of city gradually

a

the

of the great tobacco warehouses on Magazine and Common, and Camp street because of a slave camp between Poydras and Girod. Along the Bayou St. John road there was an aristocratic suburb. In 1805

New

Orleans was incorporated as a city and the people first time in electing alder-

exercised their right of suffrage for the

Between 1803 and 1810 the population more than doubled with the arrival of many whites, mulattoes and slaves from Cuba, Santo Domingo and other islands of the West Indies. The population of the city has been cosmopolitan from the beginning, and an unusual characteristic up to the time of the American Civil War was the presence of considerable numbers of gens de couleur

men.

— "free slaves.

people of colour," many of whom themselves owned After the war, however, the distinction between "free

men of colour" and "freedmen of colour" (the former slaves) was lost and the gens de couleur lost the social advantages they had held. During the War of 1812 New Orleans was not endangered until the autumn of 1814, when a British fleet entered the Gulf of MexGen. Andrew Jackson, commander of the U.S. army in the ico. southwest, reached the city on Dec. 1 and immediately began preparations for- its defense. Because of slow communications neither the British nor the Americans had received notice of the conclusion of the war by the treaty of Ghent, signed two weeks when the British attacked on the morning of Jan. 8, 1815. The outcome of the brief battle, a decisive victory for the Americans, had considerable psychological value and greatly advanced the political fortunes of Jackson. (See also War of 1812.) Commerce on the Mississippi was greatly stimulated by the previously,

advent of steam navigation; the first steamboat to descend the river was the "New Orleans," which arrived on Jan. 10, 1812, on its

maiden

trip

from Pittsburgh, Pa.

The

river trade

was carried

on

in spite of the danger from sandbars on entering the river. In the space of a few weeks, in 1852, 40 ships went aground at the entrance to the river. The terrible yellow fever epidemics of 1853-55 reduced the volume of trade, which was regained, how-

ever,

and a high-water mark reached in 1857, to be followed by a crash which was disastrous to the business houses of

financial

New

Orleans.

Louisiana seceded from the union on Jan. 26, 1861. New Orleans was recognized as a strategic point by the authorities at Washington and two expeditions started to secure the Mississippi for the union: Gen. U. S. Grant was to descend the river and Adm. David Farragut and Gen. Benjamin F. Butler were to ascend it. The city had sent 5,000 soldiers to the defense of the northern line of the Confederacy but the southern government seemed oblivious to the importance of holding New Orleans. While Grant was endeavouring to push his way downstream, Farragut was entering the river from the gulf with a fleet of 43 vessels.

The assistance asked by Gen. Mansfield Lovell could not be given by the Confederacy. An attempt was made to obstruct the passage of the Federal fleet by cables put across the river below the city, but New Orleans was captured by Farragut on April 25, 1862, and the city front blazed with the fire from thousands of

and hogsheads of sugar and molasses which were burned to prevent their falling into the hands of the Federals. General Butler with 15,000 soldiers took charge of the city on May 1, 1862. The mayor was removed from office and a military commandant appointed in his place; the city council was replaced by the bureau of finance and the bureau of streets and landings. Butler's rule in New Orleans was execrated by the people of the city; his removal before the end of the year curtailed some of the worst excesses of the occupation. bales of cotton

The years 1865-77,

the period of Reconstruction, were a time In the wake of the war came a host of undesirables .seeking fortunes by easy means the "carpetbaggers," who with their southern friends and associates called of racial and political strife.

—

"scalawags" gained control of the city government through leadership of the voting population, largely composed of the newly enfranchised Negroes. Much of the property of the city disappeared; extravagant expenditures reached $6,961,381 in 1872 and the bonded indebtedness $21,000,000, paying up to 10% interest. The white men of the city, who were virtually deprived of the ballot by all the restrictions placed upon its exercise, formed the "white league" for the expulsion of the "carpetbag" government and the restoration of white supremacy. Riots broke out frequently and there were armed encounters between the white league and the metropolitan police. The white league made a number of gradual gains and the situation in general aroused northern sympathies, so that in 1877 home rule (which meant in effect white supremacy) was restored in New Orleans by the federal government. These Reconstruction experiences not unnaturally left a bitter aftermath in New Orleans and for many years the Negro was in one way or another almost totally disenfranchised. In the 20th century, however, substantial gains were made, particularly through reform measures that benefitted the economically underprivileged, white or Negro, and in the governor's election of 1959, out of a total registration of 205,000 for the city, 34,000 Negroes were registered voters and an estimated 85%90% voted. In the early 1960s, however, there was considerable opposition by white-supremacy groups and the state legislature to the racial integration of New Orleans schools. Municipal improvements made slow progress during restoration times and for many years after; the city undertook the operation of the waterworks in 1869; a drainage system was proposed in 1871 but proved too expensive to be carried out; in 1871 the board of park commissioners bought the Upper City park, now Audubon park. The population in 1860 was 168,755 and had increased by 1870 to 191,418. During this decade many freed Negroes had come to the city from country districts. In 1870 the fifth and sixth districts were added by the annexation of the town of Algiers on the opposite bank of the river and of Jefferson City, a town adjoining the fourth district. In 1874 Carrollton was admitted as the seventh municipal district, and New Orleans attained its present limits. The history of New Orleans in the late 19th and early 20th century is largely its commercial and industrial expansion, and a building program discussed in Government below. The channel at the mouth of the river was deepened in the 1870s; by 1883 the city was linked by railroad with the west and north and formed the hub of the state network, as it still does. Although New Orleans was and is primarily a commercial city, there has been increasing development of industry in the 20th century (see Commerce, Transportation and Industry below). In the spring of 1927, the city was saved from a great Mississippi river flood by blasting the levee at Poydras, about IS mi. below the city, on April 29. This operation sacrificed the adjacent parishes of St. Bernard and Plaquemines at a cost to the To avoid similar danger in

city of approximately $5,000,000.

the future the Bonnet-Carre spillway was constructed about 35 mi. above the city to remove 250,000 sec. -ft. of water from the river during excessive floods and deliver it into Lake Pontchartrain.

Protected by this device and similar safeguards on the lower river, the city survived an even greater flood in 1945 without

mishap or any emergency action.

—

Population Characteristics. Of the 1960 population of the 60.9% was native-born white, 2.i% foreign-born white and 39.1% Negroes, including mulattoes and others of mixed blood. city

Among

the foreign-born, almost every nationality

the

is

represented;

who came in considerable numbers after 1900, are most numerous. The Creoles by current usage the descend-

the Italians,

—

ants of the original French and Spanish settlers

—are perhaps the

New Orleans is best known. (Until late in the 19th century, this term as used in New Orleans meant persons born in the city, so that there were "creole" Anglo-Americans, group for which

NEW ORLEANS and Germans as well as "creole" Latins.) Although numerically less important than popularly believed (both in the 19th and 20th centuries large numbers of Anglo-Americans from southern and northern states and of immigrants from other European Irish

countries settled in the city) the Latin Creoles still help give New Orleans a distinctive atmosphere among U.S. cities and the French

language continues to be used. When Americans of Anglo-Saxon descent began settling in the city in the early part of the 19th century they built a quarter for themselves upstream from the vieux carrS, the upper boundary of this settlement being Canal street. In the 20th century, however, the a considerable

lines

were not nearly so

strictly

drawn.

Government and Administration.

—The

number

of

government

In 1950 the legislature restored a mayor-council system, number of commissioners to seven, each elected by a separate municipal district. Municipal Works. During the administrations of deLesseps Morrison, reform mayor who in 1946 defeated the Old Regular Democratic machine which had long controlled local government, erty.

increasing the

—

tremendous physical rehabilitation of the city was effected. Besides major transportation innovations, such as bridges (discussed below), 22 new overpasses eliminating 144 grade crossings were constructed, a central, modern railroad terminal and an extensive new municipal centre, consisting of six major buildings including the city hall, library, state supreme court building and a state office building were erected in the heart of the city on the a

former slum area; many miles of streets were widened and improved and a program was launched to rehabilitate 45,000 substandard buildings over a ten-year period. The location of New Orleans presents certain problems in regard to such municipal concerns as water and sewage. The entire city, except for its levees, is below the river high-water mark while a large portion of it is below that of Lake Pontchartrain. Combined with these difficulties New Orleans has heavy rainfall; occasionally more than 3 in. in 1 hour, 7 in. in 5 hours and 9 in. in 12 hours, having been experienced. As a result of the occasional excessive rainfalls, it has been necessary to provide large canal systems to convey the water to and from the pumping plants, and 11 pumping stations for the removal of storm water have been The average annual rainfall is more than 50 in.; the built. topography is such that the runoff must be removed by pumping. sewage of the city is collected separately from the drainage The and is finally discharged into the Mississippi, where the dilution Like is so great that it is not noticeable farther downstream. the drainage, the sewage has to be pumped, much of it through two or more lifts, and this is accomplished by electric pumping site of a

stations operating automatically.

Commerce, Transportation and Industry.

—Among North

second only to New York in most categories. It accommodates more than 80 steamship lines and Located at the about 4,000 vessels enter the port annually. intersection of the Gulf Intracoastal waterway and the Mississippi The river, it handles both internal river traffic and foreign trade. limits of the port include a frontage of 51 mi. on both sides of the river and 11 mi. on the Industrial canal, which connects the river with Lake Pontchartrain; 20 mi. of publicly owned wharves, steel sheds, warehouses, grain elevators and similar facilities are

New

Orleans

successful control of floods on the lower river.

New Orleans is also served by trunk railroads, airlines, barge truck lines, and a public belt railroad 128 mi. in length. It has three airports the New Orleans airport on the lake, for private planes; the Moisant international airport in Jefferson parish for commercial traffic; and Callender field, across the river below lines,

:

the city for military craft.

In 1928 the first bridge across Lake Pontchartrain, 25,000 ft. Shortly thereafter bridges across Chef was completed. Menteur and the Rigolets provided a more direct line to the Gulf In 1935 the Huey P. Long bridge across the Mississippi coast. 5 mi. above the city was opened to traffic, and in 1958 a second In 1957 anriver bridge in the heart of the city was completed. other bridge across Lake Pontchartrain, 24 mi. long, was put into

long,

city

was at first carried out by a mayor and administrators, seven In 1912, by act of the legislature, the commission in number. form of government was adopted; the mayor became commisFour other commissioners had charge sioner of public affairs. of public finances, public safety, public utilities and public prop-

American ports

371

free-water supply (300,000,000,000 gal. of water pass New Orleans each day at high river stages, twice as much as is used by the rest of the nation for all purposes); and the apparently

gas;

is

operation.

Education and Cultural Activities.

—The

New

Orleans

public-school system includes kindergarten, elementary and high schools, evening schools and trade schools. In addition there are in the city over 100 nonpublic schools, both private and parochial

(mostly Roman Catholic; some Lutheran). Uniform textbooks purchased by the state department of education are supplied to all nonpublic schools and their classes are conducted under a curriculum approved by the department. Largest of the strictly private schools is the Isidore Newman school, founded in 1903,

which

is coeducational. New Orleans has several distinUniversities and Colleges. guished colleges and universities. The history of Tulane, a private university, dates from the foundation of a medical college It was char(called the Medical College of Louisiana) in 1834. tered in 1835 and in the following year issued the first degree in medicine conferred in the southwest. Other departments were added and in 1847 the institution took the name University of Louisiana; in 1884 it was renamed in honour of Paul Tulane, who had been a merchant in New Orleans for many years and who had made a very large gift of money to the institution. The univer-

—

now includes a college of arts and sciences, schools of architecture, business administration, engineering, law, medicine and sity

social work,

and H. Sophie

university, for

Newcomb Memorial

women, chartered

Loyola university, a

Roman

College of Tulane

in 1886.

Catholic university founded in

coeducational in its professional departments and for men in other departments. In addition to arts and sciences it has schools of dentistry and law and colleges of pharmacy, music 1904,

is

and business administration. Dillard university, established in 1930 by the merger of two is affiliated with the Congregational Christian

earlier institutions,

and Methodist churches. It grants the B.A. degree and the B.S, Xavier University of Louisiana, a Roman Catholic in nursing. university, began as a high school in 1915 but became a teachers' years later and has since added liberal arts and precollege two medical departments and a graduate school. Originally for Negroes and Indians, it is now open to all races. St. Mary's Dominican college

is

a

Roman

established in 1860.

Catholic liberal arts college for women, Louisiana State university in New Orleans,

maintained.

an integral part of the state university in Baton Rouge (see Louisiana: Education), opened in 1958 with a freshman class and added an additional class each of the following years until a four-year program was in operation. Other Institutions. The Isaac Delgado Museum of Art in City park was established by a gift from Isaac M. Delgado in 1911.

By the middle of the 20th century New Orleans had regained the pre-eminence as a port which it enjoyed before the Civil War

The annual exhibition of the Art association is an important event. The Cabildo houses an important historical museum containing

but the most significant economic development in the post-World War II period was a great increase in industry along the entire

much

lower river south of Baton Rouge. This boom was set off mainly by the discovery of great quantities of oil and sulfur on the Louisiana tidelands, petrochemicals being the most important of the new industries. Other factors responsible, besides the natural advantages of a port, were the accessibility of a cheap fuel, natural

side of the Cathedral of St. Louis, contains a valuable

—

and

of interest and value pertaining to the history of Louisiana Orleans. The Presbytere, facing Jackson square on the

New

museum

The Conof natural history, principally relating to Louisiana. federate Memorial hall, located on Camp street, contains relics of the Civil

War.

entire third floor of

The Tulane Gibson

hall;

university it

museum

occupies the

contains petrological, paleon-

NEW PHILADELPHIA— NEW PLYMOUTH

372

and anthropological sections. Several galleries exhibiting contemporary art are to be found in the viet4x carri. A civic symphony has been established and the Philharmonic society brings the great contemporary musicians and concerts to the city. The Metropolitan Opera comes annually, thus reviving interest in French opera which was originally heard in New Orleans The Department of long before it was heard in New York. Middle-American research, created in 1924 as a department of Tulane university, has a museum and library, field work and pubThe library of 40,000 items lications as its primary activities. and the museum contain manuscripts, documents and other material relating to Mexico and Central America from expeditions and The institute purchases which are being constantly increased. The New Orleans has a permanent endowment of $300,000. and has created tourist interspring fiesta was organized in 1937 est in art, architecture, gardens and local traditions. The city has more than 12 major hospitals of various types, the largest of which is the Charity. Journalism. New Orleans has long been an important newspaper and publishing centre. The New Orleans Picayune was founded in 1837, the Daily Times in 1863, the Daily Democrat The two latter formed the Times-Democrat in 1881 and in 1875. The this and the Picayune became the Times-Picayune in 1914. Daily Item began publication in 1877, later becoming the New Orleans Item. The Daily States, started in 1880, was purchased by the Times-Picayune company in 1933 as an afternoon and combined Sunday publication. In 19S9 the same company bought This exemplified the the Item and merged it with the States. tendency, common in the larger U.S. cities, of consolidating ownership of newspapers and thereby eliminating competition; many tological, zoological

—

observers

felt that as a result

latter part of the

the press in

New

Orleans in the

20th century was characterized mainly by

its

anemia.

Among

the

many

writers associated with

New

Orleans Lafcadio

Hearn and George W. Cable are probably the best known. John James Audubon, the artist-naturalist, made his home there for several years.

—

Recreation and Tourist Attractions. New Orleans is well known as the home of the largest and most colourful Mardi Gras The carnival season extends celebration in the United States. from Twelfth Night (Jan. 6) to Lent and is climaxed by the festivities of Mardi Gras, "fat Tuesday" before Ash Wednesday. Out of the simple idea of masked revelry in the open streets has developed a complex organization of gorgeous torch-lighted parades and balls. The first carnival parade (as distinguished from the Mardi Gras celebration) was held in 1827 by masked students who had recently returned from Paris. In 1837 and 1839 the The first processions with "floats" were held in New Orleans. regular annual pageants, almost uninterrupted except during the

War, date from 1857, when the "Mystic Krewe of Comus," was formed. There are a number of other organizations, secret societies and clubs which assume responsibility for certain portions of the Mardi Gras celebration, which extends for several days. Most of the balls are private but the public parades are a major tourist attraction. Other tourist attractions are the vieux carri and the Garden district. In the vieux carri, Spanish and French influences combined to form a unique creole style of architecture; characteristic features of the buildings in the area (many of which are now preserved as historic monuments and are open to the public) are enclosed rear courts, balconies and extensive use of wrought-iron railings and cast-iron "lace." The Garden district, originally a residential district for the American aristocracy who arrived after 1803, is between St. Charles avenue and the river; it is characterized by handsome homes, mostly Greek Revival in style. The city is also famous for its fine restaurants. Extensive plantings of azaleas and camellias have beautified the city and it is well supplied with parks. Audubon park, with 234 ac. is situated in the upper portion of the city and contains a statue of Audubon. The original area of City park was about 1,400 ac, later developed and beautified further. The area was added to by hydraulic dredging on the lake shore front between Civil

the oldest of the carnival organizations,

St. John on the east. A large muharbour was constructed at West End. Many miles of boulevards and driveways, with parks and bathing beaches, were also developed as residential areas. The salubrious climate, the Gulf of Mexico and the hundreds of bayous, rivers and lakes in southern Louisiana make New Orleans a sportsman's paradise. Opportunities for sailing, boating, hunting and fishing, both salt and fresh-water, are excellent. Tarpon are frequently caught within the city limits and numerous fishing rodeos are held annually. During the Christmas holidays a Mid-Winter Sports carnival is held, ending with the Sugar Bowl football game on New Year's day. The Fair Grounds race track opens its season each year on Thanksgiving day; races are held every day except Sunday for three months. As matters of incidental interest it may be mentioned that jazz iq.v.) derived most of its original impetus from the Negro musicians of New Orleans and the term Dixie (,q.v.) is said to have originated there. See also references under "New Orleans" in the Index.

West End and beyond Bayou nicipal yacht

—

G. E. King, New Orleans (1904) J. S. Kendall, HisNew Orleans (1922); Lyle Saxon, Fabulous New Orleans Frances Tinker, Old New Orleans (1931) S. C. Arthur, Old New Orleans (1936) J. E. Boyle, Cotton and the New Orleans Cotton Exchange (1934) Board of Commissioners of the Port of New Orleans, .Annual Reports (1897 et seg.) New Orleans Association of Commerce, Publications (1909 et seg.) Harold Sinclair, The Port of New Orleans (1942); Robert Tallant, Romantic New Orleanians (1950); Harnett Kane, Queen New Orleans, City by the River (1949) Lura Robinson, O. W. Evans, New Orleans It's an Old New Orleans Custom (1948) L. V. Howard and R. S. T. K. Griffin, New Orleans (1961) (1959) Friedman, Government in Metropolitan New Orleans (1960).

Bibliography.

;

torv

of (19'28)

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

(G.

NEW PHILADELPHIA,

a

city

of

eastern

M.

Ca.)

Ohio,

U.S.,

Canton; the seat of Tuscarawas county. Located in Ohio's unglaciated hill country in the valley of the Tuscarawas river, the city and its surrounding countryside comprise one of the most scenic and historic areas in Ohio. Just south of the city, the Moravian missionary, David Zeisberger (1721-1808), founded the mission village of Schoenbrunn ("beautiful spring") among the Delaware Indians in 1772. There the first church and schoolhouse in Ohio were built, but in 1777 the settlement had to be abandoned on account of the hostility of neighbouring Indians. The site of Schoenbrunn, discovered in 1923, has been restored. To the north. Ft. Laurens, the only Revolutionary War fort in Ohio, was built in 1778, while nearby a band of German Separatists in 1817 established the communal village of Zoar which lasted until 1898. New Philadelphia itself was founded in 1804 by John Knisely on lands set aside by the federal congress in 1796 as the United States military district, tracts within which were to be distributed Named in honour of to veterans of the Revolutionary War. Philadelphia, Pa., the community grew slowly at first, the population reaching but 1,413 by 1850. After the American Civil War, however, growth was more rapid, principally because of the development of large deposits of coal and clay in the immediate area which enabled it to emerge as one of the important small about 22 mi.

S. of

industrial centres of Ohio.

Principal industries include the

manu-

facture of mining and road equipment, tapered roller bearings, tools, batteries, spark plugs and ceramics.

Serving as headquarters for the Muskingum Watershed Conservancy district. New Philadelphia is in the heart of one of the nation's most important conservation, flood control and recreational areas. New Philadelphia was incorporated as a village in 1815 and as a city in 1896. For comparative population figures (P. R. S.) see table in Ohio: Population.

NEW PLYMOUTH, a municipality and seaport on the west North Island, New Zealand, chief town of the land Taranaki, 251 mi. N.N.W. of Wellington by rail. Pop. (1961) 29,368 (urban area 32,387). The town is noted for its parks and gardens, and the district is the chief dairy centre of New Zealand. The settlement was founded in 1841 by the Plymouth company under the auspices of the New Zealand company, and consisted chiefly of emigrants from Devonshire and Cornwall. coast of the district of

Mt. Egmont (8,260

ft.),

18 mi. S. of

New

Plymouth,

is

well

known

NEWPORT for its winter sports

and

is

the centre of

Egmont National park

(128 sq.mi.).

NEWPORT,

a market town, municipal borough and county town of the Isle of Wight, England. Pop. 1961 19,482. It is near the centre of the island, at the head of the wide estuary of Industries the Medina river, S mi. S. from its mouth at Cowes. include plastics and woodwork, milling, brewing and mineral (

)

water (soft drink) manufacture. Newport is the centre of the island's agriculture and its harbour is used for import and export business. The church of St. Thomas of Canterbury was rebuilt in 1854 in the Decorated style; the county hall was built in 1938 and the town hall (1816) was designed by John Nash. The grammar school was founded in 1614. The Albany barracks, Parkhurst prison and Camp Hill Borstal institution, the last two in Parkhurst Newport was probably a Roman forest, lie north of the town. settlement, then known as Medina; remains of a villa in good preservation were found in 1926. There are no traces of Saxon occupation and no evidence that Newport became a borough beThe first charter was granted by fore the reign of Henry II. Richard de Redvers between 1177 and 1184, and a second, by Isabel de Fortibus, was confirmed by successive kings. The borough was incorporated by James I in 1608 and the final charter, by which Newport was governed until 1835, was granted by Charles II in 1661. It was represented in parliament in 1295, but no other return was made until 1584, when it regularly sent two members. From 1867 to 1885 it sent one but in 1885 its representation was merged in that of the island. The Saturday market dates from 1184, and there is a Tuesday market. Because of its facilities for trade, Newport early superseded Carisbrooke (q.v.)

NEWPORT

(Casnewydd-ae-Wysg), a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Monmouthshire (q.v.) is the easternmost of the Bristol channel seaports that serve the mining and industrial area of south Wales and Monmouthshire. Though not the county town, it is the administrative centre of Monmouthshire. Newport lies on the river Usk, 4 mi. from its confluence with the Severn, and it is 12 mi. N.E. of Cardiff and 24 mi. S.W. of Monmouth by road. Pop. (1961) 108,107. Giraldus Cambrensis called it Novus Burgus ("New Town"). The burgesses obtained a monopoly of trade and self-government evidenced by a charter from the earl of Stafford in 1385. A charter of the duke of Buckingham, the landlord in 1476, shows the reeve to have been superseded by a mayor. In 1623 James I gave the townsmen their first royal charter, which served until the Municipal Corporations act of 1835. The town was the scene of Chartist riots in 1839 and Chartist bullet marks are preserved in County borough status was the pillars of the Westgate hotel.

achieved in 1891 and one

Two

member

bridges over the river

from London

of parliament

Usk form

to south Wales.

the

is

returned.

main gateway

The new

for road

cable cantilever

was completed in 1964. Woolos became the procathedral Monmouth in 1921. Between the Lady chapel The a splendid 12th-century Norman arch.

bridge, the first of its kind in Britain,

The

old parish church of St.

of the diocese of

and the nave

is

near the mouth of the Licking, opposite Cincinnati, 0.; one of the seats of Campbell county and a part of the Cincinnati standard metropolitan statistical area (see Cincinnati). Across the Licking is Newport's sister city, Covington. river,

The first settlement, planned in 1790 by Hubbard Taylor, a soldier, was named in honour of Christopher Newport, commander of the first ship to reach Jamestown in 1607. In 1795 Newport was incorporated as a village and in 1835 as a city. The only antislavery newspaper published in Kentucky during the 18S0s was edited in Newport by William Shreve Bailey. It was given various names by its editor, the last being The Free

young

On Oct. 28, 1859, after a proslavery mob threw his presses and type into the street, Bailey took his paper across the

South.

river to Cincinnati.

Newport experienced because of the influx of

its

greatest growth in the 1880s and 1890s

many German

of bridges to Cincinnati, which

as the capital of the island.

traffic

373

There are three commodious dry docks. The principal exports are manufactured iron and steel products, machinery, vehicles and vehicle parts, galvanized iron, tinplate, coal and miscellaneous goods. Imports are primarily iron ore and nonferrous ores such as bauxite, petroleum, semimanufactured iron and steel, timber, pitwood, aluminum and building and roadmaking materials. The principal industries, apart from shipping and export packing, produce steel, structural steelwork, aluminum, chemicals, electrical goods, clothing and fibreboard. Newport is a good tourist centre for the Wye valley, the Vale of Usk and the northern shore of the Severn estuary. (R. W. H. H.) NEWPORT, a city of northern Kentucky, U.S., on the Ohio

floor space.

is attributed to Jasper Tudor, duke of Bedford. The Norman castle (c. 1126) stands in ruins and nearby in High street is a fine old Tudor building named The main shopping centre after the original Murenger's house. comprises High street. Commercial street. Bridge street and Dock park, partly opened in Clytha street. civic centre at The new The 1940, now contains the main offices of the town council. Newport and Monmouthshire Joint College of Technology is an imposing modern building (1958) near the civic centre. The Central Library, Museum and Art gallery are situated in Dock street. The provision market built in 1888 lies between Dock street and High street. Belle Vue at Cardiff road and Beechwood at Chepstow road are the main parks. A 24S-ft.-high transporter bridge, opened in 1906, spans the river near the docks. The modern port grew from the local coal and iron export trade and the present Alexandra docks comprise the North and South docks forming a continuous deepwater area of 125 ac. with 4 mi. of quays and six transit sheds providing 234,000 sq.ft. of covered

square, three-story tower (c. 1480)

settlers

promoted

its

and the completion development as a

A

metal fabricating centre, Newport was the scene of a seven-year (1921-28) strike by steelworkers. In 1932 Newport adopted a council-manager form of government. For comparative population figures see table in residential suburb of that city.

Kentucky:

(W.

Population.

F. St.)

NEWPORT,

a city of southeastern Rhode Island, U.S., about 30 mi. S.S.E. of Providence, occupying the southern end of the island of Rhode Island (or Aquidneck) in Narragansett bay; a port of entry and the seat of Newport county. It is a place of historic interest, important formerly as a fashionable summer resort for some of the wealthiest U.S. families and in the second half of the 20th century for its naval installations.

From

the harbour on the west, the city rises up a gentle hillside

to a plateau at about 250

ft.

elevation.

Famous

for its mild

cli-

attracted southerners and West Indian planters in summer as early as the first quarter of the 18th century. The city itself is a community of contrasts. An old section, dating from the colonial period, consists of historic buildings

mate the year round,

it

and homes set on narrow streets which climb the slope eastward from the harbour. Along Newport's Bellevue avenue, which runs through the heart of the island, and around the southern coast line can be seen the magnificent mansions of 19th- and early 20thcentury millionaires. Some of these have been boarded up while others have been converted for church and school use. A few are still used as summer homes. Until 1900 Newport was one of Rhode Island's two capital The Old State house cities, sharing that honour with Providence. or Old Colony house (1739), one of the most interesting colonial buildings in the state, still stands at the head of the old Parade, now Washington square. Not far away are such historic structures as Trinity church (1725); Touro synagogue (1763), the oldest in America (designated a national historic site in 1946), famous for the architectural beauty of its interior; and the Red-

wood library (1750). The old section known as "the Point," on the harbour front, Some contains many fine homes of colonial merchant princes. of these homes have been restored and opened as museums by One such is the the Preservation Society of Newport county. Hunter house, furnished with outstanding antique furniture, much of it produced by the famous Newport dynasty of colonial cabinetmakers, the Townsends and Goddards. Also restored and opened to the public is the pre-Revolutionary White Horse tavern.

NEWPORT BEACH— NEW ROCHELLE

374

In Touro park at the top of the hill is Newport's most enigmatic structure, a stone tower set on stone pillars. Long thought to be a vestige of the Norsemen's visits to America before Columbus, it is now held by most responsible archaeologists and historians to be the remains of a 17th-century windmill built by Benedict Arnold, one of the early settlers and an ancestor of the traitor of the same name. Other points of interest include the Newport casino, scene of an annual grass-court tennis tournament and the American Lawn Tennis association's tennis '"Hall of Fame," and "The Breakers." former summer home of Cornelius Vanderbilt, now open in sum-

mer as a museum. Newport was founded

in 1639 by a group of refugees from the Antinomian controversy (see Hutchinson, Anne), in Massachusetts who had first settled the year before at the north end of the island in the present town of Portsmouth. Following a schism in that settlement a group led by William Coddington moved to the south end of the island and established Newport which, because of its e.xcellent harbour and strategic position for water-borne commerce, soon became one of the richest and most flourishing cities in colonial .America, surpassed only by Boston, Philadelphia and New York city. The British occupation of Newport during the American Revolution, which resulted in a flight of almost all the leading merchants to the mainland, followed within a few decades by the shift of Rhode Island's income from commerce and shipping to textile mills and other manufacturing, brought about the economic decline of the city. But its splendid climate and its charm remained unchanged and right after the American Civil War its rise as a summer resort was spectacular. In the second half of the 20th century manufactures included electrical instruments and appliances but the largest industry was the complex of naval installations. Comprised of the Naval War college and the several components of the New^jort naval base, which includes the naval station (formerly the naval training station), the naval underwater ordnance station (formerly the naval torpedo station), the Melville net and fuel depot in nearby Portsmouth and the naval hospital. The naval station, formerly used to train recruits, consists of the officers candidate school and fleet

training

school,

the legal school, chaplains indoctrination general line school and navy supply school.

centre,

WAVES

Printing in Rhode Island was begun at Newport in 1727 by James Franklin, an older brother of Benjamin, and the colony's It failed shortly first newspaper was published there in 1732. but in 1758 James Franklin. Jr., established the Newport Mercury,

still

published as a weekly.

Newport, beginning festival,

in

1954,

was the home of an annual jazz Independence day week end.

generally held over the

is the seat of Salve Regina college (Roman Catholic, 1947) for women. Chartered as a city in 1784, Newport resumed the town form of government in 1787, but again became a city in 1853. In 1953 Newport adopted a council-manager form of government. For comparative population figures see table in Rhode Island: Pop-

Newport

ulation.

NEWPORT

(B. F. S.)

BEACH, a city of Orange county in southern 35 mi. S.E. of Los Angeles. It includes the communities of Newport Beach and Balboa on a four-mile-long sandspit between lower Newport bay and the Pacific ocean. Lido Isle and Balboa Island in the bay, and Corona del Mar and Newport Heights on terraces above the northeast shores of the bay. The area is popular as a recreational resort developed around yachting, sportfishing and beach activities, and as a residential community for commuters to Long Beach and Los Angeles. Industries include boatbuilding and repairing, fish canning and packing and the manufacture of electronic components and plastics. The bay itself was a port for Yankee skippers during the Spanish and Mexican periods of California history and from 1872 to 1898 it achieved some local significance as a commercial port. Incorporated in 1906, the city adopted a council-manager form of government in 1946. For comparative population figures see table in California: Population. (R. A. K.) California, U.S.,

NEWPORT

NEWS, a city and port of entry in the tidewater region of southeastern Virginia, U.S., on the north side of the great harbour of Hampton Roads {q.v.) and the James river. Pop. (1960) 113,662; Newport News-Hampton standard metropolitan statistical area

(Newport News and Hampton

York county), 224.503.

cities and (For comparative population figures see

table in Virginia: Population.)

by Daniel Gookin, who arrived from Ireland in 1621 50 colonists, the area was already known as Newportes Newes. There is no satisfactory explanation of the origin of this unusual name. Newport News remained a tiny hamlet until 1880 when it was chosen as the Atlantic deep-water coal shipping port for the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway system. Two years later the town was laid out and in 1896 it was incorporated as a During World War I Newport News was an important port city. for supplying the Allies and also served as a major supply and embarkation port for U.S. forces in 1917-18. In World War II it was headquarters for the Hampton Roads port of embarkation. In 1952 Newport News was made administratively independent That same year of Warwick county in which it was located. Warwick county was incorporated as the city of Warwick, and in 1958 Newport News and Warwick merged as the city of Newport News. In 1920 the city adopted a council-manager form of government. Its port facilities, along with those of Norfolk, Portsmouth, Chesapeake (gq.v.) and Hampton, are under the jurisdiction of the Virginia State Port authority of Hampton Roads, created in 1926. Modern pier facilities can handle more than 30.000,000 tons of coal per year as well as ore, bulk liquids and general cargo. The Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock company, founded in 1886, has one of the largest and most complete shipyards in the world. Among the vessels built there were the luxury liners "America" and "United States," the giant aircraft carriers "Forrestal" and "Enterprise" and the submarine "Robert E. Lee," designed for firing Polaris guided missiles. Both the "Enterprise" and the "Lee were nuclear powered. In addition to shipbuilding and repairing, Newport News' industries include railroad shops, oil refineries, fish processing plants and the manufacture of textiles, paper products, radar and electronic Settled

with

"

equipment and mica products.

Among

points of interest in the

museum

(1930), containing a collection of deck and navigation gear, volumes of sea lore, maps, charts and globes. (M. Br.) city

is

the Mariners'

ships' figureheads, ship models, anchors,

NEWQUAY,

an urban district and seaside town in the North Cornwall parliamentary division of Cornwall, Eng., 20 mi. W.S.W. of Bodmin by road. Pop. (1961) 11,877. Area 7.2 sq.mi. Newquay, on the tidal Gannel, is almost entirely a modern resort town, having grown since the mid- 19th century from a small fishing village. It stands mostly on bold cliffs overlooking sandy beaches, sheltered on the west from the Atlantic by Towan headland. The The climate is equable and golf course overlooks Fistral bay. The small harbour, tropical plants grow in the Trenance valley. in the shelter of Towan headland, is now used only by local fishing and pleasure boats.

NEW QUEBEC

(Nouveau Quebec),

great Labrador-Ungava peninsula.

the

Quebec part of the

comprises the entire peninsula between Hudson and James bays and the Coast of Labrador portion of Newfoundland, north of the general line. of the EastIt

main and Hamilton rivers. Formerly the Ungava district of the Northwest Territories, it was armexed to Quebec in 1912; the boundary with Newfoundland was established in 1927. Development of immense iron deposits began in the 1950s. See LabradorUngava; Quebec.

NEW

ROCHELLE, a city of Westchester county, N.Y., U.S., on Long Island sound about 14 mi. N.E. of New York city. Founded in 1688 by a group of Huguenots who had fled persecution in France,

for those

it

became

who work

in

modem

in the

times largely a residential city

nearby metropolis.

The few

local

a variety of light products including surgical instruments, television parts, plumbing supplies and electrical machinery. Many parks lie within the city, while Glen Island

industries produce

nearby on the sound provides 108 ac. of recreational space. There are two colleges, both Roman Catholic, located there. The Col-

NEW ROMNEY—NEWS AGENCY lege of

New

Rochelle (women) was founded in 1904, while lona

college, a business

Named

1940.

France, the in history.

and

men, dates from Huguenot bastion in

liberal arts institution for

La Rochelle, the community has continued for

Men and women

old since

of prominence

its

founding to figure

who were born

or lived

Peter Faneuil, John Jay, Gen. Philip Schuyler, Thomas Paine and Susan B. Anthony. Points of particular interest are Ft. Slocum, an army post offshore, and a farm cottage given there

include

the state of New York, where he spent sevIncorporated as a village in 1858 and a Rochelle adopted the council-manager form of government in 1932. Pop. (1960) 76,812; for comparative population figures see table in New York: Population. (C. B. F.) a municipal borough in the Ashford pardivision Kent, Eng., and one of the Cinque Ports liamentary of (g.v.), 18 mi. S.S.E. of Ashford by road, and more than a mile from the sea. Pop. (1961) 2,556. Between the town and the sea New Romney lies on Romney has grown Littlestone-on-Sea. marsh, part of a level extending from Winchelsea in the southwest to Hythe in the northeast, which was within historic times in great part covered by an inlet of the sea. The marsh is cordoned off by the Royal MiUtary canal. The river Rother, which now has its mouth at Rye harbour, formerly entered the sea there, but had its course wholly changed during a great storm in 1287, and the gradual accretion of land led to the decay not only of New Romney but of Winchelsea and Rye as seaports. Romney marsh itself is protected by a sea wall, and its guardianship and drainage are in the hands of a special corporation dating from 1462. Its harbour was the cause of the early importance of Romney, as it was called before 1562-63, and the annual assembly of the Cinque Ports, called the Brodhull, was held there. At the time of Domesday Book the archbishop of Canterbury and the bishop to

Thomas Paine by

eral of his last years.

city in 1899,

New

375

The name of the town Tragha) means "the yew tree at the head king of Ulster.

(lubhar Cinn of the strand" and it is said that the original yew, the symbol of immortality, was planted by St, Patrick himself. Because of its position in a gap of the hills, Newry has seen much fighting and was set on fire by James H's forces in 1689. St. Patrick's parish church fChurch of Ireland), founded in 1578 by Sir Nicholas Bagenal, was the first Protestant church to be built in Ireland, all Protestant churches before that time being existing structures taken over after the Reformation. Newry is the seat of the Roman Catholic bishop of

Dromore and

pleted in 1825.

in Irish

the cathedral of SS. Patrick and

On Trevor

hill

Colman was com-

a private residence, erected in 1775,

the king of supplying five ships to serve for 15 days in the year.

a perfectly preserved example of Ulster Georgian architecture. Newry's industries include the spinning and weaving of linen and cotton, the manufacture of waterproof clothing, the production of mashed-potato powder, and granite quarrying. There are weekly sailings from Newry to Liverpool for freight and livestock. AGENCY, an organization that supplies news reports to newspapers, magazines, radio and television stations and other users. It does not pubhsh news itself but supplies news to its subscribers who, by sharing costs, obtain services they could not otherwise afford. All of the mass media depend upon the agencies for the bulk of the news, even including those few that have extensive news-gathering resources of their own. The news agency has a variety of forms. In some large cities, newspapers and radio and television stations have joined forces to obtain routine coverage of news about the police, courts, government offices and the Hke. National agencies have extended the area of such coverage by gathering and distributing stock-market quotations, sports results and election reports. A few agencies have extended their service to include worldwide news. The service has grown to include news interpretation, special columns, news photographs and motion-picture film for television news reports. Many agencies are co-operatives and the trend has been in that

A

direction since

NEW ROMNEY,

of

Bayeux were

joint lords.

Romney owed

the maritime service to

confirmation of liberties was granted by John in 1205. The town was incorporated by Edward III and was represented in the parliament of 1265. It returned two members from 1366 to 1832. After Elizabeth I's charter of 1563, the town was officially called New Romney. A large collection of records, maps, etc., relating There is a big sheep to the Cinque Ports are in the town hall. fair in August. Of the five churches mentioned in Domesday

Book only the Norman church

of St.

ruins of a 13th-century priory.

church Ught railway, of 15

in.

Nicholas remains; there are

The Romney, Hythe and Dym-

gauge, incorporated in 1926,

is

one

pubhc railways. ROSS (Ros Mhic Treoin), a town of County Wexford, Republic of Ireland, on the Barrow, 2 mi. below its junction with the Nore, 87 mi. S.S.W. of Dublin by road. Pop. (1961) 4,494. St. Abban founded the abbey of Rossmactreoin in the 6th century, which gave rise to the ancient city Rossglas or Rossponte. There are remains of a 13th-century Dominican foundation in Rosbercon, on the Kilkenny side of the Barrow which is there crossed by a swing bridge ( 1869). The Protestant church occupies of the smallest

NEW

part of the site of the old Franciscan friary (13th century).

In 1269 the town, which stands on a steep hill overlooking the river, was surrounded by walls. The fortresses were dismantled by Oliver Cromwell. Inland water communications reach Dublin by means of the Barrow and the Grand canal. New Ross has breweries and lanyards, a salmon fishery and a fertilizer factory, and exports agricultural produce. The nearby village of Dunganstown is the ancestral home of John F. Kennedy, who paid a sentimental visit to the family farmstead in June 1963. It was from New Ross that his greatgrandfather sailed for the United States in the 1840s. a seaport, urban district and market town of County Down, N.Ire., is situated on the Clanrye river and Newry canal, 38 mi. S. of Belfast by road. It hes in a valley to the north of Carlingford lough and is within a few miles of the moun-

NEWRY,

Mourne.. Pop. (1961) 12,450. The town developed around a Cistercian abbey founded on the The left bank of the Clanrye by St. Malachy about the year 1 144. abbey was granted a charter in 1157 by Muirchertach O'Lochlainn, tains of

is

NEWS

World War

II.

Under

this forrrf of organization,

members provide news from their own circulation areas an agency pool for general use. In major news centres the national and worldwide agencies have their own reporters to cover important events, and they maintain offices to facilitate distribuindividual to

tion of their service.

In addition to general news agencies, several specialized services have developed. In the United States alone these number well over 100, including such major ones as Science service. Religious News service, Jewish Telegraphic agency and Nuclear News servSpeciahzed services in other countries include the Swiss ice. Katholische Internationale Presseagentur, which reports news of special interest to Catholics, and the Star News agency of Pakistan, which supplies news of Muslim interest in English and Urdu. Several large newspapers syndicate the work of their own correspondents through special agencies such as the New York Times News service, Chicago Daily News service, Chicago Tribune Press service. New York Herald Tribune News service, and the syndicated services of the Times and Daily Express of London. The major U.S. press associations have expanded their service to include entertainment features and some feature syndicates provide straight news coverage as a part of their service. The Newspaper Enterprise association (N.E.A.) and the North American Newspaper aUiance (N.A.N.A.) distribute both news and features in the United States. Despite the plethora of news services, most news printed and broadcast throughout the world each day comes from only a few major agencies. A survey of world communications by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization fisted more than 80 important news services, but only 5 of them ranked as "world agencies." These five have the financial resources to station experienced reporters in all areas of the world where news develops regularly, to assure them access to well-organized transmission faciUties or to send them wherever news develops unexpectedly. These agencies are equipped, also, to distribute the service almost instantaneously. The Associated Press, for instance, estimates it can send a bulletin to 80 countries in less than one minute.

:

NEWS AGENCY

376

news agency

The world agencies have established a variety of relationships Most of with other agencies and with individual news media. them purchnse the news services of national or local agencies to representatives own staff at supplement news gathered by their key points. Reuters, the British agency, reports that it is "affiliated with the principal news agency in every country in the world."

in the

Reuters, like the Agence France-Presse, supphes a worldwide news file to be distributed by some national agencies along with their domestic news reports. The U.S. services more often contract to deliver their service directly to individual users abroad.

most 2,000 radio and

A

different relationship e.xists in the

Communist

orbit.

Each

major Communist country has its own national news service. Each news service is officially controlled, usually by the minister The services exchange news reports, some of of information. which come from their own correspondents at key points. Tass, the Soviet news agency, is their principal source of world news. Tass also makes Communist party policy known throughout the orbit, either in the form of a daily Pravda editorial or other mate-

members

In addition to

field.

its

regular

100,000 newsmen.

By

the 1960s A. P. had

its

own

the U.S.

staff,

more than

contribute local and regional news gathered by

staff in

news

centres throughout the world, with 100 offices in the United States and more than 50 abroad. It operated more than 400,000 mi. of leased wire to carry

its

reports to 1,760 U.S. newspapers and

television stations.

outlets in 80 nations received its service.

More than

al-

7,000 news

In Aug. 1952

it

started

use of radioteleprinter receivers to link all of South America directly to the New York city headquarters, and the service was extended to Asia, Europe and Africa. A. P. also operates Associated Press. Ltd., in Great Britain.

—

United Press International was formed

in

May

(U.P.I.) . This news agency 1958 by a merger of United Press (U.P.) and U.P. had been founded in service (I.N.S.).

News when E. W. Scripps combined

International

The oldest and largest news agency operating exclusively in Britain is the Press association (P.A.), founded by provincial newspapers on a co-operative basis in 1868. It began active work on Feb. 5, 1870, when the post office took over the private telegraph companies that had previously supplied the provincial papers with news. For 50 years the P.A. transmitted news by press telegrams but in 1920 it leased private telegraph wires from the post office. The association occupied its new London head-

three U.S. regional services 1907 under his control to sell news to all newspapers. I.N.S. had been formed in 1909 by William Randolph Hearst to provide news to morning newspapers; later, through merger with other Hearst The 1958 services in 1928, it provided 'round-the-clock service. merger consolidated nearly 2,000 domestic and foreign clients of I.N.S. with the more extensive clientele of U.P. In the early 1960s U.P.I, served nearly 1,600 newspapers and 2,000 radio stations in the United States and approximately 1,200 newspapers and more than 300 radio stations abroad. These and other clients received news in 48 languages, transmitted over wireless and other commercial communication, and through 465,607 mi. of leased wire in North and South America, Europe and the far east. U.P.I, maintained 221 news and picture bureaus, 98 of them outside the United States. It has developed a variety of special service subsidiaries, among them United Features syndicate and U.P. Movietone News; the latter provides news on film to teleAnother auxiliary, British United Press, serves vision stations. papers and broadcasters in the United Kingdom and Canada. Reuters. This news agency is owned by the newspapers of the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand and is operated "as a trust rather than as an investment" to provide a world news service. It was founded by German-born Paul Julius Reuter (q.v.), when he moved to England in 1851. Reuter saw the possibilities of the telegraph for news reporting and built up an organization that maintained correspondents throughout the world. The Reuters agency remained in private hands until 1925 when

supplies

quarters building in Fleet street in 1939. From this building it news to all the London daily and Sunday newspapers,

the Press association (P.A.) acquired major control of it and then gained full control in 1941. P.A. later in 1941 sold half of Reuters

provincial papers and trade journals and other periodicals.

to the

Capacity for speed has greatly increased during the 20th cenRadioteleprinters that make possible fast automatic transtury. mission of news messages Unk all major areas. Picture transmisDuring sion by radio and high-fidelity wires is well developed. 1951 the Associated Press began a teletypesetter service a system

newspapers, and in 1947 membership was extended to associations representing the daily newspapers of Australia and New Zealand. As a co-operative Reuters draws from the provincial news cover-

forming an important part of its service. countries of the world have one or more national news Some depend on a common service, such as the Arab News agency, which provides news for a half-dozen states in the middle east. Others are national newspaper co-operatives, such as the Ritzaus bureau of Denmark, founded in 1866, which has a well-developed teleprinter network. A few, like ANSA (Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Associata) of Italy, have expanded coverage abroad in limited degree to supplement their domestic service, but still depend on Reuters and Agence France-Presse for much of their foreign news. The Federal Republic of Germany since 1949 has built up Deutsche-Presse Agentur (D.P.A.), now one of the more important news agencies in Europe, with an extensive exchange with other national services. In Canada the Canadian Press is a co-operative news agency with headquarters in Toronto, rial

Most

agencies.

Ont.

—

of wire delivery of news on punched tape that operates typesetting

—

machines automatically for its U.S. members and clients. United Press International provides a similar service. The following paragraphs briefly describe the major news agencies of the world Associated Press (A.P.). This is the oldest and largest of the U.S. news agencies. In May 1848 six New York city dailies joined to finance a telegraphic relay of foreign news brought by ships to Boston, first U.S. port of call for westbound transatlantic ships. In 1856 the service took the name of the New York Associated Press, a mutual, which sold its service to various regional newsPressure from the regional customers forced paper groups. changes in its control, and in 1892 the modern A. P. was set up under the laws of Illinois. The Chicago Inter Ocean brought an antimonopoly suit in 1900, and A. P. moved to New York, where association laws permitted the group to continue its strict control of membership, including blackballing of applicants for membership by existing members. In the early 1940s Marshall Field III, who had established the Chicago Sun, fought his exclusion from the A. P. service. Prosecution under the federal antitrust powers ended the A.P.'s restrictive practices. A.P.'s annual budget, approximately $35,000,000, is the highest

—

—

Newspaper Proprietors'

association, representing

London

age of the P.A., the resources of its London newspaper members and from its Australasian partners. It employs about 200 staff correspondents and hundreds of part-time correspondents abroad, who have access to the news files of agencies with which it exchanges copy. Reuters exchanges the Press association's U.K. report for A.P.'s coverage of U.S. news, but each retains the right to market its world report in the other's territory. About 80 U.S. newspapers and radio and television stations buy Reuters service. Directly or through national news agencies Reuters provides its services to about 1 10 countries and territories, reaching nearly all the world's 8,000 daily newspapers and hundreds of radio and television stations.

Agence France-Presse

—

(A.F.P.). This agency is the successor an earher French world news agency, Havas, which was founded was suppressed at the time of the German occupation After the liberation of Paris in Sept. 1944 of France in 1940. A.F.P. was set up by a group of newspapermen, including former Havas representatives in London and elsewhere and others who had been active in the underground movement in Paris and Algiers. The French government gave them the assets of Havas, including its Paris building, which became the A.F.P. headquarters. With the assistance of the French government A.F.P. rebuilt a considerable part of the worldwide service of Havas. It is organized as a commercial but nonprofit agency, and a majority of to

in 1835 but

— SIBERIAN ISLANDS— NEW SOUTH WALES

NEW

board of directors are representatives of the French press. A.F.P. has established 40 offices at home and more than 70 abroad. In addition to contracts with A. P. and Reuters for exchange of news reports, it sells a domestic French news report to most of the world's news agencies and provides its worldwide report to many of them. Within France it has a leased-wire circuit and distributes news to its foreign clients from Paris through radioteleprinter. A.F.P. also has a photo service and a number of specialized news reports, several concerned with African matters. Tass (Telegrafnoye Agentstvo Sovietskogo Soyuza). This is the central information agency of the U.S.S.R. and is reits

sponsible to the council of ministers.

It

had

its

origin in the old

Petrograd telegraph agency, which was reorganized in April 1918 as Rosta (Russian telegraph agency). On July 10, 1925, Tass was founded. In the early 1960s Tass supplied news to 4,400 Soviet newspapers and to all Soviet radio stations; it exchanged news with 25 foreign news agencies and had correspondents in 52 countries. It employed 550 staff correspondents and about 300 part-time reporters in the Soviet Union. Its service to foreign clients is transmitted in Russian, English, French, German and Spanish; transmission inside the Soviet Union is mostly by telegraph. Wireless teletype has, however, been widely used and, since 1962, foreign correspondents in Moscow have transmitted their news through

See also Press Syndicate.

;

NEW

SIBERIAN ISLANDS (Novosibirskiye Ostrova), an archipelago in the Arctic ocean ranging 30-350 mi. off the northern mainland of the U.S.S.R., in the Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Repubhc, lies between longitude 135° and 158° E. and latitude 73° and 77° N. It divides the Laptev sea from the East

Siberian

ther exploration. See I. M. Ivanov, Novosibirskiye Ostrova (1935).

sea.

There are three groups

of

islands:

monwealth of Australia, was discovered and named by Capt. James Cook in 1770 and settled by Capt. Arthur Phillip in 1788. It consisted originally of all Australian territory east of longitude 135°

E. (more than half the continent), but the western boundary

was and thereafter the other eastern states were formed by separating from this area Tasmania in 1825, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, Queensland in 1859, the Northern Territory in 1861-63 and the Australian Capi-

moved

to longitude 129° E. in 1825,

:

tal

Territory in 1911.

;

Anzhu), in the centre; and the five small De Long Islands (Ostrova De-Longa) in the northeast. The total land area is about 14,500 sq.mi. The islands are low-lying (greatest elevation 1,050 ft.), and consist of limestones and shales with granite and granodiorite intrusions, largely covered by Quaternary deposits and thick layers of fossil ice. The latter contain animal remains, including mammoth tusks, hunting for which became the islands' main industry. True glaciers are now found only in the De Long Islands. Several deposits of lignite are known. The climate is typically arctic, with a mean July temperature of 3° C. (37° F.), low precipitation, and snow lying for nine months of the year. Vegetation is that of the tundra, and wild life includes reindeer, arctic fox, lemming and rare polar bear. Many birds come to nest in summer. There has never been a native population, but the U.S.S.R. has established hunting stations, where hunters may live all the year round if they wish, and several Islands (Ostrova

weather stations. Cossack explorers, sailing from the Lena and Kolyma rivers in the 17th century, heard stories of, and probably even saw, land to the north, but the first to reach it was Merkuri Vagin, who visited the most southerly island in 1712. Ivan Lyakhov, a Yakutsk merchant, became interested in the prospects of mammoth ivory, and went there in 1770 and 1773-74. He obtained a

monopoly of ivory-trading

the area and the two southerly islands were named after him, but he also discovered parts of the central group. Other merchants followed him and made further in

Yakov Sannikov

Sanin 1800 and 1805. exploring expedition in 1809-10 led by M. M. Hedenstrom (Gedenshtrom), an exiled civil servant from the Baltic states. Sledge parties covered much of the central and

explorations, notably

nikov joined an

Thus

ofiicial

southern groups. Hedenstrom saw open water to the northward, a fact which contributed to the idea, very prevalent later, of an open polar sea. Another expedition, whose object was to im-

the original area of 1,584,389 sq.mi.

to 309,433 sq.mi., or

about one-tenth of the continent.

are as follows: on the east, the Pacific

ocean from Point Danger to Cape Howe; on the west, the 141st meridian of east longitude; on the north, the 29th parallel of south Barwon and a spur of the Eastern highlands, and thence along the crest of the McPherson range to the sea; on the south, the southern bank of the Murray river to its source, and thence a straight hne to Cape Howe. The coastal boundary, direct from Point Danger to Cape Howe, is 683 mi. long; the western boundary is 340 mi.; and the average breadth between these is about 650 mi. The capital is Sydney. latitude, proceeding east along the

the

Lyakhov Islands (Lyakhovskie Ostrova) in the south, separated from the mainland by Dmitri Laptev strait (Proliv Dmitria Lapteva) the New Siberian Islands proper, also called the Anjou

(T, E. A.)

NEW SOUTH WALES, the most populous state of the com-

The present boundaries

Bibliography.— Victor Rosewater, History of Cooperative NewsGathering in the United States (1930) F. L. Mott, News in America (1952); O. Gramling, AP : the Story of the News (1940). (C. M. H.)

377

prove Hedenstrom's map, worked successfully in 1821-23 under Lieut. P. F. Anjou. The De Long Islands were discovered in 1881 by the American G. W. De Long, whose ship "Jeanette" was crushed by the ice near them. The next phase of exploration is associated with the Russian geologist E. von Toll, who worked in the group in 1886, 1893, and again in 1901-02, when he lost his life there. These expeditions yielded important scientific results. The Russian ships "Taimyr" and "Vaigach" visited the archipelago in 1912-14 and the Norwegian ship "Maud" in 1924. The Academy of Sciences set up the first scientific station on Bolshoi Lyakhovski Island in 1927-30; since then one or more such stations have been continuously manned and have acted as bases for fur-

was reduced

leased teletype.

:

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Geology.

—The

state can be divided into three geological areas the coastal plains, the tablelands, and the western slopes and plains.

The

coastal plains consist mainly of post-Tertiary fluviatile de-

In the north, between the Richmond and Tweed rivers, an area of decomposed basalt is particularly fertile and suitable for intensive agriculture and dairy farming. The coastal area also contains two coal-bearing basins, the more important extending between the Hunter and Shoalhaven rivers. The tablelands of the dividing range are composed largely of Paleozoic sediments posits.

The area west of Sydney, north to Maitland and south to Wollongong, is capped with Mesozoic strata. The western slopes and plains are underlaid with granitic rocks and sediments of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Early Tertiary ages. In the south, on the lower Darling and Murray rivers, there is a large area of Early Tertiary marine beds, and in the Riverina underlying granitic, Silurian and Devonian rocks. In the north, Mesozoic (Triassic) strata form part of the Great Artesian basin, bordering southward with a Paleozoic belt that stretches west to the South Australian border. The surface of the plains is generally covered with post-Tertiary deposits and flood loams except where occasional outcroppings of earlier formations together with granite and other igneous rocks.

rise to the surface.

—

Physical Features. The state consist^ of four natural geographical divisions: the coastal lowlands; the tablelands forming part of the Eastern highlands {q.v.) between the coast and the the western slopes of the highlands and the western plains. tablelands form a watershed: the coastal division is drained

plains

The

;

;

by numerous

which flow eastward from the plateau to the sea; in the west, the one river system, the MurrayDarling, drains the slopes and plains, entering the sea in South Australia.

short, rapid rivers

The Murray

river {q.v.), rising in the southern high-

lands, and joined by the Lachlan-Murrumbidgee (watering the southeastern slopes) and the Darling river (q.v.) and its tributaries (watering the central north and northwest), is the longest and most important river. The coastal rivers are rain fed and

NEW SOUTH WALES

378

Although there cattle.

is

good agricultural land on the tablelands, much

too rough for anything but grazing sheep and There are, however, important mineral resources: tin in

of the country

is

the north, coal in the centre (around Lithgow) and gold in both north and south. Lithgow is the only large manufacturing town, and most other towns are commercial centres for pastoral, agricuhural and mining activities. The Blue mountains, due west of Sydney, are a convenient and popular tourist resort. The tablelands account for only 13% of the area of New South Wales, and less

than one-tenth of the state's population lives there. Agriculmixed farming, particularly a combination

ture consists mainly of

of sheep (nearly one-quarter of the state's total) and/or cattle crops.

The Western Slopes. ally to the great

—To the west the tablelands

western plains.

The

slopes, varying

and

slope gradu-

from 150

to

300 mi. in width, consist of gently rolling country that descends

from the plateaus (at elevations above 2,000 ft.) to levels of less than 1,000 ft. on the plains. The climate is warm and dry, with a uniform rainfall. Average monthly temperatures are 23°-27° C. (73°-81° F.) in summer and 8°-12° C. (46°-53° F.) in winter. The average annual rainfall varies from 30 in. in the east to 20 in. in

PHYSICAL FEATURES. CITIES AND TOWNS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. AUSTR.

the west.

The coasthne consists of a succession of rugged promontories alternating with sandy beaches, inlets, river estuaries and, occasionally, marine and estuarine lakes. The river mouths are usually sand obstructed, but in the central coast subsidence has produced some fine drowned valleys, of which Port Jackson (Sydney) is outstanding. Along the rivers lies fertile alluvial land suitable for intensive agriculture (fodder crops, market gardening, fruit and, in the north, sugarcane) and dairy farming. There are rich coalfields round Newcastle and WoUongong. Almost everywhere the tablelands are separated from the coast by steep and often precipitous escarpments and gorges. Although less than 35,000 sq.mi. in area, this division has fourfifths of the state's population and most of the factory employees. It contains the capital and the next two largest towns, nearly all the coal and manufacturing areas, all the seaports, the bulk of the dairying and maize corn growing, and the state's governmental, financial and commercial headquarters. Wheat and sheep, however, are virtually excluded from this division because of the damp climate. The most heavily populated areas are Sydney, the

This division, with an ample and fairly reliable rainfall and fertile soil, is devoted mainly to mixed farming, particularly the production of wool and wheat, the state's best wheat-growing area being the southern slopes. In this area, also, the upper basins of the western rivers and streams and the outcrops of ancient rocks along the slopes in the past yielded rich minerals, particularly gold. The western slopes, with only 14% of the state's area and onetwelfth of the population, account for half the wheat crop and nearly one-third of the sheep. Tamworth is the largest town. The Plains. Covering nearly two-thirds of New South Wales, the plains extend from the edge of the slopes to the state's western boundary, being interrupted only by the elevated country from Orange to Cobar, and the Grey and Main Barrier ranges in the far west. They can be divided into the central plains and the western plains. The central plains consist of the Riverina (g.K.) district, divided from the western plains by the Lachlan and Murrumbidgee rivers iqq.v.), and the low flatlands stretching east of the Barwon and Bogan rivers. The western plains consist of the area west of the Lachlan, Bogan and Barwon rivers. Both plains, substantially the large flat basins of the Murray-Darling system, are floored with generally fertile red and black soils but receive a scanty rainfall. However, the northwestern plains fall substantially within the Great Artesian basin, and the southwestern plains in the Murray river artesian basin. Moreover, the dams on the upper courses of the Murray, Lachlan and Murrumbidgee have greatly increased the agricultural possibilities of the Riverina by irrigation. The Snowy mountains hydroelectric scheme has diverted many streams and rivers from their original eastward courses, so that water that was originally lost to agriculture is now available for irrigation in the Murray basin. {See Australia, Commonwealth of: The Economy: Production: Power; and AusTRALL^N Alps.) The climate is warm to hot, and dry. with a coolish winter. The average monthly temperatures are 24°-29° C. (75°-84° F.) in summer and 9°-I2° C. (49°-54° F.) in winter.

Hunter

The average annual

The western rivers are longer and have larger drainage areas, but they have a less reliable flow and, particularly the Darling and its tributaries, are subject to regular droughts. The lack of water is a continual problem west of the Eastern highlands except in the irrigation area along the Murrumbidgee and the liable to flood.

Murray. The Coastal Lowlands. These are low lying, undulating, well watered and fertile. Their average width is 50 mi. in the north and 20 mi. in the south, the widest part being the 150 mi. of the Hunter valley. The climate is mild to hot, and humid. The average monthly temperatures vary between 14° and 24° C. (57° and 76° F.) in the north and 11° and 20° C. (51° and 68° F.) in the south. The rainfall ranges between 30 and 80 in. a year and is

—

greater in the north.

(

warra

Clarence-Richmond-Tweed basins and the lUa-

valley, the

district.

The Tablelands.

)

—These form an extensive and almost unbroken

belt of plateaus runniilg roughly parallel with the coast, varying

in width

from 30

to 100 mi., averaging 2,500

ft. in height and rising north (Ben Lomond), about 3,400 ft. in the centre (Blackheath) and 7,316 ft. at Mt. Kosciusko (Australia's highest peak) in the south; the average height of the northern plateau exceeds that of the southern. To the east the tablelands

to 4,877

fall

in the

ft.

steeply to the coast; to the west they slope gradually to the The chmate is cool or cold, with uniform and reliable

plains.

The average monthly temperatures are 7°-21° C. (45°70° F.) in the north and 3°-17° C. (38°-63° F.) in the southabout 5° C. 10° F.) lower on the average than in the correspondrainfall.

(

ing coastal regions.

The average annual

in the east to 30 in. in the west.

rainfall varies

from 40

in.

—

rainfall varies from 7 in. in the northwest to 10-15 in. along the Darling and 20 in. in the east. In the western plains pastoral and mining activities alone have significance. Silver, lead and zinc are mined at Broken Hill, and opals at Lightning Ridge. Pastoral holdings are large, and towns well spaced and, except Broken Hill, small. In the central plains, while wool and wheat predominate throughout, farming is relatively less important in the north and more important, especially in the irrigation area, in the south. The division accounts for twofifths of the state's land but has only one-twentieth of the population (mostly in the central plains). It has two-fifths of the sheep (largely in the centre) and contributes similar proportions of the wheat crop (in the centre) and of the mineral production (from

Broken Hill Climate.

in the west).

— New

perate zone, and

its

South Wales

chmate

is

is

situated entirely in the tem-

generally mild, although occasional

NEW SOUTH WALES high temperatures are experienced in the northwest and some extreme cold on the southern tablelands. There is abundant sunshine in all seasons. Average temperatures are higher by 3°-4° C.

(S"-?" F.j in the north than in the south, and the mean daily range increases from 9° C. (19° F.) on the coast to about 14° C. (26° F.) on the western plains. Most of the state has frosts for up to five months of the year, but these are severe only on the tablelands and western slopes. Snow is rare except on the tablelands; perennial snow is found only on the highest peaks in the south. The seasons are well defined, autumn beginning in March, winter in June, spring in September and summer in December. is determined chiefly by anticyclones that pass almost continually across the state from west to east, with consequent

The weather tropicjl

and antarctic depressions; the

cyclonic disturbances.

summer

In

coast are northeasterly;

in

state

is

fairly free

from

from antarctic, summer rains from tropical, depressions. Rainfall has exerted a powerful influence in determining the character of rural settlement, the intensity of which varies directly arise

with the amount and certainty of the rain. Vegetation. Of the 9,000 botanical specimens found in Australia, about 3,600 are to be found in New South Wales. The natural vegetation is very varied, from the dense semitropical forest of the north coast to the sparse vegetation of the western plains. Except for the plains, the state is well wooded, nearly one-tenth of it being covered with forest and a much larger area with bush and scrub. The forest land is concentrated mainly on the coast and tablelands, giving way on the western slopes to shrub eucalypts, and in the far west to saltbush and spinifex. The predominant tree is the eucalyptus, which has a great variety of species and is the main source of the state's hardwood; it grows quickly and yields well, and its better varieties, e.g., ironbark and tallowwood, provide excellent timber. The eucalypti are specialized in habitat: the ironbark is found mostly on the coast and warmer

—

parts of the tablelands; the tallowwood

Murray red gum, though ubiquitous

on the north coast; the

along valuable varieties (the box, the stringybark and the turpentine) on the coast and tablelands. The softwoods are found in much smaller quantities on the north coast (the red cedar, the colonial or hoop pine and rosewood) and on the western slopes (the cypress pine) and are used extensively as cabinet timbers. Native grasses cover most of the state except in the far

and

in Australia, in forests

less

west and where overstocking has been severe. Many and good fodder and partly exNew South Wales pastures for sheep

varieties are drought resistant

plain the excellence of the rearing.

state.

cellent table fish,

The best-known

which

is

Plant and Animal).

HISTORY

the west they are variable, with a

average 80 in. a year in the northeast to less than 7 in. in the northwest; generally, the east receives more rain, and more uniformly, than the interior. The rate of evaporation increases from about 40 in. a year on the coast to about 100 in. in the northwest. Heavy rains cause extensive flooding of the rivers, especially on the coast; and droughts, particularly in the interior, are also common. The winter rain region is bounded on the north by a line from Broken Hill to Wagga Wagga with a curve round to Albury, i.e., the southwestern corner of the state; the summer rain region Ues north of a line from the northwestern corner to Newcastle; between those regions the rainfall is fairly evenly distributed, except on a narrow southern coastal strip between Nowra and Broken bay, which receives its heaviest rain in autumn. Winter rains

western rivers;

fish is the Murray cod, an exfound in all the western rivers. Both flora and fauna have been considerably modified by European settlement. Reforestation, particularly with softwoods, is changing the pattern of forests; introduced grasses and intensive agriculture are changing the character of pastures in many areas; and, generally, all animal life is retreating to the less inhabited regions of the state. Some immigrants, e.g., the rabbit and the trout, are completely acclimatized (see also Naturalization,

most of the

the prevailing winds on the

marked northerly component in the north and a pronounced southIn that season the prevailing direcerly component in the south. tion of the wind is westerly in the southern and southerly in the northern part of the state. In winter New South Wales lies diRainfall varies from an rectly in the great high-pressure belt.

the

379

Bird life includes the emu in the west; of the mound builders, both the scrub turkey and the mallee bird; the lyrebird on the north coast; a host of parrots and other more common species. Snakes, particularly the black snake, are also found over found.

—

Animal Life. The fauna of New South Wales is rich in marsupials and birds. The dingo was once fairly common in western New South Wales, where it preyed on sheep, but fencing and hunting have made it rare. Of Australian marsupials. New South Wales has three of the four species of native cat, one species of wombat, the native bear or koala, the common and ring-tailed opossums, the common and long-nosed bandicoots, and a variety of kangaroos and wallabies. The platypus and echidna are both

The

early history of

New

South Wales, from

its

settlement with

convicts under Capt. Arthur Phillip in 1788, is one with the early history of the British period in Australia. For this period espe-

end of Lachlan Macquarie's governorship in 1821, Australia History. Pastoral Expansion and Self-Government, 1822-55 In these years the foundations of modern New South Wales were securely laid. Self-government was attained; radicalism emerged; voluntarism was established as the basis of colonial religion; transportation of convicts ceased; trial by jury and a free press were allowed; and the rapid expansion of the pastoral industry made the colony prosperous. New South Wales changed from a prison farm into a self-governing colony with a free and expanding economy. The basis of the expansion was wool. Exploration in the 1820s and 1830s opened up the whole of the colony, and the increasing cially, until the

see

:

demand

wool in Yorkshire enabled the squatter pastoralists to new land, which provided excellent pastures for the fine-wooled Merino. Wool was a source of sterling funds and an inducement for capital imports and immigration. The consequent wealth was a solvent of autocracy. The growing body of free settlers was not prepared to suffer autocratic government and transportation, which lowered the moral tone of the colony. But the impetus for colonial reform came also from for

avail themselves of the

Britain.

Thus, acts of 1823 and 1828 gave New South Wales a nominated legislative council; an act of 1842 made this partly representative; and the Australian Constitutions act, 1850,

made

completely representative with the powers of writing a constitution. Nevertheless, until 1855 executive control rested entirely with the governor and his executive council, consisting of officials. it

was dominated by the pastoralists, who frame a constitution to thwart the democratic aspirations of the city and labour interests; but the bicameral legislature finally adopted avoided the autocratic ambitions of the pastoralists and was the future source of much liberal legislation. The most important social conflict between 1822 and 1855 concerned the status of the former convicts, but, after transportation was discontinued in 1840, wealthy emancipists and exclusives were brought into an alliance to fight for self-government and against the colony's growing radical movement. In rehgion the privileged status of the Church of England was modified, and the various Christian denominations demanded and received legal equality. The attempt by Gov. Sir Richard Bourke to introduce pubUc secuBut lar education foundered on the opposition of the churches. the most important political conflict concerned the alienation of land. The squatters had settled on land beyond "the limits of location" (a defined small area, to prevent undue dispersion and make government easier) and until 1847 had the most temporary Gov. Sir George Gipps tried to prevent the titles to their estates. complete ahenation of the state's pasturelands but was unable to prevent the 1847 orders-in-council which gave the squatters favourable treatment. The quarrel over land, however, continued

The

legislative council

tried to

throughout the 19th century. Colonial Liberalism, 1856-85.

—

In Feb. 1851 gold had been discovered near Bathurst, but the main tide of the gold rushes soon swung to the richer fields of Victoria. New South Wales

NEW SOUTH WALES

38o

nevertheless gained in wealth and population from gold. In 1856 the new constitution was implemented with a bicameral legislature and responsible cabinet government. One of its early acts in 1858 introduced the ballot and universal adult male suffrage, and the new democracy soon moved against the squatters. "Radical" leg-

30 years included the abolition of state aid 1S62 >, the Triennial Parliaments act ( 1874), the PubInstruction (public schools) act (1880) and public health legislation (1881). Sir John Robertson's land act of 1861 aimed at islation in the next

to religion

(,

lic

by allowing selection before survey; from 40 to 320 ac. within the "settled" or "intermediate" districts on payment of a quarter of the price, the facilitating closer settlement

anyone might

select

balance being due, with the title, after three years' residence. Some genuine closer settlement resulted, especially on the coast, but the squatters' devices of "peacocking" and dummying, i.e., picking the best land and using dummy selectors, left most of the

western lands in their hands. The failure to settle much of the increasing population on the land meant greater concentration in the towns, besides the rapid growth of trade unionism and radicalism among the growing body of workers. Radicalism before 1870 was reflected in the land legislation and opposition to the Between 1870 and 1885 it encouraged state British government. intervention in social and economic life and increased the political Sir Henry Parkes (g.v.) was aspirations of the trade unionists. the most influential personality in politics, and between 1872 and 1891 his ministries introduced free trade, established nonsectarian

He

public schools and sponsored railway development.

finally lost

because he favoured federation before the idea was popular New South Wales. This was a period of great economic development. By 1890 New South Wales was self supporting in foodstuffs; valuable minerals had been discovered and mined gold at Captain's Flat in 1861, copper at Cobar in 1869, tin at Inverell in 1871 and silverlead-zinc at Broken Hill in 1883; 1,215 mi. of railway were completed by 1884; unassisted immigration between 1873 and 1893 exceeded 230,000. These developments were greatly helped by the capital imports of the 1870s and 1880s, many of them by the government for public works. office

in

—

Labour, Nationalism and Federation, 1886-1914.

—This

period was dominated by growing nationalism, the rise of the political labour movement and the federation of the Australian colonies into the commonwealth of Australia. The period began with the collapse of export prices and the great reduction of capital imports consequent on British financial difficulties. This led to

wage reductions, industrial unrest, the great strikes of 1890-91 (in which the trade unions were defeated) and the financial crisis of 1892. Although a time of misfortune, culminating in the big drought of 1902-03, the 1890s were crucial in New South Wales' The Sydney Bulletin, a radical weekly, encouraged a nationalist literature, which included distinguished contributions Henry Lawson, Joseph Furphy and many others. The failfrom ure of direct action in the 1890 strike forced the unions into politics with immediate influence on legislation. G. H. Reid. with Labor party support, introduced financial reforms (including in-

history.

come

removed the public

from political control, reformed the land law to allow the breakup of large estates and passed the Factories and Shops act (1896). Similarly, after 1900, hberal legislation supported by Labor introduced old-age pensions (1900), compulsory industrial arbitration (1901), women's franchise (1902) and free public education (1906). After federation Labor gradually increased its power until in 1910 J. S. T. McGowen was able to form the first Labor ministry. Undoubtedly tax),

service

came with federation favoured the development of New South Wales as the centre of Australian hea\'y industry and thus of the industrial proletariat and the Labor party. But a similar development also occurred in agriculture, where, between 1900 and 1914, the area of cultivation doubled, with a rapid increase in the production of wheat, fruit and dairy products. In 1912, also, the Riverina was opened up for closer settlethe protection that

ment.

Boom and ning of World

—

Depression, the 1920s and 1930s. At the beginWar I, New South Wales had a Labor ministry un-

der W. A. Holman, but his support of conscription led to his expulsion from the Labor party and his formation of a National ministry in 1916. Labor was returned to office in 1920, and Labor

and Nationalist ministries alternated until the depression discredited Labor and put the Nationalists in office for a decade. The failure of Labor after its promising beginning was due mainly to its loss of both social purpose and emphasis on social experimentation, and to internal dissension. The 1920s were a period of boom, with considerable immigration and capital imports, and the expansion of public works, e.g., railway building and the Sydney harbour bridge, and private industry. In the world depression after 1929, however. New South Wales suffered badly, with declining export income, the cessation of capital imports and high unemployment (one-quarter of the total male work force in J933). Recovery was slow and not complete by 1939. John T. Lang, Labor premier in 1925-2 7 and 1930-32, is one of the most controversial figures in the history of the Australian Labor movement. He introduced some important social legislation, e.g., widows' pensions, but was dismissed from office by the governor

payments after his governby agreement with the com-

in 1932 for repudiating overseas debt

ment had

legally

committed

itself,

monwealth, to paying them. In a landshde victory the Nationalists under B. S. B. Stevens were returned in 1932 and retained office until 1941. By then, however, Lang had been expelled from the party, and Labor had regained its unity of purpose. World War II and Postwar Industrial Expansion. Labor governments were returned throughout World War II and up to 1962, with W. J. McKell, J. McGirr, J. J. Cahill and R. J. Heffron as premiers. The only notable social legislation in this period was that for the 40-hour week (1947) and compulsory trade unionism for all wage earners (1954). After 1940, however, under the stimulus of war, the postwar boom and substantial immigration, New South Wales e.xperienced the greatest industrial expansion in its

—

history (see

The Economy, below).

POPULATION The population

New

South Wales increased from 1,024 in 1961 (37% of the Australian total), the population at intervening dates being 197,265 in 1851, 1,701,736 in 1911 and 2,984,838 in 1947. Until 1860 immigration was more important than natural increase in the growth of population; afterward the reverse was true. The important periods of immigration were 1830-40, 1850-60 (the gold rushes), 1861-85, 1911-14, 1924-28 and after 1948; net immigration between 1949 and 1961 was 369,649. But in the hundred years from 1861 net immigration was less than one-quarter of the total population increase. The crude birth rate fell between 1864 and 1903, improved until 1913, declined to a record low level in 1934 and then slowly increased. The net reproduction rate followed a similar pattern, and in the mid-1950s it was still greater than unity ( 1.396) and higher than that of most European countries. The infant mortality rate declined from 124 in 1881-85 to 21 in the early 1960s, and the average expectation of life increased from 47 to 70 during the 1788 to 3,917,013

of

in

period. The sex distribution in the early 1960s was 101 males to 100 females (in 1911 the ratio had been 109:100); and proportion the of adults grew steadily from 1881. There has always been a high degree of urbanization. Sydney increased its population from 95.789 (27.3% of the state total)

same

in 1861 to 1,484,004

(49.7%)

in 1947; in 1961

Sydney had

2,183,-

388 persons and the remainder of the state 1,733,625. The other large centres are Newcastle (208,630 in 1961), Wollongong (131,754 and Broken Hill (31,267 these, with Sydney, contain about two-thirds of the state's population. The drift toward the central coast caused concern, but little action was taken to reverse the trend. Between 1911 and 1961 total population increased by 138% and urban population by 358% (Sydney, 226%), while rural population decreased by 29%. I

f

)

;

ADMINISTRATION AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS New

South Wales has its own constitution, conferred by imand its own governor and legislature. Although still nominally subordinate to the parliament of the United

perial statute in 1855,

NEW SOUTH WALES Kingdom, the parliament of

New

South Wales

may

for

all

practical

matters not specifically reserved to the The governor is the government. crown representative in the state and the titular head of the government. The state legislature consists of the legislative council and the legislative assembly, and its enactments are restricted only by imperial legislation still applying to New South Wales and by purposes legislate in

all

(commonwealth)

national

commonwealth

legislation validly applicable to

legislative council consists of

triennially

by the two houses

60 members, 15 of

by adult

All

1930.

money

suffrage. bills

must

whom

The

tri-

intensive farming

Compulsory voting was introduced

in

originate in the legislative assembly,

••

bouse who have been chosen to administer departments of

state.

In the early 1960s there were IS main ministerial departments the treasury, education, the attorney general, housing and

—

co-operative societies, justice, the chief secretary, health, agricul-

and conservation, labour and industry, transport, mines, land, government and highways, and works. There by statutory commissions, boards or trusts, concerned with such matters as fire fighting, main roads, railways, police, electricity, forestry, government insurance, ports and harbours, hospitals and housing. ture

social welfare, local

are also various important public services administered

These, too, are subject to considerable ministerial control. New South Wales is represented in the commonwealth parliament by 10 members in the senate (out of a total of 60) and 45 (of 122) in the house of representatives. Education. In New South Wales education is provided for by

—

and secondary schools and technical by private schools and by three independent universities,

a system of public primary colleges,

which are, nevertheless, largely dependent on state finance. The University of Sydney, founded 1850, is Australia's oldest university; the University of New England, founded 1954, at Armidale, originally was the New England University college branch (1938) of the University of Sydney; and the University of New South Wales, founded 1958, at Kensington, grew out of the New South Wales University of Technology (1949). The private schools, which receive no public money, are largely Roman Cathohc, although there are also large independent Protestant schools in Sydney.

—

Health and Welfare. The health of the community is provided for largely by a private medical profession, a system of public hospitals and a government department of public health. This department supervises the work of local authorities in implementing acts concerned with health, and also the state hospitals, maternal and baby welfare services, and school medical and dental services.

Roughly one-third of the cost of the hospitals was met

from fees in the early 1960s. Since World War II there has been little unemployment in New South Wales, although figures of more than 50,000 were recorded in 1957-58, 1958-59, 1960-61 and 1961-62. Both money and real wages have risen slowly but steadily; average weekly earnings in the early 1960s exceeded £A24.

THE ECONOMY New

South Wales

Australia.

Of

is,

economicaUy, the most important state

total Australian personal incomes,

it

in

contributes

about two-fifths. In the 1960s the state contained nearly half the sheep, one-quarter of the cattle and nearly one-third of the pigs of Australia. It produced two-fifths of the wool, one-fifth of the butter, nearly one-third of the bacon and ham, one-third of the wheat, one-quarter of the oats, more than one-third of the maize (corn) and all the rice. It mined three-quarters of the black coal of Australia and accounted for more than two-fifths of the value of factory production. At the foundation of the colony in 1 788 all land was vested in the British crown, but alienation was allowed, by grants up to 1830,

and thereafter by sale and lease. By the 1960s, of the total New South Wales, nearly one-third was alienated land or

area of

far west is devoted entirely to it. In the central west C including the Riverina), where the annual rainfall is 15-20 in., there is widespread mixed farming. The remainder of the state has large

areas of agriculture. The density of settlement and of agriculture increases from west to east. On the tablelands and coast,

which, by its power over supply, controls the executive. The cabinet consists, by convention, of members of parhament of either

—

as-

are elected

The legislative members elected

sitting together.

sembly, the popular house, consists of 94 ennially

the state.

381

land in process of alienation, three-fifths was leased crown land (mostly long term or perpetual) and the rest was land reserved to the crown. Agriculture. The pastoral industry was the basis of the expansion of the colony after 1820, and it is still statewide; the

and dairying on compact holdings, with grazing on rugged backlands, are characteristic. In the 1960s there were about 75,000 holdings larger than one acre, many of which were devoted to mixed farming. Most of them grew crops; nearly one-fifth were registered dairies; nearly one-third carried at least 20 beef cattle; about half had 50 or more sheep; and one-fifth carried pigs. Of the land under crops, about half is devoted to wheat, one-fifth to green fodder, and one-tenth each to oats and hay. Other crops are maize (corn), rice, potatoes, grapes and sugarcane. Sheep rearing is the main rural industry. Up to 1900 the cultivation of crops barely met local needs, but wheat growing expanded rapidly after 1897, and, with new varieties (bred by William Farrer), closer settlement and the irrigation of the southwest, wheat became an important export crop second only to wool. The total area under crops thus increased from about 1,050,000 ac. in 1891-95 to a record peak of 7,150,000 ac. in 1948 (nearly onequarter of the area suitable for cultivation). However, nearly one-tenth of the land is still held for grazing, and the pastoral industry provides about two-fifths of the total value of primary production. Although sheep are the most valu-

and dairying are important on the coast and tablelands. Sheep are most numerous on the western slopes and central western plains. Of about 70,000,000 sheep in the early 1960s, roughly 50,000,000 were Merino. There were about 200,000 horses, more than 4,000,000 cattle and less than 500,000 pigs. The gross value of rural products increased from less than £A50,000,000 early in the 20th century to nearly £A400,000,000 in the mid-1950s (of which half was the value of the wool clip), but it able, cattle for slaughter

declined afterward.

In the period 1918-39 the rural industries of New South Wales were faced with low home prices and unfavourable terms of trade for agricultural produce in the world markets. But World War II and the postwar boom (1946-51) boosted farm income with record prices and, in the case of wheat, record yields.

Wheat

prices in-

creased sixfold between 1938-39 and 1947-48, and in 1951 wool prices reached a record level, ten times higher than in 1935-36, although they fell back afterward.

—

Forestry. New South Wales is the most important timberproducing state of Austraha, with an estimated area of forest reserves of 9,500,000 ac. The Forestry commission treats and places under intensive management at least 30,000 ac. of native forests annually in order to increase their yield of useful timber and also plants about 6,000 ac. of fast-growing pine trees every year. In the 1960s softwood plantations totaled more than 100,000 ac, and the total output of hardwood and softwood accounted for about one-quarter of Austrahan production. Included in the state forests are about 800,000 ac. of national parks, in addition to the 1,500,000 ac. of the Kosciusko State park. Fisheries. Prior to 1959 the bulk of fish caught consisted of mullet, shark and Australian salmon, in that order of importance, but since then tuna fishing, almost entirely for canning, has jumped to second place. In the 1960s the state accounted for about one-

—

third of the boats

employed

in fishing in Australia

eighths of total Australian production;

it

and three-

provided almost

all

the

consumed in Australia. Mining. New South Wales contains extensive mineral deposits of great value and variety, of which coal is now the most important; it was discovered at Newcastle in 1797. By the 1960s, of total mining employment (exceeding 20,000) coal accounted for three-fifths and silver-lead-zinc for all the rest except for a few employed in the mining of gold and tin. The most important coal oysters

—

NEWSPAPER

382

Hunter valley above Newcastle, round Wollongong at Lithgow; two-thirds of the production conies from the northern field. The production of silvor-lcad-zinc is dominated by Broken Hill which has a massive deposit of rich ore; smaller quantities are found at Captains Flat. Most of the Broken Hill ore is sent (.as ores or concentrates) for treatment in other parts of the fields are in the

and

commonwealth (mainly South

Australia) or overseas. Between 1851 and IQ.^l gold, mainly from the Bathurst area, totaled more than £A7.=; ,000,000, of which two-thirds was mined before 1900, but it now amounts to less than £A300,000 annually. Copper is

mined

chiefly near Cobar,

and

tin in the central

and northern

—The

Electricity

Commission of

New

South Wales

is

responsible for the generation and distribution of electricity, which

government railways and tramways, and some large industrial users. In the 1960s the trend was toward large, centralized power stations supplying big areas through is

education; public health and recreation; law and order; and general administration.

sold to local authorities,

—

Transport and Communications. New South Wales is well rail, road and air .services. The outstanding features of communications after World War II were the growth of motor

served by

transport for goods, and of air transport for passengers, and the rapid increase of television viewers after the service started in 1956.

tablelands.

Power.

income tax and redistributes it to the states). The most important state taxes are probate and stamp duties and the land tax, other sources of taxation being liquor licences and racing and betting. The chief items of expenditure, in order of importance, are: lects

The state-owned railway

lines are centred

on Sydney and

so distributed that most towns have reasonable access to rail transport. More than two-thirds of the roads are surfaced, and registered motor vehicles include one private car for every six persons.

to

Air services within New South Wales, which include links between all the main towns, are provided by Trans-Australia Airlines and

interconnected transmission grids. More than nine-tenths of electricity is generated by thermal power stations, and even after the completion of the Snowy mountains hydroelectric schemes less than one-sixth will be derived from water power. Since World

number of privately operated hnes. The chief ports are Sydney, Newcastle, Port Kembla, Botany bay (for oil), Coff's harbour and Twofold bay (for timber) and the Clarence river (for sugar and timber). Since 1936 all ports have been administered by the Maritime Services Board of New South Wales, the state also being responsible for the construction, maintenance and dredging of all ports except Sydney. The Australian National line, operated by the Australian Coastal Shipping commission, is particularly important for New South Wales in supplying bulk ore carriers and a shipping service to Tasmania. In the early 1960s there were 17 national and 37 commercial radio stations in the state. By the beginning of the decade there were one operating and five planned national television stations, together with two operating and four planned commercial

War

n

there has been extensive electrification of rural areas.

Manufacturing Industries. of

New

—

The manufacturing industries South Wales are located mainly in Sydney, where two-

thirds of the factories are situated, with three-quarters of the fac-

tory employees. The only other important industrial centres are Newcastle, Wollongong, Lithgow and Broken Hill. Before 1900 manufactures consisted mainly of consumer and durable-consumer goods for local use, such as food, furniture and bricks, but federation brought both the removal of interstate trade barriers and a protective tariff for the whole of Australia. This fostered steady industrial expansion, which, although temporarily curtailed by the 1929-33 depression, was greatly stimulated by World Wars I and n. The most remarkable advance was in the manufacture of iron and steel and metal goods, which by the early 1960s employed more than 200,000 persons. Other important industrial fields are: textiles and clothing; food, drink and tobacco; chemicals and paints; and paper and printing. The period of greatest industrial development was after 1938, factory employment roughly douThere are many small factories and bling by the early 1960s. relatively few large ones. Nevertheless, although three-quarters of the factories employ 10 or fewer workers each, and fewer than 3% employ more than 100 each, these large factories account for half Some concerns, such as the the total number of employees. Broken Hill Proprietary Co., Ltd. (iron and steel) and Australian Consolidated industry (glass), dominate whole industries. Trade. New South Wales has a large overseas and interstate trade. It accounts for about one-third of Australia's exports and, because Sydney is the port of entry for a large quantity of goods destined for other states, more than two-fifths of the imports. Exports consist largely of primary produce, but the proportion of manufactures and semimanufactures, especially to Asia, has been increasing since World War II. Imports consist mainly of machinery, metals and metal manufactures; yarn, textiles and clothing; petroleum; paper; tea; and tobacco. The main destinations of exports are the United BLingdom (although relatively a much smaller customer than before the war), other western European countries, other commonwealth countries, Jjpan and the United States. The United Kingdom is still very important as a supplier of imports, other suppliers being the United States and other commonwealth and European countries.

—

The

New

South Wales consists mainly of the import of large quantities of foodstuffs (sugar, salt, po itoes, fruit ), minerals (from South Australia and Tasmania) and timber; and the export of iron, steel, cement and metal goods (mainly to Western Australia and Tasmania) and coal (to all states except Queensland). Public Finance The revenue of the government (excluding income from the state-owned railways, tramways and buses, and Sydney harbour, which is self liquidating) comes partly from state taxation but mainly from the commonwealth government (chiefly from a tax reimbursement grant whereby the commonwealth colinterstate trade of

—

a small

stations.

See also references under "New South Wales" in the Index. New South Wales Year Book (for statistics). (R. M. Hl.)

See

NEWSPAPER. Some idea of the magnitude of the modern newspaper industry may be gathered from the fact that when in 1961 the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization

(UNESCO)

vestigation

it

published the results of an exhaustive inreached the conclusion that not less than 8,000 daily newspapers were produced throughout the world. It stressed the fact that this must be regarded as the lowest rather than the highest figure because there were some parts of the world from which it was not possible to collect full details. There were 40 countries and territories in which no daily journal was pubUshed at The number of copies printed daily was at least 290,000,000,

all.

of which about 99,000,000 were printed in the English language in 2,350 publications in 70 countries. The country in which the daily press

copies or

largest circulation was the U.S., with 58,000,000 of the world total, and the country with the highest

had the

20%

newspaper circulation per 1,000 inhabitants was the United Kingdom, with 582 copies compared with the world daily circula-

daily

tion of 100 for every 1,000 inhabitants,

Newspapers themselves are a modern development; some of have in the past been performed by a variety of means. There were writers of newsletters in ancient Rome who furnished news to those who resided at a distance from the capital, and written newsletters continued to be employed to supply intelligence to businessmen and political leaders until long after the invention of printing (q.v.). Indeed they have their modern countheir functions

terparts in the "confidential newsletters" supplied to businessmen and others. In the consulship of Juhus Caesar the acta diurna, bulletins devoted chiefly to government announcements, came to be posted daily in pubHc places in Rome (see also Acta). Other forerunners of printed newspapers were the town criers (or bellmen), posted proclamations, controversial pamphlets, ballads, broadsides and news pamphlets. Many of the last named appeared in Germany and other European countries in the 16th century and were sold at fairs and in shops; they usually dealt with a battle, a disaster, a marvel or a coronation. In the first two decades of the 17th century, more or less regular papers printed from movable type sprang up in Germany, Austria, the Netherlands and Italy.

NEWSPAPER This I.

article is divided into the following sections:

United States 1.

383

NEWSPAPER

384

vived the Revolution but perished in 1798. First printer of the Gazette was James Franklin, who had as When Brooker apprentice his 13-year-old brother Benjamin.

both post office and newspaper in 1721, and the new proprietor took the printing of the Gazette to another shop, Franklin During started a new paper called the New-England Courant. lost

Courant was a spectacular Mather regime, and later, after the council had banned James Franklin as pubTo evade the counlisher, as a repository of periodical essays. cil's order, James put his brother Benjamin in as nominal publisher. The latter had already written his first satirical essays, the early "Dogood Papers," for the Courant; but his brother treated him badly, and he soon ran away to Philadelphia. its five

and one-half

lively years, the

sheet, first as an opposition organ critical of the

—

The 2. Early Papers in Philadelphia and New York. American Weekly Mercury narrowly missed being the third first issue, Dec. was only newspaper; its 22, American 1719, one day later than that of the Boston Gazette. It was founded by Andrew Bradford, son of the William Bradford who introduced printing into Pennsylvania but who by this time had moved The second Philadelphia newspaper was his press to New York. begun by Samuel Keimer with the extraordinary title. The Universal Instructor in All Arts and Sciences, and Pennsylvania Gazette, in 1728. The first part of the title was due to the project of Keimer, a scientific deist and an eccentric, to print Ephraim Chambers' Cyclopaedia serially in his paper. Benjamin Franklin,

now

Timothy Green, fourth of that name in a long line of the first Vermont paper in collaboration with J. P. Spooner; it was the Vermont Gazette and Green Mountain Post-Boy, of Westminster. The first paper in what is now Maine was the Falmouth (Portland) Gazette, founded in 1785 by Benjamin Titcomb, Jr., and Thomas B. Wait. Florida.

printers,

established as a printer in Philadelphia, helped to give the

Mercury a competitive advantage in the town by writing "Busy-Body Papers" for it, and in 1729 bought Keimer out. He abandoned the cyclopaedic serial, cut off the grandiloquent prefix of the paper's title and made such a success of the Pennsylvania Gazette that he was able to retire with a competency at 42. rival

his

He

completely disposed of the Gazette in 1 766 to his partner David Hall who, with his sons and grandsons and various partners, conducted it until its end in 1815. Meantime, William Bradford had founded the first New York newspaper in 1725 under the title New-York Gazette. It was definitely an organ of government in that colony, and when the bitter contest between Gov. William Cosby and the popular party developed in 1733, John Peter Zenger was induced to start an opposition paper. His paper, the New-York Weekly Journal, was supported by the contributions of James Alexander and other leaders of the popular party, much as James Franklin's crusading

paper in Boston had been aided by a group of dissident writers there. When Zenger was jailed in 1734, Cosby disbarred the attorneys who were defending him, and Andrew Hamilton, a famous Philadelphia lawyer, was brought in to plead his case. Hamilton's masterly argument brought acquittal, was later reprinted as a pamphlet and did much for the cause of Uberty. 3. Other Colonial Beginnings. The initial papers in other colonies were Maryland Gazette, Annapolis, 1727, and Virginia Gazette, Williamsburg, 1736, both founded by William Parks, one of the best of the colonial printers; Rhode-Island Gazette, Newport, 1732, founded by James Franklin, who had moved his press there from Boston but was able to maintain the paper for only eight months; South-Carolina Gazette, Charleston, 1732, founded by one of Benjamin Franklin's printers, and carried on by another Franklin protege, the talented Lewis Timothy; NorthCarolina Gazette, New Bern, 1755, founded by James Davis; Connecticut Gazette, New Haven, 1755, founded by Timothy Green; New-Hampshire Gazette, Portsmouth, 1756, founded by Daniel Fowle, a paper which lived for 190 years; Georgia Gazette and Weekly Mercury, Savannah, 1763, founded by James Johnston; New-York Gazette, 1776, by chance New Jersey's first paper, since Hugh Gaine moved this sheet to Newark when the British occupied New York. John Adams, a Wilmington printer, is reported to have published a paper called the Courier in that town for a few months in 1762, but the earliest Delaware paper of which there is definite knowledge is the Delaware Gazette, begun at Wilmington in 1785 by Jacob A. Killen. The East-Florida Gazette, published at St. Augustine in 1 783-84 by the Tory editor John Wells, was the first paper in what was later the state of

—

4.

established

Patriots

and

Tories.

— Leading

patriot newspapers during

from the enactment in 1765 of the Stamp act, which taxed the newspapers and aroused them to bitter opposition and noncompliance, to the end of the American Revolution were; the Boston Gazette, to which Samuel Adams and his group contributed; the Massachusetts Spy, founded in 1770 by Isaiah Thomas, who was later a successful book publisher as well as journalist and the founder of the American Antiquarian society; the CoJinecticut Courant of Hartford, founded in 1764 by Thomas Green; the New-York Journal, founded in 1767 by John Holt; the New-York Packet, founded by Samuel Loudon in 1775; the Pennsylvania Journal, founded in 1742 by William Bradford, grandson of the pioneer printer of the same name, himself an able editor and the outstanding soldier-editor of the Revolution; the Pennsylvania Gazette, conducted at this time by David Hall; the Pennsylvania Packet, founded in 1771 by John Dunlap, another soldier-editor, who later joined with David C. Claypool to make this paper one of the most successful in America during the years immediately after the war; and the South-Carolina These papers Gazette, whose war editor was Peter Timothy. had many bitter experiences during the war. While the British occupied Boston, the Gazette found a temporary home at WaterThe New ton, while the Spy moved permanently to Worcester. York papers had to find temporary homes in towns up the Hudson river when the city was lost to the patriots, and the patriot papers the period extending

of Philadelphia were refugees during the shorter British occupation of their city.

When Newport was

buried his press and type

;

later he

taken, Solomon Southwick exhumed them to continue the

long career of his Mercury. Leading royalist papers were the New York Gazetteer, founded in 1773 by James Rivington; the New-York Weekly Gazette and Mercury, founded in 1753 by Hugh Gaine; the Royal American Gazette of New York; the Royal Pennsylvania Gazette of Philadelphia, published briefly by James Robertson; and the Pennsyl:

vania Evening Post, founded in 1775 by Benjamin Towne,

who

paper the first American daily. 5. Characteristics of Colonial Papers. American newspapers in the colonial period were modeled on those of the mother country. The common size was four pages, each about 10 in. by 15 in. Extra pages were sometimes issued to accommodate heavy Headings of news stories were little more than advertising. date lines. The successful papers had good advertising patronage; advertisements were set single-column with little display, so that a page of them resembled modern classified make-up. Paper was

was

later to

make

his

—

obtained chiefly from England until the tax on that staple stimuThe collection of rags from which lated American manufacture. paper was made was regarded as a patriotic duty during the Revolution. Manufacture of ink, type and presses was also built up in America when importation was interrupted. Chief news sources were the English newspapers, since interest in events in the homeland was paramount among the colonists. The second important source was "exchanges" papers published The rule was for an editor to cover in other American towns. any news of first-rate importance in his own neighbourhood for other papers to clip it; thus all colonial and for his own paper, papers were members of an informal co-operative news-gathering

—

system. Local news coverage was not intended to be thorough, and small happenings were usually disregarded; there were no local reporters, and the editors were commonly imbued with the concept of news as historical record. Other sources than those mentioned were letters from other cities or from England brought

by friends of the editor; word-of-mouth reports by ship capand travelers; and official documents and communications. With the coming of the war, English papers were cut off almost entirely, and military operations interfered with colonial communications; but patriot committees were active in in

tains, postriders

NEWSPAPER sending news bulletins from one town to another. There were no editorial pages, but editorial comment was interPolitical and economic dissertations, spersed with the news. satirical essays on social customs and poetry were common.

—

The Daily Newspaper. A few semiweeklies and triweekhad been pubhshed in the colonies. For example, Benjamin Towne's Pennsylvania Evening Post had been established as a triweekly; in 17S3 Towne made it the first American daily. Generally it consisted of only two pages, and was a rather shabby Towne was indicted for treason a few months after he sheet. made his paper a daily, and its 17-month existence in that status was shadowed by its editor's disrepute. John Dunlap and David C. Claypool's Pennsylvania Packet and Daily Advertiser began It was very successful, as was the daily publication in 1784. New York Daily Advertiser, founded in 1785 by Francis Childs; the latter was the first American paper to be founded as a daily. Dailies came into the picture less for the purpose of giving timely news than because publishers wished to compete with the coffee-shop bulletins in giving reports to merchants of the offer6.

lies

ings of importers just as soon as ships arrived in the harbours of

New York. The political papers of the cities adopted daily publication rather generally by the end of the

Philadelphia and also

i8th century, leaving the weeklies to the smaller towns. 7. The Party Press. As national issues developed, newspapers took up the cudgels of partisan strife. From the second admin-

—

George Washington until after the Civil War, ardent partisanship in journalism was the rule. The mercantile papers, istration of

as well as those confessedly established as political organs,

took

and when the penny papers appeared in the 1830s, with their emphasis on local news and human-interest features, they, At its height durtoo, were soon involved in party controversy. ing the first two decades of the igth century, this partisanship resulted not only in slanting and distorting news but in personal abuse and vilification of political figures, duels and assaults among editors and much prostitution of the newspaper's chief duty of disseminating the news accurately, fairly and fully. The situation improved in the 1840s and 1850s, but it was not until the doctrine of partisan independence made its great gains in the 1870s that biased reporting of public affairs was largely abated. First national pohtical organ was John Fenno's Gazette of the United States (1789-1818), Federalist, established at New York when the capital was situated there and later moved with the government offices to Philadelphia. Its great rival in the latter city was Philip Freneau's National Gazette (1791-93), Republican (Democratic). Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson, rivals in Washington's cabinet, were the respective sponsors of Fenno and Freneau in their editorial efforts. Supplanting the National Gazette as spokesman for the Jeffersonian Republicans was the Philadelphia Aurora, founded by Benjamin Franklin Bache, grandson of Benjamin Franklin, in 1790. Another notable political paper in that city was Porcupine's Gazette (1797-99), edited in vitriolic fashion by William Cobbett, at the time a refugee from England. In Boston Benjamin Russell's Columbian sides;

Centinel

became

a

nationally

recognized

Federalist

organ;

founded in 1784, it was in many respects an excellent newspaper. Noah Webster, later famous as a lexicographer, founded the American Minerva in New York in 1793 as a Federalist organ; four years later this paper adopted the name Commercial Advertiser, which it kept for more than a century. One cause of the Alien and Sedition acts (1798-1801) is to be found in the prevailing scurrility of attacks on public officers, but the immediate occasion was the threat of war with France and the consequent need to guard against disloyalty. There were about 25 arrests under the Sedition act and 11 trials resulting in 10 convictions. Actions under the common law brought total But the convictions to 15, of which 8 related to newspapers. censorship involved was greater than these figures indicate. The acts expired with the later

John Adams administration. in an argument for a new

Alexander Hamilton,

case of

Harry Croswell,

editor of

advanced the "Hamiltonian doctrine," state constitutions, to the effect

Two

years the

trial in

Hudson (N.Y.) Wasp, later made a part of most

the

that evidence of the truth of

385

statements published with good intentions may be introduced by the defense in a criminal libel suit. The National Intelligencer, established in Washington in 1800 as the organ of the Jefferson administration by Samuel Harrison Smith, proved to be mild in partisanship and reliable in news. Conducted after 1810 by Joseph Gales, Jr., and W. W. Seaton, the Intelligencer was considered by other papers for many years It was displaced as the as the authority on Washington news. government organ, however, when Andrew Jackson became presiDuff Green's United States Telegraph (1825) was Jackdent. son's first Washington paper; it was supplanted in 1830 by the Washington Globe, edited by Francis P. Blair. Associated with the Globe also were Amos Kendall, editorial writer, and John C. Rivers, business manager, who, with Blair, were members of Jackson's "kitchen cabinet" of political advisers.

Meantime, in New York, James Cheetham's American Citizen was the vituperative organ of the George Clinton faction of the Democratic party during the first decade of the 19th century. Established largely in order to combat Cheetham's sheet was the New York Evening Post, founded in 1801 by Alexander Hamilton and friends associated in a joint-stock company. William Coleman was its first editor; he was followed in 1829 by William Cullen Bryant, 8.

who

The Penny

edited the paper until his death iri 1878. Press. The chief characteristics of the penny

—

press of the 1830s were smaller

size,

a one-cent price in

com-

parison with the six cents charged by the larger papers, and adaptation to lower economic and social levels of readership. The penny papers featured local and human-interest matter, preferred news above support of a party or mercantile class, exposed abuses

and churches and tended to give a realistic picture of news scene despite taboos. first successful penny daily was the New York Sun, founded in 1833 by Benjamin H. Day. Most important of its rivals in this field was the New York Herald, begun two years later by James Gordon Bennett. Three New York printers, William M. Swain, A. S. Abell and A. H. Simmons, founded the Philadelphia Public Ledger in 1836 and the Baltimore Sun in 1837; Swain was chiefly responsible for the former and Abell for the latter over many years. In 1841 Horace Greeley founded the New York Tribu7ie as a penny paper, and ten years later the New York Times was started by Henry J. Raymond, George Jones and Edward B. Wesley at the same price. All these New York papers except the Sun soon went to the two-cent price, enlarging their size and The penny papers initiated what may be called modern scope. journalism by their emphasis on local news and timeliness. They were leaders in the use of expresses and the telegraph for quick transmission of news, and their large circulation and advertising receipts enabled them to improve their news services and install of banks

the

The

fast cylinder presses.

Bennett and Greeley, rival editors through three decades (both died in 1872), were leading figures in a period of personal journalism. Bennett was one of the most original of editors, initiating financial and society departments and playing a part in many other innovations. Greeley was the great idealist, a crusader

and intemperance and in favour of westward His hospitality to new ideas brought Fourierism, spiritualism, women's rights, Grahamism and many other reforms and fads into the columns of the Tribune. His alliance with Thurlow Weed, the political boss who was editor of the Albany Journal, 1830-63, and William H. Seward was dissolved in 1854 by a letter in which he showed his resentment because he had not been given political office; later he had much to do with the defeat of Seward for the Repubhcan presidential nomination. The Tribune did not always support Lincoln during his administration, however. In Springfield, Mass., the Republican was begun as a two-cent daily in 1844. Its weekly edition had been founded by Samuel Bowles 20 years earlier, but the daily was the project of a son, It became one of the most famous also called Samuel, aged 18. of small-city daihes, and exerted a wide influence, largely through Following a printers' strike its weekly edition, for many years. in 1947, it was reduced to the status of a Sunday paper. against

slavery

expansion.

New

In

Orleans, George

Francis Lumsden soon gained a wide reputa-

W. Kendall and

started the Picayune in 1836, and

it

tion not only as a good newspaper but as a repository for amusing sketches and witty paragraphs. During the Mexican War Kendall became the first important and regular reporter of military

actions from the

field.

The war with Mexico was a great stimulant to speed in news The expense of efforts in this direction led to the

transmission.

—

important effort in co-operative news gathering a news agency in New ^ork city in 1848 that was the forerunner of the present Associated Press. This group consisted of the Sun, Herald, Tribune, Express, Courier and Enquirer and Journal of Commerce When the Times was the leading papers of the metropolis. begun, it was taken in. The Express (1836-811, conducted by James and Erastus Brooks, was a strong mercantile paper. The Courier and Enquirer was the result of a merger in 1829 of Mordecai M. Noah's Enquirer and James Watson Webb's Morning Courier. Under Webb's aggressive editorship it was bright, belliThe Journal of Commerce was founded cose and enterprising. in 1827 by Arthur Tappan as a commercial paper with a strong religious bent; it soon became the property of Gerard Hallock first

—

and David Hale. 9.

The Westward Movement.

—The

the Appalachians was the Pittsburgh

first

newspaper west of

Gazette

(Gazette Times,

1906; Post-Gazette, 192 7), founded by John Scull and Joseph Hall in 1786. The following year the Kentucky Gazette-was founded at Lexington by John Bradford. First paper in what is now West

was the Potowmac Guardian, begun by Nathaniel Willis Tennessee's first paper was the Knoxville Gazette, 1791, George Roulstone founder. Benjamin M. Stokes started the first Mississippi paper, the Mississippi Gazette { 1 799-1801 ) at Natchez. The first New Orleans paper was Moniteur de la Louisiane, a sheet of four small pages in French, 1794, by Louis Duclot. The earliest paper in what is now Alabama was the Mobile Centinel (1811-12) by Samuel Miller and John B. Hood. First newspaper to be established in what is now Ohio was the Centinel of the North-Western Territory, founded at Cincinnati by William Maxwell in 1793. First in Indiana was Elihu Stout's Indiana Gazette, later Western Sun, at Vincennes in 1804. Joseph Charless founded the Missouri Gazette in 1808; it was \'irginia in 1790.

paper printed wholly in English west of the Mississippi. later changed to Missouri Republican and in 1888 to Republic; it was merged with the St, Louis Globe-Democrat the

first

Its

name was

in

1

919.

First Michigan paper was the Michigan Essay, produced briefly under the patronage of Gabriel Richard, a Catholic missionary; the first Michigan paper of longer life was the Detroit Gazette In 1814 Matthew Duncan brought his press up (1817-30). from Kentucky and founded Illinois' first paper at Kaskaskia, the Illinois Herald, which he later moved to the new capital at Vandalia and renamed the Illinois hitelligencer. The first Chicago paper was the Democrat, founded in 1833 by John Calhoun, later mayor of the city; it was merged with the Tribune in 1861. In 1 81 9 the Arkansas Gazette was begun by William E. Woodruff at Arkansas Post it was moved to Little Rock when that settlement was chosen as the capital. First newspaper in Wisconsin territory was the Green Bay Intelligencer (1833-36). First in Iowa was John King's Dubuque Visitor of 1836, and first in Minnesota James M. Goodhue's Minnesota Pioneer of 1849, later famous as the St. Paul Pioneer Press. In 1854 the Nebraska Palladium, which had been begun in Iowa, was moved across the river to Belleview and published for several months in the new territory. First Kansas paper was a missionary sheet in an Indian language called in English Shawnee 5!/n, published in 1835 at the Baptist mission; first English-language paper in that territory was the Kansas Weekly Herald (1854-61) of Leavenworth. The pioneer Kansas papers were embroiled in the free-state war of 1855. The Lawrence Herald of Freedom office was destroyed by the proslavery faction, but it gave its type to be molded into balls used for the attack on Fort Titus, so that the discharges of the antislavery cannon were called ;

"new

I

NEWSPAPER

386

editions" of the Herald.

The Sioux Falls Democrat was first of South Dakota papers in 1858; its name was soon changed to Northwestern Independent. The Fort Union Frontier Scout of 1864 was North Dakota's first paper. In the southwest Oklahoma's first paper was a Baptist missionary organ, the Cherokee Messenger, printed in an Indian language, near the present site of Westville, in 1844-46. Pioneer Texas paper was the organ of the provisional revolutionary government at San Felipe called Telegraph and Texas Register, 1835;

had an adventurous career before it became the first Houston newspaper. A small campaign sheet called El Crepusculo, published in Santa Fe by Antonio Barreiro, was apparently the first publication in New Mexico, but the first real newspaper was the Santa Fe Republican (1847-49), with two pages in English and two in Spanish. The Weekly Arizonian, Tubac, 1859, was the first it

paper

in

Arizona.

California's

first

paper was founded

in

1846.

It

was a small

sheet printed on one side only at Monterey, and was called the It was soon moved to what is now San Francisco, Californian.

where the California Star had been established in 1847. Both were absorbed into the Alta California when that famous paper was set up in 1849. The first paper printed in Nevada was the Territorial Enterprise, begun in 1858 at Genoa, but more famous as the Comstock lode organ at Virginia City, where Mark Twain and Dan De Quille worked on it. Another gold rush brought Colorado's first paper, the Rocky Mountai?i News, founded in Denver by William N. Byers in 1859; it became a Scripps paper in 1926. Other western "firsts" were the Oregon Spectator, Oregon City, 1846; the Columbian, Olympia, Wash., 1852; the Deseret News, famous Mormon paper in Salt Lake City, Utah, 1850; the Golden Age, Lewiston, Ida., 1862; the Montatm Post, begun in 1864 at the Virginia City gold camp and moved to Helena in 1868; and the Fort Bridger Daily Telegram of 1863, first Wyoming and first state paper to begin as a daily. The first paper in what is now Alaska was Esquimaux, printed monthly at Port Clarence, Russian America, by John J. Harrington for the Western Union Telegraph expedition in 1866-67. The Klondike Nugget was published at Dawson (1898-99) by Eugene C. Allen and was later established as a weekly at Nome. Anchorage, Juneau, Fairbanks and Ketchikan acquired small dailies, and by the mid-1960s there were a dozen weeklies. The first Hawaiian newspaper was the weekly Sandwich Island Gazette and Journal of Commerce (1836-39), by Samuel D. Mackintosh and Nelson Hall, which was continued monthly (1839-40) as the Sandwich Island Mirror and Commercial Gazette. Of longer The first life was James Jackson Jarves' Polynesian (1840-64). daily was the Hawaiian Herald (1866). The chief papers in Honolulu in the mid-1960s were the Star-Bulletin and the Advertiser. The Hawaiian Star was begun in 1 893 and the Evening Bulletin in 1882; they were merged in 1912 by Wallace R. Farrington, later governor of the territory. The Advertiser was founded as a weekly by Henry M. Whitney in 1856. The Hawaii Times was founded In Hilo the in 1885 and published in both English and Japanese. daily Tribune-Herald was founded in 1895. The American 10. The Civil War and Reconstruction. Civil War was well covered by special correspondents in the field,

—

whom

served northern papers during the war. more than 150 of Military restrictions, government control of telegraph lines and mob violence all sporadic curbed press activity; but there was no regular and consistent censorship. A number of papers were forced to suspend publication by military commands or the post-

—

—

department. these were the New York Daily News and the Chicago The News, founded in 1855, was a penny paper, organ of the Tammany Democracy; it had come into the hands of Benjamin Wood, brother of Fernando Wood, New York's mayor. ofiice

Among

Times.

strongly proslavery, and a combined military and postal blockade forced the News to close down for 18 months in 1861-62. After the war this paper won a very large circulation in the tenement-house districts as a penny sensation-monger. Wood lived until 1900, and the next year Frank A. Munsey bought the News from his widow for $34,000 in $1,000 bills.

The Woods were

;

NEWSPAPER Munsey improved it so much that it lost its pubhc, and it perished The Chicago Times, founded in 1854, had been bought in 1906. on the Union seize and suspend the paper,

Its editorial a-ttacks

by Wilbur

F. Storey in 1861. cause led Gen. A. E. Burnside to but after three days President Lincoln requested that the order be rescinded. The Times became a successful sensation paper

after the war, receding only as the Tribune came to control the Chicago morning field and absorbed the Times in 1895. in 1847; it had a time until Joseph Medill and five partners (including Charles H. Ray and Alfred Cowles) took it over in 1855. After Medill gained control of the paper in 1874, he directed its destinies until his death 25 years later, making it a strong and suc-

The Chicago Daily Tribune was founded

difficult

cessful paper.

leading newspaper development of the 1870s was the rise of York Sun in prestige and influence. Purchased in 1868 by Charles A. Dana and associates, it soon became one of the bestwritten and edited papers in the country, independent in politics, bright and saucy, its human-interest stories of the great city

A

the

New

one of

its

chief attractions.

The Evening Sun was launched

in

1887.

Notable in the 1870s also was the growing independence of the from party control. Dating from the secession of Republican papers from the Ulysses S. Grant forces in 1872, what was sometimes called the "mugwump" movement gained in strength and caused the defeat of James G. Blaine in 1884. By 1880 one-fourth of American newspapers were listed in the directories as independpress

ent;

by 1890 the proportion had reached one-third.

By

the igsos

one-half of the daily papers listed themselves as "independent" and another one-fourth as "independent Republican" or "independent Democratic."

—

11. The "New Journalism." Joseph Pulitzer, Hungarianborn immigrant who had made a success of the St. Louis PostDispatch, which he had formed in 1878 of the unimportant Dispatch (founded 1864) and John A. Dillon's Post (founded 1875), upset the New York newspaper situation in the 1880s and did more than anyone else to set the pattern of modern journalism. In 1883 he bought the New York World and soon made it the country's most successful newspaper. The World had been founded in i860 by Alexander Cummings as a religious daily, but it did not flourish and soon came into the hands of Democratic politicians and financiers. In 1869 Manton Marble purchased majority control, and under his editorship the paper was influential and moderately successful. When he retired in 1876 the World came under the control of Thomas A. Scott of the Pennsylvania railroad, who unloaded it on Jay Gould in connection with a railroad deal. The paper had been losing The Evening World $40,000 a year when Pulitzer bought it. was established in 1887. The Sunday World, with a record-

breaking circulation of 250,000, consisted of 26 to 44 pages, half advertising. The combined circulation of the dailies (374,000 by 1892) exceeded those of any two competitors. The World had

become the most

profitable paper published.

New York papers in the 1870s and 1880s Sun and Daily News were the Herald, under the control of James Gordon Bennett, Jr., 1872-1918, during which time he lived chiefly in Paris the Tribune, under Whitelaw Reid, 1872-1905, which combined with the Herald to become the Herald Tribune in 1924; the Evening Post, under Edwin Lawrence Other important

besides the World,

;

Godkin, 1883-99; the Times, under George Jones, 1869-91; the Commercial Advertiser, descended from Noah Webster's American Minerva, under Hugh J. Hastings, 1868-83; and the Mail and Express, a consolidation formed by Cyrus W. Field in 1882 and edited and published in the 1880s by Elliott F. Shepard. In Philadelphia a leading paper was the Public Ledger, pubhshed 1864-94 by George W. Childs. Later it came into the hands of Adolph S. Ochs, who sold it to Cyrus H. K. Curtis, the

magazine publisher; Curtis made a great but unprofitable paper of it, and it perished in 1942. The Record was founded by William J. Swain in 1870' and published by William M. Singerly, 1877-98. It was published by Thomas B. Wanamaker, 1902-28, and by J. David Stern until it was sold to the Bulletin in 1947.

387

The Press was founded

in

1857 by John

W. Forney, conducted

in

the 1 880s by Charles Emory Smith and merged in the Public Ledger in 1920. The Inquirer, founded in 1829, was long conducted by Jesper Harding and his son William W., and later by the Elverson family; it was bought in 1936 by M. L. Annenberg. The Times was founded in 1875 by Alexander K. McClure, to become a great crusading paper. The Evening Item, founded in 1847 by Thomas Fitzgerald and conducted by him and his sons

nearly

for

half

a

century,

gained

a

large

circulation.

The

Evening Bulletin, founded on the basis of the American Centinel (1816-46) by Alexander Cummings, was Philadelphia's first afternoon paper. In the 20th century, under William L. McLean and his sons, it gained the largest circulation in the city. At the end of 1957, with the purchase of the Daily News by the Inquirer, Philadelphia had morning and evening newspapers under one ownership. In Washington, D.C., the National Republican (1860-88) was The Evening Star, established in edited by W. J. Murtagh. 1852, was purchased in 1867 by a group headed by Crosby S. Noyes and later conducted by his sons Frank B. and Theodore W. Noyes. The Post, founded by Stilson Hutchins in 1877, was edited by him until 1889. After a varied career, the Post was bought at auction in 1933 by Eugene Meyer, who made it again a successful newspaper. In Boston the Herald, founded in 1846, was a leader under the In 1912 it bought the 1862-87, of E. B. Haskell.

editorship,

Traveller, founded in 1825, as

its

evening associate.

The Daily

Advertiser, founded in 1813, and made by Nathan Hale the first successful daily in New England, seemed moribund in the 1880s a tabloid by William Randolph Hearst in become the Sunday Advertiser. The Post, founded by Charles G. Greene in 1831, also declined in the i88os, but had a rebirth under Edwin A. Grozier in 1891. The Journal (1833-1917) was edited by W. W. Clapp in the 1880s in the The Transcript sensational manner of the "new journalism." (1830) was edited in this decade by Edward H. Clement; for

but

it

lived to be

made

1938, and later to

many

years it was the great newspaper organ of Boston culture, but it died in 1941. The Globe (1872) was highly successful under Gen. Charles H. Taylor and his son William 0. In Atlanta, Ga., Henry W. Grady in 1880 bought a quarter interest in the Constitution (1868) and as its managing editor made it a great newspaper; he died in i88g and was succeeded by Clark Howell. In Louisville, Ky., Walter N. Haldeman consolidated the Coiirier and Journal in 1868, and put in charge Henry Watterson, who made the Courier-Journal famous and remained In Cincinnati, Murat Halstead became in service until 1919.

Commercial (1843) in 1865; it became the Commerit was consolidated with the Gazette (181 5) it in 1890. John R. McLean took over the management of the Cincinnati Enquirer (1841) in 1870, and bought it from his father in 1881; in 1895 he bought also the New York Journal and in 1905 the Washington Post. Cincinnati's evening papers, the Times (1840) and the Star (1872), were merged in 1880 by Charles P. Taft and in 1958 was purchased by the Scripps-Howard chain. The great San Francisco paper of the period 1870-90 was the Chronicle, founded in 1865 by two brothers in their teens, Charles and Michel H. de Young; it was a lively, fighting paper, and Charles de Young was shot and killed in 1880 in connection with a political fight. The Call (1856) and the Bulletin (1855) were under the same management; much later (1928) they were consolidated by Hearst. The San Francisco Examiner (1865) was bought by George Hearst in 1880 to further his pohtical ambitions. The best-known editor in the Pacific northwest for many years was Harvey W. Scott, who edited the Portland editor of the

Gazette when and Halstead sold cial

Oregonian 1865-1910.

The great event in Chicago journalism in the post-Civil War period was the founding of the Daily News as a penny paper by Melville E. Stone in 18,75. When the paper was on the verge of failure after a few months, Victor F. Lawson came A liberal, crusading paper, in as partner, bringing needed capital. In 1888 Stone sold out the Daily News made a great success. to

Lawson,

later

becoming the

first

general manager of the re-

,

NEWSPAPER organized Associated Press. John S. Knight bought the paper in The ic)44. and it was sold to the Chicago Suii-Times in igSQ. Ht-rald was founded in 1881 by James W. Scott, who combined it with the Times in i8()5. The Tiinrs-Hcrald became the Record-

Herald when Herman Kohlsaat, its owner since the consolidation, bought the Record, morning edition of the Daily News, in 1901 and made a new combination; after Kohlsaat's Inter Ocean (1872) was merged in the Record-Herald in 1914, it became the Herald again, but four years later Hearst bought it and merged it with his Examiner as the Herald-Examiner, later the Herald-American and still later as the American. In 1956 it was purchased by the Chicago Tribune. In Kansas City, Mo., William Rockhill Nelson and Samuel E. Morss began the Star in 1880 as a small two-cent daily. Morss dropped out on account of ill-health after a year or two, but Nelson made the Star a strong, crusading local newspaper, adding a Sunday edition in 1894, buying the Times (1868) for its morning edition in 1901 and starting the Weekly Star as a farm paper in iSqo. Nelson died in 191 5 and staff members bought the paper for $11,000,000. Henry J. Haskell was editor 1928-52. 12. Yellow Journalism.—William Randolph Hearst's first paper was the San Francisco Examiner, which his father, George Hearst, turned over to him. Successful in his management of that paper, he went to New York in 1895 and bought the Journal. With this palper he challenged the supremacy of Pulitzer's World in New York. Some of his staff he brought from San Francisco and some He outdid his rival in sensahe hired away from the World.

and Sunday features. A comic picture series "The Yellow Kid" was drawn by Richard F. Outcault for the Sunday World and later for the Sunday Journal, but after the departure of the originator to the rival paper it was drawn by George B. Luks for the World; these picture series excited so tionalism, crusades

called

much

attention that the competition between the two newspapers

came to be called "yellow journalism." This all-out rivalry and its accompanying promotion developed large circulations for both papers and affected U.S. journalism in many cities. The "yellow journalism" formula, as it developed, was distinguished by (i) "scare heads" in large type, printed in black or red; (2) lavish use of pictures; (3) pseudoscientific articles; (4) the Sunday supplement, with coloured comics and sensational features; (5) ostentatious crusading for popular causes. The era of "yellow journalism" may be said to have ended shortly after the turn the World's gradual retirement from the sensationalism and the rise of the Times. One of the phenomena of the era was the promotion of the war with Spain through hysterical propaganda against that nation based on exposures of Spanish atrocities in Cuba. This jingoism

of the century, with

competition

in

to

the Journal and World, though they were

Some

techniques of the "yellow journalism" period permanent and widespread, as banner head-

was not limited leaders in

it.

became more

or less

coloured comics and copious illustration. Adolph S. Ochs, publisher of the Chattanooga (Tenn.) Tim.es, took over management of the failing New York Times in 1896. In 1898 Ochs reduced the price of the paper to one cent. Instead of getting into the "yellow" competition, the Times adopted the slogans "All the news that's fit to print" and "It does not soil the breakfast cloth." Ochs, who had actually put in only $75,000 in 1896, had a controlling interest by 1900. The Times's success as a clean, conservative newspaper was one of the most striking lines,

phenomena of the new century. 13. "Chains" and Consolidations.

—

If a newspaper "chain" defined broadly enough to include affiliations formed by an uncertain degree of co-operation rather than common ownership, the

is

groups of colonial papers of which Benjamin Franklin and Isaiah Thomas were patrons and sometimes part owners might be said to be the first American chains. But modern chains began with the Scripps papers in 1878. By 1900 eight such groups could be listed, and ten years later there were a dozen and the number of papers in them had doubled. In the next decade the number of chain papers doubled again; and in the boom 'decade of the 1920s the number of chains reached more than 50, and the number of papers owned or affiliated in them about 300. Those sta-

tistics still

held at the mid-century mark.

paper on which E. W. Scripps worked was the Detroit Tribune, founded by his half brother James E. Scripps in 1873. The first paper he founded (with assistance from his half brothers James E. Scripps and George Scripps) was the Cleveland Press, begun in 1878 as a penny paper. Successful there, he persuaded his half brothers to buy the St. Louis Chronicle (1880-1905),

The

first

with which he failed to overcome the dominant competition of the Post-Dispatch and Globe-Democrat. A little later he bought a controlling interest in the Cincinnati Post (purchase of the

Times-Star and merging of it with the Post in 1958 gave the Scripps-Howard chain control of all daily papers), and founded the By this time he had developed his at Covington. formula, which was to establish papers in medium-sized cities with cheap equipment, put young men from his organization in charge with working partnerships, sell for a penny a copy and campaign for causes popular among the common people (often With Milton A. McRae as partner in for organized labour). the Scripps-McRae league, he bought or founded many papers McRae dropped out in in the midwest in the years 1897-1911. 1914, and in 191 7 Scripps placed management in the hands of two sons, James G. and Robert P. Scripps. Three years later, a quarrel with James resulted in his being supplanted by Roy W. Howard, who had been general manager of the United Press associations, founded in 1907 as the Scripps news-gathering agency. In 1922 E. W. Scripps retired completely, turning over his newspaper properties to his son Robert, who formed the organization known as Scripps-Howard. Chief Scripps-Howard additions to the chain in the 1920s were the Pittsburgh Press (1884) in 1923 and New York Telegram (1868) in 1927. Most important of all was the purchase of the New York World in 1931, and its merger with the Telegram. To this combination the Sun was added in 1950. The Hearst chain began with the San Francisco Examiner and the New York Journal and Evening Journal. In 1900 Hearst founded the Chicago American as an evening paper, and in 1902 the morning Examiner. In 1904 he started ihe Boston American. Beginning in 1917, he added many more papers to his list, buying He bought or established as many as seven in one year (1922). altogether more than 40 daily papers, 16 of which he owned at

Kentucky Post

the time of his death in 1951. Though the Scripps and Hearst chains were the largest of such systems, there were many other groups, such as the Booth newspapers in Michigan, founded by George C. Booth; the Brush-

Moore newspapers in Ohio, founded by Louis H. Brush and Roy D. Moore; the Lee syndicate in the upper Mississippi valley, founded by Alfred W. Lee; the Copley Press in Illinois and California, founded by Ira C. Copley; the Speidel newspapers, founded by Merritt C. Speidel and strung across the country from New York to California; the Frank E. Gannett newspapers, chiefly in New York; the James M. Cox newspapers in Dayton and Springfield, O., Miami, Fla., and Atlanta, Ga.; Central newspapers, founded by E. C. Pulliam, chiefly in Indiana; the H. C. Ogden newspapers in West Virginia; the John H. Perry newspapers, chiefly in Florida;

Stauffer publications, Oscar Stauffer

and Oklahoma; Ridder pubhcaup by the sons of Herman Ridder in New York, Minnesota and on the west coast; the Knight newspapers, owned by John S. Knight, comprising the Chicago Daily News (sold in 1959 to the Field Enterprises, pubhsher of iht Chicago Sun-Times) the Detroit Free Press, the Miami (Fla.) Herald, the Akron (0.) Beacon Jourrial and the Charlotte (N.C.) Observer; and the group rising in the 1950s under the direction of S. I. Newhouse, including the St. Louis Globe-Democrat, the Portland Oregonian, the Syracuse (N.Y.) Post-Standard and the Birmingham (Ala.) News. Consolidations, like chains, were not new in modem journalism. Ever since the consolidation of the New-England Weekly Journal with the Boston Gazette in 1741, weak papers had been absorbed But the large newspaper capital investments by strong ones. which, beginning in the 1890s, came to characterize the newspaper business of the 20th century made the merger a recognized technique for "cleaning up" a ruinous competitive situation. Especially dangerous, it seemed to critics of the modern communications president, in Kansas, Missouri tions, built

—

—

NEWSPAPER

389

this was the case in more than one-fourth of U.S. cities of more than 100,000 population. Moreover, the number of daily newspapers in the United States declined from a peak of 2,519 in 1916 to 1,850 in 1945. Slight increases marked the latter half of the 1940s, but in 1955 the total

and edited by Alfred Harmsworth (later Viscount Northcliffe) and called by him a "tabloid newspaper" and "the newspaper of the 20th century," had the small page size and an emphasis on condensation. Tabloid journalism had come to stand for three techniques by the 1940s: (i) the folded-in-half page size, as compared with that of the normal eight-column paper;

was 1,841. In 1963 the total was 1,854. (These figures are from N. W. Ayer and Son's Directory of Newspapers and Periodicals;

pictures;

see Bibliography.)

news.

Newspaper consolidation was dramatized about 1920 by Frank A. Munsey's activities. In igi6 Munsey bought the New York Sim, Evening Sun and Press and merged the Press in the Four years later he bought the Herald and its evening Sun. associate, the Telegram, and merged the Sun in the Herald, changHis next move was to ing the name of the Evening Sun to Stm. Then sell the Herald to the Tribune for another merger in 1924. with the Commercial Globe, which had been merged he bought the Advertiser in 1905, and merged it with the Sun. His last consolidation was that of the Mail and Express and the Telegram in 1924. 14. Varied Newspapers The St. Louis Globe-Democrat had been formed when J. B. McCuUagh in 1875 bought the Missouri Democrat (founded 1852) and merged it with his Globe (founded The St. Louis Star-Times was formed in 1935 by the 1872). consolidation of the Star (founded 1878), which had absorbed It was the Chronicle (1905), and the Times (founded 1895). merged with the Post-Dispatch in 1951. The Denver Post, founded in 1892, was purchased three years later by Fred G. Bonfils and Harry H. Tammen and made an

Two grandsons of Joseph Medill, Robert R. McCormick and Joseph Medill Patterson, took over jointly the management of the Chicago Tributie in 1914. Five years later they formed a subsidiary of the Tribune company to publish the New York Daily News as a new morning tabloid. In 1925, when the paper had reached nearly 1,000,000 circulation largest in the U.S. Patterson left his executive position on the Tribune and until his death in 1946 devoted himself to the management of the Daily News. The sensationalism of the Daily News in the 1920s brought it into competition with Hearst's morning American, and Hearst first tried out the form in Boston by "tabbing" the Daily Advertiser and then founded the tabloid Daily Mirror in New York in 1924. Three months later Bernarr Macfadden began the Daily Graphic in the same form. Thus began the "war of the tabs" in New York, in which the three competitors tried to outdo each other in sensationalism. The Graphic perished in 1932, to be revived in 1955; the Daily News cleaned up its columns and prospered, and Hearst sold the Mirror in 1928. Later Hearst had to take the Mirror back and it went on to a 1 ,000,000 circulation by 1950 second only (among American dailies) to the 2,250,000 of Both these circulations declined somewhat in the Daily News. the later 1950s. The circulation of the Mirror continued to decline and in 1963 it ceased publication; the Daily News purchased Meanwhile, the success of the leaders among the its assets. tabloids had tempted publishers of dailies in other cities to try that form; there were about a dozen U.S. tabloids in 1930, 50 in 1940, 70 in 1950 and about the same number in the 1960s. Most important, besides those mentioned above, were the Washington News (1921), the Philadelphia News (1925), the Chicago Times 1929; later the Sun-Times), the Denver Rocky Mountain News ("tabbed" 1948), the Los Angeles Mirror (begun in 1908 as a tabloid, to become the standard-size morning edition of the Times in 1954) and the New York Post (the old Evening Post,

system, was the increasing

number

of large cities with only one

newspaper ownership; by 1940

.

—

outstanding exemplar of the "yellow journalism" of the period. Tammen died in 1924 and Bonfils in 1933; in 1946 Palmer Hoyt became publisher, modifying the policy of the paper. Edgar

Watson Howe founded the Atchison (Kan.) Globe in 1877, and made it a widely quoted paper. Another famous editor in a small Kansas city was William Allen White, who bought the Emporia Gazette when it was five years old in 1895 and soon achieved national fame through his editorial writings. The Christian Science Monitor was established in Boston by Mrs. Mary Baker Eddy in 1908. A handsome and high-minded general newspaper,

it

international news. as the

Iowa

Citizen,

fought "yellow journalism" and emphasized

The Des Moines Register was begun in 1856 a Free Soil paper. From 1870 to the end of

was published by Coker F. Clarkson, followed by his two sons; in 1902 it absorbed the Leader, which had been begun as the Iowa Star, Des Moines's first newspaper, The next year the combined paper was bought by in 1849. Gardner Cowles, who in 1908 gave it the two-year-old Tribune Following the retirement of Cowles, the as an evening associate. the century the Register

Register and Tribune were conducted by his sons John Cowles and Gardner Cowles, Jr., who in 1935 purchased the Minneapolis

In 1949 Star and later the Journal and Tribune of that city. the Tribune for the Minneapohs papers were reduced to two

—

morning and the Star for afternoon. The New Orleans Times-Picayune was a combination of the two papers of that city which survived the Civil War period the famous old Picayune and the Times-Democrat (founded 1863, 1875; merged 1881). The States became its evening associate in 1933. The Item (1877) and Tribune (1924) were sold in 1949 to David Stern, son of the former publisher of the Philadelphia Record. In 1958 the Item was merged with the States, the merger being jointly owned by the Times-Picayune. The Washington (D.C.) Times-Herald was formed in 1939 when Mrs. Eleanor Patterson, granddaughter of Joseph Medill, bought the two papers from Hearst. The Herald had been founded in 1906 by Scott C. Bone, who had been managing editor of the Washington Post; the Times (1894) had been under Munsey ownership 1901-17. Mrs. Patterson left the Times-Herald to seven executives of the paper on her death in 1948; but the next year they sold it to Robert R. McCormick, publisher of the Chicago Tribune. It was merged with the Post in 1954. 15. The Tabloid.

—

The earliest American newspapers were all by that term only the small size of the pages is meant. The experimental Jan. 1, 1900, issue of the New York World, tabloids, if

designed

(2) the devotion of a large proportion of the paper's space to and (3) a terse, condensed and lively presentation of the

—

—

(

"tabbed" in 1942).

—

There were comparatively few U.S. 16. Two World Wars. correspondents abroad when World War I broke out in Aug. 1914, across found themselves hampered rushed who were and those on all fronts by censorship. After the arrival of the American expeditionary force in 1918, several hundred U.S. newspaper, magazine and agency men covered the war in various foreign centres and on the several military fronts. Censorship at the fronts, though often severe and stupid in the early years of the war, was somewhat more tenable after the Maj. Frederick Palmer, Associated Press arrival of the A.E.F. and magazine correspondent, wrote the section of the U.S. field service regulations dealing with war correspondents and was himself chief American censor for six months. Within the United

more than 75 papers had their mailing privileges withdrawn under the terms of the Espionage act. The German-language The Committee on Public Inpress declined about one-half. formation, George Creel, chairman, participated in both propaganda and censorship, and presented to U.S. papers a "voluntary States

censorship" code.

Most famous of the many camp and field newspapers published by and for U.S. soldiers during World War I was Stars and Stripes, continued for 16 months from Feb. 1918. When the United States entered World War II in Dec. 1941, there were more than 200 U.S. reporters gathering news abroad, mostly in belligerent countries. By the spring of 1943 the number had risen to 435. The U.S. war department accredited during the entire war, for longer or shorter periods, 1,186 American correspondents and news

officials,

representing

all

mediums, and

NEWSPAPER

390

navy department 460 more. Besides the press associations, 30 individual newspapers and 1 2 masazines had their own correspondents at the war fronts. Photopraphers played a far larger Most famous of war part in war reporting than ever before. pictures was that of a tlap raising at Iwo Jima in Feb, 1945, taken by Joseph Rosenthal of the Associated Press. Most famous of war correspondents was Ernest Taylor ("Ernie") Pyle, who wrote from England, north Africa, Sicily, Italy, France and the Pacific; he was killed on le Shima in the Okinawa campaign. Casualties among writers, photographers and radiomen covering the war numbered 37 killed and 112 wounded, exclusive of comthe

Among the best-known writers who perished were Raymond Clapper of Scripps-Howard Newspaper alliance and Webb Miller of the United Press. bat correspondents.

The

U.S. Otfice of Censorship, with

Byron Price as

director,

was

created Dec. 19, 1941, and lasted throughout the war. It promulgated the "Code of Wartime Practices for the American Press,"

which formed the basis for a remarkable co-operative self-censorField censorship on the war fronts varied greatly in efficiency and reasonableness. A number of home periodicals were suppressed, chiefly after convictions of publishers and editors under the Foreign Agents' Registration act. The Office of War Information, with Elmer Davis as director, was set up on June 13, 1942, and handled an immense amount of news and propaganda at home and abroad. Thousands of army unit, camp and installation, ordnance plant and combat ship papers served the American soldiers in World War II, Of this "G.I. journalism," Stars and Stripes was the chief daily newspaper and Yank the chief magazine. The former was reborn in London in April 1942 and was later printed in many editions on various fronts. Yank was begun about the same time in New' York, and came to have 22 editions and a circulation of about 2.500,000. Altogether there were said to be about 600 army unit papers and twice that many camp papers in the United ship.

States.

The war of 1950-53 in Korea was thoroughly covered by correspondents of American newspapers and news services. In the first year 320 newsmen, serving all communication agencies, were at the front for varying periods. Nine correspondents "were killed and many wounded and taken prisoner. 17. Marshall Field's Newspapers. The New York tabloid

PM

—

was founded

1940 by Ralph Ingersoll and associates as an ad-less daily of liberal opinions. Marshall Field III had some money in it at the start and later increased his holdings to a controlling interest. Sold in 1948, its name was changed to the Star, but it perished the next year. Ted O. Thackrey, former editor of the Post, founded the Daily Compass in 1949 with the financial backing of Mrs. Anita McCormick Blaine, publishing from the Star's former plant. Marshall Field III founded the Chicago Sun in 1941 as a competitor for the Tribune in the morning field. Six years later he bought the Times, evening tabloid, and "tabbed" the Sun; in 1948 the two papers were combined as the Sun-Times with round-theclock publication (since 1950, morning only). In its competition with the Tribune, the Sun felt the lack of an Associated Press membership, which it did not obtain until the government had brought suit against the A. P. for violation of the Sherman AntiTrust act. This suit, instituted in 1942, was decided in favour of the government in 1945 and caused the A.P. to amend its rules to forbid the "blackballing" of competitors. In 1959 Field Enterprises bought the Chicago Daily News. in

—

American Newspaper Guild. The American Newspaper was organized in 1933 "to preserve the vocational interests of its members and to improve the conditions under which they work by collective bargaining, and to raise the standards of journalism." First contract negotiated was with the Philadelphia Record. In 1936 the guild affiliated with the American Federation of Labor, and the next year with the Committee for Industrial Organization. By mid-century it had 23,000 members and had contracts in force on about 175 dailies and several independent newspapers, as well as on other periodicals and with the newsgathering agencies. There were many strikes, some of which 18.

guild

forced suspension of newspapers. One of the strikes, called by the International Typographical union (organized 1850) against the Chicago papers on Nov. 24, 1947. lasted 22 months. The papers resorted to "cold type production methods, printing from plates made directly from typewritten ("varityped") copy. 19. Circulations and Profits. In the 1950s the aggregate '

—

circulation of English-language dailies increased steadily, passing

mark

Advertising business also increased, was estimated that in the years 1947-54 daily newspaper income increased over 100%. At the rose more than 133%, thus greatly however, costs same time, diminishing the margin of profit. Most dailies increased the price the 58.000.000

in 1959,

especially in the mid-1950s.

It

per copy to five cents, some to seven and a few to ten.

—

20. Weekly Newspapers. Though the urban shift which began after the Civil War tended to highlight the metropolitan daily with its large circulation and fast service, the weekly newspaper of the small towns remained a powerful influence on the lives and thinking of a large part of the population of the U.S. The number of these community papers increased 1870-90 from fewer than 4.000 to about 12,000; the peak was reached in 1914 at 14,500. but consolidations reduced the number to about 10,000 shortly after mid-20th century. From the handwork of 1900, with much dependence on ready-printed sheets, the community weekly developed into a machine-set, power-driven operation, with strong emphasis on community service. In 1953 the Western Newspaper Union, which had furnished "ready prints" to w-eekUes since 1880,

discontinued that service. Nearly half the population increase of the 1940s took place suburbs of the metropolitan areas. This residential move-

in the

ment caused

a shift in types of newspapers ser\'ing the newly populous centres. Two types grew up rapidly the "middle-size" dailies, which served sizable suburbs or groups of suburbs (typical :

of these was Newsday, Garden City, Long Island) and the neighbourhood weekhes. often associated in groups. The latter type was by no means limited to suburban centres; it was found singly in small cities and made its most spectacular showing in groups in residential areas of Chicago and Philadelphia. 21. Foreign-Language Newspapers. Benjamin Franklin was publisher of the first foreign-language newspaper in what is now ;

—

the United States. It bore the title Philadelphische Zeitung, but Most notable of this class it published only two issues, in 1732. in the i8th century was Christopher Sauer's paper published 173978 under various titles but most prominently as the Germatttowner Zeitung. The first daily in a foreign language was Courrier Fran-

which supported the French cause in America 794-98. The phenomenal growth of the foreign-language press, however, waited upon the great waves of immigration, especially those from Germany. In 1830-60 German papers were founded in nearly all the states; and French, Italian, Spanish, Dutch, Swedish, Norwegian and Welsh languages were represented. By i860 nearly iq% of the country's papers were in foreign languages, and two-thirds of these were in German. Neiv Yorker StaatsZeitung, foremost of them, was founded by Jacob Uhl in 1834 and was later conducted through successive periods by Oswald Ottendorfer and Herman Ridder. Though the foreign-language press reached its peak in the first decade of the 20th century, it declined relarive to the growth of English-language papers in the United States after about 1880. Two world wars served to destroy the major prosperity of the foreign-language press. There were 140 dailies (about one-third German) in 1914; a decade after the end of World War II there were 76 (4 of them German, 12 Chinese). At the latter date 35 languages were represented. 22. The Negro Press. The first Negro newspaper was Freedom's Journal, conducted in New York in 1827 by Samuel Cornish and John B. Russwurm. Like all Negro journals published before the Civil War (about 24 in number), this paper devoted a short life to the antislavery cause. The most important paper conducted by a Negro in the years after the war was the New York Age, founded in 1879 by the poet and essayist T. T. Fortune under the name of the Globe. In the 1950s it was for a time called the New York Age-Defender and was subsequently absorbed in the (ais of Philadelphia,

in

1

—

New York

edition of the Courier.

NEWSPAPER In the 1960s there were about 90 Negro weeklies and semiweeklies (excluding religious and other special interest papers) and two dailies, the Atlanta World ( 1928) and the Chicago Daily Defender 1956). The circulation of both dailies was about 30,000. Circulation leaders among the weeklies included the New York Amsterdam News (1909), about 60,000; the Courier (1910), with headquarters in Pittsburgh, Pa., and 1 2 other editions throughout the U.S., with a total circulation of about 77,000; and in the 30,000-40,000 circulation range, the Baltimore Afro-American (1892), the Michigan Chronicle, Detroit (1936), the Norfolk (Va.) Journal atid Guide (1901), and the weekly edition of the Chicago Defender (1905). (

23. Appraisals of the Press.— Since the hostile criticism of the American newspaper, Publick Occurrences, there has been a fairly steady stream of criticism of newspapers in books, magazines, public speeches and the newspapers themselves. These criticisms, by such men as Charles Dickens, James Fenimore Cooper, Lambert A. Wilmer, David G. Croly, Edwin Lawrence Godkin, Oswald Garrison Villard, George Seldes, Silas Bent, Harold L. Ickes and Herbert Brucker, have ranged from angry invective to first

from personal or partisan motivation to the scholarly and sociological attitude. Perhaps the most important investigation was undertaken by the Commission on Freedom of the Press headed by Robert M. Hutchins, then chancellor of The sober appraisal,

University of Chicago. The report of the commission, entitled Free and Responsible Press (1947), restated the principles of mass publication and monop-

A

press freedom, emphasized dangers of

control and made a series of recommendations, some of which met with general acceptance. (F. L. Mt.) olistic

II. 1.

Beginnings.

UNITED KINGDOM

— Certain

pamphlets

cessors of the English newsbooks.

may

be taken as prede-

Newes Concernynge

the Gen-

Councell Holden at Trydent (Thomas Raynalde, London, •1549), a translation from the German, was one of the earliest. They dealt with pohtical matters, murders, wonders, etc., and were commonly published some time after the events they chronicled. They were not so much budgets of news as "relations" of a single event and matters connected with such an event. As a type they were modeled upon continental (especially German and Dutch) newsbooks, of which they were sometimes translations or adaptations. The German compilations of a half-year's events, called Messrelationen because they were sold at the fairs, influenced later eral

periodical development

and were significant for England. Such a compilation in Latin by Micael ab Isselt, entitled Mercurius Gallobelgicus, continued 1594-1635, was widely popular in England, and brought the name "mercury" into use for newsbooks; some of the later issues were translated into English. Doubtless under the influence of the Messrelationen, briefer

many of which were translated or adapted for English readers, appeared from 1590 onward. When English editors took over the idea of the news budget in 1621, the publications were commonly called "corantos" to indicate running news. The first English-language corantos were, however, small singlesheet (two-page) publications, and they were published in the Netherlands from Dec. 1620 to Sept. 1621. George Veseler published 15 of them and Broer Jonson 6 or 8 in Amsterdam; others were issued in Alkmaar and The Hague. Apparently the next step was the publication of the same type of coranto in London in Sept. 162 1, under the title Corante, or, Weekely Newes From Italy, Germany, Hungarie, Spaine and France. Six of these were issued "for N. B." with slight variations in title through September and October. The title is nearly enough identical, and the compilations,

weekly periodicity (though actually irregular) clear enough

in

intention, to support the claim for this series as the first English

newspaper. "N. B." was probably Nicholas Bourne. The sheets were translations of Dutch or German corantos. The next year the single-sheet corantos gave place to those in pamphlet form; and comparative regularity in periodicity, if not in title, came with the Weekly Newes, issued by Nicholas Bourne and Thomas Archer beginning in May 1622. This series was generally referred to as composing the "first English newspaper"

391

before the discovery in 1912 of the single-sheet corantos by "N. B." Continuity was by dates rather than identical title; for several years most coranto publishers depended upon changing headlines to sell their product and avoided identical titles. On

Aug.

2, 1622, Nathaniel Butter began a Newes, "all of which do carry a like title and have dependence upon one another" .

(Aug. 23).

.

.

became the most famous of the coranto publishers who flourished in the 1620s. In Oct. 1622, with Bourne and William Sheffard, Butter began Butter, the son of a bookseller,

A

Coranto, with the introduction of serial numbering. In 1625 Archer founded Mercurius Britannicus, which probably lasted till the end of 1627. Butter and Bourne remained principal publishers of the corantos of various series until 1632, when all were suppressed because the Spanish ambassador had been offended by news they had published regarding the royal house of Austria. For six years thereafter there were no newsbooks in England, but in 1638 Butter and Bourne were given exclusive patent for publication of foreign news.

Freedom and Censorship.

2.

— The next step in the evolution

of the newspaper was due to the abolition of the Star Chamber in 1 641, and the consequent freeing of the press; and at last the English periodical with domestic news arrived. In Nov. 1641- be-

gan The Head of Severall Proceedings in the Present Parliament (outside title) or Diurnal Occurrences (inside title), the latter being the title under which it was soon known as a weekly; and on Jan. 31, 1642, appeared A Perfect Diurnal of the Passages in Parliament. These were printed for William Cooke, and were written apparently by Samuel Pecke, "the first of the patriarchs of English domestic journalism" (J. B. Williams). The weekly Diurmds were on the side of the parliament until in Jan. 1643 appeared at Oxford the first royalist diurnal, named Mercurius Aulicus, a Diurnal Communicating the Intelligence and Affaires of the Court to the Rest of the Kingdome (continued till Sept. 1645, and soon succeeded by Mercurius Academicus), which struck a higher literary note. It was conducted by Sir John Berkenhead, a fellow of All Souls, whose style is said to reflect that of the parliamentary oratory of his day. He afterward became master of requests. Mercurius Civicus, the first regularly illustrated periodical in London, was started by the parliamentarian Richard Collings on May 11, 1643 (continued to Dec. 1646); Collings had also started earlier in the year the Kingdome's Weekly Intelligencer, which lasted till Oct. 1649. In Sept. 1643 appeared another puritan opponent of M. Aulicus in the later Mercurius Britannicus of (Tapt. Thomas Audley, which in Sept. 1644 was taken over and continued for nearly two years by Marchamont (or Marchmont) Nedham. Nedham was a master of invective and one of the earliest to change sides when it suited him. From Oct. 1649 to June 1650, by a new act of parliament, the licensed press itself was entirely suppressed, and in 1649 two official journals were issued, A Brief Relation (up to Oct. 1650) and Severall Proceedings in Parliament (till Sept. 1655), a third licensed periodical, A Perfect Diumall (till Sept. 165s), being added later in the year and a fourth, Mercurius Politicus (of which John Milton was the editor for a year or so

and Nedham one of the principal writers), starting on June 13, 1650 (continuing till April 12, 1660). After the middle of 1650 there was a revival of some of the older licensed newsbooks; but the

Weekly

Intelligence of the

Commonwealth

(July

1650 to

Sept. 165s) by R. Collings to Sept. 1655, when Oliver

was the only important newcomer up Cromwell suppressed all such publications with the exception of Mercurius Politicus and the Publick Intelligencer (Oct. 1655 to April 1660), both being ofi&cial and conducted by Nedham. Till

Cromwell's death (Sept. 3, 1658) 1659 a rival appeared

in the press, but in

Nedham in

reigned alone

Henry Muddiman

(a great writer also of "newsletters"), whose Pcirliamentary Intelligencer, renamed the Kingdom's Intelligencer (till Aug. 1663),

was supported by Gen. George Monk. Nedham's journalistic career came finally to an end (he died in 1678) at the hand of

Monk's council of state in April 1660. His successor, Muddiman, was supplanted in 1663 by Sir Roger L'Estrange, formerly a royalist cavalry officer

who narrowly escaped

execution during the

NEWSPAPER

192 Commonwealth; he was appointed surveyor him was conferred by royal grant

— period ing

all

— as

it

of the press.

"

On

proved, for only a short

the sole privilcRe of writing, printing and publishnarratives, advertisements, mercuries, intelligencers, di"all

with power to urnals and other books of public intelligence; search foi^ and seize the unlicensed and treasonable schismatical .

.

.

L'Estrange discontinued and scandalous books and papers." Mercurius Politicus and Kingdom's Intelligencer and substituted two papers, the Intelligencer (Aug. \) and the Newes (Sept. 3), at a halfpenny, the former on Mondays and the latter on Thursdays; they were continued till Jan. 29. 1666. The first number of the biweekly 3. The London Gazette. Oxford Gazette, licensed by Lord Arlington and written by Muddiman, was published on Nov. 16, 1665. With the publication of the 24th number (Monday, Feb. 5, 1666, old style) the Oxford Gazette became the London Gazette, which has appeared twice a week, on Tuesdays and Fridays, ever since as an official organ of the government. After the revolution of 1688 the press censorship was relaxed, being finally abandoned in 1693, and a number of newspapers came into being, Worcester Post Man (later Berrow's Worcester J oiinuil) was the oldest of the provincial papers, having been founded in i6qo. In 1699 appeared the Edinburgh Gazette,

—

Elizabeth Mallet published the first English daily newspaper, The Daily Courant, on March 11, 1702. She abandoned the paper after the first nine issues but it was resumed a month later by Samuel Buckley. 4. The 18th Century. Daniel Defoe was the first English journalistic writer of national importance. In Feb. 1704 he began his weekly, the Review, which eventually was printed three times a week and was a forerunner of the Taller started by Sir Richard Steele in 1709) and the Spectator (started by Steele and Joseph Addison in 1711). Defoe's Review came to an end in 1713, and between 1716 and 1720 he published a monthly with an old title, Mercurius Politicus. The Examiner, started in 1710 as the chief Tory organ, enjoyed as its most influential contributor Jonathan Swift, the father of a biweekly.

—

(

the leading article. Swift had control of the journal for ^^ numbers between Nov. 17 10 and June 1711, but on becoming dean of St. Patrick's he gave up regular journalistic work.

—

In 1696 Edward Lloyd the virtual founder of the famous "Lloyd's" of commerce started a thrice-a-week paper, Lloyd's News, which had but a brief existence in its first shape, but was the precursor of the modern Lloyd's List. No. 76 of the original paper contained a paragraph referring to the house of lords, for the appearance of which a public apology must, the publisher was told, be made. He preferred to discontinue his publication (Feb. 1697). In 1726 he in part revived it, under the title of Lloyd's List published at first weekly, afterward twice a week. It later

—

—

became a daily. The increasing popularity and

influence of the newspapers could The not fail to be distasteful to the government of the day. paper which seems to contain the first germ of the newspaper tax is still preserved among the treasury papers, and probably belongs to the year 1711. The duty eventually imposed (1712) was a half-

penny on papers of half a sheet or less, and a penny on such as ranged from half a sheet to a single sheet. Sw'ift's

doubt, expressed in his Journal to Stella (Aug.

7,

1712),

was by its discontinuance in Dec. 171 2, Steele starting the Guardian in 17 13, which only ran for six months. But some of the worst journals that were already in existence kept their ground, and their number soon increased. Part of this increase may fairly be ascribed to political corruption. Later, toward the middle of the same century, the provisions and the penalties of the Stamp act were made more stringent. Yet the number of newspapers continued to rise. In 1753 the aggregate number of copies of newspapers annually sold in England, on an average of three years, amounted to 7,411,757. In 1760 it had risen to 9,464,790, and in 1767 to 11,300,980. In 1776 the number of newspapers published in London alone had increased to 53. Thus the 18th century saw the gradual development of the purely pohtical journal side by side with those papers which were as to the ability of the Spectator to hold out against the tax justified

[)rimarily devoted to news, domestic It

was

journalism son's

to Steele

left

in their

twopenny

and Addison

journals

and foreign, and commerce.

to

develop the social side of Nor can Samuel John-

named above.

biweekly, the Rambler, started in 1750, and his

In 1762 the North Briton John Wilkes's (g.v.) determined fight for the liberty of the press that at length the last shackles on free expression of opinion in Britain were cut away. During the 18th century the epithet "grub street" for literary hackwork originated. According to Samuel Johnson's Dictionary,

weekly, the Idler (1758), be omitted.

came out and

it

was largely as

a result of

street was "originally the name of a street near Moorfields, London, much inhabited by writers of small histories, dictionaries, and temporary poems, hence any mean production is

Grub in

called grubstreet."

The outstanding daily paper in the middle of the 18th century was the Public Advertiser, which for about 25 years had been called the General Advertiser (and for some time the London Daily Post). It was published with notable success by Henry Woodfall and his son Henry Sampson Woodfall, and it was in this paper These papers that the famous letters of Junius iq.v.) appeared. led to a marked increase in its circulation, the monthly sale in Dec. 1771 being almost 84,000 as compared with 47,500 seven years previously. But in 1798 it was merged in the Public Ledger. 5. Early 19th Century.— In 1769 William Woodfall started the Morning Chronicle, whose daily circulation in 1819 reached 4,000, and in 1843, at a time when Charles Dickens was a contributor, 6,000. But in another six years the circulation had fallen to 3,000. For about five years it became the property of the duke of Newcastle, William Gladstone and others, but finally ended inAnother long-lived solvent, after a hfe of more than 90 years. daily paper, whose top circulation was about 6,000, was the Morning Herald (1781-1869). It was William Cobbett who first attempted to reach the masses by his pen, and reduced the price of his Weekly Political Register from Is. ^d. to twopence in his endeavour to appeal to the working classes for support of those In 1808 principles of parliamentary reform dear to his heart. Leigh Hunt brought out the Examiner, whose frank criticism of the prince regent landed him and a brother in prison. The development of the press was enormously assisted by the gradual abolition of the "taxes on knowledge," and also by the introduction of a cheap postal system. In 1756 an additional halfpenny was added to the tax of 1712. In 1765 and in 1773 various In 1789 the three halfrestrictive regulations were imposed. pence was increased to twopence, in 1798 to twopence-halfpenny, in 1804 to threepence-halfpenny and in 1815 to fourpence, less a discount of 20%. As prosecutions multiplied, and the penalties became more serious, revolutionary tendencies increased in a still greater ratio. Blasphemy was added to sedition. Penny and halfpenny journals were established which dealt exclusively with narratives of gross vice and crime. Between 1831 and 1835 hundreds The political of unstamped newspapers made their appearance. tone of most of them was fiercely revolutionary. Prosecution folpubliall failed to suppress the obnoxious lowed prosecution, but cations.

Lytton, the novelist and politician, and subsequently Milner Gibson and Richard Cobden, is chiefly due the credit of grappling with this question in parliament to secure first the reduction of the tax to a penny in 1836, and then its total abolition The number of newspapers established from the early in 1855. part of 1855, when the repeal of the duty had become a certainty, and continuing in existence at the beginning of 1857, amounted to 107 26 were metropolitan and 81 provincial. The duties on paper

To Lord

to

;

itself

were

The

finally abolished in 1861.

abolition of the

stamp taxes brought about such reductions

in the prices of newspapers that they speedily began to reach the many instead of the few. Some idea of the extent of the tax on

knowledge imposed in the early 19th century may be gathered from the fact that the number of stamps issued in 1820 was nearly 29,400,000, and the incidence of the advertisement tax, fixed at 3i. td. in 1804, made it impossible for the newspaper owner to pass on the stamp tax to the advertiser. Iii 1828 the proprietors of The Times had to pay the state more than £68,000

NEWSPAPER stamp and advertisement taxes and paper duty. But after the reduction of the stamp tax in 1836 from fourpence to one penny, the circulation of English newspapers, based on the stamp returns, rose from 39.000.000 to 122,000.000 in 1854. in

6. The Growth of Parliamentary Reporting The first attempts to inform the public on what was being said and done in parliament were made by the Gentlemen's Magazine in 1736. As any reporting of the proceedings of the house was prohibited by a standing order of 1728. early reporters like Edward Cave (q.v.) could only take surreptitious notes; the published reports were written by another hand: by Dr. Johnson from 1740-43. After a prosecution in 1771 the right of newspapers to publish parliamentary debates was never again challenged and early in the 19th century special galleries were provided for newspaper reporters. At first only The Times published full reports of the debates on the following day. but when the telegraphs were taken over by the state in 1870, the facilities for reporting were increased in every direction. News agencies began to supply identical acCommunications between the counts to provincial newspapers. press gallery and the newspaper office were further developed when in 1951 The Times introduced the system of teletypesetting. by which a compositor in the palace of Westminster could set type by remote control of a linotype machine in the newspaper's offices. 7. London Morning Papers. The Times was started by John

—

393

when another

great

Finally, in 1908,

London

was dying. ambition and ac-

daily paper, the Standard,

Lord Northcliffe realized

his

quired the chief control of the "Thunderer." It cannot be said that Lord Northdiffe's administration was consistently successful but he thoroughly remodeled the organization and increased its

On his retirement Buckle was sucall departments. ceeded as editor by George Geoffrey Dawson. In igig he retired from the editorship because of a difference of opinion with Lord Northcliffe and his place was taken by Henry W'ickham Steed, who died in 1956. In 1923 when, following the death of Lord Northcliffe, Maj. J. J. Astor, M.P. (later Lord Astor of Hever), became its chairman and chief proprietor, Dawson again became editor. Major Astor secured the future independence of the paper by a deed establishing a body of trustees consisting of holders of various public offices whose consent would be required to validate any future transfer of ownership. In 1941 Dawson retired from the editorship in favour of R. M. Barrington Ward who died seven years later and was succeeded by W. F. Casey. On his retirement in 1952 Sir William Haley, the then director-general of the British Broadcasting corporation, became the editor. In the early 1960s its circulation was about 260.000. The Times has always excelled in its home and foreign news departments and in mechanical production. On the editorial side it has at its command experts on every conceivable subject. It makes efficiency in

name of the Daily Universal When it first appeared the Register was nothing more than a 2^d. broadsheet whose main function was to advertise an improved system of typography in which John Walter was interested and to give him cheap publicity for the books he published. On Jan. 1, 1788, its title was changed to The Times. It came into existence when free expression of opinion in the press was still a thing of the future, and within a few years of the establishment of his paper Walter had several sojourns in Newgate and had to pay several fines for criticisms of the authorities.

its reports from overseas and from its earliest has maintained an able staff of correspondents in all the capitals of the world. Among the other publications issued from Printing House square, the home of The Times, are the Literary Supplement ; the Educational Supplement ; the Weekly Review,

John Walter II practically took over the reins in 1803, and he also had to encounter the active opposition of governments which he had occasion to criticize, including that of Wilham Pitt. He introduced a better system of news transmission and steam printing (1814), with the result that he was able to make the proud announcement that 1,100 sheets had been impressed in one hour. In view of the newspaper and advertisement tax and other disabilities, it was a considerable achievement when in 1815, the

down

Walter on Jan.

1,

1785, under the

Register.

year of Waterloo, the daily circulation reached 5,000. In 20 years this was doubled, in 1851 it had reached 40.000 and three years later it was more than 50,000, when its most circulated rival,

Morning Advertiser, had a sale of fewer than 8,000 copies. Walter II assumed control The Times was a small four-page sheet; when he gave up control in 1847 it consisted of large 12 pages and the foundations of the paper's present reputation as the preeminent national journal and daily historical record were laid. John Stoddart, later governor of Malta, was editor until the end of 1816 when he resigned after a series of differences with John Walter II. He was succeeded in 1817 by the young the

When John

Thomas Barnes, perhaps the greatest had, who had made his reputation as

When

reporter. torial

editor the paper has ever a critic

Barnes' health began to

work devolved upon Edward

and parliamentary

fail,

Sterling,

much

of the edi-

whose

pontifical

and sometimes explosive style caused Thomas Carlyle to say: "He more than any other man was The Times, and thundered through

it

to the shaking of the spheres."

It

was, however, the

Morning Chronicle in 1829, attacking a leading article probably written by Sterling, that first coined the popular description of The Times as the "thunderer." In 1841, on the death of Barnes, the editorial chair was taken by John Thadeus Delane. In 1877 he was succeeded by Thomas Chenery, who died in 1884 and was followed by George Earle Buckle. Meanwhile, from 1848, John Walter III had been in command. He died in 1894, and was succeeded by Arthur Walter. About the beginning of the 20th century The Times had begun to feel the influence of the more go-ahead methods of the popular press, and there was a loss of circulation and revenue which became a grave source of anxiety to its owners. It was a period

a special feature of

days

it

first published in 1877 as the Weekly Edition; the Review of Industry and Technology, published monthly and the Times Index, published once every two months. ;

The Daily Telegraph and Morning Post was

in the early

the second of the great national dailies and. having kept to id.

as did the other

its

1960s price

London morning papers with

the exception of The Times, Sd. and the Financial Times, Sd.), had a circulation of over 1,200,000. (

First published as the Daily Telegraph and Courier on June 29, 1855. it was owned by Col. Arthur B. Sleigh, who transferred it to Joseph Moses Levy in the following September. Levy produced it as the first penny newspaper in London, the name Courier being subsequently dropped. His son Edward Lawson (later the ist Lord Burnham soon became editor, which post he continued to )

hold till 1885. A long list of distinguished members of the staff included Sir Edwin Arnold, George Augustus Sala. Edward Dicey, Sir J. M. Le Sage. Bennet Burleigh, the war correspondent, J. L. Garvin and H. D. Traill; and among dramatic and literary critics Clement Scott, W. L. Courtney and W. A. Darlington. After 1890 Harry Lawson (later Viscount Burnham), eldest son of the owner, assisted in the general control. The repeal of the Stamp act in 1855 enabled the Daily Telegraph to challenge the hitherto preeminent position of The Times. By 1861, only six years after it was started, it had a circulation of 130,000 more than double that of The Times owing to its special appeal to the middle classes. It was consistently Liberal up to 1878 when it opposed Gladstone's foreign pohcy, and at the Irish Home Rule split in 1886 it became Unionist. Circulation by 1927, however, had dechned to 84,000; and in 1928 Viscount Burnham sold the paper

—

—

to Sir William Ewert Berry and Sir James Gomer Berry (later Viscount Camrose and Viscount Kemsley) and Sir Edward (later Lord) Iliffe. Circulation increased, doubling in 1930, when the price was reduced to a penny. The Morning Post was absorbed in 1937, and the Daily Telegraph and Morning Post was, in the early 1960s, a well-balanced morning newspaper, independent Con-

servative in politics.

The Morni?ig Post had been founded in .1772 as the Morning Post and Daily Advertising Pamphlet, mostly an advertising sheet including state lotteries, then legal and popular. It developed into a national newspaper under the ownership of Peter and Daniel Stuart after 1795, and attracted a wonderful galaxy of writers, including Sir James Mackintosh, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Robert Southey, Arthur Young, the poet Thomas Moore, William Words-

NEWSPAPER

394

worth and Charles Lamb, The Monung Post maintained a tradition of vigorous and unblenching criticism, and Nicholas Byrne, editor-owner who succeeded Daniel Stuart, was murdered in his In 1850 otTice as the result of an article which had given offense. the paper came under the control of Peter Borthwick, and on his death in 1852 he was succeeded by his son Algernon (later Lord Glenesk). Among the editors of the Morning Post were Sir William Hardman, J. Nicol Dunn, Sir Fabian Ware and H. A. Gwynne. In 1937 the paper, as noted above, was consolidated with the Daily Telegraph.

The Guardian

is

the only example of a provincial paper that has In 1960 the prefix "Manchester" was

acquired national standing.

dropped from the title and two years later arrangements were made for the paper to be simultaneously printed in London and Manchester. Thus the Guardian, with a circulation in the early 1960s of 260,000, came to rival The Times. Founded as the Manchester Guardian in 1821, it was a weekly Whig organ and later became the chief exponent of Liberalism outside London. From 1S72 to 1929 it was edited by C. P. Scott (q.v.) and gained a worldApart from its vigorous politics it enjoyed an \vide reputation. It became a penny paper in 1857, unrivaled hterary prestige. two years after it had been turned into a daily. Prominent names associated with it were C. P. Scott's son-inlaw C. E. Montague, Leonard T. Hobhouse, Andrew Lang, Richard Jeffries, Richard Whiteing, Sir Claude PhiUips, George Saintsbury, Laurence Housman, G. W. E. Russell, and Spenser Wilkinson. In its book reviewing, its dramatic criticism and its foreign correspondence the Manchester Guardian exercised an unparalleled influence in provincial journalism. The Guardian was helped by the prosperity of its evening associate, the Manchester Eve-

News (1868)

acquired in 1924. started by Alfred and Harold Harmsworth in 1896 as a halfpenny daily newspaper, was a phenomenal success from the first number. By 1900 it had already reached the 1,000,000 mark in circulation and by 1929 it had 2,000,000. In 1905 Sir Alfred Harmsworth started in Paris the Continental Daily Mail, ning

The Daily Mail,

The Daily Mail also the property of Lord Rothermere. Sir Alfred established editions in Manchester and Edinburgh. later

(later Viscount Northcliffe) was not only a brilliant organizer but a keen journalist; he was the first to exploit the advantages of the short paragraph and introduced many other typographical features that are now standard practice in journal-

Harmsworth

On

death in 1922, the paper came under the control of his On his retirement in 1937 the management passed to his son. In the late 1920s and early 1930s the Daily Mail had the largest daily circulation in the world. In the early 1960s its circulation of over 2,000,000, was exceeded by both the Daily Express and the Daily Mirror. In 1960, the publishers of the Daily Mail, Associated Newspapers Ltd,, purchased the News Chronicle. This paper was the result of the earlier amalgamation of several, newspapers, notably The Daily News was the Daily News and the Daily Chronicle. founded in 1846 under the editorship of Charles Dickens. It became the champion of LiberaUsm, supporting the war of freedom in Italy and the emancipation of Bulgaria and the Armenians, Later it absorbed the Morning Leader, acquired the Star in 1909, absorbed the \V estnmister Gazette in 1928 and was amalgamated with the Daily Chronicle in 1930. The Daily Chronicle was established in 1877 and was turned into a general newspaper by Edward Lloyd, the founder of Lloyd's News. The paper reached a height of prosperity during World War I with Robert Donald as editor. The paper was owned by David Lloyd George for a brief period but in 1930 was amalgamated with the Daily News to form the News Chronicle. In 1955 it absorbed the Daily Dispatch of Manchester and at the time of its closure had a circulation of more than 1,500,000. The Daily Express, which was founded as a halfpenny newspaper in 1900 by C. Arthur Pearson, passed the Daily Mail in circulation in the 1930s, partly through the use of free-gift inducements. Following the lead of U.S. newspapers, the Daily Express struck a new note of publishing its principal news on the front page. In 1904 R. D. Blumenfeld became editor and in 1912 he formed a syndicate

ism.

brother.

his

Lord Rothermere.

which acquired control. Lord Beaverbrook began to take an interest in the paper while it was financially in low water, and in 1922 he obtained complete control. He spent prodigious sums in developing the paper, which in the early 1960s had 4,200,000 circulation and was being printed simultaneously in London, Manchester and Glasgow. The Daily Herald was founded in 1911 as a Labour organ, but was not taken over officially by the Labour party until 1922. In 1929 Lord Southwood, head of Odhams Press Ltd., arranged to take a 51% interest, while the party retained 49%. It was agreed that the paper should support the policy of the Trades Union congress (T.U.C.). Shortly afterward the Labour party handed over But in 1960 Odhams asked its interest in the paper to the T.U,C, to be released from the agreement on the grounds that they could not make the paper pay unless they had complete editorial freedom. The T,U.C. agreed after Odhams had promised to ''mainlain the industrial and political integrity of the paper" and that it would continue as a "newspaper of the left." In 1961 control of the Daily Herald, together with the rest of Odhams Press, passed into the hands of the Daily Mirror group, later called the International Publishing corporation (I.P.Cj, At the time of the take over the Daily Herald had a circulation of 1,400,000, In 1964 the LP.C, having persuaded the T,U,C, to sell its interest for £75,000, produced a daily newspaper the Sun to replace the Daily

—

—

Herald.

1903 by Alfred women. When it owner soon made it into the first

The Daily Mirror was originally Harmsworth as a woman's paper to be did not succeed in this

field, its

issued in

edited by

halfpenny illustrated tabloid. It retained a family flavour, howIn the early 1960s it ever, with attention to women's interests.

had the highest circulation of all the national dailies, selling 4,500,000 copies. The Daily Sketch was founded in 1909 as a halfpenny illustrated tabloid, absorbed the older and higher-priced Daily Graphic in the 1920s and was called for several years the Daily Sketch and Graphic. Coming into the hands of Lord Rothermere The name of the Graphic it was later sold by him to Lord Kemsley, was then dropped but in 1946 the Daily Sketch became the Daily Graphic. When, later on, it again passed into the control of Lord Rothermere, the title of the Daily Sketch was restored. In the early 1960s it had a circulation of 981,000. Founded in 1932 as a Communist organ, the Daily Worker was suppressed in Jan. 1941 and did not appear again until Sept. 1942 when the U.S.S.R, had joined the war against Germany. Its circulation in the early 1960s was about 60,000. There are two evening papers 8. London Evening Papers. published in London, the Evening News and the Evening Standard. The Evening News was founded in 1881 and, after many vicissitudes, when in dififlculty was acquired in 1895 by Alfred and Harold Harmsworth and Kennedy Jones. It was the Harmsworths' first incursion into daily journaUsm, and made a rich experimental field

—

One of the Associated Newspaper group, it largest circulation of any of the evening papers in the country in the early 1960s approximately 1,458,000. In 1960 the group purchased the Star, which had been a London Liberal evening paper. It was started by T. P. O'Connor in 1S88 as a halfpenny journal in support of Gladstone. In 1909 it was acquired by the Daily News and at the time of its demise had a circulation for the Daily Mail.

had the

—

in excess of 1,000,000.

The Evening Standard was begun

in the 1870s as the afternoon

edition of the Standard (see below) and was devoted largely to commercial news. In 1923 it became the property of Lord Beaver-

brook, and later it absorbed the famous old Pall Mall Gazette {see below). Often called a "quality" evening newspaper, it had a circulation of nearly 800.000 early in the 1960s. Fleet street is peopled with the 9. Great Papers of the Past. ghosts of journals which in their time filled important places in the

—

life

of the country.

began

its

There was the Morning Chronicle, which

career in 1769 and had

among

its

leading contributors

R. B. Sheridan, Sir J. Mackintosh, John Campbell (afterw^ard lord chancellor), the poet Thomas Campbell, Thomas Moore, Lord Brougham, Byron, William Hazlitt, J. S. Mill, Charles Lamb and W. M. Thackeray. John Black was its most famous editor. After

NEWSPAPER a notable career the

Morning Chronicle died

The Standard was

and the Northampton Mercury begun

in 1862.

established as an evening paper in the

Tory

In the iSsos it was purchased by James Johnstone, who brought out the Standard as a morning paper (1857). One of its contributors in the 1860s was Lord Robert Cecil, later Lord Salisbury. Johnstone, to whose energy and perspicacity the interest in 1827.

paper owed so much, died in 1878, and under his will William H. Mudford was appointed editor and manager for life, or until resignation. In Mudford's hands the Standard entered upon a successIt had many famous war correspondents, foremost ful period. among whom were G. A. Henty, John A. Cameron and William Maxwell. In Jan. 1900 Mudford was succeeded by G. Byron Curtis (d. 1907). In Nov. 1904 the Standard was sold to Sir Arthur Pearson. In 1910 it passed into the control of Davison (later Lord) Dalziel and disappeared during World War I. A disastrous experiment in newspaper production was the Tribune, founded by Franklin Thomasson in 1906 as a solid penny daily. After gathering a brilliant staff and expending very large sums he discontinued the paper in 1908. The unhappy enterprise was described in Sir Philip Gibbs's novel The Street of Adventure. The first number of the Pall Mall Gazette (the name being borrowed from the incident in which Thackeray describes Captain Shandon in the Marshalsea prison drafting the prospectus of the Pall Mall Gazette as a paper "written by gentlemen for gentlemen") appeared in Feb. 1865. Its first editor was Frederick Greenwood, who gathered round him a brilliant array of talent in Sir Henry Maine, Sir J. Fitzjames Stephen, Anthony Trollope, Charles Reade, George Henry Lewes, George Eliot, Matthew Arnold and Richard Jefferies. In 1875 Greenwood was able to convey to Disraeli news of the French bid to secure control of the Suez canal, thereby enabling Britain to get in first. It had been a consistent supporter of Disraeli, and when on changing hands it became Liberal, John Morley (later Viscount Morley of Blackburn) became editor, with William T. Stead (q.v.) as assistant editor. When Morley exchanged journalism for politics in 1883, he was succeeded by Stead. Stead was succeeded by E. T. Cook in 1889. The Pall Mall Gazette was now steadily Liberal and a strong advocate of Irish Home Rule. Two distinguished editors at a later date were Sir Douglas Straight and J. L. Garvin. It was consolidated with the Evening Standard in 1925. Founded in 1880 by H. Hucks Gibbs (later Lord Aldenham) for Frederick Greenwood to edit when he had left the Pall Mall Gazette, the St. James's Gazette represented the more intellectual and literary side of Tory journalism in opposition to the new liberalism of Greenwood's former organ. In 1888, the paper having been sold. Greenwood retired and was succeeded as editor (188897) by Sir Sidney Low, who in his turn was succeeded by Hugh Chisholm (1897-99). Among the contributors were Rudyard Kipling, Sir James Barrie and G. S. Street. Toward the end of the 19th century it assumed a more popular style and shape, and for a year or two before its acquisition by Pearson in 1903 and its final merging in the Evening Standard it was edited by Ronald

McNeill

When

(later

Lord Cushendun). Mall Gazette was sold

to Lord Astor in 1892 and converted into a Conservative organ, E. T, Cook, the editor, and most of his staff resigned; in 1893 they came together again on the Westminster Gazette, newly started for the purpose by Sir

the Pall

G. Newnes as a penny Liberal evening paper. The paper was conducted on the lines of the old Pall Mall Gazette, and it had the advantage of a brilliant political cartoonist in Sir Carruthers Gould. In 1896 Cook was appointed editor of the Daily News, and his place was ably filled by J. A. Spender. The Westminster Gazette became conspicuous for its high standard of political and literary criticism, and gradually became the chief organ of Liberal thought in London. In 1908 it was sold to a group of Liberal capitalists. After World War I it was replaced by a daily newspaper of the same name which was merged in the Daily News in 1928. 10. Provincial Press.— The first provincial paper in England was the weekly Worcester Post Man (1690), later the modern Berrow's Worcester Journal. In the first 20 years of the 18th century a number of other, mainly weekly, journals sprang up in country towns, among them the Stamford Mercury begun in 1713

395 in 1720.

At the

start of the

19th century the provincial press consisted of fewer than 100 Benjamin Flower, printer of the Cambridge Intelligencer, was the first to introduce the leadjournals, practically without influence.

The Leeds Mercury, founded under the control of Edward Baines (1801) became the most important and influential of the north country papers in the ing article in the provincial press. in 1717,

half of the 19th century. After the Reform act of 1830, the spread of self-education and the establishment of reading circles and newspaper clubs, the country newspapers developed in importance and usefulness. It was not, however, till the final refirst

moval of the taxes on knowledge that the provincial press came into its own.

Within ten years of the abolition of the paper duty, penny morning newspapers had taken up commanding positions in many But any real importance cities in England, Scotland and Ireland. as organs of opinion was still confined to only a few of the great penny provincial dailies, notably the Yorkshire Post, Manchester Guardian, Birmingham Post (1857), Sheffield Telegraph (associated with Sir W. Leng), Liverpool Daily Post, Leeds Mercury and Western Morning News; others were at the same time cradling journalists who were to become famous, such as the Darlington Northern Echo, on which W. T. Stead made his debut. The first syndicate to send out war correspondents was formed by the Glasgow News, Liverpool Daily Post, Manchester Courier, Birmingham Gazette and Western Morning News, which dispatched two correspondents to Egypt. The Central News also sent out war correspondents to Egypt and the Sudan. During the South African War (1899-1902) the leading provincial newspapers, however, all formed syndicates to secure war telegrams. The following were the leading English provincial daily papers in the early 1960s:

The Yorkshire Post began in 1754 and became the principal Conservative newspaper outside London, enjoying national prestige extending far beyond the borders of Yorkshire. In its early years it devoted especial attention to racing, which was neglected by most local papers in the country in those days, and under the control of the Beckett family it rapidly attained a solid prosperity. It had talented editors in H. J. Palmer, J. S. R. Phillips, Arthur H. Mann and Sir Linton Andrews. The Yorkshire Evening Post, founded 1890, became the popular evening paper for all Yorkshire, with a circulation of 236,000. The Birmingham Daily Post was founded in 18S7 by J. F. Feeney and John Jaffray and later was controlled by Sir Charles Hyde. It came to hold a position in the midlands analogous to that of the Yorkshire Post in the north. It was purchased by Lord Ihffe after Hyde's death in 1942. Its evening associate, the Birmingham Mail, had a circulation of 294,000 in the early 1960s. In 1956 the group absorbed the Biriningham Gazette. The Liverpool Daily Post was founded in 1855 as a Liberal paper. In 1904 it absorbed the Liverpool Mercury (founded in 1811), and it assumed a pre-eminent place in the hfe of the great seaport. It was far exceeded in circulation by its afternoon associate, the Evening Echo, with a circulation of 410,000. 11. Scotland, Wales and Ireland. In Scotland the leading newspapers in the 1960s were still The Scotsman and the Glasgow Herald. The former was started as a biw^eekly in 1817 and became a daily in 1855. It was Liberal until the Home Rule split in 1886 when it adopted the Unionist cause. Alexander Russel was its most famous editor in the 19th century (1848-76) and worthy successors included Sir George Waters and J. Murray Watson. For many years it has been the only Edinburgh morning newspaper, and in 1959 was acquired by Roy Thomson from its former owner. Lord Kemsley. The Glasgow Herald dates from 1783, when it first came out with the extra name and Advertiser. It acquired a great literary reputation under an illustrious line of editors, including Samuel Hunter, George Outram, Sir Robert Bruce and Sir William Robieson. The largest circulations in Scotland in the early 1960s were both achieved by papers owned by the International Publishing corporation; the Sunday Mail with 612,000 and the Glasgow Daily

—

Record with 500,000.

NEWSPAPER

396

World (founded 1843), which devoted considerable space to sport and crime. Sir Emsley Carr was editor for half a century from 1891 until his death in 1941. The paper passed the 1,000,000 mark shortly after 1900 and by the early 1960s had a circulation of well over 6,484,000, being the largest newspaper in

In Wales the four Cardiff papers in 1929 were amalgamated into two, the South Wales Echo and the Western Mail, both Thomson newspapers; in the early 1960s the former had the largest of Welsh circulations— about 150.000. In 1929 also the two Swansea papers were consolidated by the Northdiffe newspaper group as

Neii's of the

the South Wales Evening Post. In Northern Ireland, Belfast had three morning papers and one evening paper in 1963. The morning papers were the Belfast News-Letter (1737), the Northern Whig (1S241 and the Irish News (1S55). The evening paper was the Belfast Telegraph (1S70">. In Ireland three morning and two evening papers were published at Dublin and one of each at Cork. Largest of these was

the free world.

the Irish Independent and oldest was the Cork Examiner (1840, morning). There were also two local Sunday papers. See also Newspaper Chains, below. English papers carried 12. British Illustrated Newspapers. news pictures as early as 1731, when the Grub Street Journal show, but not until lord mayor's the printed a woodcut depicting 1S42 did England have a fully illustrated newspaper. Herbert Ingram brought out the first number of the weekly Illustrated London News on May 14, 1S42. It contained 16 printed pages and il woodcuts. The chief engravings, by Sir John Gilbert, illustrated the first bai masque given by Queen Victoria at Buckingham palace. Control of the paper passed in 1860 to Ingram's son, Its editors included Charles Mackay later Sir William Ingram. (1848-59), John Lash Latey (1859-90) and Clement K. Shorter (1890-99). In 1861 the first penny popular paper was started by the same proprietor, the Penny Illustrated Paper, edited by John Latey, Jr., who afterward was editor of the Illustrated Lmidon News. In 1869 the first serious rival of the Illustrated London News was published, the Graphic, produced by W. L. Thomas. Black and ]\'l!ite, a paper of the same class as the Illustrated London News, followed in 1891; and in 1892 the Sketch was started by Sir William Ingram, under the editorship of Shorter, as a social and theatrical illustrated weekly. From this time forward, many illustrated weeklies were started in the fields of the theatre, sports, fashion and society. Perhaps the most successful of all illustrated newspapers was Picture Post, nearest British the equivalent to the American Life magazine. It was started by Sir Edward Hulton in 1938 and ten years later had achieved a circulation of 1.400.000; by the time it closed in 1957 this figure had dropped by half. The owner attributed its collapse not so much to telexision as to a general change in reading habits. A year later Odhams' Illustrated whose circulation (at one time over 1,000,000) had suffered a similar decline also disappeared. The Illustrated Londo7t News, however, survived all these changes although its parent company. Illustrated Newspapers Ltd., had a number of owners over the years. It was created in 1926 by William Harrison, purchased in 1937 by Sir John EUerman and Lord Southwood and changed hands again when Roy Thomson bought it in 1961. 13. Sunday Newspapers.— The Observer, the oldest of the Sunday newspapers, was founded in 1791. It kept on its respectable but somewhat sombre career until it was acquired by Lord Astor and edited by J. L. Garvin, when it assumed a distinctive character a virile independence in its political outlook while making a strong feature of foreign correspondence, literature, the drama, etc. On Gar\nn's resignation in 1942 he was succeeded by Dav-id Astor. In 1964 its circulation was 716,000. The Sutiday Times was founded in 1822. Its course was similar to that of the Observer until 1915, when it was acquired by WilUam and James Berry. The former was editor in chief of the Sunday Times, 1915-37. In 1959 the paper was bought from Lord Kemsley by Roy Thomson but retained its conservative character. The feature side of the paper was expanded, the most notable development being the introduction of a colour section in 1962. In the early 1960s its circulation was about 1,130,000. In 1961 the Sunday Telegraph came to join the Observer and the Sutiday Times in the "quality" field. Launched by the Daily Telegraph it is, like its parent, an independent Conservative paper with a circulation of approximately 700,000. The best-selling Sunday newspaper in the early 1960s was the

—

—

In 1960 the publishers acquired the Empire News (2,000,000), founded in Manchester in 1884. The People, with a circulation in the early 1960s of over 5.500,000. was printed in London and Manchester, as was the News

Founded in 1881, it was acquired by the Daily 1961 when it gained control of the former pubThe Sunday Express, founded in 1918 as lishers, Odhams press. the Sunday edition of the Daily Express, sold about 4.333,000 copies. The Sunday Dispatch, founded in 1801 as the Weekly of the World.

Mirror group

in

Dispatch and later affiliated with the Daily Mail, closed down in 1961 the Sunday Graphic established in 1915 closed down in 1960. Reynolds News (1850), the organ of the co-operative movement (circulation 361,000), changed its name in 1962 to the Sunday Citizen. The Sutiday Pictorial (1915) had a circulation of more than 5,000,000 in 1964 when the name was changed to the Sunday ;

Mirror. 14.

—

Competition for Mass Circulation. The competition between World Wars I and II

for circulation reached its height

and the popular newspapers resorted Free insurance policies were offered

to

many

unusual expedients.

to readers

and

their families

and, in return for a subscription to the newspaper, the citizen could obtain free gifts which ranged from complete sets of books by well-known authors to washing machines. Crossword and other

competitions for which substantial prizes were awarded were introduced. The result was that for a time circulations were artificially inflated and it is to be doubted whether the public read all the newspapers for which it paid subscriptions. The newspapers realized that a disaster, if it caused the deaths of many poHcyholders, might

on their finances and a mutual arrangement form of artificial circulation. In World War II canvassing for circulation was forbidden and circulations were frozen at 1939 levels. There was, however, a renewal of some of this competition during the 1950s when inducements to purchase newspapers included gifts ranging from a racehorse to a public house. This practice is now forbidden by agreements between the national newspapers, registered under the Restrictive Trade Practices act, 1956. The coming of broadcasting and television stimulated interest in news and circulations of daily papers continued to mount steadily. This increase in the circulation of individual newspapers was accompanied by a decline in their total numbers. Between 195363, IS papers disappeared, either ceasing entirely or being absorbed by other publications. It is a feature of the British newspaper industry that the fortunes of any one newspaper are governed as much by the success or failure of its immediate competitors as they are by the skill and efficiency of its staff. Most British newspapers gain the majority of their income, not from sales, but from advertising. As advertisers place their business where they know they can get the best value for money and as there is a limited amount of advertising to go round, the paper with a relatively small circulation inevitably loses ground to its more powerful competitor; it is generally assumed that for a paper to remain viable in the 1960s it has to command a circulation which is at least half that of the most successful paper in its field. It was this situation that led to the closure of the News Chronicle (1,500.000) in 1960, killed by competition from such papers as the Daily Express (4.200,000) combined with rising production costs which cut profit margins to the minimum. The circulations of The Times and the Guardian were infinitely smaller but because their readers were drawn from the more affluent and influential sections of the community, companies with capital rather than consumer goods to sell were willing to pay their relatively high advertisement rates. 15. Newspaper Chains. The second development that marked the period 1950-61 was the increasing concentration of the ownership of newspapers into fewer and fewer hands. In 1948 the three leading chains, Beaverbrook Newspapers Ltd., Associated

have a crippling

effect

was agreed upon

to limit this

—

NEWSPAPER Newspapers Ltd. and the Daily Mirror-Sunday Pictorial group, controlled 43% of the total circulation of all daily and Sunday newspapers. By 1961 these combines had 65% of that circulation. The Westminster Press Provincial Newspapers, Ltd., owned 61 of the provincial papers in

number. In the early 1960s there was no town in England and Wales with more than one locally published morning paper and only four towns outside London was there more than one eve-

—

16. Censorship With the outbreak of World War II the newspapers were brought under a system of voluntary censorship which had been worked out in advance by a committee representing the services and other government departments and the press. On the whole the system worked well, although in the early months there were some irritating delays and restrictions which were gradually smoothed out. No newspaper was compelled to submit its copy to the censorship department unless a definite embargo had been imposed upon a particular item of news. Comment was not restricted. The newspapers loyally accepted the system and any news which it was felt might give information to the enemy was submitted, for the newspapers realized that the fact that the copy had been passed by the censorship department would be a great help to them if, by any chance, proceedings were brought under the Official Secrets act. Contact between the government and the press was maintained by a system of defense notices and at the end of the war it was agreed that this machinery should be kept in being in case it might be needed again. During the war there were suggestions that the government was contemplating compulsory censorship but the idea was resisted vigorously by the newspapers. 17.

(A. P. R.;

1962, over two-thirds of the total

in

ning newspaper.

397

would only be given if it could be established that such a transaction was not contrary to the public interest. See also News Agency; Press Syndicate. sent

—

The Royal Commissions on the Press. In World War II controversy

the years

that followed the end of

about the growing power of the newspaper chains and criticism about the alleged bad behaviour of a few individual journalists led to the setting up in 1947 of a royal commission which was charged "to inquire into the control, management and ownership of the newspaper and periodical Press and news agencies." In its report the commission decided "there was nothing approaching a monopoly in the press as a whole." It recommended the establishment of a general council of the press to safeguard the freedom of the press and to encourage a sense of public responsibility among journalists. In July 1953 a voluntary press council was established by seven organizations representing the proprietors, editors and working journalists. In 1963, acting on recommendation of the second royal commission (see below), the press council reformed its constitution. Its members were no longer entirely drawn from the profession; it was now headed by an independent chairman and 20% of its members were laymen. In 1961, following the merger of Odhams and the Daily MirrorSunday Pictorial group, the government appointed a second royal commission to "examine the economic and financial factors affecting the production and sale of newspapers, magazines and other periodicals"; in particular they were to report whether the manufacturing and other costs, the efficiency of production and the advertising revenue (including that derived from television interests) tended to "diminish diversity of ownership and control or the number or variety of such publications, having regard to the importance, in the public interest, of the accurate presenta-

news and the free expression of opinion." year later the commission reported that it had found "spectacular" movements toward concentration of ownership had taken place among periodicals and that the extent to which a few proprietors dominated the actual supply of news and opinion through tion of

A

Sunday press had greatly increased. The commission believed there was still a considerable range of choice in the national daily and Sunday press but the concentration of the daily and

ownership carried with it the potential danger that variety of opinion might be stifled. It recommended that any acquisition by a purchaser who had, or who would acquire as the result of a transaction, the controlling interest of daily or Sunday newspapers with aggregate circulations exceeding 3,000,000 copies should come under the jurisdiction of a Press Amalgamation court whose con-

III.

S. P.

A.)

GERMANY

It appears that not only was the first western printing from movable type done in Germany, but some of the earliest news pamphlets and perhaps the first regularly published newspapers were issued there. At any rate, there is a file of the Avisa Relation

oder Zeitung, published at Augsburg in 1609, and one copy of the Strasbourg Relation of that year.

These papers were followed by others, such as the Frankfurter Journal of Egenolph Emmel in 161 5 and the Frankfurter Oberpostamtszeitung, begun in 1616 and continued until 1866 under the shortened title of Postzeitung. In the course of the 17th century, most German cities supported newspapers; in the i8th century, despite the rigours of local and state censorship, the press multiplied throughout the country. Notable for its correspondence

from abroad was the Hamburgiscker Correspondent, founded in The 1 7 14 under the title Holsteinische Zeitiings-Correspondenz. outstanding Berlin papers in the i8th century were two named, for their owners, Vossische Zeitung (1705) and Spener'sche Zeitung (1749); the latter was renamed Berlinische Nachrichten and lived until 1827. Under Napoleon censorship merely changed hands; the German press became Gallic and the newspapers echoes of the Parisian journals. But when Germany was liberated the old censorship reappeared.

An

i8ig resolution of the diet subjected

the press to police supervision.

The

greatest

German newspaper

in

the

first

half of the rgth

century was the Allgemeine Zeitimg. It was founded at Tijbingen by Johann Friedrich Cotta (later Baron von Cottendorf) in 1798.

Censorship and other causes forced it to move successively to Stuttgart, Ulm, Augsburg and Munich. The revolutionary movements of 1830 and 1848 gave impetus to a new German journalism which, though most of the papers were short lived, brought in a new period of press enterprise. Many small papers were established throughout Germany and Austria, nearly all of them consistently partisan. Censorship varied in different states. Those best known throughout the nation, besides the Allgemeine Zeitung, were the Augsburger Zeitung (i68g) and the Kolnische Zeitung (1804). Bismarck had a high respect for the power of the press and kept a firm hand on its control. The press law under which the German newspapers operated 1874-1919 "guaranteed" freedom of the press but actually retained strong government controls. Even during World War I the government controlled a number of important newspapers. Following that war, besides owning Wolff's Telegraphic bureau, the leading news-gathering agency, the Prussian government secretly bought the Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung,

paper founded in 1921 by Hugo Stinnes, and government of the Reich.

a Berlin

to the 1.

Under the German Republic

—Under

the

later sold

Weimar

it

consti-

German newspapers enjoyed more freedom than they had ever known. In the years 1919-32 the Gruppenpresse (newspapers representing political, social and religious groups), though composed of papers of small individual circulations, maintained dominance in the country's journaUsm. During the 1920s, however, a Massenpresse, composed of large-circulation daihes designed for the masses rather than for parties or factions, grew up in Berlin and other large cities these papers, though more objective in reporting and comment, were commonly partisan in control and thus had notable alignments with the Gruppenpresse. tution of 1919,

;

By

1932 there were 4,700 newspapers in Germany, 70% of them More than 100 different parties or group ideologies were represented. The largest paper in this period was the Berliner Morgenpost, claiming 600,000 in 1932. It was founded in 1898 by the "house of Ullstein," which consisted of Leopold Ullstein and his five sons. The father had entered the newspaper field by purchasing the Berliner Zeitung in 1877 (later called BZ am Mittag and credited with 190,000 circulation in 1932). Other Ullstein dailies were the old "quality" Vossische Zeitung, acquired in 1913, dailies.

,

NEWSPAPER

398

never a circulation leader; and Tempo, an evening paper started Other large papers in Berlin in i()3o. which had 140.000 hy 1932. were Dcr 7\ig (lyooi. claiming 100.000 in 19.52; and lirrlitifr These, with the Lokalan.\,iclit(iust;iihi- (1924). with 180.000. zei^i-r. were Schcrl papers, backed by the Hugenberg Konzern. .Mired Hugenberg, leader of the Nationalist party, controlled the large Scherl dailies, as well as the weeklies and magazines of that chain. Besides the L'llstein and Hugenberg combines, Konzentrations A.G. controlled about 200 Social-Democratic papers and

owned

a

news agency; Rudolph Mosse controlled the Berliner

Tageblatt, \'olkszeitiin\[ and Morgeuzeiliiiig in Berlin.

A number

of large papers, regarded as belonging to the

Massen-

100.000 circulation or more, had by 193; grown up in other large cities besides Berlin. But some of the most influential papers in Germany had only about 60,000 circulation, such as Frunkjurlcr Zeitimg (18561, Kolnische Zeipresse because they each had

and Hamburger Nach( 1833 This quartette of famous old papers was long powerful in Europe. Oldest of all German papers, with only a few thousand circulation in 1932, was the Hartungsche Zeitung of Konigsberg 1640 1. Adolf Hitler's first task in 2. The Hitler-Goebbels Press. connection with the group which was soon to become the National Socialist party was the direction of a press and news bureau in the district army command at Munich in 1919. After the military Putsch of March 1920. sympathizers bought for Hitler the Volktung,

Nuremberg Frdnkische Kurier

)

richten (1792),

(

—

which had been founded several years before weekly gossip sheet. As the Nazi influence expanded in the 1920s, its newspaper effort broadened; but the Beobachter remained Hitler's personal organ, and for the elections

ischer Beobachter,

World War

I as a

of 1932 he established a Berlin edition. In connection with those elections, also. Hitler's party established or acquired about 130

other newspapers distributed throughout Germany. When Hitler became chancellor in Jan. 1933, he immediately

caused Pres. Paul von Hindenburg to invoke article 48 of the constitution in order to cancel the guarantee of freedom of the press. Some papers were stopped at once, and the press in general was muzzled. Within three months 200 papers had been suspended, including the venerable Vossische Zeitung; within a year 600 had had been set been killed, the Deutsche Nachrichtenbiiro up to supersede Wolff's Telegraphic bureau, and a journalists' registration system had been devised which made newspapermen (

"semiotficial public functionaries."

DNB

Max Amman,

)

publisher of the

Volkischer Beobachter, became president of the Reich press cham-

enlightenment and propaganda. Goebbels had founded the newspaper Der Angrif propaganda in 192 7 and two years later became head of Nazi acAmman's duties were largely on the business side, though tivities. he shared with Otto Dietrich the veto on new papers. Dietrich was Reich press chief and had charge of editorial policies and personnel. Eher Verlag was set up to handle Nazi printing and publishing; operating chiefly in Berlin and Munich, it soon became the largest publishing concern in the world. It published the Beobachter, Angriff, Schwarze Korps (SS organ), Arbeitsmann, Hitler jugend and other ofificial newspapers and periodicals, as well as books and pamphlets. Jewish newspaper owners— the Ullsteins, Mosse, etc. were driven out. When Germany seized Austria in 1938 many of the old papers (including Wiener Zeitung, founded in 1703) disappeared, and the remainder of the \'ienna papers were combined in one Nazi organ. The number of newspapers in Germany was reduced from 4.700 in 1932 to about 2.000. and the press became, to use Goebbels' famous figure, an organ on which the minister of propaganda could play his own tunes. ber, a division of Josef Goebbels' ministry of public

—

3.

man

The Occupation press.

New

—

Press. World War II anivihilated the Gerpapers were licensed by the occupation powers in

their various zones.

The

Soviet military government established

Tdgliche Rundschau in Berlin; the U.S. military government set

up Die Neue Zeitung in Munich; the British founded Die Welt in Hamburg; the French licensed Der Kurier, an afternoon Berlin paper. By mid-century there were 20 dailies in Berlin, of which the Soviet Rundschau had the largest circulation, said to be 800.-

000; while the British-licensed Telegraj and the U.S. -licensed Tagesspiegel each had around 500,000. The U.S. semiweekly Nette Zeitung was circulating more than 2.300.000 copies of each issue, including Berlin and Frankfurt editions; and the British triweekly Die Welt. 700.000. also including a Berlin edition. Most papers outside Berlin were published only two or three times a week. 4. German Federal Republic and 'Western Berlin. There

—

were important developments in the press after the foundation of The system of lithe German Federal Republic in Sept. 1949. cences was abolished and a return made to free competition. Some newspapers founded by the occupation authorities disappeared (Neue Zeitung); others continued their existence as wholly independent undertakings {Die Welt); new journals were started or old ones reappeared (Berliner Morgenpost and BZ launched in western Berlin by the UUstein group). In the early 1960s there were 535 dailies, many of them with subsidiary editions, with a circulation of over 15,700,000 and 13 weeklies with a circulation

The

of 2,600,000.

provincial press increased greatly.

hundred newspapers used the special

number

of centralized agencies (Maternpresse).

acteristic of the

Several

by a small Another char-

articles supplied

postwar daily press was the reduction

in the

num-

ber of papers alfiliated to political parties (about 10%). In the early 1960s in the Federal Republic the highest circula-

was held by Bild-Zeitung in Hamburg (3,716,200) followed by the Westdeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung of Essen (422,000). Among the most important papers by reason of their circulation Siiddeutsche or influence were the Kolnische Rundschau Cologne Zeitung (Munich), Die Welt and Hamburger Abendblatt (Hamof FrankStutt garter Zeitung (Stuttgart) and the dailies burg). furt, which became the centre of German journalism after World War II: Frankfurter Allgemeine, Frankfurter Neue Presse and Frankfurter Rundschau. In western Berlin the highest circulation record was held by the dailies Berliner Morgenpost and BZ, both of which exceeded 200.000 circulation, while quality papers remained, notably Der Taggesspiegel and Telegraf. In 1949 the national agency Deutsche Presse-Agentur (D.P.A.) was started with headquarters in Hamburg. It very soon became one of the largest in Europe. 5. German Democratic Republic. After the proclamation of the German Democratic Republic in Oct. 1949, the press underwent a considerable change. Although the system of licensing permitted by the occupying power theoretically disappeared, strict supervision persisted but it was exercised by the Presseamt which itself received instructions from the Politburo of the Socialist Communist Unity party or S.E.D. Only the Tdgliche Rundschau continued to be edited by the Soviet military commander, but it stopped publication in 1955. In 1953 the authorities suspended the big circulation evening paper Nacht-Express which had been trying since 1945 to keep tion

(

)

,

—

)

(

public objectively informed. In the early 1960s there were 39 dailies in the Democratic Republic. Largest was the Neues Deutschland, main organ of the S.E.D. with a circulation of about 500,000, while 60% of the

its

,

other papers belonged to the S.E.D. party press. Total circulation for the country did not exceed 4,000,000. In East Berlin nine daily

newspapers were published. The agency Allgemeiner Deutscher Nachrichtendienst (A.D.N.) founded in 1946 and nationalized in 1953, had a monopoly. IV.

The French newspaper

FRANCE

press from the

first

was characterized

literary quality generally superior to that of the press of most other countries, by special attention to the arts and by alliances (sometimes amounting to subsidization) with pohtical, social or

by a

literary groups.

fame 1.

in

both

Parisian journalism frequently

politics

Beginnings.

and

—The

became

a path to

literature. first

French newspaper was the Gazette

(afterward called the Gazette de France), established in 1631 under the patronage and with the active co-operation of Cardinal Richelieu. The first editor and printer was Theophraste Renaudot. The first weekly number apparently appeared in May 1631. So

—

NEWSPAPER may

news

399

be inferred from the date (July 4, 1631) of Each the sixth number, which was the first dated publication. number of the paper, which cost six centimes, consisted of a single sheet (eight pages) in small quarto, and was divided into two the first simply entitled Gazette, the second Nonvelles orparts dinaires de divers endroits. It commonly began with foreign and

and literary topics, society gossip, dramatic criticism and law reports. Nothing perhaps was so striking after 1890 as the demand of the P>cnch public for foreign and colonial news, or the readiness of the papers to supply it by means of special representatives independent of the

ended with home news. Much of its earliest foreign news came direct from the minister, and often in his own hand. In 1672 the Mercure galant was established by Donneau de Vize. Its title w-as later changed to Nouveau Mercure, and in 1728 to

the French press made greater progress still and accurate collection of news, and in this respect the provincial press showed more enterprise and more ability than that of Paris. All the best provincial papers had Paris staffs reporting parliamentary proceedings and law cases. Being perfectly independent of purely Parisian opinion or even bias, the decentralization of the French provincial press became complete; it became also more independent politically than the Paris press. Several journals had national reputations: La Depeche of Toulouse, with its 12 editions daily, Le Progres of Lyons, Le Petit Marseillais and La Petite Cironde of Bordeaux. 3. The 20th Century.— During World War I French newspapers were under severe censorship. Many disappeared for a time because of shortage of paper or manpower. Changes in the French press as a whole were temporary, and prosperity returned after

much,

at least,

—

Mercure de France, a designation tion, until 1853, when the paper

retained, with slight modifica-

It had many finally ceased. prominent contributors. In 1790 its circulation rose very rapidly and reached for a time 13,000 copies. Under Napoleon the organ of official information was the Moniteur (Gazette nationale, 011 le moniteur ttniversel), founded in 1789 under the same general management with the Mercure. The Moniteur kept step with the majority of the assembly, the Mercure with the minority. The only other newspaper of a date anterior to the Revolution which need be noticed here is the first French daily, the Journal de Paris, which was started on New Year's day of 1777 and lived till 1819. Its period of highest prosperity may be dated about 1792, when its circulation is said to have exceeded 20,000. The Journal des debats was founded in 1789 by Franqois Jean Baudouin and lasted until the beginning of World War II. 2. The 19th Century. The cheap journalism of Paris began in 1836 with the journal of 6mile de Girardin, La Presse, and Le not Steele, under the management of Dutacq, to whom, it is said incredibly the original idea was really due. The first-named journal attained a circulation of 10,000 copies within three months and soon doubled that number. The Siecle prospered even more strikingly, and in a few years had reached a circulation (then without precedent in France) of 38,000 copies. On July 16, 1850, the assembly passed what is called the lot Tingtty (from the name of the otherwise obscure deputy who proposed it), by which the author of every newspaper article on any

—

as well as with leading articles, current

news agencies. In

home matters

in the rapid

the war.

In 1930 Paris had 23 morning dailies of general circulation, and there were 140 dailies in the provinces.

ten afternoons, while

Circulation of Le Petit Parisien (1876) reached 1,000,000 in 1904; stimulated by its use of U.S. news methods, it distributed 1,700,000

and was

by 1930. Next was Le Journal (1892) with 1,200,000, and third was Le Matin, just at the i ,000,000 mark. Characteristic of the popular press were two serial stories, or feuilletons, in each issue; front-page opinion articles, signed by well-known contributing editors; and modest sizes of four to ten pages. The betterknown political papers were Le Temps (1861), the venerable Journal des debats, La Liberie (1864), L'Oeuvre (1893) and L'Humanite, founded in 1904 by Jean Jaures as the Socialist organ but which became Communist in 1920. The main feature of the French press, especially after the Popular Front government (Blum cabinet) came into power in 1936, was its highly political character, newspapers tending to adopt extremes of a polemical nature, while every phase of politics was represented. A number

to be punished

by a fine of 1,000 fr., "together with six months' imprisonment, both for the author and the editor." The practical working of this law lay in the creation of a new functionary in the more important newspaper offices, who was called secretaire de la redaction, and was, in fact, the scapegoat ex officio. The loi Tinguy had a permanent influence on French journalism in the continued prevalence of signed articles, and the consequent prominence of individual writers as compared with the same class of work in other

of papers at this time, as before World War I, accepted financial support from foreign embassies and legations. Le Temps, however, achieved a peculiar equihbrium because, since it accepted financial help from the Quai d'Orsay, its editorial comment on foreign policy always supported the foreign minister, while its forIt was eign correspondents were financed by foreign sources. clear that when Germany overwhelmed France in June 1940 the press bore no small part of the responsibility for the debacle that

countries.

ensued.

Moise Polydore Millaud, creator of the French halfpenny press, made a fortune from Le Petit Journal and introduced a new era of cheap papers. In 1 878 the paper had a circulation of about 650,000 compared with the circulation of Le Figaro (1826) of 70,000. At that period the total number of journals of all kinds in France was

The 25 Paris dailies of general circulation were reduced during German occupation to half a dozen Le Matin, L'Oeuvre, Le Petit Parisien, Le Temps renamed Les Nouveaux Temps by the Germans), the Paris-Midi and Le Cri du peuple. They were not

—

—

subject, political, philosophical or religious,

name

to

it,

on penalty of a

of 1,000

fr.

for

its

fine of

repetition.

500

Every

fr.

was bound to

affix his

for the first offense

false or feigned signature

2^200.

The newspapers of Paris, and similarly of France, practically doubled in number between 1880 and 1900. In 1880 there were about 120 Paris newspapers, in 1890 about 160 and in 1900 about 240. The total number of newspapers, as distinguished from periodicals, published in France during 1900 was 2,400, of which about 2,160 appeared in 540 provincial towns. The French papers, of whatever party, took an increased interest during this period in foreign matters and much improved their organization for collecting news. L'Eclair gave less attention to the discussion of political questions from the party point of view than to the collection of news, and was followed by the Ec/io de Paris (1884) and Le Afa/m, which also dated from 1884, and which by an arrangement with the Times of London gave every day a translation of most of the telegrams published in that newspaper. The jourtwl d'injormation, as these papers were called, took its place beside the journal d'opinion, more perhaps as a rival than as a complement. The natural result followed, and the more oldfashioned newspapers took steps to provide their readers with

copies daily

the

:

(

published during the entire period of the occupation and were supplemented by several short-lived newcomers. Meantime, an irregular underground press opposing both the Germans and their collaborationists grew up. Among leading underground papers were Franc-Tireur, Combat, Resistance, Liberation and Defense de la France. Editorial and mechanical staffs were sometimes caught and executed Resistance ended after about a year because its staff was shot by the Germans. When France was liberated in 1944, the only prearmistice papers allowed to resume were four which had refused collaboration L'Humanite, Le Populaire (Socialist), Le Figaro and L'Aube (Christian Democratic). The various resistance groups which had published outlaw papers during the occupation now had dailies to represent them in the Paris press, and all those named in the preceding paragraph became competitors for popular favour. Despite the paper shortage that limited each paper to two pages and kept circulations down to prescribed quotas, there was a great demand among French readers, resulting in a boom in the newspaper business and the establishment of more than a score of new dailies in Paris during the first year following the liberation. In July 1 946 all

;

—

NEWSPAPER

4-00

the size of the Paris papers increased to four pages.

But two

years later circulations had dropped, advertising had fallen off and costs had advanced alarmingly. In the early 1960s there were in France 123 general daily papers while Paris had 13, as against 34 after the liberation; their total circulation was 11,500.000 copies of which 4,200,000 were in Paris. Fnmce-soir had the highest circulation (1,321,000~) and used U.S. techniques in headlines, objective news, accent on crime and fresh feature material. It was closely followed from the point of view of circulation by Le Parisien libere (900,000), Le Figaro (510,000) and L'Aurore (480,000). Although its circulation was

reporting, but

it

Monde enjoyed from

1945 a considerFrance as overseas, for its news and was also criticized for its political bias favouring

around 225,000 copies, Le able reputation, as

much

in

neutrality.

The provincial press after the war rose to heights it had never The number of weeklies and periodicals experienced before. (about 5,000 at the middle of the century) increased by the early 1960s to 15,000. Prominent among these was Paris-Match (1,500,None of the women's 000) and Jours de France (515,000). magazines exceeds a circulation of 2,000,000 copies. The Havas News agency, founded by Charles Havas in 1835,

achieved a virtual monopoly of foreign news by furnishing the most economical method for newspapers of the period to obtain such news and by cultivating close relations with government. Auguste Havas, Charles's son, took over the Agence Havas in 1850 and six years later added an advertising agency, exchanging his news for advertising space. The agency gained in power during

though little more than an official bulletin, under the title Post och inrikes tidningar. Its founder was Johan Beijer, Sweden's The It became a daily in 1820. second postmaster general. Swedish press has also the oldest legally protected guarantees of press freedom in the world in the press law of 1766. The oldest continuously published newspaper in the early 1960s was the N orrkbpings Tidningar Ostergotlands Dagblad founded in 1758. In the early 1960s there were 186 daily papers with a total circulation of 3,809,300. This represented a sale of over 50 copies for every 100 inhabitants, one of the largest ratios in the world. Stockholm papers with large circulations were the liberal Expressen (384,000), an evening paper, followed by the liberal Dagens Nyheter (350,000) founded in 1864 and the Social Democratic Stockholms-Tidningen (144,300), with its evening associate Aftonbladet (197,000) founded in 1830, while the liberal Gotheborg-Posten founded in 1813 had a circulation of 237,100. The conservative Svenska Dagbladet (puWished in Stockholm) had a high reputation in and out of Sweden. 3. Denmark. The first licence to publish a newspaper in Denmark was granted in 1634, and the oldest surviving newspaper is the Berlingske Tidende, which began publication, although under Three newspapers have been puba different name, in 1749. lished under their present name since the 18th century, Aalborg Stijtstidende, Aalborg (1767),Fyens Stijtstidende, Odense (1772), and Aarhus Stiftstidetide, Aarhus (1794). They are all conservative newspapers with a circulation of 40,000-60,000. The main liberal and social-democratic newspapers were founded

—

in the later part of the

19th century.

In the early 1960s the

1920s absorbed several others. For three-quarters of a century preceding World War II, Havas handled a very large proportion of French advertising, including

most recent addition to the Danish newspapers, the independent Information, grew out of clandestine papers of the resistance

government and finance. It handled large sums for the French government and also for certain foreign powers. In 1940 the 'Vichy government, having taken over the entire Havas business, divided the news and advertising services. The former was called Office Frangais d'Information; the latter, under the old name, became solely an advertising agency and

Traditionally Danish newspapers serve a geographical area and the close relations between newspapers and readership is still a most important characteristic of the Danish press. Morning pa-

continued after the hberation. During the German occupation (1940-44) the Free French set up the Agence Franqaise Independante, with headquarters in London, supported by Allied funds. After the liberation this became Agence France-Presse. In the early 1960s it distributed 70,000 words a day to 5,500 subscribers in 106 countries. English-language journalism in Paris began with Sampson Perry's Argus (1809), a Napoleonic organ. This was followed by the more important Galignani's Messenger (1814-1904). In 1887

were 82 published (not counting a similar number of branch papers) in the early 1960s with certified net circulation (seven days a week) of approximately 1,650,000 copies, corresponding to 1.1 per household. Sixty smaller papers have ceased pubhcation since World War II. Ten dailies are published in Copenhagen, selling together about 700,000 copies. The leading conservative papers in the early 1960s were Berlingske Tidende (171,600), Copenhagen, and Jyllands-Posten

James Gordon Bennett, Jr., founded in Paris the European edition of his New York Herald, which became the leading English-

Copenhagen.

the ensuing 50 years,

and

in the

publicite d'infliience for

language paper on the continent. The Herald absorbed the European edition of the Chicago Tribune (1917-35) and in 1935 changed its name to Herald Tribune to conform with the title of the parent paper in New York.

V. 1.

OTHER WESTERN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

Norway.

—The Norwegian

press apparently began with the

movement during World War

II.

pers are published seven days a week, usually with a considerably larger

Sunday

circulation.

The number

of dailies declined after

World War

II but there

(62,000), Aarhus, with the radical liberal Politiken (138,000), The Social Democratic press published 11 newspapers with a joint circulation of 121,000 copies, the main one being Aktuelt (41,000) in Copenhagen. The leading liberal news-

papers were Vestkysten (44,000), Esbjerg, and Fyns Tidende (36,000), Odense. Borsen, Copenhagen, specialized in financial and commercial news. Popular mid-day papers were B.T. (162,000) and Ekstrabladet (82,000). The news agency Ritzaus bureau, created in 1866, is owned jointly

by the Danish

—

press.

the partisan political press that eventually

Iceland. Iceland had a monthly periodical as early as 1773. weekly, Thjodoljur, was begun in 1848; and the first daily was Dagskrd (1896). The oldest surviving daily paper in the early 1960s was the Conservative Visir (1910), and the daily with the

tic 0*'

largest circulation

founding of the Norske Intelligenz Sedler in Oslo in 1763, and two years later the Ejterretninger jra Addressecontoiret in Bergen. The latter was a mercantile and labour bulletin which preceded

came to be characterisNorway. Shortly after the union with Sweden in 1814, a number of political papers were begun in Oslo, of which the Morpublished in the second half of the 20th century as a Conservative daily, became one of the best known. In the early' 1960s there were 81 daily papers with a total sale of 1,691,000 The Aftenposten of Oslo had the largest circulation copies. genbladet,

still

about 173,000 copies.

—

2. Sweden. Though a newssheet called Hermes gothicus is known to have been published as early as 1624 in Strangnas, and

similar corantos were published in other Swedish towns, the first paper published with regularity appears to have been the Ordinarii post tijdender, begun in 1645 and, in the second half of the 20th century, the oldest continuously published newspaper in the world,

4.

A

was another Conservative paper, Morgunbladid, followed closely by the Progressive or Co-operative party's Timinn. Social Democratic Altftydubladid and the Radical-to-Communist left Thjodviljinn were also dailies of importance. 5. Finland. The first newspaper in Finland was published in

The

—

the Swedish language in 1771, and the first in Finnish appeared in 1776. The oldest paper still published in the early 1960s was the Abo Underrdttelser (1824) of Turku, while the oldest in Helsinki, the capital, was Uiisi Suomi (1847). Largest of the dailies was the Helsingin

Sanomat (1889), with 270,000

were 93 daily papers in Swedish, the

stadsbladet.

in the early

most important among

There were printed

circulation.

1960s of which

11%

the latter being

Hufvud-

—

NEWSPAPER Belgium.

— Some of the

newssheets in Europe were printed in Belgium. It has been claimed that Abraham Verhoeven's newssheets, authorized for publication as Nieuwe Tydingen in Antwerp in 1605. constitute the first occidental newspaper, though the earliest extant copy is one for 1621, Newspapers were, of course, under the control of the various national authorities which ruled what is now Belgium over the long period before the 6.

earliest

Under constitution of 1831 declared for freedom of the press. the liberal provisions of that document Belgium developed vigorous newspapers despite the competition afforded by the French press and the hardships suffered in two world wars.

In 1831 the 10 daihes in the country were all printed in French, and as late as 1848 there were 38 dailies, all in that language, but by 1860 there were 9 Flemish dailies. Most of the large Belgian papers had Sunday editions, and some published weekly illustrated supplements.

By

some

the early 1960s there were 47 daily papers in Belgium,

Twenty-eight of these were in French, 18 in Flemish and 1 in German, though the combined circulation of the French papers was only slightly higher than that of the Flemish. The combined national circulation of dailies was roughly 2,500,000, of which half was edited in Brussels. Largest of the Brussels papers was Le Soir (1887) with 295,000, followed by Het Laatste Nieuws (1886) with 270,000, and La Deniiere Heure 1906) and La Libre Belgiqiie both at 170,000. The latter paper was founded in 1885 as Le Patriote, but took its present name when it went underground during the German occupation in World War I. The largest Antwerp paper was the Gazet vati Antwerpen (1891) with a circulation of 167,000; in Ghent the Het Volk has a circulation of 210,000, and in Liege La Meuse one of 190,000. The national news agency was of these being subsidiary or regional editions.

(

1,400,000.

The news agency Algemeen Nederlandsch Persbureau was 8.

in

1934.

Switzerland.

—Newssheets known

as Ordinari

W ochenzeit-

ung, published at Basel in 1610, have been cited as constituting a newspaper and thus the beginning of the history of the Swiss press. Pohtical and religious struggles, however, allowed httle opportunity for the development of a regular journalism until the "period of regeneration," which began about 1830

by the federation of 1848.

The

and was followed

federal constitution provided for

liberty of the press which, except for short periods during

Wars Of

I

and

II,

was

World

free of administrative control.

the 117 daily papers in the early 1960s, 84 were printed in

German, 27 in French and 6 in Romansh. The largest

Zeitung in Zijrich (1780), the Gazette de Lausanne (1798) and the Journal de Geneve (1826). 9. Austria. At least three weekly newssheets are known to have existed in Vienna before 1620. Though limited in its development by the usual censorships of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Viennese press gained a wide reputation for good writing and criticism. The reign of Joseph II (1780-90) brought a helpful liberality in newspaper hcensing, but the following reign and the The revolutionary disrule of Metternich were less favourable. turbances of 1848 brought a new severity into censorship and reduced the 200 papers then published in Austria-Hungary (90 of them dailies) by about half. Not until 1867 was there a relatively Two newspapers which had been founded in Vienna free press. within the first three years of the ISth century Posttiigliche Mercurii Zeitung and Wiener Diarium were in 1780 combined as the Wiener Zeitung, long the government organ and serving in

—

—

that capacity in the early 1960s.

Nearly

all

World War

the existing Austrian papers had been founded since The chief exception besides the Wietier Zeitung

II.

was the Arbeiter Zeitung (1889),

official

Socialist organ,

which

with the Osterreichische Neue Tageszeitung (1947), chief organ of the majority People's party, led the Vienna press. Das Kleine Volksblatt (1929), a tabloid, also represented the People's party. One of the leading Austrian papers in the early 1960s was the independent daily Die Presse while the Neuer Kurier had the largest circulation; 226,000 during the week and 296,000 on Saturdays,

The

provincial press increased in

number and

influence in the

postwar period, partly because of the development of the party press; prominent among these were the Salzburger Nachrichten achrichten of Linz. Many papers and the Oberosterreichische were owned by political groups. In the early 1960s there were 35 dailies with a total circulation of 1,200,000. 10. Spain. The history of the Spanish press is chiefly a history of censorship, with intermittent eras of relative freedom. The

N

—

7. The Netherlands. Dutch printers were among the first Europeans to exercise the art, and such early printers as George Veseler, Broer Jonson and Adrian Clarke issued some of the corantos which were the forerunners of regularly published newspapers. Some such papers appeared in Amsterdam before 1620. In 1656 was founded what by mid-20th century was the oldest paper published in the Netherlands, the Oprechte Haarlemsche Courant, which became a daily in 1847. The Algemeen Handelsblad, founded in 1828 as Nieuwe Amsterdamse Courant, was the first daily in the country. The paper with the largest circulation in 1964 was the Socialist Het Vrije Volk (308,700) with editions in 45 cities and towns. Next largest was De Telegraaf (281,000), founded in 1893 by H. M. C. Holdert. It was suspended after World War II for its collaborationist acOther widely read tivities, but was allowed to resume in 1949. papers were the Catholic De Volkskrant (162,000); the independent Het Parool (215,000); the independent Algemee?i Dagblad (137,750), Rotterdam; the Catholic Tijd de Maasbode (92,500); and the antirevolutionary Trouw (100,000), Amsterdam. The most famous paper outside Amsterdam was the Nieuwe Rotterdamse Courant (1843), Rotterdam, founded and conducted by the Nijgh family (circulation 56,000). In 1964 there were 93 newspapers including 10 national dailies. The circulation of the 83 regional dailies was 2,000,000 and that of the national dailies

founded

401

other papers had less than 100,000. However, some of them are well known outside Switzerland, including the Neue Ziircher

in Italian; there

was no longer a

daily

circulation was that of the TagesAnzeiger (1893) in Zurich, with 158,000 daily circulation; all

—

authorized papers appeared only after the declaration for Uberty of printing by the Cortes of Cadiz on Nov. 10, 1810; this in 1814, re-established in 1820 and then annulled 1823-34. The periods of authorized publication were too short to Exceptions permit the development of important newspapers. first

was withdrawn

newspapers before the constitution of 1869 were the government bulletin La Gaceta de Madrid (1661), weekly and made a daily in published begun as a monthly, later 1890; and Diario de Barcelona (1792), which, as the leading and semiofficial paper of Catalonia, was independent of Spanish cenSpanish papers were generally political, often in revolt sorship. against censorship and inadequately financed. The civil war of 1936-39 reduced daily papers in Spain from 250 to fewer than 100. In the early 1960s there were 105 daihes with a total of around 3,000,000 copies. Control of the press in the second half of the 20th century was somewhat less strict than to the short-lived nature of

during the war, though the old system of the editores respojisables approved by government, first set up in 1833 at the outbreak of the Carlist uprisings, was again in use. In 1962 newspaper censorship was officially alleviated but articles still had to be submitted to the censors and the real extent of freedom of the press was problematic. Eight daily papers were pubUshed in the early 1960s in Madrid, The leading morning papers were A.B.C. (Conservative) and Ya (Catholic), each printing 175,000 copies, followed by Arriba, the political organ of the National movement, with 50,000 copies. Madrid evening papers consisted of El Alcazar (colour-engraved), the very popular Madrid and Injormaciones and Pueblo, the organ of Syndicates and the largest, with a circulation of 100,000. Six daily papers were published in Barcelona; La Vanguardia Espaiiola

had the largest circulation in Spain (180,000). Nearly all the Madrid and Barcelona morning dailies ran popular Sunday colourengraved supplements, with a combined total of 200,000 copies. Growing daily papers in provincial cities were La Gaceta del Norte (Bilbao El Heraldo de Aragon (Saragossa), Las Provincias (Valencia) and Ideal (Granada). )

,

NEWSPAPER

4-02

Among weeklies Siete Fechas (250,000") was the most popular while Gaceta Itlustrada had a high reputation. There were four main national news agencies Pyresa and Mencheta, while Efe supplied

lishing

Cifra, Logos,

inter-

house planned to open the

first

printing simultaneously in Milan and

A

in the early 1960s,

national daily Oggi in 1964,

Rome,

particular feature of Italian journalism

was the

terza pagina

("third page"), traditionally devoted to culture, book or theatre

national coverage.

reviews and scientific discoveries.

Portugal. Successive governments of Portugal allowed scant and temporary liberty of the press. The constitutional provisions of 1911, separating church and state, provided for press freedom, but the dictatorship which developed under the constitution of 1933 was unfriendly to independence of the press. Thus no great newspapers have developed in this country. In 1962 there were ten dailies in Lisbon, four in Oporto, three in Evora, two in Braga and one in Coimbra and Beja. About 1 50 weeklies, semiweeklies and triweeklies were published in the country. Largest of the Portuguese papers were Diirio de Noticias Seciito (1880), Lisbon, (1864) with 120,000 circulation and

Greece. The first Greek papers were published in foreign by refugees from Turkish rule and propagandists for Greek freedom. These appeared in Vienna, Paris and London from 1790 to 1820. The first Greek paper in the homeland appeared immediately after the beginning of the Greek war for independence the Salpinx Helleniki, founded at Nauplia in 1821, An especially interesting journal was the Hellenika Chronika, edited 182426 at Missolonghi by a Swiss doctor. Jacques Mayer. In the mid-1960s there were 95 daily papers published, of which 27 appeared in Athens. The largest of these was Ta Nea ( 11 8,000) and the second largest and oldest in the country was Akropolis (80,000) founded in 1881. The daily Kathimerini (1919) had a sale of about 40,000. The largest papers outside Athens were Makedonia (1908) with a sale of about 31,000 and Ellinikos Vorras with one of 22,000, both published in Salonika. 14. Turkey. The earliest papers in Turkey were French journals published in the last decade of the 18th century. The first Turkish paper was Takvime Vekayi ("Calendar of Events"), a version of Moniteiir Ottoman, begun in the same year (1831) by Alexandre Blaque. A period of severe repression followed the first press law in 1865 though the constitution of 1908 released a flood of new Turkish newspapers. The establishment of the republic in 1923 and the change from the Arabic to the Latin alphabet in 1928 enabled considerable development of the press. Press freedom was guaranteed by the 1961 constitution. In the mid-1960s there were 836 daily publications and 817 periodicals being published. Of the newspapers and periodicals, 93 were published in foreign languages: 40 in English, 11 in Armenian, 15 in Greek, 11 in French, 5 in German and 4 in Italian. Total newspaper circulation was around 1.353,000, leading dailies being Hiirriyet (about 500,000) and Milliyet (300,000), both published in Istanbul, the Turkish press centre. Of the leading dailies distributed all over the country, 13 of them were published in Istanbul and 8 in Ankara. These are mostly politically independent, although a few have party affiliations, such as Ulns (Republican People's party) in Ankara.

—

11.

with 90,000. 12.

Italy.— The name

common

"gazette," which was for so long a

more

generic designation of printed sheets or pamphlets of is believed to have been derived from

news than "newspaper,"

gazzetta, a small coin used in Venice in the i6th century,

which been the price of early fogli d'avvisi or the admission to a group which listened to the reading of such newssheets. Venice was a chief centre for the written newsletters of the middle ages, and weekly printed newssheets appeared in Florence as early as 1636, the work of Amador Massi and Lorenz Landi. The first Italian paper with a continuous title appears to have been Sincero,

may have

published

The

in

Genoa

in 1645.

press of Italy, always subject to

more

or less severe gov-

ernment controls, lent itself to reform and even revolutionary movements. Giuseppe Mazzini was an active journalist; and Count Cavour's // Risorgimento, which he founded with Count Cesare Balbo in 1847, was the great organ of the national movement. The constitution of 1848 declared for freedom of the press, yet "special laws," it stated, would "punish abuses." Accordingly, a set of press edicts was issued which retained effective political controls and remained in use until the sterner censorship of the Fascist regime.

In 1920 there were 157 daily papers and 843 weeklies in Italy. Following Benito Mussolini's march on Rome in 1922, the national press regulations were adapted to the pattern of a totalitarian state, with very definite editorial policies prescribed for them almost day by day. Opposition papers were suppressed and their editors disposed of. Mussolini himself had been a journalist, editing the Socialist Avanti of Milan in 1912-14, and resigning that position to found his own // Popolo d'ltalia, which he edited until 1922. Under his dictatorship, Italian dailies were reduced to 50 or 60. Much the oldest of the survivors was the Gazzetta di Venezia (1787). L'Osservatore romano was founded as the papal organ in Rome in 1861. The Agenzia Stefani was set up by Count Cavour in 1853 under the management of Wilhelm Stefani. It functioned as a government news agency in Rome under all changes and through the Fascist era. In 1945 a new national news agency was created under the name Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Associata (ANSA). World War II put an end to many of the older newspapers but \vith peace came many new ventures, and in the early 1960s there

were 95 daily newspapers published, 27 of which were evening papers and 4 sports papers; 3, including the Daily American in Rome

and the German Dolomiten languages.

Of the

Italy (12 in Milan)

at

Bolzano, were published in foreign

daily papers 54 were published in northern

and only 7 in southern Italy (5 in Naples). were published in Rome and nine in the islands. There were 102 periodicals with circulations of over 25,000. The Corriere della sera (Evening Courier; 1876) of Milan had the largest circulation, 496,000; despite its name it was a morning paper with an evening associate Corriere d'injormazione. II Giorno (1955), owned by the Ente Nazionale Idrocarburi, was also published in Milan (330,000). La Stampa (372,000) was founded in Turin as La Nuova Stampa (1868). In Rome leading dailies were // Messaggero, II Tempo, the Communist party paper L'Unita (1945) and the Socialist party paper L'Avanti. The Rizzoh pub-

Twenty

dailies

—

13.

capitals

—

—

,

VI.

The

EASTERN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

—

The first Russian journal is said to have apbut the severe censorship imposed upon the press by the government prevented the development of a press adequate As newspapers deto the extent and population of the country. veloped in the 19th century, they came to emphasize literature and art and the political policies of government. Nicholas I permitted 1.

peared

U.S.S.R.

in 1703,

only 6 newspapers to be pubhshed at mid- 19th century, but Alexander II allowed more than 60 to be started in the first decade of his reign, 1855-65. These papers soon developed a radical individualism (known as nihilism) which brought back strong repressive measures against the press, and these remained in effect past the end of the century. By 1913 there were 859 papers in all of Russia, approximately 50 of them daihes. A quarter of the daily papers were published in St. Petersburg. Among the latter were such famous papers as Novoye Vremya and Ryech. Meantime, the revolutionary press, now regarded as the forerunner of the modem Soviet Union press, began with Kolokol ("Bell"), founded first as a monthly by the refugee A. I. Herzen in London in 1857; it was soon made a fortnightly and lived for ten years, exerting a considerable influence on reforms in Russia. Similar revolutionary journals were set up by refugees in other capitals, such as Geneva and New York, and in the 1880s and The first 1 890s there were many illegal sheets in St. Petersburg. legal bolshevist paper was Novaya Zhizn ("New Life"), founded under Lenin's leadership in 1905. In 1910 Zvezda ("Star") was founded in St. Petersburg to combat other leftist groups, and two years later its place was taken by Pravda ("Truth"), which after the Revolution of 191 7 became the leading Soviet organ and

was published

at

Moscow.

NEWSPAPER

403 modern press

In 1922 the periodical publications of the U.S.S.R. were placed in a carefully devised system which was enlarged to great proportions. Propaganda for the economic, political and social building

as the 17th century, but the

and maintenance of the U.S.S.R. became the dominant function of

in the Soviet Union in the early 1960s were pub60 languages, one-third of which did not exist as written languages before the Revolution. Of these newspapers 4,665 were in Russian; the other main groups were Belorussian, 154 papers; Uzbek, 112 papers; Ukrainian, 814 papers; Kazakh, 144 papers; and Georgian, 95 papers. Seven foreign language papers were also

(1934) had the largest circulations, each of about 50,000. In 1939 the country had 15 dailies, 12 of them in Estonian. The leading Communist dailies after 1945 were Rahva Hail in Estonian and Sovietskaya Estonia in Russian. The earliest Latvian newspaper was the daily Latviesu Avizes, founded at Jelgava (Mitau) in 1822. The weekly Majas Viesis was published in 1856, while in 1862 Peterbiirgas Avizes was pubHshed in St. Petersburg where censorship conditions were easier. Baltijas Vestnesis (1868) and Balss (1878) were founded in Riga. The left-wing movement exerted a big influence with Dienas Lapa from 1886. The Riga paper Jaund Dienas Lapa (1906) changed its name many times because of censorship. Jatinakds Zinas (1911) was the biggest daily during Latvia's independence (200,000). In 1939 there were 133 papers, 22 of them dailies. After occupation in 1940 all papers were stopped except Cina, the Communist party paper formerly printed in Moscow. In the 1960s Cina appeared 300 times a year and Padomju Jaiinatne 256. The first Lithuanian newspaper, the Kurjer Litewski, was founded at Vilnius (Wilno) in 1759 and was printed in PoHsh. The first paper in Lithuanian was Ausra, founded in 1883, which in 1889 was replaced by Varpas, both being pubUshed at Tilsit in what was then East Prussia. In 1905 the daily Vilniaus Zinios was founded at Vilnius. The Lietuvos Aidas, founded at Vilnius in 1917, was later transferred to Kaunas and in 1939 had a circulation of 17,000. There were more than 100 periodicals in Lithuania before 1940. After 1945 the two leading Communist dailies were Tiesa in Lithuanian and Sovietskaya Litva in Russian. 3. Poland. The origins of the Polish press go back to 1661 when Jan Aleksander Gorczyn started to pubHsh his Merkuriusz

published.

Polski, first in

Pravda was the leading party paper of the Soviet Union; it appeared every day of the year and tended to pubhsh official statements in full. During World War II it was reduced to 2,000,000 but in the early 1960s it had one of the world's largest circulaMats were sent by air to diftions, publishing 6,700,000 copies. ferent parts of the U.S.S.R. where regional editions were printed. Leading party papers outside Moscow in the early 1960s included Leningradskaya Pravda (Leningrad), Radyanska Ukraina (Kiev), Zvyazda (Minsk), Moldova Socialiste (Kishinev), Kommunist (Tiflis), Sovietakan Hayastan (Yerevan), Sotsialistik Kazakhstan (Alma-Ata), Kzyl Uzbekistan (Tashkent), Sovettik Kyrgyztan (Frunze) and Tajikistani (Dushanbe). Among leading Moscow papers was Izvestia, which had in the past tended to be an official gazette. In 1960 it was converted from a morning to an evening paper and its circulation in the early 1960s was 4,150,000. It published a Sunday supplement Nedelya (The Week). Krasnaya Zvezda was the daily organ of the armed forces. Trud (1,540,000) was published daily by the central council of trades unions and Giidok by the railways. Other papers were

in

the Soviet press.

Various central (All-Union) papers are published in Moscow including the party paper, Pravda, and that of the Soviets, Izvestiya (1917), those catering for special interests such as agriculture, business and culture as well as those of the social organizations

such as the young communists, the trades unions, the union of writers and the sports organizations. At the republican level the papers tend to be joint pubUcations of the party, state and government. In the early 1960s there were 6,804 news publications in the U.S.S.R. with an aggregate print of 66,700,000. Twenty-five of these, with a total print of 23,524,000, were national newspapers, 180 were republican papers, 96 were regional papers and roughly 3,800 were local city papers. papers, pubHshed at

army

The

rest

were small, institutional and scientific

installations, in schools

In addition to these newsinstitutions, and papers there were 2,740 collective farm newspapers printed in 17 languages, with a total print per issue of 1,900,000 copies. Newssheets pasted on walls were a regular feature of Soviet life in in factories

and

mills.

almost every factory, office, farm, school, college and army unit and some produce several, covering sports, arts and culture, etc. Many institutions also issued a regular mimeographed newssheet.

Newspapers

Hshed

in

the building Stroitelskaya gazeta (thrice weekly), the agricultural Selskaya Zhizn (daily) and the business paper Ekonoinicheskaya gazeta. Sovetskaya Rossiya (the Communist party and Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic government) printed 1,955,000 copies and Sovetsky Sport 850,000. The central youth daily, Komsomolskaya Pravda, circulated 3,350,000 copies; Pionerskaya Pravda, published twice weekly for children, 4,050,000 copies. Cultural papers published in Moscow were Literaturnaya gazeta thrice weekly and circulating 620,000 copies, Sovetskaya Kultura issued twice weekly by the ministry of culture and Literaturnaya Rossiya (weekly) started in 1963. The official news agency Telegrafnoye Agentstvo Sovietskogo Soyuza (Tass) was founded in 1925 to collect foreign as well as domestic news for distribution to Soviet papers and after 1961 there was an unofficial agency Novosti which distributed news, feature articles and interviews, etc., to the foreign press as well as to the Soviet press. 2.

The Baltic

S.S.R.

—There were Estonian newssheets

the foundation of the Postimees in 1857, which in 1939 had a circulation of 25,000. The Pdewaleht (1905) and Uns Eesti

—

Cracow and later in Warsaw. The first newspaper Warsaw was the Gazeta Warszawska, which started in 1774. The Kurjer Warszawski was founded in 1821. Before World

War

I there

Poland

were important newspapers in all the three parts of German and Austrian but only in the last

—Russian,

named was

—

After the restoration of Polish independence the press remained regional; with a few exceptions, none of the dailies had a national circulation. In 1937 there were 2,692 periodical pubHcations, including 184 dailies. Among newspapers published in Warsaw the Roman Catholic Maly Dziennik had the the press free.

by the Kurjer Warszawski (60,000) and the Gazeta Polska (30,000). The Illustrowany Kuryer Codzienny, founded in Cracow in 1906, had a circulation of 80,000 in 1937. In Poznan the largest circulation was that of largest circulation (125,000), followed

Kurjer Poznanski (40,000), founded in 1906. The Socialist daily Robotnik had a circulation of only 15,000 but it was famous for having been published from 1894 to 1918, clandestinely or abroad. Its first editor was Joseph Pilsudski. The entire Polish press was closed down by the Germans in 1939. None of the pre-1939 newspapers was aHowed by the Russians to reappear after 1945. By 1948 the press was under complete Communist control. From 1956 the PoHsh press fought for more objective reporting, better information and the supression of censorship. Compared with that of other Communist countries, the Polish press was readable, vivid and independent. In the early 1960s, 53 daily newspapers were published with a combined circulation of 5,650,000. Ten daiHes were published in alone, among them Trybuna Ludu (300,000), the central organ of the Polish United Workers' party. Ten provincial towns published two or more papers. The most popular evening paper was Expres Wieczorny (465,000), published in the capital. Among the periodicals with large circulations were Przyjaciolka (Woman's Friend), 1,850,000, and Gromada-Rolnik Polski, a farming paper, 550,000. Popular weeklies included Przekroj (Cross Section) and Swiat (World), as well as Polityka (Politics), a political and social weekly. After 1945 there was only one official news agency, PAP (Polska Agencja Prasowa).

Warsaw

the

—

Czechoslovakia. The oldest Czech daily newspaper was Ndrodni Listi founded in Prague in 1860. It was followed by

4.

as early

of Estonia began with

NEWSPAPER

404

Ndrodni Politika in 1883, by the LidovS Noviny (Brno) in 1S93, the Social Democratic Prdvo Lidu in 1897, the Ceski Slovo in

the

1909 and the Agrarian Vetikov

in 1917.

After the creation of the

Communist Rudt^ Prdvo appeared in 1920. In 1937 number of periodical publications was about 3,500, including 1,200 in Prague alone. The largest circulations in 1937 were those of Poledni List (120,000), Ndrodni Politika (145,000) republic the

the total

and Prdvo Lidu (118,000). In Slovakia the largest newspapers were the Slovdk (45.000) and the Slovensky Dennik (40,000), both in Bratislava. There were also German, Magyar, Polish and Ukrainian newspapers. The Deutsche Zeitimg Bohemia, founded in Prague in 1828, was the oldest daily newspaper published on Czech territory. The Czechoslovak press was of high standard, both technically and in the manner of news reporting. It disappeared with the annexation by Germany in 1939. After 1945, of the pre-World War II newspapers, only Rude Prdvo continued to appear, becoming the organ of the Communist party and having in the early 1960s a circulation of 1.000,000. There were, in the early 1960s, 19 dailies in Czechoslovakia of which 8 were published in Prague and 5 in Bratislava. Other dailies were: Lidovd Demokracie (organ of the People's party), Prdce (trade unions) and Mladd Fronta (Youth league). There was only one official news agency, CTK Ceskoslovenska tiskova kancelaf). 5. Hungary.— A Latin weekly sheet. Nova Posoniensia, founded in Pozsony (now Bratislava, Slovakia) by Matyas Bel in The first periodical in 1721, was the first Hungarian journal. Magyar was the weekly Magyar Kurir, founded by Samuel Decsy in Vienna in 17S9. The first Magyar journal, circulated privately in Budapest under the title Orszdgyiilesi Titdositdsok, consisted of the parliamentary reports of Lajos Kossuth (1832-36). In 1841 Kossuth became editor of the Liberal daily Pesti Hirlap, while Counts Aurel and Emil Dessewffy started the Conservative Vildg. There was a remarkable development of the Hungarian press (

after 1867, with great latitude for free expression.

The number

of periodical publications increased from 80 in that year to about

2,000 in 1914.

duced

in

After World War I the Hungarian press was rein 1937 it comprised about 1,200 puWications,

numbers;

including 74 dailies.

The

Fiiggetlenseg, a daily

newspaper founded

1933 by Gyula Gombos, had the largest circulation (160,000). It was followed by the Pesti Hirlap (100,000), the Social Democratic Nepszava (founded 1872; circulation 180,000) and Az Est (founded 1909; circulation 60,000). After 1945 the Hungarian press recovered much freedom, and by 1964 was not entirely Comin

munist controlled (e.g., Nepszava, above, and Magyar Nemzet, organ of the Patriotic People's front, 120,000). Szabad Nep, the principal party organ, changed its name to NSpszabadsdg (People's Freedom) after the rising of Oct.-Nov. 1956. In the early 1960s, 26 dailies were published in Hungary, 4 of these, including Nepszabadsdg (700,000), being published in Budapest. Total circulation was 1,635,000 compared with 1,078,000 before World War II. Numerous weeklies and periodicals were also published; Szabad Fold (Free Land), Nbk Lapja, the illustrated weekly of the council of Hungarian women, and Ludas Matyi, a satirical paper, all have a wide circulation. Papers were also published for the German, Serbian-Croatian, Slovak and

Rumanian

—

ized the publication in Istanbul of the Tsarigradski Vestnik.

daily published on Bulgarian soil

—

—

1,231 periodicals including 50 dailies;

appeared

in

1838 in Brasov (Kronstadt), then in Hungary.

press developed after the union of the principalities (1859) and more so after the country's unification (1918). By 193 7 there

were 2,253 periodicals including 104 daihes. Universid, founded in 1882, had the largest circulation (140,000); it ceased publication in 1953. Other important newspapers were Adeverul (100,000), Dimineata (90,000), Romania (80,000) and Argus (30,000). The restored freedom of the press after World War II was quickly stifled and by 1948 strict Communist censorship prevailed. In the early 1960s there were 32 daily papers of which 19 were in the languages of national minorities. Their combined print total was 2,850,000. Scinteia (880,000) was the main Com-

i.e.,

13 Serbian (mainly in

Belgrade), 21 Croatian (mainly in Zagreb), 6 Slovene (mainly in Ljubljana) and 10 daQies published by the national minorities. In 1939, among the Serbian newspapers the Politika (1904) had a

Vreme (1921) 65,000 and the Pravda (1904) 38,000; in Croatia the Novosti (1906) and in Slovenia the Slovenec (1871) had circulations of 30,000 each. The Croatian Obzor, the oldest existing Yugoslav daily (founded in 1860), in 1939 had a circulation of 7,000. After World War II the number of papers increased. The most circulated papers were Barba and Politika (Belgrade). Borba was the organ of the Socialist Alliance of the Working People of Yugoslavia, and Komunist (issued weekly) was the official organ of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia. Borba was published in two editions, in Cyrillic for Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Bosnia and eastern Hercegovina, and in Latin characters for Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and western Hercegovina. Other important papers in the early 1960s were Vjesnik (Zagreb), Delo published in Slovenian (Ljubljana), Oslobodjenje (Sarajevo), Nova Makedonija pubHshed in Macedonian (Skopje) and Pobjeda (Titograd). The official news agency, Tanyug, provided uniformity in all except regional and occupational news. circulation of 100,000, the

—

The

The

was the Balkanska Zora founded in 1890 at Plovdiv. The first daily in Sofia was the Vccherna Poshta, founded in 1900. By 1914 there were 310 periodical publications. In 1937 there were 25 dailies in Sofia alone with Utro and Zora having the largest circulations (85,000 and 73,000 respectively). In the early 1960s there were 292 newspapers and periodicals published, including 70 provincial papers with a combined circulation of 1,700,000 and 8 daily papers in Sofia with a combined circulation of 1,500,000. The leading dailies were Rabotnichesko Delo (450,000), organ of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist party, followed by Otechestven Front ("Fatherland Front"; 200,000) and the organs of the "i'outh union Narodna Mladezh, of the Agrarian union Zemedelsko Zname and of the trade unions Trud. Popular weeklies were the satirical journal Sturshel ("Hornet") and Septemtiriiche for children. Papers were also published in several foreign languages. 8. Albania. The first daily newspaper, the Ora, was founded From 1945 there were two daily newspapers: at Tirane in 1930. Zeri i Popullit ("The Voice of the People"), the Communist party Bashkimi ("Union"), the organ of the People's front. organ, and 9. Yugoslavia. The first newspaper in Serbian, Srpskija Novini, was founded in 1791 in Vienna; later Serbian journals appeared in Budapest and Venice. The first newspaper published in Serbia was Srbske Novine (Kragujevac, 1834), the first in Croatia Narodne Novine (Zagreb, 1835), the first in Slovenia Ljubljanske Novize (Ljubljana, 1797). After the creation of independent Yugoslavia in 1918 the Serbian, Croatian and Slovene press developed considerably in numbers and quality. In 1937 there were first

population.

6. Rumania. The first Rumanian political periodical was the Curierid Roindnesc, founded in Bucharest in 1828 by I. Eliade Radulescu, while the first daily in Rumanian, the Gazeta Transil-

vaniei,

munist party daily organ, Rominia Libera being the government's organ and Munca that of the trade unions. 7. Bulgaria. The first political newspaper published in Bulgarian, the Bulgarski Orel, was founded in 1846 in Leipzig, Ger., by Iviin Bogorov. Two years later the Turkish government author-

VII. 1.

Canada.

COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS

—The

first

Canadian newspaper was the Halijax

Gazette, founded by John Bushell as a two-page weekly in 1751. In 1770 Anthony Henry combined this paper with his Nova Scotia Gazette and continued it for many years. First paper in Quebec

was the Quebec Gazette, founded by William Brown and Thomas Gilmore in 1764 and printed in both English and French; it lasted for more than 100 years and was finally merged in the Morning Chronicle (1847) which, after a combination in 1926 with the Telegraph (1872), became known as the Chronicle Telegraph. First in Montreal was La Gazette Litteraire, founded in 1778 by Fleury Mesplet (a protege of Benjamin Franklin) and Charles First Berger; the modern Montreal Gazette is its descendant. Ontario paper was Lewis Roy's Upper Canada Gazette and Ameri-

can Oracle, established in 1793.

NEWSPAPER By

the early 1960s

Canada had over 100

daily newspapers

and

Total daily about 900 weeklies, semiweeklies and triweeklies. newspaper circulation in Canada was about 4,200,000. Among the leading English-language papers were the Toronto Daily Star (1892) with the largest circulation in Canada, the Toronto Evening Telegram (1876), the Toronto Globe and Mail (1844), the Vancouver Sun (1886), the Montreal Star (1869), and the Winnipeg Free Press (1874). French language daihes included La Presse of Montreal (1884) and Le Soleil of Quebec (1880). A feature in the Canadian newspaper industry in the 1960s was

lications.

405

By

the early 1960s, however, circulations had

trebled since 1928.

more than Sydney and Melbourne together had more

than half of the circulation of Australian dailies. There have never been national daily newspapers in Australia with circulations and influence extending throughout the country. This is due chiefly to the immense distances to be covered in de-

and the concentration of population on the coastal perimeter of the continent. In the early 1960s the 15 metropolitan daily newspapers livery, the political division of Australia into six states

pubHshed

in the six state capitals

and Canberra

the trend towards consoHdation of newspaper ownership.

siderable circulation and influence within their

when

The

control of the Vancouver

Sun passed

into the

In 1963 hands of Free

Press Publications Ltd. of Winnipeg, the Bell-Sifton interests con-

about half of the total western daily circulation of just over a million. Other leading newspaper groups were those of the Southam company and the Thomson company. Consolidation did not, however, extend to the largest of the eastern dailies which continued to operate separately. trolled

Of the 112 daily newspapers

in

Canada, 101, including

all

the

members of the Canadian Press, the leading national news service. The Canadian Press Ltd. was established in 1911 as a holding company for the Canadian rights to the news principal papers, are

by the Canadian In 1917 the four regional co-operative news asPacific railway. sociations set up in the previous ten years were merged into the national news co-operative association of daily newspapers which became known as the Canadian Press. It has sole rights to distribute in Canada the news reports of both the Associated Press and Reuters. After 1952 the CP news reports were made available Through subsidiary companies CP in both French and English. delivers news to the Canadian Broadcasting corporation and most privately owned radio and television stations. 2. Australia. Australia's first newspaper was the Sydney Gazette, a weekly publication of four pages, which appeared in 1803. It was printed by George Howe, a convict, under the direction of P. G. King, then governor of New South Wales. Its policy was dictated by the government and thus the Gazette was the first of what has been called the "convict press." Other publications in this class included the Derwent Star (1810), the Van Die-men's Land Gazette (1814) and the Hobart Town Gazette (1816), all published in Tasmania. These publications, subservient to the requirement of official policy, were disliked by the growing number of free citizens in the penal colonies of New South Wales and Tasmania. The remainder of the century, therefore, saw the emergence of privately owned papers, hampered at first by censorship and repression, struggling for freedom of the press, and eventually services of the Associated Press, until then held

—

reaching positions of great financial importance. The tradition of family-controlled papers has been a feature of this press. In April 1831 three young men, two of them from the Sydney Gazette, combined to pubhsh the Sydney Herald. It

was a

by Charles Kemp and John Fairfax, the latter Warwickshire family who had been part-proprietor Leamington, Eng. In 1853 the paper, which had

later acquired

member

of a

of a paper at

changed its name to the Sydney Morning Herald, became the sole property of the Fairfax family, and it remained a family concern until 1956, when a pubhc company was formed, which also acquired control of the Sun, a Sydney evening newspaper. In Melbourne, Victoria, the Argus, established by William Kerr in 1846, was bought in 1848 by Edward Wilson. It remained a family-controlled paper, under the proprietorship of Messrs. Wilson and Mackinnon, until 1936, when ownership passed to a pubHc company. Subsequently a controlling interest was acquired by Daily Mirror Newspapers, Ltd., London. Publication of the Argus ceased in 1957. Another Melbourne newspaper, the Age, which had been started in 1854, was acquired in 1856 by David and Ebenezer Syme, of Scottish origins. For a very long time it continued to be controlled entirely by the Syme family, later becoming a public

company.

David Syme came

to exercise great political

power.

The second quarter of the 20th century saw a decline in the number of papers published, both metropolitan and country, while the economic crises of the 1930s caused the closing of some pub-

all

own

enjoyed constate borders.

were two Melbourne papers, the Sun NewsPictorial (576,000) and the Herald (480,000), followed by the Sydney Daily Telegraph (327,000), the Sydney Morning Herald (304,000), the Sun (269,000) and the Daily Mirror (260,000). There are 35 dailies published outside the capital cities, combining coverage of world and national news with extensive local news, while nearly every town with a population over 20,000 has some form of local newspaper though only 33 centres support 2 or more, and all but 5 of these are in New South Wales or Victoria. About

3%

largest of these

are in foreign languages.

Magazines are pubHshed in all the capital cities, but only a few of them have national distribution. Largest of these is the Sydney Australian Women's Weekly (835,000). The Sydney Bulletin, a weekly founded in 1880 by J. F. Archibald and John Haynes, was still circulating in the early 1960s. None of the main Australian dailies has any affihation with the political parties. In the 1960s the only directly controlled Labour daily paper was the Barrier Daily Truth (Broken Hill), owned by the district Workers' Industrial union. With the exception of the Sydney Daily Mirror all metropoUtan and provincial daily newspapers take their basic world news through Australian Associated Press, Ltd. (formed in 1935), which The metropolitan newsis linked with the Reuters organization. paper groups, however, maintain their own staffs of correspondents in London, New York and elsewhere as occasion arises. 3. New Zealand. Pioneer English and Scottish settlements in New Zealand made haste to estabUsh newspapers, sometimes even before houses were built. The people were highly literate for the times, and weekly journals were begun, not so much to supply news

—

as to give vent to political opinion, intended to exert pressure not

only on the as well.

New

Zealand authorities but on the British parliament

Thus the Wakefield expedition got out

a paper, the

New

Zealand Gazette (Samuel Revans, editor), in London before it sailed in Sept. 1839, and published the second issue on arrival in April 1840. The paper survived at Wellington under various titles In the north of the country, wTiere Gov. H. Hobson artill 1868. rived in 1840 to annex the country as a British possession, the New Zealand Advertiser and Bay of Islands Gazette (G. A. Eagar, editor) began publication on June 20, 1840, as a fierce opponent of the governor and his supporters. It ceased at the end of the same year. In Dec. 1840 the first official publication, the New Zealand Government Gazette, was printed at Paihia at the Church Missionary Each new settlement had one or more society's printing office. newspapers, many of which had very short lives. Communications quickest way of sending news from Dunedin to poor the were Auckland was by ship to Sydney, Austr., and thence by ship to Auckland, a matter of 2,500 mi. The Devonshire settlers at New Plymouth founded the Taranaki Herald in 1852 and the Taranaki News in 1857. They both continue as daihes, the former being the oldest newspaper in New Zealand the latter changed its name in 1959 to the Daily News. In the early 1960s Auckland, with the largest urban population, had two daily papers, the morning New Zealand Herald (205,000) and the evening Auckland Star (135,000), with the largest circulations in New Zealand. The two surviving newspapers in the capital, Wellington, are the Evening Post, founded by Henry Blundell in 1865, with a circulation in the early 1960s of 94,500, and the Dominion, Wellington's morning daily, founded in 1907 by C. W. Its circulation Earle, and edited by him until his death in 1950. in the early 1960s was in excess of 94,000. Christchurch journalism began with the Lyttelton Times which

—

;

NEWSPAPER

4o6

was founded on Jan. 16, 1851, exactly one month from the day the Canterbury association settlers landed at the port. It had been planned in London, and Isaac Ingram, an Oxford printer, was the publisher. The first editor was J. E. FitzGerald, a member of the committee of the Canterbury association, who, for the two years of his editorship, fought a continuing battle for self-government for the colony. The Lyllellon Times, under the editorship first

Saunders, became the leading Liberal paper of New Zealand, particularly in the days of the Seddon government (1893It was opposed by the Christchurch Press, founded in 1906). 1868 as a Conservative organ. In the same year the Times estabJust before the outbreak of lished an evening paper, the Star. World War I, E. C. Huie began publishing another evening paper, the Sun. The depression years of 1930-35 found the four daily newspapers engaged in a bitter circulation war which ended with of

Sam

New

Zealand Newspapers, Ltd., owners of the Times and Star, Times and absorbing the Sun. Thus Christchurch was left with two daily newspapers, the morning Press with a circulation in the early 1960s of over 64,000 and the Christchurch Star of over 65,000. Like other cities, Dunedin had a number of newspapers in the closing the

1860s, mainly induced sur\-ivors are the

by the discovery

of gold in Otago.

The two

Otago Daily Times, founded in 1861, with a and the Evening Star, founded in 1863, with

circulation of 40,600

a circulation of 30,000.

newspapers in the four main cities have a national although, especially in the North Island, the two morning newspapers, the New ZealaJid Herald and the Dominion, have extensive circulations. There are also nearly 60 triweekly,

None

of the

circulation

biweekly or weekly newspapers published throughout the country, concentrating mostly on local news. Prominent national magazines include the New Zealand Woman's Weekly, the Weekly News, New Zealand Truth and the New Zealand Listener. New Zealand has 42 daily newspapers who are all partners in the New Zealand Press association, which supplies them with home and overseas news. The Press association receives most of its overseas news through the Australian Associated Press and like (A. P. R.; X.) A.A.P. is also a partner in Reuters. 4. India. Though printing from movable type was done in

—

India in the 16th century, and there were written newsletters during the Mogul dynasty in that century, the first newspaper appeared Jan. 29, 1780. This was the Bengal Gazette or Calcutta General Advertiser, known as "Hickey's Gazette." James Augustus Hickey's attacks on the government and on private first in barring his paper from the post ofiice and then in his arrest and imprisonment and the seizure of his The second paper was Peter Reed's Indian Gazette or paper. Calcutta Advertiser, begun later in 1 780 and devoted largely to the

individuals resulted

business of the East India company; it lasted for more than SO Bombay journalism began with the Bombay Herald in years. 1789; the first in Madras was the Madras Courier of 1785.

The first periodical in a vernacular language was the monthly Digdarshan of 1818, in Bengali, by J. C. Marshman, a Baprist missionary, which soon became a weekly newspaper with the In 1829 it became title Samachar Darpan ("Mirror of News"). bilingual, with local and foreign news in both English and Bengali. appeared in Gujarati vernacular papers In the early 1820s many and Bengali, papers which were suspended under the John Adams press regulations. Active in this journalism was the religious and social reformer Raja Ram Mohan Roy, founder of the first Persian weekly, Mirat-ul-Akhbar, in Calcutta. Roy was later associated with Banga Doot ("Bengal Herald"), printed in Bengali, Persian, Hindi and English. Most famous of Bengali papers were Ananda Bazar Patrika, founded in 1878, and enjoying by the early 1960s one of the largest circulations among Indian dailies (102,000). This paper and the other leading daily in Bengali, Jugantar (founded in 1937), were both published in Calcutta. The leading English-owned paper in India in the early 1960s was the Statesman of Calcutta (witha New Delhi edition), founded by Robert Knight in 1875, which absorbed the Englishman (1821) and Friend of India. Another English-owned paper, the Pioneer of Allahabad, founded in 1865, and famous for the service on its

editorial staff of

Rudyard Kipling

for a

few years

in

the latter

1880s, passed under Indian ownership in the 1930s. Half-a-dozen leading Indian dailies in the English language were

owned by Indians in the early 1960s. The Hindu, Madras, began mimeographed journal of the literary society, became a reguThe Times of India of lar weekly in 1878 and a daily in 1889.

as a

(with a New Delhi edition), founded in 1838 as Bombay Times, was long regarded as the chief newspaper in India. The Tribune of Ambala, East Punjab, founded in 1881 and made a daily The Amrita in I960, became a modern and influential paper. Bazar Patrika, founded in 1860 in a village near Calcutta, was in 1871 moved to that city and was made a bilingual paper. After the \'ernacular Press act of 1878, it was made an English paper and became a leading newspaper in India. The Free Press Jcnimal of Bombay was founded in 1930 by S. Sadanand. the outgrowth of a news agency. The Hindusthan Times, founded in 1923, was edited for a number of years by Devdas Gandhi, son of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. The daily with the largest combined circulation was the Indian Express (1953), published simultaneously in

Bombay

Bombay, New Delhi and three other cities. The daily press in India in the early 1960s

consisted of

more

than 300 papers with an aggregate circulation around 4,500.000: 75 in Hindi, 42 in Urdu, ii in English, 26 in Malayalam, 24 in Tamil, the rest in other languages. In the matter of circulation, however, the English language dailies were at the top f 1.150,000), followed by Hindi (745.000), Malayalam (499,000), Marathi ('350,000). Of the nine dailies with a circulation of over 100.000, four were in English hidian Express, Times of India, Statesman, (

(Thanthi, Dinamani), one in Marathi Hindi (Navbharat Times) and one in Bengali. Nearly A0% of newspapers and periodicals of all kinds were concentrated in Bombay. Calcutta, New Delhi and Madras. Indian newspapers in 1948 formed their own co-operative news agency under the name of the Press Trust of India Ltd., taking over the 50-year-old Associated Press of India Ltd., which was a Reuters subsidiary. The Indian press at the same time joined those of the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand in the

Hindu), two

in

(Lokasatta), one

general 5.

Tamil

in

management

Pakistan.

of Reuters.

— Following the birth of the new

state in 1947, a

new journals were established. Pakistan lost some of its papers by their removal to India, but gained its largest daily, Dawn, which moved from Delhi to Karachi, where it continued to number

of

publish editions in several languages.

Leading English-language

papers were the Pakistan Times at Lahore, the Times of Karachi and Morning News at Dacca in East Pakistan and Karachi. In the early 1960s the country had 90 dailies: 70 in West Pakistan and 20 in East Pakistan. In West Pakistan they w^ere printed mainly in Urdu, the most important being Imroze at Lahore and Karachi, but some were in Gujarati or Sindhi, In East Pakistan the language was mainly Bengali, the more important papers being

Azad and Ittefaq, both published at Dacca. Singapore 6. Federation of Malaysia.

—

in the early

1960s had

half-a-dozen daily papers published in English. Chinese and the Indian and Malay languages, circulating in the city and also in

Malaya. The Straits Times (1845) had a special Malayan edition. The other leading papers were Nanyang Siang Pau, Sin Chew Jit Poh and Nanfang Evening Post (in Chinese). Newspapers in Malaya were likewise in English, Chinese and the Indian an(l Malayan languages. In the early 1960s the more important dailies were the Straits Times and the Malay Mail (in English), Berita Harian and Utusan Melayu (in Malay) and New

News and China Press (in Chinese). In Sarawak in the early 1960s there were seven dailies, including six papers in Chinese and one in the English language. In the early 1960s there 7. Elsewhere in the East: Ceylon.

Life Daily

—

Sinhalese and two in Of these the more important were Dinamina and Lankadipa (m Sinhalese), the Ceylon Daily News (in English) and Thinakaran (in Tamil). The Sunday paper, Silumitta (in Sinhalese), had the highest circulation (156.000). Aden. There were in the early 1960s four dailies. The leading paper was Fatat-ul-J ezirah.

were nine

dailies, four in English, three in

Tamil, totaling over 350,000 copies.

—

NEWSPAPER Hong Kong.

—There were

1960s nine dailies in Hong Kong. The leading papers were Wall Kiu Man Pa, Wa Kin Yat Pa, Ta Kung Pao in Chinese, and Hmig Kong Tiger, Standard, China Mail in the

and South China Morning Post in English. (Jo. K. B.) 8. Africa: Ghana. In the early 1960s four dailies were published, all in English. Their combined circulation of 200,000 represented 40 copies per 1,000 inhabitants. Seven nondailies and 15 periodicals were also published. The Ghanaian Times (Accra) and the Evening News (Accra) were financed by government funds. The largest paper, the Daily Graphic (Accra), was owned by the Mirror Newspapers, London, until 1962 when it was turned into a trust. The Ashanti Pioneer (Kumasi) ceased to be an opposition paper in Oct. 1962 as a result of official action. Press control was exercised both indirectly through government pressure and directly through the criminaf code of 1960, which could require periodicals suspected of "systematic pubUcation of matter calculated to prejudice public order or safety ... to submit all

—

future issues of the periodical to a specified authority to be passed upon before publication." Special significance was attached to

The Spark,

a weekly theoretical paper, published

by the Bureau

of African Affairs, launched in 1962.

—

Nigeria. In the early 1960s, 14 dailies were published, all in English. Their total circulation of 260,000 represented 8 copies per 1,000 of the population. There were 34 nondaiUes and 32 periodicals. The Daily Times and Sunday Times, with the largest

owned by the Mirror Newspaper group. The federal government published the Morning Post and the Sunday Post (77,000). The largest indigenous group was Zik newspapers (started by N. Azikiwe) controlling five dailies, including the West African Pilot (Lagos), and supporting the National Council of Nigerian Citizens. The Daily Express (Lagos) supported the Action group, and the Daily Mail (Kano) supported

407

Lusaka, supported K. Kaunda's United National Independence party. A lively political monthly was the Cejitral African Examiner.

Kenya.

— In the early 1960s there were

Swahili. The largest of these were East African Standard, Daily Nation and Taifa Leo (Swahili), all published in Nairobi. The combined circulation of the six was 88,000 representing 7 copies per 1,000 inhabitants. There were 26 nondailies. East Africa Standard Ltd. owned East Africa Standard (weekly edition 42,000) and Baraza (39,000) published in Swahili. East African Newspapers Ltd. (with which were associated the Aga Khan and the Thomson Newspaper organization) owned the Nation (Sunday edition 31,000) and Taifa (weekly 59,000), published in Swahili. There were 40 periodicals, the government information service

publishing 10 vernacular papers.

High Commission

Except under emergency regulations there were no press laws and censorship. Sierra Leone. daily There was one in the early 1960s, the Daily Mail (Freetown) owned by the Mirror Newspapers (London).

—

With a

circulation of 15,000

it

sold 6 copies per 1,000 inhabitants.

There were also six nondailies and ten periodicals. There were no press laws or censorship. Tanganyika. In the early 1960s there were three dailies, the Tanganyika Standard (11,000), published in English, and Mwafrika (13,000) and Ngurumo (12,000), published in Swahili. Their combined sales reached 4.4 per 1,000 inhabitants. There were also 16 nondailies and 37 periodicals. Prominent Sunday newspapers were Mwafrika Na Taifa (30,000) and Uhurii (15,000), in Swahih, and Sunday News (10,600) and the Sunday Nation (8,000), in English. The governing party, the Tanganyika African National union (TANU), launched its own weekly The Nationalist in 1964. There were no press laws or censorship. Zanzibar and Pemba. In the early 1960s two dailies were published; with a combined circulation of 400 they sold 1 copy per 1,000 inhabitants. There were eight nondailies. Uganda. In the early 1960s three dailies were published, the Uganda Argus (13,300), Uganda Eyogera (12,000), published in Luganda, and Taifa Empya. They sold 6 copies per 1,000 inhabitants. Characteristic of the Ugandan press was the growth of indigenous and privately owned papers in many of the local lan-

—

—

—

guages.

Gambia.

—There was one

daily in the early 1960s with a circula-

tion of 1,500 representing 5 copies per 1,000 inhabitants.

There

were also three nondailies and two periodicals. Central Africa.

— In the

early 1960s, four dailies circulated with

total sales of 112,000, representing 6 copies per 1,000 inhabitants.

There were 36 nondailies and 40 periodicals. The Argus South African Newspapers, Ltd. controlled five of the largest papers, three dailies and two Sundays: the Rhodesia Herald, Bulawayo Chronicle, Northern News (Zambia), Sunday News and Sunday Mail. The largest group specializing in publications for Africans, Thomson Newspapers Rhodesia (Pvt) Ltd., included Central African Daily News, the African Parade, the Popidar Post and Malawi's single daily. The Malawi party of H. Banda published a weekly Malawi News while the weekly, the African Mail in

Territories.

— In Basutoland there were

four

combined circulation of 25,000 There was also one periodical. Bechuanaland had one periodical, published by the government. In Swaziland, two nondailies with a joint circulation nondailies in the early 1960s with a

representing 28 copies per 1,000 inhabitants.

of 1,900 sold 8 copies per 1,000 inhabitants. Mauritius. There were nine dailies in the early 1960s with a

—

circulation of 40,000, representing 68 copies per 1,000 inhabitants.

There were also

circulations (both 120,000), were

the Northern Peoples congress.

Engand one in

six dailies, three in

hsh, one in English and Gujerati, one in Gujerati

VIII.

11 nondailies

and

15 periodicals.

(Co. L.)

CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA

—

1. Mexico. A Mexican newssheet pubKshed in 1541 constituted the earliest printed news in the western hemisphere. It was published by Juan Pablos and was an account of the Guatemalan earthquake of the preceding year, entitled Relacidn del terremoto

The

regular newspaper came nearly two Mexico (1722). The first dailies were Diario de Mexico and Diario de Veracruz, both begun in 1805. Arbitrary censorship was the rule and tradition in Mexico. The constitution of 1857 was hberal in language, but did not in practice afford any considerable freedom of the press. In the long presidency of Porfirio Diaz, however, economic stabiUty was favourable to the development of the newspaper industry. The "insurgent press," beginning with El Despertador Americano (1810-11), from time to time played an important part in national affairs. Papers in Indian languages were established in the 1880s, as Purepe of Quiroga, in Tarascan; Mor of Tepoztlan, in Aztec and others in Maya and Zapotecan in Yucatan and Oaxaca. Daily newspapers in Mexico in the 1960s numbered more than 140, of which about 20 were published in the federal district. Nearly all had been founded after 1920 and many after 1940. The only important daily dating back to the lS80s was El Correo de la Tarde (1885) of Mazatlan. The largest papers in Mexico City were: the established and respected El Universal (1916),

de Guatemala.

first

centuries later, Gaceta de

;

its evening tabloid edition. El Universal Gr&fico (1922); Excelsior (1917); Novedades (1932); and La Prensa (1928). These journals had large Sunday editions and affiliated radio sta-

with

tions. There was one paper owned and operated by the government. El Nacional (1929). Guadalajara and Monterrey, the next

had three and four dailies respectively. The circulaMexican daihes, regional rather than national, virtually doubled in the decade 1940-50 and continued to increase thereafter. 2. Central America. The earliest printing in Central America was at Antigua, in the colony of Guatemala; but it was in the town of Guatemala that a monthly Gaceta was established in 1729. Of the dailies being published there in the 1960s, the oldest was largest cities,

tion of

—

Diario de Centra America, founded the year after the adoption of the constitution of 1879 as El Guatemalteco ; El Imparcial

(1922) and Prensa Libre (1951) had the largest circulations. In Honduras the first paper was the Gaceta de Honduras ( 1830), in Comayagua; the first daily was El Diario (1897), in Tegucigalpa, the capital. In the 1960s Honduras had five dailies. British Honduras had the Belize Daily Clarion (1897) and the Belize Billboard (1946). Nicaragua's first paper was El Teligrafo Nicaragiiense (1835) of Leon, and its first daily was the Diario de Nicaragua (1884)

NEWSPAPER

4o8 of Granada.

one

In the 1960s there were five dailies in

Managua and

Leon. El Salvador had a paper at San Sebastian called Liberal Guipitzcoano in 1S20. Of the dailies being published in the capital, in

San Salvador, in the 1960s Diario Ojicitil (1847), the government was the oldest, and La Prensa Grdfica (1915) and El Diario de Hoy (1936) foremost in circulation and influence. Sonsonate and Santa Ana each had one daily. El Xoticioso I'liiversal, established by Joaquin Bernardo Calvo at San Jose in 1832, was Costa Rica's first newspaper. There were five Spanish-language dailies in that city in the 1960s, with circulation ranging from 10,000 to 40,000, and also one daily in gazette,

English.

now Panama, Misceldnea

Istmo was established in 1822, and short-lived political papers appeared from time to time; but modern Panamanian journalism began with the founding of the Panama Star by a group of American forty-niners bound for California but temporarily detained awaiting ship. Their main purpose appears to have been to publish an account of their celebration of Washington's birthday, and the paper was begun Feb. The paper soon came into other hands, and when 24, 1849. Panama seceded from the Colombian federation in 1SS3 it was made a daily and given a Spanish section, which eventually became a separate edition called La Estrelta de Panama. The Panama Herald 1851) was absorbed in 1854, and the English edition became Panama Star Herald. The Panama American and its associate El Panami- America began in 1925, and the Nation and In what

is

del

La Gaceta was founded as the official organ of the Spanish government of Puerto Rico in 1807 and continued until the occupation of the island by United Stales forces in 1898, In the 1960s there were two Spanish-language dailies in San Juan, El Imparcial (19\1) and El Mundo ( 1919), which claimed more than 50,000 circulation each, and one English-language daily. There was one daily each in Ponce and Arecibo. Robert Baldwin began the Weekly Jamaica Coiirant in 1718 at Santiago de la Vega, the capital of Jamaica until 1872. In the 1960s the morning Daily Gleaner (1834) was the chief paper of Kingston, and the evening paper was the Star (1951). 5. Colombia. Manuel del Socorro Rodriguez, a Cuban emigre, was the publisher of the earliest papers issued in what was then called Santa Fe de Bogota; they were the Gaceta (1785) and the Papel Periodica 1791-95). El Tiempo of Bogota, largest paper in the country, suffered under the heavy hand of government

—

(

censorship in the mid-1950s; in the latter years of the decade in the 1960s government pressure on the press was markedly

and

Largest paper outside the capital was El Colombiano (1912) of Medellin.

reduced.

—

tion,

6. Ecuador. The first known newspaper in Ecuador was the Gaceta de Santafe 1785) of Quito, No further paper was printed in the country until after the revolution of 1809, when the Gaceta de la Corte de Quito was begun. In the 1960s El Comercio 1906) was the most important of Quito's daihes; it also owned Ultimas Noticias (1938), the capital's only evening paper. 7. 'Venezuela. The first Venezuelan newspaper was the Gaceta de Caracas (1808). The oldest daily in Venezuela in the 1960s was La Religion 1890) of Caracas; those with the largest circulations were El Mundo and El Nacional, both of Caracas, each over 100,000. 8. Peru. Probably the earliest newssheet printed in South America described the capture of the pirate Richard Hawkins off the Peruvian coast; it was issued by Antonio Ricardo at Lima in 1594. The first titled and numbered paper was Gaceta de Lima (1744). Peruvian newspapers, both under Spanish rule and after establishment of the republic in 1822-23, were firmly controlled Except for the government gazette El by the government. Peruana, which was founded in 1820, the oldest newspaper in the El Comercio Government control 1960s was (1839) of Lima. was the rule. 9. Bolivia In 1825, the year in which the name of Alto Peru was changed to Bolivia, the Gaceta de Chuquisaca and the Condor de Bolivia were founded in the capital, Chuquisaca, later renamed Sucre. Bolivian newspapers, chiefly owned by political factions, were unstable until some time after the adoption of the press law of 1925. The oldest daily in the 1960s was El Diario (1905) Under the Paz Estenssoro regime, which came into of La Paz. power in 1952. there was a severe censorship. 10. Brazil. Brazil's first weekly newspaper was the official Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro (1808), which in 1S23 became Diario do Governo. The country's oldest paper in the 1960s was Didrio de Pernambuco (1825) of Recife. Founded in 1827 was Jornal do Comercio of Rio de Janeiro, which, though its circulation was less than those of most other papers in the capital in 1955, had long enjoyed a high reputation and influence as a conservative

others

journal.

(

&

La

N

3.

acton in 1944.

Cuba.

— Sporadic publication of printed newssheets goes back

to 1707 with the appearance of Disertacion

Medico Sobre

las

hlas

de Barlovento, a medical report on dietary conditions in the Windward Islands. In 1764 the Havana printer Olivos was ordered by the colonial authorities to issue a monthly Mercurio, and other official gazettes were published later. But the first general newspaper in the island was the Papel Periodica de la Habana (1790), issued under the enlightened administration of Captain General Luis de las Casas. Strict censorship was the rule under the colonial government. After independence there was a rapid flourishing of the Cuban

and some of the largest and more modern newspapers in the hemisphere were published in Havana in the late 1950s. Though government censorship or interference was only occasional, unofficial political subsidies accounted for considerable government influence in many newspapers. Before the Fidel Castro revolution there were about 48 dailies in the island, over 20 of them published in Havana. Among them were the Diario de la Marina (1832), oldest extant Cuban paper at the time, El Mundo 1901), Informacion (1933) and Diario Nacional, all of them morning dailies with circulations ranging between 25,000 and 75,000; El Pais 1921 and Prensa Libre 1941 ), both evening papers with press,

(

(

)

(

circulations over 100,000.

Among

foreign-language dailies there the Times of Havana (1957), and three in Chinese. After the accession of the Castro regime in 1959 mounting political pressure caused many Cuban newspapers to cease publica-

were two

in English, the

Havana Post (1895) and

among them some of the oldest and most respected. All came finally under complete control of the government, exercised in many cases through the labour unions and, in others, by means of a direct government ititerventor. The three most important Cuban dailies being published in the 1960s were Hoy, traditionally the organ of the (Tuban Communist party; Revoluwhich

an earlier form had been the clandestine organ of movement against Batista; and El Mundo. 4. West Indies. The Gazette dii Cap, of uncertain history, is said to have been Haiti's first paper. The Gazette politique et commerciale d'Haiti 1804) was the first government organ of the new republic. In the 1960s Haiti had six daily papers, all

cion,

in

Castro's revolutionary

—

(

published at Port-au-Prince; the largest had a circulation of about 9.000. in the

Larger

in circulation

were the

Santo Domingo 1947) The latter had been suppressed

Dominican Republic. La Xacion

and El Listin Diario (1893). during the Trujillo dictatorship.

dailies at (

1940), El Caribe

(

(

(

—

(

—

—

—

With the fall of the empire in 1889 there was a rapid development of newspapers, and in the next 20 years the number of papers and periodicals increased from about 600 to 1,000. By the 1960s there were well over 200 daihes.

The largest paper in Brazil in the 1960s was Globo (1925) of Rio de Janeiro, which claimed a circulation of over 200,000 for its daily edition. Other leading Rio papers were Jornal do Brazil Jornal (1919). Perhaps 1889), Correio da Manha 1901 and Estado de Sao Paulo the outstanding paper in Sao Paulo was Didrios Associados had become a strong group of 24 (1875). daily papers and 14 radio stations spread widely over the country and including such large papers as Didrio da Noite (1929) and Jornal in Rio, Didrio da Noite (1925) in Sao Paulo and Didrio (

de

(

Pernambuco in Argentina.

11.

)

Recife.

—El Telegrajo

(1801-02), the

first

newspaper

NEWSPAPER published in Argentina, came from the Buenos Aires press of Francisco Cabello y Mesa, a printer who had already engaged in journalism in Lima, Peru. It was followed by a few other papers

decade of the centun,' and, after the first national government was established in 1810, by an official Gaceta (lSlO-21). The chaotic period which preceded the Juan Manuel de Rosas regime (1829-52) brought out many small, vituperative pohtical sheets, but Rosas Umited the regular Argentine press to a few papers which were forced to confine themselves to commercial news and official documents. Meantime, Argentine journalists took refuge in other South American countries, there to spread their doctrines of liberty and reform. After the fall of Rosas many of these men returned and renewed the conflicts of political jourin the first

nalism.

The modern Argentine press began in the 1860s. La Nacion Argentina was founded in 1862 but ceased publication in 1869. In 1870 one of its regular contributors, Argentine patriot and president Bartolome Mitre, founded a new daily. La Nacion, which eventually became one of the great South American newspapers. In 1869 Jose Clemente Paz founded La Prensa, which was to win similar fame. La Capital, begun in Rosario in 1867, completes the trilogy of great Argentine dailies still being published in the 1960s.

La Prensa, long considered one

of the world's great newspapers, of any Spanish-language

had the largest circulation (480.000) newspaper in the world in 1950. Still owned by the Paz family, it had become famous for its voluminous world-news reports, for remarkable classified advertising section, for its editorial independence and for its special public services. In 1951, however. La Prensa was seized by the government, and was not returned to -Vlberto Gainza Paz, the publisher, until the fall of the Peron regime in 1955. La Prensa' circulation in the 1960s was about its

s,

280,000.

La Nacion gave

much

also

had strong international news coverage and

attention to technical and transportation problems.

Its

was about 240.000 for the daily edition and about 300,000 for the Sunday edition. La Razon (1905) and Critica (1913) were also important Buenos Aires dailies. There were more than 150 daUies published in Argentina, including a considerable foreign language press in Buenos Aires. 12. Uruguay. The pubhcation of Uruguay's first paper was occasioned by the brief British occupation of Montevideo in 1807; Many it was an English-Spanish sheet called La Estrelia del Sur. papers, chiefly political, appeared during the troubled history of the country; probably the longest life was that enjoyed by El Telegrafo ( 1850-1931). Jose Batlle y Ordonez founded El Dia in 1886. The above-mentioned papers were published in Montevideo, where the greater proportion of daily papers in Uruguay were Leading morning papers were El Dia still situated in the 1960s. and El Pais (1919), and the chief evening papers were El Diario (1923) and El Plata (1915), the latter aflaliated with El Dia. There was much government control. 13. Paraguay. Journalism in Paraguay dates from the middle of the 19th century, though it was irregular until about 1898. There are fewer than ten dailies published in the country; the largest in the 1960s were La Tribuna (1925), £/ Pais (1923) and circulation in the 1960s

—

—

(1946), all published at Asuncion. 14. Chile. The earliest of Chile's papers was

Patria

—

Chile, issued in 1810 at Santiago.

La Aurora de El Mercuric was founded at

paper of the same name in Santiago; this chain eventually came to include two evening papers in the capital and one in Valparaiso. The Satitiago Mercurio had the largest circulation of the Chilean La dailies (about 125,000 for the daily edition in the 1960s). Nacion (1917) was government owned. (F. L. Mt.; X.) IX.

The Middle

ASIA

—

Afghanistan and Nepal: Syria. There were 20 Arabic daihes published in Damascus in the early 1960s. The leading papers were Al-Nasr, Al Ayamm, Sada Alam East,

—

—

—

leading paper in the English language. Iraq. The first daUy newspaper in the country was in English,

—

Baghdad Times, founded in 1914; in 1920 it became the Iraq Times. In the early 1960s there were 16 daiUes. The leading Arabic dailies were Al Zaman, Al Akhbar, Al-Belad, El Thawra, Al Ahd Al Jadid and El Mustaqbal. Iran. Though there were earlier newssheets concerned with the

—

first regular newspaper in Persia was Ruzndma, an official gazette established in Teheran in 1851. With some changes in title, this journal continued for many years, and the modern official daily Iran may be said to be descended from it. The first Persian daily was Khiddsatul-Hawddith (1898), a twopage paper, printed on one side from type and lithographed on the other. Though typography had been introduced into Persia as early as 1817, it was superseded by lithography during most of

court events, the

the last half of the 19th century.

Many

short-lived political papers were published during the

World War

II period, some of which continued after the In the re-establishment of the national sovereignty in 1947. early 1960s there were 38 dailies of which 23 were published in

chaotic

news and French, the Kayhan with an English ediOther papers in English and French tion Kayhan International. were respectively Teheran Journal and Le Journal de Teheran. Saudi Arabia. There were two dailies, Al Bilad pubhshed in Jidda and Vm Al Quarah in Mecca. In the early 1960s there were 15 dailies. The Afghanistan. papers with the largest circulation were Anis (30,000) and Islah (15,000). Kabul Times was the English language paper. Nepal. There were in the early 1960s five dailies in the Nepalese language Hal Khabar, Nepal Samachar, Samaj, Naya Samaj and Gorkha Patra. Another daily, Motherland, was published in Teheran.

The

leading papers were Ettela'at (1924) with

editions in English

— —

—

:

the English language. 2.

Southeast Asia: Burma.

—Only about

a dozen daily news-

Burma before World War II, but that by 1948. The oldest paper was Hanthawaddy

papers were published in

Valparaiso in 1825 and La Union, another important paper, was established in the same city in 1885. In 1902 Agustin Edwards, owner of Valparaiso's El Mercuric, founded another morning

1.

409

and Al Talia. Among the provincial papers, the more important were Al Watan and Barq al-Shemal published in Aleppo. Lebanon. In the early 1960s there were 27 dailies published in Beirut of which 3 were in French and 2 in English. The leading dailies in Arabic were Al Nahar and Al Jarida, in French L'Orient and in English Daily Star. Israel. The first Hebrew daily paper in Palestine was E. B. Yehuda's Haheruth (1909-15). With the establishment of Israel In the in 1948, Tel Aviv became an active newspaper centre. early 1960s, there were 24 dailies, 14 in Hebrew and the rest in Yiddish, Arabic. German, English, French, Polish, Hungarian, Bulgarian and Rumanian. The largest of these papers (circulation 73,000) was a tabloid called Ma'ariv (1948). Oldest of them was Ha'aretz (circulation 39,000), founded in Egypt in 1915, moved Two other the next year to Jerusalem and later to Tel Aviv. leading papers were Haboker (1934) and La-Merhav (1954). The others were party papers, most important of which was Davar The (circulation 40,000), a Socialist organ founded in 1925. Jerusalem Post was the only English-language paper. Arabic dailies, inJordan. were six In the early 1960s there cluding two at Amman and four in Jerusalem. The leading papers were Falastin, Al-Diffa and Al Jihad. Jerusalem Times was a

number had trebled The Burmese (1889).

press was stimulated by national independence and, as a result of general instability prevailing elsewhere at the time, became concentrated in Rangoon where, in the early 1960s, there were 21 daihes. The leading newspapers were Bama Khit (36,000), Hanthawaddy (18,000), Htoon Daily (12,There 000), Mandaing (10,000) and Rangoon Daily (24,600). were three dailies in English: the Guardian (5,500), the Nation (18,000) and the Burman (5,000). Other languages represented in the press were Chinese and the Indian languages Hindi and

Tamil. Thailand. 8 in the

— In the early

1960s there were li daiUes, includi ng The in English and 1 in Chinese. was the Thai paper Other leading papers were Pirn Phai, Siam Rath,

Thai language,

2

largest of these papers (circulation 35,000)

Sieng

Ang Tong.

NEWSPAPER

4IO Sam

Chaothai in Thai language, Bangkok Post and Bangkok World in English and Sin Sinn Vit Pao in Chinese. Cambodia. There were in the early l')60s live dailies, including one in the French language. The leading papers were Kampuchea, Meatopum, Seak Cheat Xiyiin and La Drpcche du Cam bodge. Laos. There were in the early 1960s two dailies, Pachaninhom and Siengmahason. There was also a daily pubhcation in French, Seri,

—

—

Bulletin Qiiotidien lao Presse.

Republic of \'ietnam.

—

In the early 1960s there were 28 dailies in French and 1 in English. 1 Vietnamese papers were Saigon Moi and TiengCliuong. The paper in French was Journal d'Extrime Orient and in English, the Times of Viet Nam. Democratic Republic of \'ietnam. The daily with the largest circulation was Nhen Dan, ofhcial organ of the ruling Lao Dang party. Two other leading papers were Thu Do and Thoi Moi. Indonesia. A newspaper called Batavaise Nouvelles was pubhshed in Batavia. Java, as early as 1744-46 as a small two-page weekly. Other government gazettes appeared as the colony passed from the French to the Dutch, and then to the English and back to the Dutch The Bataviasche Courant was begun in 1816, changed to Javasche Courant in 1S2S, and continued for more than a century. Continuous struggles with censorship marked the development of the press in the Netherlands Indies. During the first years of independence, the press developed quickly. In the early 1960s there were 103 dailies with a total of over 400.000 copies. Of these 2-2 appeared in Jakarta with a circulation of about 250,000. The leading papers were Suluh Indonesia, Merdeka, Berita Indonesia, Marian Rakjat of the Communist party and Diita Masjarakat, organ of the Islamic party, Nahadul Ulema. There were two daihes in Enghsh, Indonesian Observer and Indonesian Herald and one in Chinese, Tay Kong

— 16

in

The

leading

X'ietnamese, 10 in Chinese,

—

—

Siang Poo. 3. The Philippines.

—The pioneer of the Philippine press was

Del Superior gobierno, a sheet devoted

to European news, pubManila, 1811-12. The first daily was La Esperanza (1846-49). The government's official gazette was founded in 1848 as Diario de Manila. The leading paper for many years was El Comercio (1858-1925). After 1888 a greater liberaUty in the censorship and the development of political groups, chiefly nationalist in character, resulted in the establishment of a large number of papers, most of which were small and short lived. The first paper in the Tagalog language was Patnubay Nang Catolico (1890). The Manila Times, first U.S. daily in the islands, was founded in 1898 and became a leading paper in circulation and influence. La Independencia (1898) became the leading organ of the Emilio Aguinaldo insurrection and was moved from place to place until captured by the U.S. forces. In World War II all Manila newspaper plants were destroyed

lished in

by the Japanese.

Following the liberation and the establishment of the republic the Manila and provincial press was greatly expanded. In the earlier 1960s there were 12 daihes. Three were

Tagalog

most important being Taliba and Bagong Buhay), the most important being Manila Times, Philippines Herald and Evening News). El Debatte was in Spanish and Fukien Times in Chinese. The Manila Times had the largest in

(

the

seven in English

circulation.

China.

(

— The

newspaper

in China and, if all the claims it are accepted, the first newspaper in the world, was a court gazette which began during the T'ang dynasty (a.d. 618-906 and was used as a means of communication between 4.

that have been

first

made

for

)

It was continued in the Sung dynasty (960-1279), and early in that period it began appearing at regular intervals and achieved a considerable circulation among Chinese scholars. For title it took the term Ti-pao. from ti, "palace," and pao, "report," a word which had been applied to the earlier bulletins; it was

officials.

sometimes called Ti-chan, or "Court Reading-Matter." In the the title of this gazette was changed Tungchengsee. In the last reign of the Ming dynasty, that of Zung Cheng (1628-44), the bulletins, which had hitherto been either handwritten or printed from blocks, began to be

Ming dynasty (1368-1622)

to

from movable wood type. During the Ch'ing dynasty (1644-1912) the bulletins were continued under the name Kingpao ("Peking Gazette"). The series was allowed to perish with printed

the

Manchus

after 1912.

gazettes sprang up in the provinces under and gazettes by the various ministries began in 1906. But newspapers for the general public, as apart from gazettes for otTicialdom, did not begin in China until the 19th century, and then they were translations or imitations of the Englishlanguage press which had been established in that country by commercial and missionary agencies. James Matheson's Canto?i Register (1827-43) was the first English paper in China; when Hong Kong became British, it was transferred to that city and became the Hongkong Register (1843-59). Other papers were published in Canton and Hong Kong, and in 1845 the famous Chi?ia Mail was founded in the

Similar

Manchu

official

rule,

Andrew Shortrede as editor; it became a daily The North China Herald was founded in Shanghai in 1850; in 1864 it was made a daily under the new title. North China Daily News. The China Press was founded in Shanghai latter city, with in

1876.

in 1 91 5 by a group of Americans, and was edited for a time by John B. Powell.

In 1858 Wu Ting-fang suggested Chinese translations of the China Mail; the result was the first Chinese paper for the general public, Chung Ngoi San Pao. The most important paper founded for the Chinese before the crisis of 1895 was Shun Pao, established at Shanghai in 1872 by Frederic Major, an Englishman. At the time of the Chinese revolution in 191 1 it was sold to Sze Liang-zay, who made it prosperous and influential before his asSze also owned, after 1929, Sin Wan Pao sassination in 1934.

(1893). A period

notable

for

founding

the

of

many

revolutionary

movements began in 1895, China in the Chino-Japanese War. These papers had much to do with bringing about the revolution of journals representing various reform after the defeat of

191

1.

After that, the free speech guaranteed

in the provisional

constitution was an invitation to hundreds of young Chinese to

which were short hved. many The severe press laws of 1914 cut off most of the newspapers, but in the years 1918-20 the "literary revolution" and the "student movement" again gave rise to a multitude of journals. In 1921 it was reported that more than 1,000 publications were appearing in China, about half of them daily newspapers. Sun Yat-sen's regime in Canton was especially favourable to development of the press, and the nationalist revolution of 1927 start

journals,

of

marked the beginning

of another

newspapers

By 1948

in

China.

new era

in the publication of

there were, according to govern-

estimates, about 1,800 newspapers, more than half of them country. Aside from a few well-established and influential papers, most of the dailies were small in size and circulation. Many were party organs, often representing small groups. No little venality and unreliability existed among such papers. The press law of 1 9 14 continued throughout Pres. Chiang Kai-shek's administration to impose a stern censorship; by 1948 it was almost equally severe on English-language and Chinese papers. During World War II Japanese occupation of the coastal cities drove most of the great Chinese papers inland, but they were quick to recover in 1945-48. Shun Pao ("Shanghai Gazette") returned to Shanghai from Hong Kong and its sister paper, Sin Wan Pao (the "News Gazette"), achieved an all-time Chinese circulation record of 350,000, largely through its commercial news. National circulations grew as never before, through the estabhshment of multiple-city editions. Thus the KU'^mintang organ Chung Yang Jih Pao ("Central Daily News") was published in Nanking, Shanghai, Chungking and several other cities. It was estimated that there were 36 dailies published in the early 1960s under the aegis of the Chinese People's RepubUc: the more important among them appearing in Peking and Shanghai. The most important was the Jen Min Jih Pao (People's Daily) published in Peking. The Ta Kung Pao (Impartial Gazette), founded in Tientsin in 1902 but now published in Peking, was the

ment

dailies, in the entire

;

NEWSPAPER only paper which survived the nationalist regime. It speciahzed in Sin Wan Jih Pao and Chieh Fang Daily News foreign affairs. were published in Shanghai. The Hsin Hua or New China News agency, which was the section of the ministry of information, had a monopoly in the collection and distribution of news. 5. Japan. Newssheets called yomiuri appeared in Japan late in the 17th century. They were printed from blocks and were sold by vendors who attracted customers by reading the news aloud; hence the name, which means "selling by reading aloud," and which later became the title of one of the greatest of Japanese newspapers. The first newspaper was the English-language Shipping List and Advertiser (1861) of Nagasaki, which was soon

—

moved

Yokohama

become the Japan Herald. papers in English were begun in the 1860s. The in the Japanese language was a series of official to

Several other

to

first

periodical

translations of

was Batavia Dutch paper in Java. The first Japanese newspaper for general circulation was the Shimbiinshi (1864), established by Joseph Hikozo. This paper was followed by other Yokohama papers in Japanese, published by Englishmen foreign news, issued monthly, of which the earliest

Shimbun (1862), derived from

a

and Americans. But it was in 1868, the year of the Meiji restoration, that In that year 16 papers, in Japanese journalism really began. Tokyo, Osaka, Kyoto, Yokohama and other cities, were founded. This development continued despite strict censorship, many imprisonments of editors and occasional forcible suspensions. The Tokyo Nichi-Nichi was founded in 1872, with the famous Genichiro Fukuchi, dramatist and educator, as its editor. In 1906 Hikoichi Motoyama, manager of one of the great industrial syndicates which were growing up in Japan, bought the NichiNichi and made it an associate of the Osaka Maimchi, which he had owned for many years. The latter paper was founded as Osaka Nippo in 1876, but Motoyama rechristened it Mainichi when he bought it in 1888. These two papers set a great pace in enterprise, foreign correspondence and a degree of sensationalism. Each paper ran its circulation to more than 1,000,000 before World War II. Provincial papers were founded or purchased, including Kyushu Mainichi at Moji. In the war consolidations From of 1942-43 these were all lost except the Kyushu paper. the ordeal, however, the Tokyo and Osaka papers emerged with nearly 1,500,000 circulation each, and the one in Kyushu with

more than 500,000. The Osaka Asahi was founded

in 1879 by Ryuhei Murayama, one of the greatest journalists of the Meiji era. It flourished, winning respect for its careful news coverage and progressiveness, and in 1888 the Tokyo Asahi was begun. Establishing connections with the Times of London, the New York Times and the Associated Press, these papers built up circulations of more than 1,000,000 each, covering the island of Honshu; in 1935 the Asahi company established the Seibu (Kokura) Asahi on the southern island of Kyushu. In the postwar period the Tokyo and Osaka papers each had about 1,500,000 circulation, and the Kyushu paper more than 500,000.

Founded in 1874, the Yomiuri of Tokyo had made a success in by its emphasis on sports, finance and politics. In 1942 it was consolidated with Hochi, founded in 1872 by friends of Marquis Okuma and later owned by Seiji Noma, the "magazine In the war years it gained on its competitors, reaching king." the 1930s

nearly 2,000,000 circulation in 1944. By 1937 the Japanese press, despite a period of stern repression preceding the constitution of i88g, had reached a very prosperous position. Beginning about 1889, it had largely changed over from the system of party journals to that of more or less independent mass-circulation papers. In 1937 there were 1,200 dailies and 600 weeklies in Japan. In the next two years, as the government tightened its control, there was a small decline; in 1940-41 came reduction a of 36% annually; in 1942, at government "suggestion,"

wholesale combinations were made which left one daily in each district outside the largest cities. This brought the total down to 53. After the end of the war in 194S, the number rose rapidly,

and in early 1960s the Japan Publishers and Editors association {Nihon Shimbun Kyokai) reported a membership of 101 news-

411

papers with a total circulation of 37,000,000.

Many newspapers suffered damage to their plant during the war. Under the administration of the supreme commander for the Allied powers (SCAP), newspaper management was "purged," and a precensorship set up which operated until July 1948. Some papers have reduced the 9,000 ideographs known to the learned to fewer than 2,000 used in their columns, in order to bring their articles and editorials within the reading knowledge of the masses, using the syllable alphabet

A

known

distinctive feature of the Japanese press

as

kana as an

aid.

that the leading

is

newspapers are concentrated in Tokyo and Osaka. Approximately 45% of the circulation was accounted for by four national newspapers. Asahi Shimbun, Mainichi Shimbun, Yomiuri Shimbun, the "big three," and Sangyo Keizai, an economic daily, all centred in Tokyo. Counting the morning and evening editions separately, the "big three" alone had a combined circulation of around 12,000,000. They sold only about 5% of their copies on the street, while Tokyo Shimbun (representing a wartime consolidation of Miyako Shimbun, founded in 1884, and Kokumin Shimbun, founded in 1890) sold most of its nearly 500,000 circulation from pavement stands. Two other notable Tokyo papers were Nippon Keizai Shimbun (1876), the "Wall Street Journal of Japan," and Japan Times (1897), an English-language daily edited by Japanese. This paper, merged with Japan Advertiser (1890) as a wartime measure, was published for a time as Nippon Times. There were also English editions of Asahi, Mainichi and Yomiuri, Mainichi's English edition appearing in both Tokyo and Osaka. Other leading newspapers were Chubu Nippon Shimbun, Nagoya; Nishi Nippon Shimbun in Kyushu; and Hokkaido Shimbun in Sapporo, Hokkaido. Other dailies of interest were: Kahoku Shimpo, Sendai; Shinano Mainichi Shimbun, Nagano; Niigata Nippo, Niigata Kyoto Shimbun, Kyoto Kobe Shimbun, Kobe; Sanyo Shimbun, Okayama; Chugoko Shimbun, Hiroshima; Kumanoto Nichinichi Shimbun, Kumamoto; Ehime Shimbun, Matsuyama; and Kochi Shimbun, Kochi. The growing interest in sports was catered for by one daily devoted wholly to photo ;

;

;

journalism.

The

fact that four national

newspapers accounted for nearly

half of the total circulation has resulted in a unique pattern of

news gathering and editing services. The Asahi Shimbun and Mainichi Shimbun, for instance, had four main offices in the three principal cities of Japan, Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya, as well as in a city of northern Kyushu, and each of these main offices had its own editorial, business and mechanical facilities. This necessitated the employment of a large staff. The Mainichi Shimbun at the beginning of the 1960s employed more than 5,000 men, about a quarter of them on the editorial side. Employment on a newspaper was generally a lifetime position and newspaper labour unions were strong. The leading news agency in the early 1960s was Kyodo Tsushin Sha (Mutual Wire-Service company), the descendant of the old government-subsidized Domei, founded in 1936. The Jiji Press, also a by-product of the defunct Domei, specialized in economic and financial matters. 6. Other Countries: Republic of Korea.—Ol the 13 dailies at the beginning of the 1960s, the leading papers were Dong-A-Ilbo, and Seoul Shin Mun. Democratic People's Republic of Korea. There were seven principal dailies in the early 1960s

—

—

all

connected with pohtical

groupings and government. Formosa. In 1961 there were 29 daily papers appearing at T'ai-pei and other towns in Formosa, Hsing Sheng Pao being the most important. There were two daiUes published in English. (A. P. R.; Jo. K. B.)

—

X.

AFRICA

A UNESCO survey in

1961 established that there were 231 daily papers in Africa including British Commonwealth countries, with a total circulation of 3,000,000. This represented an average of 1.2 copies

world. tries:

per 1,000 inhabitants, the lowest of any region in the all papers were concentrated in 14 coun-

The majority of Algeria, Ethiopia,

Ghana, Kenya, Morocco, Nigeria, Rho-

NEWSPAPER

4-12

Leone, South Africa, Tanganyika, Tunisia, Uganda, United Arab Republic. In seven countries there were no daily papers other than sheets done by roneo. a process similar to mimeograph. In 15 countries, with a combined population of Sub-Sahara ter12,000.000, there were no daily papers at all. ritories accounted for only 125 dailies with a circulation of yOO.OOO desia, Senegal, Sierra

copies. all territories 839 nondaily papers (including and tri-weeklies) and 1,395 periodicals. SubSahara territories circulated 330 of the nondailies and 680 of the periodicals. In East, Central and South Africa the press was largely European- or Asian-owned; many of the papers in Frenchspeaking .\frica were owned by French companies. The trend in the 1960s was toward stale-owned newspapers in newly independent countries, though this did not exclude privately owned papers except in a few countries. .\ large proportion of papers and periodicals were organs of political parties and trade unions. Religious

There were

weeklies and

in

bi-

missions owned several important periodicals; the African Challenge (Lagos), published in several languages by the Sudan Interior mission, had a monthly circulation of 115,700 copies throughout the continent; an illustrated Catholic monthly,

Presence Chreticnne (Togo), and The Truth, a Muslim monthly published in English by the .\hmadiya Mission of Nigeria, were both widely distributed. Minority communities often provided

own

their

papers.

In the 1960s there was a growing tendency toward producing papers for regional or continent-wide distribution. Outstanding examples in the field of reviews and magazines were Jeiine Ajrique, a Tunisian weekly; Central African Examiner, a Rhodesian monthly; Ajrique Nouvelle, a Dakar weekly; the Scribe and the

Arab Review, two Cairo official publications. The most successful mass circulation papers were Drum (250,000 1, published in three regional editions; Zonk, published in Johannesburg; Parade, published in Central Africa; and Bingo, published in Dakar with three different editions for Frenchspeaking Africa.

Although the big circulation papers were mainly published in European languages, the vernacular press was, in the early 1960s, becoming increasingly important. Of the 163 languages used by papers and periodicals, 145 were African; in one country more than 25 African languages were used. The most frequent language was Swahili with 60 newspapers and periodicals in 7 countries Arabic was used in fewer papers but in 11 countries Hausa was used in 6 countries. 1. United Arab Republic. There were 21 dailies published in the early 1960s. Of these, 6 were in Arabic and had a circulation of 570.000, out of a total circulation of 652,000. There were also 27 nondailies, 13 in Arabic, and 31 periodicals, 20 in Arabic. The largest daily was Al Ahram (established 1875 with a circulation of 200,000 (300,000 on Fridays); Al Akhbar followed with 180,000, and .-1/ Gomhouria, "the paper of the revolution," was third with 150.000. The largest evening paper was Al-Messaa (12,000), the leading political weekly was Akhbar Elyom (250,000), the biggest illustrated weekly Al Mussawar (40,000); the next biggest Akher Saa (30,000) appeared in co-operation with Al Akhbar. The most popular weekly, Sabah El Kher (50,000), appeared in co-operation with Rose El Yousej (50,000). There was also a woman's weekly, Hawaa (80,000). The Arab Observer and ;

;

—

)

Scribe were both official magazines. Under the law of 1958 no newspaper could be privately owned; all papers were transferred to the national union and were conHalf the profits went to the workers, the trolleii by the staff. other half to future development. Censorship was abrogated unlaw 1958. Newspapers required a licence from the der the of national union.

—

Other North African Countries: Libya. The daily was government-owned and published in el Gharb Arabic, while the privately owned // Giornale di Tripoli was published in Italian. Of the eight nondailies, two were governmentowned and in Arabic, three privately owned and in Arabic and three 2.

Trablus

Enghsh and privately owned. Press laws were and suspension of papers occurred periodically. in

fairly stringent

—

Tunisia. In the early 1960s two dailies were published in Arabic and two in French. Their combined circulation of 80,000 represented 20.8 copies per 1 ,000 inhabitants. There were also two nondailies, one in Italian and one in I''rench, and five periodicals (four in Arabic, and one in French). The largest daily was the French La Presse de Tunisie (30,000). The government organ, Al-Amal, had a circulation of 20,000. Jeune Ajrique (80,000), a

French weekly, included all Africa in its scope. Algeria.- Nine dailies were published in the early 1960s in French and Arabic; with a total circulation of 300,000, their sales averaged 30 per 1,000 population. Two nondailies and 192 periodicals were also published. The Algerian press was greatly disrupted by the fight for independence from France. 1954-62, and its aftermath. Four dailies were published, Alger Republicain, Le Peuple, Alger ce soir and La Rcpublique and a weekly Revolution Ajricaine. All supported the governing party, the National Liberation front (F.L.N. ). Morocco. There were seven dailies in the early 1960s with a combined circulation of 112,500 representing 90 copies per 1,000 Le Petit inhabitants. Among them was Espana (Spanish 35,000 Marocain (French 30,000) and La Vigie Marocaine (French 30,000) were both published by the Mas group; La Nation Ajricaine (French 5,000) was published by the government; Al Alam (Arabic 5,000) was published by the Istiqlal party; At Tahrir (Arabic 5,000) was published by the National Union of Popular Forces. There were also 19 nondailies and 100 periodicals. 3. French-Speaking Countries. Freedom of the press, based largely on the French law of 1881, was guaranteed in the constitutions of all African territories that are members of the French Community, though stringent penalties are generally provided. However, the press in the early 1960s was carefully watched over by the governments; indirect pressure was strong, and direct action was not unusual. Except for papers and periodicals financed by a government or controlled by a political party, most were owned by companies in which Europeans held the major share. Cameroon Republic. There was one daily in French with a cir-

—

—

)

.

—

—

culation of 10.000, representing 3 copies per 1,000 inhabitants. There were also five nondailies and 1 7 periodicals.

Central Ajrican Republic.

—There was one daily

in

French with

a circulation of 1.000 representing 9 copies per 1,000 inhabitants.

There was also a nondaily. Chad. There were two daihes

—

culation

of

1,200

represented

5

in

French; their combined cirper 1,000 inhabitants.

copies

There was also a periodical. Republic oj Congo. There were three

—

dailies in French with a copy per 1,000 inhabit1 There were also a nondaily and three periodicals. Dahomey. There were two dailies in French; their joint cir-

joint circulation of 1,100, representing ants.

—

culation

of 3,000

represented

2

copies

per

1,000

inhabitants.

two nondailies and three periodicals. Guinea. The government published the only daily and the press was subject to direct government control. There were also a nondaily and three periodicals. Ivory Coast. There was one daily in French with a circulation

There were

—

also

—

of 9,400 representing 3 copies per 1,000 inhabitants. The government published a nondaily and there were also two periodicals.

Press control was exercised through a law of 1959; it was invoked against local journalists and was also used to keep foreign papers out of the country. Malagasy Republic. There were 17 dailies with a combined circulation of 20,000 representing 4 copies per 1,000 inhabitants.

—

There were also 28 nondailies and 16 periodicals.

—

The government published a mimeographed daily bulleThere were three dailies, the main one being L'Essor (4,500), A statute of 1954 provided for the government party weekly. Mali.

tin.

press legislation.

Mauritania.

—The government published a nondaily information

bulletin in Arabic.

Niger.

—There was one daily cyclostyled bulletin

The

in

French;

its

1,000 represented 4 copies per 1,000 inhabitants. press was controlled by a decree of 1959, which stipulated

circulation of

NEWSPAPER that every issue of a paper should be deposited with the authori-

hours before pubHcation. There was one French daily, Paris Dakar (daily since 193S). With a circulation of 20,000, it sold 8 copies per 1,000 inhabitants. There were 7 nondailies and 41 periodicals, including information pubHcations, government publications, party and trade union organs, etc. Somaliland {French). There were one nondaily with a circulation of 700 and one periodical. Togo. There were two dailies with a joint circulation of 1,650, one of them a government daily, Togo Press; the other was the Togo Observateur. There were also six nondailies and two periodicals including the Catholic monthly Mia Halo (1920). The press was controlled by a law of 1959 which included the stipulation that two copies signed by the editor must be deposited with the authorities two hours before pubUcation. Upper Volta. The government published a cyclostyled daily bulletin with a circulation of 600, representing 6 copies per 1,000 inhabitants. They also published a weekly bulletin. The press was controlled by a law of 1959, based on the French law of 1881 but providing for stiffer penalties. 4. Portuguese Territories. Angola. There were in the early 1960s four dailies with a combined circulation of 23,000 representing 5 copies per 1,000 inhabitants. There were also seven nondailies including Diario da Manha, the official organ of the Portuguese National union. Seventeen periodicals were published, and a strict form of censorship was maintained. Mozambique. There were four dailies with a combined circulation of 20,000 representing 3 copies per 1,000 inhabitants. Five nondailies and 25 periodicals were published. Guinea (Portuguese). One daily was published; its circulation of 1,100 represented 1.9 copies per 1,000 inhabitants. 5. South Africa. The South African press was in the early 1960s the largest and in many ways the most vigorous in the continent. Of the 19 dailies, 13, including those with the largest circulations, were in English and 6 in Afrikaans. Their combined circulation reached 897,000, representing 61 copies per 1,000 inhabitants. The combined sale of nondailies was 950,000; 25 periodicals were published. The largest newspaper group was the Argus S. African Newspapers Ltd., which controlled the Star (Johannesburg), Cape Argus (Cape Town), Daily News (Durban), Friend and Goldfields Friend (Bloemfontein) and Pretoria News. The other leading papers were the Rand Daily Mail (Johannesburg), Cape Times (Cape Town), Natal Mercury (Durban), Evening Post and E. P. Herald (Port Elizabeth). The leading Sunday papers were the Stinday Times and Sunday Express (both Johannesburg). A new paper, the Sunday Chronicle was launched in Johannesburg in 1964 by the Argus group. The Afrikaans newspapers, though relatively small in circulation, were pohtically important. The prime minister sat on the boards that controlled all the major Afrikaans newspapers in the Transvaal: Die Transvaler and Die Vaderland (both dailies) and Dagbreek (Sunday). Other important Afrikaans papers supporting the government were Die Burger (Cape Town), Die Volksblad (Bloemfontein) and Die Oosterlig (Port Elizabeth). Papers catering largely for Africans have assumed new importance particularly after the Repubhc was formed. The World, formerly a weekly, became the first African daily using both English and vernacular languages. The Golden City Post, a Sunday paper with a circulation approaching 100,000, was the companion paper to the illustrated monthly Drum. ties 12

Senegal.

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

Publication of the press commission report resulted, in 1962, in Newspaper Press union agreeing to voluntary control through

the

a board which has accepted

its

own code

of conduct.

In 1964 the

press commission proposed official control but action on this recdeferred. A dozen statutes affect the operation of the press; these include the Public Safety act, the Native Administration act, the Suppression of Communism act, the Official Secrets act, the Prisons act, the Riotous Assemblies act, the Publications and Entertainments act and the Criminal Law Amendment act ("the Sabotage bill"). A deposit of £10,000 was required by all new papers beginning publication.

ommendation was

6.

413

Other Countries:

Liberia.

—The daily Listener, Monrovia,

had a circulation of 2,000 while the twice- weekly The Liberian Age one of 3,000 and the Lorma weekly Wuzi, in the vernacular, one of 1,000. The first two of these papers were government subsidized. There were also three periodicals. In theory there was no press censorship. Sudani.

— In

and three

in

the early 1960s there were nine dailies in Arabic English with a combined circulation of 30,000 repre-

senting 3.6 copies per 1,000 inhabitants; 13 nondailies and odicals were published.

The

5 peri-

press was subject to indirect control

through the ministry of information. Ethiopia. In the early 1960s three dailies were published in Addis Ababa (two in English, one in French) and two in Asmara (one in Italian, the other trilingual: Arabic, Tigrinya, Amharic). Their combined circulation of 10,000 represented 5 copies per 1,000 population. There were 5 nondailies, including a French weekly in Addis Ababa, and 32 periodicals, among which the Ethiopia Observer was of special interest. Government press control was firmly maintained. Somalia. One daily was published in Arabic and Italian; its circulation of 2,000 represented 1.5 copies per 1,000 inhabitants. Five nondaihes and three periodicals were also published. Burundi and Rwanda. Before these two countries received their separate independence in 1962, 7 nondaihes were published with a combined circulation of 70,000, representing 15 copies per 1,000 inhabitants; 16 periodicals were also pubhshed. Republic of the Congo. In the early 1960s two dailies were pubhshed in Leopoldville and one in Elizabethville, all in French. Five nondailies and three periodicals, Actualites Ajricaines, Le Kongolais and Le Vrai Visage, were also published. The most important papers were the Courier d'Ajrique and Presence Congo-

—

—

—

—

Leopoldville and Echo du Katanga in Elizabethville. New papers included Ajrique Reelle and La Nation. The press was greatly disrupted by events following independence in 1960, and several papers were temporarily suspended by government action. For African countries in the Commonwealth see Commonwealth (Co. L.) of Nations: Africa, above. laise in

XI.

Newspaper

THE NEWSPAPER OFFICE

over the world differ, just as newspapers Spanish newspapers are more literary, French newspapers In the U.S. a big are more political than are U.S. newspapers. metropolitan daily newspaper office may be in a multistoried building; a small-town weekly newspaper may be in a one-story building with the combined editorial, advertising and business office in front and a print shop in the rear, and two men doing all the work. What follows here is a generahzed account of a newspaper office of a metropoUtan newspaper in the United States. A newspaper is produced and distributed by an organization dioffices all

differ:

vided, generally, into three major parts: editorial, business and

The large newspaper is directed by, in addition to these basic operational divisions, or sides, an administrative group, and is aided by a promotion department. Thus the entire organi-

mechanical.

may be said to have Editorial Division

zation 1.

Its

function

is

five divisions.

—

This

is

the heart of the newspaper.

the gathering and preparation of news, features

and comment; indeed, the editorial side includes everything that goes into the paper except advertising. Housing arrangements differ in the various offices, but the modern news room is big and inclusive. Prominent in it is the city desk, headquarters for local news coverage. There the city editor directs a corps of reporters and rewrite men; the latter prepare copy from news telephoned in, rewrite stories from earUer editions, etc. More or less under the direction of the city desk are a number of reporters and critics in special fields, such as the theatre, motion pictures, music, churches, schools, books, fashions, etc. These men are often called editors in their particular departments; on the largest papers theirs are full-time jobs, but on most papers they perform these special functions in combination or along with other assignments. Also under the supervision of the city desk is the picture editor, with the staff photographers to whom he gives assignments. Some papers have feature editors, whose duty is to

NEWSPAPER

414 select

from syndicated material or from pieces obtained from reporters attached to the city desk a supply of entertaining or inAbout-town columnists are structive stories icnown as features.

it

often connected with the feature desk. The sports editor may have a staff of several reporters, and perhaps special photographers and columnists are attached to that desk. The financial editor also has reporters for local news, as well as assistants to handle wire reports. The society editor and

a force of salesmen,

her

with social events, meetings of women's Most of the large papers also have woman's page produce, from the syndicates and other sources, mat-

staff of reporters deal

clubs, etc. editors,

who

ter of special interest to

women.

editors write special articles on

An increasing number of science new developments in the sciences.

In agricultural regions, many papers have full-time farm editors; and there are oil editors in districts where that industry is of great

importance.

An immense volume of material is received by each department from the public relations offices of organizations, government departments and business concerns. Only a small percentage of public relations releases find their way into print, but all are scanned for newsworthiness. The Sunday editor and his staff have charge of the planning and assembling of features for the Sunday edition. (In England all Sunday newspapers have separate staffs even though they may be owned by organizations possessing a daily, j Attached to his desk are the editors and staffs of any pictorial or feature supplements that originate in the newspaper ofiice. The editorial page staff is headed by a chief who is usually called editor of the editorial page (or section). The political cartoonist belongs to this staff, and the syndicated pubhc affairs columns pass through their hands. In the newsroom is located the copy desk, a great U-shaped table at which copy from reporters, feature writers and the teletypes is processed for the printers. This processing includes checking for facts, libelous statements, names, spelling, punctuation, paragraphing, tautology, etc., and the writing of headlines. The copy chief, or slot man, sits inside the "U," whence he can hand out incoming copy to the copyreaders "on the rim." Nearby is the desk of the telegraph editor, who handles the long strips of copy torn from the teletype machines, which receive the reports of the wire news agencies. Through the teletypes pours a stream of reports from abroad, from Washington, from the state capital and from news centres throughout the country. The telegraph editor has the responsibility of selecting from this mass of material the sections that his paper's readers will find most important and in-

obtained from agencies serving various regions or the whole country; and classified, which takes care of the small ads (wanted, for sale, etc.).

The

local (or retail) advertising

who

manager

directs

are assisted in providing attractive copy

a corps of copy writers and artists. The national (or general) advertising manager works with special advertising representatives

by

in the large cies.

The

manufacturing centres and with the advertising agenclassified advertising

manager

directs street salesmen,

correspondence salesmen and a group of telephone solicitors, as well as the office's own want-ad clerks. Attached to the advertising department in many newspaper offices is a research bureau,

whose director

is assisted by interviewers and a clerical force. is composed of several units. City by truck and carrier is central in its duties; also there is distribution by truck in outlying districts, towns and cities, and by mail. Sales and collections are important; carrier boys are often useful in these activities. The circulation manager of a large paper may have under him such supervisors or managers of various divisions, as a city circulation manager, country circulation manager, mail circulation manager and Sunday circulation manager. District and branch supervisors oversee delivery to street salesmen, newsstands, local carriers, motor route carriers and outside country dealers. There are also street and telephone solicitors and subscription agents, as well as collectors, etc. The

The

circulation department

distribution

mailing room superintendent directs a force of mailers. 3. Mechanical Division. This department has four chief units: (1) the composing room, where copy from the newsroom (or rooms), editorial room and advertising desks is set into type,

—

mainly by Linotype, and made up into page forms; (2) the engraving room, which takes photographs and drawings and makes engravings (cuts) for printing; (3) the stereotyping room, where plates for the presses are cast in molten metal from the page forms; and (4) the pressroom, where the papers are printed, folded, trimmed, counted and delivered to the mailing room for bundling for the trucks and wrapping and addressing for the post office. A mechanical superintendent usually oversees and co-ordinates A composing room foreman supervises this four-part operation. the force of Linotype operators (or compositors); the machinists who care for the Linotypes; the compositors who assemble the Linotype slugs, hand-set type, cuts, etc., that make up the ads; the proofreaders and correctors of both news galleys and ads; and the make-up men, who put the pages together in forms and who work under the direction of a make-up superintendent. The engraving room has its own foreman, with such assistants as are necessary to process the cuts for news stories, features, advertising and the

The superintendent of the stereotyping room has a force of stereotypers, who make mats from each form to be placed in the casting mold; the plates from this mold are curved so that they may be locked on the cylinders of the presses. The pressroom foreman directs a group of pressmen, who not only fix the plates on the cylinders but also by accurate mechanical means editorial page.

teresting.

must be understood, however, that copy desk functions, like the organization of the newspaper office throughout, differ considerably from paper to paper. For example, the copy chief someIt

times doubles as telegraph editor, even on large papers. Sports, society and so on may move their copy across a so-called universal copy desk; on the other hand, those departments (and even state news, city and telegraph in a few cases) may have separate copy desks.

take care of the necessary feeding of paper and ink to produce a well-printed paper. 4. Administrative Division. An organization as compli-

—

Conveniently situated for the use of newsmen, copyreaders and editorial writers are the paper's reference library and morgue. In the latter are filed thousands of clippings, as well as the paper's own back numbers; innumerable photographs, engravings and mats, from which pictures may be reproduced and other materials that may be drawn upon for the day's stories, whether the reported events are scheduled or unexpected. 2. Business Division: Advertising and Circulation. The revenue division of the newspaper has two parts the advertising department and the circulation department. The financial outgo is also considered as belonging to the business side, but in the organizational chart it comes under the administrative division,

cated as that which produces a daily newspaper must be efficiently co-ordinated. This requirement is met by an administrative group that varies greatly in its composition and in the terminology of its personnel from one newspaper office to another. In general, however, it includes the president, publisher, executive editor, managing editor, circulation manager, advertising manager, mechanical

considered below.

large degree of

;

—

:

The is

advertising department headed

by the advertising manager,

divided into three subdepartments according to the types of ad-

local display, which sells space to local merchants and helps them prepare their copy; national display, which handles advertising from outside the local trading area, much of

vertising produced

:

superintendent and business manager. At the head of these is the president of the publishing or the board of directors. lisher, or there

may

He sometimes

company

carries the title of pub-

be both a president and a publisher.

positions represent the ownership, and the

These

men occupying them

Ordinarily there is a autonomy allowed the editors and managers on the lower levels. The term editor in chief is no longer in common use. Editor is a title often given to the chief of the entire editorial division, though a few papers retain the older custom of calling the editor of the editorial page editor of the paper; indeed, some papers combine the two functions. In a number of instances the generally direct the policy of the paper.

;

NEWSPAPER publisher also carries the

title

Publisher

of editor.

the active executive head, however, and the

man

the

is

filling

title

that posi-

tion keeps in constant touch with all the administrative

named above. Under the editor

of

heads

is

are the executive editor, the

managing editor

Usually a paper does not have all three of When it has an executive editor, he is chiefly these positions. occupied with the management of the personnel of the editorial division, and then the managing editor has general oversight of the If there is no executive editor, the flow of news and features. managing editor usually works mainly with personnel and a news editor with planning the news and feature program of the day. A news editor commonly has a desk adjacent to the copy desk, so he can keep tab on the copy that is coming in. He is in constant consultation with the city and telegraph editors as well and, with the make-up editor, he is continually planning and replanning the pages of the next edition as events develop. The business manager is in charge of all financial outgo. He and his staff attend to payroll and to purchases of paper, ink, metal and other supplies. With the custodian, he takes care of maintenance of the building; with the mechanical superintendent, he keeps up the equipment of machinery. The accounting department may be headed by the treasurer of the publishing company or by the cashier or controller. Here are the auditor and a staff of bookkeepers and clerks. The business manager himself is sometimes called assistant publisher, and he keeps in close contact with all departments and operations of the newspaper office.

and the news

editor.

;

—The

5. Promotion Division. and advertising of the paper

circulation department, but

gives support to the paper's

promotion works closely with the

division devoted to

to the public it

also serves other departments.

community

It

service projects, striving

good will and understanding. It is headed by a promotion manager, who may be assisted by copy writers, script writers and photographers or, at any rate, by workers who can help in the preparation of newspaper and direct-mail advertising, radio and to create

television shows, exhibits, etc.

The Story

of a Story.

—

It

paper throughout its course from assignment to lockup in its page form. Reporter Jones receives from his city editor in the morning an assignment to cover a bar association meeting at which, it has been rumoured, Judge X may announce his candidacy for the governorship. Jones is back by 1 1 o'clock. "He's going to run," he tells the city editor, who then instructs him as to how long his story may be. As Jones pounds it out on his typewriter, it is brought by a copy boy to the desk of the city editor, who looks it over and perhaps calls Jones over to consult about some points in it. Then he places it in a box, from which a copy boy soon carries it to the news editor, who glances over it and hands it to the copy chief, with a few words about the position and display he plans to give it

assisted

by

his

make-up

editor,

who

is

working with

sheets for pages on which space allotted to various ads

They have an

is

dummy crossed

from which to lay out the home edition. In conferences around the news and make-up desks, city, state, telegraph and picture editors have pointed out the stories that could be discarded from the earlier edition and those that are in process for later editions, thus keeping the news editor informed on a constantly changing news off.

earlier mail edition as a starting point

picture.

Today a European political crisis, an airplane disaster and the proceedings of a congressional committee are the big stories; but the news editor points out a position on page one below the fold for Judge X's announcement, and the picture editor has dug up a single-column cut of the judge from the morgue to go with it. At one o'clock the completed dummies of the main news pages are taken down to the composing room by the make-up editor. There the make-up men are bending over rows of steel-topped tables on which lie the page forms to which they now transfer from the galleys the slugs carrying the various stories. The news editor himself comes down to oversee the last phases of the make-up of page-one form, shortening a story here and there to make it fit, with the assistance of a Linotype operator. At last everything is exactly in place, and the sound of the planer and mallet on the form marks the end of the editorial work on page one, with Jones's story of Judge X's announcement. The form is ready to be wheeled to the stereotyping room, and in a matter of minutes it (F. L. Mt.) will be on the presses. Bibliography. General: UNESCO, World Communications (19S6) Editor and Publisher, International Year Book Number (1927 et seq.) Europa Year Book, 2 vol. (1960 £f.) Hans Miinster, Die moderne Presse, 2 vol. (1956); K. Bomer, Handbuch der Wellpresse (1937). United States: Isaiah Thomas, History of Printing in America, 2 vol. (1810) Frederic Hudson, History of Journalism in the United States (1873) W. G. Bleyer, Main Currents in the History of American Journalism (1927); A. M. Lee, The Daily Newspaper in America (1937); F. L. Mott, American Journalism (1941 3rd ed., 1962) C. S. Brigham, History and Bibliography of American Newspapers, 1690-1820 (1947) Herbert Brucker, Freedom of Information (1949) Editor and Publisher files (1901 et seq.); New York Journalist files (1884-1907); Rowell's American Newspaper Directory (1869-1908) N. W. Ayer and Son's American Newspaper Annual (later Directory of Newspapers and Periodicals) (1880 et seq.); Journalism Quarterly (1930 et seq.); A.S.N.E., Problems of Journalism (1924 el seq.) M. M. Willey and R. D. Casey (eds.), "The Press in the Contemporary Scene," vol. 219 of Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science

—

;

;

;

may

help to clarify the activities of the newspaper office to trace a news story for an afternoon 6.

415

already been in place on the make-up tables downstairs for hours; and the sports, society, editorial and stock-market pages are being made up separately by their own departments. The news editor

in the next edition.

;

;

;

;

;

(1942).

United Kingdom: The Newspaper Press Directory and Advertisers' Guide (1851-1957); Willing's Press Guide (1874 £f.) Report of the Royal Commission on the Press (1949) Viscount Camrose, British Newspapers and Their Controllers, rev. ed. (1948) R, D. Bluraenfeld, The Press in My Time (1933) Stanley Morison, The English Newspaper (1922) J. Saxon Mills, The Press and Communications of the Empire (1924) J. B. Williams, History of English Journalism to the Foundation of the Gazette (1908) H. R. Fox Bourne, English News;

;

;

;

;

;

;

The copy

marks Jones's story with an identifying name, "Judge X," and a number indicating the kind of headlines it is to carry, in conformity with the "play" suggested by the news editor, and turns it over to one of his copyreaders for checking and head writing. After the copy has been edited and the head written and attached, it is sent by pneumatic tube down to the composing room. There the copy cutter, because the deadline for the first home edition is approaching, divides the copy into two "takes" for two of the Linotype operators. Soon the slugs, each carrying in relief letters from which a line is to be printed, and now still warm from the machines, are delivered to the galley bank, together with the original copy. The bank man pulls a proof, which he sends, with copy, by tube to the proofroom. After the proofreaders return the marked proof to the composing room, lines in which errors have occurred are reset, and the new slugs chief then

are substituted for those that carried the errors, in a process called correcting the galleys.

Meanwhile, in the newsroom upstairs, the first home edition is taking form under the supervision of the news editor, who must decide on space, position and display of news. The ads have

papers (1877); M. A. Shaaber, Some Forerunners of the Newspaper in England, 1476-1622 (1929); James Grant, The Newspaper Press, 3 vol. (1871-73); F. K. Hunt, The Fourth Estate (1850); Mason Jackson, The Pictorial Press (1885); A. J. Cummings, The Press and a Changing Civilisation (1936); H. W. Steed, The Press (1938); F. A. P. Robbins, Newspapers J. Mansfield, Gentlemen, The Press! (1943) To-day (1956); Francis Williams, Dangerous Estate (1957); Report of the Royal Commission on the Press (1962); T. E. N. Driberg, Beaverbrook (1956) R. Pound and G. Harmsworth, Northcliffe ;

;

(1959).

Germany: Ludwig Salomon, Geschichte

deutschen

des

Zeitung-

(1900-06); Friedrich Bertkau and Karl Bomer, Der Aufbau des deutschen Zeitungsgewerbes (1932) Derrick Sington and Arthur Weidenfeld, The Goebbels Experiment (1942) Herman UUstein, The Rise and Fall of the House of Ullstein (1943); W. Hagemann, Publizistik im Dritten Reich (1949) Der Leitfaden, swesen, 3 vol. wirtschaftliche

;

;

;

yearbook. France: Eugene Hatin, Histoire politique et littiraire de la presse en France, 8 vol. (1861) Rene Mazadier, Histoire de la presse parisienne (1945) Fernand Mitton, La Presse frangaise, 2 vol. (1946) Raymond Manevy, La presse de la III' Ripublique (1955) Jean Mottin, HisPaul Louis Bret, toire politique de la presse apres la Liberation (1949) Information et Dimocratie (1953); Robert Salmon, L' Organisation actuelle de la presse franfaise (1955). ;

;

;

;

;

NEWT— NEWTON

4i6

other Western European Countries: F. Fattorello, Le Origini del giornalismo in Italia (1929); A. Assantc, // giornale, la liherta di Stampa el il giornalismo in Italia e nclla legistazione mondiale (1949) E. Gonzales-Blanco, Hisloria del Periodismo (1919); A. Bessa, Jornalismo (1904); "Rogards sur la prcssc beige," special issue of La Revue .\ouvelle (July-Aug. 1951) M. Schnider, The Netherlands Press Today (1951); S. fhorsen. Newspapers in Denmark (1953); A. Y. Pers, Newspapers in Sweden (1963); K. Weber, The Swiss Press: on Outline (1948). Eastern European Countries: A. Inkeles, Public Opinion in Soviet Russia (1950) G. A. von Arnim, Jugoslawische Presse der Gegenwart (1956) International Press Institute, The Press in Authoritarian Coun;

;

rubbing and the release of scents presumably stimulate the female to pick up the spermatophore that the male deposits at the mating climax. The spermatophore consists of a large basal gelatinous part and a detachable sperm capsule top that the female removes with her cloacal lips. The sperms free themselves and lodge in glandular folds of the female's cloaca, where the eggs are fertilized a few days later as they are laid. The female of most newts lays 200 or more eggs, attaching them singly to vegetation, sticks or stones in the water;

Taricha lays

;

;

tries

(1959).

Commonwealth

John R. Bone et al., A History of M. E. Nichols, The Story of the CanaCarlton McNaught, Canada Gets the News (1940) Frank S. Greenop, History of Magazine Publishing in Australia (1947); J. F. Fairfax, The Story of John Fairfax (1941); R. E Wolseley (ed.). Journalism in Modern India (1953) Margarita Barns The Indian Press (1940); Report of the Registrar of Newspapers, The Newspaper Press Directory, especially vol India, for 1961 (1962) of Nations:

Canadian Journalism (190S)

dian Press (1948)

;

5-30 eggs, mostly in clumps. The eggs hatch in three to five weeks, and the larvae usually transform at summer's end. Although neoteny (prolongation of the aquatic larval stage) is known, most young newts lead a completely terrestrial life. In

;

;

the eastern U.S. they are called efts or red efts at this stage.

When two

to four years old, newts

mature and begin

their annual

During the autumn, partial or permanent return to the ponds. courtship may occasionally take place.

;

for 1948.

Central and South America: Teodoro Torres, Periodismo (1937) J. M. Miguel y Verges, La Independencia mexicana y la prensa in surgente (1941) F. M. Niiiiez, La evolucion del periodismo en Costa Rica (1921); G. 0. Munoz, Historia del periodismo en Colombia (1925) C. A. Rolando, Cronologia del periodismo ecuatoriano (1920) G. R. Moreno, Ensayo de una bibliografia general de los periodicos de Bolivia 1825-1905 (1905) Ignacio Orzali, La prensa argenlina (1893) J. R. Fernandez, Historia del periodismo argentino (1943); Galv&n Moreno, El Periodismo argentino (1944) Adrian Palomino, La prensa en Chile (1910); United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Report of the Commission on Technical Needs in Press, Film, Radio (1948, 1949), The Daily Press a Survey (1953). Asia: Lin Yutang, A History of the Press and Public Opinion in China (1936); Ma Yin-liang, A Brief History of the Chinese Press (1937); Kanesada Hanazono, The Development of Japanese Journalism (1934); Nihon Shimbun Kyokai, The Japanese Press Past and Present (1949) The Japanese Press (1951-56) Japan Newspaper Publishers and Editors Association, Japanese Press 1961 (1961) Carson Taylor, History of the Philippine Press (1927); G. H. von Faber A Short History of Journalism in the Dutch East Indies (1930) M. Lubis, The Press in Indonesia, Far Eastern Survey, vol. 4 (1952) Tom J. McFadden, Daily Journalism in the Arab Stales (1954) Abdus Salam Khurshid, The Press in the Moslim World (1954) Philippe de Tarrazi, Tarich El-Sohofat El-Arabiat, 2 vol. (1931); E. G. Browne, The Press and Poetry of Modern Persia (1914),. Africa: UNESCO, Meeting of Experts on Development of Information Media in Africa, DEVAT, no. 14 (1962) UNESCO, Basic Facts and Figures: Illiteracy (1961); G. Huth, Communications Media in Tropical Africa, International Co-operation Administration (1950) H. Kitchen (ed.), The Press in Africa (1956) H. Lindsay Smith, Behind the Press in South Africa (1946) E. G. Cutten, A History of the Press in South Africa (1935); E. Rosenthal, Today's News Today: the Story of the Argus Company (1957). ;

;

;

;

;

;

—

;

Newts eat earthworms, insects, snails and other small animals. In the water they also ingest amphibian eggs, including their own. are favourite aquarium animals and are also much used in See also Amphibia; Salamander; and experimental studies. references under "Newt" in the Index. (G. B. R.) see Bible. a term used to characterize an important religio-metaphysical healing movement which received its first impulse from Phineas Parkhurst Quimby {g.v.), the first person, certainly in America, to have arrived at the conclusion that all illness

They

NEW TESTAMENT: NEW THOUGHT,

basically a matter of the mind, of mistaken belief. His healings were therefore accomplished by correcting the patient's wrong belief. Many came to him for healing, among them, in the early 1860s, four persons who themselves became famous healers. One of these was Mary Baker Eddy (g.v.), who later founded

is

;

Christian Science.

Just

how much

of her teaching she derived

;

;

;

;

from Quimby

is

a

moot question; according

;

NEWT,

any of the salamanders of the family Salamandridae tail and back fin of the male enlarges during an annual breeding season. All newts were formerly considered as constitTiting the genus Triturus but are now grouped in several genera or subgenera: Trititrus in Europe and western Asia; Notophthalmus (Diemictylus) in eastern, and Taricha in western, North America; and Cynops in temperate eastern Asia, including Japan. In spring newts congregate in ponds or streams to breed. The male's dorsal crest heightens and becomes more colourful and his cloacal glands swell. Courtship varies from display of nuptial colour and crest to a prolonged clasping of the female. Nosing, in

which the

This has since taken

as over against Christian Science.

;

;

to Christian Science

and Health was divinely revealed personally to her. Warren Felt Evans (1817-89) became the first articulate exponent of the Quimby point of view, contributed to its further development, and spread it through his several widely read and influential books; but he left no organization. It was Julius A. Dresser and Annette Seabury, later his wife, who first gave organized form to what may be called New Thought

belief her Science

forms,

all

loosely recognized as

New Thought

many

in general belief

and practice but differing widely one from another at points. Among these have been Divine Science, Unity School of Christianity, Home of Truth, Church of the Truth, Religious Science and others, most of which have been at one time or are now united in

a rather loose

Thought

federation

known

as

the International

New

Alliance.

some respects, they agree in general primacy of mind in the universe; the imma-

Differing rather widely in in emphasizing the

nence of God, usually thought of as being nonpersonal, though with definite personal qualities; a clear distinction between the historic Jesus and the Christ; the supremacy of good, if not always the unreality of evil; the essential goodness of human nature, man being thought of as divine; the possibility of healing through mental or spiritual means; and usually also the availability of abundance or prosperity to all men. See Charles

ment of

New

Braden, Spirits in Rebellion: the Rise and DevelopThought, with extensive bibliography (1963).

S.

(C. S. B.)

NEWTON, ALFRED

RED-SPOTTED NEWT (NOTOPHTHALMUS

V.

VIRIDESCENS)

(1829-1907), English zoologist, a speciahst in the study of birds and one of the founders of the British Ornithologists' Union, was born at Geneva, Switz., on June 11, 1829. In 18S4 he was elected to the Drury traveling fellowship of Magdalene college, Cambridge, and from then until 1863 he visited Lapland, Iceland, the West Indies, North America and Spitsbergen, studying chiefly ornithology. In 1866 he became the first professor of zoology and comparative anatomy at Cambridge, a position he retained till his death on June 7, 1907. His services to ornithology and zoogeography were recognized by the Royal society in 1900, when it awarded him a royal medal, having

NEWTON elected

him

He was also given 1900. He was editor of

a fellow in 1870.

of the Linnaean society in

the gold medal the ornithologi-

(1865-70) and The Zoological Record f 1870His books include Zoology of Ancie^it Europe (1862), 72). Ootheca Wolleyam (1864-1902 and a Dictionary of Birds 189396). an amplification of the numerous articles on birds that he contributed to the ninth edition of the Encyclopccdia Britannica. (1816-1894), SIR cal journal

The

Ibis

(

)

CHARLES THOMAS

NEWTON,

British archaeologist, recognized for his discoveries in Asia

Minor

and as exponent of the systematic study of classical antiquities, was born at Bredwardine, Herefordshire, on Sept. 16. 1816, and educated at Shrewsbury school and Christ Church, Oxford. He entered the British museum as an assistant in the department of

He left it in 18S2 to become vice-consul at Mytilene (on the island of Lesbos) with the object of conducting archaeological an reconnaissance of the islands and coasts of Asia Minor. Encouraged by financial assistance from Lord Stratford de Redchffe, at that time British ambassador in Constantinople, Newton made notable discoveries of inscriptions on the island of Calymnos, off the coast of ancient Caria iq.v.). In 1856-57 he identified the remains of the mausoleum of Halicarnassus, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. At Branchidae he discovered the statues that in ancient times had hned a sacred way, and at Cnidus. R. P. PuUan. working under Newton's direction, found a colossal lion now in the British museum. Together they published A History of the Discoveries at Halicarnassus, Cnidus and Branchidae, two volumes (1862-63). Newton was the first (1862) to hold the position of keeper of Greek and Roman antiquities in the British museum. He secured considerable new material for the department. First Yates professor of classical archaeology in University college, London, from 1880 to 1888, he did much to promote Hellenic studies in Britain. Created knight commander of the Bath in 1887, Newton died at Margate, Kent, on Nov. 28, 1894. See also Cnidus. (J. M. Wi.) SIR ISAAC (1642-1727), English physical scientist and mathematician, one of the greatest figures in the entire history of science, was born at Woolsthorpe, near Grantham in Lincolnshire, on Dec, 25, 1642. His father had died the previous October. In 1645 Newton's mother remarried, moved to her new husband's home and left her son in the care of her mother. Newton was an indifferent scholar until a successful fight with another boy seems to have stimulated him and he became the best student antiquities in 1840.

NEWTON,

of the school.

When Newton was

14 years old (1656), his mother became time, returned to Woolsthorpe and brought the boy home from school to run the farm. He proved to be an absentminded farmer, occupying himself with mathematics

widowed

for

the

second

instead of attending to his work.

His uncle, William Ayscough,

was a member of Trinity college. Cambridge, and in 1660 by his advice Newton was sent back to school to prepare for Cambridge. On June 5. 1661, he matriculated as a subsizar at Trinity college. Three years later he was elected as scholar and in Jan. 1665 took the B.A. degree. In 1667 he was rector of Burton Goggles,

In the autumn of 1665 the spread Until its reopening in the spring of 1667 Newton remained at Woolsthorpe. During those 18 months he laid the foundations for his famous discoveries in mathematics and physical science. Early Basic Discoveries. During the first of these months at elected a fellow of the college.

of the Great Plague caused the closing of the university.

—

Woolsthorpe, Newton developed what is now called the binomial theorem (see Binoml\l Theorem), and soon thereafter the method of fluxions, an early form of the differential calculus, the most important single mathematical innovation made since the time of the ancient Greeks. In May of 1666 he related, "I had entrance into the inverse method of fluxions," or the principle of the integral calculus, the method of calculating areas under curves and the volumes of solid figures. These advancements alone would have entitled him to one of the highest places in the history of the sciences. But they were accompanied by tW'O others, each of unusual significance. One was an analysis by experiment of the composition of white light and

417

the nature of colours. The other was the discovery of the gravitational force holding the moon in its orbit, though nothing of this was published for almost 20 years (see Work on Gravitation and

Astronomy, below). Newton later said that during those two years, 'T was in the prime of my age for invention, and minded Mathematics and Philosophy [i.e., science] more than at any time since."

Newton returned to Cambridge and to Trinity college in 1667, but did not publish his discoveries. Yet his teacher. Isaac Barrow a man who distinguished himself in the fields of optics, mathematics and theology recognized the superiority of his gifted pupil and resigned his chair, the Lucasian professorship of mathematics, so that Newton, at the age of 26, might succeed him. In a book on optics published in that year, Barrow recorded his indebtedness to Newton, calling him a "man of quite exceptional

—

—

ability."

—

Work on

the Telescope and Optics. At this time the subwas Newton's chief scientific interest. He worked the problem of grinding lenses with nonspherical surfaces and

ject of optics at

continued to experiment with prisms.

was a new type of its

One

result of his research

telescope, called the reflecting telescope because

principal light-gathering

component was a mirror rather than

the lens system of the refracting telescope. tion came to the Royal society of London.

News of this invenNewton constructed

and sent it to the society, to which he was elected a fellow. A week later, he suggested that he would like to present an account of the scientific discovery that had led him to design the new instrument, a discovery, in his words, "being in my judgment the oddest, if not the most considerable detection, which has hitherto been made in the operations of nature." The main points of Newton's discovery were these. He found that if a narrow beam of white light, e.g., sunKght, is allowed to pass through a slit into a prism, it will be dispersed into light of many colours covering the visual spectrum. He separated any narrow sector from that spectrum, as by placing a board with a slit in the path of the light leaving the prism, and allowed the monochromatic light to pass through a second prism. The result was that that beam bent but its hue was unchanged. Hence, those W'ere wrong who had argued that the production of a spectrum by a prism arose from a "staining" action of the prism. Rather, as Newton's experiments showed, all Hght is bent or refracted as it goes from one medium to another save in a direction perpendicular to the interface between two such media). Newton showed that white light is a mixture of light of all colours and that the prism separated the mixture into its component parts because the light of each colour is refracted by the prism at a different angle. But if light of a single colour were to be separated out in the spectrum, its colour would not change as it passed through another prism since it would not be a mixture but would be to use Newton's own phrase) "homogeneal." Knowing that white light is a mixture of hght of all colours, and the prism separates light into these component colours, Newton could then explain many colour phenomena. For instance, a piece of white paper when illuminated with light of a single colour (say, red, green or yellow) will no longer appear to be white (but rather red, green or yellow). The colours of objects thus are related to the light by which they are seen, because "natural bodies are variously qualified to reflect one sort of light in greater plenty than another." On this research are founded the science of colour and the technique of spectrum analysis. In one set of experiments Newton studied the phenomenon known now as chromatic aberration. Since the prism experiments had shown that each colour has its own index of refraction, Newton concluded that the image of a body illuminated by white light (as sunlight) will not be sharp, there being a different focus for each colour. Thus an ordinary biconvex lens forms an image with an edge coloured like a miniature rainbow. Newton concluded erroneously from experiments that no one could ever make a lens system free of these colour fringes free of chromatic aberration. He claimed to have shown by experiment that there is such a relation between the bending of light and dispersion into colours that no system of lenses could ever give an image without these effects. a telescope

(

(

.

.

.

—

NEWTON

4i8

In this he was mistaken; prisms and lenses can be made of different kinds of glass in pairs so that there is no dispersion although there a net deviation or bending of light rays from their original paths.

Hooke was a

again a critic; in his Micrographia he had adopted

kind of wave theory of

light,

according to which light consists medium pervading

is

of a series of pulses transmitted through a

(See Telescope.) In order to prevent chromatic aberration from spoiling the quality of the telescopic image, Newton devised a telescope in which the principle element was a concave or magnifying mirror. Vet, as Christiaan Huygens pointed out, the full potentialities of Newton's reflecting telescope could not be realized until there was

space, the universal ether,

method

a

(The most powerful

of grinding parabolic mirrors.

tele-

Mount Wilson and Palomar observatories are reflecting telescopes.) The telescope Newton made for the Royal society,

scopes at

one of their most prized possessions, is nine inches long and has a two-inch mirror. When Newton sent his paper on light and colours to the Royal society, a committee was appointed to study the question further. One committee member, Robert Hooke, the originator of a theory of light and colour of considerable merit, had written a book, the Micrographia (1665), deahng in part with the same type of phenomena Newton had studied. Hooke admitted the accuracy of Newton's experiments, but doubted Newton's conclusions. Huygens also held to his own theory of colour, and as E. N. da Costa Andrade has explained, "he failed to understand that Newton was not arguing about the nature of colour, about matters of doctrine, but describing experiments to show how white light and coloured light behaved, to show what were the measurable properties.'' Other critics arose; some misunderstood the experiments, but for the most part they disagreed on Newton's theory. Three of Newton's comments explain his position clearly: "... the Theory, which I propounded, was evinced by me, not inferring 'tis thus because not otherwise, that is, not by deducing it only from a confutation of contrary suppositions, but by deriving it from Experiments concluding positively and directly." "For the best and safest method of philosophising seems to be, first to en.

.

.

and had endeavoured to explain rectiUnear propagation, reflection and refraction as well as dispersion and the colours of thin plates. Newton, in his explanation of optical phenomena indicated that corpuscles of light might be guided by waves in an ethereal medium; yet he thought little of Hooke's attempts at explanation. From the work of Thomas Young in 1804 and the brilliant work of the French genius Augustin Fresnel a few years later came description in terms of wave theory covering the phenomena of light as then observed. Young drew on Newton's concepts of waves as well as on the views of Christiaan

Huygens.

Newton rejected a simple wave theory of light because it could As not account for rectilinear propagation or for polarization. Newton demonstrated,

— carry

all

wave phenomena

—

for instance,

sound

the disturbance into the region of shadow, or around ob-

never occurred to him that the waves of light might be exceedingly smaU. Yet in studying the colours of thin plates, Newton provided much of the necessary information for the later stacles.

wave

It

theorists.

measurements

Thomas Young showed

Newton's careful

that

led to an accurate determination of the wavelength

In his early papers, and later on in his Opticks (first edition 1704) Newton advanced an explanation of optical phenomena that was neither a pure corpuscular theory nor a pure wave theory. According to Newton it seemed probable that light consists of a series of corpuscles emanating from luminous bodies. These corpuscles give rise to waves as they travel through the ether and many optical phenomena (such as the colours of thin plates) arise from the properties of both waves and corpuscles. This explanation fell from favour during the 19th century, when the wave theory of light was fashionably accepted. But since A. Einstein wrote of photons of 1905, many of the several colours.

quire diligently into the properties of things, and of establishing

writers have called attention to a similarity between Newton's

more slowly

views and those of the 20th century, in which there is a fusion of elements of both wave and corpuscular theories of light.

these properties by experiment, and then to proceed

hypotheses for the explanation of them." As to "certain properties of hght, which, now discovered, I think easy to be proved, which if I had not considered them as true, I would rather have them rejected as vain and empty speculation, than acknowledged even as an hypothesis." Discussions about Newton's paper were still going on in 1675. In December of that year he wrote, "I was so persecuted with discussions arising out of my theory of light that I blamed my own imprudence for parting with so substantial a blessing as my quiet to run after a shadow." One effect of the controversy was that Newton was led to investigate other effects of colour, to inquire how Ught was produced and to develop the emission or corpuscular theory of light, according to which light is the product of emission by a luminous body of a host of tiny particles traveling in empty space with a speed of about 186,000 mi. per second; the laws of reflection and refraction were developed on mechanical principles, aided only by a supplementary hypothesis as to how, when falling on a transparent surface, some of the particles are reflected bent back into the medium from which they have come and others are refracted, along a new path incUned to the old, into the medium toward which they are traveling. It is in verification of this theory that light travels more slowly in a dense medium such The theory was also applied to explain the as glass than in air. colours seen when hght is reflected from a thin film, a soap film or the thin layer of air between a convex lens of large radius and a fiat reflecting surface on which it rests; in this case, when viewed in reflected Ught of a definite colour a series of dark and light to

.

.

.

—

—

round a central black spot is seen. Newton determined the law connecting the radius of a bright ring and the rings circling

colour of the light. Since the radius depends on the colour, the bright rings for the various colours, when white Ught is used, will

be different and the observer will see a series of coloured rings surrounding the black central spot. This phenomenon is now known as Newton's rings. {See Light The Age of Newton and :

Huygens.)

—

Work on Gravitation and Astronomy. Since the early years at Woolsthorpe, Newton had been considering the main problem of motion what force is it that keeps the planets moving about the sun in the Copernican system? Newton proposed that one and the same force of universal gravitation causes the planets to revolve about the sun in elUptical paths according to Kepler's laws. Furthermore, this force, which loses effect with the square :

of the distance, keeps the

causes objects to

Newton

fall

moon

in

motion about the earth and

to earth.

related that the occasion of this discovery

of an apple.

What

did he

mean?

If the

was the

moon moves

around the earth, and does not

in

fall

an orbit along a

fly off in a straight line tangent to the orbit, there must be a force directed to the earth, moon to the centre of the earth.

a centripetal force pulling the

situation is similar to that of a ball whirHng in a circle at the end of a string; if the string breaks, the centripetal force ceases Expressed to be exerted, and the ball flies off along a tangent. differently, the moon is continually drawn away from its rectilinear tangential path by a force; this force causes the moon to fall continually away from a straight line and to foUow its observed orbit. Newton computed the distance the moon must fall

The

each second. If the force that makes the moon fall varies inversely as the square of the distance, then, since the moon is at a distance of 60 earth radii from the earth's centre, the earth's in

moon is g^^gp or -gTgVo °^ w'hat it would be if the at the earth's surface. Hence, assuming that the force

force on the

moon were

of gravity keeps the

,

moon

inversely as the distance,

in its orbit

and that

Newton could

this force varies

predict the rate of fall

This proved to be approximately what is observed: as Newton expressed it, the observation agreed "pretty nearly" with the theory. He also was able to show that Kepler's laws implied a central force that varied inversely as the square of the distance. Conversely, by assuming a single force exerted between sun and planets proportional to the masses of the sun and the planet involved and inversely proportional to the

of an object to the earth.

NEWTON square of the distance between them, one could derive Kepler's laws and show that one and the same force acted between the its satellite, between moon (so as to produce the tides) and, in any two bits of matter in the universe. In London there were great debates about planetary motions and about the orbits that would result from specified types of forces. Discussions went on at the Royal society or in the houses Sir Christopher Wren, Hooke, Edmund Halley of the members and others who were active in the society until one Wednesday in Jan. 1684 Halley met Wren and Hooke and the latter declared "that he had demonstrated all the laws of the celestial motions." Halley confessed his ignorance and Sir Christopher "to encourage enquiry said he would give Hooke or me" the quotation is from "two months to bring him a cona letter of Halley to Newton vincing demonstration." Sir Christopher offered to give "a book of 40 shillings" to the one who first found the solution. So it remained until August, when Halley visited Newton at Cambridge and questioned him concerning the trajectory of a body moving under the action of a central force which varied as the inverse square of the distance from the centre. Halley wrote that Newton knew the answer and "had brought this demonstration to perfection." Newton promised to look for the old proof but could not find it, "and not finding it did it again." Halley returned to Cambridge and persuaded Newton to put his work in form for the Royal society. On Dec. 10, 1684, Halley informed the society that he had lately seen Newton, who had showed him a curious treatise, De Motu, which, upon Halley's desire, was sent to the society to be entered on their register. Newton then attacked and solved a major problem. Hitherto his calculations had proceeded on the assumption that the sun and the planets could each be treated as though they were points, with all their matter concentrated at their respective centres. But was this true or was it merely an approximation resulting from the fact that the planetary distances were so immense that even a great sphere like the sun could in comparison be treated as a

planets and the sun, between any planet and the oceans and sun and

general, between

—

—

—

—

point ?

at the centre (see

Some

He kept experiments on alchemy, secret. Ultimately, the amount of time and energy that he devoted to alchemy probably rivaled that given to physics or to mathematics. So well did Newton keep his secret that his activities in these two realms are not generally and fully known. Middle and Later Life. In 1687 James II tried to force the university to admit as a master of arts Father Alban Francis, a Benedictine monk, without taking the oaths of allegiance and supremacy. Newton was one of those who led the resistance to the royal action, and appeared before Lord Jeffreys to argue the case for Cambridge. In the end the deputies were reprimanded and John Peachell, the vice-chancellor, was deprived of his office. Newton's share in the affair led to his being elected member of parliament for the university in 1689, retaining the seat till the dissolution next year. He was elected again in 1701, but he never took any prominent part in politics. Upon the dissolution of parliament in 1690 he returned to Cambridge and continued for a time his mathematical work; this was interrupted in 1692-94 by a serious illness. He was suffering from insomnia and nervous trouble. There was a report that he was going out of his mind. In June 1694 Huygens wrote to G. W. Leibniz, "I do not know if you are acquainted with the accident to the good Mr. Newton, namely, that he has had an attack of phrenitis which lasted eighteen months and of which they say his friends have cured him by means of remedies and keeping him shut up." For some time his friends had been anxious to obtain some recognition of his work; this came in 1695. Charles Montague, later earl of Halifax, a former fellow of Trinity who was chancellor of the exchequer, offered him the post of warden of the mint. This he accepted and four years later became master. In the same year he was elected one of the eight foreign associates given a special dispensation to hold his professorship.

his religious convictions, like his

—

of the French

Newton proceeded to work this out, on the assumption that each particle of the sun attracted an external particle with a force proportional to the product of the masses of the two and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Thus he showed that if the sun were of uniform density the resultant force on the external particle would be the same as that which would be exerted if the whole mass of the sun were concentrated Mechanics).

scholars have held that

it

was the

difficulty of solving

this problem that had caused Newtcn in 1665 to lay aside his astronomical calculations. Others agree with H. Pemberton's remark that a crude value for the earth's radius was responsible for the delay. In any event, the calculations were resumed with a

more precise knowledge of the moon's distance. The writing of the Principia was begun in March

1686.

En-

Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, or "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy," the work was first published in the summer of 1687. At that time the Royal society was in difficulties as to funds and Halley took the whole cost on titled

Hooke, when the book was first presented, claimed that he had anticipated Newton in part of it, and in the correspondence that followed Halley did all he could to smooth over the difficulties and persuade Newton to continue his work. The Principia set the seal to Newton's reputation. It explained for the first time the way in which a single mathematical law could account for phenomena of the heavens, the tides and the motion of objects on the earth. The whole development of modern science begins with this great book. For more than 200 years it reigned supreme; popular theories of cosmology were based on the principles laid down by Newton. His mechanics guided astronomers and men of science in their search for natural knowledge. himself.

Religious Beliefs.

—

Newton was profoundly interested in reHe studied carefully the writings of the Church Fathers, the early writers on Christianity, and sought evidence to ligious matters.

bolster his

own

principles of faith, which were anti-Trinitarian.

419

John Maynard Keynes, who studied Newton's writings on esoteric and theological matters, concluded that Newton was "a Judaic monotheist of the school of Maimonides." Very likely this was the reason that Newton refused Holy Orders and had to be

Academy

of Science.

In 1696 John Bernoulli addressed a letter to the mathematicians them to solve two problems and giving On Jan. 26, 1697, Newton received six months for the solution. from France two copies of the printed paper containing the prob-

of Europe, challenging

lems and the following day sent the solutions to the Royal soThey were transmitted anonymously to Bernoulli, who, ciety. as he said, recognized the lion by his talon, "tanquam ex ungue leonem." As warden of the mint Newton had retained his Cambridge offices, but soon after his appointment as master he named a deputy, and in 1701 resigned his professorship and the fellowship He had moved to London, where he continued his at Trinity. duties as master with marked efficiency until his death in 1727. In 1703 Newton became president of the Royal society and was re-elected annually until his death. Queen Anne visited Cambridge in 1705 and on this occasion Newton was knighted. About the same time the controversy with Leibniz as to the invention of the differential calculus began. It is now generally recognized that Leibniz invented the calculus independently of Newton and that Newton's claim that Leibniz was a plagiarist had no foun-

Early in 1727 Newton was taken seriously ill; he died on March 20, 1727, and was buried in Westminster abbey on dation.

March 28. Published Works.

—

Since the first issue of the Principia in 1687 {see above), there have been many editions. In 1709 Newton consented to have Roger Cotes, a fellow of Trinity, help him prepare a second edition, which was published in 1713; a third edition made with the aid of Henry Pemberton appeared in 1726. This third Latin edition was reprinted in Geneva in 1739-42 with

an excellent commentary by two

friars,

Le Sueur and Jacquier;

often reprinted, this is known incorrectly as the Jesuits' edition. An English translation first published by A. Motte as Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1729) was revised and republished (1803), revised again by Florian Cajori and reprinted together with Newton's System of the World (1934).

NEWTON—NEWTON ABBOT

42 o

1704, went through three editions in Newton's lifetime; a modern edition appeared in 1952. The scientific papers published by Newton in his lifetime are col-

The Opticks,

published

first

in

Newton's Papers and Letters on Natural Philosophy, Bernard Cohen (1958). The most recent edition of Newton's writings, edited by S. Horsley in five volumes under the title Opera quae extant omnia (1779-85), is not complete. Correspondence of Scientific Men of the 17th Century, etc., From the Originals in the Collection of the Earl of Macclesfield, edited by S. P. Rigaud (1841), and Correspondence of Sir Isaac Nru'ton and Professor Cotes, Including Letters of Other Eminent Men (1850), edited by J. Edleston, contain many of Newton's A letters, and the latter volume contains a synopsis of his life. selection of Newton's writings on religion is contained in H. McLachlan (ed. ), Theological Manuscripts (1950); earlier published religious writings were Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728). and the Apocalypse of St. John 1733). The Royal society has undertaken an edition of The Correspondence of Isaac Newton, of which the first three volumes (1959-61), were edited by H. W. Turnbull and J. F, Scott. For information on the impact of Newton's work on scientific For thought, see Science: Determinism and Postdeterminism. further information on his major scientific contributions, see Calculus. Differentul and Integral; Celestial Mechanics; Gramtation; Motion, Principles and Laws of. See also references under "Newton, Sir Isaac" in the Index.

lected in Isaac

edited by

I.

(

Bibliography.

— G.

J.

Gray, Bibliography o) the Works of Sir Isaac

Newton, 2nd ed. (1908); A Descriptive Catalogue of the Grace K. Babson Collection of the Works of Sir Isaac Newton, Babson Institute (1950), with Supplement (1955); A. R. Hall and M. B. Hall (eds.), The Unpublished Scientific Papers of Sir Isaac Newton (1962). The most readable account of L. T. More, Isaac Newton (1934). Newton's life and achievement is E. N. da Costa Andrade, Sir Isaac still useful for the amount of quoted material is of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton, by Valuable critical 2 vol. (1855; reprinted 1860). commentaries are to be found in Augustus de Morgan, Essays on the Newton, and appendices by P. E. and Work edited with notes Life of Jourdain (1914). A brief account of Newton's life and works is given Of great value to students in S. Brodetsky, Sir Isaac Newton (1928).

Newton Memoirs Sir

(1954)

;

David Brewster,

of Newton is the Catalogue of the Portsmouth Collection of Books and Papers Written by or Belonging to Sir Isaac Newton (1888), which describes the great mass of Newton's papers which came at his death Among general commentaries may be into the hands of Conduitt. mentioned: H. Pemberton, A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy (1728) Colin Maclaurin, An Account of Sir Isaac Newton's PhilosophiF. Rosenberger, Isaac Newton and seine Physical Discoveries (1748)

April 1764 he was ordained by the bishop of Lincoln. 1767 William Cowper settled in the parish. The two

In Oct.

men became close friends and they published together the Olney Hymns Newton's contribution included, among many other (1779). hymns, the well-known "How Sweet the Name of Jesus Sounds!" and "Glorious Things of Thee are Spoken." The most important of his works was Cardiphonia, or the Utterance of the Heart (1781), a series of devotional letters. It was through his letter writing that Newton made his greatest contribution to the EvanIn 1779 he left Olney to become rector of St. gelical movement. Mary Woolnoth, London. There he exercised an important ministry, influencing many, among them William Wilberforce, the future leader in the campaign for the abolition of slavery. Like Cowper. Newton held Calvinistic views, although his evangelical fervour allied him closely with the sentiments of Wesley and the Methodists. He died in London on Dec. 21, 1807. Bibliography. The Works of the Rev. John Newton to Which Are Prefixed Memoirs of His Life etc. by R. Cecil (1827) B. Martin, John Newton (1950) M. L. Loane, Oxford and the Evangelical .'iuccesssion (1950) J. H. Johansen, "The Olney Hymns," Papers of the Hymn

—

;

;

;

(G. Hu.) (1823-1895). U.S. army officer and enNorfolk. Va., on Aug. 24, 1823, and graduated

Society ol .America, vol. xx (1956).

NEWTON, JOHN

was born in from the U.S. Military academy at West Point, N.Y., in 1842. From 1842 to 1861 he was engaged in the construction of coast He was assistant defense works and in improving waterways. professor of engineering at the U.S. Military academy from 1843 to 1846, became a captain in 1856 and was chief engineer in the Utah expedition of 1857-58. He served in the Virginia campaign of 1861 at the start of the American Civil War. He distinguished himself in the Seven Days' battle and at Antietam, and after the battle of Fredericksburg was made major general. U.S. In the Chancellor"sville campaign Newton took part volunteers. in the storming of Marye's heights at Fredericksburg, on May 3, 1863, and at the battle of Gettysburg he was for a time in command of the I corps. Later he took part in the Atlanta campaign For as a division commander in Gen. W. T. Sherman's army. gallant conduct at Peachtree creek he was made brevet brigadier general, and at the close of the war was made brevet major genIn 1884 he became chief of engineers, and held eral, U.S. army. gineer,

One of his notable enthis position until his retirement in 1886. gineering achievements was the successful blasting of an obstruction in New York harbour in 1885 with 250,000 lb. of dynamite.

;

;

(1895); Leon Bloch, La Philosophic de Newton (1908) I. Bernard Cohen, Franklin and Newton (1956). Of great importance for the controversy with Leibniz is the report drawn up by order of the Royal Society, published under the title Commercium Epistolicum (1712), of which editions appeared in 1722 and 1725. See also S. P. Rigaud, Historical Essay on the First Publication of Sir I. Newton's Principia (1838); W. W. R. Ball, Essay on Newton's Principia (1893); J. W. L. Glaisher, Bi-Centenary of Newton's Principia (1888) Isaac Newton, 1642-1727, ed. by W. J, GreenHistory of Science Society, Sir Isaac street, a memorial volume (1927) Newton, 1727-1927 (1928) W. Stukeley, A/fmo!>s of Sir Isaac Newton's Mathematical Discoveries of NewH. Turnbull, W. Life, 1752 (1936) ton (1945) Royal Society of London, Newton Tercentenary Celebra(R. T. Gl.; I. B. C.) tions, 15-19 July, 1946 (1947). (1725-1807), one of the leaders of the kalische Principien ;

;

;

;

;

;

NEWTON, JOHN

Evangelical revival and friend of the poet William Cowper (q.v."), was born in London on July 24, 1725. He had little formal education and served from 1736 to 1742 on the ship in the Mediter-

ranean trade of which his father was master. Early in 1 744 he was impressed on board a man-of-war, the "Harwich," where he was made midshipman. For an attempt to escape while his ship After lay off Plymouth he was publicly flogged and degraded. this experience he joined another vessel bound for Africa, where

he took service under a slave dealer. Then in 1747 he returned to the sea, and for a time became captain of a slave ship. Newton, known previously for his unbelief and blasphemy, underwent conversion during a storm at sea in 1748. He finally gave up seafaring in 1755 and was appointed tide surveyor at Liverpool where he came to know George Whitefield and John Wesley. He now began to study Greek and Hebrew and in 1758 applied to the archbishop of York for ordination. This was refused him, but having been offered the curacy of Olney, Buckinghamshire, in

In 1887-88 he was commissioner of pubhc works in New York. and from 1888 until his death on May 1, 1895, was president of the Panama Railroad company. a suburban, residential city of Middlesex county, in eastern Massachusetts, U.S., is located on the south bank of the Charles river, immediately west of Boston (g.v.) and Brookline. Settled in 1639 as part of Cambridge, it was separated in

NEWTON,

1688 and incorporated as New Towne, changing its name to Newton in 1691. During the 19th century farming was the principal occupation although the upper and lower falls areas of the Charles

were busy industrial centres. Newton's growth as a residential suburb was given impetus by the opening of the Boston and Worcester railroad in 1834. Newton was incorporated as a city in 1873.

(1960) of 92,384, Newton is part of the Despite its size, statistical area. Newton has kept the flavour of a small suburban town, being divided into 14 individual villages, and containing a number of Industries, parks, playgrounds and other recreational facilities. limited by zoning laws, manufacture electronic tubes, electrical Situated signalling systems, textiles, rubber goods and plastics. within the city are Newton Junior college (1946); Boston college (Roman Catholic, 1863); Newton College of the Sacred Heart (Roman Catholic, 1946); and the Andover-Newton Theological school formed by a merger of Andover Theological seminary (Congregational, 1808) and Newton Theological institute (Baptist, (M. R. F.-S.) 1825). ABBOT, a market town in the Totnes parliamentary division of Devon. Eng., 16 mi. S.S.W. of Exeter by road and near the head of the Teign estuary. Pop. (1961) 18,066. It

With

a population

Boston standard metropolitan

NEWTON

NEWTOWNABBEY— NEW WINDSOR has

a

Wednesday

cattle

and general market;

it

is

also a shopping

The centre and railway junction with various light industries. two parish churches, St. Mary's in Wolborough and All Saints' in house Jacobean Forde style. The Perpendicular in Highweek, are (1610) was visited by Charles I and William of Orange, who first read his declaration to the people of England at Newton Abbot market cross. The 15th-century Bradley manor belongs to the National trust. The portion of Newton Abbot in the parish of Highweek was formerly a separate town known as Newton Bushel. There is a racecourse on the opposite bank of the Teign. Newton Abbot rural district council (area 144.8 sq.mi.; pop. [1961] 25,963) embraces 22 parishes and extends from Dartmeet (central Dartmoor) on the west to Dawlish and Teignmouth urban districts on the east. NE'WTOWNABBEY, an urban district of County Antrim, N.Ire., lies on the shores of Belfast lough, adjoining the northern boundary of the city and county borough of Belfast. Pop. 1961) 37,440. The third largest town in Northern Ireland, it was constituted by private act of parliament in 1958, when seven former village communities were amalgamated to form the new urban district, which includes a civic centre and about 160 ac. of municipal playing fields and public parks. The basic textile industries have been supplemented by the establishment of two central gov(A. R. Ma.) ernment factory estates. a municipal borough of County Down, N.Ire., lies at the northern end of Strangford lough, 10 mi. E. of Belfast by road. Pop. (1961) 13,090. The town was founded by Sir Hugh Montgomery in 1608, at the site of a Dominican friary founded in 1244 by Walter de Burgh (ruins of which survive), and was incorporated in 1613. It is heavily industrialized, and as well as the spinning and weaving of Unen its industries include the manufacture of hosiery, aircraft components, sheet-metal work and draftmen's instruments, fabric printing and rayon weaving. Immediately to the northeast of the town is Movilla (Magh Bhile) with remains of a 6th-century abbey church attributed to St. Finian. (Hu. S.) TOWNS. In order to decentrahze population and industry from London and other big towns in Great Britain, a New Towns act was passed in 1946. Following this, 12 New Towns were designated in England and Wales and 3 in Scotland, each with its own development corporation financed by the government. Relatively undeveloped sites were usually chosen and the New Towns were to be self-contained and locally governed. Each was to have an admixture of population so as to give it a balanced social life. Final population figures ranged from about 30,000 to 80,000 or more in England and Wales (70,000 in Scotland). The 12 New Towns designated in England and Wales were Aycliffe and Peterlee in County Durham, Bracknell in Berkshire, Corby in Northamptonshire, Crawley in Sussex, Cwmbran in Monmouthshire, Basildon and Harlow in Essex, and Hatfield, Hemel Hempstead, Stevenage and Welwyn Garden City in Hertfordshire. The three Scottish ones were Glenrothes in Fife, East Kilbride in Lanarkshire and Cumbernauld in Dunbartonshire. (

NEWTOWNARDS,

NEW

By

the early 1960s half a million people lived in the IS

New

Towns but

pressure on the big cities remained acute. Accordingly additional New Towns were designated at Skelmersdale in Lancashire, Livingston partly in West Lothian and partly in

Midlothian, Dawley in Shropshire, Redditch in Worcestershire, Runcorn in Cheshire, Washington in Durham and Risley, near Manchester. The New Towns act, 1959, provided for the establishment of a New Towns commission which was to take over the assets and properties of the New Towns as each was substantially completed. Early in 1962 Crawley and Hemel Hempstead were handed over to the commission. See Housing: Great Britain: Town Planning after World

War

II.

See also F. J. Osborn and A. Whittick, New Towns: the Answer to Megalopolis (1963), which contains a full bibliography.

NEWTOWN

ST.

BOSWELLS,

a village of Roxburghshire,

40 mi. S.E. of Edinburgh by road, on the main Edinburgh-Carlisle railway and main Edinburgh-Newcastle road. Pop. Scot., lies

421

(1961) 1,050. Until 1929 the village was mainly populated by employees of the old North British Railway company, for it was an important railway junction; by the mid-1960s, however, all branch lines had been closed. The county buildings were erected there in 1929 and it is now an important administrative centre with the offices of the Edinburgh and East of Scotland College of Agriculture and a branch of the department of agriculture for Scotland. A livestock market holds weekly sales. Dryburgh abbey di mi. E.), founded in 1150 for Premonstratensians by Hugh de Morville and financed by David I, is one of Sir Walter Scott the prime attractions of the border country. and Field Marshal Earl Haig of Bemersyde and members of their families are buried there. St. Boswells, a residential village, lies 1 mi. E.S.E. of Newtown St. Boswells. (J. R. Fr.) a city of British Columbia, Can., located on the estuary of the Fraser river, 15 mi. from its mouth, on the steep north bank at a bridging point of the Trans-Canada highway and the Canadian National and Great Northern railways. Pop. (1961) 33,654. The city is an integral part of metropolitan Vancouver. It is a freshwater port with berthing and cargo handling facilities for deep-sea ships which load timber, lead, zinc, fertilizer, apples and grain. Gov. James Douglas incorporated the city in 1860 and until 1866 it was the capital of the mainland British colony of Columbia. It is a trading and manufacturing centre with one of the largest concentrations of the forest products industry in the province. The processing of lumber, Fraser river salmon and fruit and vegetables from the adjacent farming district are among the principal manufacturing industries. (G. A. W.) often called simply Windsor, a royal borough of Berkshire, Eng., stands on the south bank of the Thames opposite Eton, Buckinghamshire, 23 mi. W. of London by Pop. (1961) 27,126. Despite several references to it in road. Domesday Book, it is called New Windsor because further downstream lies Old Windsor, which was a royal manor in Saxon

NEW WESTMINSTER,

NEW WINDSOR,

times.

The dominating feature of the town is Windsor castle, standing on a great outcrop of chalk. William the Conqueror built his fortress there but its only visible remains now are the mound where Great gray walls surround the castle, the Round tower stands. rising high above the Thames valley and also above Thames street which climbs steeply from Windsor bridge to High street, one of the highest parts of the town. On the way up. Curfew tower with its clock protrudes above the walls and dominates the approach. (See Windsor Castle.) Farther along High street, passing Market Cross house, juts out the Guildhall, designed by Sir Thomas Fitz who superintended its erection from the laying of the foundation stone in 1687 till his death in 1689. Under the Guildhall, almost forming part of the The pillars which only appear street, is the old Corn market. to support the Guildhall above, for they have never touched the beams were erected by Sir Christopher Wren because, as tradition has it, members of the corporation feared the floor would collapse under their weight. It is said that Wren also supervised completion of the building. On its end walls statues of Queen Anne and her husband, Prince George of Denmark, face respectively toward the Thames and the Long walk. The Guildhall has

—

—

Queen Elizabeth presented to the corporation by successive sovereigns; it also contains an exhibition of manuscripts, pictures, plans and objects showing the history of Windsor from early times to the present day. The council still meets in the Guildhall as do its committees, but the administrative offices of the corporation are now at Kipling Memorial building in Windsor. The corporation is an ancient one which had its first known charter in 12 77. Since then it has had other charters, the last one being dated 1685. Near the Guildhall is the parish church of St. John the Baptist where the corporation on civic occasions ata collection of paintings, including a portrait of II,

The church has, among other treasures, a "The Last Supper," attributed to Franz Cleyn (d. Holy Trinity parish church has many regimental memo-

tends divine service. painting of

1658).

NEW

422

YEAR'S

DAY— NEW YORK

attended by the military units stationed at Windsor. Primarily a residential town with many of its inhabitants working on the trading estate in nearby Slough or in London, New Windsor is served by both the western and southern regions of rials, for

is

it

upon which is imprinted the state coat of arms with the motto "Excelsior" inscribed on a white ribbon beneath it. field

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Physical Features.

British railways.

The

principal

industries are light engineering, optical works,

making of

printing and the

The town

scientific instruments.

is

fortunate in being almost surrounded by Windsor Great park, a domain which contains the famous Long walk of about 3 and stretches southward to \'irginia water. Part of the Home

royal mi.

(

)

park is also open to the public and there are playing fields and other open spaces. Windsor has a racecourse and an annual horse show. Pleasure boats ply up and down the river during the summer and great numbers of people visit the town. Roman coins have been found at St. Leonard's hill, and Saxon remains at Old Windsor, the second largest town in Berkshire at Domesday and excavated in the 1950s. For hundreds of years from Saxon times onward kings hunted in Windsor forest. On the Long walk Henry \TII listened to the sound of the gunfire announcing the execution of Anne Boleyn; Nell Gwyn lived there; George HI raised Merino sheep in the park; and at Frogmore in the castle grounds Queen Victoria erected for the prince consort the mausoleum in which she also was later buried. (J. E. S.) YEAR'S DAY, the first day of the year. New Year's festivals, among the oldest and most universally observed, generally include rites and ceremonies expressive of mortification, The purgation, invigoration and jubilation over life's renewal. earliest-known record of a New Year's festival dates from about 2000 B.C. in Mesopotamia, where the year began with the new moon nearest the spring equinox (mid-March; Babylonia") or The nearest the autumnal equinox (mid-September; Assyria). year began for the Egyptians, Phoenicians and Persians with the autumnal equinox (Sept. 21) and for the Greeks, until the 5th century B.C., with the winter solstice (Dec. 21). By the Roman republican calendar the year began on March 1 after 153 B.C. the official date was Jan. 1, and this was confirmed by the Julian calthe time of

NEW

;

endar (46

B.C.).

For the Jewish religious calendar the year begins with the first day of the month of Tishri Sept. 6-Oct. 5 see Jewish Holidays Rosh Hashana). In early medieval times most of Christian Europe regarded March 25 as the beginning of the year, though for Anglo-Saxon England New Year's day was Dec. 25. William the Conqueror decreed that the year start on Jan. 1, but later England began its year with the rest of Christendom on March 25. Jan. 1 was restored as New Year's day by the Gregorian calendar (1582), immediately adopted by Roman Catholic countries. Other European countries followed suit: Scotland, 1660; Germany and Denmark, about 1700; Russia, 1706; England, 1752; and Sweden, (

;

:

1753.

See also Calendar; Feast and Festival.

—

BiBLiocR.^PHY. J. Hastings (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, (1928), articles on "Calendar" and "Festivals and Fasts"; T. Gaster, New Year: Its History, Customs and Superstitions (1955); M. Eliade, Cosmos and History: the Myth of the Eternal Return, pp. 49-92 (1959), (F. S. L.) one of the original 13 states of the United

NEW YORK,

States, ranks 30th in area

among

the states, but

first in

population,

trade and manufacturing. Its land area is 47,939 sq.mi. and the area of inland waters is 1,637 sq.mi. The state has a triangular outline, with a breadth

to south,

on the

from east

line of the

to west of 322 mi.

Hudson

river, of

and from north

312 mi.

In addition.

Long Island thrusts about 118 mi. eastward from New York bay. New York is bounded on the north by Lake Ontario, the St. Lawrence river and Canada; on the east by Vermont, Massachusetts and Connecticut on the south by the Atlantic ocean, New Jersey and Pennsylvania; and on the west by Pennsylvania, Lake Erie and the Niagara river. Because of its great wealth and the concentration of business and industry. New York has come to be known as the "Empire state." The state capital is Albany and the state ratified the ;

federal constitution on July 26, 1788, the 11th of the colonies to so. The sugar maple has been adopted as the state's official

do

tree

and the rose as the

official flower.

The

state flag has a blue

the state

of

is

— The

most notable topographical feature

the circular Adirondack mountain area

in

the

This ancient mountain mass of Pre-Cambrian rocks resembles more the Laurentian mountains of Canada than the Appalachians. The highest peak is Mt. Marcy 5,344 fC). Other peaks range from about 2,000 ft. to about 5,000 ft. Even the highest summits are worn and rounded and are largely forest covered. The Adirondack area proper, and much of the surrounding ring of younger sedimentary rocks is too rugged and the soil is too Because of the beautiful scenery, this is a thin for agriculture. favourite recreational centre. In summer, visitors hunt, fish, swim and climb; in winter, they skate and ski. Small factories have developed, partly to utilize the products of forest, mine and farm and partly to use the extensive water power. South of the Mohawk river and west of the Hudson river rises a high level plateau which extends westward to the Pennsylvania There the sedimentary strata are essentially horizontal border. and of the Paleozoic age, mainly Devonian. This plateau area, which comprises more than half of the state, has much variety. The elevation decreases toward the north by means of a series of "steps," the lowest elevation being on the Ontario plain which skirts the southern shore of Lake Ontario for a width of about The fertile and level lands along the shores of Lake 35 mi. Ontario and Lake Erie have attracted many farmers especially northeast.

(

The large lakes have a moderating effect on the fruit growers. The plateau surface climate and lengthen the growing season. becomes more rugged toward the south and the east. Elevations of about 1,500 and 2,000 ft. are common from Chautauqua lake to the Catskill mountains. The plateau is cut by many streams which have created deep valleys. The valley walls rise to undulating and often fairly level uplands which provide excellent pasIn southeastern New York, near the turage for dairy cows. Appalachians the plateau becomes much higher, reaching its culmination in the Catskills. Summit elevations of from approximately 3,000 to 4,000 ft. are common, the highest point being Slide mountain (4,185 ft.). Like the Adirondacks, this region is largely forest covered and is famous as a site of summer and winter sports. The Helderberg mountains are really an escarpment facing the lower Mohawk and the Hudson rivers, south of Albany, where there is a downward step in the plateau.

The

steeply rising face of the plateau

is

the result of the resistance

known as the Helderberg limeThe most notable escarpment in western New York is

of a durable layer of limestone, stone.

the Niagara which extends eastward from Canada, forming the Niagara falls, and creating a sharp drop at Lockport.

South of the Catskills there are a number of different topographfeatures which are caused by the belts of differing rock struc-

ical

ture that cross the state from southwest to northeast. The most pronounced of these upfolded strata form the low Shawangunk

mountains, which descend to a lowland region of folded strata of limestone, slate and other rocks in Orange and Dutchess counties. This lowland area is a continuation of the great valley of the Appalachians and extends northeast into Vermont and southwest across New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland and Virginia. It is bounded on its southeast side by the highlands, a belt of crystalline rocks which merge into the Taconic range, or BerkThe Hudson river has cut a deep gorge through the highshires. lands. South of the highlands is a belt of Triassic sandstone which, because of its peculiar columnar jointing, has developed the famous Palisades of the lower Hudson. Long Island, a northeast extension of the coastal plain, has few heights of more than 200 ft. High hill, the highest point, is only 410 ft. above sea level.

The

continental glacier covered the entire surface of

with the exception of a very small area part.

It

broadened and deepened

many

many

in

New York

the extreme western

of the valleys, rounded

streams, causing changes in drainage giving rise to innumerable waterfalls and rapids, and formed the the

hills,

turned aside

NEW YORK thousands of lakes which dot the halted

various points where

at

it

As the ice receded, it formed moraines and other

state.

glacial deposits.

—

New York is drained by streams running in varThe St. Lawrence river system receives most of mainly from short streams from the plateau and from the Adirondacks. A small part of the state, in the west, is drained toward the Ohio river. A much larger area drains into the Susquehanna river and into Chesapeake bay. A part of the Catskills, and the region farther south, drains into Delaware bay through the Delaware river. The Hudson is by far the most important river within the state, being navigable for 151 mi. from the sea. It is noted for its remarkable scenery, especially where Drainage.

423

the beaver, otter,

mink and black bear from

foxes, muskrats, raccoons, rabbits

summer

of the year.

the runoff,

catbird, bluebird, wren, barn swallow,

it

crosses the highlands.

There are about 8,000 small, glacial lakes and ponds in the state. The largest lake apart from Lakes Erie and Ontario is Lake Champlain into which Lake George drains. The largest In the central part lake entirely within the state is Oneida lake. of the state

is

a series of elongated lakes called the Finger

the six largest are Cayuga, Seneca, Keuka, Canandaigua,

Lakes:

Owasco

and Skaneateles, In the extreme western part of the state is Chautauqua lake. New York has many falls and rapids, the largest of which is the cataract of Niagara which is about 1 mi. wide and 167 ft. high. The U.S. fall is entirely within New York, but the Canadian boundary line passes down the centre of the Horseshoe or Canadian fall. Climate. New York has a wide variety of climate because of its topography and location between the Atlantic ocean and the Great Lakes. The average mean annual temperature in the state is about 45° F. (about 7° C), though it varies from 52.3° F. in

—

New York tain in

city to less than 40° F. in the Adirondacks. The mounand plateau regions have heavy snowfalls and extreme changes

temperature.

Daytime ternperature

is

often high, but the nights

are decidedly cool because of the rapid loss of heat.

Long Island has

light

because of the moderating effect of the ocean. Similarly, the area adjoining the Great Lakes, and to a lesser extent the Finger Lakes, has long, mild autumns and winters much less severe than the uplands a few miles away. There is a wide variation in the annual precipitation, though the greatest amount falls during the growing season. The average annual precipitation in New York city is 42.11 in.; in Syracuse 35.31 in.; in Binghamton 34.41 in. The average annual snowfall ranges from 31.3 in. in New York city to 87.0 in. in Oswego and 126.6

in.

at

Lake

Placid.

New York

lies

within

the

north-

eastern cloud belt and therefore receives less sunshine than the central or western states.

Soil

—The

position

soil is

mostly glacial drift, with the depth and comgreatly even within small areas. The

often varying

most widely distributed soil, especially in the eastern half of the state, is clay formed by the glacial pulverizing of limestone and shale. The most fertile soil is found along the shores of the lakes and in the river valleys where alluvium has accumulated. Plants and Animals. A dense forest covered the state during the colonial period except for a few natural clearings in the Genesee valley but only in the recesses of the Adirondacks are there tracts of the original forest. There are 149 kinds of trees, of which 116 are native. Spruce, pine and hemlock are the commonest trees in the Adirondack and Catskill mountains. The evergreens provide a rich background for the maples, birches and beeches. Oak, short-leaf pine, maple, hickory and gum trees

—

Long Island. Oak, hickory, chestnut and elm are the most predominant trees in the Hudson-Mohawk valley, the Lake Ontario plain and the deeper valleys of the are the principal ones on

plateau.

New York also has thousands of varieties of plants and ferns. In the forests there are wild sarsaparilla, Solomon's-seal, trillium and many other kinds of wild flowers. Buttercups, clover, violets, wild roses and rushes are common throughout the state. Both northern and southern animal types are found in New York. The wild turkey, panther, elk, moose, wolverine and timber wolf have been killed off but protective measures have saved

meadow

in

some portion wood thrush,

lark,

red-headed

Year-round types include the English sparrow, crow and various kinds of woodpecker and hawk. The state protects game birds such as partridge, pheasant, ruffed grouse, varieties of wild duck, snipe and woodcock. There are a great many types of fish in New York's waters despite pollution and disturbance of the balance of nature through the stocking of streams. The kinds common in most watersheds are darters, yellow perch, suckers, bullheads, sunfish, small-mouthed bass, rock bass, shiners, dace, brook trout and blunt-nosed min-

woodpecker and

oriole

others.

nows. Long Island is noted for its shellfish: lobsters, oysters, clams and scallops. Its fishermen seek out the pollack, flounder, mackerel, bluefish, striped and sea bass in the ocean waters. Parks and Reservations. The state conservation department supervises 98 parks which vary in size from 6 ac. Sackets Harbor) to 59,600 ac. (Allegany state park). The state council of parks which is composed of the chairmen of the various regional park commissions acts as a central advisory agency. The nine park commissions are Niagara frontier, which preserves the beauties of Niagara falls and gorge; Palisades interstate; Genesee, which oversees Letchworth park; Finger Lakes, which includes

—

(

Watkins glen and Taughannock falls; Thousand Islands; Taconic state, which supervises 9 park areas on the east bank of the Hudson; Central New York; Long Island, which supervises 17 parks including Jones beach; and Allegany state. In addition, the state owns the Adirondack forest preserve, a virgin wilderIn 1964 the Fire Island National ness embracing 2,252,970 ac. Seashore, comprising 25 mi. of beach, was established.

In contrast.

snowfall and fairly constant temperature

state during

there are the robin,

ious directions.

among

Deer,

and squirrels are common

most parts of the state. About 265 kinds of birds inhabit the In the

extinction.

Following the colonial practice.

New York

in

1784 made a

treaty with Chief Joseph Brant and the six nations of the Iroquois, and assumed responsibility for the Indians residing within its

borders.

In 1960 about 7,000 Indians lived on seven reserva-

They are the Allegany, Cattaraugus, Tonawanda and Tuscarora in the western part of the state; the St. Regis, the most tions.

populous, near Massena; the Shinnecock, on Long Island; and the Onondaga, south of Syracuse. Indian agents are appointed by the state board of social welfare and are directed to provide care and relief for needy Indians.

—

Historic Sites and Museums. New York has many museums, notable buildings and historic sites. The New York State Historical association operates two museums at Cooperstown: Fenimore house, its headquarters, with historical and art collections and the Farmers' museum with its 19th-century village. Nearby is the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum. The Adirondack museum at Blue Mountain lake has exhibits of logging equipment, boats and early resorts. Other important historical museums are the Albany Institute of History and Art, the Buffalo Historical museum, Oneida Historical society in Utica, the Rochester Historical Society museum and the Suffolk County New York city has Historical Society museum at Riverhead. Perhaps the most interesting hisseveral important museums. torically are the Museum of the City of New York and that of the New York Historical society. Local societies throughout the state have collected Indian relics, newspapers, diaries, tools, firearms, china and furniture. The state has acquired more than 20 historic houses and sites. Three Revolutionary War battlefields Oriskany, Saratoga, Benare marked by monuments and parks. nington (Walloomsac) In Kingston stands the senate house where the first state senate met on Sept. 10, 1777. Three historic places in the Newburgh area are associated with the last two years of the American RevoThey are Washington's headquarters, Knox's headquarlution. ters and Temple hill where General Washington appealed to his Across the Hudrebellious officers to remain patient and loyal. son river are the Clinton house at Poughkeepsie, Philipse manor The naat Yonkers and the John Jay homestead at Bedford.

—

tional

—

government administers a library

at

Hyde

Park, the

home

NEW YORK

+24

and graves of Franklin D. Roosevelt and his wife, as a national historic site. The Albany area has three state-administered houses or museums: the Schuyler mansion. Ft. Crailo in Rensselaer and

museum attached museum specializes in

the state

to the state library in

The

Albany.

Indian material and collections of the animals, flowers and minerals of the state. Johnson hall in Johnstown, Guy Park in ,\msterdam and Ft. Johnson in Fort Johnson were built by Sir William Johnson, an early Indian trader and state

The Schoharie County Historical society has its museum Old Stone fort in Schoharie. Near Little Falls stands the Herkimer home where the hero of the battle of Oriskany, Nicholas Herkimer, died in 1777. Three colonial forts have been reconstructed. They are Ft. Ontario at Oswego, Ft. Niagara at Lewiston and Ft. Ticonderoga. Three memorials commemorate the campaign by Generals John Sullivan and James Clinton against the builder.

in the

Iroquois in 1779. They are the Sullivan monument near the south end of Conesus lake, the Boyd-Parker monument near Geneseo, and the Newton battlefield near Elmira. Theodore Roosevelt's home. Sagamore Hill, at Oyster Bay, L.I., and his birthplace in

New York

became national

city

standing industrial

Photography

museums

Two

historic sites in 1963.

are the George

out-

Eastman House

of

museum

in

Rochester and the Corning Glass

in

Corning.

HISTORY The Indians. fluence in

—The

New York

Iroquois

Indians had an important

in-

not only on provincial development, but

between the Dutch, British and French. The live tribes (Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga and Seneca) of central and western New York formed the confederacy of the Five Nations about IS 70. This confederacy, or league, which admitted the Tuscarora in 1722, reached the height of its influence about 1700 when it held the balance of power between England and France. The league's power rested on its commanding position on the strategic waterways, its control of the fur trade between the seacoast traders and the tribes of the interior, its unity and its skill in warfare. The various Algonkian tribes in the lower Hudson valley and Long Island were much also on the imperial struggles

less

important.

Discovery and Exploration.

—New York bay and the Hud-

son river were discovered by Giovanni da Verrazano in 1524. For many years after that, French vessels occasionally ascended the Hudson to trade with the Indians. Henry Hudson and Samuel de Champlain penetrated deep into the heart of New York in 1609. The Dutch East India company employed Hudson, an English-

man,

to

find a

new water route

to the

far east.

After a vain

around northern Europe, Hudson turned westward and finally entered New York harbour. Hudson sailed up the "river of the mountains" to a point near the site of Albany. His reports on the fertile land, furs and friendly Indians aroused much effort to sail

among Dutch merchants. The East India company sent out more sea captains to explore and trade. Adriaen Block in 1613-14 explored the shores of Long Island sound from Manhattan Island to the present state of Rhode Island. Late in 1614 or early in 1615 a stockaded trading post called Fort interest

Nassau was erected on Castle Island within the present Albany.

Settlement.

— In

limits of

1621 the states-general, the ruling council of

Dutch republic, granted a charter to the Dutch West India company which gave it a monopoly of trade for 24 years along the

the shores of the Americas of Cancer.

and

The company's

below the Tropic drew up in 1624 a pro-

in the Atlantic

directors

visional order for administering a colony to be established in the

recently designated (1623) province of New Netherland. It provided for company control of trade and for a director general. The same year it sent out about 30 families, mostly Walloons, and IS of these families founded the first permanent settlement at Fort Orange (Albany). Three more vessels arrived in 1625 and Willem 'Verhulst replaced Cornells Jacobsen May as director or governor. In 1626 the company appointed as governor Peter Minuit who purchased Manhattan Island from Indian chiefs for 60 guilders (about $24) in trinkets and built a fort at the lower

New Amsterdam, government and trade. The village grew slowly having only about 1,000 inhabitants by 1650 and about

end of the

became the 1,500 in

This settlement, known as

island.

seat

of

1664.

1629 the company adopted the charter of freedoms and exemptions in order to spur colonization and agriculture. With company permission individuals could take possession of as much land as they could cultivate. Thus began the system of individual Members of the development and private ownership of land. company who peopled their tracts with 50 adult settlers in four Only years could acquire huge estates along navigable rivers. one of these patroonships proved successful, however, that of In

Kiliaen

Van Rensselaer,

a

diamond merchant

of

Amsterdam, who

developed his estate, which covered most of modern Albany and Rensselaer counties, by sending out colonists, craftsmen and supplies. His practice of leasing his land encouraged the system of farm tenancy which the English landlords later expanded. The Dutch Period. Governor Minuit was recalled in 1631 for granting privileges to the patroons at the expense of the company. His successor, the corrupt Wouter van Twiller (1633-38) constructed forts on the Connecticut and Delaware rivers in order Willem (William) Kieft began his to protect the fur traders. nine-year rule in 1638 when the company gave up its monopoly of trade. Two years later it permitted those who transported five settlers to the colony to receive 200 ac. and it also began to allow These inducements encouraged immigration manufacturing.

—

New

England and Virginia. The and the mismanagement of Inby Governor Kieft, however, provoked the Algonkians

from the homeland and from

activities of irresponsible traders

dian affairs Out of this warfare to attack the Dutch settlements (1641-45). arose an organized movement for a government in which the colonists would have a voice, but in 1642 Kieft refused to accept

reforms which were recommended by an unofficial board of 12 The next year he clashed with another board

leading colonists.

men over the issue of taxes and this board's request to the states-general for the recall of Kieft was granted. Peter Stuyvesant (q.v.), his successor, arrived in May 1647.

of eight

He

agreed to the establishment of a board of nine men, the first permanent board of oiificials in the colony, but he rejected the board's recommendations. The grant of municipal rights to New Amsterdam in 1653 encouraged the towns on Long Island to demand more self-government. The leading men from the province met in a diet and demanded a share in the enactment of the laws and in the election of officials. Stuyvesant dismissed the meeting but the Long Island towns kept up their demands until in 1663 they secured the right to elect their

town meetings.

They

also

won

own

magistrates in

memorable victory for rezealous Calvinist, was especially Flushing which permitted Quaker a

Stuyvesant, a angry at the rebellious town of meetings. His order forbidding Flushing to harbour Quakers led 26 freeholders to sign a remonstrance in 1657 calling for The imprisonment of one of the leaders liberty of conscience. did not stop the Quaker activities in Flushing and in 1662 StuyBowne for allowing meetings in his home. vesant arrested John Bowne was jailed and deported but the directors of the company urged Stuyvesant to end his persecution and eventually Bowne returned to New Netherland a free man. Stuyvesant had more success in conducting foreign affairs. In 1655 a fleet of seven ships and 650 men which he had dispatched captured the Swedish settlements on the Delaware river founded by the New Sweden company in 1637. The English threat was The English government claimed potentially more dangerous. the whole region held by the Dutch, citing the discoveries of John Cabot (1498), the patent of the London and Plymouth companies (1606) and the patent to the council of New England Most threatening of all was the invasion of the Con(1620). necticut valley, the land along the sound and Long Island by Realizing the weakness of New Netherland, English settlers. Stuyvesant was forced in 1650 to sign the humiliating treaty of Hartford with the New England confederacy by which Long The English obtained the part east of a Island was divided. line drawn south from Oyster bay and also secured the region ligious liberty.

NEW YORK

(STATE)

Plate

VIEWS OF NEW YORK STATE Top

left:

Hasbrouck House

at

Newburgh

built in

1750.

George Washing-

ton used it as his headquarters in 1782-83 Top right: Whitefaoe mountain (4,872 ft.), pari of the Adirondack range, with the Ausable river in the foreground Centre lelt: Ore and grain boats on Buffalo creek. Buffalo has been a leading port and industrial centre of the United States since the opening

of the Erie

Canal

in

1825

1898, which took ottom left: The state Capitol at Albany, completed more than 30 years to build ottom right: The Administration building at West Point, th. tary academy

1

NEW YORK

Plate II

SCENES Top

left:

IN

(STATE)

NEW YORK STATE

New York

State thruway, principal traffic artery between Buffalo in the northwest and New York city in the southeast. The photograph shows the road as it runs parallel to the Mohawk river near Fort Plain Top right: Surf-caslina for striped bass at Hampton Bays on the south shore of Long Island

Centre right: Fort Niagara, overlooking Lake Ontario at the mouth of the Niagara river. The first fort on this site was built by the French in 167S,

the present structure in 1725-26 leit: A dairy farm near Syracuse. IVIilk and dairy products provide half of the total annual farm income of New York state Bottom right: Tanker passing through the Erie canal at Walerford, near the junction of the Champlain and Erie divisions of the New York State Barge canal system which is about 525 mi. long

Bottom

more than

NEW YORK west of the Connecticut river although they agreed not to settle within 10 mi. of the Hudson river. Trade regulation, however, led to the final conflict between England and Holland. The Dutch traders constantly interfered with the enforcement of the acts of trade and navigation. Then, on March 22, 1664, Charles of England granted to his brother James, duke of York and Albany, all of the land from the west side of the Connecticut river to the east side of Delaware bay, including Maine, Long Island, Martha's Vineyard and other islands. Col. Richard Nicolls was appointed commander of a fleet Stuyvesant surrendered in Septemto capture New Netherland. ber without fighting and Nicolls replaced him as governor. English Rule. The transition from Dutch to English rule and institutions was accomplished smoothly. The duke of York assumed sole power to make laws, regulate trade, grant land and Completely autocratic rule, however, was limited by fix taxes. several factors such as the great distance from England, demands by inhabitants for home rule, the willingness of governors to make concessions in order to secure co-operation and the requirement in the duke's charter of 1664 that all laws must harmonize with those of the homeland. Governor Nicolls began in 1665 by creating an English county named Yorkshire out of Long Island, Staten Island and Westchester and promulgating a code of laws known as the "duke's laws." This code gave the freeholders of each town a voice in town government through the election of a board of eight overseers and a constable. It also guaranteed reThe code soon was extended to ligious freedom and jury trial. The duke of York had reduced his the rest of the province. holdings in 1664 by granting New Jersey to Lord John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret and Governor Nicolls recognized Connecticut's claims to its present borders. Nicolls was succeeded in 1668 by Col. Francis Lovelace who, as governor, continued the

H

—

policy of conciliation.

In Aug. 1673, Holland and England being at war, a Dutch

fleet

surprised and captured New York and restored Dutch authority and names. The treaty of Westminster in Feb. 1674 reaffirmed the treaty of Breda (1667), and in November the English again took possession in the person of Gov. Edmund Andros. The merchants strenuously resisted Andros' efforts to levy import duties and while he was in England to answer unfounded charges of dishonesty the citizens renewed their demands for a representative assembly. The unrest led the duke in 16S3 to send a new governor, Thomas Dongan, with orders to call the desired assembly. It met in New York city and passed 15 acts, the most important of which was a charter of liberties and privileges that provided for an assembly elected by the freeholders and freemen. This assembly had the power to approve or reject all taxes. When the duke became king of England as James II in 1685, he withdrew his approval of the charter and instructed Dongan to resume full legislative powers. In 1688 he consolidated New York, New Jersey and the New England colonies into the Dominion of New England under the viceregal authority of Andros as governor general.

The news

that the British parliament had dethroned

James and

that Boston's citizens had jailed Governor Andros led to a popular uprising in New York under the leadership of Jacob Leisler (g.v.). Leisler called an assembly which proclaimed James' successors,

William and Mary, as monarchs and formed a committee of public safety to rule. Leisler surrendered the colony on March 29, 1691, to

Henry Sloughter,

the

new governor.

The

landlord-

merchant aristocracy hated Leisler for his democratic tendencies and they persuaded Sloughter and his council to bring charges of treason against Leisler who was tried, convicted and hanged.

The

Leisler rebellion, besides sharpening class cleavages, helped

preserve

New

York's separate existence.

It

also resulted in a

permanent bicameral legislature since Leisler's assembly was made a permanent elected unit and the old council became the upper house. The rise of the assembly and of provincial home rule were the most striking developments in the political history of New York in the 18th century. The extravagances of Gov. Edward Cornbury (1702-08) caused the assembly in 1706 to demand and win the

425

right to appoint its

own

treasurer

when

it

needed

to raise "extraor-

supplies" beyond the normal budget. In 1715 Gov. Robert Hunter (1710-20) agreed unofficially to spend the budget according to a system specified by the colony's leaders. Gov. George Clinton (1743-53) clashed repeatedly with the assembly, which tried to strip him of his powers even over military affairs. Finally a compromise was arranged whereby Clinton could initiate money bills but had to accept a one-year appropriation bill which named officials and fixed salaries. The great landlords of the upper Hudson, led by the Livingston family, organized a new faction in the 1750s to challenge Lieut. Gov. James De Lancey, who had agreed to a tax on land in order to raise revenue for the French and Indian War (1754-63). During the next 20 years the Livingston group in alliance with the Presbyterians, lawyers and artisans tended to challenge the royal prerogative and eventually became the patriots of the American Revolution whereas the De Lancey group, supported by the Anglican Church and the most important merchants of the city, tended to oppose radical measures and they became the Tories (Loyalists) in 1775. The famous libel suit against John Peter Zenger iq.v.), who had established the New York Weekly Journal in 1733, advanced the freedom of the press and to some extent the independence of the judiciary. Gov. William Cosby arrested Zenger in Nov. 1734 for printing criticisms of his administration. At his trial, the jury released Zenger because it held his statements were true and therefore not libelous. In 1805 New York, after the urging by Alexander Hamilton, enlarged the freedom of the press by admitting

dinary

truth as a defense in libel cases. The northern frontier of New

York was a crucial area in the long conflict between England and France for the domination of North America thus the colony was often a battleground in the four Anglo-French wars between 1689 and 1763. Between 1713

—

and 1740 relative calm was maintained on the New York frontier. The French, however, built Ft. Niagara (1726) and Crown Point (1731) on Lake Champlain and Gov. William Burnet countered

by building

Ft.

Oswego

Gov. George Clinton favoured

in 1727.

vigorous action against the French but the assembly would vote him no money. He made William Johnson, a famous Indian trader, the Indian agent for New York but Johnson was able to

win support only from the

Mohawk

tribe.

The Iroquois com-

plained that the land speculators stole their lands and that the government did not protect them from French attacks. To

meet this dissatisfaction the colony's board of trade directed Governor De Lancey to call a colonial congress at Albany in 1754, which Benjamin Franklin advanced his plan for colonial union. The congress adopted the plan with modifications, but the plan was ultimately disapproved by all of the colonies. The congress was

at

partly successful, however, in placating the Iroquois. The British plans for 1755 called for attacks on Ft. Niagara and Crown Point. Neither campaign succeeded although at the battle of Lake George the British defeated the French forces of Baron Ludwig Dieskau. In 1756 the French general Montcalm took Oswego and the following year Ft. William Henry on Lake George. Ticonderoga, Crown Point and Niagara were eventually taken from the French and Montreal fell in 1760. The final British victory in 1763 meant the end of the French threat but it also marked the decline of Iroquois power. Furthermore, it set in motion the forces which led the colonists to seek home rule and finally

independence.

—

The Revolutionary Period. Victory brought to Great Britain. Among them were a large

perplexing

debt, heavy and the necessity of reorganizing the imperial trade. In wrestling with these problems cabinet ministers advanced solutions which encroached upon the home rule of the colonists. The Sugar act of 1764 with its provision for vigorous enforcement provoked the merchants who were suffering from the postwar depression and a currency shortage.

problems

taxes, the administration of

new

territories

in 1765 passed the Stamp documents, licences, commercial instruments, newspapers, pamphlets, etc. The New York assembly authorized a committee to correspond with committees in other colonies and to attend a Stamp Act congress which met in

Irritation

became anger when parliament

act (q.v.),

which imposed a tax on

legal

NEW YORK

+26 New York

of Liberty, a radical group of artisans led by lawyers and merchants, rioted, boycotted British imports and threatened stamp otVicials. The good feeling caused

the signing of the Jay treaty in 1794.

by the repeal of the Stamp act in 1766 turned to dismay when Gov. Henry Moore prorogued the assembly in late 1766 until it should provide for quarters and supplies for British soldiers. The

thor of

Townshend merchants

cily in 1765.

The Sons

acts of 1767. designed to raise further revenue, stirred nonimportation agreement. Finally, in 1770

to sign a

parliament repealed the duties except the tax on tea. Tension relaxed until 1773 when the Tea act was passed. This act annoyed most merchants because it gave the British East India company the right to sell tea through its own agents. Following the example of Boston, a band of men disguised as Indians were dispatched to dump tea into New York harbour. When parlia-

ment passed the "Intolerable

acts'" in retaliation, the

New York

assembly appointed a committee which approved the calling of a continental congress. The first continental congress in Oct. 1774 adopted the "association," an agreement not to import from or export to Britain until American rights were respected. A committee was to be set up in each town, city and county in each of the English colonies in North America to enforce the association (See Co.ntixental Congress, The.) by punishing violators. This action disturbed the conservative majority in the assembly who refused to choose delegates to the second continental congress, but the radicals asked county committees to send representatives to a provincial convention which met on April 20, 1775, and appointed the delegates. News of the battle of Lexington on April 19, 1775, led to the

government in New York. The radicals formed a committee of 100 which in effect governed New York until the second provincial congress met on May 22. There was never a majority of New Yorkers who favoured sevLoyalist sentiment was perhaps stronger ering the imperial tie. Traditional ties of family, in New York than any other state. church and trade were reinforced by the fear of radicals and the Real power, however, destruction of trade by the association. passed to the third provincial congress which met in May 1776 and called for a new government. This congress refused to permit collapse of royal

the

New York

delegates to the second continental congress to sign

the Declaration of Independence on July 4, but the fourth promeeting at White Plains, approved the famous

vincial congress,

document July

9.

Nearly one-third of all the engagements of the Revolutionary War took place in New Y'ork. George Washington came to New York city on April 13, 1776, to prepare against an attack. Britain's Sir William Howe landed with 10.000 men on Staten Island on July 5. He ousted the Americans from Brooklyn and occupied New York city on Sept. 15. Gen. John Burgoyne with 7.700 British and German troops took Ft. Ticonderoga on July 6. 1777. but surrendered his forces at old Saratoga

(

Schuylerville

).

Mean-

while, the British colonel Barry St. Leger led an auxiliary force

from Oswego against Ft. Stanwix (Rome). On Aug. 6 he fought one of the bloodiest battles of the war at Oriskany, where the American commander Nicholas Herkimer was mortally wounded. Deserted by his Indian allies, St. Leger retreated to Oswego. Sir Henry Clinton, who had been left in charge by Howe, led a small expedition up the Hudson, broke through the highland barrier and burned Kingston. When he learned of Burgoyne's imminent defeat. Clinton decided to withdraw to New York city. The failure of the British campaign not only saved upstate New York and New England, but it persuaded France to enter the war as an .\merican ally. Frontier attacks by Tories and Indians caused much damage in the Mohawk and Schoharie valleys. As a result in 1779. the .American generals John Sullivan and James Clinton advanced through the Finger Lakes region to the Genesee valley where they burned about 40 Iroquois villages. The closing episode of the war as far as New Y'ork was concerned was the discovery of Benedict Arnold's attempt in 1 780 to betray West Point and other posts on the Hudson to the British. Washington established his headquarters at Newburgh after the British surrender at Yorktown in 1781. The British left New York city on Nov. 25. 1783, but did not give up their posts on Lake Ontario until 1795 after

.\merican Revolvtio.v. Early 'Years of Statehood.

(For further

details, see

I

—

John Jay was the principal auNew York's first constitution. The structure of government was quite similar to that of colonial New York although the power of the governor was curtailed. Both Jay's appointive and veto power had to be shared with councils which included senators. These councils worked badly and the constitutional convention of 182 1 abolished them. In 1777 George Clinton became the state's He was a first governor and held the office for the next 18 years. champion of the patriots against the Tories, of states' rights against central government and of small farmers against the landed aristocrats. The conservatives wanted a strong government and their leader, Alexander Hamilton, helped call the Constitutional convention in 1787 and he alone of the New York delegation signed the federal constitution which the convention adopted. Nevertheless, his opponents composed about two-thirds of the delegates to the state convention called to ratify the federal 1788. A bare majority for ratification was obtained as the result of Hamilton's arguments, the ratification by Yirginia, and a promise of a bill of rights and the New Hampshire All New Yorkers supthreat of secession by New York city.

constitution in

ported Washington for president and were pleased by the choice

New York

city as the temporary national capital. and foes of the federal constitution continued their rivalry under the designations of Federalists and Antifederalists

of

The

friends

(Clintonian Republicans).

Most

the Livingston family, backed

farmers supported Clinton.

of the aristocracy, except for

Hamilton whereas a majority of the Aaron Burr transformed Tammany

from a fraternal association into an arm of the Republican (future Democratic) party. The Federalists easily elected Jay as governor in 1795. Jay reformed the criminal code and pushed through a law in 1799 providing for gradual emancipation of slaves. The Federalists, however, lost popular support because of their attempts to prosecute Jedediah Peck and other critics of hall

Pres,

John Adams under the federal Sedition

The

of factional strife

De Witt York

act.

return of Clinton as governor in 1801 inaugurated a period

among his Republican followers.

His nephew,

Aaron Burr's political control of New and became mayor in 1803. Burr in 1804 ran for gov-

Clinton, challenged

city

ernor as an independent with Federalist backing. Hamilton's advice to his friends not to vote for Burr added to Burr's hatred of Hamilton and this enmity led to a duel between the two men in which Hamilton was killed. Thereafter, the Federalists declined although the party e.xperienced a temporary revival when the Em-

bargo act and the War of 1812 injured trade and shipping. Gov. Daniel D. Tompkins (1807-17) proved an exceptional war leader during the War of 1812. Tompkins surmounted such diflficulties as the poorly trained militia, obstructive tactics by the Federalist majority in the assembly and incursions by the British. Many of the war's battles were fought along the state's borders. The American plan for an attack on Niagara and Montreal ended ingloriously largely because the state's militia refused to advance beyond the state's borders. British raids on Plattsburgh and Buffalo and the American burning of York (Toronto) occurred in 1813. The next year Capt. Thomas Macdonough defeated a larger British fleet on Lake Champlain and prevented an invasion. Clinton's speech in 1815 demanding canals between the river and Lakes Erie and Champlain met such an enthusiresponse the legislature was forced to make Clinton the head astic of a canal commission. Power Politics. In 1817 Clinton became governor by an almost unanimous vote and, largely through his efforts, the Erie canal was built. About this time, Martin Van Buren and other Republicans such as William L. Marcy and Silas Wright organized a powerful political machine known as the Albany Regency. This

De Witt

Hudson

—

group favoured low taxes, fiscal economy and no government interference with business. At the constitutional convention of 1821, Van Buren reflected the democratic spirit of the day by extending the vote to all white males over 21, but his group refused to give Negroes the vote unless they could meet high property qualificaThe Regency elected Joseph C. Yates in 1822 and ousted tions.

NEW YORK Clinton from the canal commission in 1824. This blunder enraged public opinion and Clinton was swept back into the governor's office in 1825 just in time to open the Erie canal that year.

New York

politics

from 1825 to 1865.

was especially complicated

The two-party system tended

in

to

the period break down

splits within the major parties and the emergence of several new parties. The principal issues were the role of government toward canals and railroads, the extension of slavery to the territories, prohibition of liquor, immigrants and the chartering of banks. Thurlow Weed and William Seward used the Antimasonic party iq.v.) to attack the Albany Regency, which had granted many bank charters to its friends. Weed finally cemented an alhance between the Antimasons and most of the followers of De Witt Clinton. This alliance became known as the Whig party and was the main opposition to the Democratic party between 1834 and 1855. Seward became the first Whig governor in 1838. The Whig program called for the enlargement of the Erie canal and more aid for education. A piece of significant legislation was the Free Banking act of 1838, under which individuals or associations could engage in banking without any .special charter provided they had a paid-up capital of $100,000. The Democratic party was split between the "Hunkers" or conservatives and the "Barnburners"

because of the almost continuous

The conservatives urged the use of canal revenues to complete the canals while the radicals wanted to pay off the state The Barnburners opposed the extension of slavery into the territories, but the Hunkers co-operated with the southern Democrats who often controlled the presidency and the national conIn 1848 the Barnburners created the Free-Soil party and gress. chose Martin Van Buren to run for president. The Democratic split guaranteed a Whig victory for Hamilton Fish as governor and Zachary Taylor as president. But the slavery issue also split the Whigs and the factional fight within the party led to its collapse by 1855. The mortal blow came with the Kansas-Nebraska act of 1854, which led to the formation of the Republican party. Weed, William Seward and Horace Greeley were three of the prominent Whigs who joined the Republicans along with several Barnburners and Free-Soilers. The Republican party attracted upstate farmers and small businessmen and in 1856 elected John King as governor. The national crisis of 1860-61 bewildered New Yorkers, but under the able direction of Republican Gov. Edwin Morgan the state provided supplies, money and almost 500,000 soldiers for the ensuing Civil War. The unfair provisions of the draft act and its clumsy administration were the causes of the draft riots of July 1863 in New York city. New York citizens took the leadership in the humanitarian movement that characterized the period between 1830 and 1860. The state supplied several leading reformers Thomas Eddy, Gerrit Smith, Susan B. Anthony, Theodore Weld in such fields as penology, mental care, temperance, women's rights and antislavery or radicals.

debt.

—

—

Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper estabwhich New England authors marched to the fore. Walt Whitman and Her-

agitation.

lished the state's literary reputation before 1825, after

man

Melville after 1850 re-established the leadership of In music, art and the theatre, New

in literary affairs.

became pacesetter for the nation. New York became the "Empire

New York York

city

by 1830 when it was first manufacturing and transhundreds of thousands of Yankees meant the rapid clearing of forests, stimulation of trade and the growth of factories. The most significant developments in the land history of the state were: the treaty of Hartford of 1786 by which Massachusetts gave up its claims to western New York in return for the land west of Seneca lake plus ten townships near Binghamton; the purchase of land titles from the Indians by Massachusetts and New York agents; the sale of huge tracts to such speculators as Robert Morris, the Holland Land company and the London associates; the rapid distribution of land into the hands of small farmers; the collapse of the old leasehold system; and the rise of speculation in urban real estate from New York city to state"

in population, agriculture, foreign trade,

portation

facilities.

The

influx of

Buffalo.

"Boss" Rule

and Corruption.

— During

the decade following

427

the Civil War, "boss" rule and corruption characterized government operations on the state, county and city levels. Postwar demoralization, the antiquated government structure, the pressure of

business interests for franchises and contracts, the strengthening of machines such as that of Boss William Tweed were the major causes of corruption. The Democratic party generally conpolitical

between 1875 and 1895 under such important leaders as Samuel Tilden (1875-76), who broke up the "canal ring" (see Tilden, Samuel Jones), Grover Cleveland trolled the governorship

(1883-84 and David B. Hill ( 1885-91 ). During these years the Republican party was divided by factional strife with the leader Roscoe Conkling quarreling with Republican presidents Rutherford Hayes, James Garfield and Chester Arthur, for control of patronage especially in the New York custom house. The governorship passed to Republicans between 1895 and 1910 because the public charged the Democrats with corruption and responsibility for the depression of 1893 and because the Republicans were ably led by Theodore Roosevelt and Gov. Charles Evans Hughes. Hughes 1907-10) brought about the regulation of insurance and utility companies, introduced many labour reforms, including the first workmen's compensation law, and took steps to conserve forest and water resources. The split between the progressive followers of Theodore Roosevelt and the conservative Republicans gave the state to the Democrats in 1910 and 1912. An intraparty fight between Democratic Gov. William Sulzer and Boss Charles )

(

Murphy of Tammany hall led to the impeachment of Sulzer in 1913. He was found technically guilty of perjury, misrepresentation

of

campaign expenditures and concealment of evidence. these quarrels were the labour laws passed

More important than

after the diastrous Triangle shirtwaist factory fire in

New York

Robert Wagner, with the aid of Alfred E. Smith, thorough examination of labour conditions and their recommendations were enacted into legislation. Among the laws passed was the Widowed Mothers Pension act. Modern Times.- The Democratic party usually controlled the governor's office from 1918 to 1942 because of the ability of its able leaders such as Smith, Wagner, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Herbert H. Lehman to attract the votes of the foreign-born and their children in the cities. Most immigrants preferred the Democratic party because of its traditional hospitality to immigrants as opposed to the nativistic tendencies of the Federalist-Whig-Republican group; its opposition to prohibition; its sympathy toward labour; and its willingness to use government agencies to combat city in 1911.

made

a

—

the depression of 1930.

The structure and scope of New York's government has been transformed, especially since 1922. Governor Smith (1919-20; 1923-28) left an impressive record despite the obstructive tactics of the Republican-controlled legislature. Smith aroused public opinion to force through his program including the consolidation of 187 bureaus into 18 departments; the executive budget; "home rule" for cities; more state aid to localities for roads, health and education; the expansion of the park system; the eight-hour day; the retention of public power sites; and the expansion of the mental hygiene program. Gov. Franklin D. Roosevelt (1929-33) continued Smith's policies despite the onset of the economic depression in 1930. He arranged for work relief for the unemployed and started a system of old-age pensions. In 1932 Roosevelt succeeded in removing James Walker, colourful mayor of New York The city, whose administration was tainted with corruption. Smith-Roosevelt experiments in social legislation anticipated

much of the Among the

federal

New

policies of

Deal legislation of the 1930s. Governor Lehman (1933-42) were more

stringent regulation of public utilities, low-cost housing projects,

minimum wages

for women, close regulation of the dairy industry, the extension of the merit system to practically all government departments, a liberal welfare program and a balanced budget. In 1942 Thomas E. Dewey, a Republican lawyer who had made a reputation prosecuting rackets in New York city, became govDewey conernor, a position which he held until Jan. 1, 1955. tinued Lehman's efforts to expand agricultural and industrial production for defense during World War II. The state division of commerce sought and secured many government contracts for

NEW YORK

428

New York firms. More than 1,000,000 workers were trained and the state and federal labour boards were successful in settling almost all labour disputes. A special war council co-ordinated efforts to solve such problems as the shortage of farm labour, feed and gasoline, civilian defense, vocational training and food conservation. The Ives-Quinn act of 1945, the first state law of its Its chief purpose kind, forbade discrimination in employment. was to educate employers to hire the best qualified candidates. The five-man commission established by the act was given authority, however, to issue cease and desist orders against violators of Another achievement was the creation of the state its orders. university in 194S, which consolidated the existing state institutions of higher learning and also encouraged the establishment of new two-year community ices

colleges.

were greatly expanded and

in

Under Dewey the health serv1948 the thruway was begun.

His administrations won for Dewey national attention, but he failed in his two campaigns for the presidency. W. .\verell Harriman, a Democrat, barely defeated Republican senator Irving Ives in 1954. Harriman's administration continued the policies begun by Smith, Roosevelt and Lehman and continued by Dewey. Harriman lost his bid for re-election in 1958 to Nelson Rockefeller, who won oftice by more than 500,000 votes and was His program continued re-elected by a similar margin in 1962. the enlargement of social services and tax reforms.

GOVERNMENT New York

has been governed under five constitutions which were adopted in 1777, 1821, 1846, 1894 and 1938 respectively. The constitution of 1938 has 20 articles, including a bill of rights. It

grants the vote to

all

citizens of 21

years or over

who have

months 30 days. Voters must also be able and write English. The constitution provides for revision Every 20 years the voters are given the opportunity in two ways. to approve or reject the convening of a constitutional convention. Any changes by a convention must receive the approval of the resided within the state for

and

1

year, in the county for 4

in the election district for

to read

voters in the next election.

The more frequently used method

of

revision, however, is passage of legislation by two consecutive sessions of the legislature after which the proposed changes are submitted to popular referendum. The governor of New York is a strong executive whose prominent position often makes him a presidential possibility. He is elected for a four-year term along with a lieutenant governor, comptroller, and attorney general. Among the duties and powers of the governor are the construction of the budget, the appointment and removal of many officials, law enforcement, the approval or veto of legislation and the command of the state militia and police. In the event of the death, impeachment, resignation or absence of the governor, the lieutenant governor becomes the chief

executive.

A

constitutional

commerce

amendment

of 1944 added a department of

amendment in 1959 added motor vehicles. The other state departments are those of audit and control, taxation and finance, law, state, public works, conservation, agriculture and markets, labour, educato the state's organization; an

the department of

mental hygiene, social welfare, correction, public servbanking, insurance and civil service. In addition there is an executive department directly under the control of the governor. tion, health,

ice,

The legislative power is vested in a senate of 58 members and an assembly of 150 members, each chamber elected biennially. Both senators and assemblymen are elected from single districts. Republican control of the legislature and the constitutional conventions of 1894 and 1938 has led to the apportionment of seats in such a way as to favour upstate and rural counties over New York city. The legislature meets each year. Most of the work is done by committees whose chairmen have great power in determining what bills will receive approval. Bills approved by both houses are sent to the governor for his signature or veto. The governor has 30 days to study any bills sent within the last ten days of a session, but a bill must have his signature to become law. The court structure defied systematic reorganization from 1846 until 1962 when, under a coristitutional amendment adopted in

1961, centralized administration by a five-man board of the state's highest judges

courts in

New

was established,

a

family court was created and

\'ork city, reorganized in 1959, were consolidated.

Most judges are

elected, usually for a

14-year term.

The

court

of appeals, the states highest court, consists of a chief justice and

from the

This court reviews only questions of law except in cases in which the death penalty is involved. The state is divided into eleven judicial districts each of which six associate justices elected

state at large.

has several supreme court justices. The supreme court has general jurisdiction in law and equity, including both civil and criminal actions. There are four judicial departments in which appellate divisions of the supreme court are established. These courts re-

view cases from the supreme and inferior courts. The governor The court selects the justices who sit on the appellate division. of claims consists of six judges appointed by the governor and nine-year senate for terms. It hears and deterapproved by the mines private claims against the state. Each of the 62 counties (unless wholly included in a city) has The voters elect the more important officials its own officials. such as the county judge, surrogate, sheriff, district attorney, A board of supervisors which has clerk, treasurer and coroner. one supervisor from each town and city ward has executive, legisThe five counties within New York lative and financial powers. city (q.v.) operate under a different pattern and a few counties such as Nassau and Westchester have created the elective position of county executive. Towns provide government for those citizens living outside the borders of cities. Within the towns are villages whose government is organized according to which one of the four Second class towns (generally those under classes they belong. 10,000 population), the most numerous, are governed by a board consisting of the supervisor, two councilmen and two justices of the peace. Cities range in size from Sherrill with about 2,000 people to New York city. Most cities are administered by a mayor and a city council or board of aldermen. Finance and Taxation. The state is financed through the general fund which is divided into two subsidiary funds; the local assistance fund from which appropriations are made in support of units of local government and the state purposes fund from which appropriations are made for the operation of state departments and for debt service. The state's capital construction is provided for through the capital construction fund. The constitution requires that on or before Feb. 1 of each year the governor shall submit a budget to the legislature. The budget contains a complete plan of expenditures for the next fiscal year and also the year's estimated revenues. State expenditures and revenues rose sharply after World War II. The budget for the fiscal year beginning April 1, 1946, called for the expenditure of about $600,000,000; 15 years later the figure was about $2,000,000,000 of which local governments received over $1,000,000,000. State aid for local education increased from about 24% of the total budget to about 33% for the same period. New York spent more money per pupil than any other state. At the same time the state government spent almost 35% of the total budget for its own departments. The largest expenditure was for mental hygiene, In addition, about followed by public works and correction. $300,000,000 annually was appropriated from the separate capital construction fund, most of which was assigned to highways, parkways and grade crossings. In 1959 the legislature raised taxes on gasoline and on cigarettes and the income tax was placed on a withholding basis and the maximum rate raised to 10% on taxable income over $15,000. The chief kinds of taxes in New York are individual income taxes, corporation net income taxes, motor fuels taxes, motor vehicle and operators licences, tobacco products taxes, alcoholic beverages New York ranked after Connecticut taxes and property taxes. and Delaware in size of per capita income. In the 1960s it was

—

about $3,000. The state banking department was created in 18S1. It is required to examine every bank, trust company and other financial In the institution within the state but not the national banks. second half of the 20th century there were about 500 banks in

,

j

|

1

NEW YORK New

York: Places oj 5 ,000 or More Population {I960 Census)'

429

NEW YORK

430 New

York: Places of 5,000 or

PUce

More Population (I960)*— {Continued)

;;

NEW YORK districts setting

up centralized schools.

State University of New York, established by the legislature 1948, comprises the university centres, two medical centres, the Graduate School of Public Affairs, two-year and four-year

The

in

state colleges

The

and

locally sponsored two-year

community

colleges.

university offers programs in liberal arts and science engi-

home economics, industrial and labour relations, veterinary medicine, ceramics, agriculture, forestry, maritime service,

neering,

teacher education, law, pharmacy, medicine, dentistry, social work and business administration. Two-year programs are offered in a variety of fields, liberal arts and technical courses in agricultural, industrial, health and service areas. Several of its colleges offer graduate programs. The university is governed by a board of Each college is locally adtrustees appointed by the governor. ministered.

Units of the university include State university at

Stony Brook; Downstate Medical centre at Brooklyn and Upstate Medical centre at Syracuse; Graduate School of Public Affairs at .Albany; colleges at Brockport, Buffalo, Cortland, Fredonia, Geneseo, New Paltz, Oneonta, Oswego, Plattsburgh and Potsdam; Harpur college at Binghamton; College of Forestry at Syracuse university; Maritime college at Fort Schuyler (New York city); College of Ceramics at Alfred university; and four colleges at Cornell university (agriculture, home economics, veterinary medTwo-year agricultural icine and industrial and labour relations). and technical institutes are at Alfred, Canton, Cobleskill, Delhi, Farmingdale and Morrisville. Two-year community colleges under the program of the university are located throughout the state. The City University of New York formerly College of the City of New York) comprises the municipal four-year colleges administered by the board of higher education of the city of New York. The colleges are City college (1847), Brooklyn college (1930), Hunter college (1870) and Queens college (1937). Under federal control are the United States Military academy at West Point, founded in 1802 and the United States Merchant Marine academy at Kings Point, founded in 1938. Columbia university {q.v.) in New York city, one of the nation's most famous schools, was founded in 1754 as King's college. Its activities suspended during the Revolutionary War, it was reopened in 1 784 as Columbia college under a charter granted by the state of New York. By an act of the state legislature the name of the institution was changed in 1912 to Columbia University of the City of New York. Barnard college (1889) in New York city is the undergraduate Albariy, State university at Buffalo and State university at

431

(Garden City, 1896); Alfred university Annandale-on-Hudson, 1860); Clarkson (1857); Bard college College of New Rochelle College of Technology Potsdam, 1895 (Roman Catholic, 1904); College of St. Rose (Albany, Roman Catholic, 1920); Elmira college (1855); Good Counsel college (White Plains, Roman Catholic, 1923); Hartwick college (Oneonta. related to United Lutheran Church. 1928); Hobart and William Smith colleges (Geneva, Hobart, an affiliate of Episcopal Houghton Church. 1S22 Hofstra university Hempstead, 1935 college (Wesleyan Methodist, 1883); lona college (New Rochelle, university

.•\delphi

(

(

I

Roman

)

:

(

;

)

;

1940); Ithaca college (1892); Keuka college of American Baptist Church. 1892); Le Roman Catholic, 1946); Manhattanville College of the Sacred Heart (Purchase, Roman Catholic, 1841); Maryknoll Teachers college (Roman Catholic, 1931); Niagara university (Roman Catholic, 1856); Notre Dame College of Staten Island (Roman Catholic, 1931); Rensselaer Polytechnic institute (Troy, 1824); Russell Sage college (Troy, 1916); St. Bernardine of Siena college Loudonville. Roman Catholic, 1937) St. Bonaventure university (St. Bonaventure, Roman Catholic, 1859); St. Lawrence university (Canton, 1856); Skidmore college Saratoga Springs, 1911 ); Syracuse university (founded by Methodist Church, 1870); Union college and university (Schenectady and .\lbany, 1795); Utica college (1946); Wagner college (Staten Island, related to the United Lutheran Church of America, 1883) Webb Institute of Naval Architecture (,Glen Cove, 1889); and (

Catholic,

Keuka Park,

Moyne

college

affiliate

(Syracuse,

(

(

Wells college (Aurora, 1868).

HEALTH, WELFARE AND CORRECTIONS

(

Among

women

of Columbia university. the other notable privately controlled colleges and uni-

college for

versities in

New York

are Colgate university (Hamilton, 1819);

Until the latter part of the 19th century private charity or the almshouse were the chief means of caring for the unfortunate but

gradually public agencies expanded their scope of activities to include suitable care to dependent children, the mentally ill, the aged and infirm and the destitute. Local, state and federal governments participate and co-operate in the administration and financing of welfare services.

Public health services in

New York

are handled largely through

the department of health and the department of mental hygiene.

The

latter has the largest staff

and budget of

all

of the state's

more than 100.000 mental patients in administers six state schools for mental defectives, one colony for epileptics, one psychiatric institute for

departments and 18 hospitals.

research in

cares- for

It also

New York

city

for the administration

and one psychiatric hospital for ob-

The department

servation in Syracuse.

of health

is

responsible

and enforcement of the public health laws

and state sanitary code.

It supervises

all

the local health agencies

Cooper Union (1859), founded by Peter Cooper; Cornell university (Ithaca, branches at New York city. Geneva and Buffalo, 1865), especially noted for its agricultural and medical schools;

except those of New York city. Despite spectacular progress in diminishing the death rate from tuberculosis, the department, in the second half of the 20th century, still operated sanitoriums

Fordham university (New York city. Roman Catholic. 1841); Hamilton college (Clinton, 1793); New York university (New York city, 1831); Sarah Lawrence college (Bronxville, 1926), for women; and Vassar college (Poughkeepsie, 1861), for women.

at

Other privately controlled colleges and universities in the state include, in New York city: College of Mount St. Vincent (Roman Catholic, 1910), Finch college (1900), Jewish Theological Seminary of America (1887), Juilliard School of Music (1905), Manhattan college (Roman Catholic, 1853), Manhattan School of Music (1917), Mills College of Education (1909), New School for Social Research (1919), Pace college (1906), Yeshiva university (Jewish Orthodox, 1886); in Brooklyn: Long Island university and C. W. Post college (Brooklyn and Greenvale. 1926), Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn (1854), Pratt institute (1887), St. Francis college (Roman Catholic, 1884), St. John's university (Roman Catholic, 1870), St. Joseph's College for Women (Roman Catholic, 1916); in Buffalo: Canisius college (Roman Catholic, 1870), D'Youville college (Roman Catholic, 1908), Mount St. Joseph Teachers college (Roman Catholic, 1937), Rosary Hill college (Roman Catholic, 1947); in Rochester: Nazareth college (Roman Catholic, 1924), Rochester Institute of Technology (1829), St. John Fisher college (Roman Cathohc, 1948), University of Rochester (1850). Among other New York schools are

Oneonta, Ray Brook and Mt. Morris. The department also sponsors research in the treatment and care of cancer at the Roswell Park Memorial institute in Buffalo and the Rehabilitation hospital at West Haverstraw. The five regional health offices of the state, located at Albany, Buffalo, Syracuse, Rochester and White Plains carry out programs in their regions and aid local agencies.

welfare services offered by New York are administered by departments. For convenience, however, public welfare functions are understood to mean the services controlled by the department of social welfare established in 1867 although under a different name. This department in 1873 received authority to

The many

and inspect all charitable and correctional institutions whether supported by state, local government or private funds. In the second half of the 20th century it supervised nearly 2.500 agencies including about 600 hospitals and dispensaries, more than 400 homes and orphanages and more than 100 child-placing organizations. At the same time, it supervised more than 60 local public welfare districts, granting them financial aid for such programs as visit

old-age assistance, aid to the disabled, assistance to the blind, home relief, veteran aid, foster care of children and other programs. The change in title from prison department to department of correction in 1925 indicated a significant change in attitude toward

—

NEW YORK

432

The main concern was no longer to punish but to New York has restore prisoners to a useful position in society. pioneered in penology as is shown in the development of the Auburn system (see Prison; Silent System) and the establishment of the first state reformatory. Six prisons are of the maximum security type: they are Attica. Auburn, Green Haven. Clinton prison at Danneniora. Great Meadow at Comstock and Sinp W'.illkill prison and Westticid state farm at Sing at Ossining. Bedford Hills are medium security prisons. Reformatories for boys and young men are those at Elmira and the vocational instiOther special institutions are located at tute at West Coxsackie. offenders.

Albion,

Woodbourne and Xapanoch.

The

state hospitals for the

criminal insane are Matteawan at Beacon and Danneniora. New York has had a department of labour since 1901. It enforces laws designed to protect the health and safety of employees; to

improve working conditions;

to establish

to provide benefits to workers eligible for

minimum wages;

unemployment

insur-

ance, workmen's compensation and disability benefits; and to pro-

mote peaceful labour

relations.

THE ECONOMY Living Conditions

—New York

have one of In the second half of

state residents

the highest standards of living in the world.

the 20th century wages and salaries accounted for 6&% of all income flowing to New Yorkers, a substantial increase over the 56%

same period fell, however, from was 9%, a figure lower than the national average because of the lesser role played by agriculture in the economy of the state. Other income, including transfer payments and fringe benefits, have tripled since 1929 and accounted for 5.7% of the total. Income and living conditions improved substantially after World War II. Median income per family reached $5,500 ten years after the war. New York differed from the rest of the U.S. in that there was a much higher percentage of residents engaged in clerical and sales work and a much lower percentage engaged in farming. Nearly 10% of the employed persons in the U.S. lived Property income

for 1929.

30%

in

to

New

in the

Proprietors' income

15%.

York.

Housing standards

in

New York

are markedly higher than the

By

the second half of the 20th century more of the dwelling units had private baths, toilets and hot

national average.

than 83% water; about

90% had mechanical refrigeration and about 82% had central heating. Approximately 11.1% of the houses dated from 1940 or later; almost 53% were built before 1919. Since 1950 a large number of one-family units have been built in the suburban areas. Agriculture

— Good

soil,

excellent

transportation

facilities

and nearby markets have kept New York an important agricultural state. The value of farm products totaled more than $800,000.000

in the

second half of the 20th century.

The economy

of colonial

New York was

tsased

on agriculture,

80% of the people. The colonial aristocracy acquired an unusually large share of the land because of close relations with the governors. Most of the landlords rented their lands for perpetuity or for the lives of the two or which supported more than

three persons named in the lease. Westchester county had six manors which covered more than half its total acreage. Scarsdale, Cortlandt Manor and Philipse Manor included about 400 sq.mi. Livingston Manor, the seat of one of the most distinguished families in

New York

160,000 ac. while Van Rensselaer Manor covered about 750,000 ac. surrounding Albany. Tenants owed the Van Rensselaer family 10 to 14 bu. of wheat for each 100 ac, four fat hens and one day's service with a team. When the tenant sold his farm he had to pay an alienation fee of from one-tenth to one-third of the sale price. This land system retarded the development of upstate New history, included

York

since few immigrants wished to become tenants when freehold farms were obtainable in Pennsylvania, New Jersey and New England. The tenants, resentful of their economic and political

up in revolt on several occasions. In the 1760s antirent agitation swept through the leasehold areas on the east bank of the Hudson but the governor sent troops to put down the inferiority, rose

rebellion.

The

tenants, however,

won some

victories.

The con-

(Tory) estates during the Revolution broke up the manors and estates along the lower Hudson, but the farmers in Albany, Rensselaer, Columbia, Schoharie and Delaware counties had to wait until the 1840s for an end to the leasehold fiscation of loyalist

system.

The rise of commercial farming came hard on the heels of the conquest of upstate by pioneer farmers. At first, wheat was the main cash crop, but by 1850 dairying had advanced to first place. The amount of land cultivated reached its peak in 1880 after which much marginal land was allowed to revert to brush, forest or pasture.

The number

of farms fell from about 160,000 in 1930 to 80,generation (35 yrs.); these farms comprised about 14,During 000,000 ac. the same period the average size of farms rose from 112 ac. to about 150 ac. and the value per farm from $6,180 to more than $20,000.

000

in a

Dairying is by far the most important source of farm income, providing about one-half of the total. Other important sources of farm income are poultry and eggs, livestock products, fruit, vegetables and field crops. The state raises a variety of horticultural specialties including nursery products, crops grown under glass, flower bulbs and seed and competes with Vermont in the production of maple sugar. The fruit and vegetable farms supply the large food-processing industry with such products as apples, cherries, peaches, currants, berries, tomatoes, peas, beans, sweet corn and cabbage. Manufacturing. In New York manufacturing developed slowly as artisans in small shops took care of most local needs. Workingmen, in colonial days, belonged to one of four groups: free labour, apprentices, indentured servants and slaves. Bound labour gradually declined since it was less efficient than free

—

labour.

By 1840 New York

city

won

top rank

among

the cities of the

A

chain of commercial and manufacturing centres grew up along the Erie canal and New York Central railway. The Industrial Revolution progressed fairly slowly, however, and as late as 1850 most goods were made by hand in the home or in the shops of craftsmen. The textile industry had

nation in manufacturing.

War of 1812 when British imports were unobSmall textile factories grew up along the streams of Oneida, Columbia and Dutchess counties. The clothing manufacturers employed the largest number of workers by 1860, with New York city and Rochester as the main centres of the industry. The processing of foodstuffs brewing, milling, meatpacking gradually moved from small local establishments that used water power to larger concerns in the cities where coal was the source of power. New York has ranked first among the states in the value of its manufactures since 1830. The exceptional transportation facilistarted during the tainable.

—

ties,

the commercial supremacy of

New York

city, the location of

the state near the great trade routes, the influx of millions of immi-

grants both skilled and unskilled, the ample financial resources

and the availability of power were the major factors stimulating the industrial development of the Empire state. New York's pattern of manufacturing activity has been distinctive in several respects. For decades the nondurable goods industries employed more than 60% of all the state's manufacturing workers, a percentage considerably higher than that for the nation. Since World War II. however, the durable goods indus-

have grown rapidly offsetting the drop in employment in and other nondurable goods. Similarly, an unusually large percentage of employed workers were engaged in the service trades. The apparel trades accounted for 21% of all manufacturing employees compared with only 6% for the rest of the United States. The ten leading industries in 1860 were flour, men's clothing, sugar refining, leather, liquors, lumber, printing, boots and shoes, machinery and oil; in 1960 they were apparel, printing and publishing, food, machinery, electrical machinery, chemicals, transportation equipment, instruments, fabricated metal products and primary metals. In 1860 most of the industry was engaged in the processing of the products of farm or forest. tries

textiles, clothing

NEW YORK but by mid-20th century heavy goods such as machfcery, metals and transportation equipment were very important to the economy of New York. In the second half of the 20th century, New York state led all of the others in the number of persons employed in the apparel, printing and publishing, paper and paper products, instruments

and furniture industry groups.

The state produced approximately of the country's total output of women's dresses, coats and blouses, 90% of the women's furs and 35% of men's and boys'

50%

tailored clothes. It produced about 70% of the value of photo equipment manufactured in the nation. The total value added to manufactures, rising steadily each year, exceeded $19,000,000,000 in the 1960s.

In upstate New York there are six metropolitan areas that are leading industrial centres. They are Buffalo, Rochester, AlbanyTroy-Schenectady, Syracuse, Utica-Rome and Binghamton. The Buffalo area has the largest steel-producing plants in the state and great aircraft and chemicals plants. Rochester is famous for its manufacture of cameras and scientific instruments. The state's electrical machinery industry is centred in the Schenectady, Utica and Syracuse areas. Syracuse also is famous for china, chemicals and machinery. The Binghamton region specializes in the manufacture of business machines, photographic supplies and shoes. Also, tremendous industrial expansion has taken place on Long Island since 1945, especially in the making of aircraft and instruments. The construction of the St. Lawrence power project has led to the construction of many new factories particularly alu-

minum

plants.

Minerals.— New York produces more than 30 mineral stances.

subare cement, iron ore, stone, sand and gravel, and zinc. Deposits of petroleum and natural

Among them

coke, clays,

gypsum

gas are found in the southwestern part of the state. New York is a leading producer of salt (about 20% of U.S. total) for domestic, industrial and chemical uses. Minor minerals such as talc, emery, garnet and titanium are mined in the Adirondack region. The state ranks about 18th among the states in the value of its mineral output more than $200,000,000. Iron and lead have been mined in New York since colonial days. Troy became a steel-processing centre and steel processed there was used in the construction of the "Monitor" in 1862. Until about 1880 the state remained an important centre of iron mining, but thereafter the industry declined steadily in importance until

—

World War

II. Following the war, however, there was an increase mining of lead, zinc and titanium. For many years. New the only producer among the states of emery and it has been a leader in the production of talc, soapstone and pyrophyllite.

in the

York was

Commerce and Finance.— New York

is by far the leading and retail trade and employs over persons employed in these occupations.

state of the union in wholesale

one-fifth of

the

total

Commerce

has been significant to the economy of New York from its earliest history. The export of breadstuffs increased so rapidly that the flour barrel was placed on the official seal of New York city in 1682.

Most

trade, at that time, consisted of the exchange furs for manufactures from England and for

of foodstuffs and sugar and molasses from the West Indies. Shipowners often ignored the navigation acts by trading with the planters in the French and Spanish West Indies. The port of New York became the leader in foreign trade between 1810 and 1820, and by 1840 had achieved unquestioned supremacy. During the next century it controlled roughly one-half of the nation's foreign commerce, measured in terms of value. It ordinarily handled more than half of the nation's imports and over a third of its exports. The rapid expansion of population and industry in the Gulf states and on the Pacific coast since 1920 has gradually reduced New York's relative share of the nation's commerce, but in the second half of the 20th century it still handled 35% of imports and 27% of exports (by value). The three northern customs districts (Buffalo, Rochester and St. Lawrence) handle almost 30% of all United States trade with Canada, the nation's largest customer. One-half of all passengers to and from foreign countries overseas pass through the port of New York.

New York

city

is

the world's financial centre because of

its

433

stock exchanges, banks and other financial institutions.

Upstate cities also have important financial resources. It has been estimated that about 20% of the total liquid savings in the United States, including time deposits, life insurance equities, savings bonds, saving and loan shares and postal savings are held by residents of New York. New York city banks in the 1960s granted nearly 30';^, of all commercial and business loans in the United States and handled about three-fourths of the financing of the nation's foreign trade. At the on the New York stock exchange

same time, investors transacted and the American stock exchange

93% (based on value) of all security transactions reported on all exchanges. More than 20 life insurance companies, including three of the first four in assets, have their headquarters in New York city. The city also dominates the marine-insurance field. Transportation.— New York has one of the finest harbours on the North Atlantic coast, the best route through the Appalachian barrier and an excellent system of waterways, both natural and

man-made.

The success of the Erie canal, opened in 1825, led to the construction of several lateral canals and the enlargement of the Erie between 1836 and 1862. The steam railways, however, began to challenge the canal especially after 1850. The first railroads began operations about 1831. During the 18S0s the eight short lines across the state began to take freight away from the The establishment of the New York Central railroad in 1853 dramatized the fact that the railroads had become large corporations. In 1851 New York city was linked with Greenbush across the Hudson from Albany by the Hudson River railroad and canal.

the Harlem railroad, and it was indirectly connected with Lake Erie by the Erie railroad which had a line from Piermont on the

Hudson to Dunkirk on the lake. Cornelius Vanderbilt got control of the Hudson River railroad and in 1869 took over the New York Central. This system subsequently acquired connections with Chicago, Montreal and Boston, leased the West Shore railroad in 1886 and purchased several feeder lines. Other important railroads in New York were the Lehigh Valley; the Delaware, Lacka-

wanna and Western; part of the state;

Maine

in the east

;

the Pennsylvania in the central and western the Delaware and Hudson; the Boston and and the Long Island Rail Road. Railroad mile-

age in 1960 was about 7,000. Transportation by water, highway and air challenged the supremacy of the railroads in the 20th century. In 1903 the voters approved the construction of a new Barge canal partly because they wanted to punish the railroads for granting lower through

from Chicago to Philadelphia and Baltimore than from Chicago to New York city. The New York State Barge Canal system, which was not completed until 1918, included 522 mi. of canal with branches to Oswego, Lake Champlain, Seneca lake and rates

Cayuga lake. The Barge canal normally carries about 4,000,000 tons of goods a year, more than half of whicH are petroleum products. (See also Erie Canal.) The taxpayers subsidize the canal system since the shippers do not pay tolls. In the second half of the 20th century New York had about 100,000 mi. of roads which ranged from dirt roads to multilane parkways. In 1948 the state Thruway authority began the construction of a 550-mi. superhighway connecting New York city with Buffalo and the Pennsylvania line. The last link of the thruway from Albany eastward to Massachusetts was opened in 1958. Airlines connect the various cities and the state as a whole with the rest of the country and the world. In the 1960s New York had more than 250 airports, including the huge John F. Kennedy International airport (formerly the New York International airport) at Idlewild on Long Island. See also references under "New

York"

in the Index.

Bibliography.— GcKfra/.- D. M. Ellis et al., A Short History oj York State, with annotated bibliography (1957) A. C. Flick (ed.),

New

;

History of the State oj

New

New

York, 10 vol. (1933-37)

Federal Writers'

;

York: a Guide to the Empire State (1940) R. J. Rayback (ed.), Richards Atlas of New York State (1959) D. M. Ellis and J. A. Frost, Story of the Empire State, for younger readers (1961); Project,

;

;

C. Z. Lincoln, Constitutional History of New York, 5 vol. (1906) see also Public Papers of the governors and annual Reports of various departments and constitutional conventions. Physical Geography: R. S. Tarr, Physical Geography of New York State (1902); W. J. Miller, Geological History of New York State ;

NEW YORK

434

(1924); R. A. Mordoff, "The Climate of New York State," Cornell Extension Bullelin 764 0949); iee also reports and bulletins of the New York Stale Conservation Department. Hhlory: I.. H. Morgan, Lrai^ur of the tlo-iU-nosau-nee or Iroquois (1851); Edmund Wilson, Apoloiiies lo the Iroquois (1060); A. \V. Trclease. Indian Affairs in Colonial »Vfu> i'ork: the Seventeenth Century (1960) J. R. Brodhead, History of the Stale o) New York, 2 vol. (IS5.i-71); E. L. Raesly, Portrait oj Sew Nelherland (1945); E, B. O'Callaghan, Documentary History of the Slate oj New York, 4 vol. (1849-51) and with B. Fernow (eds). Documents Relating to the Colonial History of the Stale of New York Procured, 15 vol. (185383) J. Sullivan, A. C. Flick and Milton Hamilton (eds.), Papers of Sir William Johnson, 12 vol. (1921-57) A. C. Flick, American Revolution in iXew York (1926) and Lo\alism in New York During the Revolution (1901) E. \V. SpauldinR, New York in the Critical Period, 17S3-1789 (1932) and His Excellency, George Clinton, Critic of the Constitution (1938); J. D. Hammond, History of Political Parties in the Stale of New York, 2 vol. (1842); D. S. Alexander, Political History of the State of Nexv York, 4 vol. (1906-23); G. G. Van Deusen, Thurlow Weed: Wizard of the Lobby (1947) and Horace Greeley: NineteenthCentury Crusader (1953) A. C. Flick and G. S. Lobrano, Samuel Jones Tikien (1939); A. Nevins, Grover Cleveland (1932); B. Bellush, Franklin D. Roosevelt as Governor of New York (1955) S. Mitchell, Horatio Seymour of New York (1938) W. Moscow, Politics in the Empire State (1948) R. V. Harlow, Gerrit Smith, Philanthropist and Reformer (1939) W. Cross, Burned-Over District (1950) New York State University, "Historic Sites of New York," pamphlet (annually). For folklore see H. W. Thompson, Body, Boots and Britches (1940) C. Carmcr. Listen for a Lonesome Drum (1936). Government : L. K. Caldwell, Government and Administration of New York (1954) R. Rienow, Our Stale and Local Government (1954); D. Beetle, The New York Citizen (1955); D. C. Sowers, Financial History of New York Stale from 17S9 to 1912 (1914); see also annual volumes of the New Y'ork State Red Book and the Manual for the Use of the Legislature of the State of New York. Education: C. Fitch, Public School: History of Common School Education in New i'ork (1904); H. H. Horner (ed.), Education in New York State, 1784-1954 (1954). Health and Welfare: See annual Reports of the departments of labour, public welfare and mental hygiene; D. M. Schneider, History of Public Welfare in New York State, 1609-1S66 (1938) and with A. Deutsch, History of Public Welfare in New York State, 1S67-1940 (1941) Economy: New Y'ork State Department of Commerce, Business Fads series (1952), also other pamphlets and studies; S. McKee, Labor in Colonial New York, 1664-1776 (1935) I. Mark, Agrarian Conflicts in Colonial New York, 1711-1775 (1940) D. M. Ellis, Landlords and Farmers in the Hudson-Mohawk Region, 1790-1S50 (1946); N. A. McNall, Agricultural History of the Genesee Valley, 1790-1S60 (1952) R. H. J. A. Frost, Life on the Upper Susquehanna, 1783-1860 (1951) Gabriel, Evolution of Long Island (1921); L. Benson, Merchants, Farmers and Railroads (1955) G. R. Tavlor, Transportation Revolution, 1815-1860 (1951) W. J. Lane, Commodore Vanderbilt an Epic of the Steam Age (1942) S. .'\dams, Erie Canal (1953) U. P. Hedrick, History of Agriculture in the State of New York (1933); J. Van VVagenen, Jr., Golden Age of Homespun (1953). Current statistics on production, employment, industry, etc., may be obtained from the pertinent state departments; the principal figures are summarized annually in the Britannica Book of the Year, American edition. (D. M. El.) (CITY), the largest city in the U.S., is situated at the mouth of the Hudson river, there sometimes called the ;

;

;

;

(CITY)

Brother, Kilters, City, Hunter, Hart, Governors (occupied by a U.S. military reservation, Ft. Jay), Welfare (formerly Blackwell's), Ward's, Randall's (latter three occupied

by state and city and numerous islands in Jamaica bay. Liberty Island (name changed from Bedloe's Island June 29, 1960; the site of

institutions

)

and Ellis Island, where the fedgovernment formerly maintained the best-known and most active immigration station, are in Upper New York bay, within the bounds of New Jer.sey. The total water front within New York city is 578 mi., of which Manhattan has 43 mi.; Brooklyn, 201 mi.; the Bronx, 80 mi.; Queens. 197 mi.; and Richmond, 57 mi. The two flanking rivers, the Hudson and the East, are not true rivers. The former, up to Troy, is a tidal arm or narrow inlet of the sea; the latter, a 16-mi. tidal strait, connects New York bay with Long Island sound. F. Bartholdi's Statue of Liberty

i

eral

HISTORY

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

:

;

;

;

NEW YORK

North river. The five boroughs comprising the city are: the Bronx (Bronx county). 54.4 sq.mi.. on the southernmost part of the mainland adjacent to and below Westchester county and separated from the borough of Manhattan by the Harlem river (a canalized waterway connecting the Hudson and East rivers); Manhattan

(New York

county), 31.2 sq.mi., on Manhattan Island between Hudson and East rivers; Queens (Queens county), 126.6 sq.mi., on Long Island adjoining and to the west of Nassau county and separated from the Bronx and Manhattan by the East river; the

Brooklyn (Kings county), 88.8 sq.mi., adjoining and to the south of Queens at the western end of Long Island; and Richmond (Richmond county), 64.4 sq.mi., on Staten Island in New York bay. southwest of Brooklyn and separated from it by the Narrows (a strait connecting

as Kill

van

New York bays) and from Jersey by tidal estuaries known The total area of the city is

Upper and Lower

the mainland of the state of

KuU and Arthur

New Kill.

36S.4 sq.mi. The greatest width of the city, from the eastern boundary line of Queens to the western border of Richmond, is mi.; 25 from the same point in Queens to the western end of 23rd street at the Hudson river in Manhattan, is 16.5 mi. The greatest over-all length, north to south,

The

city's

is

36 mi.

more important small

islands are:

North and South

Discovery and Exploration.

—

New York bay and the Hudson discovered by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine navigator, on April 17, 1524. The first conclusive exriver

were apparently

first

ploration of New York bay and the Hudson river, however, was made by Henry Hudson, an Englishman sailing for the Dutch East

India company, in the "Half Moon" during Sept. and Oct. 1609. Unable to reach the orient around the north of Siberia by way of the ice-packed Arctic ocean, instead of returning to Holland Hudson sailed westward and ultimately into New York harbour. Beginning in 1610, Dutch captains such as Adriaen Block, Hendrick Christiaensen and Cornells Jacobsen May voyaged to Manhattan. The fur trade was the primary attraction. Block explored New

York harbour. Long Island sound, the Connecticut

river as far as

present-day Hartford and discovered Block Island in 1614. On March 27, 1614, the states-general of the Netherlands granted a general charter to 13 shipowners whose five vessels were trading in the New Y'ork area they were required to make four voyages by Jan. 1, 1618, and were given a monopoly of trade in New Netherland. When their charter expired in 1618 the Dutch government declined to renew it. Instead, seeking a western counterpart for their Dutch East India company, the government chartered the Dutch West India company in 1621. This powerful trading corporation was granted a monopoly of trade throughout the western hemisphere. Dutch Period. In 1624, 30 Protestant Walloon families were sent by the company to augment the few trading post settlers already there. Only about eight men remained on Manhattan. The next year more colonists came, and when the first director. Cornells May, was succeeded by director Willem \'erhulst in 1625. the colony numbered almost 200 persons. The government of the New Netherland province was vested in a director-general and a council. These officers, though formally appointed by the company, were subject to the approval of the states-general. The first director-general. Peter Minuit. arrived with additional colonists in 1626. purchased Manhattan Island from the local .Mgonkian Indians with pieces of bright cloth, beads and other trinkets to the value of 60 guldens, or about $24, erected Ft. Amsterdam at the lower end of the island and changed the name of Manhattan to New Amsterdam and made it the seat of government. Recalled by the company in 1631. Minuit was replaced first by Bastiaen Jansen Krol and then by Wouter van Twiller in March 1633 who in turn remained until March 1638, when he was recalled because of his mismanagement. He was succeeded by Willem Kieft. an Amsterdam merchant, whose Indian policy proved disastrous to the colony. He levied a tax on the Algonkian tribes for the presumed purpose of protecting them from the neighbouring fierce Iroquois, but declined to assist them after the Iroquois attacked. The result was four years of intermittent but savage warfare between the Dutch and Algonkins. Kieft's one great virtue was his tolerance of freedom of worship. ;

—

Peter Stu>•^'esant (q.v.), last of the Dutch governors, was appointed in 1646 and administered the colony until the English conquest in 1664. He defied colonists and company alike. Grudgingly, under the company's specific orders, he was compelled to grant the first municipal charter to New Amsterdam on Feb. 2,

NEW YORK

!n In

*"',' '"'"* '^^'"''^'' "!' '' *!" {he world. the worri"2So"« ""'"l"'' 1.250 ft. above street level, exclusive of its television aerial

^T'l

(CITY)

^^ '««

Plate

'n the backflround ,s the Chry.ler bu Idmg Oblong bmldmg at nght on the edge of the East river, ,s the headquarters of the United Nations

MIDTOWN NEW YORK

I

NKW YORK

ri All. TT

,M,c« of the bridges crossing tiie East river. From top to bottom, Wil burg, Manliattan, Brooklyn. The Brooklyn bridge, the first to span the

was opened

for traffic in

1883

(CITY

Freighters tied up at piers along the Brooklyn water front. The busiest in the U.S.. the port of New York handles more than 25,000,000 long tons of bulk cargo annually through its water front, which has a developed frontage of about 460 mi.

NEW YORK FROM THE

AIR

NEW YORK

^Cn'Y)

Looking north along the Hudson river. Right, apartment houses of upper Manhattan; centre, Henry Hudson parl(way (West Side drive) and Riverside drive, major traffic arteries to the city; left, a section of the George Washington bridge to

New

Jersey

Cluster of skyscrapers at the southern tip of Manhattan (the Battery). The area is the centre of the city's financial operations, including banks and trust companies, the New York Stock and American Stock exchanges and other

product and commodity exchanges

NEW YORK FROM THE

AIR

Plate III

Plate IV

Ni:W

YORK

(CITY)

NEW YORK

Busts of famous U.S. citizens Americans, on the campus of

h L'£2i

in the

colonnade of the Hall

New York

university

of

Fame

for

Great

(CITY)

The New York Public

Plate

library,

in

midtown Manhatta

great libraries with a collection of almost 6,000,000 v

V

one of the world's

umes and more than

NIAV

Plate VI

YORK

(CITY)

Sidewalk exhibition of paintings in Greenwich Village, home of many of months the city's artists. Such exhibitions are frequent throughout the warm of the year

Cloisters, medieval art museum located in Fort Tryon park. The building incorporates sections of several European monasteries and a complete RoCollection includes many famous Gothic tapestries

The

manesque chapel.

Egyptian statuary at the Metropolitan Museum

of Art, Central largest collection of art the U.S., including painting, sculpture and decorative arts of all ages and cultures

park. objects

The Metropolitan houses the in

WiWit ART AND MUSEUMS

NEW YORK

CITY

View of the spiral ramps which serve as the galleries of the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum of Non-Objective Art. The last major public building to be designed by Frank Lloyd Wright, the Guggenheim was completed in 1959, the year of Wright's death. Collection includes painting, sculpture and drawings

is

NEW YORK

(CITY)

435

1653, but kept the city under such close supervision the new muIn view of Stuyvesant's nicipal powers were virtually nullified.

and

shortcomings and the feeling that they were employees of an indifferent corporation rather than Dutch nationals, it was inevitable that the populace declined to obey the governor and resist the EngAccordingly, lish ultimatum for the surrender of the province. Stuyvesant was compelled to capitulate on Sept. 8. 1664, to Col. "The English flag was Richard Nicolls without the firing of a shot. raised over the fort, which was renamed Ft. James, after the new proprietor, James, duke of York, and New Amsterdam became New York. English Rule. The rights of the Dutch settlers were carefully maintained at first, and established institutions changed only gradThe English reorganized the city government (1665) with ually. a mayor, five aldermen and a sheriff to be appointed by the governor of the province for a term of one year, and also extended the The third Anglocity limits to include all of Manhattan Island. Dutch War broke out in 1672, and on Aug. 8, 1673, New York was recaptured by the Dutch. Capt. Anthony Colve became the governor-general until the treaty of Westminster ended the war in 1674, and Colve turned the city over to Sir Edmund Andros, the new English governor, who restored the English form of city government. The next century w-as a continuous struggle for control of the city government between the Tory-supported royal governors and The first serious manifestation of the largely Whig populace. American resistance came with the refusal of the merchants of New York and other parts of the province to pay certain duties exacted by the "duke's laws" which had been promulgated in 1665, and which were essentially a code of laws and a constitution for the newly created county of Yorkshire Westchester, Long Island and Staten Island). (See also New York [state]: History.) Gov. Thomas Dongan, one of the colony's ablest governors, arrived in 16S3 with instructions to call a general provincial assembly for which the colonists had been petitioning. Accordingly, the first general assembly rhet on Oct. 17, 1683, in Ft. James, consist-

provements in sanitation. The incompetence of governors Benjamin Fletcher, Lord Cornbury and Francis Lovelace increased resentment against English government; and appointed mayors, though in the main men of good standing and usually merchants, were so frequently changed that few made noticeable impressions upon municipal affairs. An exception was William Peartree (1703-07), who established the first free grammar school and a school for Negro slaves and also improved the jail and provided a debtors' prison in the city hall. Gov. Robert Hunter (1710-20) was one of the ablest administrators in America. In 1710 he endeavored to settle about 3,000 German Palatines in the Hudson valley to produce naval stores, but the attempt failed. Between April 7-21, 1712, an insurrection of Negroes took place but was promptly suppressed by Hunter. Nine white men were slain and many more wounded; in retaliation, 21 Negroes were convicted and executed, some most barbarously, and many others were imprisoned. Twenty-nine years later, on Feb. 28, 1741, the alleged Negro conspiracy to burn the city was uncovered, and between then and Oct. 22, 1742, 14 Negroes were burned at the stake and 18 were hanged; 71 were transported out of the colony, and 3 whites were also executed. In 1730 New York received the Montgomerie charter from Gov. John Montgomerie which increased the municipal power by enabling the mayor to appoint subordinate officers with the advice and consent of the common council, and permitted the mayor with a majority of the common council to enact or repeal any by-laws or ordinances they saw fit. Of especial significance was the trial of John Peter Zenger in the New York city hall in Aug. 1735 on the charge of printing libelous statements in his New York Weekly Journai about Gov. William S. Cosby. Zenger was acquitted in what proved to be a tremendous victory for freedom of the press. The Revolution. By the middle of the 18th centur>' New York city was regarded as the focal point of resistance to the royal authority. Causes of resentment against English rule were soon forthcoming. One was the impressment of New York sailors onto British men-of-war in the harbour of the city. The merchants of the city reacted vigorously in 1764 and 1765 in protest against the Sugar act of 1764. When New York learned of the passage of the Stamp act on April 11, 1765, the citizenry was stunned and indignant. The Stamp Act congress was convened in the city hall from Oct. 7-2S, 1765, with 27 delegates from nine colonies. A Declaration of Rights and Grievances, and additional protests, were dispatched to the British government. The Sons of Liberty iq.v.) commenced perhaps the earliest committee of correspondence in New York city in 1765. While the congress was still in session, a British vessel arrived loaded with stamps, but in the face of popular passion the stamps were secretly landed at night and placed in Ft. George for safekeeping. On Nov. 1. 1765, the date of the act's inception, a crowd proceeded to the fort and to Bowling Green, where Lieut. Gov. Cadwallader Colden was hanged in effigy. Mayor John Cruger, Jr., finally induced Colden to turn the stamps over to the city corporation, but the Sons of Liberty and the merchants were firm in their resistance to the enforcement of the Stamp act and it was finally repealed on March 18, 1766. Rioting between the Sons of Liberty and the British soldiery became an almost daily occurrence. The first serious bloodshed occurred on Aug. 11, 1766, when the Sons of Liberty were erecting a liberty pole; the soldiers charged the citizens with drawn bayoOn nets, wounding several, including their leader Isaac Sears. Jan. 2, 1769, Gov. Henry Moore dissolved the assembly for fail-

—

I

Dongan, 10 councilors and 17 representatives elected by The new assembly on Dec. 8, 1683, divided the city into six wards, each to choose one alderman and one assistant alderman; these 12, together with the mayor and the recorder (a new judgeship of the mayor's court for trying criminal cases) were to comprise the new common council. All former rights and privileges were confirmed; the city was given eminent domain; it could sue and be sued; it could acquire and grant lands; and it could grant and regulate franchises and rights. Freemen could also elect constables and assessors. All these rights were now legally confirmed by Dongan's formal grant of a municipal charter, the first under English rule, on April 27, 1686. In addition, the charter provided for sources of income for the city and conveyed to it the proprietorship of the city hall, the market houses, bridges, wharves, docks, cemeteries, ferries, unoccupied lands and the waters within the city. The city seal presented to the corporation the same year is that which it now employs except that an eagle was substituted for the royal crown in 1784. One of the most important occurrences in this period was Leising of

the free citizenry.

ler's rebellion

(1689-91), the local counterpart of the revolution

England which had dethroned James II. Jacob Leisler (q.v.), new monarchs, William and Mary, seized the local government in their name, and was appointed by the local committee of safety as the equivalent of the first popular governor of in

loyal to the

New York

province. In turn, he obtained the election of Peter de Lanoy as the first popular mayor of the city, a privilege that was to lapse until 1834. William's and Mary's new governor. Col. Henry Sloughter, persuaded by Leisler's foes that he was a traitor, had him and his son-in-law hanged in 1691, the only persons ever hanged in the province or state for treason. In 1695 parliament exonerated them and two years later restored the martyrs' property that had been forfeited by the provincial court. Governor Sloughter appointed as mayor Abraham DePeyster, who was effective in conciliating the warring factions for the time

and responsible for many public improvements. The old "rattle watch" or police of the city was reorganized by DePeyster in 1697

placed again under civil control. DePeyster built new wharves, provided the first system of poor relief and instituted im-

—

In ing to co-operate with the provisions of the Quartering act. Jan. 1770 another liberty pole was cut down by soldiers resulting in the "battle of Golden hill" (John and William streets) on Several Jan. 19. about six weeks before the Boston Massacre. patriots

and soldiers were badly wounded, none fatally, but "much spilt." Frays continued in the days following, and

blood was finally

Mayor Whitehead Hicks

issued a proclamation forbidding

soldiers to leave their barracks unless

missioned their

way

to

accompanied by

a

noncom-

Rumours in early 1774 that tea ships were on New York to carry out Lord North's program of taxa-

officer.

NEW YORK

436 iKiM

by

iiK-aiis

hij;h pitch.

1)1

the

Tea

act of l"7.i kept public

The "London"

iiuli(,'iiation

at

arrived in April 17 74 and a party of and dumped 18 cases of tea into the

Sons of Liberty boarded it harbour. The closure of the port of Boston in punishment for the Boston Tea Party was the signal for the calling of a meeting at I'raunces" tavern and the election of a committee of 51. which issued the call for the lirst intercolonial congress. The committee of 51 was dissol\-ed with the election of a new committee of observation of 60 to enforce in New York the Nonimportation act of the first Continental Congress.

When

the news of Lexingtt>n and

Concord reached

New York

on

April 2i. 1775. a crowd took pos.'iession of city hall and seized the

munitions stored there: two British ships in the harbour were and their cargoes unloaded. The committee of 60 called for the election of a new committee of 100 to arrange for the calling of a war congress of deputies from all New York counties. This provincial congress met in New York and declared its obedience to the Continental Congress. On April 4. 1 776. New York was placed under military rule by Gen. Israel Putnam and Washington later moved his headcjuarters there. On July 12. British Adm. Richard Howe appeared with his fleet in the harbour, but it was not until Aug. 22 that British -troops were landed at Gravesend bay. On Aug. 27 the British took Brooklyn heights. Washington withdrew his troops from Long Island Iq.v.) and reorganized in New York on .Aug. 24. The British then landed at Kips bay on Sept. 15, threw the .Americans back and next endeavoured to cut off the .American army by throwing a line of troops across Manhattan at about present-day 34th street. The Americans slipped through to Harlem heights, where W'ashington again reorganized. On Sept. On 16 the British attacked unsuccessfully at Harlem heights. Sept. 21a fire broke out near Whitehall slip and almost completely destroyed the lower part of the city. Trinity church was burned but St. Paul's and King's college were saved by a shifting of the wind. The following day Nathan Hale, a young spy for the American army who had been condemned by Gen. William Howe, was hanged at a spot near present-day 45th street and First avenue. New York was held by the British troops for the remainder of the war. It was used largely as a prison camp, and as a gathering place for loyalists (Tories). Churches, warehouses, jails and stores were packed with men sick and well. On the site of the fire, a village of huts and tents had sprung up which was called "Canvas Town." A second disastrous fire on Aug. 3, 1778, destroyed another 60 houses and many stores. Robberies were a daily occurrence and citizens could expect no help from the British soldiers. In Wallabout bay. on the East river, an old hulk, the "Jersey," was used by the British as a prison ship and there more than 11.000 men died. The city was in desperate straits for want of supplier, and sickness ravaged the people. There was no government except military rule and the oppression of civilians by the soldiery was the cause of frequent riots. The revenues of the city were appropriated by the military for their private uses. After the surrender of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown, Sir Guy Carleton succeeded the intolerant Sir Henry Clinton in May 1782 and immediately undertook the restoration of law and order. By the time of the British evacuation, Nov. 25, 1783, confidence in British government had partially returned. Formative Years. The parting of Washington from his troops seized

—

came on Dec. 4. 1783, at Fraunces' tavern. After the departure of Washington on Jan. 21, 1784, the state legislature began its sessions in

New

and the city remained the state was permanently removed to Albany.

Y'ork's city hall,

capital until 1797,

when

it

From 1785 to 1790 the federal congress also met in the city hall, and thus the city was for a time both the national and state capital, James Duane was appointed by Gov. George Clinton the first American mayor of New York on Feb. 5, 1784; on Feb. 22 the "Empress of China," sailing from New York, was the first American vessel to enter Asiatic waters; on March 15 the second bank in the U.S., the Bank of New Y'ork, was organized with Alexander Hamilton as one of its directors, and on May 15, by act of legislature, King's college became the state university and its name was changed to Columbia college. Several events foreshadowed the important shape of things to come in the city: in 1786 the city's

(CITY)

p(>|)ulali()n

was

2,i,614;

on June

15,

Co., the city's first fire insurance

1787, the Mutual .Assurance company, was organized; on

first number of the Federalist Papers appeared, an effort sponsored by Hamilton and John Jay, both New A'orkers, and James Madison, to ensure the ratification of the constitution by the state: and in 1789 the Tammany society was founded. On April 30, 789, Washington was inaugurated president at Federal hall at the corner of Broad and Wall streets. The rise of commerce and wealth drew many jjcople to New York and it began Washington made his to take on the appearance of a metropolis. last official visit to Federal hall on Aug. 12, 1790, and then went to New streets and public utilities the new capital, Philadelphia. were laid out. Bellevue hospital, originally established as the Alms on its present site in 1794 for the house in 1736, was located treatment of contagious diseases. Collect pond, later the site of the Tombs (city prison), was the scene of the first trials of John Fitch's steamboat in 1796. The New York Historical society was founded in 1804. With the help of De Witt Clinton, who served as mayor for ten years between 1803 and 1815, there was organized, in 1805. the Society for Establishing a Free School in the City of New York. Under Clinton, schools were built and Columbia college improved, philanthropic organizations increased in number and arts and letters were stimulated. In 1807 there were Although the Embargo 19 newspapers, of which 8 were dailies. act of 1807 struck New York trade a serious blow, it was not without benefit in stimulating domestic industries. The new city hall was completed in 1812, and there was at this time a considerable advance both in architecture and building construction. Many new buildings, including churches, were built, new streets were graded and swamps filled in along the water front. Collect pond was filled in and the hills and valleys of lower Manhattan were rapidly leveled for homes and other structures. In the midst of this prosperity, war was declared against Great

Oct. 27, 1787, the

1

Britain on June 18, 1812. The commerce of the city suffered from blockade, and the city was put in a posture of strong defense, with additional forts built. On Feb. 11, 1815, the ship "Favorite" ar-

rived in New York under a flag of truce with British and American messengers and the peace treaty of Ghent. Under Mayor Jacob Radcliff (1815-17), the common council appropriated $1,000 for free vaccination against smallpox, which periodically ravaged the city. Mayor Cadwallader D. Colden 1818-21 likewise advanced governmental and private services for public welfare. By 1820 the city's population had reached 123,700, for great numbers of immigrants from Europe were arriving. The problems of dealing with this influx of newcomers were taxing the city and its facilities to the limit. A'ellow fever broke out in 1819, 1822 and 1823, and hundreds died daily; another epidemic occurred ten years later and smallpox and malaria also took their toll. Yet, the city continued to grow. The opening of the Erie canal on Nov. 4, 1825. ushered in an even more important phase of New York's commer)

(

cial history.

By 1830 the population of Manhattan Island was 202,589; mass transportation became a problem only partly solved by the horse-drawn stages and the later horse cars. On Dec. 16, 1835, the "great fire" broke out and destroyed nearly 700 buildings in the heart of the city and virtually wiped out the last vestiges of the old Dutch city that had survived the fires of 1776 and 1778. Croton water was furnished the city on July 4, 1842. Blackwell's (now Welfare) Island, purchased in 1828 for $50,000, was made the site of the city's correctional institutions and hospitals. The A^ew York Sim was begun in 1833 by Benjamin H. Day. The Herald of James Gordon Bennett appeared in 1835, the Tribune of Horace Greeley in 1841 and Henry J, Raymond's Times in 1851. On

May 7, 1847, the state legislature authorized the city's board of education to cjiarter a free academy, and the academy later the College of the City of New York; now the City University of New York) was established at Lexington avenue and 23rd street (

in

Jan.

1849.

centre, there

century.

Beyond Union

was

little

The World's

but open

square,

which was a residential middle of the 19th on Murray hill 1856 Central park was

fields at the

fair at the Crystal palace

was the outstanding event of 1853; in purchased. The panic and depression of 1857 paralyzed business.

NEW YORK thousands were without employment, more than 900 merchants failed and riots and disturbances of all kinds ensued. The Civil War Years. That same year the state legislature

—

stepped into the political picture in New York city. Mayor Fernando Wood (1855-58; 1860-62), in the manner of Aaron Burr, had converted Tammany Hall from a political organization into a personal political machine. To weaken his control, the Republicans at Albany reduced his second term from two years to one, and created a metropolitan police board to take over the control of the city's police from Wood's municipal police board. Wood resisted the enforcement of these and other acts and preactively

(CITY)

437

member

of the board of police commissioners. On Jan. 1, 1898, Greater New York city came into being by a charter passed by the state legislature and plebiscites by the communities absorbed. Kings, Richmond and parts of Queens counCroker had led ties were annexed to Manhattan and the Bronx. reputation as a

Tammany

to a

Democratic victory

four-cornered maymayor of the enlarged Van Wyck. The Republican

in a bitter

oralty campaign in 1897 and thus the

first

cipitated a riot.

was his candidate Robert A. party has failed to win a single mayoralty campaign in the greater city's history. Tammany's defeats have been by fusion movements combining reform, anti-Tammany organizations and sometimes the Republicans. Thus, in 1901, Seth Low, fusion candidate,

War,

defeated

in his

Just before the outbreak of the American Civil message of Jan. 6, 1861, to the common council, Mayor to the war and a leader of the Copperheads (g.v.),

Wood, opposed

New York city as a separate state. Abraham Lincoln strengthened his claim

favoured the establishment of It

was

to the

in

New York

that

Republican nomination

in

1860 by his Cooper Union speech

on Feb. 27 of that year. With the coming of the Civil War, the city, recovered from the It financial panic of 1857, boomed by supplying military needs. authorized a loan of $1,000,000 for the defense of the Union, and hundreds of thousands of dollars more were privately pledged. New York was again filled with soldiers. On April 19, 1861, its 7th regiment entrained for Washington, and a week later a mass meeting in Union square pledged loyalty to the Union cause. George Opdyke defeated Wood in the election for mayor. The city's war effort was marred by the draft riots of July 13-16, 1863, a protest against conscription and the $300 bounty system for obMore than 1,000 persons were killed or taining substitutes. wounded and property damage exceeded $1,000,000. Mayor Opdyke reported in 1863 that the people of New York had contributed up to that time $300,000,000 for war purposes and had furnished more than 80,000 men to the Union army. The Brooklyn bridge was begun in 1870, and sanitary conditions, which in 1865 had been thoroughly studied by a citizens' committee and found to be deplorable, were on their way to betterment. The old volunteer fire department was replaced in 1865 by a Metropolitan Fire district that included both New York and Brooklyn, and which possessed a paid, uniformed and trained force. In May 1867 the first tenement house law was passed to regulate the growing number of tenements. The Ahierican Museum of Natural History was incorporated in 1869 and in that same year the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the future Hunter college were founded. Boss Rule And Corruption. At this time the urban political machine appeared, led by the "boss." The chief prototype of this leader was "Boss" William Marcy Tweed (q.v.), who by 1868, as master of Tammany Hall, had manipulated control of the city and county of New York, and enjoyed a virtual stranglehold upon the state as well. He had moved John T. Hoffman mto the governorship and A. Oakey Hall into the mayoralty. Together with other officials, these constituted the "Tweed ring." The ring stole from between $75,000,000 to $200,000,000 during its time of power. Ultimately, the disclosures of this graft by the New York Times in 1871, the biting cartoons of Thomas Nast in Harper's Weekly and the unrelenting campaign of the reform-minded committee of 70 brought about the downfall of the Tweed ring and the imprisonment of some of its members, including Tweed who died in prison in 1878. The next Tammany chieftain was "Boss" John Kelly

—

(1874-86), who fought against political reform. In 1874 the corporate limits of the city were extended to include about 13,000 ac. across the Harlem river taken from Westchester county and formed into the lower Bronx; and on June 6, 1895, the state legislature further annexed about 20,000 ac. including several incorporated villages in Westchester, thereby rounding out the present boundaries of the Bronx. Following Kelly as leader of Tammany was Richard Croker (1886-1902). Reform movements and investigations complicated his regime and in 1894 William L. Strong became Republican mayor and headed a reform administration. Col. George Waring was made commissioner of street cleaning and inaugurated the modern system of street cleaning and refuse collection. Theodore Roosevelt made an enviable

city

Tammany's Edward M. Shepard because

tion.

In

McClellan,

Tammany

of investiga-

and complicity in police corrup1903, Low, however, was defeated by George B.

tions disclosing

Jr.,

graft

Tammany's

candidate.

Tammany and Reform Movements. —Tammany

was in power for approximately 18 out of the next 30 years, and between 1902 and 1924 was led by "Boss" Charles Francis Murphy, whose skill permitted him to survive many defeats that would have deposed a lesser leader. He persisted despite a falHng out with Mayor McClellan during the latter's second administration ( 190509); he was repudiated by Mayor William J. Gaynor (1910-13); and he was badly shaken by the victory of perhaps the most able of the city's mayors, John Purroy Mitchel (1914-17). In McClellan's second term Mitchel had been appointed special investigator after a citizens' civic group published a report on irregularities in the administration of the offices of borough President John F. Ahearn of Manhattan and borough President Lewis Mitchel secured sufficient evidence of F. Haffen of the Bronx. these irregularities to warrant Gov. Charles Evans Hughes's removal of both Ahearn and Haffen. In 1912 District Attorney Charles S. Whitman's exposure of police corruption under Mayor Gaynor helped to make Whitman governor in 1915; Gaynor, wounded in an attempt upon his life, died Sept. 10, 1913. The police scandals during Gaynor's administration, although not of his making, swung popular sympathy against Tammany, and Mitchel, candidate for mayor on a fusion ticket, was elected in 1913. In Sept. 1914 a special aldermanic committee of investigation undertook a complete survey of police administration and methods. The facts finally disclosed furnished clear evidence of Mayor Mitchel's adminispolice incompetency and corruption. tration

was regarded

as exceptionally efficient because of the ad-

ministrative reforms which he instituted.

In the election of 1917 Mitchel was defeated by an overwhelmby the combined forces

ing vote in a four-candidate race, mainly

Murphy, William Randolph Hearst and "Boss" John H. McCooey of Brooklyn. The victor was John F. Hylan, who held office for two terms (1918-25). Hylan was refused party support for a third term. The Tammany leaders selected James J. Walker in Walker defeated the Republican candidate, Frank D. 1925. Waterman. The great issues of the Hylan administration rapid continued paramount under Walker. transit and subway fares In 1932 Walker was summoned before Gov. Franklin D. Roosevelt to answer charges of graft brought by Samuel Seabury, counsel for

of

—

—

the Hofstadter legislative committee, and, failing to halt proceedAfter an interim ings for his removal, resigned Sept. 1, 1932.

under president of the board of aldermen Joseph V. McKee (Sept. 1-Dec. 31, 1932), surrogate John P. O'Brien succeeded in a special election to fill Walker's unexpired term throughout the year 1933. The combination of the Seabury disclosures of widespread Tammany graft and corruption throughout the city government and the serious financial difficulties of the municipality put Fiorello

H. LaGuardia into

He won

city hall as the fusion victor in the election of

and 1941. The LaGuardia administration was noted for the unification of the transportation system under municipal operation; the completion of the Triborough bridge and the Lincoln and Queens Midtown tunnels; the de1933.

re-elections in 1937

velopment of the Delaware water supply system; and the World's fair of 1939 and 1940. The wave of civic regeneration begun by the Seabury investigations was carried on by District Attorney

NEW YORK

(CITY)

AN iSOMETRiC PROjECTiON OF SEA YORK CITY SHOJVING MANHATTAN BETWEEN 22ND STREET ON

NEW YORK

(CITY)

THE SOUTH. THE HUDSON RIVER ON THE WEST. CENTRAL PARK ON THE NORTH AND THE EAST RIVER

439

NEW YORK

+4-0

his staff, ami by John H. Amen, with a and gangster prosecutions and convictions. LaGuardia did not run for re-election in l')4.\ and William O'Dwyer. a Democrat, was elected mayor. The notable achievements of his administration included an extensive building program, with emphasis on schools, hospitals, traffic speedways and public housing. The mayor also instituted a far-reaching program

Thomas

Dewey and

E.

series of political

of administratix'e reform, creating the division of analysis in the bureau of the budget; corresponding methods analysis units in 24

of the major city departments; and the mayor's committee on

management survey. Among the major political issues of the period were the abolition by popular referendum in 1947 of proportional representation as a means of electing the 25 city councilmen and the consequent

(CITY)

between 110th street on the south and 155th street on the north. Third avenue on the east and .\msterdam avenue on the west. The increase of their population and migration from the south after 1940. coupled with the sharp inllux of Puerto Rican immigrants into the east Harlem and Bronx areas, led to the expansion of the original Harlem area and encouraged Negro movement into other neighbourhoods in other boroughs w ith formerly small Negro populations. Negro population by boroughs, as of 1960 was: Bronx, 163,896; Manhattan, 397,101; Brooklyn, 371,405; Queens, 145,855; and Richmond, 9,674. Puerto Rican immigrants constitute the city's newest marginal economic and social group. The Chinese quarter is in the neighbourhood of Chatham square, on Mott, Pell and Doyers streets. The city of New York has the largest Jewish population of any

reduction of the opposition and reform element of the council to Other notable political decisions involved the adoption of a ten-cent fare for the transit system (July 194S), the acceptance of collective bargaining with the subway unions, the refusal to deal with so-called Communist unions, the transfer of the

city in the world.

Port of New York authority on a 50-year lease and the sharp increase in salary rates for the top elected officers. O'Dwyer was re-elected in 1949, but resigned on Sept. 1, 1950, to accept the assignment of U.S. ambassador to Mexico. After his

Mother tongue

a minority of one.

city's airports to the

departure the reputation of his administration suffered with the conviction of James J. IMoran, former first deputy fire commissioner, for income ta.\ evasion, perjury, conspiracy and extortion. In Nov. 1950 Vincent R. Impellitteri, a Democrat running on the independent Experience party ticket, handed Tammany (now

known

ofiicially as the

New York County

Democratic committee)

setback by his surprising defeat of its candidate, Ferdinand Pecora. in a special election to fill the vacancy resulting from O'Dwyer's resignation. Instead of building up the Experience party into an anti-Tammany organization the mayor tried to wrest control of the regular organization from its leader Carmine de Sapio, but without success. Impellitteri did not run for re-election in 1953 and Robert F. a

Wagner,

was nominated

Jr.,

as the

Democratic candidate.

Wag-

ner defeated both Rudolph Halley and Harold Riegelman in the election. Four years later, W'agner went on to defeat Robert K. Christenberry, the Republican candidate, and. he was elected for a third

term

Among Mayor Wagner's

in 1961.

achievements were

the completion of the removal of the elevated transit lines from

Manhattan; the opening

of the great exhibition hall, the Coliseum; and the start of the great Lincoln Square cultural and art centre, A world's fair was opened in

the renovation of city hall;

New York

city in 1964.

POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS New York

had fewer than 200 inhabitants in 1625, and about 1.000 in 1656 and about 16.200 in 1755. Around 17S3 New York began its rapid growth as the leading port of the nation. The first

showed the city's population at 33,131; by 1796. the population nearly doubled over 1786; in 1850, it was

federal census in 1790

515,394; in 1870, the

first

post-Civil

War

census indicated a popu-

lation of 942,292; and. in 1890, the figure

had risen to 1,441,216.

In 189S the present five boroughs were united by the state to form the city of Greater New York and its total population in 1900 was 3.437.202. In 1950 the figure was 7.S91.957. The 1960 popula-

was 7,781.984 and divided as follows: Manhattan, 1,698,281; Bronx. 1.424.815; Brooklyn, 2.627.319; Queens. 1,809.578; and Richmond, 221,991. The New York standard metropolitan statistical area New York city and Nassau, Rockland, Suffolk and Westchester counties) had a population of 10,694,633 in 1960. Almost every national and racial group in the world is represented among the inhabitants of the city. The location of the United Nations in the city adds a diplomatic cosmopolitanism comparable to the ethnic diversity. The Negro population in 1960 w-as 1,087.931. constituting the tion

(

Negro community in the country, and representing a gain of 45.5% over the 1950 figure of 747.608. Negroes between World Wars I and 11 had increasingly made Manhattan's Harlem their centre, both residentially and culturally, bounded generally

largest

The foreign-born population,

as revealed

was distributed by native language

by the 1960 census,

as follows:

Foreign-Born Population as of 1960 Census of _

foreign-born population

NEW YORK GOVERNMENT AND SERVICES

(CITY)

44.1

departments, of 16 boards and commissions and of 3 agencies oper-

—

many

Administrative Organization. The city's basic form of government was inaugurated by the charter passed by the state It legislature that created Greater New York on Jan. 1, 1898. provided for a mayor elected at large, 5 borough presidents, a board of aldermen of 65 elected members with a president elected at large. A comptroller, elected at large, was head of the depart-

ating from his offices, as well as

ment

for the benefits of this retirement system, except those entitled to

of finance.

lesser officials.

and employees of and to staffs of those educational institutions which have special professional standards. In 1920 the city employees' retirement system was put into effect. All persons in city service became eligible Civil service regulations apply to

the city except to those

who

all

officers

are elected, to legislative officers

mayorcouncil type of government was adopted by popular referendum on Nov. 3, 1936, and became effective on Jan. 1, 1938. It provided for a 25-member city council, elected by a system of proporThis system of election was abolished by tional representation. popular referendum in 1947 and, under a new law, councilmen were elected by simple majority vote with one from each of the

share in the police pension fund, the fire department relief fund, the teachers' retirement system or the department of street clean-

state senatorial districts wholly within the city.

Queens and Richmond.

A new

city charter providing generally

On Nov.

7,

1961,

New York

city voters

for a strong

overwhelmingly ap-

proved adoption of another new city charter, providing for the The first major reorganization of the city government since 1936. new charter, effective on Jan. 1, 1963, was designed to increase the executive power of the mayor; to invest the city council with sole legislative power, subject to the mayor's veto; to deprive the board of estimate of its legislating authority and confine it to passing, along with the council, on the mayor's expense and capital budgets and in approving or disapproving major mayoral changes in the budget during the fiscal year; to transfer from the comptroller to the

mayor

the power to

make

the final estimate of gen-

fund revenues for budget-making purposes; to convert the expense budget from a line-item to a program budget; to transfer highway and sewer work from the control of borough presidents lO city departments; and to eliminate local assessments for local improvements. eral

The

city council

was also made more representative by voter-

approval of a second question providing that in the election of 10 additional councilmen-at-large, each party or independent group may nominate only one candidate in each of the five boroughs and that voters may vote for only one of them, the two candidates receiving the highest votes to be declared the victors; thus, increased minority representation was guaranteed. The first such councilmen-at-large were elected in November 1963, S Democrats and 5 Republicans. The city council may pass a law over the mayor's veto by a two-thirds vote within thirty days; it may reduce or increase the budget but the mayor has the power to veto any changes; and it may call for an investigation of the conduct and administration of any city department or agency or of any county within the city. Besides the 10 new borough-wide councilmen, the original 25 councilmen are divided as follows: 9 from Brooklyn, 6 from Manhattan, 5 from Queens, 4 from the Bronx and 1 from Richmond. All councilmen are elected for four-year terms. The board of estimate may add to or subtract from the budget, subject also to the veto of the mayor. The board retains control over zoning, franchises, pier leases, and the leasing and assignment of property; continues as head of the New York city employees' retirement system; and makes recommendations to the mayor or the council on matters of city policy. No franchise granted by the board may be for more than 25 years, except a tunnel-railroad franchise, which may not exceed 50 years. The board is a nonelective body; its membership consists of the mayor, the comptroller and the president of the city council, who each may cast four votes; and the five borough presidents, who each may cast two votes.

With an even stronger mayor-council type of government, the mayor became the responsible directing head of the city. He is the chairman of the board of estimate, recommends legislation, and appoints and

may

dismiss the city administrator, the city con-

struction co-ordinator, the corporation counsel, the commissioner

of investigation and the director of the bureau of the budget.

He

can organize and reorganize the executive office of the mayor and the city departments. Thus, he appoints the commissioners or executive heads of the police, fire, health, hospitals, welfare, correction, sanitation, public works, markets and 18 other municipal

ing relief and pension fund.

An amendment

to the state constitution,

approved by the voters

Dec. 1935, provided for a reform of the county government within the city of New York. There are five county governments within Greater New York, namely. New York, Bronx. Kings,

in

The ofiicers of the five different counties Under the function almost independently of the city officers. amendment the city has the theoretical power through the enactment of local laws to abolish any county office within its limits ex-

cept that of judge, county clerk or district attorney; or it may reassign the functions of county officers, with certain exceptions, to city or other county officials or to the courts. The county clerks are appointed and removable by the appellate division of the supreme court in the judicial department in which their respective

counties are located.

—

Finance and Taxation. The annual expense budget of New York city in the second half of the 20th century amounted to more than $2,000,000,000 or nearly double the amount ten years previously.

Approximately

welfare;

7%

protection;

18>«^

^taranak/ ^*

\^.^

_,.£.

Tathape

WanjiS^ FeiWing. Palmerston North

/

^

>

/

/

^[*ap

**" ^

J

Pa.a,.,/

?%

• Martinbofough

"^V"'

\marlborouGh

there were

separate articles on the districts.

Political Parties.— After the coalition in 1931 of the Liband Reformers, only two parties were represented in parliament: the Labour party; and the National party. Other parties, such as the Social Credit party, contested elections but failed to gain representation. The Labour party, like its counterpart in the U.K., derives its strength chiefly from trade unionism and the urban industrial electorate, while the National party depends mainly on rural interests, merchants and employers. But the policies of both parties make it necessary for them to win the support of a large middle-class element. The parties base their policies and programs largely on annual conferences attended by their members of parliament and by the district representatives of the party organizations. (W. B. Pn.; A. T. Cl.) 4.

erals

5.

Labour Legislation.— As

a result of the legislation of the

power in 1891 New Zealand acquired world fame as a land of advanced social legislation while still in the pioneer stage of economic development. The labour Liberal government which

came

code, established principally

into

by the Industrial Conciliation and

Arbitration act of 1894, provided for the settlement of industrial disputes by judicial means and not by strike action and enabled

compulsory

until 1961,

World War

II strikes

is

when the legislation was modified. During and lockouts were illegal. The position of by the Trade Union act of 1908, largely

also regulated

.

democratic control of unions. cials

by

secret postal ballot

secret ballot to be taken at all

workers had a

It

provided for the election of

and gave the state power any stage during a strike.

minimum

offi-

to require a

After 1944 paid holiday period of 14 days an-

/

Upgef^Hutt •Masterton

'N^y'

By 1962

based on the corresponding British act of 1871. The unions that have exerted the greatest pressure are those of the transport workers, miners, seamen and waterfront workers. As a result of the serious waterfront strike of 1951 legislation was passed to ensure

Vy^

SRaelihi

Stfatlord*

purpose.

952 local authorities functioning. The provincial districts of Auckland, Hawke's Bay, Taranaki and Wellington in the North Island, and Canterbury, Marlborough, Nelson, Otago and Westland in the South Island are merely historic divisions which serve as convenient units for a primary geographical breakdown. The 12 land districts into which the country is divided for the administration of crown land correspond to the provincial districts except that Auckland is split into North Auckland and South Auckland, Hawke's Bay into Hawke's Bay and Gisborne, and Otago into Otago and Southland. See

the unions

.

common

working conditions to be modified to meet changes in the economy without constant recourse to acts of parliament. The system of compulsory arbitration was modified to the point of abolition during the depression of the 1930s. It was restored by an amending act of 1936 which also empowered the court to fix basic wage rates for adult workers and, where practicable, to fix the work week at 40 hours (exclusive of overtime). Union membership was made

NORTH AUCKLAND y^hanBaK"

NORTH

459

of Other types united for a

^

nually.

—

6. Social Security. New Zealand's Old-Age Pensions act (1898) was the first such measure in any British country. Widow's pensions were introduced in 1911; pensions were granted in 191S to miners incapacitated through miner's phthisis or other occupational disease; in 1926 allowances were granted to families having more than two children and limited incomes; blind persons and

chronic invalids also received pensions. The Social Security act of 1938 increased the rates of the various noncontributory civil pensions and placed them on a universal contributory basis. It also introduced a universal superannuation

OUTH

ISLAND

scheme under which were paid irrespective of income received or property made payable for each child irrespective of income or number of family. In 1948 many New Zealand social security benefits were put on a reciprocal basis with those in Australia and family benefits only were made reciprocal with the United Kingdom. A reciprocal agreement for other benefits took effect from April 1, 1956. New Zealanders pay \s. 6d. in each £1 of income to the Social Security fund which is also supplemented from general revenue. Hospitals and Health. Before 1938 the expenses of hospital boards were met by payments from local ratepayers, government benefits

owned.

In 1945 family benefits were

—

ADMINISTRATIVE LAND DISTRICTS OF NEW ZEALAND

NEW ZEALAND

460

subsidies and contributions from those patients who were able to pay. By the Social Security act the responsibility for the patient's

schools have been consolidated and school buses or free railway Correspondence classes are conducted for passes are furnished.

share was transferred to the Social Security fund. The contribution of local ratepayers was reduced in the mid-1950s and after

those in remote areas, and broadcasting

1958 the entire cost was borne by the state. Under the social security scheme every person

is

entitled to

Maternity Medicines prescribed are free. benefits include antenatal and postnatal advice and treatment, athospital. in tention at confinements and treatment and maintenance In private hospitals part of the fee for treatment and maintenance

medical treatment.

covered by the Social Security fund. Through the state advances department, created in Housing. 1894, the government lent money for the purchase of homes and the improvement of farms. In 1934-35 the department was re-

is

—

constituted as the Mortgage corporation, some private share capital being subscribed, but in 1936 the State Advances corporation was founded, with the elimination of private share capital and the

school (1854). Maori Education.

The housing shortage

—

—

Maoris may use their own language in court. The police force, which is a national organization, and the national police training school are maintained wholly by the central government. In 1962 New Zealand appointed its first "ombudsman," an official who examines complaints against the state. 8. Education. The Education act of 1877 made state education in New Zealand free, secular and compulsory between the ages of 7 and 14 (in 1944 raised to 15). It is controlled by a state education department and local education boards. Children between the ages of three and five Kindergartens. may be enrolled at free kindergartens maintained by the Free Kindergarten association. The government makes annual grants tow-ard the support of the kindergartens, but the system is far from universal. In the 1960s there were about 15,000 children on the rolls in about 200 free kindergartens. Primary Schools. Entry to primary school is permissive from the age of five. All state primary schools are coeducational. The syllabus of instruction includes elementary science, agriculture and cultural subjects. Older boys receive instruction in woodwork and metalwork at manual-training centres, and older girls are taught domestic subjects. In country districts where the numbers do not warrant separate secondary schools, older pupils attend district high schools, which are under the same control as the pri-

—

—

—

mary

In addition, intermediate schools provide varied for older children to help them decide on their lines of further education. Postprimary Schools. In 1936 free postprimary education to the end of the year in which he is 19 was offered to every child completing a primary-school course or attaining the age of 14. About 94% of children leaving public primary schools proceed to full-time postprimary schooling. Postprimary (secondary) schools are termed grammar schools in Auckland, colleges in Wellington and high schools in the North Island and over most of the South Island. A secondary and a technical school amalgamated under a single governing body is known as a combined school. Technical schools.

and enriched courses

—

those in the small centres disfall roughly into two types tinguishable from secondary schools only by a more strongly developed practical side; and large technical schools in the main schools

:

—where

city secondary schools provide an academic curIn 1938 the government assumed responsibility for voguidance at postprimary schools. cational Rural Education. Country children, as far as practicable, receive the same educational facilities as town children. Small rural

centres

riculum.

—

Country

—

are King's college, Auckland

became acute during World War II and continued after the war. 7. Justice. The chief justice of New Zealand and a number of puisne judges constitute the supreme court and court of appeal. There are also three special courts arbitration, compensation and land valuation. Magistrates' courts have both civil and criminal jurisdiction, but more serious criminal cases are not tried summarily but are sent to the supreme court for trial or sentence.

used.

is a special feature in rural schools, and projects are undertaken by boys' and girls' agricultural clubs. In 1922 registration of private schools was Private Schools. made compulsory and standards of efficiency and suitability were imposed. The majority of the private primary schools are conducted by the Roman Catholic Church. That denomination and the Anglican and Presbyterian Churches maintain their own secondary schools, generally boarding establishments. Some of the private secondary schools are endowed and run on English publicschool lines and the headmasters of some of the boys' schools belong to the Headmasters' Conference of Great Britain. Of such schools Christ's college, Christchurch (1850), is the oldest. Others

building in 1937.

tunity of purchasing these state houses.

much

agriculture

liberalizing of advances.

The government undertook direct home While actual erection was by private builders the purchase of land and the designing and letting of houses were carFrom 1950 tenants were given the opporried out by the state.

is

teachers are better paid, and every city teacher, to qualify for promotion, serves three years at a country school. The teaching of

(1896), and Wanganui Collegiate

— In

1879 the department of education took over direct control of Maori education. The system has contributed much to the progress of the Maoris. More than half the Maori children attend public schools with white children. The remainder attend Maori schools which number about 150, with a primary enrollment of about 12,000. Maoris are entitled to free secondary education in postprimary schools and in the 11 Maori secondary schools and to postprimary education of a practical nature in 10 Maori district high schools. The Maori has complete equality in citizenship with Europeans and a time can be foreseen when Maori schools will be absorbed by the general system. Higher Education. The University of New Zealand, founded 1870 as an examining body and refounded 1926 as a federal university with constituent universities and university colleges, was dissolved by act of parliament effective Jan. 1, 1962, and its constituent institutions became autonomous universities: University of Auckland (1882), Victoria University of Wellington (1897), University of Canterbury (1873) at Christchurch and University of Otago (1869) at Dunedin. Although each provides the cus-

—

and science, Auckland specializes and fine arts; Victoria in political science, public administration and social science; Canterbury in engineering and fine arts; and Otago in medicine, dentistry, home science, mining and physical education. The two agricultural colleges that had been associated with the University of New Zealand became university colleges of agriculture: Lincoln college (1878) became a constituent college of the University of Canterbury; Massey University College of Manawatu, at Palmerston North, founded 1963 by merger of Massey College (1926) and Palmerston North branch of Victoria University of Wellington (1960), became associated with Victoria. An extramural branch of Auckland became independent in 1964 as the University of Waikato. Adtdt Education. The Workers' Educational association was the pioneer of adult education classes, working with the then uni-

tomary degree courses

in arts

in architecture, engineering

—

A National Council of Adult Education supervises grants to the university areas where local directors of adult education organize adult classes in a variety of subjects. Similarly, postprimary schools extend the night classes to cover nonvocational subjects. Educational Research. With the financial assistance of the Carnegie Corporation of New York, the New Zealand Council for Educational Research was founded in 1933, given statutory existence in 1944 and since 1945 has received government support. Research is also fostered through the assistance of traveling grants under schemes provided by the Imperial Relations trust of the United Kingdom and the U.S. Fulbright grant scheme. 9. Defense. In the South African War of 1899-1902 New Zea-

versity colleges through tutorial classes.

—

—

land sent ten contingents of mounted rifles numbering 6,495 ofl5cers and men. In 1909 compulsory training in peacetime was introduced and in 1914 New Zealand joined in 'World War I. A total of 98,950

men went

overseas, ser\'ing in many parts of the title Australian and New

world, notably at Gallipoli (where the

Zealand

Army

corps was condensed to the famous "Anzac") and

NEW ZEALAND 14%

461

France; 16,697 lost their lives on active service. Compulsory military training in peacetime was suspended in 1930 and New Zealand faced the beginning of World War II with a voluntary territorial force together with the New Zealand division of the Royal Navy (established 1920) and the Royal New Zealand Air Force (established as a separate service in 1937). World War II. New Zealand immediately joined the United Kingdom when Germany attacked Poland. In June 1940 both home and overseas service were put on a compulsory basis. The New Zealand second division (as the new expeditionary force was called) suffered severe casualties in 1941 in Greece and in Crete where the defense of the island was entrusted to its commander, Maj. Gen. B. C. (later Lord) Freyberg. Later in the year the division took part in the advance into Libya. In June 1942 it played a decisive part, at Minkar Kuaim, in stemming the Axis advance into Egypt. It was an assaulting division at El Alamein and was prominent in the pursuit of the Axis forces until their surrender in Tunisia. In Oct. 1943 the division crossed to Italy where it saw further hard fighting particularly at Monte Cassino until the

and hvestock production and the rest in forestry, fishing, hunting, mining and quarrying). Nearly 60% of the population are engaged in building and construction, transport, trade and commerce and services. 1. Agriculture. New Zealand has essentially a pastoral agriculture, based primarily on introduced pasture grasses, the maintenance of productive swards and the support of large numbers of domestic livestock. No other country has so swiftly and so completely and successfully been converted from a pre-European for-

end of the war.

most

in

—

—

—

The 3rd

division,

formed for action

in the Pacific,

The New Zealand naval

operations in the Solomons.

took part in

forces (desig-

New

Zealand Navy in 1941) took an active part in hostilities from Dec. 1939 when the New Zealand cruiser "Achilles" joined in the battle of the River Plate against the German pocket battleship "Admiral Graf Spee." Seven squadrons of the Royal New Zealand Air Force served in Europe with the R.A.F. and 26 with the U.S. forces in the Pacific. In all, 135,000 New Zealanders served overseas, 10,130 were killed, 19,345 wounded and 8,086 taken prisoner. Although conscription did not apply to the Maoris, 7,000 of them served voluntarily. Apart from its fighting men. New Zealand's main contribution was in the maintenance of supplies of meat and dairy produce on which the U.K. depended. To assist the large U.S. forces stationed in New Zealand and elsewhere in the Pacific from 1942, substantial assistance was given by New Zealand under reciprocal aid both in defense construction and the supply of foodstuffs. Postwar. In 1949 all male New Zealanders were made liable for a 14-week period (altered to 10^ weeks in 1956) of military training on becoming 18, followed by 60 days' service over the next three years. The introduction of compulsory training made nated the Royal

—

possible the organization

and training of a division

in

peace-

time.

In fulfillment of its obligations under the United Nations charter New Zealand sent troops and warships to join the United Nations forces in Korea. New Zealand also supplied some officers for the Fiji miUtary forces. Following the Southeast Asia Defense treaty of Sept. 1954 and the commonwealth prime ministers' conference of Jan. 1955, there was a redirection of New Zealand's defense effort, when the country's commitments in the middle east were transferred to the southeast Asia area. In 1958 compulsory military training was abolished but in 1961

form of selective national service for the army was reintroduced. Close co-operation on defense existed between New Zealand, Australia, the U.K. and the U.S. In the mid-1960s a small New Zealand force was serving in Malaysia. (A. T. Cl.) a

V.

THE ECONOMY Production

A.

The economy

New

is extremely dependent on speprimary products, on their disposal overseas and on the large volume of maritime commerce en-

of

Zealand

cialized production, especially of

tailed.

The

thriving trade

is

the basis of the high standard of

living.

in agriculture

—

ested land into a land of productive pasture. No other country has nearly so much livestock in relation to its human population.

Of the total area of 66,390,700 ac. of New Zealand proper (including the minor islands) 43,666,746 ac. are in occupation (excluding land within borough boundaries and in holdings of less than 10 ac). Of the occupied area, more than 21,000,000 ac. are in

sown grasses and Of 23,316,416 ac. of

cultivation, including nearly 19,000,000 ac. in

clovers used for grazing, hay, seed or silage.

unimproved occupied land, more than 13,000,000 ac. are in native tussock and other grasses, much of it used for grazing. Thus al70% of the occupied land (45% of the total area) is devoted

In addition much of the used to feed livestock. Less than 1 of the occupied land is devoted to cereal crops; less than 2% to green, root and other fodder crops; and only 16,000 ac. to orchards. In addition, nurseries and market gardens and specialized crops (grapes, hops, passion fruit, etc.) take 17,000 ac. and private gardens 80,000 ac. Although the acreage of farmland occupied and of sown grasses and annual crops changed little after 1900, the number of sheep and cattle (though not of pigs and horses) increased remarkably, indicating the improved carrying capacity of farmland. Dairy cows increased from 634,000 in 1911 to about 2,000,000 in the 1960s, and sheep from 24,000,000 to nearly 50,000,000. The growth of livestock thus kept pace with the growth of human population but the carrying capacity of the land was doubled. No more men are employed on the land to handle twice the number of sheep and three times the number of cattle kept in 1911. Of importance in this increasingly efficient farm production have been a high degree of specialization; the lavish use of artificial fertilizers (especially lime and superphosphates) the breeding of new and improved grasses and clovers; the discovery and elimination of soil deficiencies; careful selection of breeding stock for performance rather than appearance; the emphasis in pasture management on intensive rotational grazing practices; careful conservation of surplus spring and early summer herbage by the mechanized making of hay and silage and, latterly, the widespread use of aircraft for top dressing with artificial fertilizer, especially of inaccessible hillcountry pastures. Intensive dairy farming on single-family farms of 75-100 ac. closely subdivided, usually in mild, coastal areas and at lower eledirectly to the support of livestock.

arable crops

%

is

;

;

vations, is characteristic of the North Auckland peninsula, the Waikato, the Bay of Plenty, Taranaki and parts of the Manawatu. Most dairy cows are grade (nonpedigree) Jerseys. Annual exports of dairy produce are about 160,000 tons of butter, 100,000 tons of cheese and 75,000 tons of processed milk products (dried milk, casein, etc.).

Farms with emphasis primarily on breeding and rearing sheep much more variable in size and generally much larger

are fewer,

than dairy farms. They occur in all occupied portions of the country: in the windswept, peaty Chatham Islands, in the tussock alpine high country of the South Island, on the deforested and fasteroding hill country inland of Poverty bay and on the subtropical, winterless gumland soil of North Auckland. The fattening of prime "Canterbury Iamb" may also be practised on dairy farms.

—

—

During the 19S0s the net value of output of the primary-produce processing and other manufacturing industries exceeded that of the farming industries. By 1960 the former represented more than 20% of net national income at factor cost. Employment statistics suggest that agriculture and manufacturing are of about equal

The

in the economy more than a quarter of all those in acemployment (23% of them females) are employed in manufacturing; 16% are employed in the primary industries (about

of 500-5,000 ac. and carries Romney flocks, reared for both wool and meat, at a density of 1-5 ewes per ac. The Canterbury plains and downland and parts of east Otago

importance tive

:

tussock grazing lands crown leaseholds are often held in blocks as large as 50,000-80,000 ac. and carry 10-20 fine-wooled ac. Typically North Island hill country, on which pastures of rye grass, browntop or the native danthonia and white clover have replaced the indigenous bush, is subdivided into farms

sheep per 100

NEW ZEALAND

462 and Southland

—

—

have charmixed crop and livestock farm economy in which some combination is made of cash crops (wheat, oats, barley, peas, flax and prass and clover seed"), fodder crops (turnips, lucerne, chou moellier, lupins, rape") and rotational pastures, either for grazing a ewe flock, for fattening store lambs or for the support drier leeward South Island situations

acleristirally a

of a small dairy herd (especially in Southland). Fruit growing and horticulture, overshadowed by the large-scale export farm activities, have in favoured localities proved successAbundant sunshine and economic factors (including transport ful. costs and access to internal markets, processing factories or ports)

Hawke's Bay (Hastings), Nelson, central Otago and the suburban districts. About 2,000,000 bu. of apples and pears are exported annually and following World War II there was a remarkable expansion in the canning, preserving and quick-freezing of both fruit and vegetables. explain the prominence of

Forestry.— The forest industries are of growing the economy and are based on two distinct types of

2.

to

significance forest

— the

remnants of the indigenous forest ("bush") and the planted exotic forests. tall

The

scattered acres of indigenous forests contain

little

and millable timber and are suitable only for regulating stream

flow and erosion control.

The

exotic plantations of nearly 1,000,-

000 ac. are concentrated largely on the volcanic plateau in rapidly maturing stands of Monterey pine (Pimis radiata) and other North American conifers planted mostly between 1926 and 193S. Kaingoroa state forest (260,000 ac.) is claimed to be the world's largest artificial forest. It was planted with conifers in the 1920s-1930s on infertile pumice soil in the centre of South Auckland. Exotics account for nearly two-thirds the annual cut and the proportion is increasing. Numerous small and often temporary mills handle the cut of indigenous timbers, while a few large units cutting 20,000,000 board feet annually process the exotic cut. Timber resources assumed vastly increased importance with the establishment in South Auckland between 1939 and 1959 of modern integrated pulp and paper industries. These have brought new communications and towns to a region long neglected, and contribute significantly to New Zealand's economy. By the 1960s timber products ranked as important in New Zealand's exports as the traditional product, cheese. 3. Fisheries. New Zealand has a long coastline but a small and narrow coastal shelf. Much of the west coast is exposed and has few sheltered harbours. Fishing is done chiefly from east-coast ports (Auckland, Thames, Timaru, Gisborne, Napier, Wellington, Kaikoura, Lyttelton, Akaroa and Bluff) and off eastern shores. Most fish is caught in shallow water by motor trawlers. The most important of the wet fish caught are Australian snapper (Chrysophrys aiiratus), tarakihi (Cheilodactylus macropteriis), hapuku (groper, or Polyprion oxygeneios), blue cod (Parapercis colias), flounder and gurnard. Crayfish, oysters, whitebait and whales assume economic importance. A shore whaling station operates in Tory channel (Queen Charlotte sound) and crayfish tails, exported to the United States, are a significant dollar earner. The east-coast waters of the North Island are renowned for big-game

—

fishing

and Lakes Taupo and Rotorua for brown and rainbow

trout which were successfully introduced. 4.

Mining.

—To the Maoris, nephrite (greenstone) and obsidian

were the most important minerals. In the period of European settlement first gold and then coal proved of outstanding significance. Gold provided capital and attracted population for the development of the country. Coal, even in the days of large hydroelectric plants, continues to supply a significant but declining proportion of the energy required. Important reserves include manganese,

tungsten, uranium, titanium ironsands and bauxite clays. The ilmenite sands on the west coast of the South Island are estimated to contain 43,000,000 tons of ilmenite, and the black iron sands

on the Taranaki and Auckland coast as far north as the Manukau river are estimated to contain 800.000,000 tons of titanomagnetite assaying at 50-59% iron and 5-10% titanium. About 3,000,000 tons of coal are produced annually, mainly on the Waikato, in

Westland and nual output 5.

is

Power.

Southland. Gold production only about iN.Z. 400,000.

in

is

declining

and an-

—Mountainous, well watered and favoured with nat-

New Zealand is generously provided with water power and with suitable sites for generating hydroelectric power. But such sources are badly distributed, with the greatest potential in Fiordland and the Otago-Southland lake district while ural lake reservoirs,

the main demand comes from the populous northern half of the North Island. Petroleum production is negligible, so that petroleum figures prominently among the imports of a country which in relation to population has more oil-burning motor vehicles than all except two other countries. Coal remains an important source especially for industrial and domestic use, and for gas of energy and by-product manufacture. The 1950s saw the harnessing of underground sources of geothermal steam for electric power generation at Wairakei in the thermal belt of the North Island. Hydroelectric generating stations are owned and operated by the government, which supplies power in bulk to regional and

—

urban public supply authorities.

In the 1960s the installed capac-

government hydroelectric stations totaled nearly 1,500,000 kw., more than half of it on the Waikato river, and two-thirds in the North Island. Electricity generated for public supply totaled almost 7.000,000,000 kw.hr. or about 2,800 units per head of population. This is a high figure in view of the limited development of heavy industries, and in fact two-thirds of the consumption is not in factories but in homes and on farms. Domestic demand alone takes almost 60% of the supply, most of it for water and space heating. In the early 1 960s tests at oil wells drilled near Kapuni in Taraity of the

naki confirmed the existence of a natural-gas reservoir estimated to be capable of yielding about 100,000,000 cu.ft. of natural gas daily. Distillate from the gas was to be refined at Whangarei. If gas could be piped to Wellington and Auckland it was expected to

meet half

New

Zealand's needs.

—

6. Industries. Industrial development in New Zealand has long been hampered by the small size of the market, the lack of basic raw materials, successful competition from overseas, the ease of importing in exchange for primary-product exports and the

manufactured goods. and the shortages it occasioned stimulated industrial output. Encouraged by government policy, monetary exchange controls, import licensing, the development of hydroelectric availability of return shipping space for

World War

II

resources, the immigration of skilled workers, the influx of overseas capital, the growth of the internal

market (both in wealth growing tendency to process primary products before export, the availability of new raw materials like softwood timber and domestic pulp for newsprint manufacture, factory industries made such strides in the period 1940-60' as to surpass primary industry both in general economic importance and in the numbers employed. Although during the period the population increased by nearly 50%. the volume of industrial production increased nearly threefold and its employees doubled in number. This development relied increasingly on imported raw or partially processed materials. But manufacturing is still organized on a relatively small scale. Two-thirds of the 8,700 manufacturing establishments had individually ten workers or fewer in the early 1960s, when manufacturing industries absorbed 224,000 persons and in

size), the

(including 55,000 females) out of a total employed population of Farming and other primary industries then employed

893,000.

144,000 persons. Industrial employment is distributed among the urban centres approximately in proportion to total population, with the largest single concentration in Auckland. The most important group are the food industries, including meat freezing and preserving and butter, cheese and other milkproduct manufacturing. These employ nearly one-fifth of those engaged in manufacturing and contribute nearly 40% of the total value of manufacturing output. In numbers employed other industries rank in this order: clothing; textiles and footwear; transport equipment assembly and repair; timber products (excluding furniture) printing and publishing; and machinery. (K. B. C.) ;

B.

New

Trade and Finance

Zealand has always depended on overseas trade for its development about 30% of the national income is derived from exports. Although secondary industries play an increasing part, the ;

—

NEW ZEALAND

463

main exports continue to be agricultural and pastoral products a development that began toward the end of the 19th century with

Wool has always been competed for at auction by a number of countries. The U.K. has been the main traditional market for

the introduction of refrigerated shipping. The value of total trade per head of population is among the highest in the world, amounting to about iN.Z.250 (exports and imports combined) in the

wool, meat and dairy produce, but other major markets have been developed in Europe, North America, Australia, Asia and the far east. There is an expanding trade in the products of the exotic timber industry, including pulp and paper.

1960s.

New Zealand is thus particularly sensitive to changes in world economic conditions. Prosperity largely depends on export and import prices, which are determined by market conditions outside New Zealand. Moreover, exports are confined to a relatively narrow range of products which are subject to considerable price fluctuations. Export prices have sometimes dropped 15-20% in one year, thus necessitating a corresponding reduction in imports, though the reduction may be tempered by drawing upon external exchange reserves or by temporary overseas borrowing. 1. Imports. More than 80% of New Zealand's imports normally consist of articles wholly or mainly manufactured, a large proportion of them being goods (such as vehicles and tractors) that could not be produced economically in the country. In addition, many imports of manufactured or semimanufactured goods form the raw material of further factory processes in the country

—

The principal imports are textile piece (e.g., cotton piece goods). goods and drapery, metals and machinery, sugar, tea, alcoholic liquors, tobacco, paper and stationery, oils, motor vehicles and accessories, chemicals and drugs and manufactured fertilizers. Most of New Zealand's imports come from the fnore highly industrialized countries, nearly 40% coming from the U.K. The next most important suppliers are AustraUa, Asian countries, the

U.S. and European countries.

—

New Zealand is a moderate tariff country and imports enter free of duty. Customs tariffs maintained are a general tariff, a most-favoured-nation tariff at lower rates, and preferential tariffs at still lower rates applying to imports from Commonwealth of Nations countries. The preferential tariff margin, which fostered much of the development of imports from other Commonwealth of Nations countries, is subject to periodic negotiations in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) to which New Zealand is a party. Tariffs are administered by the customs department, which collects about Customs

about half

15%

Tariffs.

its

by this method. Import and Exchange Controls. These controls may be applied to meet serious declines in overseas funds resulting from falling export receipts. If the prices of principal export commodities of total taxation

—

fall heavily, the country cannot easily provide all the overseas funds normally required to pay for imports. Control of imports by licensing was introduced in 1938 to give priority to essential imports and to keep payments within the funds available. This system continued throughout World War II and the early postwar years. By 1951 most of the licensing control was removed. A similar system, in the form of exchange allocations operated through the banks, was reintroduced following a balance of payments crisis in 1952. Relaxation was almost complete by 1958 when import licensing was again applied and it was substantially tightened in 1961. The application of import and exchange controls is a matter for consultation by New Zealand with the other

parties to

GATT.

—

Exports. About 90% of the total value of exports derives from wool, meat and dairy produce. Wool usually constitutes onethird of total exports by value, dairy produce and meat about one2.

quarter each.

New

Zealand wool is principally of crossbred variety, although fine wools are also grown. Dairy produce consists mainly of butter and cheese, but includes dried milk and casein. In the meat trade. New Zealand is famous for high quality lamb and mutton, together with beef, veal and pork. Most of this is exported in frozen form, but better quality beef is merely chilled so that it reaches its destination more like fresh meat. Other traditional exports are hides, skins and pelts; fish and fish liver oils; apples; peas; grass and clover seeds. Newer exports are forest products, most of which go to the Australian market as timber and paper products, particularly newsprint, kraft paper and pulp.

National Finance.

—

Income tax consists of two parts: a income tax of Is. 6d. in the pound on all salaries, wages and other income; and a graduated ordinary income tax. All wage and salary earners have tax deducted at the source on the "pay as you earn" system. Other principal sources of revenue are customs duties, beer duty, sales tax, estate and racing duties, interest, profits from trading, and departmental receipts. The largest single revenue item is the income tax. Government revenue amounts to about 35% of national income. Government Expe?iditiire. The most costly item of expenditure is represented by the social services. The growth of this program each year has been considerable and represents over 50% of total government expenditure. The item included expenditure on health and public hospitals, education, war pensions and social security. The government contribution toward the social services reflects the extent to which the conception of the welfare state has ex3.

flat

rate social security

—

panded. Other expenditures include interest and repayment of debt; works and other capital expenditure subsidies to stabilize the cost of living in consumer goods; maintenance of public works and services; and expenditure on roads. The remainder represents the ;

cost of general

government administration, including defense.

—

Investment. The population is increasing at a rate of more than 2% annually and construction work and capital investment must maintain high levels to meet the demand for more production from farms, forests and factories. New Zealand invests more than 20% of its gross national product each year in the provision of capital assets. House and commercial building is at a high level; electrical generating facilities are being doubled in less than ten years; communications are being extended and improved; provision is being made for increasing numbers of students at schools

and

universities.

About 13% and 9%

to private investment

Government

of the gross national product goes to public

investment.

capital projects in 1963-64, for example, costing

£N.Z. 81, 000,000 included: electricity; land settlement; house coneducation buildings; railways; telephones and telegraphs; and forest development. The program is financed partly from revenue, reserves and miscellaneous receipts, but principally by borrowing through long-term internal and overseas loans. Public Debt. The outstanding public debt in 1962 for the first time exceeded £N.Z.900,000,000. Of this about 84% was held in New Zealand (53% by government departments and 31% by the public), 14% in the U.K. and the remainder in the United States. Except for £N.Z. 240,000,000 raised for war purposes, most of the debt was incurred for productive projects and development and is represented by revenue-producing assets such as railways, struction;

—

hydroelectric plant, telephones and housing.

(G. D. L. W.; A. C. Ss.) 4. Banking. The banking institutions of New Zealand are the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, five trading banks, the Post Office Savings bank and eight trustee savings banks. The Reserve bank, which began operations on Aug. 1, 1934, is state owned. As the

—

central bank, fer of

money

it is

to

authorized to control credit, currency, the transNew Zealand and the disposal of export It also has the duty of maintaining a

and from

receipts held overseas.

high and stable level of activity in New Zealand insofar as this can be effected fiscally. Between 1939 and 1950 the minister of finance could issue directives to the bank on any aspects of central banking practice or policy. In 1950 the law was amended to require the bank to implement resolutions of parliament in respect of its functions or business. The right of note issue was transferred from the trading banks to the Reserve bank on its establishment. The bank also issues and regulates the supply of coin and since 1936 has

Two

managed

of the trading banks, the

National Bank of

New

the public debt.

Bank

of

New

Zealand and the

Zealand, are incorporated by acts of the

NEW ZEALAND

464 New

and standards of fineness as in the U.K. After 1947 cupronickel coins replaced silver. The Reserve bank issues notes in denominations of \Qs., £N.Z.l, £N.Z.5, £N.Z.10 and a few £N.Z.50. (D. L. Ws.; G. D. L. W.; A. C. Ss.)

Zealand parliament. All the share capital in the former, which had been partly state owned, was acquired by the government in 1945. It conducts more than 40^"^ of banking business. The other three banks are predomipantly Australian institutions. All five banks maintain branches and agencies throughout the

C.

country.

The

Following the assumption by the Reserve bank in 1934 of the sole right to issue notes, the trading-bank notes were withdrawn from circulation. Until 1950 the Reserve bank was required to maintain a minimum reserve of 25% of the aggregate amount of the notes and other demand liabilities. This obligation was abolished in 1950 and the bank was required to hold such reserves as, in the opinion of the board of directors, would provide a reasonable margin for contingencies. "Reserve" is defined as gold coin and bullion, sterling exchange, net gold exchange and net holdings of currencies freely convertible into sterling. From 1933 to 1948 exchange rates were based on a selling rate of £N.Z.125 = £100 sterling but from Aug. 1948 the New Zealand pound was at parity

persisted until the advent of

the 1930s.

;

;

subject to permission but the importation of money is not limited; dealings in nonsterling securities held by residents are subject to Reser^'e bank approval and the bank is empowered to acquire such securities if necessary. is

function of controlling credit in New Zealand, the Reser\-e bank introduced in 1942. -nith the co-operation of the trading banks and as an official measure, a selective control over bank advances aimed at combating speculation and other This control was conactivities inconsistent with the war effort.

In pursuance of

its

tinued after the war to avoid expenditure for nonessential purposes or for financing capital expenditure for which other funds were available. The policy was subsequently modified to meet changing conditions and in 1952 was supplemented by increasing the

cash balances which the trading banks were required to hold at the Reserve bank. Up to 1952 each bank had to maintain a balance of not less than 1% of its demand liabilities and 3% of its time liabilities. In subsequent years these ratios varied with the trend upward and in the early 1960s stood at about iQ% and 10% respectively. The Reserve bank's discount rate is 7%. In the 1960s the number of open accounts in the Post Office Savings bank reached more than 2.000,000 or about 80% of the

more than £N.Z. 350,000,000. Interest at 3% is paid on all deposits. The first of New Zealand's eight trustee savings banks was established at Wellington in 1846. The other seven of these nonprofit savings institutions are at population, and the deposits totaled

Auckland, Christchurch, Dunedin. Hamilton. Hokitika, Napier and in" the Waikato. In the 1960s they had more than 500,000 depositors with savings amounting to more than £N.Z. 100,000,000.

In addition, all the savings banks carry national savings accounts which cannot normally be withdrawn for two or three years. They pay 3^% interest and were originally opened in 1940 to help meet war expenditure. In the 1960s these accounts totaled about £N.Z. 50.000.000. 5. Coins and Currency. Gold, silver and bronze coins of Great Britain and Australian gold coins were legal tender in New Zealand until 1935 with Australian silver and bronze in free, though not legal, circulation. New Zealand silver coins were introduced in 1933 and bronze coins in 1939, with denominations

—

— Motor

modern roads and motor

vehicles in

New

Zealand increased from 180,000 in 1930 to 950.000 by 1960, equivalent to one motor vehicle to every 2.5 persons, or one private automobile to every 4.4 persons higher ratios than in any countrj' outside North America. This growth occurred despite the necessity of importing petroleum products and vehicles and despite high import duties and gasoline tax. Of the 57,000 mi. of formed roads in the country more than 13.000 mi. are part of the national highway system and are the direct financial responsibility of the National Roads board. About Dual carriageway high15.000 mi. are tar-sealed or concreted. ways to motorway or expressway standards have been constructed on the approaches to the main metropolitan centres. With the continued increase in the number of motor vehicles and the high level of taxation on gasoline, the National Roads board, which administers about £N.Z.25,000,000 collected annually in motor taxation, has undertaken increased responsibility for the cost and design of highways and relieved the burdens of the local authorities and ratepayers. Urban traffic volumes increased so rapidly after 1950 as to Express motorways were penetratcause formidable problems. ing the heart of the cities. Multistoried parking buildings were constructed in Auckland. Commercial road services for passengers and freight cover the North and South islands. 2. Railways. New Zealand railways date from 1863. though the decade 1870-80 saw the most energetic raOroad building program. The 3.400 mi. of railways built to a gauge of 3 ft. 6 in. are owned and controlled, with a few minor exceptions, by the state. The route mileage is about equally divided between the two islands. Traffic volumes are much heavier in the North Island, and 40% of freight ton-mileage is carried on the Main Trunk line between Auckland and Wellington. In ton-miles, coal, timber, artificial fertilizers, livestock, cement, petroleum products and agricultural vehicles

in

—

mentioned above, the imports themselves may be subject to licensing) other payments within the sterling area are not restricted except capital exports by New Zealand residents and travel allow-

money

Roads.

1.

serve bank with the trading banks acting as its agents, foreign currency receipts for export must be paid to a bank; payments for imports are not subject to exchange restrictions (though, as

export of

two broken and

mountainous islands has made the provision and operation of modern systems of transport difficult and expensive. Most external trade is by sea. Coastal shipping between a large number of small ports, each serving small and often isolated coastal communities,

with sterling. In 1938, to meet a serious fall in overseas reser\'es, control over foreign exchange was introduced in conjunction with export and import licensing regulations. The exchange control system was extended in 1940 as a war measure and continued with modificaUnder the system, administered by the Retions after the war.

ances; remittances to countries outside the sterling area are treated on their merits; interest, dividends and profits may be remitted to any country but capital movements are strictly controlled the

Transport and Communications

irregular dispersion of population through

.

—

lime are the principal items of freight. The densest traffic, passenger and freight, is carried on the relatively short sections of line

between Auckland and Frankton (Hamilton), Wellington-PaekaHutt, and Christchurch-Lyttelton. kariki, Wellington-Upper These last three sections, and the steeply graded S^-mi. section between Arthur's Pass and Otira in the South Island, are electrified the remainder of the system is about equally divided between steam and diesel traction. 3. Shipping. New Zealand is linked by regular shipping servBy direct routes Great Britain ices to most parts of the world. can be reached via the Panama canal in ii days or \'ia South Africa in 35 days; the voyage can also be made wa Australia, the Suez Regular Pacific ser\'ices connect canal and the Mediterranean. with Vancouver, Can., and San Francisco, Calif., via Honolulu, Hawaii and Suva, Fiji. Trans-Tasman services take i\ days between Sydney, Austr., and Auckland or Wellington. An overnight ferry service between Wellington and Lyttelton (Christchurch) was in 1962 supplemented by a service carrying railway wagons (freight cars), motor vehicles and passengers between Wellington and Picton. New Zealand's mercantile fleet consists of about 500 vessels. The chief ports are Auckland, Wellington, Lyttelton and Port Chalmers (Dunedin). 4. Air Transport. The terrain of New Zealand renders surCook strait imposes face transport relatively slow and costly. ;

—

—

further difficulties. Hence internal air transport, especially of passengers and mails, has proved most rewarding. The governmentowned National Airways corporation operates a close network of

NEX0 domestic services on which its aircraft fly more than 8,000,000 mi. annually carrying mail and about 600,000 passengers figures which ;

and population make New Zealand one of the most air-minded of nations. There are 11 airfields in regular commercial use, half of them with all-weather runways and nightin relation to its size

465

L. G. Sutherland (ed.), The Maori People Today (1940); H. Belshaw (ed.>, New Zealand (1947) L. Lipson, The Politics o'f Equality (1948) W. Pember Reeves, The Long White Cloud, 4th ed. (1950) with additional material by A. J. Harrop; C. E. Carrington John Robert Godley of Canterbury (1950) ; C. G. F. Sirakin, The Instability of a Dependent Economy (1951) R. M. Burdon, King Dick (1955); K. Sinclair, Imperial Federation (1955), The Origins of the Maori Wars (1957), A History of New Zealand (1959) ; R. Duff, The Moa-Hunter Period of Maori Culture (1956) A. Sharp, Ancient Woyagers in the Pacific (1957) ; W. P. Morrell and D. 0. W. Hall, A History of New Zealand Life (1957) E. J. Tapp, Early New Zealand 17881841 (1958) ; A. H. McLintock, Crown Colony Government in New Zealand (1958); J. Miller, Early Victorian New Zealand (1958)M. Wright, New Zealand 1769-1840 (1959); M. Turnbull, The New Zealand Bubble (1959) J. E. Gorst, The Maori King (1959), ed. by K. Sinclair; J. B. Condliffe, New Zealand in the Making, 2nd ed. (1959), The Welfare Stale in New Zealand (1959) W. H. OUver, The Story of New Zealand (1960); J. Rutherford, Sir George Grey (1961); P Bloomfield, Edward Gibbon Wakefield (1961) K. J. Scott, The New Zealand Constitution (1962) R. M. Chapman, W. K. Jackson and A. V. Mitchell, New Zealand Politics in Action (1962). Population, Administration and Social Conditions: Ministry of Works, A Survey of New Zealand Population: An analysis of past trends and an estimate of future growth (1960), National Resources Survey, Part I: West Coast Region (1959) ; J, Hight and H. D. Bamford. The Constitutional History and Law of New Zealand (1914); W. P. Morrell, New Zealand (1935) J. A. Lee, Socialism in New Zealand (1938); L. Webb, Government in New Zealand (1940); A. E. Currie, New Zealand and the Statute of Westminster (1944) ; A. Bradyi Democracy in the Dominions (1947) F. A. Simpson, Parliament in New Zealand (1947) ; J. L. Robson (ed.). New Zealand: the Development of Its Laws and Constitution (1954); R. J. Polaschek (ed.). Local Government in New Zealand (1956), Government Administration in New Zealand (1958) ; Department of Statistics, Local Authorities Handbook of New Zealand (annually from 1926), Parliamentary Reports of Government Departments (annually) F. L. W. Wood, New Zealand in The World (1940), The New Zealand People at War (1958), This New Zealand (1958). Studies published by the New Zealand Council for Educational Research, WelUngton, include: Mary Mules and A. G. Butchers, Bibliography of New Zealand Education (1947) R. Winterbourn, Educating Backward Children in New Zealand (1944) Millicent V. Kennedy and H. C. D. Somerset, Bringing Up Crippled Children (1952) ; H. C. McQueen, Vocations for Maori Youth (1945); A. B. Thompson, krfu/t Education in New Zealand (1945) ; J. C. Beaglehole, The University of New Zealand (1937). See also M. H. Holcroft, The Deepening Stream; Cultural Influences in New Zealand, 2nd ed. (1946) ; H-, G. R. Mason, Education To-day and Tomorrow (1945) A. H. Thom, The District High Schools of New Zealand (1950) United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization, Compulsory Education in New Zealand (1952); L. J. Wild, The Development of Agricultural Education in New Zealand (1953) ; G. W. Parkyn (ed.). The Administration of Education in New Zealand (1954).

(1950)

;

I.

;

;

;

flying facihties.

In addition, aerial work operators use aircraft for spreading fertilizer (about 500,000 tons annually), in distributing seed, poi-

soned rabbit

bait, insecticides

and weed

and

dropping supplies, wire, fence posts and other equipment. Since operations started in 1949, more than 20,000,000 ac. (nearly one acre in every three) have been top-dressed with fertihzer from the air. Tasman Empire Airways Ltd. (TEAL) and three other airlines provide New Zealand with international services. Besides operating trans-Tasman schedules it provides a feeder service from Auckland to Nandi, Fiji, connecting with trans-Pacific services and with Papeete, Tahiti. Other airlines (Canadian and killers

in

_

Auckland with San Francisco, Los Angeles, Calif., and Vancouver. TEAL shares the trans-Tasman route with Qantas and BOAC. By 1959 for the first time the number of U.S.)

link

passengers entering or leaving New Zealand by air exceeded those arriving and departing by sea. International air services to New Zealand also carry freight and mail.

Newspapers and Broadcasting.—Improvements in transport have broken down New Zealand's isolation but New Zealanders are still avid readers of cabled news in the press. The four 5.

main metropolitan centres have both morning and evening newspapers with a daily circulation of 750,000. In addition about 35 other dailies are published in smaller towns. Transport difiiculties have prevented the estabhshment of a national daily press but there are three national illustrated weeklies with a total circulation of about 500,000 and numerous weekly or monthly trade and technical papers.

Broadcasting is a government monopoly and was administered as a department of state under a minister of broadcasting until 1962 when a nominally independent broadcasting commission was estabhshed. About half of the 34 medium-wave and 2 short-wave radio transmitters broadcast commercial programs. In metropolitan centres there is always a choice of two radio programs and

sometimes four. Regular television broadcasting began in Auckland in 1960 and was followed by programs broadcast from transmitters in Christchurch, Wellington and Dunedin. Both radio and television rely largely on "canned" programs from records, tape recordings, videotapes and films. See also references under "New Zealand" in the Index. (K. B. C.)

Bibliography.— Genera/; W. J. Harris, Guide to New Zealand RefBooks (1950) H. G. Miller, New Zealand (1950) H S Panton Zealand (1951), E. S^ DoUimore (ed.), New Zealand Guide M. D. Hardwick, Opportunity in New Zealand (1955) Y^\^> JAppIeton,rAey Came to New Zealand (1958) O. Duff, New Zealand Now (1956); A. H. McLintock (ed.), A Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand (1959) Leo White, Pictorial Reference of New Zealand, 2nd ^- "^"' ^"'^'"'^ "f ^^^ ^^"'"""^^ 3rd rev. ed. iJ'^°^V?-„°' Mo.f?(.1901) K. and J. Bigwood, New Zealand in Colour (1961) Physical Geography: J. Marwick et al., Outline of the Geology of J- '^- Kingma, Tectonic History of New Zealand f/n'^nf"''^"'t^l?'*^^.' H. J. Harrington and B. L. Wood, Geological Map (1959) of New Zealand (1959) C. A. Cotton, Volcanoes as Landscape Forms 2nd ed (1952), New Zealand Geomorphology (1955); F. von Hochstetter, Geology of New Zealand, trans, by C. A. Fleming (1959) B. J. Gamier (ed.). New Zealand Weather and Climate (1950) H. H. Allen, Handbook of the Naturalised Flora of New Zealand (1940) R Laing and E. W. Blackwell, Plants of New Zealand, 5th rev. ed. (1949) F Button and J, Drummond, Animals of New Zealand, 4th rev erence

;

New

M

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

of

H

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

The Economy : Department

New

of Statistics,

Zealand

Official

Y ear-

Book (annually from 1893), Report on the Vital Statistics of New Zealand (annually). Statistical Reports of New Zealand (annually); K. B. Cumberland, Soil Erosion in New Zealand, 2nd ed. (1947) K. B. Cumberland and J. W. Fox, New Zealand: A Regional View (1963) H. G. Philpott, A History of the New Zealand Dairy Industry (1937) G. T. Alley and D. 0. W. Hall, The Farmer in New Zealand (1941) W. M. Hamilton, The Dairy Industry of New Zealand (1944) Department of Agriculture, Farming in New Zealand, First and Second Series (1946-47), Primary Production in New Zealand (1952) R. P. Connell and J. W. Hadfield, Agriculture, 6th rev. ed. (1951); R. Firth, Economics of the New Zealand Maori (1959) C. Weststrate, Portrait of a Modern Mixed Economy (1959); H. J. Beeche, Electrical Development in New Zealand fl950) ;

;'

;

;

;

;

;

NEX0, MARTIN ANDERSEN

(1869-19S4), Danish who describes working-class hfe with warmth and unshakable faith in the virtues of the proletariat, was born June 26, 1869, into a working-class family in Copenhagen. As a boy he novelist

^^^ Zealand (1928), New Zealand Beetles Lands and Survey, National Parks of New

W

^- ^- Powell, Native Animals of New Zealand (1947)nr-^'l W. R. B. Oliver, New Zealand Birds, 2nd rev. ed. (1955) D H Graham, A Treasury of New Zealand Fishes (1953); G. M. Thomson, Naturalisation of Animals and Plants in New Zealand (1922) K Wodzicki. Introduced Mammals of New Zealand (1950) G v' Hudson ^"^''^ °f

.

eral years, but after 1901 he was able to earn his living as a writer. During 1923-30 Nex0 lived on Lake Constance and from 1951 to 19S4 in eastern Germany. He died at Dresden, June 1, 1954. Nex0's early works are stamped with the decadence of the 1890s, especially the novel Dryss ("Drizzle"; 1902), though his collection of short stories, Skygger (1898), contained realistic descrip-

•

Department

.

ed

M

•

,^^tZ^"'L'""^ (1934);

.

worked on a farm and as a cobbler's apprentice. He attended high school from 1891 to 1893 and during 1894-96 traveled in southern Europe following an attack of tuberculosis. He taught for sev-

;

Zealand (1961).

;

;

^'"^ P'-ovincial System in New Zealand, i;>?o'iV/,.f.\ ^J^°"^^^' l>S5Z-76 (1964); The Cambridge History of the British Empire vol CBeaglehole, New Zealand. A Short History ^^^?^^ JJ, y,"^,5f' The (1936), Discovery of New Zealand, 2nd ed. (1961) P Buck Vikmgs of The Sunrise (1938), The Coming of the Maori, 2nd ed' ;

H

life. A trip to Spain, described in Soldage Eng. trans.. Days in the Sun, 1929), substituted for his pessimism a behef in the people, the labour movement and the international solidarity of the proletariat concepts which became

tions of working-class (19()3;

—

dominant

in his life.

His epic novel, Pelle Erabreren (4

vol.,

NEY—NEZ PERCE

466

Conqueror, 1913-16), describes the from poverty on progress of a worker "the unendowed man" the land to an artisan's life in a little provincial town and to trade unionism in the city. Nex0's other great novel, Ditte Menneskebam (5 vol., 1917-21; Eng. trans., 1920-23), is the chronicle of a woman's destiny, fraught with suffering and sacrifice. During this period Nex0 also wrote short stories collected in Muldskud, i-iii (1922-24). After the Russian Revolution, Nex0 sided with the Soviet Union, which he visited often and praised in his travel book Mod Dagningen (1923). His communism antagonized Danish public opinion. His later works include four volumes of reminiscences (1932-39) which are among the most human and best-written memoirs in Danish literature. Morten hin Rode (1945) and Den jortahte Generation (1948) continue the story of Pelle with a Communist interpretation of political events between the wars. His motives and ideals, the universal appeal of his subjects and the warmth of his style made Nex0 the best-known Danish author after Hans Christian Andersen, and his books have been widely 1906-10; Eng.

trans,, Pelle the

—

—

translated.

—

Bibliography. Harry Slochower, Three Ways of Modern Man (1937); Svend Erichsen, Martin Andersen Nex0 (1938); Walter A. Berendson, Martin Andersen Nex0 (1948); S. M. Kristensen, Martin Andersen Nex0's Beger: En bibliografi (1948). (S. M. K.)

NEY, MICHEL, Due d'Elchingen and Prince de la Mos(1769-1815), French army officer, one of the emperor Napoleon Fs marshals, a military hero whose death sentence made KOWA him

a martyr against the forces of reaction

and

political expedi-

ency, was born at Saarlouis on Jan. 10. 1769, the son of a cooper. Speaking German (his mother's language) as well as French, he

worked for a time as a lawyer's clerk before enlisting in a French hussar regiment in 1788. Ney rose to high rank in the French Revolutionary Wars before reaching the summit of his greatness in the Napoleonic Wars (qq.v.). His former colonel took him as aide-de-camp in 1792. A captain in 1794, he was picked out by J. B. Kleber as a hussar "partisan," and he led light cavalry and infantry in all the actions of the army of Sambre-et-Meuse to 1797, becoming general of brigade in 1796. Under Jean Bernadotte's command, he boldly took Mannheim by surprise in March 1799. He was then promoted general of division to command Andre Massena's "vanguard" in Switzerland, but was wounded on May 27, near Winterthur. In August he w^as transferred by Bemadotte, now minister of war, to Mannheim. In temporary command in chief, he formed the small army of the Rhine in mobile brigades, with which he acted offensively as a typical hussar leader. A division under J. V. Moreau in 1800 was Ney's first command of infantry of the line in battle; he was conspicuous at Hohenlinden. Napoleon Bonaparte, as first consul, received him cordially in May 1801 and Josephine arranged his marriage to Aglae Auguie next year. Ney was put in charge of the political and military organization of Switzerland from Oct. 1802 to Dec. 1803; thence he was sent to command the camp at Montreuil. On May 19, 1804, Ney was made a marshal of the empire. An admirable trainer of troops, he formed the fine VI corps which served under his orders till 1811. In 1805 his brilliant attack across the Danube at Elchingen (for which in 1808 he was created due d'Elchingen) made the surrender of Ulm inevitable, after which he was sent to clear the Tirol flank. His premature attack at Jena in 1806 and his rash advance almost to Konigsberg in Jan, 1807 were criticized by Napoleon, and his action at Eylau was ineffective; but he led the decisive attack at Friedland and was described by the emperor as the "bravest of the brave." Ney was sent to Spain at his own request in Aug. 1808, hoping for the command in chief, and rallied King Joseph's troops on the Ebro (see Peninsular War). He resumed his corps in Napoleon's operations and occupied Galicia and the Asturias temporarily. He resented Massena's supreme command (1810) and was pained by the losses of his corps; at last, after a most skilful retreat from Portugal, he refused to obey Massena and was re;

moved by him from In Aug. 1811

his

Ney was

command. at

Boulogne camp, forming the new III

corps for the invasion of Russia. In 1812 he commanded the centre at Borodino and was created prince de la Moskowa (the Moskva river) on the evening of the victory. In the retreat he was a tower of strength, animating the rear guard with his sublime

Near Smolensk he was cut

courage.

frozen Dnieper to rejoin Napoleon

off,

and

his escape across the

made him

the hero of the

army. At Kovno on Dec. 13 he stood in the ranks musket in hand; and he brought the last remnant to Konigsberg. The strongest corps of the army of 1813 was given to him; and he commanded two corps in the battle of Bautzen with less success than was expected. But on Aug. 23 he was called to command three corps His defeat at Dennewitz on Sept. 6 detached before Berlin. showed that he could not command an army, and in 1814 he had only 2,000 of the young guard under Napoleon's direct command. He was the most prominent of the army leaders who confronted Napoleon at Fontainebleau to demand his abdication in April 1814, though the marquis de Caulaincourt, his colleague, thought that Ney exaggerated his account of their interviews and did not want the return of the Bourbons. Ney's conduct made him a peer and governor of Besangon for Louis XVIII under the first Restoration, but he felt the loss of his grants and was insulted by the attitude of the returned emigres toward his wife at court. Hearing that Napoleon had landed again in France on March 1, 181S, he concentrated the Besangon troops with the famous declaration that the usurper should be brought to Paris in an iron cage; but on March 13, on the impulse of the moment and certainly not by premeditation, he received Napoleon's envoy, and the next day he publicly declared himself for Napoleon. He was received kindly but had no command. The army was already marching when Napoleon called him to the front. He arrived on June 13 without horses or staff and, on June IS, was sent to take charge of the two corps on the left wing. Much controversy has raged over Ney's strategy and tactics in this improvised command at the battle of Quatre Bras

—

(5ee Waterloo Campaign). At Waterloo, Ney was a battle leader again, not a general. He did not co-ordinate the French attacks; and when he took the initiative of engaging the whole heavy cavalry Napoleon observed that this

was premature,

as Ney's action at

the cavalry he rode in four charges

he was dismounted for the

up

Jena had been.

With

to the British squares;

and

time in the last desperate attack courage was extinguished he made no attempt to rally the troops and left the army at once. On June 22 he shocked opinion by a despairing speech in the chamber of peers and on July 6 he left Paris with a passport to Switzerland. He decided, however, to take refuge in the Cantal, where he was arrested on Aug, 5. On hearing this news, Louis XVIII exclaimed: "By letting himself be caught he has done us more harm than he did on March 13!" of the guards.

When

all

fifth

was

lost his

;

Neither the king nor his ministers could the ultraroyalists for blood. intervene.

Though

The duke

resist the

of Wellington

the court-martial declared itself

clamour of would not

not competent

by the peers, which began on was a foregone conclusion (the young due de Broglie the future statesman of the July monarchy alone voted for acquitto try a peer, the result of trial

—

Nov.

21,

tal)

but neither the members of the court-martial nor the peers On Dec. 7, 1815, Ney was shot in gardens, in Paris. He met his death with a sol-

;

—

were forgiven by public opinion. the

Luxembourg

which effaced the memory of his political vagaries and made him, next to Napoleon, the most heroic figure of the dierly dignity

time.

See also references under "Ney, Michel" in the Index. La Bedoyere, Le Marechal Ney (1902); H. Kurtz, The Marshal Ney (1957). (I. D. E.)

See J. de Trial of

NEZ PERCE,

a tribe of Sahaptin (q.v.) lineage on Snake Idaho and Oregon. The population was estimated at 6,000 in 1805. There were 1,534 on Lapwai reservation, Ida., and 83 on Colville reservation. Wash., in 1906; the total Nez Perce population in the 1960s was estimated at 1,500, including about 1,150 reported from the reservation in Idaho. In 1877, under Chief Joseph, they fought the United States, winning some engagements and engaging in a notable but finally unsuccessful reriver in

;

NGADJU—NGUNI treat almost to

Canada.

They were

the largest and easternmost Sahaptin tribe and most affected by influences from the Plains In-

See also Cayuse; Idaho: History.

dians.

See F. Haines, The Nez Perch: Tribesmen of the Columbia Plateau (1955) H. Chalmers, The Last Stand of the Nez Perci (1962).

belonging to about a dozen groups scattered throughout eastern Africa, call themselves Ngoni. They, like the Zulus, belong to the

;

NGADJU,

Dayak people

of southern

Borneo (Kalimantan)

in older ethnographies they are also called Biadju.

In-

Nguni branch of the Bantu people. Each group of Ngoni has a history of migration from the vicinity of Zululand (q.v.), south Africa, in about 1820-35, and their common name is derived from

the 1960s

they numbered about 80,000 of whom 20,000 were Christians. They inhabit the middle and lower reaches of the Kahajan, Kapuas, Barito and Katingan rivers and also the Sampit region and the

a praise title current in the Zululand area.

The growth of the Zulu empire under Chief Shaka (Chaka) caused many refugee and bands led by his rivals to move outward from Zululand in search of more favourable conditions. Some, like the Fingo who entered Cape Colony (Cape of Good Hope), and the Tlokwa under Chief Mantatise, remained in the south; others, like many Ngoni, went north. Chief Zwangendaba led his Ngoni party to Lake Tanganyika, where it split into three, and the descendants of his group (the Ngoni cluster proper; pop, 350,000) are located in northern Nyasaland, in Northern Rhodesia, and in Songea and Kahama districts of Tanganyika. Chief Soshangana's Ngoni went to Gazaland, Portuguese East Africa. Mzihkazi, one of Shaka's generals, took his party of Ndebele (q.v.) to Southern Rhodesia, and it is probably from him that the Maseko Ngoni, now in southern Nyasaland, broke away. Each Ngoni group formed a small independent state with a central administration based on hereditary patrihneal succession. It raided its weaker neighbours for some of its food supply, and when the fertiUty of its own cultivated area was exhausted, the group as a whole moved elsewhere, seeking fresh fields and pastures at the expense of new enemies. The superior. Ngoni mihtary organization, based like that of the Zulu on universal conscription into age-set regiments, enabled them

upper Serujan.

Settlement in the latter areas was made first by those employed as minor government officials relatives followed, as traders, and thus the Ngadju achieved social and economic,

parties

;

and sometimes numerical, superiority over the original population. Their language has become the lingua franca of all southern Borneo, apart from the predominantly Malay coastal region. Formerly, the villages consisted of one single longhouse, parnumber of rooms for each family. The longhouse was governed by elected elders; a man came to dwell in his wife's house. Present-day villages consist mainly of separate family titioned into a

dwellings.

These

villages are impermanent, as the Ngadju pracRice is the main crop, yams being a subsidiary, in case of failure of the rice crop. Where rattan is cultivated as a trade crop, permanent settlements arise. Trade consists mainly of bartering forest produce, supplied by inhabitants tise shifting agriculture.

of the interior, for manufactured goods obtained from Malay or Chinese shopkeepers. The forms of wealth traditionally prized

most highly are bronze gongs and large glazed earthenware jars; both objects also have a cosmological significance. The native religion has an elaborate priestly theology; it recognizes a supreme "total" divinity, which appears in an upperworld and an underworld aspect, with the hornbill and the water serpent as its principal manifestations. In the most important ritual, the tiwah (feast of the dead), priestesses convey the souls of' the dead to their final abode by long incantations in the spirit language.

Long

many were assimilated into the tribe, some achieving high rank in the army and administration. Despite losses through continual warfare, the population increased greatly, leading eventually to splits in the state and dispersal of rival segments. as slaves, but

cycles of sacred tales are also important in the rich See also Borneo: The People: The Dayak Peo-

Dayak.

Bibliography.— R. Kennedy, Bibliography of Indonesian Peoples and Cultures, vol. i, rev, ed. (1955) A. A. Cense and E. M. Uhlenbeck, Critical Survey of Studies on the Languages of Borneo (1958) most important, F. Grabowsky, "Der Tod, das Begrabnis, das Tiwah," Intern. Archiv f. Ethnogr., vol. u (1889) J. Mallinckrodt, "Ethnografische mededeelingen over de Dajaks in de Afdeeling Koealakapoeas," Bijdr. Kon. Inst., vol. 80 and 81 (1924, 1925); H. Schiirer, Ngaju ;

;

;

Religion (1963).

(P. E. de J. de J.)

NGAMI, LAKE,

a shallow depression at the southeastern (lowest) corner of the 4,000-sq.mi. inland delta of the Okovango {q.v.) river in Ngamiland in the northwest of Bechuanaland protectorate, southern Africa.

43 mi. by road from Maun, the from the railway through The lake was discovered by David Livingstone in 1849. Lying 3,000 ft. above sea level, it is 40 mi. long and 6-10 mi. wide. Ngamiland is part of the great sandy Kalahari desert (q.v.). Around Lake Ngami the country is well timbered with scrub and big thorn trees and supports a large cattle population. The local It lies

town of Ngamiland, and 320 mi. the eastern part of the protectorate. chief

is Sehitwa, midway along the northern margin of the lake. flow of water within the swamps of the inland delta is complex, and outflow normally follows annual floods which begin in

village

The

March

at the head of the delta and reach the base, near Maun, about four or five months later. The Taokhe, the largest southflowing channel of the delta, is said to have been the main source of supply to the lake, but, because of blockages caused by extensive papyrus growth in the channels among the swamps, water has not reached the lake from the Taokhe since 1887. The lake is fed with floodwater from the combined Kunyere and Nghabe rivers which drain toward Lake Ngami and follow a northeast-southwest course along lines of parallel faults that form the base of the delta. These channels join at Toteng at the northeastern end of the lake.

Inflow varies greatly from year to year, and is generally insufmaintain perennial water in the lake. Lake Ngami has no natural outlet. If it became filled, the

ficient to

many of the people whose' lands they seized or pillaged. captives, particularly in Tanganyika, were sold to Arabs

to capture

Some

oral hterature.

ples;

467

Kunyere and Nghabe valleys would be submerged, and any excess water would be deflected into the Botletle river, 12 mi. south of Maun. (w. G. Bd.) NGONI (Angoni). About 500,000 people (as of the 1960s),

Internally each state, at least among Zwangendaba's people, was divided into numerous segments, many of which were under the nominal leadership of queens. Smaller segments controlled by lords were likewise each subdivided among the several wives of the lord. Selected captives were appointed heutenants of their lord, were placed in command of his dependents and might succeed him if he had no son. The large compact villages, with their central cattle barns, were built fairly close to one another, each village containing about 2,000 or 3,000 inhabitants. A belt of empty no man's land surrounded the settled area, isolating it from the territories of the tribes raided by the Ngoni. At the end of the 19th century Portuguese, British and German forces invaded the hinterland where the Ngoni had been virtually unchallenged for SO years. By 1910 all Ngoni groups had come under white control. The high density of population consonant with their former hfe of migratory brigandage has, under settled conditions, caused serious shortage of land, accentuated in some instances by alienation of land to whites. See also Nguni. Bibliography.—M. Read, "Tradition and Prestige Among the .

Ngoni," Africa,

vol, ix (1936), "Native Standards of Living," Africa, vol. (1938), The Ngoni of Nyasaland (1956), Children of Their Fathers E. Colson and M. Gluckman (eds.), Seven Tribes of British (1960) Central Africa (1951); J. A. Barnes, Politics in a Changing Society (1954) S. Ottenberg and P. Ottenberg, Cultures and Societies of Africa (I960). (J. A. Bs.; X.)

xi

;

;

NGUNI, Bantu

the largest cultural and linguistic division of the

of southern Africa

numbering 6,500,000 in the 1960s. They subsistence farmers who hve in patrilineal homesteads or kraals (umiizi) which combine into localized exogamous clans. Nguni traditions say that they came from farther north and divided into four main stocks: Xhosa (q.v.), Ntungwa, are

cattle-herding,

By 1900 tribes derived from these stocks were distributed in the three cultural and territorial areas of: (1) the southern Nguni, known to Europeans as Kaffirs; e.g., the Xhosa, Tembu and Mpondo of the Transkei region of Cape of Good Hope Lala and Mbo.

NIAGARA—NIAGARA FALLS

+68

(pop. 2,380.000); (2) the Transvaal Nguni, called by their Sotho neighbours Ndebele (pop. 144,000); (3) the Natal Nguni (pop. 2.048,000). Warfare among the latter resulted in the ascendancy of the Zulu nation and produced migrations from Natal of Nguni

under various military leaders

{see

Those who

Zululand).

moved north combined with

the various non-Nguni people they conquered to become: (4i the Swazi (q.v.) nation formed by Sobhuza and his successor Mswazi (pop. 410.000); (5) the Ndebele (q.v.) nation of Southern Rhodesia (pop. 300.000); (6) the Shangana nation of Gazaland. Portuguese East Africa (Mozambique), formed by Chief Soshangana (pop. 400.000 in South Africa, figures not available for Portuguese East Africa); (7) the Ngoni {q.v.) cluster of chief doms which derive from Chief Zwangendaba and which are distributed in Nyasaland. Northern RhoLess successful desia and Tanganyika territory (pop. 350,000). Ngoni migrants to the west became dispersed in the southern Nguni area as the Fingo Mfengu). Bhaca. Xesibe and other tribes. See also South Africa, Republic of: The People. Bibliography. .\. T. Brvant, Olden Times in Zululand and Natal (1929); J. H. Sopa, The South-Eastern Bantu (1930); I. Schapera (ed.), The Bantu-Speaking Tribes of South Africa (1937); M. Tev,-, Peoples of the Lake Nyasa Region (1950) P. Mayer, Townsmen or Tribesmen (1961); W. D. Hammond-Tooke, Bhaca Society (1962); S.M.UoXema., The Bantu Past and Present (1963). (G.I.J.) NIAGARA, FORT, a historic fortification in Niagara county, N.Y., U.S.. on the east bank of the Niagara river where that river flows into Lake Ontario. As the strategic key to the Great Lakes it was a major military objective in the Anglo-French contest for (

—

;

ever,

is

a thriving industrial

community which converts

power and na-

the

of the great river into useful products enjoying both local

Electrochemical and eleclrometallurgical inpredominate, with chromium silicon, silicon carbide, carbon and graphite, caustic soda, chlorine, fluorine and hydrazine accounting for a major part of their output. Paper products, rocket components, storage batteries, foods and business forms are also produced. Most of the industries are located in an L-shaped section which lies along the upper Niagara river east of the city and then northward along its eastern margin. The falls, which Jacques Cartier {q.v.) heard about but did not visit on his voyage of 1535. were first described by Father Louis Hennepin {q.v.^, a Franciscan missionary who saw them in 1678. As the only break in the all-water route between the St. Lawrence river and the upper Great Lakes, the area around the falls had A French fort was built great strategic value in colonial times. in 1745 and another (Little Niagara) in 1751 to supplement Ft. Niagara (see Niagara. Fort) at the mouth of the river. In 1759 both forts were burned by Chabert Joncaire, French master of the portage, to prevent their falling into British hands. Under Joseph Schlosser. a German captain in the British army, Ft. Schlosser, part of which has been restored, was erected in 1761. Augustus Porter, who purchased the area around the falls and established a gristmill tional importance.

dustries

in 1805,

saw

in the

mighty cataract power that would some day

named

tourist attraction

Manchester, Manchester, with Ft. Schlosser. was burned by the British on Dec. 19. 1813 during the fighting on the Niagara frontier in the War of 1812. and thereafter remained a small rural community which seemed to be caught in The opening of the backwash of its larger neighbour, Buffalo. the Erie canal in 1825 seemingly doomed the region to the life of a rural tourist centre, for traffic which had once moved over the portage from Lewiston below the falls to Ft. Schlosser dwindled and disappeared, apparently taking with it any hope of an industrial future. In 1847. Porter tried to interest speculators in an attempt to build a canal for hydraulic power from the river above the falls to a point roughly one mile downriver from the brink. He failed and others went bankrupt digging that canal, completed in 1862, through the tough Onondaga limestone that underlies the region. Jacob Schoelkopf bought the "ditch" in 1877 and began to sell the water to mills along the bank downstream from the falls. In 1882 he installed a small generator at the base of the cliff and the true future of Niagara Falls, hydroelectric power, was found. Another great step was taken when Edward Dean Adams (1846-1931) formed the Niagara Falls Power company in 1886 to develop the potential of the falls. During World W^ar I the Schoelkopf holdings were merged with Adams' company and the modem era of industrial growth really began. To protect their aesthetic value, the amount of water which may be diverted from either the U.S. or Canadian (Horseshoe) falls is limited by international treaty. In addition, Goat Island, which separates the U.S. and Canadian falls, several smaller islands and Prospect park, 10 ac. on the brink of the gorge, were set aside as a state park in 1885. In 1892 Manchester, by that time renamed Niagara Falls, and the downstream village of Suspension Bridge, formerly Niagara City, were merged and incorporated as the city of Niagara Falls which in 1916 adopted a council-manager form of government. Niagara university (Roman Catholic, 1856) is located in

tario.

the suburbs.

North American continent in the 18th century. La Salle established a trading post there, and in 1687 the French erected Ft. Denonville. only to abandon it the following year. Ft. Niagara was built by the French in 1725-27 and rebuilt in 1756, as tension mounted over control of the Ohio the interior of the

.•\s

early as 1678-79,

A British force captured the fort on July 24, 1759, in one most decisive battles of the French and Indian War {q.v.). Gen. John Prideaux. the British commander, was killed on the field and Sir William Johnson took his place. The British enlarged the fort after the war and during the American Revolution used it as a base for raids into the Mohawk valley. Along with other British posts on soil nominally American by the peace of 1783, it was not evacuated until 1796. During the War of 1812 the British under John Murray captured the fort in 1813. From its return to the United States on March 27, 1815, until Dec. 31, 1945, it was garrisoned by the regular army, except for the years 1826-36. Later the vicinity was designated Fort Niagara State park. valley.

of the

—

Bibliography. A. B. Hulbert, Niagara River (1908) F. H. SeverOld Frontier of France (1917); F. Parkman, Conspiracy of Pontiac (1851) and Montcalm and Wolfe (1884). (W. R. Sl.) ;

ance,

NIAGARA

FALLS, a city and port of entry of Welland county. Ontario, Can., on the left bank of the Niagara river opposite the falls, 43 mi. S.E. of Hamilton. It is connected with the U.S. town of Niagara Falls on the opposite bank by the renowned Rainbow and Whirlpool Rapids

bridges.

First

named

Elgin in 1853, then Clifton in 1856, the town became known as Niagara Falls in 1881. The first suspension bridge across the gorge at Niagara Falls was completed in 1855 by John Augustus

Roebling {q.v.). In 1904 Niagara Falls was incorporated. Pop. (1961) 22.351. Its importance is largely due to the cataract, a

and major source of electrical power for OnManufactures include chemicals, fertilizers, abrasives and refractories, silverware, cereals, machinery and sporting goods. Queen Victoria park, of the provincial Niagara Parks commission, extends along the bank of the river and includes the unique Oakes Garden theatre and carillon tower. (F. G. R.) FALLS, a city and port of entry of Niagara county in western New York, U.S.. is located about 20 mi. N.N.W. of Buffalo at the great falls of the Niagara river, opposite Niagara

NIAGARA

Falls.

Ont.

the city accommodates more than 2.000.0(X) visitors to which have proved to be one of the most durable and popular tourist attractions in the world. At night the falls are illuminated by multicoloured floodlights from Victoria park on the Canadian side. Behind the facade of a busy tourist mecca. how-

Each year

the

falls,

build a thriving city, and so he

his settlement

after the great English industrial centre.

A wagon and foot bridge was constructed across the gorge in 1848 and the first railway bridge, a suspension type by John Augustus Roebling {q.v.), was completed in 1855. The falls have been the scene of many daring exploits since Sam Patch leaped 100 ft. into the gorge from a specially built platform in 1829. Several persons have safely plunged over the Canadian falls or ridden through the whirlpool (about 1^ mi. below the falls) in barrels. In 1859 and again in 1860 (on the occasion of the visit of Edward VII, then Prince of Wales) Charles Blondin, a French acrobat, performed on a tightrope stretched across the gorge. Probably the most amazing occurrence at the falls, however, happened in 1960 when seven-year-old Rodger Woodward was accidentally swept over the falls and survived with little injury.

NIAGARA RIVER AND FALLS

NIAGARA RIVER AND THE FALLS The American

fall

at left, Horseshoe fall

(Canada)

in

background.

In

the foregr

International bridge

Plate

I

I'l

MT

NIACiARA RIVER

II

Horseshoe

fall,

158

ft.

high,

2,600

ft.

AND FALLS

wide

THE AMERICAN AND CANADIAN FALLS

NIAGARA RIVER AND FALLS— NIAMEY Niagara Falls, with a population (1960) of 102,394, is part of the Buffalo standard metropolitan statistical area. For comparative population figures see table in

New York

See also Niagara River and Falls.

NIAGARA RIVER AND FALLS, Lake Erie

direction from

;

Population.

(R. T. R.) flowing in a northerly

Lake Ontario, a distance of about 2S mi., constitute part of the boundary between the United States and Canada, separating the state of New York from the province to

of Ontario. It is the drainage outlet of the four upper Great Lakes, whose aggregate basin area is about 260,000 sq.mi. The mean discharge of the river at its head is about 196,200 cu.ft. per second, with a range from a low monthly mean in winter of about

iig.ooo

cu.ft.

245,000

cu.ft.

to a high monthly per second.

mean

in

summer

of

about

For a distance of about 5 mi. from its head the river flows through a single channel; then it is divided into two channels by Strawberry and Grand islands, the eastern or U.S. channel being about 15 mi. long and the western or Canadian channel being about 12 mi. long. At the foot of Grand Island these two channels merge into one about 3 mi, long, extending to Niagara falls (see below). Downstream from the falls the gorge section of the river

is 7

mi. long; the river then flows across a lake plain

Lake Ontario. from its source in Lake Erie to the a distance of 20 mi. in which the river descends From the head of the rapids to the brink of the

for a distance of 7 mi,, to The river is navigable

upper rapids, about 10 ft.

the river descends 50 ft,; then it drops 167 ft. in the falls ft. farther in the lower rapids of the Niagara

falls

and descends 98

7 mi. the river descends less than a foot, and (from Lewiston, N.Y., to the mouth) is navigable. from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, is

In the last

gorge.

this section

The

total descent of the river,

326

ft.

Niagara Falls.—The

falls

of Niagara are justly celebrated

for their grandeur and beauty, and are viewed every year by over 2,000,000 visitors. The falls are in two principal parts, separated by Goat Island. The greater division, adjoining the left (Canadian) bank, is called the Horseshoe fall; its height is

and the length of its curving crest line is about 2.600 ft. The American fall, adjoining the right bank, is 167 ft. high and 158

ft.,

1,000

ft.

broad.

The water

is free from sediment, and its clearness contributes to the beauty of the cataract. In recognition of the importance of the waterfall as a great natural spectacle, the province of Ontario and the state of New York retained or acquired title to the adjacent lands and converted them into public parks. Excellent views of the falls are obtained from Queen Victoria

park on the Canadian side; from Prospect point on the U.S. side at the edge of American fall; and from Rainbow bridge, which spans the gorge about 1,000 ft, downstream from Prospect point. Visitors may cross from the U.S. shore to Goat Island by footbridge, and may take an elevator to the foot of the falls and visit the Cave of the Winds behind the curtain of falling water. The Horseshoe fall has been receding, or migrating upstream, at the average rate of nearly five feet per year in historic time. Geologic History. The shaping of the gorge and the maintenance of the falls as a cataract depend upon peculiar geologic conditions. The rock strata in the Niagara gorge are nearly horizontal, dipping southward only about 20 ft. to the mile. The uppermost layer of hard Niagaran dolomite is underlain by soft layers which are easily worn away, and this provides the conditions for keeping the water constantly falling vertically from an overhanging ledge during a long period of recession.

—

The

river

came

into existence late in the Glacial or Pleistocene

epoch (g.v.) when the margin of a great continental ice sheet melted back and exposed the escarpment of Niagaran dolomite rock, allowing the discharge from the Lake Erie basin to pour over it. Recession of the falls created the Niagara gorge, which extends about 7 mi, upstream from Lewiston to the present falls.

The age

of the gorge, when calculated by dividing its length by the average rate of recession of the falls in recent time, is about 7,000 years. Other considerations led some geologists to estimate an age as great as 25,000 years. Determinations of the age of the

469

advance in the area suggest, however, that the Niagara river is about 10,000 years old. Continued recession of the falls toward Lake Erie will ultimately cause the drainage of that lake but such an event is not expected to occur within the last

glacial

ice

next 25,000 years. The Niagara gorge runs 2^ mi. N.N.E. from the Horseshoe fall to the railway bridges, and this stretch is known as the Maidof-the-Mist pool. It has a descent of only five feet, and is navigable by excursion boats. Downstream, the' river flows one mile

northwest through the narrow, Whirlpool Rapids section to the Whirlpool this section differs from the rest of the gorge because there the river intersects an old channel which was formed before the last glacial ice advance and was later filled with glacial drift. At the Whirlpool the gorge makes a 90° bend to the northeast and extends two miles, then runs one-and-one-half miles north to the foot of the Niagara escarpment at Lewiston, N.Y. Navigation. Water-borne traffic from Lake Erie passes through the upper single channel and the U.S. channel to Tonawanda, N.Y., to enter the New York State Barge canal. That canal, with a 12-ft. minimum depth, connects with the Hudson river and has branches which connect with Lake Champlain and with Lake Ontario. The principal shipping between Lakes Erie and Ontario, however, passes through the Welland Ship canal which lies a few miles west of the Niagara river. It extends from Port Colborne, Ont., on Lake Erie, about 27 mi, north to Port Weller, Ont., on Lake Ontario, The minimum depth in the canal is 27 ft., and the ships which pass through it include vessels engaged in trade between the upper Great Lakes and Europe. (See Welland ;

—

Ship Canal; Saint Lawrence Seaway.) Hydroelectric Power. Canada and the U.S. agreed, in a treaty signed in 1950, to reserve sufficient amounts of water for flow over Niagara falls to preserve their scenic value. The agreement provided for a minimum daytime flow during the tourist season of 100,000 cu,ft. per second, and a minimum flow of 50,000

—

cu.ft, per second at all other times. All water in excess of these amounts, estimated to average about 130,000 cu.ft. per second, was made available for diversion for power generation, to be divided equally between the U.S. and Canada. The total hydroelectric capacity of the river was fixed at about 3,600,000 kw. This was developed by power plant installations, completed or under construction by 1960. The power plants receive water diverted from the river above the falls and carried to them by open channels or tunnels, and they discharge the water into the gorge at various places below the falls. Much of the energy was used in nearby electrochemical industries for the manufacture of aluminum, ferrosilicon, carborundum, artificial graphite, liquid chlorine, calcium carbide, cyanamide and other products. The remainder was transmitted to various cities for miscellaneous uses. The maximum distance to which this power was transmitted was somewhat in excess of 200 mi.

The principal cities located along the river are Buffalo, N.Y., at Lake Erie; Tonawanda, N.Y., the western terminus of the New York State Barge canal; Niagara Falls, N.Y., and Niagara Falls, Ont,, situated beside the falls and gorge; Lewiston, N.Y,, at the mouth of the gorge; and Niagara-on-theLake, Ont., at the mouth of the river. Fort Niagara, a 288-ac. U.S. military reservation on the east bank at the mouth of the river, is on the site of a blockhouse the eastern end of

by the French in 1678-79. It includes Old Fort Niagara, built by the French in 1725-27 and is still standing. (J, L. Hh.)

built

which was

NIAMEY,

the capital of the Republic of the Niger, west

situated on hills above the left

bank of the Niger river, southwest corner of the republic. Pop, ( 1959) 30,030. Bebecame a capital in 1926 it was merely a collection of villages inhabited by Djerma (Zarma) cultivators; latecomers were Yoruba from Nigeria, Hausa, and people from the repubhcs of Dahomey and Togo, including traders, weavers, smiths, leatherworkers and cloth merchants. There are few industries (oil works, brick factories, repair shops), but Niamey is commercially important because of its position at the intersection of east-west-south Africa, in the

fore

it

is

NIAS— NIBELUNGENLIED

470 land routes and the Niger.

NIAS, nesia,

It also

has an important airport. (J. D.) Sumatra, Indo-

largest of the chain of islands west of

lying immediately north it

is

Mcntawai (g.v.) group. (regency) of the province of The island is 80 mi, long and

of the

kahupaten Sumatera-Utara (North Sumatra). nearly 30 mi. wide, with an area of is hilly, with rocky or sandy coasts, Administratively

a

X.Sb^ sq.mi.

The topography

often dangerous for landings.

Geological structure is much like that of western Sumatra, but there are no volcanoes; earthquakes do occur. Highest elevation is 2.300 ft. The island is densely populated, especially in the valleys of the south and around the chief town and port, Gunungsitoli

on the east coast.

Population

in

1961 was 314,829.

The indigenous population belongs to the early Proto-) Malay stock and speaks dialects of a distinct branch of the MalayoPolynesian language family. Most of the people are animists. but (

some, especially in the north, are converts to Islam and Christianity. Marriage is exogamic and wives are bought. At death, a man's wife and property pass to his brother. Land belongs to the A council of notables settler and is inherited in the direct line. assists hereditary chiefs in administration. The Dutch, who began trading there in 1669. suppressed slave trade. In North Nias villages are small, situated on hilltops, each enclosing a stone-paved rectangle. In South Nias the villages are larger and include a bathing pool. Those on high sites have broad paved stairways with remarkable sculptures. Megalithic monuments and wooden sculptures, common all over the island, are more elaborate in the south; they honour the dead or represent fertility symbols. The houses, built on piles, contain several families, the private quarters adjoining the large communal room. The chief's house is very large with high roof and massive pillars and beams, often skilfully carved. The main crops are yams, sweet potatoes, rice and maize, grown on temporary fields. Pigs and chickens provide most of the meat. Copra is the export commodity. The Niasese are good craftsmen in gold and silver. A road, mainly a trail, runs around the island and connects with another road through the centre. There is no good port, and ships calling at Gunungsitoli must anchor offshore. (J, 0. M, B,) NIBELUNGENLIED, the generally accepted name of a German epic poem written about a.d. ijoo. although Der Nibelunge Not would appear to have been an earlier title. Neither is entirely satisfactory as an indication of the content of the poem; that this was felt at an early date is shown by the superscription of one of the manuscripts, from the early 14th century: "the book of Kriemhild." The story as we have it has a long history behind it, and as a result contains a number of disparate elements which have not always been completely reconciled; the following summary of the contents, while aiming at presenting the story as a consecutive and coherent whole, does not seek to suppress inconsistencies where they are prominent. The word Nibelung itself presents difficulties. In the first part of the poem it appears as the name of Siegfried's lands and people and his treasure, but throughout the second it is used as an alternate name for the Burgundians. A possible explanation is that the Nibelung treasure is, after Siegfried's death, acquired

by the Burgundians.

—

The Story of the Poem: Siegfried and Kriemhild. The poem begins with two cantos (Aventiuren) which introduce respectively Kriemhild, a Burgundian princess of Worms, and Siegfried (q-v.), a prince from the Lower Rhine. The action begins in Canto 3, which describes Siegfried's determination to woo Kriemhild, in spite of his parents' warning of the dangerous nature of the suit; his departure; and his arrival at Worms. There Hagen, the henchman of King Gunther (Kriemhild's brother), identifies Siegfried, even though he has never seen him, and gives a brief account of his former deeds the killing of a dragon, from

—

which resulted Siegfried's horny skin, and the acquisition from two quarreling brothers of their treasure. Siegfried does not mention his suit, but challenges Gunther to fight to defend his lands; a reconciliation

achieved (but not before some hard words pass, with Siegfried twice addressing Hagen in challenging tones), is

and Siegfried stays at the court.

Messengers arrive from the Danes

and Saxons, declaring war, but Siegfried offers to lead the Burgundians and distinguishes himself in the battle. Kriemhild is delighted, and during the festivities on the warriors' return the two meet for the first time. Their mutual affection has the opportunity to develop during Siegfried's subsequent residence at the court, where he occupies a privileged position. At this point an entirely new element is introduced, which is to dominate the action for a long time: the story of the wooing of

Brunhild (q.v.).

News from

overseas reaches the court of strength and beauty

Worms which tells of a queen of outstanding who may only, be won by a man capable

of matching her in Gunther expresses his intention of wooing her, Siegfried of he is warned by the danger but to which he would expose himself. Hagen suggests that Gunther allow Siegfried to help him; Gunther accepts the suggestion and Siegfried agrees, on condition that Gunther promise him the hand of his sister Kriemhild if he succeeds. Throughout the expedition Siegfried takes charge, even more decisively than he did in the DanishSaxon war, and gives instructions on the conduct of the exathletic prowess.

pedition

down

to

the smallest

details;

ability

his

expedition to Brunhild's abode on Isenstein

is

to

pilot

the

a variant of the

in medieval German literature of the muchwho is able to give advice and help to the master he has taken service. It is in the same tradition when one of Brunhild's followers singles out among the newcomers one who "looks like Siegfried." This is no surprise to Brunhild because of the very nature of her vow, which was to marry only the best and bravest. Siegfried, however, presents himself not as the wooer, but as Gunther's vassal; and in the ensuing contests Gunther goes through the motions of deeds in fact performed by Siegfried in his cloak of invisibility. When Brunhild is defeated she accepts Gunther as her husband. After an interlude in which Siegfried goes to his own "Nibelung" lands where his treasure lies to fetch some followers, he is sent on ahead to Worms to announce Gunther's victory and his impending arrival with his bride. Siegfried and Kriemhild also are married, as promised; but Brunhild remains ill at ease, ostensibly because she is hurt at seeing her sister-in-law married to one who is, as she has been told, a vassal of Gunther's. After a period during which Siegfried returns with Kriemhild to his own domains, they are invited, at Brunhild's request, to Worms. During this visit the two queens quarrel over precedence. In the course of the quarrel Kriemhild reveals to Brunhild the treachery which had been practised on her when Siegfried entered the bridal chamber invisibly to overcome her resistance to Gunther. It is at this point that the figure of Hagen becomes prominent. He seizes the opportunity of coming to the defense of the injured Brunhild and takes the initiative in plotting vengeance. The plan is to entice Siegfried away from the court so that he can be killed, but it is first necessary to ascertain where and how he is vulnerable. Hagen succeeds in ingratiating himself into Kriemhild's confidence, and learns the secret of Siegfried's one vulner-

well-known motif traveled warrior

with

whom

—

—

he also strikes the fatal blow. noteworthy that during and after these events Brunhild slips almost unnoticed out of the story, and the death of Siegfried is seen not so much as vengeance by her, but rather as a blow struck by Hagen, who was becoming suspicious of Siegfried's growing power; all emphasis is on Kriemhild's grief and her hatred of Hagen. Siegfried's funeral is conducted with great ceremony. Kriemhild decides to remain at Worms with her mother and younger brothers, but for long remains estranged' from Gunther and Hagen. Hagen persuades Gunther to attempt a reconciliation, so that they may have the benefit of Siegfried's treasure; and Kriemhild agrees to make peace with Gunther. The treasure is then brought to Worms but Hagen, seeing that Kriemhild is distributing it, and fearing the influence she may gain, seizes it and sinks it in the Rhine. The Fall of the Burgundians. The preceding events close what is generally known as the first half of the poem; the second is simpler in structure. Etzel, king of the Huns, who is widowed, sends messengers to Worms to ask the hand of Kriemhild. Gunther is willing, in spite of Hagen's warnings, and Kriemhild agrees able spot

;

It is

—

NIBELUNGENLIED when she

sees the possibilities for vengeance this

match could

After many years she persuades Etzel to invite her brothers to his court, and is particularly insistent that Hagen Hagen suspects Kriemhild's motives and warns his shall come. masters against accepting, but he only succeeds in persuading offer her.

them to go armed; and it is not until they have crossed the Danube that they are convinced. On their arrival Kriemhild's plan is quickly revealed and, although there is much large-scale fighting, the poet makes clear the essentially personal nature of the as the last survivor contlict the clima.\ is reached when Hagen faces Kriemof the Burgundians and, though bound, still defiant hild, who kills him when he still refuses to reveal where Siegfried's She in turn is executed by Hildebrand, who treasure is hidden. "Daz is at Etzel's court with his master Dietrich von Bern (q.v.). Nibelunge not" ("that is the story of the destruction of ist der the Nibelungs [or Burgundians]") are the final words; and they are an apt description of the second half of the poem. The Elements in the Story. In this story some elements of In the first part one recognizes great antiquity are discernible. the story of Brunhild, which retains its separate existence in Old Norse literature; there are also the brief allusions in Canto 3 to the two ancient stories of the heroic deeds of Siegfried; and finally the whole of the second part is the story, albeit with a different motivation, of the Fall of the Burgundians which exists in an older form in the Eddaic poem Atlakvida ("Lay of Atli"). It was the great merit of the scholar Andreas Heusler to isolate the stories of Brunhild and the Fall of the Burgundians as the two mainstays of the action. It is, however, no mere formal joining together of two separate stories, which is what they originally were; the poet sought by various devices to combine the different elements into a meaningful whole in which the component elements would be integrated. One of the major alterations is in making Kriemhild, and not Etzel, as was originally the case, send the treacherous invitation; but this must have been done much earlier, for Saxo Grammaticus refers to the recital, in 1131, of the poem of the "well-known treachery of Kriemhild against her brothers." Once this step had been taken it would not be difficult to envisage a combination of the Burgundian and the Brunhild stories into one; for, although the emphasis in the latter was on Brunhild, Kriemhild suffers a blow through the death of her husband which she may well be expected to wish to avenge. Other inconsistencies and contradictions, which could not be revealed in the summary above, emphasize the long history of the subject matter. Karl Lachmann's view that it is a collection of 20 originally separate short poems was held, and debated, for many years; it was, however, superseded after the appearance of Heusler's principal work, in which he demonstrated the central position of two themes, and explained the difference in length between the old short lays and the long epic in terms of a different style

—

;

—

—

of narration.

Heusler's views on the role of these two stories in the history and structure of the poem found such general acceptance that the importance of the other elements, with which he also dealt, tended to be overlooked. After about 1940, however, attention was concentrated on them, perhaps excessively. An example of these elements is the scene in which Siegfried meets his death. In the Norse versions, particularly in the older ones, the death of Siegfried is dismissed in a few words as a fact which has to be recorded, and this is perfectly consonant with the theme of the original story, in which Brunhild was the principal character and Siegfried the means by which her problem arose. The role Siegfried plays in the corresponding part of the Nibeliingenlied

comparable.

Much

made,

is

conduct of the expedition and of the part he plays in the actual contests, but from the time of Brunhild's arrival at Worms he becomes a passive participant, until the plot for his death is hatched. From this moment all attention is concentrated on him and Kriemhild. After Hagen has elicited his vital secret from Kriemhild there follows a carefully constructed scene in which she confesses her premonitions and tries to dissuade Siegfried from participating in the hunt which has been arranged she claims to have had dreams which point to her husband's sudden death. He, however, with still

is

it is

;

true, of his

471

—

unquestioning confidence in his own powers and note the dramatic irony equally confident of the friendship of all, brushes aside her objections and goes out, utterly happy, to what is to be his last hunt. This picture of a young hero, in the fullness of his powers and at the height of his happiness, is further developed in the hunt itself, culminating in a boisterous practical joke which

—

he plays on his fellows. In the final act, the race to the spring, he again demonstrates his physical superiority and, in his refusal to drink until Gunther has drunk, his meticulous regard for courtly precedence. By this very delay he gives Hagen the opportunity to strike the fatal blow while he is bending over the water. There is no source in Germanic antiquity for the details which make this scene so effective, and the poet would appear to have had his inspiration from a contemporary Romance epic Daurel e Beton. Similarly there is a scene in the second half which also serves The purpose to heighten the tragedy by relieving the tension. of the journey of Gunther and his followers is known to the audiparticipants, apart ence from the beginning; and although the from Hagen, at first suspect nothing, the tension rises as they proceed. It is, however, relieved by a few days' rest at Bechelaren, where the party is entertained by the margrave Rudeger and his wife and daughter. The idyllic nature of the interlude is stressed by the betrothal of the youngest of the Burgundian princes Giselher and the margrave's daughter; it is agreed that the marriage shall take place on their return. The effectiveness of the scene has long been universally recognized, and in 1945 Friedrich Panzer suggested a source, not a literary one, but an In 1189, when passing through event in 12th-century history. Hungary on his crusade, the emperor Frederick I was festively entertained by King Bela of that country and his wife, and the marriage of Frederick's second son with King Bela's daughter was arranged; the marriage was to take place on the return of the emperor and his son from the crusade in which, in fact, both met death. Panzer has drawn attention to possible contemporary literary and topical historical sources for other incidents. Both approaches have proved fruitful in determining the author's theme, or whether in fact he had a single theme, and in It cannot be disputed that estimating his poetic achievement. the second part of the poem deals with the disaster that overcame the Burgundians, or Nibelungs (and to that extent the title Der Nibelunge Not is apt), nor that this disaster was the deliberate purpose of Kriemhild. It is preceded by a story in which Siegfried plays a prominent part, and to the extent that Siegfried is Kriemhild's husband and attention is concentrated on his death, the events of this first part may be considered integrally connected with those of the second. There are other indications that it was the poet's intention to present the story in this way: Kriemhild is the first person to be introduced and the poem ends when she is killed. She is introduced, too, in a way which leads one to believe that she is to play an important role. The poet's treatment of Brunhild is consonant with such a purpose; her story once existed in its own right and ended when her honour was satisfied, but in the Nibelungenlied the death of Siegfried is presented in the very different light discussed above. Further, Early in the story his there is the attention paid to Hagen. words to and about Siegfried indicate anger and resentment; he takes the initiative in the plot against him and strikes the blow, earning Kriemhild's uncomprising hatred by having tricked her Particularly striking is into revealing his one vulnerable spot. the scene in the second part where, on their arrival at the court of the Huns, Hagen remains defiantly seated before Kriemhild, with Siegfried's sword ostentatiously laid across his knees. To what extent this concentration on Kriemhild and on the enmity between her and Hagen was already present in the sources must remain a matter of conjecture, but the consistency with which it is carried through would seem to suggest that it was the poet's intention to stress the theme.

—

Dating and Manuscripts. The poem was written in medieval German literature, but it holds a

classical period of cial position in

that period

is

it.

A

the spe-

characteristic feature of the literature of

the emphasis on the current "courtly" virtues of

NICAEA— NICARAGUA

472

The Nibeniodcralion and refinement of taste and behaviour. ItingculUd, with the violence of its emotions and its uncompromising emphasis on vengeance, bears unmistakably the mark of a different origin: the heroic literature of the Teutonic peoples at the time of the migrations. The basic subject matter also goes back to that period, for there can be no doubt that the story of the destruction of the Burgundians was originally inspired by the overthrow of the Burgundian kingdom at Worms by the Huns in A.D. 437, and the story of Brunhild and Siegfried may have been inspired by events in the history of the Merovingian house of the Franks about a.d. 600. Much of the heroic quality of the original

stories has

remained

Hagen

in the

poem, particularly

in the poet's

con-

second half. Nevertheless, to judge by the manuscript transmission, which can be traced through three whole centuries, the poem became and remained popular in spite The most important of of its "out-of-period" characteristics. these manuscripts are the Hohenems-Munich {A), the St. Gallen (B) and the Hohenems-Lassberg {C). Lachmann regarded A as the best and based his edition on it; Holtzmann and Zarncke later made the same claim for C and used that; but the consensus now favours B, on which the standard edition of Karl Bartsch is based. C is the earliest and was written in the early 13th century. Some of the later manuscripts make quite substantial alterations to the subject matter, but even A, B and C show differences which go beyond mere verbal variation, including a difference of over 100 in ception of

the

number

in the

of strophes.

See also references under "Nibelungenlied" in the Index. BiBLioGRAPUY. The literature on the poem is enormous, and forms the subject of special bibliographies: see T. Abeling, Das Nibelungenlied und seine Literalur (1907; with a supplement, 1909) and M. Thorp, The Study oj the Nibelungenlied (1940). The standard edition is Der Nibelunge Not, mil den Abweichungen von der Nibelunge Liet, den Lesarien sdmmtlicher Haitdschrijten und einem Wbrierbuch, edited by K. Bartsch (1870 et seq.) on this is based the smaller edition, with commentary, Das Nibelungenlied, re-edited by H. de Boor (1956). Two e.xcellent monographs covering the whole problem are: A. Heusler, Nibelungensage und Nibelungenlied, 3rd ed. (1929; reprinted as sth and F. Panzer, Das Nibelungenlied (1956) Very helpful for ed., 1955)

—

;

;

;

.

detailed study of the elements of the story (e.g., the figures of Siegfried and Brunhild) is the section, "Nibelungensagen," in H. Schneider, Germanische Heldensage, vol. i (19:8). An English trans, of the poem (K. C. K.) by M. Armour is in Everyman's Library (1908).

NICAEA

(modern Iznik,

in

the

il

of

Bursa, Turkey), an

ancient city of Bithynia in Asia Minor, on the Ascanian lake (Iznik

Golu). It was built on an old deserted site by Antigonus Monophthalmus (316 B.C.?) but soon afterward Lysimachus changed its name from Antigonia to Nicaea, calling it after his wife. Probably soon after Lysimachus' death (281) it was incorporated in the kingdom of Bithynia, whence it passed to the Romans (74). It flourished under the Roman empire, being on one of the main roads through Asia Minor, and continually disputed the title of metropolis of Bithynia with the provincial capital, Nicomedia. After Constantinople became the capital of the empire, Nicaea grew in importance. It gave its name to the two ecumenical Councilsof Nicaea (a.d. 325 and 787) and the Nicene Creed {see Council). The Seljuk Turks gained possession of it c. 1080 and it was the capital of the sultanate of Rum until its recapture in 1097 during the first crusade. After the capture of Constantinople by the Latins (1204) Nicaea became the seat of the Byzantine emperor Theodore I Lascaris and his successors until the recovery of Constantinople (1261). It was finally taken by the Ottoman Turks under Orkhan (1331) and continued to be of some importance, particularly for the production of polychrome pottery (see Pottery and Porcelain Islamic Pottery of the Near and Middle East). Ruins of the Byzantine walls survive at the modern ;

NICARAGUA

Republica de Nicaragua), the largest counbetween Honduras and Costa Rica,

which form its northern and southern boundaries respectively, and reaching from the Caribbean sea on the east to the Pacific ocean on the west. Its area, which is still undetermined because of incomplete surveys, is generally put at 53,398 sq.mi. The coast line extends about 300 mi. on the Caribbean, and 200 mi. on the Pacific. The Honduran boundary starts at Cabo Gracias a Dios, follows the Coco river inland and then at about 86° W. takes an imaginary line to the upper waters of the Negro river, which it The Costa Rican boundary is, follows to the Gulf of Fonseca. under treaties of 1858, confirmed in 1888 and settled in 1896, a line 2 mi. S. of the San Juan river and Lake Nicaragua.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Geology.

— Between

Lake Nicaragua and the

Pacific are

Mio-

cene lavas, calcareous shales and sandstones. In the Nicaraguan lowland, from the Gulf of Fonseca southeast to the mouth of the San Juan river, basic rocks are Miocene marine sediments, covered at both ends with Pleistocene and recent alluvium, and on the western margin by lavas and ashes of 30 Pleistocene volcanoes extending northwest to southeast from Cosigiiina to Madera in Lake Nicaragua; highest volcano is Viejo (5,545 ft.). The central highlands are made up of Tertiary and of igneous and metamorphic rocks, overlain with volcanic ash in the northwest, Precambrian and Cretaceous intrusive granites in the north and northeast. The eastern lowlands consist of Pleistocene sediments, recent alluvium and areas of igneous rocks, sandstones and shales. Relief and Drainage. Level plains in western Nicaragua are fairly well drained by many short rivers flowing into the The central Pacific and into Lakes Managua and Nicaragua. highlands, 7,000 ft. high in the west, are rugged; eastward are lower undulating, plateaulike areas. From the divide, long rivers flow eastward: Coco (q.v.), navigable for 200 mi.; Grande, navigable in its lower course; Escondido, navigable 60 mi. to Rama City; and San Juan, navigable 100 mi. to Lake Nicaragua. The

—

flat

eastern plains have large

Climate.

swamps and

coastal lagoons.

—The mean annual

temperature in the eastern lowlands is 80° F., with little variation. The western lowlands have mean monthly temperatures of 80° to 86° F. Above 3,000 ft. they average 10° F. lower. East of the central highlands divide, where there is no distinct dry season, annual precipitation decreases from 255 in. near San Juan del Norte (Greytown) to 100 in. on the Coco river. On the western flanks of the central highlands annual rainfall decreases sharply, from 80 in. to 53 in. in the lowlands; slopes of volcanic mountains receive 15 to 25 in. more the period December through April is very dry. Vegetation. In the eastern lowlands and eastern parts of the central highlands, which are rainy all year, natural vegetation consists of slash pine, covering an expanse 40 to 100 mi. wide from Grande river to the northern boundary, and elsewhere, broadleaved evergreen forests of many species. These forests contain 80% of Nicaragua's timber. The western central highlands and middle slopes of volcanic mountains have deciduous hardwoods (oak and others) and subtropical grasses. The western lowlands comprise savannas and, along streams, deciduous forests. Animal Life. Inhabiting rainy, hot areas are many species of reptiles: crocodiles, lizards (iguanas and others), snakes and tur;

—

—

In forested areas deer are common. Wild life also includes puma, jaguar, monkey and peccary. Many species of water and land birds, fresh-water and salt-water fishes (including mollusks), rodents and insects are abundant. tles.

the

village of Iznik.

Nicaea was also the name of the Greek settlement founded at an unknown date from Massilia (Marseilles) on the site of modern Nice (q.v.). NICAEA, COUNCILS OF. Two ecumenical councils of the Christian church were held at Nicaea (modern Iznik, Turkey). The first (also the first ecumenical council) was convoked by the emperor Constantine I in 325 and was concerned primarily with Arianism. The second Council of Nicaea (787) dealt chiefly with iconoclasm. See Council.

(

try of Central America, lying

GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS Nicaragua

may

be divided into four clearly defined regions:

(1) volcanic mountains and hills near the Pacific; (2) around and east of these mountains, the low plains and lakes of the great depressions, stretching from the Gulf of Fonseca to the mouth of the

San Juan river; (3) the broad area of rugged central highlands, extending from Honduras to near the San Juan; and (4) east of

and Caribbean lowlands. two regions are characterized by much

these, rolling plateaus

The

first

level

and gently

NICARAGUA sloping land, rich volcanic and

alluvial soils, annual precipitation

of 53 to 80 in., a very dry season of from four to six months and high temperatures. Together they comprise 62% of the country's population, most of its large cities, modern transportation facilities and industrial establishments. They produce about 75% of the nation's agricultural products and minerals, including clays and cement-making materials. Fertile valleys in the western part of the central highlands, inhabited by about 30% of the country's

population, produce about corn, beans, cotton

ply nearly

25%

25%

of the nation's coffee, tobacco,

and animal products; and highland mines sup-

The roUing

of the mineral production.

plateaus

and Caribbean lowlands, poorly drained near the coast, comprise nearly half the area of Nicaragua. Hot and rainy all the year, they are largely uninhabited except along the coast and rivers, but their tropical forests supply most of the forest products exIn these lowlands three ported and consumed domestically. commercial banana districts, important until 1936, were largely abandoned as a result of Panama disease. (C. F. J.)

HISTORY By

the ISth century there were several Indian tribes living

along the Pacific coast, whose cultural and linguistic ties were with the northwest, and other groups at a lower cultural level in the central and eastern regions, whose associations were with the southeast. The country's name is said to have been derived from

whose people Hved on the shores Lake Nicaragua. Christopher Columbus, on his fourth and last voyage to the New World, landed on the east coast near modern that of Nicarao, an Indian chief of

Bluefields Sept.

16,

1502.

Twenty years

Panama

— but

Gonzalez de

and four horses, marched overalong the Pacific coast reaching beyond Lake

Avila, with about 100 Spaniards

land from

later Gil

—

hostihty. Two more years passed before the conquistadores returned. Colonial Period. Nicaragua was the first of the Central

Nicaragua

retired

when he encountered

—

Granada and American provinces to become firmly Spanish. Leon were founded in 1524 by Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba, acting for Pedro Arias de Avila (Pedrarias Davila), governor of Panama. When Pedrarias came to Leon in 1526 he executed Hernandez on suspicion of intrigue with Hernan Cortes, then in Honduras. Pedrarias as governor of Nicaragua (1527-31) developed an export trade in Indian slaves (who were used in Panama) had Rio San Juan explored and tried unsuccessfully to establish his rule in Honduras and El Salvador. Leon was designated the seat of Central America's first bishopric in 1531, and the port of El Realejo developed in 1533. Rodrigo de Contreras, son-in-law of Pedrarias, was the second governor 1535-44) during his rule the province was placed first under the jurisdiction of a new audiencia at Panama (1538), then transferred to another at Gracias a Dios, Honduras (1544). Dissatisfaction with the Spanish code of New Laws of 1542 (which ended the Indian slave trade) and the loss of the governorship in 1544 led to a rebellion by the two sons of Contreras in 1550. Nicaraguan Bishop Antonio de Valdivieso was murdered and Leon, Granada and Panama city seized before the uprising was halted. The province of Leon along the Pacific developed quietly as an agricultural colony for the next 250 years, with a variety of products from farm and forest. Trade was carried on at El Realejo, and from Granada via Lake Nicaragua and Rio San Juan. Ships were also built at El Realejo. Except for two periods of buccaneer ,

(

activity (in the 1660s

was

;

and 1680s), Kfe for Spaniards

in the province

relatively easy, there being a plentiful supply of Indian labour.

The province was a part

of the audiencia of Guatemala, whose many Nicaraguan Indian communities through appointment of corregidores to manage their affairs. Leon had its own governorship which, in 1786, was raised to the status of an intendancy. By that time Spaniards, Negroes and persons of mixed blood were common residents of the "Indian" villages: Chinandega, Matagalpa, Managua and Masaya. The country to the east and north, called the district of Tologalpa by the Spaniards, had a separate history because of the lack of Spanish settlement. Negroes moving in from the West Indies

president, until 1786, directly controlled

473

gave parts of the coast a new racial complexion. Buccaneer visits were frequent but friendly, and by mid-1 7th century a few permanent settlements were formed, including that at Bluefields, Later in the same century Great Britain formed an "alliance" with the chief of the Miskito tribe (of mixed Indians and Negroes), and from 1740 to 1786 the Mosquito coast (q.v.), containing many English residents, was counted as a British dependency. The Spanish prevented in 1 780 a British attempt to ascend the San Juan

and establish a transisthmian

—

route.

Independence. The relative calm of Spanish Nicaragua was succeeded by more than four decades of confusion and turbulence. Violence began in Dec. i8ii when the governing intendant was deposed in a revolution inspired by earlier struggles in Mexico and El Salvador. Ill feeling developed between Leon and Granada when Leon returned early to the royalist cause and Granada bore Leon declared the brunt of the punishment for disobedience. independence from Guatemala on Sept. 28, 1821 (following Guatemala's act of independence from Spain, Sept. 15), but Granada chose to stay with Guatemala. Both accepted union with Mexico (1822-1823), but then fought until 1826, when Nicaragua was organized as a state in the Central American federation. Dissension remained the order of the day until 1838, when Nicaragua the federation, and then was resumed as part of the general isthmian struggle between Liberals and Conservatives, Leon being the stronghold of the former, Granada of the latter. Meantime in the east relations between the "king" of the Miskito peoples and the British government were strengthened to the point where left

San Juan del officials were again living in Bluefields. Norte was seized by the British in 1848. The discovery of gold in California brought attention to NicaThe Accessory ragua's strategic position between the oceans. Transit company of Cornelius Vanderbilt, which carried passengers by steamship and carriage from San Juan del Norte to the Adventurer William Walker Pacific, began operations in 1852. {q.v.) from Tennessee, invited to assist the Liberals in warfare in 1855, brought new excitement to Nicaragua. By 1856 Walker had made himself president of the country. In 1857 he was routed through the joint efforts of the five Central American republics and the Accessory Transit company. Tomas Martinez, who assumed the Nicaraguan presidency in 1857 and held it for ten years, was the first of a line of Conservative chiefs of state who ruled until 1893. Under them Nicaragua enjoyed relative peace, though with little democracy. The capital was placed in Managua as a compromise between Granada and Leon. The first railroads were built, agriculture was revived to some extent and a treaty with Great Britain (i860) provided for the nominal reincorporation of the eastern coast with the nation, Jose Santos under the form of an autonomous reservation. Zelaya, Liberal president from 1893 to 1909, established real Nicaraguan jurisdiction over the Miskito peoples for the first time, and increased his power to the point where he could interfere in Two great writers the affairs of Honduras and El Salvador. sprang from Nicaragua during this quieter half century. Ruben Dario (q.v.) became recognized as one of Latin America's greatest poets. Salvador Mendieta (1879-1958) was a distinguished diagEnglish

nostician of his own region's ills, who dedicated his life to the rebuilding of the Central American union. Both men were critical of the new interest taken in isthmian affairs by the United States

once the decision was made to build the Panama canal. United States Intervention. A new era in Nicaraguan history involved intervention by forces of the United States government. It may be said to have begun when Philander C. Knox, secretary of state for President Taft, became angered at the execution of

—

two U.S.

citizens

When

who had

participated in a revolution against

Zelaya resigned late in 1909 the United States In 19 10 its refused to recognize his successor, Jose Madriz. naval forces prevented government occupation of Bluefields, the revolutionary headquarters, an act leading directly to the success of the revolution. When new civil war broke out in 191 2 U.S. forces took a direct hand in support of Adolfo Diaz, president from 191 1 to 1917. A hundred marines stationed at the United States embassy also helped to maintain the peace under Emiliano Zelaya.

NICARAGUA

474

Chamorro Vargas (1917-20) and his nephew successor. United States bankers meanwhile managed the Nicaraguan customs colThe Bryan-Chamorro lections, the national bank and railway. 1916 gave Nicaragua $3,000,000 in exchange for the U.S. right to build an interoceanic canal and to establish naval bases on the Gulf of Fonseca and Corn Islands. treaty of

Withdrawal of the marine guard 1925) led to new complicaRebelUon by Chamorro Vargas against a new administration brought Diaz back as a "compromise" president (1926-28), reinforced by 2,000 United States marines. Diaz was opposed in warfare (1927) by Juan Bautista Sacasa, Gen. Jose Maria Moncada. Gen. Cesar Augusto Sandino and others. Though elections in 1928 under U.S. auspices brought Moncada to the presidency, followed in 1933 by Sacasa, Sandino fought on against both his old friends and the marines and came to typify for many Latin Americans the cause of resistance against yanqiii imperiahsm. Later Developments. Sacasa's inauguration (Jan. 1, 1933) terminated the stay of the U.S. marines. Within the year Sandino made peace with his government. Prominent on the scene by then were the Nicaraguan national guard, carefully trained by the marines before their withdrawal, and its commander, Gen. AnasIn Feb. 1934, just after tasio Somoza, nephew of the president. he had dined with Sacasa, Sandino was assassinated by members Against Sacasa's of the national guard with Somoza's approval. wishes Somoza decided he would next have the presidency, though him ineligible. relationship made both his position and his family Constitutional problems were "solved" by the deposition of Sacasa (June 1936) and a temporary relinquishment of the guard command. Somoza became president Jan. 1, 1937, backed by a coaliLeonardo ArgiJello, his detion of segments of the old parties. feated opponent, had support from both of the traditional parties. for 20 years. A new eightthen controlled Nicaragua One man year term commenced March 30, 1939, under a revised constitution which increased the power of both president and national guard. In 1945, after caudiUos had been removed from office in El Salvador and Guatemala, Somoza announced that the guard would remain loyal to the winner of the next elections. When Argijello won those elections and took office May 1, 1947, Somoza (still at the head of the guard) had him ousted within a month. Somoza's uncle Victor Manuel Roman y Reyes, chosen by the party organization to succeed, was president until he died May 6, 1950. Somoza then reassumed the position, and was elected to another six-year term beginning May 1, 1951. A pre-election agreement with Emiliano Chamorro Vargas guaranteed the opposi1

tions.

—

tion a minority voice in the

The development

new

congress.

of a small gold mining industry

by foreign com-

tionalist Liberal

majority in congress, 34-year-old Luis Somoza

Debayle was given his father's position at once, and then was nominated in his father's stead and chosen president for the term A younger brother, Anastasio Somoza Debayle, remained 1 95 7-63. head of the national guard. An unsuccessful attempt to unseat this second generation was made in 1959 by a group led by Enrique Lacayo Farfan, consisting of opposition Conservatives and Independent Liberals. During this time the country found itself united on one matter, the revival of an old boundary dispute with Honduras, but withdrew its forces from the disputed territory after a 1960 decision of the International Court of Justice favouring Honduras.

The

constitutional provisions concerning the presidential suc-

cession were reinstituted in 1959, and Luis

Somoza Debayle prom-

end of his term. He did not, however, agree to the demand of the Traditionalist Conservatives and Independent Liberals for supervision of the elections by foreign and ised free elections at the

Rene Schick

neutral observers.

ble close friend of the

Gutierrez, a constitutionally eligi-

Somozas, then won a four-year term

which began

May

Somoza Debayle,

1963, there was httle doubt that Anastasio

1,

the head of the national guard, expected to (F. D. P.) campaign for the presidency in 1967. still

POPULATION Number and Distribution.—A census Nicaragua to have a lent

taken in 1963 showed

total of 1,524,027 inhabitants, or the equiva-

of 28.3 persons for each of the 53,398 sq.mi.

of national

By

1965 the total population was estimated to have risen to 1,620,000, and after that time it was expected to continue to increase rapidly by about 50,000 per year. A very high birth rate (probably at least 45 per 1,000 population), coupled with a death rate of less than 20, was responsible for this increase. Nicaragua's population, which is largely agricultural, is heavily concentrated in the western one-third of the country, especially in the small section near the Pacific coast that extends from the city of Chinandega on the north to the city of Granada and Lake Nicaragua on the south. According to the 1963 census 41.1% of the population resided in urban centres, of which Managua (g.v.), the capital with a population of about 240,000, was the largest. Leon and Granada (gg.v.), with populations (1963) of 61,649 and 40,092, respectively, are the next largest cities in the republic. Composition. Approximately 20% of Nicaragua's population is white and 10% Negro, with mestizos, zambos (Indian-Negroes) and mulattoes making up the remainder. Practically no fullterritory {see Table).

—

capital in the 1930s gave the nation its first sizable export

modity. Strict economic dictatorship was coupled after 1941 with wartime co-operation with the United States, which brought material benefits in its wake. After the war an aura of prosperity developed with new large plantings of coffee and cotton for export (subsistence crops suffered badly for a time), establishment of textile and food processing industries and the organization in 1953 shipping line, Marina Mercante Nicaragiiense But observers noted the extent to which Somoza family holdings bound the economy together, while the people at large benefited little from the rise in national income. The constitution of 1950, written by agreement between Somoza and Chamorro Vargas, provided that no president of Nicaragua might be re-elected and that no person might be elected to the office who had exercised the presidency temporarily during the last six months of the term or who was a relative of the president

of

a

private

(Mamenic).

"within the fourth degree of consanguinity or affinity." Despite these provisions, it became clear as Somoza's term progressed that he intended to succeed himself in 1957. A serious attempt to assassinate Somoza failed in 1954. On Sept. 21, 1956, a few hours after he had received the nomination of his Nationalist Liberal party for six more years in office, he was shot by Rigoberto Lopez Perez, who gave his own life for the deed. Somoza died eight days later.

The death of Somoza did not end the rule of his family. the constitutional prohibitions having been repealed by the

All

Na-

in the

1963 election in which these other parties refused to participate. Though Schick showed some spark of independence in his term

Number

of Inhabitants and Density of Population in Nicaragua by Departments, 1963

Departments

NICARAGUA 53.9%

age,

in the age

group 15-64 and only 2.8% were 65 and

over.

Spanish is the mother tongue of the Nicaraguan people, although many members of the upper and middle classes have a famiharity with EngHsh as well. Although the various tongues once spoken by the aboriginal inhabitants have almost disappeared as languages, they have left their impress upon Nicaragua's place names, and many designations of things have been incorporated into the Spanish used in this part of the hemisphere. The vast majority of the people of Nicaragua are of the Roman Catholic faith, although a sprinkling of Protestants of various denominations and small groups of those professing Judaism are found in the principal cities. In the rehgion of the common people few aboriginal beliefs and practices survive. (T. L. Sh.)

ADMINISTRATION AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS Government.

— Nicaragua

has had nine constitutions: 1838, (amended 1896), 1905, 1911, 1939, 1948 and The last, in force since Nov. 1, 1950, provides separation of powers (legislative, executive and judicial

1854, 1858, 1893

1950 (as amended). for

branches) with strong, centralized, executive government. Nicaragua is one of the few Latin-American countries which has not attempted to control centralized, executive power through a semiparliamentary system. Although the president is theoretically elected for a four-year term (six years until May 1, 1963) and is ineligible for immediate re-election. Gen. Anastasio Somoza, the most distinguished caudillo or leader of the 20th century, dominated government from the 1930s until his assassination in Sept. 1956. Congress is empowered to appoint a designado to take the president's place when it is necessary to fill out an unexpired term.

Nicaragua is the only country in Central America with a bicameral legislature. It is also the smallest bicameral legislature in all of Latin America. The senate of 16 members (plus former presidents, who hold senatorship for Hfe, and the defeated runnerup in the presidential contest, who receives a term of six years) and the chamber of deputies of 54 (one to every 30,000 of population, with each department guaranteed at least one representative) are elected directly for 4 years. The legislature meets only two months each year. With opposition practically ehminated during several decades of mid-20th century, the legislature was almost completely subservient to the executive. The legislature can and does delegate broad authority to the president to legislate by decree, even in economic fields. Local government is controlled by the central

government.

475 The country

divided into 16 departments and one comarca (national district) each with a pohtical head, appointed by the president, nominally in control. The president governs is

Managua, the capital, through a minister. The supreme court of seven members, elected by congress, has authority to introduce bills in the legislature. Although Nicaragua, like Costa Rica, does not have an army, it does have a national guard of about 7,500 men, originally trained by the United States marines. Education and Social Welfare. Although about 18% of the national budget is usually devoted to education, probably more than 65% of the people are illiterate. Schools are unavailable in many of the rural areas. Furthermore the average length of primary school enrollment is two to three years, a period which is considered inadequate preparation for the duties of citizenship. The National University of Nicaragua is in Leon, with branches in Managua and Granada. Legislation limiting the total number of hours to be worked per year and establishing maximum daily and weekly working hours was introduced in 1945. The 1950 constitution contains many welfare guarantees, only some of which have been made effective. (W. S. Ss.)

—

THE ECONOMY Production.

—Nicaraguan

economy

is

predominantly agricul-

tural; the chief crops are cotton, coffee, sesame, sugar, rice, corn

and beans.

Sorghum, cacao, yucca, tobacco, plantains and a variety of other fruits and vegetables are also produced on a relatively smaller scale for the local market. Exports of cotton

and coffee account for roughly 75% of total export value. The importance of bananas has fallen markedly because of sigatoka disease. There are possibihties for greater agricultural development since only about one-fifth of the arable land is used for crop production. Cattle raising is significant for dairy produce in the west and beef in the eastern plains. Gold mining has been an important activity since precolonial days and the principal mines are owned by U.S. and Canadian concessionaires. Nicaragua's industrial output consists of a variety of consumer goods produced chiefly in the homes. The Institute of National Development was the principal government agency responsible for encouraging industrial development.

Trade and Finance

—

The nation's leading exports are cotton majority of which are shipped to the U.S., West Germany and Japan. These three nations furnish Nicaragua with Nicaragua is a member of the a large quantity of its imports. Central American Common market. A single exchange rate of unit the cordoba. currency is The seven cordobas to the U.S. dollar was established in 1955 and appHed to all imports. The Nicaraguan banking system has been dominated by the state-owned National Bank of Nicaragua. A new Central bank, however, was and

coffee, the

established in 1961.

^- "fj^'i^rmi

•

'

The main source of government revenue is through indirect taxation import duties and sur-

—

taxes on coffee on liquor, cigaand other consumer items.

charges, export

and

sales taxes

rettes

Transport and CommunicaThe Pan-American high-

tions.

way

—

is

passable in

all

weather

from the Honduran border to the Costa Rican border. However, it is unpaved for nearly half this distance. A railroad runs from Corinto on the Pacific coast to Granada and Diriamba. The chief ports are Corinto, San Juan del Sur and Puerto Somoza, all on the Pacific coast.

NICARAGUANS GRINDINO SUGARCANE

Managua

the north-south air route

is

on

from

NICARAGUA, LAKE— NICEPHORUS

476

Panama and is linked by air to the capitals of other Central American republics. See also references under "Nica-

villas

ragua"

tricts: Carabacel, St. £tienne. St. Philippe and Les Baumettes. East of the port lie Mont Boron, Riquier and St. Roch. Though catering for tourists is the leading commercial activity

the U.S. to

in the Index. BiBLiDCRAHHY. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, The Economic DeVflopmenl of Skaraf,iia (1953); Food and .^t;ricuUure Or);anizaliun of the L'nilid Nations, Report 0/ Ihe FAO Mission jor Mcaragua (\9>0) M. Tweedy, This is Xicaragua (I9^i) M. G. Palmer, Through Vnknown Mcara^ua (1946). Current history and statistics are summarized annually in the Brilannica Book of the

—

;

;

(W. C. Gn.)

Year.

NICARAGUA, LAKE,

the largest of several

fresh-water

and the largest lake in Central nearly 110 mi. long and 45 mi. wide at its widest place,

lakes in southwestern Nicaragua

America, is with an area of 3,089 sq.mi. islands, the largest of

The

volcanic peaks. sailing,

swimming and

and the

Pacific ocean.

which

In the lake are is

many

picturesque

Ometepe, bordered by two high

lake has long been important

for fishing,

steamships having operated on it since 1882. The lake and San Juan river have long been discussed as a possible canal route between the Caribbean sea

NICCOLITE,

in local transportation,

(C. F. J.) con-

a mineral consisting of nickel arsenide,

compact masses of

taining 43.9'c nickel. It usually occurs as a pale copper-red colour, with metallic lustre on the uneven, fractured surfaces. It is opaque and brittle, and the streak is brownish black. It occurs with ores of cobalt, silver and copper at .^nnaberg and Schneeberg in Saxony, Ger., at Cobalt, Ont., and other localities. (See Nickel.) The formula is NiAs. Crystals are

hexagonal, but are rare and indistinct. The specific gravity is 7.5 and the hardness 5.5. Italian NizzaK a port and resort city of France, capital of the de parte inettt of Alpes-Maritimes. situated at the mouth of the Paillon river at the northern end of the Bale des Anges, 420 mi. (676 km.) S.E. of Paris. Pop. (1962 278.714. Beautifully

NICE

(

1

situated and with an agreeable climate. Nice

is

the leading resort

Cote d'Azur. or French Riviera. It has excellent communications by rail, road and sea. and its airport is the second busiest in France. The entrance to the outer port is 300 ft. wide, that to the inner 220 ft. The area of the harbour is about eight Nice is acres, and it can be used by vessels drawing up to 23 ft. an episcopal see first mentioned at the end of the 4th century) under the archbishop of Aix. It is the seat of a prefect, of tribunals and of a board of trade arbitrators. The historical nucleus of the town is an isolated limestone hill, running back for some distance from the shore and formerly crowned by a castle (destroyed 1 706 1. The old town stretches city of the

(

along the western base of the hill: the 18th-century town, farther west, slopes gently toward the Paillon; to the northeast and north and west beyond the river lies the modern city. East of the hill the commercial quarter surrounds the port. The whole frontage is composed of fine embankments, notably the 4-mi.-long Promenade des Anglais, begun in 1322-24 at the expense of the English colony and having two 33-ft.-wide carriageways separated by banks of flowers. The course of the Paillon also is embanked

of Nice

sides. Nice has a Roman Catholic cathedral, Ste. Reparate. of the 17th century, restored in 1901; a Russian cathedral (with a richly decorated interior) and church; two synagogues; two Anglican and .\merican chapels; and a Greek church. An astronomical and meteorological observatory is located on Mont Gros. At the Centre Universitaire Mediterraneen founded in 1933, first director Paul \'alery) French lessons are given for foreign students. The city has several libraries, museums and lycees, as well as many theatres, an opera house, three casinos and an open-air theatre. During its famous carnival, beginning on the second Saturday before Shrove Tuesday. Nice becomes

on both

1

kingdom of pleasure; battles of flowers a veglione (party) at the municipal casino add to its gaiety. Carnival is only one of several festivals. Other attractions include automobile, bicycle and yacht races, as well as canoeing, pedalboating. motorboating and skin diving. The beaches are shingle. Summer visitors outnumber those in winter by about three to one. the capital of a short-lived

and

A

mile northeast of the city centre is the ancient episcopal town of Cimiez, with majestic ruins of a Roman amphitheatre of the 1st century a.d.. built to seat 6.000 and surrounded by splendid

and the Regina palace, where Queen

From

ing 1895-99.

east to west Nice

is

N'ictoria

wintered dur-

ringed by beautiful dis-

also has some industrial establishments. These include and oilworks and factories producing perfume, furniture and woodwork, confectioneries, soap, silk goods, straw hats, rubber goods, metal goods and tobacco. Besides the vine, the trees cultivated principally in the neighbourhood are olive, orange, mulberry and carob. Staple exports are olive oil. agricultural produce, fruits and llowers. Trade of the port is mainly coastal. History. Nice (Nicaea) was founded about 2.000 years ago by the Phocaeans of Marseilles and was named in honour of a

of,Nice,

it

distilleries

—

over the neighbouring Ligurians. It soon became a busy trading station, but had a rival in the town of Cemenelum. in existence till the time of the Lombard invasions, the ruins of which are at Cimiez. In the 7th century Nice joined the Genoese league formed by the towns of Liguria. In 729 it repulsed the Saracens; but in 859 and 880 they pillaged and burned it. and for most of the 10th century remained masters of the surrounding country. .As an ally of Pisa. Nice was the enemy of Genoa, and both the king of France and the emperor endeavoured to subjugate it; but it maintained its liberties. In the course of the 13th and 14th centuries it fell more than once into the hands of the counts of Provence; and at length in 1388 it placed itself under the protection of the counts of Savoy. The maritime strength of Nice rapidly increased till it was able to cope with the Barbary pirates; the fortifications were largely extended and the roads to the city improved. During the struggle between Francis I and Charles V great damage was caused by the passage of the armies invading Provence: pestilence and famine raged in the city for several years. In 1543 Nice was attacked by the united forces of Francis I and Barbarossa: the inhabitants were ultimately compelled to surrender, and Barbarossa pillaged the city and carried off 2.500 captives. Pestilence appeared again in 1550 and 1580. In 1600 Nice was taken by the due de Guise. By opening the ports of the countship to all nations, and proclaiming full freedom of trade, Charles Emmanuel in 1626 gave Captured by Catinat in 1691, Nice a great stimulus to the city. was restored to Savoy in 1696, but it was again besieged by the French in 1705, and in 1706 its castle and ramparts were demolished. The treaty of Utrecht in 1713 gave the city back to Savoy, and in the peaceful years which followed the "new town" was built. From 1744 till the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) the French and Spaniards were again in possession. In 1775 the king of Sardinia destroyed all that remained of the ancient liberties of Conquered in 1 792 by the armies of the French the commune. Republic, the county of Nice continued to be part of France till victorv

(

tiike

1

1814; but after that date

it

reverted to Sardinia.

By

a treaty

in 1860 between the Sardinian king and Napoleon III it was again transferred to France. (A. G. Gr.) NICEPHORUS, SAINT (Nicephorus Patriarcha) (c. 758-c. 829), Byzantine theologian, historian and patriarch of Constantinople (806-815), whose historical works consist of a useful short history Breviariiim) from 602 to 769 and a chronological list from the Creation to his death. Like his father Theodorus he opposed the policy of the iconoclasts. He held office in the imperial secretariat at the time of the Council of Nicaea when the use of icons was restored. For some unknown reason he retired to a monastery on the Bosporus, although he was not a monk. He was then appointed director of the largest poorhouse in Constantinople and in 806 succeeded Tarasius as patriarch of Constantinople. In 815 he was deposed by the iconoclast Leo V and he died in exile in 828 or 829 and was later canonized by the Orthodox Church. His theological works (some unedited) demonstrate the use of new scholastic methods in defense of

concluded

i

the icons. Bibliography.

—

Nicephorus' works were published by J. P. Migne in 1(K) (1865) and edited by L. Dindorf and I. Corpus script. Byz. hist., vii (1829-37). Critical edition of works by C. de Boor (1880). Full bibliography in P.

Patrologia Graeca, vol.

Bekker

in historical

—

NICEPHORUS— NICHOLAS Alexander, The Patriarch Nicephorus of Constantinople (1958). See also G. Moravcsik, Byzantinolurcica, vol. i, pp. 456-459, 2nd ed. (1958). (J. M. Hy.)

NICEPHORUS, Nicephorus native

of

I (d.

Seleucia

the name of three Byzantine emperors. 811), Byzantine emperor from 802 to 811, a in Pisidia, became a high financial official

(logothete) under the empress Irene. officers

When

officials

and army was ac-

rose against Irene's inefficient rule, Nicephorus

claimed emperor and the empress was sent to a nunnery. Nicephorus' religious policy was orthodox and he allowed the cult of icons, but he was not favoured by ecclesiastical extremists such as Theodore Studites because he tended to assert his authority over the church, and in particular he appointed a learned layman, Nicephorus, as patriarch of Constantinople. He practised strict economy and strengthened military and naval defenses, both by improved methods of recruitment and by enforced colonization of vital areas, but his rigorous methods involved him in consideraIn 803 and 810 he made a treaty with Charleble unpopularity. magne, by which Venice, Istria, the Dalmatian coast and south Italy were assigned to the east, while Rome, Ravenna and the By withholding Pentapolis were included in the western realm.

Harun

the tribute which Irene had agreed to pay to

Nicephorus committed himself pelled

by the

to a

al-Rashid,

war with the Muslims. Comhad to take

disloyalty of his general Bardanes, he

he sustained a severe defeat at Crasus in Phrygia (805) and obtained peace only on condition of paying a yearly contribution of 30,000 gold pieces. By the death of Harun in 809 Nicephorus was left free to deal with the Bulgarian king Krum, who was harassing his northern frontiers. In 811 Nicephorus invaded Bulgaria and drove Krum to ask for terms. But he rejected these overtures and in his attempt to crush the Bulgars he was caught in the mountains and killed together with most of his army the field himself

;

on July 26.

Nicephorus II Phocas (c. 912-969), Byzantine emperor from 963 to 969, belonged to a Cappadocian family which had produced Under Constantine VII he became commander on the eastern frontier. In 960 he led an expedition In to Crete and by 961 had gained the island from the Arabs. the campaigns of 962-963 he forced his way through Cilicia to Syria and captured Aleppo, but made no permanent conquests. On the death of Romanus II he was proclaimed emperor at Caesarea

several distinguished generals.

by the eastern

troops,

and was soon after acknowledged

at

Con-

stantinople as co-emperor and guardian of Basil II and Constantine

VIII, the young sons of Romanus. He married the empress, the notorious Theophano. In 964-966 he conquered Cilicia and again overran Mesopotamia and northern Syria, while the patrician

Nicetas recovered Cyprus. tresses in Syria,

which were recaptured by

by

a peace.

On

In 968 he reduced most of the for-

and after the

fall

of Antioch

and Aleppo (969),

his lieutenants, secured his conquests

the northern frontier he refused to

pay tribute

to

the Bulgars, and instigated the Russians under Svyatoslav to at-

tack them, though only to find that he had introduced a dangerously powerful ally into the Balkans. In the west Nicephorus renounced his tribute to the Fatimid caliphs, and sent an expedition to Sicily under Nicetas (964-965), but was forced by defeats on land and sea to evacuate the island. In 967 he made peace with the

Muslims

of

in Tunisia and turned to defend himself Germany, who was establishing his authority in

Kairouan

against Otto I of

and indeed wished for a marriage alliance with the imperial family which Nicephorus refused. Owing to the care which he

Italy,

was compelled to exercise rigid in other departments. He was a member of the Asian landed aristocracy and favoured this class at the expense of the small farmers. Very ascetic in outlook, he tried to prevent monasteries from acquiring further wealth. By his heavy taxation he forfeited his popularity; he was assassinated in his palace bedroom on the night of Dec. 10-11, 969, by another successful general, the magnate John Tzimisces. Nicephorus III Botaneiates, Byzantine emperor from 1078 to 1081, belonged to the military aristocracy of Asia Minor and was

lavished on the army, Nicephorus

economy

related to the powerful Phocas family.

gns) of the Anatolikon

theme he

As the commander

led his

army

(strate-

against the feeble

477

Michael VII Ducas. With some support from the Seljuk ruler Suleiman in Asia Minor, he was proclaimed emperor by his troops and entered Constantinople in March 1078. His imperial claim was ratified by the aristocracy and clergy of the capital who had Nicephorus thus forestalled the already deposed Michael VII. dux of Dyrrachium, Nicephorus Bryennius, the rival claimant for the throne, though he subsequently had to face another rival in But he Asia Minor, Nicephorus Melissenus, as well as Turks. failed to maintain his position in face of the brilliant young Alexius Comnenus, and on April 4, 1081, he abdicated and entered a monastery.

BIBLI0GR.4PHY. Nicephorus I: G. Ostrogorsky, History of the Byzantine State (19S6) P. J. Alexander, The Patriarch Nicephorus of Constantinople (1958) ; J. B. Bury, History of the Eastern Roman Empire (1912). Nicephorus II: G. Ostrogorsky, History of the Byzantine State (1956) G. Schlumberger, Nicephore Phocas (1890). Nicephorus III: G. Ostrogorsky, History of the B\zantine Stale (1956). (J. M. Hy.) ;

;

NICHIREN

(Zenshobo Rencho) (1222-1282),

saint

and

prophet, founder of the Nichiren sects, the most fanatical in Japanese Buddhism, which, with its offshoots, had about 10,000,000 followers in the 1960s. Of humble birth, Nichiren renounced the world in his 12th year and entered a monastery. After years of ardent study on Mt. Hiei and at Nara he reached the conviction that the Lotus Sutra (Saddharma Pundarika; see Buddhism: Literature of the Mahayana) forms the kernel, the quintessence, of Buddha's teaching, a conviction he announced pubhcly in 1253. Nichiren was at the same time passionate and tender-hearted, and these two sides of his character presented themselves in turn

during the chequered course of his prophetic hfe. His first warning was given in 1260 in a treatise, the Rissho-ankoku-ron ("Ways of Upholding Justice and Stabihzing the Nation"), addressed to It set forth the Kamakura shogunate {see Japan; History). the idea that good government should adhere to the ideal of righteous teaching and blamed the current social unrest on the false faith of the nation's leaders.

The

result

was banishment to the

Izu Peninsula, where he stayed for four years. Throughout his hfe Nichiren continued to attack the erroneous teachings of Buddhist sects (especially Jodo, or Pure Land, Zen, Shingon, and

Ritsu) and the government that supported them. He and his followers saw in the Mongol invasion (beginning in 1274) a fulfillment of his prophecies. His denunciation of the shogunate led to

another four-year exile on Sado Island. Pardoned in 1274, he spent the rest of his hfe on Mt. Minobu with his disciples. He died on Oct. 13, 1282. Nichiren was not the first Buddhist in Japan or China to proclaim the quintessential importance of the Lotus Sutra; this had

been propounded also by the Tendai sect, in a monastery of which Nichiren had first been apprenticed. What was most original in his teaching was his emphasis; it was not understanding of but rather behef in the sutra that would lead the devout to enhghtenment. This emphasis found expression in the form of shodai,

name of the siitra (Namu Myohd Re?igekyd. or "Adoration to the Lotus Sutra of Perfect Truth"), and in the worship of the great Mandala (see Mandala), representing the supreme truth revealed in the sutra. Most conspicuous among 20th-century groups claiming to be followers of Nichiren are the Rissh5 K5sei Kai and the Soka constant repetition of the

Gakkai, the latter a politically active religious organization of growing power in the 1960s. See also Buddhism; Japan: The People: Religion. Bibliography. The standard work in English is M. Anesaki,

—

Nichiren, the Buddhist Prophet (1916). See also Sources of Japanese Tradition, pp. 219-231 (1958), in W. T. de Bary (ed.), Introduction to Oriental Civilizations; K. W. Morgan (ed.), The Path of the Buddha, (F. Ma.) pp. 349-358 (1956). (? 4th-Sth century a.d.), the patron of

NICHOLAS, SAINT

is the most popular of the saints who are not martyrs in both Eastern and Western churches (feast day Dec. 6). But his existence is not attested by any historical

schoolchildren and sailors,

document, so nothing certain is known of his Hfe. It is, however, highly probable that he was bishop of Myra in Lycia (Asia Minor) about the end of the 4th century, or not later than the beginning

NICHOLAS

478

Myra from

the 6th century, according to the biography of another Nicholas, the abbot of the monastery of Sion near Myra under Justinian I. The earliest account of St. Nicholas is the famous miracle of the three

predecessors Leo the Great, Gelasius I and Gregory the Great, he was probably the first pope to draw on the False Decretals (see Decretals, False). For Nicholas, the Roman church is both the head and the epitome of the universal church. It alone has all

condemned to death but saved by his appearance emperor Constantine I; the Greek text of this

power by divine commission. As both the sacerdotal and royal functions were conferred by Christ on St. Peter, so they are exercised by St. Peter's successors, the popes. The sword of temporal power is delegated to the emperor for the protection of the church. Thus the teaching of Nicholas contained in embryonic form the complete doctrine of papal theocracy. Nicholas died on Nov. 13, 867, and his feast is celebrated on the anniversary. Nicholas II (Gerhard) (d. 1061), pope from 1058 to 1061, was a Burgundian and bishop of Florence when, about Dec. 1058, he was elected at Siena to succeed Stephen X (IX) in opposition He was enthroned in Jan. 1059. to the antipope Benedict X. Nicholas II is a major figure in the reform associated with the name of Hildebrand (see Gregory). In the Lateran synod of April 1059. a milestone in the Gregorian reform and in the history of the papacy, Nicholas enacted the famous decree on papal elections. In this he was expressly reacting against the disorders that had preceded his own elevation. The leading part in elections was assigned to the seven cardinal bishops, who were to deliberate together on a suitable candidate and then to call in the other cardinals. The rest of the clergj' and the people were to acclaim the choice. The emperor's part in the matter was dismissed with a vague covering phrase. A legate, sent to notify the German court of this, was refused an audience, and an imperialist version of the decree was put into circulation. At a synod held in 1061 the German bishops declared the election decree void and quashed all the pope's acts. These proceedings signified the rupture of the alUance between Germany and the Holy See and heralded the contest between empire and papacy. Nicholas had entered into friendly relations with the Normans of southern Italy in the early months of his pontificate, and this new alliance was cemented by the treaty of Melfi .Aug. 23, 1059), when he invested Robert Guiscard with the duchies of Apulia and of Calabria and the lordship of Sicily, and Richard of Aversa with the principality of Capua in return for fealty and the promise of assistance. This arrangement was destined to make the papacy more independent of both the western and eastern emperors. The immediate result was the reduction, in the following autumn, of Galeria, where the antipope Benedict X had taken refuge. Nicholas died on Aug. 27. 1061. (R. E. McN.) Nicholas III (Giovanni Gaetano Orsini) (c. 1225-1280), pope from 1277 to 1280. was a son of the Roman senator Matteo Rosso Orsini, who had been a friend of St. Francis of Assisi and had played a great role during the pontificates of Gregory IX and Innocent IV and in the conclave which led to the election of Celestine IV. Giovanni was made cardinal deacon of St. Nicholas in Carcere Tulliano by Innocent IV as early as 1244 and thus was well versed in the business of the Roman curia when he became pope on Nov. 25, 1277. The contemporary sources stress his impressive personality, his virtue and personal integrity, but also his nepotism, because of which Dante (Inferno 19, 31 S.) placed him in hell. He had been cardinal protector of the Franciscans and as pope in 12 79 issued the important bull E.xiit qui seminal which

of the Sth, for his shrine was well

officers unjustly in a

dream

known

at

to the

may

go back to the 6th century and the Latin Legends about St. Nicholas multiplied rapidly; all the incidents of the life of Nicholas of Sion were attributed to him. as well as numerous miracles directed toward the praxis de stratelatis translation of

it

to the Sth.

poor, the sick and the unhappy.

The

best

known

are those of the

whom

he dowered to save from the prostitution that poverty was forcing on them and of the three children whom he brought to life again after they had been chopped up by a butcher and put in a salting vat. Devotion to St. Nicholas extended to all parts of the world: there were 25 churches or chapels dedicated to him in ConstanIn 1087 Italian tinople. 45 in Rome, 40 in Iceland and so on. sailors brought his body from Myra to Bari in Apulia; this transthree girls

lation,

commemorated on May 9, greatly increased the saint's became one of the most crowded pilgrimage The name Nicholas was frequently given to persons and

popularity, and Bari centres.

places in

many

countries;

numerous surnames

in

European

lan-

guages are derived from Nicholas (e.g., in English. Nichols, Nicholson. Colson. Collins). St. Nicholas was chosen patron saint of Russia and Lorraine, as well as of various charitable fraternities and merchant guilds, particularly in France, the Netherlands, Germany and England. His miracles were a favourite subject for medieval artists- and liturgical plays, and his feast day was the occasion for the ceremonies of the boy bishop (^.t).). The Netherlands Protestant settlers in New Amsterdam (New York) replaced St. Nicholas ("Sinter Claes" in Dutch) by a kind of benevolent magician, Santa Claus. The transformation of St. Nicholas into Father Christmas or Father January took place first in Germany, then in countries where the Reformed churches were in the majority and finally in France, the feast day being put off to Dec. 25 or to the New Year. But there are still Catholic areas where children hang up their stockings by the chimney on the night of Dec. 5 so that St. Nicholas may fill them with toys and delicacies.

—

BiBLiOGR.^PHY. Greek texts ed. by G. Anrich with critical studies, Hagios Nikolaos, 2 vol. (1913-17); lists of Greek and Latin texts in Bibliotheca hagiographica Graeca, 3rd ed. (1957), and Bibliotheca hagiographica Latina C1S9S-1901) with supplement (1911). See also K. Meisen. Sikolauskult und Xikolausbrauch in .ibendland (1931). For St. Nicholas in art see L. Reau, Iconographie de I'art Chretien, vol. 3, (F. Ha.) pp. 976-9S8 (1958).

NICHOLAS,

the name of five popes and one antipope. S.«XT Nicholas I, called the Great (d. 867), pope from 858 to 867, was the most forceful of the early medieval popes. Before his election, in April 858. he had almost 15 years of service in the papal curia, and in all the acts of his pontificate he urged the supremacy of the Roman see. His reign was marked by three memorable contests, which left their mark in history. The first was that in which he supported the claims of the unjustly degraded patriarch of Constantinople, Ignatius; but two of its incidents, the excommunication of Photius (q.v.). the rival of Ignatius, by the pope (863) and the counterdeposition of Nicholas by Photius (867) were steps toward the permanent separation between the Eastern and the Western Churches. The second great struggle was that vnxh Lothair of Lorraine about the divorce of his wife. Theutberga {see Lothair). The pope not only quashed the whole proceedings against Theutberga but even created a precedent by deposing the archbishops of Cologne and of Trier, who had brought to Rome the libellus of the synod of Metz that declared

The

(

temporarily settled the struggle concerning the interpretation of perfect poverty within the order; it revoked the concessions concerning the use of money made by Innocent (^q.v.) IV and clari-

movable and immovable possessions by the donors, be in the o\\'nership of the Holy See, while the friars were to have only the fied the latter's ruling that all

of the order, except those resers'ed usufruct.

Nicholas III successfully continued Gregory X's policy of curb-

third great ecclesiastical affair of

ing the expansionist ambitions of the Sicilian king Charles I (q.v.)

which the right of bishops to appeal to Rome against their metropolitans was maintained in the case of Rothad of Soissons. deposed by Hincmar (q.v.^ of Reims. Nicholas, a strict upholder of the Roman church's primacy of jurisdic-

He did not renew Charles's positions as imperial vicar Tuscany and senator of Rome; as far as the latter office was concerned, he legislated against its ever being filled again by a foreign ruler. At the same time he induced the German king and prospective emperor Rudolf of Habsburg to acknowledge that the Romagna with Ravenna and Bologna belonged to the papal states though this province was not effectively incorporated until

the marriage null (863). this pontificate

tion, reinstated

was that

Rothad

in

in 865.

Nicholas was indeed one of the master theorists of the papal Deeply dependent on the writings of his great

plenitude of power.

of Anjou. of

;

NICHOLAS much

the pope thus

later,

consummated

the policy of recuperations

begun by Innocent III. He also succeeded temporarily in making papal arbitership and influence felt in Florence, Siena and other Tuscan cities. It would seem that Nicholas also had adopted a constructive plan of reorganization of the Holy for certain that

the

kingdom

of

Roman

empire.

It

is

known

Burgundy (Arelat) was

to

be

given to Charles of Anjou's grandson Charles Martel (later titular king of Hungary), who was betrothed to a daughter of Rudolf of

The kingdom

Germany, it seems, was meant to become a hereditary Habsburg monarchy, whereas imperial Italy apparently was to be divided into two kingdoms, Lombardy and Tuscany, to be ruled perhaps by papal nephews. The German king would have had no direct control of the other three kingdoms but as emperor would have remained their feudal overlord. This socalled four states project, which almost certainly would have proved beneficial, is mentioned only by Tolomeo of Lucca, but its Habsburg.

existence

The

of

not improbable.

is

from a stroke ruined such plans and opened the door to renewed Angevinearly death of Nicholas III, on Aug. 22, 1280,

French influence upon the papacy under

his successor, Martin IV Martin). Nicholas IV (Girolamo Masci) (1227-1292), pope from 1288 to 1292, was the first Franciscan to occupy the throne of St. Peter. He was elected to succeed Honorius IV after a vacancy protracted by antagonism between the French and Italian cardinals for almost 11 months, during which six cardinals died, no doubt from malaria. He had been elected a first time on Feb. IS, 1288, but did not accept until after he had been elected a second time a week later. Girolamo Masci was born of humble parents at Lisciano near AscoH in the Marches. He joined the Franciscans at an early age aiid became the order's minister for Dalmatia. In 1 272 Gregory X sent him to Constantinople, where he had a share in bringing about the short-lived union with the Greeks. From 1274 to 1279 he was

(see

minister-general of the Franciscan order; then and later during his

showed much more severity against the Franciscan had his predecessor as minister-general, St. Bonaalone the earlier general John of Parma. He was made cardinal priest of St. Pudenziana by Nicholas III in 1278 and in 1281 cardinal bishop of Palestrina by Martin IV. pontificate he

Spirituals than

ventura,

let

As pope he

relied

very

much on

the Colonna, increasing the

num-

479

restoring the basilicas of S. Giovanni in Laterano and S. Maggiore and their mosaics. He died on April 14, 1292.

Maria

(G. B. L.)

V (Pietro Rainallucci) (d. 1333) was antipope in from 1328 to 1330. An assembly of priests and laymen in Rome under the influence of the excommunicated emperor Louis IV of Bavaria elected this Franciscan to the papacy during the pontificate of John XXII. After John excommunicated him in Nicholas

Italy

April 1329, Nicholas, having obtained assurances of pardon, presented an abjuration to the pope at Avignon (Aug. 25, 1330). He

remained in honourable imprisonment in the papal palace until his death on Oct, 16, 1333. Nicholas V (Tommaso Parentucelli) (1397-14SS), pope from 1447 to 14SS, was born on Nov. 15, 1397, at Sarzana, where his father was a physician. Eugenius IV made him bishop of Bologna (1444) and a papal negotiator with the Holy Roman empire regarding the reforming decrees of the Council of Basel. He was elected to succeed Eugenius on March 6, 1447. Faced with the problem of an antipope, Felix V {q.v.), Nicholas, by conciliation and patience, won the abdication of Felix on April 7, 1449. The next year, in thanksgiving for the restoration of unity in the church, he held a Jubilee in Rome. He crowned Frederick III Hcly Roman emperor in St. Peter's in March 1452 the last occasion in which a German emperor was crowned in Rome. In 1450 he sent Nicholas of Cusa as legate to Germany and Bohemia with the task of reforming abuses, a mission that was outstandingly successful. Nicholas was also responsible for the mission of St. John of Capistrano to Germany and that of Guillaume d'Estouteville {q.v.) to France. Nicholas was perhaps the best of the Renaissance popes. He was a generous patron o^ humanists, eager to reconcile religion and the new learning. He employed hundreds of copyists and scholars and, by his collection of manuscripts, began the formation of the great library in the Vatican. His last years were darkened by Stefano Porcaro's conspiracy against papal government in Rome and by the fall of Constantinople, both in 1453. Nicholas died on March 24, 1455. (J. A. Ct.) Bibliography. Nicholas I: Letters and decretals printed by J. P. Migne (ed.), Patrologia latina, vol. c.xix (1852). See also L. Duchesne, Les Premiers Temps de I'etat pontifical (1911) E. Perels, Papst NikoF. Dvornik, The Photian laus I und Anastasius Bibliothekarius (1920) Schism (1948) W. UUmann, The Growth of Papal Government in the Middle Ages (1955).

—

—

;

;

;

ber of cardinals belonging to that family. In the bull Coelestis altitudo of 1289 he granted to the cardinals half of the revenues of the Roman church and a share in its administration.

Like his predecessor Martin IV, Nicholas IV, as feudal overlord of the south Italian Sicilian kingdom, tried vainly to force the

royal house of Italian Anjous.

IV

Aragon to restore the island of Sicily to the south Yet he abandoned the political concept of Martin

insofar as he terminated in 1291 the conflict between France

and the kingdom of Aragon. Charles of Valois gave up his claim upon Aragon in return for the counties of Anjou and Maine which the son and successor of Charles of Anjou, Charles II iq.v.) of Naples, agreed to renounce in favour of his Valois cousin and namesake in the interest of concerted action against the Aragonese of Sicily.

Nicholas

IV no more than any other pope

able to revive the idea of the crusade.

after

During

Gregory

X

was

his pontificate the

remnant of the Christian crusader states, the fortress of Acre, the Mameluke sultan of Egypt (1291). Even at that late date the outcome could have been different had the west availed itself of an opportunity for alliance with the Mongols against the Muslims, for which Innocent IV and St. Louis IX of France had looked in vain. This now seemed to materialize through the initiative of the Il-khan Arghun of Persia, who sent urgent requests for joint action to Nicholas IV, to Philip IV of France and to Edward I of England; but he received only promises in return. Nicholas, however, did send the Franciscan Giovanni di Monte Corvino last

fell to

iq.v.) to the court of

Kublai Khan;

mission led to the first establishment of the Catholic Church in China, where Nestorian Christians had previously been influential. The pope also sent misthis

mostly Franciscans, to the Balkans and the near east. Nicholas did much for Roman architecture and art, especially

sionaries,

A. Nicholas 11: A. Fliche, La Rijorme grigorienne, vol. i (1924) Michel, Papstwahl und Konigsrecht oder das Papstwahl-Konkordat von 1059 (1936). Nicholas III: Registres de Nicolas III, ed. by J. Gay and S. Vitte, Bibliotheque des ficoles Fran(;aises d'Athenes et de Rome, ser. ii, 2 vol. (1898-1938) H. K. Mann, The Lives of the Popes in the Middle Ages, vol. xvi, pp. 57 ff. (1932) J. Haller, Das Papsttum, 2nd ed., vol. v, pp. 46 £f. (1953) F. X. Seppelt, Geschichte der Pdpsle, vol. iii, pp. 543 ff., with bibliography (1956) E. Dupre Theseider, Roma dal Comune di Popolo alia Signoria Pontificia (1252-1377) Storia di Roma, ed. by Istituto di Studi Romani, vol. xi, pp. 197 ff. (1952). For John Gaetano Orsini as cardinal see R. Sternfeld, Der Kardinal Johann Ga'etan Orsini, Historische Studien, ed. by E. Ebering, vol. Iii (1905). For Nicholas III and the Franciscans see R. M. Huber, O.F.M.Conv., A Documented History of the Franciscan Order, vol. i, 1182-1517, pp. 171 ff. (1944). Nicholas IV : Registres de Nicolas IV, ed. by E. Langlois, Bibliotheque des Ecoles Frangaises d'Athenes et de Rome, 2 vol. (1886-1905) H. K. Mann, The Lives of the Popes in the Middle Ages, vol. xvii, pp. 1 ff. (1932) J. Haller, Das Papsttum, 2nd ed., vol. v, pp. 77 ff. (1953) F. X. Seppelt, Geschichte der Papste, vol. iii, pp. 573 if., with bibliography (1956). For the rise of the Colonna under Nicholas IV see E. Dupre Theseider, Roma dal Comune di Popolo alia Signoria Pontificia (1252;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

—

Storia di Roma, ed. by Istituto di Studi Romani, vol. xi, pp. 1377) 259 ff. (1952). Cf. also F. Hermanin, L'arle in Roma dal sec. VIII al For the eastern problems series, vol. xxiii, pp. 299 ff. (1945). see (i. Dawson (ed.), The Mongol Mission (1955). Nicholas V (antipope): Ludwig Pastor, The History of the Popes From the Close of the Middle Ages, vol. i (1891) G. MoUat, Les Rapes d' Avignon, 9th ed. (1949). Nicholas V : Philip Hughes, A History of the Church, vol. iii (1947) Ludwig Pastor, The History of the Popes From the Close of the Middle Ages, vol. ii (1891) A. Fliche and V. Martin, Histoire de 1'fi.glise, vol. XV R. Aubenas and R. Ricard, L'£glise et la Renaissance (1951).

XIV, same

;

;

;

;

NICHOLAS

I (Nikolai Pavlovich) (1796-1855), emperor from 1825, was born at Tsarskoye Selo on July 6 (new June 25, old style), 1796, the eighth child of the future

of Russia in

—

style;

—

NICHOLAS

480 emperor Paul

and

Maria Fedorovna.

He was

not five brought his eldest brother to the imperial throne as Alexander I. His education was supervised by Gen. Count M. I. von Lambsdorff, director of the 1st cadet corps and former povernor of Courland. a strict disciplinarian but a miserable pedagogue who awakened httle enthusiasm for learning either in Nicholas or in his elder brother Constantine (q.v.); and though Nicholas had various tutors, his interest re-

years old

I

when

the

his consort

murder of

mained generally limited

to

his father

military

matters,

in

spite

of

his

mother's efforts to change this. His approach to many problems was to be that of a simple, honest and devoted officer. In 1814, in the concluding phase of the Napoleonic Wars, the grand duke Nicholas joined the Russian headquarters in France, but not to take part in any fighting. He was with the AOies in Paris in 1815. In the following year he set out on a tour, visiting not only Moscow and the western provinces of Russia but also Prussia and England. In Berlin he was betrothed to Princess Charlotte (in Russia called Aleksandra Fedorovna), daughter of King Frederick William III of Prussia. His marriage on July 13 (N.S.; 1, O.S.), 1817, marked the beginning of a close relationship between the courts of Berlin and St. Petersburg. Nicholas gave himself over to a happy family life his first child, the future emperor Alexander II, was born on April 29 (N.S.), 1818 and did not participate in governmental affairs. His only public role prior to his accession to the throne was as commander of a brigade of the guard and as inspector general of the engineering branch. In this capacity he showed his interest in mihtary education and promoted the establishment of several military schools. Accession. Alexander I was childless, and his brother Constantine, bearing the title of tsarevich or crown prince, was expected to succeed him on the throne. But in 1823 Constantine, who lived in Poland with a Polish wife, had secretly renounced any claim to the imperial succession. When Alexander I died at Taganrog on Dec. 1 (N.S.), 1825, Nicholas, unaware of the renunciation, proclaimed Constantine emperor. Informed of the renunciation, he still hesitated to accept the crown without a public statement by Constantine, for he was too conscious of the unpopularity that his drastic discipline had earned for him in the army. A three-week interregnum ensued, and the discontented army officers took advantage of it to bring to a head a plot that had long been hatching in favour of constitutional reform. When on Dec. 26 the troops who had taken the oath to Constantine were ordered to take another to Nicholas, it was easy to persuade them that this was a treasonable plot against the true emperor. The Moscow regiment in St. Petersburg refused to take the oath, and part of it marched, shouting for "Constantine and Constitution," to the square before the senate house, where they were joined by a company of the guard and by sailors from the warships. In this crisis Nicholas showed high personal courage. For hours he stood, or sat on horseback, amid the surging crowd, facing the mutinous soldiers while hazardous efforts were made to bring them to reason (Gen. Count M. A. Miloradovich, military governor of St. Petersburg, was mortally wounded by a pistol shot in an argument with the mutineers). When at last Nicholas consented to use force, a few rounds of grapeshot quelled the mutiny. The chief conspirators were arrested the same night and interrogated by the emperor in person. A special commission, consisting entirely of officers, was then set up; and before this, for five months, the prisoners were subjected to a rigorous inquisition. It was soon clear that the December rising was but one manifestation of a vast conspiracy permeating the whole army and embracing such aims as the

—

—

Though

of rejuvenating the tired

and corrupt adminis-

a certain

had them marched to the guardhouse. autonomy was extended to the universities— they

—

to public institutions, then eight or nine hours in his cabinet to deal

—

with reports and dispatches such was his ordinary day's work. Under the "Iron Tsar" the outward semblance of authority was perfectly maintained; but behind this fagade the whole structure of the administrative system continued to rot. Foreign Affairs. Throughout his reign Nicholas I sought to discipline Russia and, by means of a disciplined Russia, to discipline the world. Russia's mission in the west was, in accordance with the principles of the Holy alliance (q.v.) as Nicholas interpreted them, to uphold the cause of legitimacy and autocracy against revolution; and in the east it was, with or without the co-operation of "Europe," to advance the cause of Orthodox Christianity, of which Russia was the natural protector, at the expense of the decaying Ottoman Turkish empire (see Eastern Question). The sympathy of Europe with the insurgent Greeks gave Nicholas an early opportunity (see Greek Independence, War of). Great Britain sent the duke of Wellington to St. Petersburg in 1826 not only to congratulate the new emperor on his accession but also to concert a policy on the Eastern question. The upshot proved the diplomatic value of Nicholas' apparent sincerity of purpose and charm of manner: the "Iron Duke" was to the "Iron Tsar" as soft iron to steel; and the British found themselves committed, without efficient guarantees for the future, to a policy that turned out very much to Russia's advantage. The execution of this policy, however, incidentally exposed the rottenness of Russia's administrative system. The newly organized Russian naval squadron on its way to join the British and the French in the Ionian sea reached the English channel only with difficulty and had to be completely refitted in Plymouth before it could proceed; yet it arrived in time to participate in the destruction of Ottoman seapower in the unforeseen battle of Navarino (Oct. 20, 1827). When overt war broke out between Russia and Turkey in 1828 (see Russo-Turkish Wars), the emperor went to join his troops on their march through the Balkans toward Istanbul, hampering by his presence the initiative of the nominal commander in chief (Prince L. A. P. von Wittgen-

—

stein)

and obliging the

weary and starving in the marshes him as smartly as if they were in hundreds died of scurvy or dysentery,

soldiers,

of Dobruja, to parade before

of the

means

servants, professors and students into uniform

own deans and professors the expression of thought was censored. The army was disciplined by an unceasing round and inspections which left it woefully unprepared for actual combat. In general, everything was done to protect Russia from foreign revolutionary influence. Students were no longer sent to study in western Europe, and travel abroad was restricted. Meanwhile a secret police network, the dreaded "third section" of the emperor's private chancery, had been established in July 1826; and a policy of russification was pursued throughout the empire to make the idea of nationality (narodnost), together with Orthodox Christianity and autocracy, one of the pillars of Russian absolutism. Nicholas was not blind to the evils of Russian society (he regarded serfdom as an evil), but he feared that changes would be worse yet. The reign saw much emphasis on bureaucracy and officialdom, yet Nicholas was reluctant to delegate authority. In this he resembled his contemporary, the emperor Francis I of Austria. But whereas Francis would "sleep upon" a difficult problem, Nicholas never did. His constitution was of iron, his capacity for work prodigious: reviews and parades, receptions of deputations, visits

mittee's proposals, as Nicholas turned increasingly to military discipline as the

civil

offenses,

of parades

St.

—

little

elected their

and the attainment of some degree of representative government. (See Dekabrists.) Nicholas was crowned emperor in Moscow on Sept. 3 (N.S.), 1826. His coronation in Warsaw, as king of Poland, did not take place till May 24, 1829. Internal Policy. Nicholas saw the need for reforms and appointed a committee to examine the unfulfilled projects of Alexander I as well as other measures for the overhauling of the administration. But the revolutionary movement in western Europe, breaking out in 1830, prompted the shelving of most of the comabolition of serfdom

He put

tration.

and, for

Petersburg.

When

Nicholas could do nothing to repair the scandalous inefficiency of the commissariat or of the hospital service. Even so, the peace treaty of Adrianople (Edirne; Sept. 14, 1829) seemed to reduce Turkey to a position little better than that of vassalage to Russia;

and the Russo-Turkish treaty of Unkiar Skelessi (July 8, 1833), after the first revolt of Mohammed Ali of Egypt against Turkey, strengthened Russia's hand still further. In the west Nicholas himself proposed an armed intervention

Holy

alliance "to restore order" after the July revolution in

France and the Belgian revolution (1830).

When

Austria and

NICHOLAS Prussia held back, he even proposed to intervene alone; but this project was rendered impracticable by the outbreak of the great insurrection in Poland (Nov. 29, 1830), which tied the hands of

three powers. After the Poles had been crushed (1831), Nicholas went in person to reach an understanding with Austria on the Eastern quesThis tion at Miinchengratz (Mnichovo Hradiste) in Sept. 1833. enabled his minister K. R. von Nesselrode to draw Austria and Prussia into a reproduction of the Holy alliance with Russia by all

the secret convention of Berlin (Oct. 15, 1833), whereby they reaffirmed the right and duty of intervention at the request of a

When the emperor Ferdinand I had succeeded his father Francis I on the Austrian throne (1835), Nicholas went to renew the Austro-Russian understanding in Sept.-Oct. 1835 through meetings at Teplitz (Teplice) and in Prague. At these meetings he recommended the eventual suppression of the legitimate sovereign.

republic of

Cracow by

Austria, since

Cracow was

a centre of revo-

lutionary agitation (though Austrian, Russian and Prussian troops

occupied the territory from 1836 to 1841, formal annexation was deferred till 1846) and he was also persuaded by Metternich, the Austrian chancellor and minister of foreign affairs, to support the cause of Don Carlos in Spain. As early as May 1837, in view of the agitation in Hungary, he announced that "in every case" Austria might count on Russia. These cordial ties were loosened when war broke out in Syria between Turkey and Egypt in 1839. Metternich was anxious to summon a European conference to Vienna, with a view to placing Turkey under a collective guarantee, but Nicholas refused to be a party to it. Moreover, as Austria showed an inclination to consult both Great Britain and France, Nicholas decided to come to an agreement with Great Britain in order to settle the Eastern question according to his own views and without reference to the France of the July monarchy. He therefore departed so far from the position given to him by the treaty of Unkiar Skelessi and made such concessions that the convention of London (July 15, 1840) could be concluded between Russia, Great Britain, Austria and Prussia for the settlement of the question regardless of France's views. The new Anglo-Russian entente led in June 1844 to a visit of the emperor to England. The imperial regime in Russia was unshaken by the European revolutionary movement of 1848; and in 1849 Nicholas sent his army into Hungary, at the request of the young Austrian emperor Francis Joseph, to crush the insurgent Hungarians. He also did a valuable service to Austria during the German crisis of 1850. Prussia was then trying to organize a new union of German states that would have put an end to the predominance enjoyed by Austria in the German confederation asset up in 1815; and the troubles that broke out in Electoral Hesse might have led to war between Austria and Prussia if both powers had persisted in intervening at At a meeting in cross purposes there (see Germany: History). Warsaw, however, in Oct. 1850, Nicholas told the Prussian prime minister, Friedrich Wilhelm, graf von Brandenburg, that in order not to forfeit Russia's friendship Prussia must adhere to the settlement of 1815 and to the entente with Austria. Thus deterred by Nicholas, Prussia submitted to Austria's will in the punctation of Olmiitz (Olomouc) in November. Nicholas was soon to be disappointed in his faith in Austria's friendship. In 1853, when the dispute arose with the French emperor Napoleon III over the guardianship of the Holy Places in Palestine (see Crimean War), Nicholas could not believe that Christian powers would resent his claim to protect the Christian subjects of Turkey. On the contrary, he thought that Austria was in gratitude bound to be at least neutral, if not favourable to him; that Prussia would adopt a similar position; and that he could hope to come to a frank understanding with Great Britain. Having in June 1853 ordered his armies to occupy Turkish Moldavia and Walachia, he conferred with Francis Joseph at Olmiitz in September and met him again, with the Prussian king Frederick William IV, in Warsaw in October. Finally, however, when France and Great Britain had already declared war on Russia, both Austria and Prussia subscribed to an agreement with the allies guaranteeing the integrity of the Turkish empire (April 9, 1853) and then pro-

481

ceeded to sign a defensive alliance of their own (April 20, 1854) which would come into operation if the Russians annexed the banks of the Danube or marched on Istanbul. Thus Nicholas, the professed champion of the European alliance, found himself obliged to withdraw his troops from the Balkans at Austria's behest in the summer of 1854. The Franco-British invasion of the Crimea followed, and with it a fresh exposure of the corruption of the Russian system. At the outset Nicholas had grimly remarked that "Generals January and February" would prove his best allies, but they acted impartially: if thousands of British and French soldiers perished of cold and disease in the trenches before Sevastopol, the tracks leading from the centre of Russia into the Crimea were marked by the bones of Russian dead. Disillusion broke the emperor's spirit; he neglected ordinary precautions for his health; and, on March 2 (N.S.; Feb. 18, O.S.), 1855, he died of pleurisy.

See also Russia

:

History.

—

Bibliography. Theodor Schiemann, Geschichte Russlands unter Kaiser Nikolaus I, 4 vol. (1904-19) C. de Grunwald, Tsar Nicholas I, Eng. trans. (1954) G. Mazour, The First Russian Revolution, 1825: the Decembrist Movement (1937). (W. A. P.; G. A. Ln.) ;

;

;

NICHOLAS

II (Nikolai Aleksandrovich)

(1868-1918),

the last Russian emperor, was born at Tsarskoye Selo on

(new

May

18

old style), 1868, the eldest son of the tsarevich Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (emperor as Alexander III from 1881) style;

6,

his consort Maria Fedorovna ceeding his father on Nov. 1 (N.S. )

and

(Dagmar ,

1

894, he

of Denmark). Sucwas crowned in Mos-

cow on May 26 (N.S.), 1895.. Character and Views. Neither by upbringing nor by tem-

—

perament was Nicholas fitted for the complex tasks that awaited him as autocratic ruler of a vast empire. He had received a military education from his tutor, Gen. G. G. Danilovich, and his tastes and interests were those of the average young Russian guards officer of his day. He had few intellectual pretensions, but delighted in physical exercise and the minutiae of army life: uniforms, insigThough nia, parades. Yet on formal occasions he felt ill at ease. he possessed great personal charm he was by nature timid; he shunned close contact with his subjects, preferring the privacy of his family circle. His domestic life was serene. To his wife Alexandra (q.v.), whom he had married on Nov. 26 (N.S.), 1894, NichShe had the strength of character olas was passionately devoted. that he lacked, and he fell completely under her sway. She communicated to him her morbid mystical outlook. Under her influence he sought the advice of spiritualists and faith healers, most notably G. E. Rasputin (q.v.), who eventually acquired great power over the imperial couple. Nicholas also had other irresponsible favourites, often men of dubious probity who provided him with a distorted picture of Russian life, but one that he found more comforting than that contained in official reports. He distrusted mainly because he felt them to be intellectually su-

his ministers,

perior to himself and feared that they sought to usurp his sovereign

His view of his role as autocrat was childishly simhe derived his authority from God, to whom alone he was responsible, and it was his sacred duty to preserve his absolute power However, he lacked the strength of will necessary in one intact. who had such an exalted conception of his task. In pursuing the path of duty Nicholas had to wage a continual struggle against himself, suppressing his natural indecisiveness and assuming a mask of self-confident resolution. His dedication to the dogma of autocracy was an inadequate substitute for the constructive policy which alone could have prolonged the imperial regime. Soon after his accession Nicholas proclaimed his uncompromising views in an address to liberal deputies from the zemstva in which he dismissed as "senseless dreams" their aspirations to share in the work of government. To the rising groundswell of popular In foreign unrest he replied with intensified police repression. policy, his naivete and lighthearted attitude toward international obligations sometimes embarrassed his professional diplomats; e.g., when he concluded an alhance with the German emperor William II during their meeting at Bjorko in July 1905. He was the first Russian sovereign to evince personal interest in Asia. In 1891, while still tsarevich, he visited India, China and Japan; and later he nominally supervised the construction of the Trans-Siberian

prerogatives. ple

:

NICHOLAS

482

regard to Korea, where railway. The forward policy he pursued he had private financial interests, was partly responsible for the in

Russo-Japanese War (1904-05). The outcome of this struggle not only frustrated Nicholas' grandiose dreams of making Russia a great Eurasian power with China. Tibet and Persia within its sphere

him with serious problems at home, where discontent grew up into the revolutionary movement of 1905. Domestic Affairs. Nicholas considered all who opposed him, of influence but also faced

—

Disregarding V. Witte, his prime minister, he refused to make concessions until events forced him to yield more than might have been necessary had he been more flexible. On March 3 (N.S.), 1905, he reluctantly agreed to the creation of a national representative assembly or duma (q.v.) with consultative powers; and by the regardless of their views, as malicious conspirators.

the advice of

S.

manifesto of Oct. 30 he promised what was virtually a constitutional regime: no law was to take effect without the duma's conNicholas, however, cared little for an undertaking extracted sent. from him under duress. He strove to regain his former powers and ensured that in the new "fundamental laws" (May 1906) he was He furthermore patronized an exstill designated an autocrat. tremist right-wing organization, the Union of Russian Men, which sanctioned terrorist methods and disseminated anti-Semitic propaganda. Witte, whom Nicholas blamed for the October manifesto, was soon dismissed, and the first two dumas were prematurely dissolved as "insubordinate." P. A. Stolypin, who carried out the coup of June 16, 1907, whereby the second duma was dissolved, was loyal to the dynasty and a capable statesman. But the emperor distrusted him and allowed his position to be undermined by intrigue. Stolypin was one of those who dared to make representations about Rasputin's influence and thereby incurred the displeasure of the empress. In such cases Nicholas generally hesitated but ultimately yielded to Alexandra's pressure. To prevent exposure of the scandal he interfered arbitrarily in matters properly within the competence of the Holy synod. Foreign Affairs. In foreign affairs attention now centred on the Balkans. Nicholas sympathized with the national aspirations of the Slavs and was anxious to win control of the Turkish straits, but tempered his expansionist inclinations with a sincere desire to preserve peace among the great powers. After the assassination of the Austrian archduke Francis Ferdinand at Sarajevo he tried hard to avert the impending catastrophe by diplomatic action and resisted, until July 30 (N.S.), 1914, the pressure of the military for general, as distinct from partial, mobilization. The outbreak of World War I temporarily strengthened the monarchy, but Nicholas did little to maintain his people's confidence. The duma was slighted, and voluntary patriotic organizations were hampered in their efforts; the gulf between the ruling group and public opinion grew steadily wider. Alexandra turned Nicholas' mind against the popular commander in chief, his father's cousin the grand duke Nicholas (Nikolai Nikolaevich) and on Sept. 5, 1915, he dismissed him, assuming supreme command himself. Almost all his ministers protested against this step as likely to impair the army's morale, since the emperor had no experience of war. They were overruled and soon found themselves dismissed. Nicholas II did not in fact interfere unduly in operational decisions, but his departure for headquarters had serious political consequences. In his absence supreme power in effect passed, with his approval and encouragement, to the empress. A grotesque situation resulted in the midst of a desperate struggle for national survival competent ministers and officials were dismissed and replaced by worthless nominees of Rasputin. The court was widely suspected of treachery, and antidynastic feeling grew apace. Conservatives plotted Nicholas' deposition in the hope of saving the monarchy. Even the murder of Rasputin failed to dispel Nicholas' illusions: he blindly disregarded this ominous warning, as he did those by other highly placed personages, including members of his own family. His isolation was virtually complete. Abdication and Death. When riots broke out in Petrograd on March 8 (N.S.), 1917, Nicholas instructed the city commandant to take firm measures and sent troops to help restore order. It was too late. The government resigned, and the duma, supported by the army, called on the emperor to abdicate. At Pskov, on March

—

;

;

—

—

with fatalistic composure, Nicholas renounced the throne not, had originally intended, in favour of his son Alexis, but in Michael, however, refused the favour of his brother Michael. 15,

as he

crown. Nicholas was detained at Tsarskoye Selo. It was planned to send him and his family to England; but instead, mainly because of the opposition of the Petrograd soviet, they were removed to Tobolsk, in western Siberia. This step sealed their doom. In April 1918 they were taken to Ekaterinburg (now Sverdlovsk) in the Urals. When "White" Russian forces approached the area the local authorities were ordered to prevent a rescue; and in the night of July 29-30 (N.S.; 16-17 O.S.) the prisoners were all slaughtered The in the cellar of the house where they had been confined. bodies were burned and cast into an abandoned mineshaft, but the facts were established by investigation after Ekaterinburg had been taken by the "White" forces. The Journal intime de Nicolas II was published in 1925 and The Letters of the Tsar to Tsaritsa,

1914-1917 in 1929. See also Russian History. Bibliography. P. Gilliard, Thirteen Years at the Russian- Court: a Personal Record (1921); Sir B. Pares, The Fall of the Russian Monarchy (1939) S. P. Melgunov, Sudba Imperatora Nikotaya Il-go posle otrecheniva (1951) R. D. Charques, The Twilight of Imperial Russia (195SV ' (J. L. H. K.) I (1841-1921), prince of Montenegro from 1860

—

;

;

NICHOLAS

and king from 1910 style;

to 1918,

Sept. 25, old style),

was born

at

7 (new Mirko Petrovich-

Njegosh on Oct.

1841, the son of

Njegosh. Heir presumptive to his uncle Danilo II, he was educated at Trieste and at the lycee Louis-le-Grand in Paris. Returning to Montenegro as prince after Danilo's assassination (Aug. 13, 1860), he took part in the campaign of 1862 against the Turks, which after Austrian intervention was followed by a long period of peace. On a visit to St. Petersburg in 1868 he was well received

by the Russian emperor Alexander II, who thereafter supplied him regularly with arms and money and on one occasion referred to him During the international crisis that arose as his "only friend." from the revolt of Hercegovina against Turkish rule, Nicholas declared war on Turkey in July 1876 and won brilliant successes in the ensuing campaigns (see Eastern Question). He took Bar and Ulcinj; and the congress of Berhn (1878) recognized Montenegro as a sovereign state, with its previous area doubled and access to the Adriatic at Bar. Nicholas, who in 1860 had married Milena 1847-1923 ), daughter of Petar Vukotich, now proceeded to seek useful dynastic connections. Of his daughters, Zorka was married in 1883 to Peter Karageorgevich (she died however in 1890, before Peter became king of Serbia); two were married to Russian grand dukes; and Elena was married in 1896 to the future Victor Emmanuel III of Italy. He. himself assumed the style of "Royal Highness" in Dec. 1900. Meanwhile he had begun to intrigue, sometimes with and sometimes against Peter Karageorgevich, for the formation of a Yugoslav state to comprise both Montenegro and Serbia. Discontent at his despotic rule in Montenegro forced Nicholas (

Quarrels with political opponents culminated in the "Cetinje bomb plot" against him (1907), which led to severance of relations with Serbia till 1908. On Aug. 28, 1910, Nicholas proclaimed himself king of Montenegro. The Balkan War of 1912-13 began with his declaration of war against Turkey (see Balkan Wars), but the resultant acquisition of territory by Montenegro was less than had been hoped, so Nicholas at first made common that the dynasty lost prestige. cause with Serbia in World War I, but asked Austria-Hungary for a separate peace on Jan. 13, 1916, before taking refuge in Italy. When the Serbians had occupied Montenegro, a "national assembly" proclaimed his deposition and that of his dynasty (Nov. 26, 1918); and on March 2, 1921, Nicholas died in exile, at Antibes in France. The small monarchist party of Montenegro then proclaimed his eldest son Danilo (1871-1939), as king, but Danilo on March 7 abdicated his rights in favour of his nephew Michael to grant a constitution in 1905.

(1908Nicholas

).

I

was a talented writer of

plays,

poems and

songs.

(R. G. D. L.)

NICHOLAS

(Nikolai Nikolaevich) (1856-1929), Russian

grand duke and army

ofiicer,

commander

in chief against the Ger-

NICHOLAS mans and Austro-Hungarians was born

in St. Petersburg

in the first

year of World

on Nov. 18 (new

War

I.

He

style; 6, old style),

1856, the son of the emperor Alexander H's brother, the grand duke Nikolai Nikolaevich "the Elder." Educated at the general

he received his commission in 1872. In the Russoof 1877-78 he served on the staff of his father, then commander in chief of the Russian forces. He next joined the staff college,

Turkish

War

Guard Hussar regiment, becoming its commander in 1884. He was appointed inspector general of cavalry in 1895 and held this post for ten years, during which he introduced fundamental reforms in training and equipment. When he was appointed in 1905 to be commander of the St. Petersburg military district he again demonstrated his enthusiasm for the effective training of his troops, espe-

483

Nicholas emphasized mathematics and experimental knowledge, including diagnostic medicine and applied science. Before Copernicus he discerned a universal movement involving but not centred in the earth; he denied that celestial bodies are strictly circular in form and motion. (See also Science The Renaissance and Early Modern Science.) He conceived God as irreducible unity, the coincidence of all contradictions, that which enfolds all things in its infinite simplicity, even as it unfolds all. Cusa flatly disavowed pantheism. All things are in God as things caused are in the cause; this, he held, in no way identified creatures with their ;

creator.

Christ was envisaged as the perfect mediator between God and man, the union between the divine nature that created and the human nature that was created. Humanity experienced its true nobilcially in the application of modern methods and of the lessons ity and personalized freedom in cosmic community with Christ. learned from the Russo-Japanese War. In 1905 Nicholas was also appointed first president of the newly He was celebrated as the incarnate Word of the sermon and the heart of the saving eucharistic mystery. In Christ's mystical body created imperial committee of national defense, a position that he and sacramental unity, Cusa found the cure of Bohemian sepaheld until its abolition in 1908, when Gen. V. A. Sukhomlinov became chief of the general staff. Sukhomlinov also became minister- ratism, the hope for Greek-Latin reunion and the reconciliation in worshiping diversity that would ultimately unify all faiths. Cusa of war in 1909 and was entrusted by the emperor Nicholas II with reflected sources as divergent as the Neoplatonists, Eckhart, the the strategic planning for the war expected to break out in Europe: Christian Fathers and the Averroists. His role in the history of the grand duke Nicholas had no part in this planning. On the outbreak of war against Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1914, how- thought deserves perennial re-evaluation. Nicholas' Opera Omnia were edited by E. Hoffmann and P. Wilthough he had intended take over the active ever, the emperor, to command of the armies himself, yielded to the advice of his minis- pert (1932 et seq.) and also may be found in Schriften in deutscher Vbersetzung (1936 et seq.). ters and to popular opinion and appointed the grand duke Nicholas English translations are E. Gurney-Salter, The Vision of God (1928), and G. Heron, Of to be commander in chief. During the war the grand duke adapted Learned Ignorance (1954). the plans already made by the general staff and proved himself an Bibliography. E. Vansteenberghe, Le Cardinal Nicolas de Cues extremely able commander. On Sept. 5 (N.S.; Aug. 23, O.S.), (1920) H, Belt, Nicholas of Cusa (1932) E. F. Jacob, Essays in the 1915, however, the emperor assumed the supreme command and Conciliar Epoch (19S3) M. de Gandillac, Nikolaus von Cues (1953) sent the grand duke to the Caucasus as viceroy and commander in E. Cassirer, Individuum und Kosmos in der Philosophic der Renaissance chief. This appointment gave new heart to the Russian forces (1927) G. Heinz-Mohr, Unites Christiana (1958). (Ra. C. P.) ranged against Turkey, and they took the offensive with some sucNICHOLAS OF Damascus (Nicolaus Damascenus) (fl. 1st cess. century B.C.), Greek historian and philosopher of Damascus, whose The grand duke was still in the Caucasus at the time of the Rus- works included a universal history from the time of the Assyrian sian revolution of March 1917. The emperor's last official act was empire to his own days. He instructed Herod the Great in rhetoric to appoint him once more commander in chief but within 24 hours and philosophy, and attracted the notice of Augustus when he acof the grand duke's arrival at his new headquarters in Mogilev his companied his patron on a visit to Rome. Later, when Herod's appointment was canceled by Prince G. E. Lvov, head of the pro- conduct aroused the suspicions of Augustus, Nicholas was sent on visional government. For two years Nicholas remained in the a mission to bring about a reconciliation. He survived Herod and Crimea, but in March 1919 he left Russia in a British cruiser. He it was through his influence that the succession was secured for lived quietly in France until his death at Antibes on Jan. 6, 1929. Herod Archelaus; but the date of his death, Hke that of his birth, is unknown. Fragments of his universal history, his autobiography See V. A. Sukhomlinov, Veliki knyaz Nikolai Nikolaevich (1925) and his hfe of Augustus have been preserved, chiefly in the extracts Yuri N. Danilov, Le Premier Geniralissime des armees russes, le grand due Nicolas (1932) Bernard Pares, The Fall of the Russian Monarchy of Constantine Porphyrogenitus. See Constantine: Constan;

—

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

(1939).

(I.

Gy.)

NICHOLAS OF CusA

(Nikolaus von Cusa, Nicolaus CusaNus) (1401-1464), scholar and churchman, was the son of a Moselle boatman named Krypffs or Krebs. He studied the arts, philosophy, law, mathematics, the sciences and theology at Deventer,

Heidelberg, Padua,

Rome and

Cologne (1413-25) and was

or-

dained priest c. 1430, To his colleagues at the council of Basel he dedicated his book De concordantia catholica {On Catholic Concordance; 1433), in which he stressed the harmony of the church

supreme society on earth. The pattern for priestly concord he found in the heavenly orders. He maintained the supremacy of general councils over divinely commissioned but strictly limited papal power. Later, however, he became a critic of conciliar politics and an ally of the papacy (1437). He negotiated with the Hussites and served on a commission to Constantinople, seeking the reunion of Eastern and Western Christendom (1437). Philosophy and mathematics were conjoined in his work De docta ignorantia (Of Learned Ignorance; 1440), in which he described the learned man as one aware of his own ignorance. Such wise unknowing led to a faith transcending reason. The way was thus opened for the mystical life described in his De visione Dei ( Vision of God; 1453). Nicholas became a cardinal in 1448 and bishop of Brixen, in the Tirol, in 1450. He was papal legate for reform in Germany and the Netherlands (1450-52). Attempted reform of his own diocese (1453-58) ended with his eviction by secular powers (1459). He died at Todi in 1464. as the

tine VII.

For fragments (1870).

The

see L. Dindorf (ed.), Historici Graeci minores, vol. i text of his life of Augustus, with Eng. trans, and com-

M. Hall (1923). (1853), contains an account of his

mentary, was edited by C.

Damaskus

F. Navet, Nikolaus von and translation of the

life

fragments.

NICHOLAS

of Lyra (Nicolaus Lyranus) (c. 1265-1349), by Martin Grabmann "the foremost exegete of the Franciswas born at Lire (now Vieille-Lyre) in Normandy. He entered the Franciscan order at Verneuil about 1300, studied at Paris, became a professor before 1309 and taught for many years in the Sorbonne. From 1319 he was provincial of his order in France and in 1325, as provincial of Burgundy, he founded the College of Burgundy at Paris, where he died in the autumn called

can-Scotistic school,"

of 1349.

Nicholas' most important writing

is

the

monumental 50-voIume

Scripturam, a commentary on the whole Bible, first according to the literal sense, then according to a mystical or spiritual exposition. This book, the first commentary printed, soon became a favourite manual of exegesis, and some scholars claim that it exerted an important influence on LuPostillae perpetuae in

universam

S.

ther. The prime significance of the work is the author's insistence, against the allegorical interpretations common in his time, on the

hteral sense as the foundation for

all

mystical applications.

Nicho-

wrote on the Eucharist, the Beatific Vision and other matincluding a book of devotions. (Wm. J. B.) SIR (1593-1669), English states-

las also ters,

NICHOLAS, man and

EDWARD

secretary of state under Charles

I,

was born

at Winter-

NICHOLS— NICIAS

484

bourne Earls. Wiltshire, on April 4, 1593. He was educated at Salisbury grammar school, Winchester and Queen's college, Oxford. After studying law at the Midille Temple, Nicholas became in 1618 secretary to Lord Zouche. warden and admiral of the Cinque ports, and continued in a similar employment under the duke of Buckingham. He was member of parliament for Winchelsea in 1021 and 1624 and for Dover in 1628. He became secretary to the admiralty, then extra clerk of the privy council with duties relating to admiralty business in 1626; and he was one of the In this situation clerks in ordinary to the council (1635-41).

Nicholas was concerned with the levy 0/ ship money. He had became a privy councilor and a secretary of state in Nov. 1641. attended the king at Oxford and was one of the royal commissioners at the treaty of Uxbridge (Feb. 1645). Nicholas helped to arrange the details of the king's surrender to Charles's confidence,

the Scots, though he does not appear to have approved of the and he signed the capitulation of Oxford. He went to France, and after the king's death remained on the continent. step,

Despite his friendship with Sir Edward Hyde, he had little inand two years after the Restoration he was persuaded to resign his secretaryship. He died at West Horsley, fluence with Charles

Surrey, on Sept.

1,

H

1669.

of Nicholas' correspondence is printed in The Nicholas Papers, 4 vol. (1886-97), and in The Diary and Correspondence of John Evelyn, ed by W. Bray (1906). See also D. Nicholas, Mr. Secretary Nicholas

Much

(R.

(1955).

B.Wm.)

NICHOLS, JOHN

(1745-1826), English writer, printer and antiquary, who in the Gentleman's Magazine, with which he was connected from 1778 until his death, and in numerous volumes of literary anecdotes, made an invaluable contribution to knowledge Born at of the lives and works of ISth-century men of letters. Islington, Feb. 2, 1745, he was apprenticed in 1757 to William Bowyer the younger, "the learned printer," who took him into partnership in 1766. His first literary work was as editor of Swift (1775-1779) but his career as biographer to his age was begun by his memoir of Bowyer, expanded into A?iecdote5 of William Bowyer and His Literary Friends (1782), which formed the basis of The Literary Anecdotes of the 18th Century (1812-15). The supplementary Illustrations of the Literary History of the 18th Century, begun in 1817, was completed by his son, John Bowyer Nichols'(1779-1863). Nichols became part manager of the Gentleman's Magazine in 1778 and sole manager and editor in 1792. His antiquarian studies, based on his own accurate observation and research, included a Bibliotheca Topographica Britannica (1780-90) and the History and Antiquities of Leicester (1795-1815), perhaps his most important original work. Of many friendships and literary collaborations with Joseph Warton, Richard Gough, Bishop Percy that with Samuel Johnson was one of the most valuable, and as publisher of the Lives of the English Poets he exercised considerable editorial influence and supplied its author with much information.

—

—

work showed the care which caused Walpole to say of his Mr. Bowyer, "I scarce ever saw a book so correct." Nichols died in London, Nov. 26, 1826.

All his

Life of

PMLA

(Publications of the Modern LanSee articles by E. Hart, guage Association of America), vol. Ixv (1950), vol. Ixvii (1952).

NICHOLSON, JOHN istrator

(

1822-1857), Irish soldier and adminservice during the Indian mu-

who rendered outstanding

was born in Lisburn on Dec. 11, 1822, and educated at Dungannon college. His uncle Sir James Hogg secured him a Bengal army cadetship in 1839 and during the first Afghan War he distinguished himself in the defense of Ghazni (1841-42) before enduring several months' souring captivity in Afghan hands. In Afghanistan he met Henry (later Sir Henry) Lawrence who, aftei the First Sikh War secured him a political post first in Kashmir and then in the Punjab. In 1848, during the Second Sikh War, Nicholson seized the important Attock crossing and delayed Sikh concentration. During Lord Cough's campaigns he secured intelligence, marshaled supplies and headed the drive to the Afghan borders. After the Punjab was annexed he took charge of Bannu, reducing that wild district to quiet and creating a legend by his personal activity, fearlessness, and prompt, if severe, justice. He embodied tiny,

the Punjab

myth

of justice administered in shirt sleeves, of ubiqui-

tous activity, of the strong paternal administrator, though his dis-

regard for regulations and office work called down the reproofs of both Henry and John Lawrence. With the outbreak of the Indian mutiny in 1857 his vigour, decision and delight in action found full employment. He supported Herbert Edwardes at Peshawar in disarming the sepoy regiments

and destruction of the S5th regiment when from Nowshera and helped dissuade John Lawrence from abandoning Peshawar. In June, promoted to the rank of brigadier general, he led a movable column (i.e., troops equipped for quick movement) toward Delhi. On the way he disarmed or destroyed other mutinous regiments and defeated a force of mutineers near Gurdaspur. His arrival at Delhi early in August and his brilliant victory at Najafgarh inspirited the British forces while he nerved Brig. Gen. Archdale Wilson to risk an assault. On Sept. 14 he led the attacking column against the Kashmir gate. He took his objective, but while working westward along the defenses to link with the fourth column was shot leading a frontal assault upon enemy guns. He died in Delhi on Sept. 2i. See L. J, Trotter, The Life of John Nicholson, 9th ed. (1904); Hesketh Pearson, The Hero of Delhi (1948). (J. B. Ha.) (1868-1945), NICHOLSON, Persian (1902-26) and Sir Thomas orientalist, lecturer in English Adams professor of Arabic (1926-33) at Cambridge university, was a foremost scholar in the fields of Islamic literature and mysticism. He was born at Keighley, Yorkshire, on Aug. 18, 1868. His Literary History of the Arabs (1907) remains the standard work on that subject in English; while his many text editions and there, led the pursuit

they

fled

REYNOLD ALLEYNE

translations

of

writings,

Sufi

culminating

in

his

eight-volume

Mathnawi of Jalalu'ddin Rumi (1925-40), advanced the study of Muslim mystics to an eminent degree. He combined exact scholarship with notable literary gifts; some of his versions of Arabic and Persian poetry entitle him to be considered a poet in his own right. His deep understanding of Islam and of the Muslim peoples was the more remarkable in that he never traveled outside Europe. A shy and retiring man, he proved himself an inspiring teacher and an original thinker; he exercised a lasting influence on Islamic studies. He died at Chester on Aug. 27, 1945. See "Reynold Alleyne Nicholson," Proceedings of the British Academy, vol. xxxi (1945) A. J. Arberry, introduction to Pages From the (A. J. Ay.) Kitdb al-Luma' (1947). ;

NICHOLSON, SIR WILLDy*!

NEWZAM PRIOR

(1872-1949), English painter, engraver, theatre designer and ilAt lustrator, was born at Newark-on-Trent on Feb. 5, 1872. Herkomer's school, London, he met James Pryde, with whom he Beggarstaff" to and under the pseudonym W. collaborated "J. produce strikingly bold posters (1893-98). He studied at the Academie Julian, Paris, 1889-90. His illustrations to An Alphabet, An Almanack of Twelve Sports and London Types in 1898 and the woodcut "Portrait of Queen Victoria" earned him wider recognition. He made sets for Peter Pan in 1904. Nicholson's paintings, whether landscapes, portraits or still life, are char-

and heavy colour, as in "Girl With Glove" (1909, Fitzwilliam museum, Cambridge), "Mushrooms" (1940, Tate gallery, London) and "The Stack, Hoar's Fields" (1925). He was knighted in 1936, and died on May 16, 1949, at Blewbury, Berkshire. His eldest son, Ben Nicholson (1894), leading English abstract painter, was born on April 10, 1894, at Denham, Buckinghamshire. After studj-ing briefly at the Slade School of Art he traveled extensively in Europe during 1911-18 and held his first one-man show in London in 1922. From 1920, under the influence of Cubism and the De Stijl movement, he began his severe, geometrical designs, notable for an icy brilliance of colour, which culminated in the series of constructions "White Reliefs" of 1935-39 (one of 1935 in the Tate gallery). He was a member of Abstraction-Creation, Paris (1933-35), and coedited Circle (1937). acterized

by

solid construction

the Tattered

See Lillian Browse, William Nicholson, with bibliography (1956) Herbert Read, Ben Nicholson, 2 vol. (1948, 1956). (D. L. Fr.)

;

Sir

NICIAS

(d.

for his wealth

413

and

B.C.),

piety.

Athenian general and statesman, noted In 427 he captured the small island of

NICKEL Minoa, blocking the Megarian harbour of Nisaea, and next year he sailed to Melos and Oropus. In 425, when the Athenian force at Pylos failed to capture the Spartans on Sphacteria and Cleon complained of the generals' slackness, he resigned this command to Cleon, who spectacularly fulfilled his promise to bring the Spartans alive within 20 days, or destroy them.

Nicias recovered his repu-

tation in an expedition against Corinth later in the year,

taking the Spartan island of Cythera in 424.

He had no

and by

part in the

Athenian defeat at Delium that year, and now concentrated on making peace, though he helped to recover Mende in the north during the truce of 423. The deaths of Cleon and Brasidas in 422 made it easier to negotiate the "Peace of Nicias" (spring 421) and an alliance with Sparta, but the hostility of Sparta's allies and the opposition of In Alcibiades (q.v.) foiled Nicias' efforts to uphold the peace. 417 an ostracism (q.v.) was held, in the hope of exiling Nicias or Alcibiades, but instead they joined to procure the ostracism of the demagogue Hyperbolus. In 415 he was appointed, most unwillingly, as one leader of the expedition to Sicily. The recall of Alcibiades and the death of Lamachus left him, while ill with kidney trouble, in sole charge of the siege of Syracuse. The circumvallation was not completed and the Spartan Gylippus succeeded in building a counter-wall. Nicias asked to be relieved of his command, but instead reinforcements

came verse

early in 413 with Demosthenes.

the

these failed to re-

Demosthenes favoured departure, but an

situation,

eclipse of the

When

moon and

Nicias' superstition delayed

The disastrous retreat by land ended The Syracusans executed Nicias.

in the

it till

too

late.

surrender of the force.

NICKEL

The metal

itself is

well suited for direct use in

of mechanical equipment, but

the

form of

alloys.

Use

in this

many

kinds

more commonly employed in form dates from prehistoric times,

it

is

man

fashioned some of his implements from meteoric iron, which normally contains 5% to 15% nickel. It was also used in alloy form by the Chinese in ancient days, but nickel itself was for early

not isolated until 1751, when A. F. Cronstedt prepared an impure sample from an ore containing niccolite (NiAs). An ore of this

caused copper and silver miners in Saxony it resembled copper in colour it yielded a brittle unfamiliar product. They came to refer to it as "kupfernickel," after "Old Nick" and his mischievous gnomes, and Cronstedt applied their name to his new element. His results were confirmed in 1775 by T. 0. Bergman, and the name nickel soon became generally accepted. About a century elapsed before nickel was mined in quantity for a growing world market. Occurrence and Production. Nickel is the 24th element in order of abundance, and constitutes about 0.016% of the earth's crust. It is a fairly common minor constituent of igneous rocks but there are singularly few deposits which qualify with respect to

same type had

earlier

considerable trouble because although

—

concentration, size and accessibility for commercial interest. The most important sources of the metal are the mixed sulfide ores containing pentlandite, (Fe,Ni)S; nickel-bearing pyrrhotite, Fe^Se to FeieSiy; and nickel-bearing chalcopyrite, CuFeS2. Ores of this type are mined on a large scale in Canada (Sudbury, Ont., and Lynn Lake, Man.), and to a lesser extent in the Petsamo district of Finland, ceded to the U.S.S.R. during World War II. Minor deposits of nickel-bearing sulfide ores occur in Norway, China, India, Alaska and the United States (Missouri), some production being achieved from the last source. Oxide ores ranging from hydrous magnesium silicates, garnierite, (Ni,Mg)Si03-nH20 (varies), to nickel-bearing iron oxide (laterite) have become an increasingly important source of the metal since

World War

II.

The

former comprise the important ores of New Caledonia and also are found in the United States (Oregon). The latter occur in Cuba, the Philippines, Indonesia, Brazil and Venezuela. Metallurgy The extractive metallurgy is fairly complex and costly; it underwent rapid changes during and immediately

—

ground and carried through a

series of flotation

ores

of

are first

and magnetic sepa-

In the operations of the International Nickel concentrates are isolated for separate processing: nickel-bearing iron sulfide, copper-bearing nickel sulThe nickel-bearing iron sulfide is desulfide and copper sulfide. ration processes.

company, three

distinct

furized in a fluid-bed roaster, reduced with carbon

monoxide and

rotary kiln and then leached with ammonia-carbon dioxide solution to remove the nickel. The residue from the extraction is sintered (formed into solid mass without completely melting) and sold as iron ore pellets to the steel industry. The nickel is recovered as a basic carbonate when the final solution is

hydrogen

in a

treated with steam. The copper-bearing nickel sulfide is partially desulfurized in multiple-hearth roasters {see Copper; Commercial

Production Processes: Roasting), melted and cooled under specially controlled conditions which allow subsequent magnetic and nickel sulfide, cop-

flotation separations into three concentrates:

per sulfide and precious metals. The nickel sulfide is sintered for direct sale to the alloy markets, and for further refining, both {See Carbonyls, electrolytically and by the carbonyl process.

Metal.) Nickel-bearing sulfide ores are also treated to a lesser extent

by the Hybinette process which involves selective leaching of the copper with sulfuric acid from a nickel-copper matte derived from a flotation concentrate. The crude products are refined by a combination of electrolytic and cementation techniques {see

tation).

Cemen-

Flotation concentrates from nickel-bearing sulfide ores

ammonia under aeration at elevated pressures and temperatures. The nickel in the resulting salt solutions is recovered directly as a salable powder by treatment with hydrogen gas at elevated temperatures and presare also leached directly in water or

Peloponnesian War, The. (A. As.) (symbol Ni), a grayish-white metallic element, hard, tough and markedly resistant to oxidation and corrosion. It is widely familiar because of its use in coinage, but has become more important for its many domestic, industrial and mihtary appliSee, for bibliography.

cations.

485

World War II. The nickel-bearing sulfide Canada, which are embedded in a matrix of basic rock, following

sures.

The silicate ores of New Caledonia are largely treated by a matte smelting process. The ore is fused with calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate and coke to yield a nickel-iron sulfide concentrate which is further refined by smelting to eliminate the iron in a siliceous slag, and yield ultimately fairly pure nickel metal. Some of the New Caledonia ores, as well as those from Oregon in the United States, are treated by electric smelting to yield ferronickel which can be sold directly to the steel industry. Oxide, or lateritic, ores can be reduced in multiple-hearth furnaces and then selectively leached with ammonia-carbon dioxide The ammonia is recovered efficiently for reuse by steaming the solution which results from leaching, while the nickel The latter is simultaneously precipitated as the basic carbonate. solutions.

is

calcined to nickel oxide for direct sale, or for further processing

to nickel-oxide sinter or ingot nickel.

Nickel can also be extracted

by direct leaching with sulfuric acid solution at elevated pressure and temperature. A sulfide precipitate produced from the leach solution then can be chemically refined for the profrom

lateritic ores

duction of metallic nickel. Physical Properties. Nickel has an atomic number of 28 and occurs in Group VIII of the periodic arrangement of the elements, It reafter iron and cobalt and above palladium and platinum. sembles iron in strength and toughness but is more like copper,

—

Physical Constants of Nickel 8.9 (20° C.)

Density, g./c.c

Melting point,

'

C

Boiling point, ° C Specific heat, cal./g./°

1,455

2,900 0.1095 (18° C.) 0.1340 (1,360° C.)

C

Latent heat of fusion, cal./g Coefficient of expansion, cm./cm./°

73.8

C

Thermal conductivity, cal./cm./cm.Vsec./" Hardness, Brinell number radius, A (angstrom unit = 10-» cm.) Ionization potential, volts Electrode potential, molal, volts Electrical conductivity, basis copper = 100%

Atomic

Resistivity,

microhm-cm

Magnetic permeability, ^ Curie temperature, ° C Tensile strength, Ib./in.'

0.0000129 (2S°-I00° C.) 0.0000135 (375°-l,000°C.)

C

0.142 (18° C.) 85 (99.99% Ni, annealed) 210 (99.4% Ni, cold-roUed) 1.24 7.61 (I), 18.2 (II)

-f 0.231 (25° C.)

16% 7.8 (20° p.)

110

(initial)

600 (maximum) 360 46,000 (99.99% Ni, annealed) 105,000 (99.4% Ni, coldrolled hard temper)

NICKEL

486

with atomic number 29, in resistance to oxidation This combination of useful properties accounts for applications. Nickel has an atomic weight of 58.71

which follows and corrosion.

many

of

its

it

61

Per cent abundance

1.25

26.16

64

62 3.66

1.16

—

Uses of Nickel in Alloys and as the Metal. More than of the nickel produced is normally incorporated in alloys

SOn

I

^-2°

6.80 6.40 6.00

^^°

"

f

^ I

800 ^ ^^°i'

\

3^'^

"^^T

8.40

—

I

I

5.20

]—\ I

/!

I

I

I

4.80

1.60 1.40 1.20 .80

.40

1.20

1.60

2.00

2.40

2.80

3.20

3.60

4.00

PER CENT OF ELEMENT

— Substantially

more than 2,000,000

the metal are used in catalytic apphcations each year. nickel can be prepared

by many

lb.

of

Catalytic

methods. Nickelous hydroxide and basic carbonates, nickel nitrate, formate and various other organic compounds yield, on thermal decomposition at moderate temperatures in a reducing atmosphere, finely divided nickel in a highly active form. Nickel sulfate and other soluble salts are frequently the starting reagent. The precipitates obtained when they are mixed with alkalies in aqueous solution, frequently in admixture with carrier materials such as diatomaceous earth, are washed, dried and reduced. Nickel formate yields active nickel directly when it is decomposed without access to air, such as under oils which are to be treated. Nickel alloys containing a metal which can be selectively dissolved away, such as the nickel-aluminum preparations of M. Raney which yield on treatment with so-

FIG.

1.

— HARDENABILITY

MULTIPLYING FACTORS FOR A VARIETY OF ALLOY-

ING ELEMENTS

different

The

low-alloy grades of nickel-chromium steels (1.0% to

nickel and

0.5%

tics similar to

to

1.0% chromium) have hardening

those of other low-alloy steels.

They

2.0%

characteris-

are hardened

by water quenching up

to 0.40% carbon and oil-quenched with The higher-alloy grades (3.00% to 4.00% 2.00% chromium) may be air- or oil-quenched,

higher carbon contents. nickel and

0.50%

to

depending on the composition and size of cross section. The effect of nickel and chromium on the physical properties of air-cooled, hot-rolled 0.20% carbon steel for a 0.05 to 0.75 in. section

is

illustrated in

Nickel-chromium hearth furnace.

fig. 2.

steel

Nickel

may is

be produced in an electric or opennot oxidized in the molten bath and

NICKEL SILVER—NICKEL STEEL 1% chromium are most often used in the high-carbon ranges. These steels are superior to the 3100 series in tensile properties and are used for automobile drive and axle shafts, master connecting rods of radial aircraft engines and many highly stressed keys and pins. Steels of the A.I.S.I. 3300 series, containing around 0.30% or 0.40% carbon, develop mechanical

properties superior to those

of the lower alloy content nickel-chromium steels, particularly in sections over 3^ in. They are therefore used extensively for

forgings and bars that require rigid mechanical properties, such as large rocker

arms and connecting

rods.

The S.A.E. 3400

strength and ductility, which

is

especially valuable in parts likely

to be subject to occasional overstressing A.I.S.I.

causes.

3450

is

series

combined with good

steels exhibit excellent resistance to fatigue,

from vibration or other

used for heavy-duty gears of

medium

section in machine-tool construction.

Many

3

2

4

1

ALLOYING ELEMENT. PERCENT

—

EFFECT OF (A) NICKEL AND (B) Z. PROPERTIES OF ROLLED CARBON STEELS

FIG.

CHROMIUM ON THE TENSILE

therefore yields loo'^c recovery (see Nickel Steel). Chromium presents a different problem because it is oxidized and enters the slag under normal basic open-hearth operations.

not recovered from scrap in this operation, and made in the bath after it is thoroughly deoxidized or to the ladle during the tap. Recover>' of chromium is possible, however, in the electric furnace with proper slag manipulation: that is. using a reducing slag or adding silicon or chrome silicide (reducing agents) to the furnace bath following an oxidizIt is. therefore,

additions must be

Cr^Os in the slag to chromium and return it to the metal portion. Nickel-chromium steel may also be made in an acid open-hearth or acid electric furnace, using raw materials free from undesirable elements that cannot be removed by these processes. Nickel-chromium steels may be poured into ingots or castings; and the usual deoxidizer, as in nickel steel, is silicon, which is added in the ladle to about 0.25% of the final ing condition to reduce the

chemical analysis of the heat. Ingots are stripped and placed in soaking pits as soon as they are solidified to prevent cooling cracks, and semifinished products, such as blooms, slabs and shapes, are stacked close together to prevent cooling cracks. Nickel-chromium steels are subject to flakes

or hair

cracks,

as

are

many

other air-hardening steels.

Thorough deoxidation, slow pouring at correct temperatures and slow heating and cooling assist in avoiding flakes. Nickel-chromium steels are used for important parts that are to be case-hardened or for highly stressed forgings. They are also widely used for heavy castings, such as those for bridges, locomotives and rolling-mill machinery, and for abrasion-resisting castings, such as power-shovel teeth and impact hammers. The accompanying table shows a range of about 60 A.I. S.I. and S.A.E. nickel-chromium steels used in the United States.

Range of A J. S.I. * and S.A.E.f Standard Nickel-Chromium OpenHearth and Electric Furnace Steels Cr A.I.S.I. 3100 S.A.E. 3200

A.I.S.I.

5.I3/O.S3 .10/ .S5 .08/ .19 .10/ .55

3300

S.A.E. 3400 A.I.S.I. A.I.S.I. A.I.S.I. A.I.S.I. A.I.S.I. A.I.S.I. A.I.S.I.

4300 8600 8700 9300 9400 9700 9S00

•

7S/3.2S

:o/o.30

/1.40

.8/ .15

.48 .67

30/ .50

,08/ .15

/ .25

.43

85/1.15

70/ .90

15/ .25 20/ .30

5/ .25 0/ .30

Steels of the 3100 series, such as 31 15 and 3120, are low-cost carburizing grades used for piston rings, automotive power train

reamer cutters and many other small, caseThe S.A.E. 3200 steels containing 2% nickel and

oil-well-bit

hardened parts.

plants.

with about 0.55% carbon, 0.65% manganese, 2.00% o.go% chromium and 0.20% molybdenum are used for

Steels nickel,

roller bearings where ductility is required along with high hardness and fatigue resistance. See also Nickel Alloys Iron and Steel Industry. ;

;

—

Bibliography. Frank T. Sisco, Modern Metallurgy for Engineers, 2nd ed. (1948) J. M. Camp and C. B. Francis, Making, Shaping and Heating of Steel, chap, xxxii, pp. 1258-1274, 509, 1208 and 1209, U.S. Steel Corp. (1951) American Iron and Steel Institute, Steel Products Manual, sec. 7 (1952), sec. 10, 28 and 29 (1949) American Society for Metals, Metals Handbook, 8th ed. (1961) H. F. Keating, ChromiumNickel Austenitic Steels (1956). (N. B. Mr.) SILVER comprises a range of alloys of copper, nickel and zinc which are silvery in appearance but contain no silver. Its composition varies from 7% to 30% nickel, the alloy most widely used being "18% nickel silver" (18% nickel, 62% copper, 20% zinc). In general the zinc content is lowered as the nickel is increased, the copper content varying between 53% and ;

;

;

;

NICKEL

63%. The importance

of these alloys

lies

in their colour, ductility,

good mechanical properties and suitability for working in a wide variety of cast, rolled and extruded or drawn shapes. The addition of i%-2% lead improves machining properties. Such alloys resist corrosion better than does brass but tarnish slowly through the action of sulfur in the air. Their colour ranges from nearly white in the

30%

alloy to pale brassy yellow in the alloys with

low nickel content.

A

known

as paktong (white copper), smelted by the Chinese from copper-nickel ores, was one of the first alloys used by man. It was later improved by the addition of zinc ores and was imported into Europe by the East India company. Not

natural alloy

electroplating plant

•-American Iron and Steel Institute. tSociety of Automotive Engineers.

gears,

steels

until the 1840s was the alloy metals and it was known as

40/1.75 60/ .95

40/ .90 40/ .60 40/ .60

.65

.18/ .53

35/ 45/ 38/

55/0.90 ,90/1.25

,65/2.00 40/ .70 40/ .70 /3.50 30/ .60 40/ .70

15/ .43

13/

i/1.40

,50/2.00 25/3.75

have been developed containing small additions of molybdenum, which are more complex steels (see table) with outstanding properties. The addition of molybdenum increases depth-hardening properties which makes it possible to develop strength and hardness in large sections equal to those secured in small sizes of other steels. Another characteristic of the nickel-chromium-molybdenum steels that contributes to their usefulness is high-hardness-machinability properties. Some compositions may be machined with Brinell .hardnesses exceeding 400. These steels also show high resistance to creep up to about 1,000° F., and find application in valves and fittings in steam power nickel-chromium

was

set

made in Europe by mixing the three German silver until 1914. After an in Birmingham in 1844 German sil-

up

ver was found very suitable as a basis for silver plating. Nickel silver is used extensively for electroplated table and ornamental silverware, for jewelry, for architectural and orna-

mental metalwork, for some food and chemical equipment and In hard-rolled strip form it is for marine and plumbers' fittings. used for spring elements, especially in electrical and telephone (P. E. G.) relays. STEEL. Nickel steel was first produced by J. F. Hall of England and M. Marbeau of France about 1885, each working independently. The grades commercially used are an alloy of nickel (0.20%-$. 00%), carbon (o.io%-o.6o%) and the remainder

NICKEL

—

NICOBAR ISLANDS iron. its

The primary reason

for adding nickel to steel

strength, toughness, depth hardness,

These properties

may

is

to increase

and resistance to

fatigue.

be gained with small percentages of nickel

(often referred to as an austenite former), which lower the eutectoid ratio (1% of nickel = 0.042% carbon) and tend to suppress

transformation of austenite during cooling.

In effect this results in

and toughness, even after slow cooling, which is not possible with ordinary carbon steel. Higher percentages of nickel than those specified above are not used commercially in nickel steel {see Stainless Steel) because a martensitic structure, such as 0.40% carbon and 7% nickel, will result which has low elongation and shock-resistant values and is difficult to work and machine. {See also Steels, Alloy.) Nickel steel may be produced in the electric or open-hearth furnace in the same manner as carbon steel, except that cleaner scrap is generally used and greater control exercised because of the economic risks. Nickel is not oxidized in the molten bath. It is, therefore, completely recovered from nickel-bearing scrap, and nickel may be added to meet specification early or late during the making of the heat. Nickel steel may be teemed into ingots or castings; and the usual deoxidizer is silicon, which is added in the ladle to about a full-hardened steel with great strength

0.25%

of the final chemical analysis

of

the heat.

Ingots are

stripped as soon as solidified and placed immediately in soaking pits to prevent cooling cracks.

The hot-working temperatures vary slightly from 2,200° F., depending on the chemical composition. Blooms, slabs, plates and shapes are stacked close together and protected from drafts while cooling. Surface imperfections are removed from nickel steel in the semifinished state and in the finished state if permitted by the user.

Industrial Uses.

—By using high-strength

generally be lightened in weight;

and other alloy

steel,

structures can

for this reason, nickel

steels

widely used in the automotive and railroad industries. It is estimated that the U.S. automotive industry alone consumes 60% of all alloy-steel bar stock used in the country for the production of gears, shafts, roller bearings, nuts, bolts and various forgings. The weight saving over carbon steel by the use of nickel-alloy steel may be as much as 50%. For example, the weight of the entire rear-end assembly of an automobile may be reduced one-half by using smaller axles, housings and bearings of nickel steel and at the same time be as strong as twice its weight of carbon steel. In steam locomotives, nickel steel was used for axles, boilers and

Table

I.

steels are

Effects of Nickel

Strength Using a

Nickel

(%)

on Hardness and Low Temperature

0.20% Carbon Normalized

Steel

489

NICOLAI

490

complex anticlinorium like that of the Arakan range with intrusive masses of serpentine and gabbro probably of Cretaceous age, but the folded sedimentaries are mainly Tertiary. Earthquakes of great violence were recorded in 1S47 and 1S81 (with tidal wave), and mild shocks were experienced in

origin

Yoma

bitch.

Dec. 1899. Being situated between latitude 6° and 10° N. of the equator, the islands have a nearly equatorial climate. They are exposed to both monsoons, and smooth weather is experienced only from February to April and in October. Rain falls throughout the year, generally in sharp, heavy showers. The rainfall varies from 90 to 135 in., and the shade temperature from 18° to 3i° C. (64° to 92° F.). Vegetation and Animal Life. The vegetation of the Nicobars has not been subjected to a systematic examination by the Indian forest department like that of the Andamans, and indeed the forests are inferior in economic value to those of the more northerly group. There are fruit trees, such as the coconut (Cocos nitcifeni). the betel nut (Areca catechu), and the Nicobar breadfruit (Pandanus leram), a thatching palm (Nipa jruticans) and various timber trees of some commercial value, but only one timber tree, the black chuglam {Myristica irya), would be considered firrst class in the Andamans. The palms of the Nicobars are ex-

—

ceedingly graceful.

The mammals are not numerous: in the southernmost islands monkey, the crab-eating macaque {Macaca irus), a tree

are a small

shrew (Tupaia nicobarica), rats and mice, bats and the Nicobar flying fox. It is doubtful if the wild boar is indigenous; cattle when introduced and left, have speedily become "wild." The birds, of which there are many kinds, show strong Indian affinities. Notable among those found in the islands are the megapode (Megapodius nicobaricus), characteristic of the Australian region, the edible-nest-building swift, the hackled and pied pigeons, a parakeet {Palaeornis caniceps) and an oriole. Snakes, lizards and chameleons, crocodiles, turtles and an enormous variant of the edible Indian crab are numerous; butterflies and other insects have not yet been systematically collected. The freshwater fish are reported to be of the types found in Sumatra. History. The situation of the Nicobars along a line of an ancient trade route caused them to be reported by traders and seafarers through historical times. In the 17th century the islands began to attract the attention of missionaries. At various periods, France, Denmark, Austria and Great Britain all had more or less

—

obscure rights to the islands, the Danes being the most persistent in their efforts to occupy the group, until in 1S69 they rehnquished their claims in favour of the British, who at once began to put down the piracies of the islanders, and established a penal settlement, which was withdrawn in 1888. Car Nicobar in the north and Camorta in the centre became the principal ports of the group. In 1942, during World War II, the Nicobar Islands were occupied by Japanese forces, who developed Car Nicobar as a big supply base. In 1945 the islands were reoccupied by the Allies. With the Andamans they passed to India on the establishment of Indian independence. (L. D. S.) The People. The Nicobarese are probably a mixture of Malay

—

and Burmese (Talaing)

strains.

They

are of relatively short stat-

ure (average height of adult male, 5 ft. 3| in.) and sturdy build; hair may be slightly wavy or curly, scanty on face and body; brachycephaly is usual. The language, which has several dialects, belongs to the Mon-Khmer group. The political unit is the village. There are hereditary headmen who govern with a council of elders; the power of the headman depends on his personality, and public opinion is the final arbiter. Land is held by the community, but there is private ownership of fruit and coconut trees. The status of women is high; they inherit

and own property, and

girls

have considerable freedom in the

—

that they are descended from a man who mated with a Articles of European clothing are now often worn. Houses vary in shape; they are built on piles, with thatched roofs, and are reached by a notched pole. Much cooking is done in them on Special clay hearths, but there are also separate cookhouses. houses are built by communal labour for feasts and meetings. The coconut is the main crop and yams and other vegetables are grown; Crossfish, turtles, pigs and fowl are also important in the diet. bows are used for shooting birds, spears for hunting pigs, spears, The dao nets, traps and poison for fish, harpoons for turtles. (half sword, half chopper) is the universal tool. Canoes are single dugout hulls. outriggers with The concept of a beneficent creator is known, probably as a The indigenous rehgion consists result of missionary influence.

a structure of a

in belief in a multiplicity of spirits, tors,

who may be

many

friendly (locally) or

of them those of ancesmore frequently malevolent.

The latter bring disease and misfortune. There is a class of mediums who can communicate with, and control, the spirits;

may be caught and towed out to sea on Grotesque carvings of aggressive mien, which are probably regarded as residences for friendly ancestral spirits, are kept in houses to scare away evil spirits. Men can acquire reputations as sorcerers by eccentric behaviour, such as sitting in pig wallows and collecting bristles; they are much feared, and were sometimes killed. The natives of Chowra, a small island of the central group, act as middlemen for the group. They alone make pottery, with clay obtained from Teressa, and exchange it for canoes made in the southern and central islands, which they trade to the north. Chowra men go to Nancowry to burn shells for lime (used in betel chewing), paying in pots for the privilege. The Shom Pen of the interior of Great Nicobar may represent an earher element in the population. They practised a simple type of cultivation, the digging stick being their only implement, and relied heavily on hunting; wild pigs, which they hunted with dogs, were the main quarry. Their only weapon seems to have been a wooden spear. They are now few in numbers and have those causing sickness

model

rafts.

been considerably influenced by the coastal people. (B. A. L. C.)

—

Bibliography. C. B. Kloss, In the Andamans and Nicobars (1903) G. Whitehead, In the Nicobar Islands (1924); M. C. C. Bonington, The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Census of India Report (1932); E. H. Man, The Nicobar Islands and Their People (1933). ;

NICOLAI, CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH (1733-1811), bookseller who, with Lessing and Moses Mendelssohn, was a leader of the German Aujkldrimg (Enlightenment), was born on March 18, 1733, at Berlin, son of the wellknown bookseller, Christoph Gottlieb Nicolai (d. 1752). In 1749 he went to Frankfurt an der Oder to learn his father's business, finding time also to become acquainted with English literature. In 1752 he returned to Berlin, where he began to take part in literary controversy by defending Milton against the attacks of Nicolai's Brieje iiber den jetzigen Zustatid der J. C. Gottsched. schonen Wissenschajten in Deutschland, published anonymously in 1755, were directed against both Gottsched and Gottsched's Swiss opponents, J. J. Bodmer and J. J. Breitinger; his enthusiasm for English literature won him the friendship of Lessing and Mendelssohn. With Mendelssohn he established the periodical Bibliothek der schonen Wissenschajten (1757-60); and with German author and

Lessing and Mendelssohn Briefe, die neiieste Literatiir betreffend (1759-65); from 1765 to 1792 he edited the Allgemeine deutsche Bibliothek. The Bibliothek was the organ of the so-called "popular philosophers," who warred against authority in religion, and against what they conceived to be extravagance in literature, and Nicolai showed a complete incomprehension of the

new movement

choice of a husband. The marriage tie is loose, and separation (which ends the marriage) is frequent. Polygamy is rare and is confined to the rich. A man who feels himself offended or ill-used

of ideas represented by Herder, Goethe, Schiller, Kant and Fichte. Of Nicolai's independent works, perhaps the only one with

and put his enemy to shame by destroying his own property or even by self-mutilation. Clothing is scanty. Men wear a belt and a cloth perineal band with a tail behind, perhaps connected with one of their stories of

Friedrich II (1788-92).

will express his sense of grievance

some

historical value

was

his Charakteristischen

Anekdoten von

His romances are forgotten, although Das Leben und die Meinungen des Magisters Sebaldiis Nothanker (mi-lb) and his satire on Goethe's Werther, Die Freuden des jungen Wert hers (1775), had a certain reputation in their day.

NICOLAI— NICOPOLIS ACTIA Between

1788 and 1796 Nicolai published in 12 volumes a Beschreibung einer Reise diirch Deutschland und die Schweiz, which bore witness to the narrow conservatism of his views in He died in Berlin on Jan. 8, 181 1. later life. Nicolai's Bildniss

was published

und Selbst bio graphic, edited by M.

in the Bildnisse jetzt

Lowe,

S.

lebender Berliner Gelehrter

(1806). Bibliography. L. F. G. von Gockingk, F. Nicolai's Leben und liUrariscker Nachlass (i8;o) J. Minor, Lessings Jugendfreunde, in M. SomJ. Kiirschner's Deutsche N alionalUteratur vol. Ixxii (1883) merfeld, F. Nicolai und der Sturm und Drang (1921) F. Meyer, F.

—

;

,

;

;

Nicolai (ig^8).

NICOLAI, (CARL) OTTO EHRENFRIED

(1810-

1849), German composer known for his comic opera Die lustigen Weiber von Windsor {The Merry Wives of Windior) based on the comedy by Shakespeare. Born at Kbnigsberg on June 9, 1810, he was exploited by his father in his youth as a prodigy. In 1827 he studied in Berlin and later under G. Baini in Rome, producing from 1838 onward several successful operas in Italy and Vienna. In 1841 he became court conductor in Vienna and founded the Philharmonic society there the following year. In 1848 he was appointed conductor of the opera at Berlin and on March 9, 1849, he produced there Die lustigen Weiber von Windsor, which remained one of the most popular comic operas throughout the 19th century. He died in Berlin on May 11, 1849. See Otto Nicolai, Tagebiicher, ed. by W. Altmann (1937). NICOLE, PIERRE (1625-1695), French Jansenist theologian and moralist, was born at Chartres. He studied at Paris, and taught at Port Royal, for which, with Antoine Arnauld and others, he wrote schoolbooks, especially Logique de Port-Royal.

From

1655 to 1668 he played a decisive part in writing or editing

491

medal, and in 1932 he was elected to a chair in the College de France. He died in Tunis on Feb. 28, 1936. (W. J. Bp.)

RICHARD

(1624-1672), the first English govNICOLLS, ernor of the province of New York, was born at Ampthill, Bedfordshire, Eng., the son of a barrister, in 1624. A stanch royalist, he served in the army during the English Civil War and followed the Stuarts into exile. In 1664, soon after the Restoration, he was appointed by the duke of York to be governor of the territory in America that was about to be acquired from the Dutch. With

New Amsterdam and the in September without bloodshed. Although commission gave him practically absolute power, the transition from Dutch to English rule was made tactfully and gradually. His rule brought increased freedom to the Dutch but it did not meet the expectations of the English inhabitants for representative government. A legal code known as the "Duke's laws" was issued in 1665 and continued in force until 1683. Nicolls ruled so fairly and well that he was held in high esteem by all. He resigned in 1668, returned to England, and was killed on May 28, 1672, in a naval battle during the Third Dutch War.

a squadron of four vessels he blockaded

Dutch capitulated Nicolls'

See also See

New York:

M.

History.

Schuyler, Richard Nicolls (1933).

NICOMACHUS

(Ra.

Mu.)

4th century b.c), of Thebes, Greek painter, was a contemporary of the greatest painters of Greece; Vitruvius observes that if his fame was less than theirs, it was the fault of fortune rather than of demerit. Pliny the Elder gives (fl.

of his works, among them a ''Rape of Persephone," "Victory Quadriga," a group of Apollo and Artemis and the "Mother of the Gods Seated on a Lion." Phny also says that he was a very rapid worker and used only four colours. a

list

in a

NICOMACHUS,

most of the Jansenist pamphlets (see Jansenism). His special contribution to this controversy was the distinction drawn between

a Neopythagorean philosopher and mathematician whose works had a great vogue, was born at Gerasa in

the question de droit (are the doctrines called Jansenist hereti-

ancient Palestine (modern Jordan) and flourished about a.d. 100. One of his two extant treatises, called Introductio arithmetica,

cal?)

and the question de

By answering

the

first

fait

(did Jansen teach these doctrines?).

affirmatively and the second negatively, he

enabled the Jansenists to pursue their program without openly breaking with the church. From 1669 Nicole devoted his theological talents mainly to the defense of Roman Catholic dogma against the historical criticism of Protestant writers. But his best, and best-known, work is the Essais de Morale (4 vol., 167178; 10 more posthumously), in which he discoursed, with some humanity of outlook and great penetration of mind, upon the practice and problems of a rigorously Christian ethic in the world of his day. He had no sympathy with advanced mystical speculations. He died in Paris on Nov. 16, 1695. See C. A. Sainte-Beuve, Port-Royal, 5th ed., vol. iv (1888) M. J. I. H. Bremond, Histoire litteraire dii sentiment religieux en France, (N. J. A.) ;

F. R.

vol. iv (1920).

CHARLES

NICOLLE, JULES HENRI (1866-1936), French bacteriologist, winner of the 1928 Nobel prize in medicine for his discovery that typhus fever (q.v.) is transmitted by the body louse, was born on Sept. 21, 1866, at Rouen, where his father, Eugene NicoUe, was professor of medicine. After graduating M.D.

at Paris in 1893 he

faculty,

and

in

became

a

member

of the

1896 was appointed director of

its

Rouen medical bacteriological

laboratory, where he carried out important tion of diphtheria antiserum.

work on the preparaIn 1903 he was appointed director

of the Pasteur institute in Tunis, and during his i3 years' tenure of that post the institute became a world-famous centre for bac-

and for the production of serums and vaccines combat many of the most prevalent infectious diseases. His researches on the transmission of typhus culminated in 1909 when he made the discoveries for which he received the Nobel prize. teriological research

to

Later he helped to make a clear distinction between classical louseborne epidemic typhus and murine typhus, which is conveyed to man by the rat flea. He also made valuable contributions to the

knowledge of rinderpest, brucellosis, measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria and tuberculosis, and was responsible for many innovations in bacteriological technique. Apart from his scientific activities, Nicolle enjoyed a considerable reputation as a philosopher and as a writer of fanciful stories. In 1928 the silver jubilee of his directorship of the Tunis institute was commemorated by a gold

elementary theory and properties of numbers. Numby lines as in EucUd, but are written in the ordinary notation; hence general principles can be stated only with reference to particular numbers taken as illustrations. Nicomachus states a rule about cubes that makes it possible to sum any number of forms of the series of natural cubes beginning from one. His popularity is revealed by Lucian's having a character say, "You count like Nicomachus." A Latin translation by Apuleius of Madauros (born about a.d. 125) is lost; but Boethius' version survives. The commentators include lamblichus, Heronas, Asclepius of Tralles, John Philoponus and Proclus. The Greek text was edited by R. Hoche (1866) and the commentaries of lambhchus and Philoponus by E.Pistelli (1894) and Hoche (1864 and 1864-67), respectively. There is an Enghsh translation by M. L. D'Ooge with essays by F. E. Robbins and L. C. Karpinski (1926). Nicomachus' Enchiridion Harmonices (ed. by C. Jan in Miisici Scriptores Graeci, 1895) is on the Pythagorean theory of Nicomachus is said to have written Theologumena music. arithmetices (in two books) on the properties of numbers, of which the Theologumena arithmeticae edited by F. Ast (1817) contains no more than fragments, at most. (T. L. H. X.) (c. 240 b.c), Greek mathematician, is known only through references to his work by the commentators Pappus (c. A.D. 320), lamblichus (c. a.d. 310) and Proclus (c. a.d. 450). His date is estimated from the fact that he is said to have compared his work with that of Eratosthenes and that he is referred to by Apollonius, these two men being contemporaries. Nicomedes seems to have been the inventor of the conchoid, a curve that he used in trisecting an angle and in doubling a cube. The use of this curve to solve the problems of trisecting an angle and duplicating a cube should not be interpreted to mean that these problems can also be handled by the Euclidean instruments sets out the

bers are no longer denoted

;

NICOMEDES

of the

compass and the straightedge, for

See Ivor of

Thomas

(trans,

Creek Mathematics,

vol.

and i

this is impossible.

ed.). Selections Illustrating the

(1939-42).

NICOMEDIA:

History

(V. So.; X.)

see Izmit. (modern Nikopolis, NICOPOLIS (Victory City) formerly known as Palaiopreveza, about 4 mi. N. of Preveza,

ACTIA

NICOSIA— NIEBUHR

492

northwestern Greece), an ancient city of Epirus founded 31 B.C. by Octavian (Augustus) in memory of his victory over Antony and Cleopatra at Actium. The colony, compo.scd of settlers from many neighbouring towns, succeeded and became the capital of southern Epirus and Acarnania, with the right of sending five representatives to the amphictyonic council. On the spot where his tent had stood Octavian built a sanctuary to Neptune adorned with rostra (the beaks of captured galleys), and instituted the Actian games in honour of .\pollo. The city was restored by the emperor Julian and again (after the Gothic invasion) by Justinian, but in the middle ages it was supplanted by Preveza. NICOSIA, the capital of the Republic of Cyprus and seat of the archbishop of the autocephalous Church of Cyprus, lies on the Pedieos river about 500 ft. above sea level in the centre of the plain between the Kyrenia mountains and the Troodos massif. Pop. (1960) 45,690, with suburbs 95,515. It contains the presidential palace,

the

chamber of representatives, the Greek and

Turkish communal chambers, the British high commission building and the foreign embassies. It is also the professional and educaThere are two chief thoroughfares: tional centre of Cyprus. Kyrenia street continuing into Ledra street (north and south) and

Hermes

continuing into Paphos street (east and west). Greek business and shopping centre while the northern half of the walled town is largely Turkish. The fine Gothic cathedral of St. Sophia, dedicated in 132S, was converted by the Turks into the Selimiye mosque. The town has several public gardens, in one of which stands the municipal theatre. Near street

Ledra street

is

the

the Cyprus museum, erected in 1907 with later extensions. Nicosia is connected by good roads with the port of Famagusta

it is

(38 mi.) and the other chief towns of the island. From Nicosia from the city, there are daily flights direct to London

airport, 5 mi.

and connecting services with New York and the principal airports in Europe and the middle east. There are many light industries, mainly serving the local market. Manufactures include cotton yarn and textiles, cigarettes, flour, soft drinks, confectionery, footwear and underwear. The town was known in antiquity as Ledra, and under the Byzantines by the Greek name Lefkosia, corrupted by the Latins to Nicosia. A kingdom in the 7th century B.C. and a bishopric from the 4th century a.d., it has been the seat of government from the 10th century. The Lusignan kings walled the town, which covered a much larger area than that enclosed by the existing Venetian fortifications (3 mi. round). In 1373 it was sacked by the Genoese and in 1426 by the Mamelukes, when the royal palace (a fragment of W'hich survives near the Paphos gate) was destroyed. Many of the Latin religious foundations were abandoned and the medieval

Under the Venetians, who occupied in 1489, the Greeks again had their cathedral (the ruined Bedestan beside St. Sophia). Work started on the new walls in 1567, but was incomplete when a large Turkish invasion force landed in 1570, and the town was again plundered. The Turkish governors established themselves in the former palace of the Lusignans, where the law courts now stand. When Cyprus came under British administration in 1878, Nicosia had greatly declined, but during the 20th century building was extended far beyond the Venetian walls and dry moat. Within these walls the old town has been largely rebuilt, with only a slight widening of its medieval streets. (A. H. S. M.) NICOTIANA, a genus of plants of the nightshade family (Solanaceae), comprising about 60 species of usually sticky herbs and shrubs, native chiefly to tropical America. Besides N. tabaciim, important as the source of commercial tobacco {q.v.), several other species are cultivated as ornamental plants. They are strongly scented annuals or perennials, possessing narcoticpoisonous properties. They have alternate, simple, usually entire but sometimes wavy-margined large leaves, and white, yellow, greenish or purple, very fragrant flowers, with a long, tubular, five-lobed corolla, usually opening at night. About ten species are found in the southern and western parts of the U.S., and A', glaiica (tree tobacco), a slender evergreen shrub native to Brazil, has become widely naturalized on the Pacific coast. N. rustica, one of the plants known as wild tobacco. city never fully recovered.

Cyprus

formerly cultivated by the Indians of the eastern states, is of unis almost certainly the source of the first tobacco taken from Florida to Lisbon and popularized by Jean Nicot, for whom the genus and nicotine were named. Beautiful nightfragrant species for the garden are A^. data var. grandiflora certain origin, but

(jasmine tobacco), three to four feet high, and the somewhat A', sylvestris, both tender perennials from South America.

shorter

Nicotianas, easily grown from seed and root cuttings, are sensiThey do well in light rich soil in a warm sheltered

tive to frost.

location and frequently self-sow in the garden;

some make good

potted plants. See T. H. Goodspeed, "The Genus Nicotiana," in Chronica Botanka, (N. Tr.) (1954).

vol. xvi

NICOTINE,

a

volatile

liquid,

is

the principal alkaloid of

tobacco, in which it occurs to the extent of about 5% along with minute amounts of closely related alkaloids. Nicotine is used It is prechiefly as a contact insecticide for plants and animals. pared by adding lime or caustic soda to a filtered, concentrated, aqueous extract of tobacco (stalk and other tobacco refuse is generally used) and recovering the alkaloid by extraction with a This crude alkaloid is suitable solvent or by steam distillation. freed from water by a chemical drying agent, such as solid potash, and then fractionally distilled. Pure nicotine, CjoHj^No, is a highly poisonous, colourless liquid with an unpleasant odour; it boils at 246°-247° C. and is soluble in most solvents, including water. The dipicrate crystallizes in short, yellow prisms that melt at 224° C. and can be used in the identification of nicotine.

NICTHEROY: see Niteroi. NICUESA, DIEGO DE {c.

1465-1511), Spanish conqueror, Baeza, Jaen. He accompanied Gov. Nicolas de Indies in 1502 and was active in the early Ovando West settlement and organization of Santo Domingo. In 1508 Nicuesa received a grant to conquer and govern a colony on the South American mainland called Veragua west of the Gulf of Darien and extending north to Cape Gracias a Dios in Panama (Honduras). At the same time, Alonso de Ojeda was awarded an adjoining grant to the east. In Nov. 1509 Nicuesa's expedition of 745 men However, they soon encounleft Santo Domingo in five ships.

was born

at

to the

The larger ships were lost on the inhospitable and no settlement could be made because of attacks by the Indians until Nicuesa decided to "stop here in the name of God" at Cape "Gracias a Dios." There his forces were further reduced by hunger, Indian attacks and disease. Ojeda's men, by then left leaderless, found themselves within the limits of Nicuesa's grant and invited him to be their governor. But they heard of his overbearing conduct and bad reputation among his own men, and when he arrived in March 1511, they refused to let him land. He was forced out to sea in a leaking craft and perished with a number tered bad luck.

coast,

(U.

of faithful friends.

S.

L.)

NIDWALDEN, a

demi-canton of central Switzerland, which, with the demi-canton of Obwalden, forms the founder canton of Stans, the capital Unterwalden {q.v.). Pop. (1960) 22,188. (4,337), has a baroque church (1641-47) with a Roman tower, and a monument to Arnold von Winkelried, the hero of Sempach; Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, the humanist educator, founded his Nidwalden offers winter sports and first orphanage there in 1 798. its

tourist resorts include the Biirgenstock

projects into the

Lake

historian

who

mountain mass that

of Lucerne.

NIEBUHR, BARTHOLD GEORG started a

new

(1776-1831), German

era in historical studies

by

his

method

subsequent historians are in some sense indebted to him. Niebuhr, the only son of the Danish explorer Carsten Niebuhr {q.v.), was born in Copenhagen on Aug. 27, 1776. Up to his matriculation at Kiel university he had a solitary education which perhaps intensified his leaning toward a life of scholarship. But on his father's advice he spent over a year in England and Scotland and then embarked on a career in state service, beof source criticism;

all

coming private secretary to Count Schimmelmann, the Danish minister of finance, and in 1S04 director of the national bank. In 1S06, at the request of Baron von Stein, the Prussian chief minisTwo years after Stein's ter, he took up a similar post in Prussia. fall (1808), however, disapproving of Prince von Hardenberg's

NIEBUHR—NIEL At the same time he became a member of the Berlin Akademie der Wissenlecture thereby empowered to at the newly and was schaften founded university of Berlin. In 1810 he began the series of lectures on Roman history which were the basis of his great book and which made a sensation in Berlin. In 18 16 he went as Prussian ambassador to the Vatican, retiring to Bonn in 1S23 where he died on Jan. 2, 1831. Niebuhr's chief work was done while he was employed in public service. His interests were academic (to the fine arts he was wholly indifferent; it has been said that to him Rome was only a collection of unsolved problems) and he never wholly reconciled himself to his official career; yet he held that no one could understand the history of Rome without knowing the state as it is seen by the statesman; and his work, above all his gift for analogy, benefited greatly from his practical life. Niebuhr's Romische Geschichte (3 vol., 1811-32; Eng. trans. 1828-42) marked an era in the study of its special subject and had a momentous influence on the general conception of history. Niebuhr made particular contributions of value to learning, e.g., his study of social and agrarian problems; on the other hand some of his theories were extravagant and his conclusions mistaken. But his permanent contribution to scholarship was his method. The failings of classical sources were already recognized but it was Niebuhr who evolved what Goethe called "tdtige Skepsis" the constructive skepticism which is the root of a scientific method of criticism. It was Niebuhr who showed how to analyze the strata in a source, particularly poetical and mythical tradition; how to discard the worthless and thereby lay bare the material from which policy, he resigned

and became

state historiographer.

—

the historical facts could be reconstructed. He thus laid the foundation for the great period of German historical scholarship. Bibliography. Briefe, ed. by D. Gerhard and W. Norvin, 2 vol. (1926-29) Politische Schriften, ed. by G. Kuntzel (1923) D. Hensler, Lebensnachrkhten iiber B. G. Niebuhr, 3 vol. (1838-39; Eng. trans. E. Kornemann in Historische 1852); F. Schnabel, Niebuhr (1931)

—

;

;

493

and international affairs. Niebuhr was bom on June 21, 1892, at Wright City, Mo., the son of a clergyman. He attended Elmhurst college (1910), Eden Theological seminary (1913) and Yale Divinity school (B.D., 1914; M.A., 1915). He received a D.D. from Eden Theological seminary in 1930 and numerous honorary degrees from institutions in the United States and abroad. He was ordained to the ministry of the Evangelical Synod of North America in 1915 and served as a pastor in Detroit from 1915 to 1928. In the latter year he joined the faculty of Union Theological seminary in New York city, servfields of history, political science

ing as associate professor of the philosophy of religion until 1930 and as professor of applied Christianity until 1960, the year of his

He married Ursula Keppel-Compton in 1931. In his earliest writings, Niebuhr exhibited the quasi-humanistic and social idealism that pervaded the theological atmosphere of the time. Increasing experience with the actualities of social life which he encountered in the course of his ministry in a great industrial city, together with his reflections on world affairs, sharply reoriented his thinking in a direction more retirement.

religious "liberalism"

orthodox theologically and more realistic socially. Moral Man and Immoral Society, published in 1932, embodying this new orientation, came as a tract for the times, combining a somber Augustinian emphasis on the involutions of sinful self-love in the individual and corporate structures of life with a social radicalism bordering on Marxism. His Marxist inclinations vanished in the years after World War II, and he in fact became a vigorous critic not only of totalitarian communism but of doctrinaire socialism as well; the original combination of a hardheaded Augustinian doctrine of man with a lively social concern, however, remained characteristic of his thought.

The most impressive statement of his fundamental theological position Niebuhr developed in his Gifford lectures, published as The Nature and Destiny

of

Man

(2 vol., 1941-43).

This work

is

;

Zeitschrijt,

145

(1932)

;

H. von Srbik, Geist und Geschichte,

vol.

i

(1950).

NIEBUHR, CARSTEN

(1733-1815), German traveler who Arabia and the compiler of its results, was born at Ludingworth, Hanover, on March 17, 1733. He worked as a peasant in his early years, but managed to learn surveying. In 1760 he was invited to join the expedition being sent out by Frederick V of Denmark for the scienThe expedition vistific exploration of Egypt, Arabia and Syria. ited the Nile, Mount Sinai, Suez and Jidda, whence it journeyed overland to Mokha. In May 1763 the philologist of the expedition, F. C. von Haven, died, followed in July by the naturalist, Pehr Forskal. Sana, the capital of Yemen, was visited, but the remaining members of the expedition were obliged to return to Mokha. Niebuhr saved his life and restored his health by adopting native dress and food. From Mokha they sailed to Bombay, where the artist and the surgeon of the expedition died, leaving Niebuhr alone. He stayed 14 months in India and then turned homeward by way of Muscat, Persia, Mesopotamia, Cyprus and Asia Minor, reaching Istanbul via Brusa in Feb. 1767 and Copenhagen in the following November. He later held posts in the Danish mihtary service and in the civil service of Holstein. He died at Meldorf in Holstein on April 26, 1815. Niebuhr's major works are Beschreibung von arabien (Fr. trans.. Description de I'Arabie) and Reisebeschreibung nach arabien und andern umliegenden landern (Eng. trans., Travels Through Arabia). He also edited P. Forskal's Descriptiones animalium, Flora aegyptiaco-arabica and Icones rerum naturalitim.

was the

sole survivor of the first scientific expedition to

See the anonymous Life of Carsten Niebuhr in the "Lives of Eminent Persons" series (1838) and D. G. Hogarth, The Penetration of Arabia ;

CWm.

(1Q04).

NIEBUHR, REINHOLD

(1892-

C. B.)

) U.S. Protestant theologian and social critic, a pioneer in the "new theology" or Neoorthodoxy (g.v.) that has striven to restate the biblical-Christian ,

teaching in a form relevant to the great issues of contemporary hfe and history. Niebuhr's influence has been widespread, cutting across the lines of the diverse religious communities as well as of the various academic disciplines dealing with human affairs. The influence of his thinking has been felt alike in theology and in the

and systematic attempt to restate, assess and vindicate the essential Augustinian-Reformation teachings on man in the "existentialist" understanding of the human situaan context of tion, emphasizing at once man's dynamic of self-transcendence, the ambiguities of his creaturely existence and the corruptions of It was this work that brought Niebuhr his sinful egocentricity. closest to continental neo-orthodoxy, although he was throughout very critical of both Karl Barth and Emil Brunner. In later years Niebuhr's thinking shifted more and more to a concern with the problem of history and an emphasis on man's essential historicity ("Man's being and human society are by na."). Faith and History (1949), The Irony of ture historical. American History (1952) and The Self and the Dramas of History a sustained

.

The last-named work is pardirection. what it owes to the "relational'' (or "dialogical") philosophy of Martin Buber, an influence that came late but remained powerful in Niebuhr's thought. His The Stritcture of Nations attd Empires (1959) combines this concern with history with his Hfelong preoccupation with the problems of pohtical (1955) mark

this

new

ticularly significant for

power. Bibliography. Niebuhr's writings and his commentaries on reA full bibliography ligious, social and political affairs are voluminous. to 1956 may be found in Charles \V. Kegley and Robert W. Bretall (eds.), Reinhold Niebuhr: His Religious, Social, and Political Thought (1956), and a collection of his outstanding occasional articles in D. B. Robertson (ed.). Love and Justice: Selections From the Writings of Reinhold Niebuhr (1957). Important studies of Niebuhr's thought include Edward J. Carnell, The Theology of Reinhold Niebuhr (1950) Georgette Paul Vignaux, La Theologie de I'histoire chez Reinhold NieGordon Harland, The Thought of Reinhold Niebuhr buhr (1957) (W. He.) (i960).

—

;

;

NIEDERSACHSEN: NIEL,

ADOLPHE

see

Lower Saxonv.

(1802-1869), French army

officer,

one

of the emperor Napoleon Ill's marshals, was born at Brioudes, Haute-GarOnne, on Oct. 4, 1802. Trained as an engineer, he was

commissioned in the army in 1825; took part in three campaigns in Algeria (1837-39); superintended the fortification of the St. Denis region; and was promoted Ueutenant colonel in 1842 and colonel in 1846. In 1849, as chief of staff to Gen. J. B. P. Vaillant in the papal states,

Rome from

the

he distinguished himself in the capture of General of division in 1853, he

republicans.

;

NIELLO—NIETZSCHE

494

was twice on active sennce in command of the engineers during the Crimean War: during the expedition to the Aaland Islands and Aide-de-camp to Napoleon III from at the siege of Sevastopol. 1S54 and a senator from 1857, he went to Turin to conclude the alliance of Jan. 1859 between France and Sardinia-Piedmont; in the ensuing war against Austria he played a decisive role in the battle of Solferino, for which he was made marshal next day (June 25, 1859>. Appointed minister of war on Jan. 18, 1867, he planned a radical reorganization of the army, but met with obstruction and did not live long enough to put his valuable law of Feb. 1, 1868, into effect. Niel died in Paris on Aug. 13, 1869. (L. G.) See J. de La Tour, Le Marichal Niel (1912). NIELLO: see Metal work, Decorative: Techniques of Met-

In 1945 NiemoUer became head of the German Evangelical Church's foreign relations office and in 1947 president of the church in Hesse-Nassau. The ecclesiastical restoration and the absence of any real change in the German mentality seriously disillusioned him. He opposed the remilitarization of Germany and NiemoUer's strength lies in the simin 1954 became a pacifist. plicity of his Bible witness: it demands not just personal piety but active support for international reconciliation and social justice. As a leading German churchman he went to Moscow in 1952, and later lecture tours took him to every continent. In 1961 he was elected one of the six presidents of the World Council of Churches.

alu'orking.

Bekennende Kirche, essays presented

NIELSEN, CARL

AUGUST

(1865-1931), the outstanding Danish composer of his time. Born on June 9, 1865, at Norre Lyndelse, near Odense, he entered the conservatory of music at Copenhagen in 1S84 where he studied with 0. Rosenhoff and N.

Gade. He was violinist in the court orchestra at Copenhagen intermittently from 1886 to 1905, conductor at the court theatre (1908-14) and director of the Miisikjoreningen (Music society) from 1915 to 1927. In 1915 he was appointed professor at the Copenhagen conservatory. Nielsen's early music was influenced by the romantic composers, but his later works were more enterprising and made use of polytonality. He became known for his six symphonies, particularly the second. Die fire temperamente (1902), the third, Sinfonia espansiva (1911), and the fourth, Det uudslukkelige ("The Inextinguishable," 1916), all of which are richly scored.

He

also wrote three concertos

—

for violin, for fiute

and for clarinet; the operas Saul og David (Copenhagen, 1902) and Maskerade (Copenhagen, 1906); four string quartets, two quintets, organ and piano music. His early Hymnits amort for soloists, chorus and orchestra reveals an influence of Palestrina. He died at Copenhagen on Oct. 3, 1931. See R. Simpson, Carl Nielsen (1952) Carl Nielsen, 2 vol. (1947^8).

;

T.

Meyer and

F. S. Petersen, (J. S.

NIEMCEWICZ, JULLAN URSYN

Wn.)

(:i757?-l84l), Polish

man

of letters who greatly enriched the intellectual life of his day. was bom at Skoki. near Brzesc (Brest), on Feb. 6, 1757 or 1758, and educated in the Warsaw Cadet corps (1770-77). He

spent the greater part of the period 1783-88 in western Europe. In 1788 he was elected deputy to the sejm (parliament). Ha\'ing been Tadeusz Kosciuszko's aide-de-camp during the insurrection of 1794, he was captured at Maciejowice and imprisoned at St. Petersburg. After his release, late in 1796, he went to the United

In 1831 he went to EngStates, returning to Poland in 1807, land as emissary of the insurrectionary government. In 1833 he moved to Paris, where he died on May 21, 1841. Niemcewicz's works include the most outstanding 18th-century Polish comedy (Powrot posia, 1790); a collection of songs on themes from Polish history (Spieuy historyczne, 1816); and Lejbe i Siora (1821; Eng. trans., 1830), the first Polish novel to His Memoirs (Pamigtniki czasow moich, 1848) were reprinted in 1957. discuss the Jewish problem.

See J. Chrzanowski,"Pochwa}a Niemcewicza,"i?ocsKi^! Towarzystiva (1927) J. Dihm, Niemcewicz jako polityk (L. R. Lr.)

Naukowego Warszaivskiego i

;

publicysta (1928).

NIEMOLLER,

(FRIEDRICH

GUSTAV

EMIL)

MARTIN

(1892founder of the German Confessing ), Church iq.v.), was born on Jan. 1, 1892, in Lippstadt (West-

phalia), the son of a pastor.

After serving as a naval officer in I he studied theology at Miinster and in 1931 became In 1933, in pastor in the fashionable Berlin suburb, Dahlem. protest against National Socialist interference in the church, he founded the Pfarrernotbund (Pastor's Emergency league), which, among other things, rejected discrimination against Jewish Christians. NiemoUer became a leading member of the Confessing synod of the Evangelical Church. He preached throughout Germany and on March 1, 1938, the Gestapo arrested him, sent him

World War

to Sachsenhausen concentration

camp and

Leon Blum and the Tirol and there was freed by the 1945, together with

Dachau. In was removed to

later to

others, he Allies.

—

M. Niemoller, Vom V-Boot zur Kaniel (1934) to Niemoller on his 60th birthday D. Schmidt, Pastor Niemoller, Eng. trans. (1959) C. Start(H. Kg.) Davidson, God's Man (1959). Bibliography.

(1952)

;

;

NIEN REBELLION, a major revolt in northern China durand 1860s. When the T'ai P'ing armies in 1852 were pushing down the Yangtze river to capture Nanking {see T'ai P'in'G Rebellion), an uprising broke out in the north China plain led by the Nien secret society, an offshoot of the White Lotus society. Scattered Nien bands, which had fomented sporadic revolts since the first decade of the 19th century, met at Chih-ho in the winter of 1852-53 to form a coalition under the leadership of Chang Lo-hsing and to establish a base of operation in the area north of the Huai Ho in Anhwei. The northern expedition of the T'ai P'ings in the summer of 1853 gave the Nien the opportunity to consolidate their power. Two years later, the Nien forces, led by family elders, had grown so strong that they were reorganized into five banner armies. Numbering 30,000 to 50,000 they were a motley horde of peasants and army deserters, brigands and salt smugglers, accompanied by their wives and children. They won the support of the local force that had been organized to resist the T'ai P'ings and gained control over the network of mud walls and ditches built by the local troops. With their home base strongly bulwarked and with their cavalry force well organized, Nien columns raided Shantung and Kiangsu, Honan and Hupeh, while they fought alongside the T'ai ing the lS50s

P'ings in the south.

Chih-ho, to the imperialists led by Chang Lo-hsing, in the spring of 1863, were severe setbacks for the Nien, But their armies remained intact and they rallied to the leadership of Chang's nephew, Chang Tsung-yii. After Nanking fell to imperial forces

The

loss of their citadel,

Seng-ko-lin-ch'in and the death of their leader,

in July 1864. the

Lai

Wen-kuang

Nien were reinforced by a T'ai P'ing army under had been operating in Shensi. Organized in became highly effective in mobile warfare,

that

military order, they

specializing in hit-and-run tactics to elude or to harry the better-

armed

imperialists.

They struck

at

weak

points to gain recruits

and to obtain supplies but evaded frontal battles. After the Nien defeated and killed Seng-ko-lin-ch'in in 1865, Tseng Kuo-fan, who took over command of the government forces, adopted the strategy of blockade. But the Nien rebels slipped through his cordon and, in the winter of 1866, they split into two armies, the eastern under Lai Wen-kuang and the western under Chang Tsung-yii. After an incursion into Hupeh, the eastern Nien forces were trapped in Shantung by the Huai army under Li Hungchang and destroyed in the beginning of 1868. The western Nien army, which had invaded Shensi with the aim of joining forces with It threatened Peking but, in Aug, the Muslims, hastened back. 1S6S, after 15 years of war in eight provinces, it was surroimded and annihilated. See Siang-tseh Chiang, The Nien Rebellion (1954); Ssu-vii Teng, The Nien Army and Their Guerilla Warfare, 1851-1868 (1961). (JG. L.)

NIETZSCHE, FRIEDRICH

(1844-1900), German philoso-

most influential thinkers of modern times, was Rbcken, in the Prussian province of Saxony, The the son of a Lutheran minister and the grandson of two. religion of his home had a patriotic complexion, and he was named Friedrich Wilhelm after the reigning king of Prussia, Nietzsche later dropped the "Wilhelm," and no major writer has been a more

pher, one of the

born Oct.

15, 1844, at

NIETZSCHE

495

stringent critic 6i his countrymen or of the religion and morality

Zarathustra)

In the English-speaking world his ideas have sometimes been discounted as a mere reaction against his childhood training, but in Germany and in France the most serious philosophers and psychologists, theologians, novelists and poets have unstintingly acknowledged their debt to him.

culminating in The Dawn (Morgenrote, 1881) and The Gay Science (Die frohliche Wissenschaft, 1882), this was his first attempt to present the whole of his thought. The first three parts appeared in 1883 and 1884 but found no response, and Nietzsche abandoned the project after the fourth part, although it was at first intended as an intermezzo. After Zarathustra, Nietzsche composed Beyond Good and Evil (Jenseits von Gut und Bose, 1886) and The Genealogy of Morals (Zur Genealogie der Moral, 1887) in a less poetic

of his fathers.

—

Basel and Bayreuth. Nietzsche attended the universities of Leipzig and in 1869 was appointed professor of classical

Bonn and

He became a Swiss subject, but when the Franco-German War broke out in 1870, he requested a leave from his university to serve with the Prussian army as a medical orderly. Soon he returned to Basel, his health badly shattered. He offered courses in Greek literature and philosophy and philology at the University of Basel.

found further inspiration in his friendship with the composer Richard Wagner, who was then livine at Tribschen, near Lucerne. Wagner was born in the same year as Nietzsche's father and appreciated Nietzsche as a brilliant apostle and errand boy. Nietzsche's first book. The Birth oj Tragedy From the Spirit of Music {Die Geburt der Tragodie aus dem Geiste der Musik, 1872) won the composer's enthusiastic approval: the last ten sections were devoted to a rhapsody on Wagner. Of Nietzsche's four published as essays Untimely Meditations (Unzeitgemdsse Betrachtungen, 1873-76), Wagner especially liked the last: "Richard Wagner in Bayreuth." Wherever Nietzsche showed an independent mind, Wagner showed little sympathy. A break was thus inevitable, and Wagner's removal to Bayreuth merely hastened it. The composer made his peace with the young German empire, which Nietzsche considered a cultural menace, and his ideas became influential. Wagner's chauvinism and anti-Semitism, which had mattered less when he was the lonely genius of Tribschen, were now institutionalized as part of the meaning of Bayreuth. Wagner's Parsifal, finally, seemed to Nietzsche a thoroughly insincere obeisance to Christianity, and the philosopher had no sympathy for Wagner's deliberate idealization of "pure foolishness." Wagner's inscribed copy of Parsifal reached Nietzsche even as Nietzsche's enlightened Human, All-Too-Human {Menschliches, Allzumenschliches 1S78), with a motto from \'oltaire, reached Wagner; and this book was at least as distasteful to the composer, who did not bother to finish reading it, as the opera was to Nietzsche. Their break was sealed. Later Life and Works. In 1879 Nietzsche resigned from the ,

—

He

devoted the next ten years and driving himself reEvery book represented a triumph over his half-blind lentlessly. eyes, migraine headaches and manifold physical agonies. His major works belong to this period. They were written in utter solitude in various places in Switzerland and Italy (particularly the Engadine and the Riviera) and were ignored by the public until Georg Brandes (Georg Morris Cohen) began to lecture on Nietzsche at the University of Copenhagen in 1888. Ten years later, Nietzsche was world famous. In Jan. 1889, however, Nietzsche suffered a mental and physical breakdown; and he remained insane until he died, at Weimar, on Aug. 25, 1900. His illness never was diagnosed conclusively, but was probably an atypical general paralysis. In that case there must have been a syphilitic infection, which is usually supposed to have taken place during his student days, although he may have infected himself while ministering to sick soldiers during the war. That he generally lived the life of an ascetic is agreed. Although he proposed marriage to several women, Lou Salom6 was the only one who, for a time, deeply moved his heart. His other proposals represented frantic attempts to escape from his university, pleading his ill-health.

solely to his writing, living very modestly

He scarcely knew the women in question and was profoundly relieved when they refused. Lou Salome, who later wrote several books and became the beloved of Rainer Maria Rilke and, still later, a friend and disciple of Sigmund Freud, meant a great deal to Nietzsche in 1S82 much more than he meant to her. To her, and only to her, he spoke of his inmost ideas; and desperate solitude.

—

when

the intrigues of his envious sister, Elisabeth, disrupted their relationship, he felt lonelier than ever. It was then that his most popular, most enigmatic and least understood work was bom: Thus Spoke Zarathustra (Also sprach

.

Aftei the aphoristic works of the preceding years,

vein, to clarify his ideas.

—

Nietzsche's Sister and Last Works. The femme fatale both and for his posthumous reputation was his sister. Wagner she showed no understanding and little sympathy for his development. She married an anti-Semitic agitator, Bernhard Forster, of whose acti\'ities Nietzsche unequivocally disapproved, and moved to Paraguay with her husband to found a colony, "Nueva Germania." After her husband's suicide in the midst of a major financial scandal, she tried to make a national hero of him while salvaging the colony as an island of Teutonic Christianity. Having failed in both attempts, she secured the rights to her brother's literary remains and edited them without scruple or understanding. In an early manuscript, for example, in which Nietzsche mentioned that their father had suddenly become mentally ill and died soon after (in 1849), she erased a few words and published the text as saying that he had become She secured letters which ill after a fall down the cellar stairs. her brother had written to others and suppressed some of them, in Nietzsche's Hfe

After his break with

while publishing his drafts for many of them as drafts for letters to herself, occasionally even erasing address and signature in the

notebook manuscripts. While she gained a wide audience for her misinterpretations, she withheld her brother's self-interpretation, Ecce Homo, until 1908. Meanwhile she collected some of his notes under the title The Will to Power (Der Wille zur Macht) and presented this work, first as part of her three-volume biography (Leipzig, 1895-1904), then in a one-volume edition (1901) and finally in a completely remodeled two-volume edition (1906). Ever since, the two-volume edition has been widely considered Nietzsche's crowning systematic labour. In fact, he had long used many of these notes in writing his later works, where they are occasionally given unexpected twists, while other notes had not been used by him because they were mere jottings and not acceptable formulations of his views. His later books, moreover, became less and less aphoristic and more and more continuous. Clearly, his projected main work, which he planned for a time to caU The Will to Power, would have looked completely different even in form from the book that his sister put forward.

In 1888, after he had dashed off The Wagner Case (Der Fall a brief polemic, he abandoned the former title and decided to call his main work Revaluation of All V allies (Vmwertung He finished the first part, an essay of about 100 alter Werte). It pages, and called it The Antichrist (Der Antichrist, 1S88). is here and in Twilight of the Idols (Gdtzen-Ddmmerung, oder Wie man mit dem Hammer philosophirt), written earlier in 1888, and in Ecce Homo, written in the autumn of that year, that we encounter Nietzsche's final views, not in the sister's book which, however, contains many highly interesting notes. His last literary labour was to assemble under the title Nietzsche contra Wagner some passages from his earlier books, slightly revised here and there. This is his shortest and perhaps most beautiful book. Those who have looked to The Will to Power as Nietzsche's magnum opus have found him all but incoherent. In any case, his memorable formulations have invited quotation out of context and prompted a great variety of untenable and mutually contradictory interpretations, beginning with those of his sister. It was at her repeated request, furthermore, that Adolf Hitler eventually consented to visit her Nietzsche-Archiv in Weimar, on his way to Bayreuth. Nietzsche had once written to her that it was t\'pical of her to try to reconcile opposites, and this is epitomized in the name that she adopted after her husband's suicide: ForsterNietzsche. Although the Nazis followed her lead and published some misleading anthologies of Nietzsche's thought, they could

Wagner),

NIETZSCHE

496

comfort from his unexpurRated works. All serious students of the matter are agreed that the Nazi version of Nietzsche represents an utterly unscrupulous perversion of his thought. Will to Power and Overman. In the course of his psychological observations, Nietzsche gradually came to the conclusion that all human behaviour could be reduced to a single basic drive, This notion is inseparable from his idea of the will to power.

draw

little

—

sublimation, and the will to power in the chapter

is tirst

"On Self-Overcoming"

discussed at any length

in Zarathustra.

wants more than anything What man and every else is. according to Nietzsche, a higher, more powerful state of being in which the thousandfold impotence of his present state is overcome. ISIan wants to perfect himself, to re-create himself, to become a creator rather than a mere creature. It is only when he fails in this endeavour and resigns himself more or less to this failure that he seeks crude power over others as a substitute. Power is wanted in any case, but "power" in the vulgar sense is wanted only for lack of something better. The higher state for which man strives, Nietzsche calls the overman iVbcnnensch). The overman is the man who has overcome himself; the passionate man w-ho is the master of his passions: the creator who excels in both passion and reason and is able Although Nietzsche once reto employ his powers creatively. marks in Zarathustra that there has never yet been an overman, he "Success in individual cases is says in The Antichrist (sec. 4) constantly encountered in the most widely different places and culhigher type, which is. in relation to we really do find here a tures: mankind as a whole, a kind of overman. "i The disagreement between the two passages is not profound: it is only a question of either stressing the success of a Leonardo or of a Goethe, or emphasizing that even they were in some respects all too human. The Last Man. The overman serves Nietzsche as a contrast The last man to man as he is, to "the last man" and to God. appears in "Zarathustra's Prologue" where it is suggested and this is confirmed elsewhere, most incisively and x-itriolically in Ecce living being

:

—

—

Homo — that

evolution, biological or social, will lead not to the

attainment of the overman but in the direction of the last man, who is an uncreative conformist and a complacent hedonist. "One for one needs still loves one's neighbor and rubs against him, warmth ... A little poison now and then: that makes for agreeable dreams. And much poison in the end for an agreeable death. One still works, for work is a form of entertainment. But one is careOne no longer beful lest the entertainment be too harrowing. comes poor or rich: both require too much exertion. Who still wants to rule? Who obey? Both require too much exertion. No shepherd and one herd! Everybody wants the same, everybody is the same: whoever feels different goes voluntarily into a madhouse." The contrast between the overman and the last man epitomizes Nietzsche's critique of modern civilization. This critique is worked out in great detail and includes not only a critique of the pleasure principle, both as a norm and as the basis of any psychological monism, but also, and above all, a critique of the Christian religion

and of morality.

God and the Eternal Recurrence. and God

is

—The contrast of overman

also formulated in "Zarathustra's Prologue":

"Remain

and do not believe those who speak to you of otherworldly hopes!" Perfection can be hypostatized as existing even now in another world, in God, or it can be presented as a challenge and ideal for ever>' one of us. Instead of resigning ourselves to being all too human and worshipping perfection, we can try to perfect ourselves in this life, on this earth. The image of eternity is. for Nietzsche, the circle. He believed in the eternal recurrence of the same events at gigantic intervals. This he considered the most scientific of all hypotheses. Granted a finite number of power quanta as the basic constituents of the world, only a finite number of configurations would be possible. Now if we do not cling to the Christian belief in creation, there is no beginning of the past, nor has a stable end state been attained by now. The only alternative, Nietzsche supposes, is that the faithful to the earth,

^AIl quotatioDS are

from The Portable Nietzsche, The Viking Press, 1954.

configurations must repeat themselves after enormous periods of

"And this slow spider, which crawls in the moonlight, and moonlight itself, and I and you in the gateway must not us have been there before? And return must we not of eternally return?" This idea reverts to Stoic speculations. The world is not governed by a purpose; it is an eternally repeated senseless play, and we are condemned to play the same role over and over again. The overman, however, unlike Goethe's Faust, can say to every single moment: abide, thou art so fair and if this is impossible, at least

time. this

.

all

.

.

.

.

.

—

return eternally!

This conception of the overman does not entail faith in progress, which Nietzsche derided as "merely a modern idea, that is, a false For idea" (in a discussion of the overman, Antichrist, sec. 4). Nietzsche, overman and eternal recurrence belonged together.

The

idea of the

overman

is

a challenge, not a prediction:

antithesis to God. even as the eternal recurrence of the

it

is

an

same events

an antithesis to the Christian conception of time and history. Critique of Christianity. Nietzsche's opposition to Christianity is not confined to its otherworldliness which he considered a mere symptom. Otherworldliness is motivated by the will to power of the weak who have despaired of fultillment in this life. They slander this world in favour of another world in which they hope for such power that "we shall judge angels" (I Cor. vi, 2, cited is

—

in Antichrist, sec. 45).

Christianity, according to Nietzsche,

bom

is

of weakness

and

breeds weakness, while making war on those who are better favoured. It is the revolt of failures of every kind: of slaves against masters, of unfree minds against freethinkers, of the mediocre against the exception. Christianity, he says, "has waged deadly war against this higher type of man"; "Christianity has sided with that is weak and base, with all failures"; "it has corrupted the reason even of those strongest in spirit by teaching men to consider the supreme values of the spirit as something sinful, as someThe most pitiful as temptations. thing that leads into error example: the corruption of Pascal, who believed in the corruption all

—

when

of his reason through original sin

had

it

in fact

been cor-

rupted only by his Christianity," (Antichrist, sec. 5.) Dionysus. Although Nietzsche diagnoses any celebration of the "pure spirit" at the expense of the body as a slander against life, prompted by what he calls ressentiment (resentment), he does not extol the body at the expense of the spirit. Against licentiousness, which is lack of self-control, and against renunciation, whether prompted by a lack of passion or by fear of any

—

kind, he pits his image of Goethe "who might dare to afford the whole range and wealth of being natural, being strong enough for such freedom; the man of tolerance, not from weakness but from strength, because he knows how to use to his advantage even that from which the average nature would perish; the man for whom unless it be weakthere is no longer anything that is forbidden ness, whether it be called vice or virtue." All of Nietzsche's heroes were, like Goethe, men of surpassing intelligence, not irrationalists and least of all "pure fools." With the exception of Arthur Schopenhauer, whom Nietzsche greatly admired in his youth but later criticized, they affirmed this world. To cite the continuation of his portrait of Goethe from Twilight of the Idols: "Such a spirit who has become free stands amid the he does not negate cosmos with a joyous and trusting fatalism any more. Such a faith, however, is the highest of all possible faiths: I have baptized it with the name of Dionysus." The "Dionysian" in Nietzsche's early works was contrasted with the "Apollinian": it represented the flood of passion as opposed to the serenity which found expression in Greek sculpture. In his

—

.

later

work, as in the quotation above,

it

.

.

represents passion con-

and creatively employed as opposed to the negation of the body and of this world. "Dionysus versus 'the Crucified One': there you have the con-

trolled

passions, of the

—

only It is not martyrdom that constitutes the difference The tragic man affirms even here it has two different senses deifying for rich, the harshest suffering: he is sufficiently strong, this; the Christian negates even the happiest life on earth: he is sufficiently weak, poor, and disinherited to suffer from life in any trast.

.

.

.

NIEUWPOORT—NIEVRE The God on

form.

redemption from is

it

the cross

it;

a curse on

is

life,

a pointer to seek

Dionysu^ cut to pieces is a promise of life: comes back from destruction" (The

eternally reborn and

Will to Power, note 1,052; written in 1888). All of Nietzsche's many other criticisms of Christianity are corollaries of the major points here stated; e.g., that most unevangelical sentiments of resentment have been central in Christianity from the beginning, even in the New Testament (though Nietzsche excepts Jesus from this charge) that the religion of Paul and of Catholicism, of Luther and of Calvin is a religion of vengefulness, judgment and negation; that Christianity is deeply antirational and that "the philology of Christianity" as exemplified antiscientitic in its treatment of the Old Testament is profoundly dishonest; ;

;

that faith in the Christian sense involves, self-deception.

tom the charge

At bot-

always the same: Christianity is born of weakness, failure and resentment and is the enemy of reason and honesty, of the body and of sex in particular, and of power, joy and freedom. Slogans. When Nietzsche took How One Philosophizes With a Hammer as the subtitle of Twilight of the Idols, he explained in his preface that his intention was "the sounding out of idols which are here touched with a hammer as with a tuning-fork." He wanted "to pose questions here with a hammer, and, perhaps, to hear as a reply that famous hollow sound." Yet it has been widely assumed that his "hammer" was a sledgehammer. The slogan is is

—

.

.

.

recalled, the text forgotten.

When "Nietzsche

contrasted "master morality" and "slave moralwas assumed that he identified himself with the former. In fact, he tried to show the need for "a typology of morals" to replace the prejudice that -one's own morality is simply "morality." His cutting analysis of "slave morality" with its central Ressentiment is particularly pointed and original; but in the chapter on "The 'Improvers' of Mankind" in Twilight of the Idols he leaves no ity"

it

doubt of his distaste for master morality. any universal moral code.

possibility of

him

He did not

believe in the

Every morality was to and different

a prescription for living with one's passions,

people require different prescriptions. A Luther cannot live like a St. Francis, and a St. Francis cannot live like Goethe. "One thing is needful" is the title of a long aphorism in The Gay Science which begins, "'Giving style' to one's character"; and it ends: "For one thing is needful: that a human being attain his satisfaction with himself Whoever is dissatisfied with himself is always ready to revenge himself therefor; we others will be his victims." That Nietzsche called himself a good European is often forgotten; that he called himself an immoralist is recalled. What he meant was not that he favoured a lack of discipline and letting oneself go. On the contran,-, he insisted that without long and hard discipline we should lack all those achievements "for w-hose sake life on earth is worthwhile; for example, virtue, art, music, dance, reason, spirituality." His "immoralism" was in the main an impassioned nonconformis.m, and his choice of word was suggested by the fact that "morality" generally designates a social code that equates being moral with conforming. .

Influence.

.

.

—

Of those hundreds who have written about Nietzsome authors quite deliberately perverted his meaning; others read their own ideas into their subject more or less unconsciously;

sche,

and the vast majority had never read most of his books from beginning to end. The number of irresponsible interpretations is

On

hand he also exerted a commanding influence, in various ways, on some of the foremost writers of the 20th centur>': on Thomas Mann and Hermann Hesse, on Stefan George and Christian Morgenstern, on Rainer Maria Rilke and Andre Gide, on Karl Jaspers and Martin Heidegger, on Sigmund Freud and Bernard Shaw, on Oswald Spengler and Max Scheler, on Andre Malraux and Jean Paul Sartre. Freud often expressed appalling.

his

the other

admiration for the profundity of Nietzsche's penetrating

self-

knowledge and for his insight into psychology. Spengler acknowledged in the preface to The Decline of the West that he owed "everything" to Goethe and to Nietzsche. According to Jaspers, Nietzsche belongs with Soren Kierkegaard. Together they determine the situation in which contemporary philosophy must begin. Heidegger sees Nietzsche as the last great metaphysician and the

497

end point of a development begun with Plato. Thomas Mann fashioned the hero of his Doktor Faustus after Nietzsche; Malraux included an incident from his biography in La lulle avec I'ange; Albert Camus, like Thomas Mann and Stefan Zweig, wrote an essay on Nietzsche; and Stefan George, two poems. More than half a century after his death, his life and work had lost none of their fascination, and modern philosophy had not yet cUgested all he had to offer.

—

BiBLiOGR.\pnv. For a comprehensive bibliography, which lists the various editions of Nietzsche's works and letters as well as items not included in any collected edition and the most important works about him, see Walter Kaufmann, Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist (1950), the revised ed. (1956) omits the long bibliography. Of the many editions of Nietzsche's works in German the MusarionAusgabe, 2i vol. (1920-29), is the most complete. For an English text see The Portable Nietzsche, ed. and trans, by Walter Kaufmann (1954), containing Thus Spoke Zarathustra, Twilight of the Idols, The Antichrist and Nietzsche contra Wagner all complete, as well as selections from his other books, from his notes and from his letters in chronological sequence. For studies see Charles .\ndler, Nietzsche: sa vie et sa pensee, 6 vol. (1920-31) Erich Podach, Nietzsches Zusammenbruch (19iO) .Gestalter. urn Nietzsche (1932); Karl Jaspers, Nietzsche: Einjiihrung in das Verstdiidnis seines Philosophierens (1936); George A. Morgan, Jr.. What Nietzsche Means (1941); Martin Heidegger, "Nietzsches Wort 'Gott ist tot"' in Holzwege (1950). (W. Kn.) ;

NIEUWPOORT

(Fr. Nieuport), a town of the pro\T[nce West Flanders, Belgium, lies near the mouth of the Yser river, 15 km. (10 m\.) S.S.W. of Ostend. Pop. (1961) 6,899, Parts of an ancient cloth market built in 1480 remained after World War I when the town was practically leveled; it was later rebuilt on a grid plan with replicas of many old buildings. Nieuwpoort has one of the main artificial drainage outlets of the low country. The six combined lock bridges of Palingbrug played an important part in W'orld War I they were the instruments of the famous flooding of the Yser front on Oct, 29, 1914, when the normal process was

of

;

reversed and the sea water allowed to flow and remain inland, checking the German advance. Buses connect Nieuwpoort with the railway at Diksmuide, Sea fishing, canneries and chemical

now important occupations, but the main industry is tourism, especially at the suburb of Nieuwpoort-Bad, a fashionable North sea resort dating from 1869, plants are

The mouth

of the Yser was once east of

When

it

silted

up

Lombartzyde (Lom-

1116 ships went farther south to Sandeshove on another estuary, and the place became the novns partus ("new port"), whence Nieuwpoort, In the 13th century the town was rich like many Flanders towns. It was the port of Ypres and had shipyards and fish-curing installations. Strongly fortified, it withstood a siege by 20,000 French in 1489, Under its walls, in 1600, Maurice of Nassau defeated the archduke Albert bardsijde).

in

and the Spaniards.

NIEVRE,

(R.

M.

.X.n.)

departement of central France, was formed in 1790 from the ancient province of Nivernais (q.v.) together with a small part of Orleanais. It is surrounded by the departements of Yonne to the north. Cote d'Or and Saone-et-Loire to the east, Allier to the south, Cher to the west and Loiret to the northwest. Pop. (1962) 245,921. Area, 2,660 sq,mi. In the east are the granite highlands of the Morvan rising to rounded summits above 2,500 ft. (Mt. Prenelay, 2,805 ft.). They are flanked to north and west by clay vales Bazois and limestone hills Cotes de Nivernais In the west the land falls to the valley of the Loire river, but only a small area lies below 1 ,000 ft. The Loire crosses the southwest corner of Nievre, and below Nevers forms its western boundary. Much of the centre and east lies within the upper a

(

1

)

(

.

basin of the

Yonne

tributary of the Seine.

The Morvan is a thinly peopled area of pastoral farming and woodcutting. The cattle reared there are fattened on the lush pastures of Bazois. The Lias clays of this district pro\ide material for an old-estabUshed pottery industry. Farther west in Bas Nivernais wheat, potatoes and fodder crops are extensively grown. The vine is cultivated on favourable exposures of the limestone hills and in the Loire valley, where the white wine of Pouilly is of high repute. The Nivernais is a well-known heavy breed of horse. Iron ore contained in the Jurassic rocks was formerly widely worked and smelted with charcoal. Near Nevers at Imphy

•

NIFO—NIGER

498

and Fourchambault there are metallurgical industries. A small coalfield is worked near Deciie, served by the Nivernais canal (1S52V which connects the Yonne with the lateral canal that follows the Loire. D^cize has glass and faience works. Nevers (q.v.), former capital of the duchy of Nivernais, situated at the confluence of the NiJvre with the Loire, is the largest town and prefecture of the departement, as well as the seat of the

of treason.

Besides the Gothic cathedral of St. Cyr, the Romanesque church of St. Etienne is noteworthy. In the museum that occupies the old episcopal palace is a fine collection of Nevers and other pottery. The law courts occupy the ducal palace of the 15th

paralysis, Nigel retired in 1164 or 1165

bishopric.

and 16th centuries. Farther down the Loire valley, the Benedictine abbey church of Ste. Croix at La Charite is a fine example of Burgundian Romanesque architecture. Pougues-les-Eaux is a small spa 7 mi. N. of Nevers, and there are other mineral springs at St. Are near Decize and St. Honore near Chateau-Chinon. The departement consists of four arrondissements centred upon the market towns of Nevers, Cosne, Chateau-Chinon and Clamecy. Its court of appeal is at Bourges and it comes under the acadimie (Ar. E. S.)

of Dijon.

AGOSTINO

NIFO,

(Lat.

Augustinus Niphus

or

Nyphus)

(c. 1473-153S [1545 or 1546?]), Italian philosopher who combined a mitigated Averroism with more worldly interests that won him the favour of the humanist princes of his time, was born either at Sessa in Campania or perhaps at Jopoli in Calabria. As professor of philosophy at Padua, he published a corrected version of his treatise De intellectu et daemonibus (1492; on the Averroist theme of the unity of all human intellects), which in its original manuscript form would have incurred a charge of heresy. He also edited the works of Averroes (1495-97). Subsequently he taught at Salerno (under the patronage of the prince Roberto Sansev-

erino), at Pisa, at Bologna and in

Rome.

Commissioned by Pope

X to refute the Alexandrism of Pietro Pomponazzi (q.v.), he defended the Catholic interpretation of Aristotle's doctrine on the soul in a treatise De immortalitate animae contra Pomponatmm (1518). His other works include treatises on the infinity of the prime mover (De infinitate primi motoris, 1504), on government (De regnandi peritia, 1523; influenced by Machiavelli) and on beauty and love (De pulchro et amore, 1531). He is thought to have died at Salerno, in 1538 or in 1545 or 1546. There are collected editions of his minor works on moral and political subjects, 2 volumes (1645), and of his commentaries on Aristotle, 14 volLeo

umes (1654).

NIGDE

(Arab. Nakidah) chief town of an il (province) of the in southern Turkey, is situated on the Kayseri-Cilician Gates (Kulek Bogazi) road, 75 mi. N.N.W. of Adana. Pop. (a960) 18,042. The town is remarkable for its buildings, many of which date from the Seljuk era. These include several fine mosques Hanum, Rahmaniye, Ala et Tin, Songur Bey, Dis and the mausoleum Hudavent Turbesi. After the fall of the Rum sultanate, of which it had been one of the principal cities, Nigde became independent and (according to Ibn Batutah, the Mushm traveler) ruinous and did not pass into Ottoman hands till the time of Mohammed II. It represents no classical town but, with Bor, has inherited the importance of Tyana. whose site lies about 10 mi. S.W. A Hittite-inscribed monument, brought perhaps from Tyana, has been found at Nigde. The town is hnked by rail and road with the principal centres of Turkey. Nigde II (pop. [1960] 322,917) forms a part of the central Anatolian plateau. It is semiarid steppe country, bounded in the south by the lofty Taurus mountains (Toros Daglari) and northwest by the massive volcanic Melendiz mountains. In winter the temperature is usually below freezing, whereas the summer is hot. Soils are fertile when irrigated, the chief crops being potatoes, onions, rye, apples and raisins. (N. Tu.; E. Tu.; S. Er.) NIGEL (d. 1169), bishop of Ely, treasurer and effective chief of the exchequer under Henry I and Henry II, was nephew of Roger, bishop of Salisbury, Henry I's justiciar, who largely created ,

same name

—

—

Nigel joined Matilda at Gloucester, but in 1142 was In 1154 Henry II brought him back to the treasury to restore the proper working of the exchequer, and the highly efficient Angevin financial machine was his monument. His son Richard FitzNeale succeeded him as treasurer and described the exchequer system in Dialogus de Scacreconciled to Stephen and restored to his see.

cario ("Dialogue of the Exchequer,"

c.

1179).

Incapacitated by

and died on

May

30, 1169.

See F. Liebermann, Einleitung in den Dialogus de Scaccario (1875); R. L. Poole, The Exchequer in the Twelfth Century (1912). (G. W. S. B.)

NIGER, PESCENNIUS Roman emperor

tus), rival

army

(Gaius Pescennius Niger Jus193-194, Was an Italian, an

a.d.

promoted

to the senate about 180. His had largely been in the eastern provinces, but in 185-186 he commanded an expeditionary force against deserters who had seized control of a number of cities in southern Gaul. Consul about 189, he was appointed legate of Syria, as a commander most popular in the east and among the urban populace of Rome, in the troubles at the end of Commodus' reign. When Commodus' successor Pertinax was murdered in the spring of 193, Niger was proclaimed emperor and accepted in all the Asiatic provinces. Septimius Severus, however, proclaimed by the legions of the Danube, marched east and speedily defeated him in the decisive battle of Issus in the autumn of 194. Niger fled, but was overtaken and killed. (Jn. R. M.) (Republique du Niger), a NIGER, REPUBLIC OF country of west Africa, bounded on the north by Libya, on the east by Chad, on the south by Nigeria and Dahomey, on the west by Upper Volta and Mali and on the northwest by Algeria. A former territory of French West Africa, the Niger gained its independence in 1960. Area 489,206 sq.mi. Pop. (1959) 2,556,211. Capital

equestrian

officer,

earlier service

THE

Niamey

(q.v.).

—

Physical Features The Niger is a transitional region between savanna and desert, between the countries of the sedentary Negro peoples and that of the non-Negro nomads. Only 8% of the coun-

more than 21 in. of rainfall annually, and 48% receives than 4 in. The countryside is monotonous, the main variations deriving from vegetation and climate. To the south, where rainfall is more than 20 in. annually, near the Nigerian frontier, the reclaimed savanna yields coarse millet and peanuts. But this is only a narrow strip, and the savanna gives way toward the north to a fairly varied Sahelian zone (the Sahel). The broad valley of the Niger river, which runs through the southwestern part of the country, lies in a crystalline base. But the base disappears on the east bank in a sill between the basins of the Niger and the Chad, under sandstone of various ages, sometimes very broken, sometimes, to the east, forming a plateau or plains which slope toward Lake Chad. try receives

less

MAIN ROAD TRADE ROUTE

AIRPORTS

the 12th-century exchequer.

Educated by Anselm of Laon, in royal by 1126 and treasurer by 1127, Nigel became bishop of In 1139 he was involved in the fall of Bishop Roger, when he and his kinsmen were accused by the Beaumont faction service

Ely

in 1133.

A

MAP OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE NIGER SHOWING THE MAIN PHYSICAL FEATOWNS AND COMMUNICATIONS

TURES. PRINCIPAL

NIGERIA Where

the rainfall

trees (acacias) is

more than

is

12

the vegetation of thorn

in.,

quite dense and cultivation of small millet

is still

possible.

is reached, and heavy crystalline mountain mass, the Air massif, which is dominated by Pre-Cambrian gneisses and granites, with some Quaternary black volcanic lavas, tuffs and ashes, is pierced by deep valleys, the "Koris," where there is a dense vegetation of acacias and doum palms. The Air isolates a few basins: to the southwest, the Azaouack, with pasturage, from which val-

Fairly rapidly, toward the north, the Sahara area

this

is

leys,

A

more complex.

now

dry, run

down

to the Niger; farther east, the Tenere, a

sandy and particularly arid desert, broken by some relief. Some oases may be found, aligned from Bilma, in the Kaouar, to Djado. (J. D.) People. Alongside the sedentary Negro peoples DjermaSonghai on the Niger in the southwest, Hausa in the centre and south, Beriberi-Manga in the east there exist the nomadic herdsmen Fulani in the south, Berber Tuareg in the north, Teda and Daza, branches of the Tebu (g.v.) or Tubu, in the east. The Tuareg and Tebu live only in the desert. The Hausa constitute more than a third of the population; Djerma-Songhai are the next largest group. All these peoples are Muslim, though there are some pagan survivals. History. Acheulean carved stones have been found in the Bilma region, and Neolithic deposits are numerous in the Sahara area, which the Tuareg have doubtless occupied since a remote age. They established themselves in the Air massif in about the 11th century, and the Tuareg sultanate of Agades dates at least from the 15th. The Djerma (or Zerma), who speak Songhai (Sonrhai), seem to have arrived in the 17th century. The Hausa, who probably came from the northeast, formed from the 14th century onward a number of kingdoms, of which one, Gobir (Gober), expanded greatly in the 18th century and repulsed the Tuareg. Hausa cities also replaced Bornu as important entrepots in the trade between north Africa and the central Sudan. The Fulani had for a long time been infiltrating into Hausa land. One of them, Usuman dan Fodio, in 1804 proclaimed himself commander of the faithful and preached the jihad ("holy war") against the Hausa, who tended to be lax in their religious observances. He defeated them and established in the former Hausa states the empire of Sokoto but failed in his attack on Bornu. (For history, These nasee also Bornu; Fulani; Hausa; Kanem; Sokoto.) tive movements then began to come into conflict with the French and English. Mungo Park (q.v.) and other European travelers explored the region in the 19th century. By an agreement of 1890 the English and French theoretically divided the country among themselves, following a line from Say on the Niger to Barroua on Lake Chad, a frontier which was precisely defined in 1899 and 1904. The French "mihtary territory of the Niger" was created, the Tuareg were conquered and in 1904 Agades was occupied. The territory was at first dependent upon the Sudan. In 1922 it became a colony of the federation of French West Africa (g.v.). The Capital, at first at Zinder, was transferred in 1926 to Niamey. The Niger became an overseas territory in 1946 and was granted a territorial assembly and then, in 19S7. an elected government. In 1958, despite the local government, 72% of the electorate voted for membership in the French community. On Aug. 30, 1960, independence was proclaimed, and on Nov. 11 Hamani Diori was elected president. On Sept. 20 the Niger became a member of the United Nations. It is also a member of the Sahel-Benin entente, (Hu. De.) with Ivory Coast, Upper Volta and Dahomey. Population, Administration and Social Conditions. The constitution of the Niger, adopted on Feb. 25, 1959, declares the country to be a democratic and secular state. Legislative power is

—

—

—

—

—

—

members

vested in the national assembly, composed of 60 for five-year terms

the head of state,

national is

by universal is

The

suffrage.

president,

the chief executive officer,

assembly after each general

administered by a

council

of

elected

who

is

invested by the

The country nominated by the

election.

ministers

president.

For administrative purposes, the Niger

is

divided into 16 cercles

499

(Niamey, Agades, Birni N'Konni, Dogondoutchi, Dosso, Filingue, Goure, Madaoua, Magaria, Maradi, N'Guigmi, Tahoua, Tera, Tessaoua, Tillaberi, Zinder) and a number of subdivisions. The capital. Niamey, and Zinder are independent municipalities. The population is sparse (two persons per square mile) and largely rural. Niamey is the largest town (pop. [1959] 30,030), and only three other towns have more than 10,000 inhabitants: Zinder (14,891 ), Maradi (11,762) and Tahoua (11,629). These towns and all the others of any size are in the south. Agades (4,531) is the only sizable community in the north. In 1945 the rate of school enrollment was only 1% of children of school age. This had risen to about 6% in 1960 but was still very low in comparison with such other African states as Ivory Coast and Dahomey. There are few secondary schools and no administrative

or

divisions

institutions of higher learning.

The Economy.

—

The resources of the Niger are crops and livefrom which 94% of the population derives its livelihood. The Tuareg and the Fulani are stockbreeders. The Tuareg raise camels; the others raise smaller livestock and cattle. Livestock raising has been helped by the sinking of wells. Stock supplies an important trade on the hoof to Nigeria, meat to the Ivory Coast and Dahomey, refrigerated meat to Niamey and skins (chiefly goatskins). Quality of the stock, however, is impaired by the necessity for constant movement in search of water and by endemic stock,

disease.

The

Further, the Fulani are reluctant to

Sahel, while

it

sell

their cattle.

attracts stockbreeders, also attracts cultiva-

where the country is populated, than in the centre, where the Hausa population is dense and active. The Hausa have developed the cultivation of peanuts, which is carried on throughout the southern part tors in increasing numbers, less in the west, less thickly

With cotton growing, which has developed more

of the country.

recently, the cultivation of these cash crops has extended to such

a degree that production of foodstuffs is no longer adequate. This is the reason for the agricultural colonization of the Sahel, where a growing number of villages are cultivating small millet. A few big markets Tahoua, Tanout are much frequented. Rice is grown in the valley of the Niger. There is some tin and tungsten

—

—

mining in the Air. Peanuts are by far the country's most important export product, France taking most of the crop. A number of oil mills for processing the nuts have been established. But the Niger suffers from It has no railway, and its isolation and its distance from the coast. the Niger river is barely usable. The road system has been improved, however, and the road from Maradi to Dosso extended to Parakou in Dahomey, terminus of the railroad from Cotonou on the coast. A ferry at Niamey links with the road to Upper Volta. Peanuts grown in the centre and the west go by this route to the port of Cotonou. A bridge was constructed across the Niger at Gaya in 1958. A track leads from Zinder and Agades toward Algeria. There are airports at Niamey, Zinder and Agades. Radio Niger broadcasts from Niamey in French, Hausa and

Djerma and

On May tion with

is

government controlled. Niger signed a convention of co-opera-

12, 1959, the

Common

the

Organization for the Saharan Regions

(O.C.R.S.), providing for financial and technical assistance. It West African Monetary union (established May 1962) and thus remained in the franc area. (J. D.) Bibliography. E. Sere de Rivieres, Le Niger (1952) R. Capot-Rey, Le Sahara Frani^ais (1952) Y.Vrvoy. Petit .itlas ethno-demographique du Soudan (1942); The Republic of the Niger, a brochure published bv Ambassade de France, Service de Presse et d'Information (1960); R. J. Harrison Church, West Africa (1962). joined the

—

;

;

NIGERIA

Federal Republic of Nigeria) a country of west and Benue rivers and exPop. (1963 est.) 37,213,000. Area 356,669 sq.mi. Nigeria consists of four regions (known officially as Northern Nigeria, Eastern Nigeria, Western Nigeria and MidWest Nigeria) and the federal territory of Lagos. The republic (

,

Africa, occupying the basins of the Niger

tensive adjacent territories.

is

a

member

of the

Commonwealth

of Nations.

It

extends north-

ward from the elbow of the Gulf of Guinea between latitude 4° and 14° N. and is bounded west by the Republic of Dahomey, north by the Repubhc of the Niger and east by the repubhcs of Chad and Cameroon.

NIGERIA

500

This article contains the following sections and subsections: I.

Physical Geography 1. Geology and Structure 3.

Physiography Climate

4.

Vegetation

bergs rising above 4,000 ft.; (5 the Jos plateau, at 3,800-4,600 ft., with peaks rising to nearly 6,000 ft.; and 6) the eastern highlands,

5.

Animal Life

rising

2.

II.

III.

)

(

The People History 1.

2.

3.

Bornu and the Hausa Lands The Coastal Tribes The Slave Trade

4.

Exploration

5.

The Beginnings of British Rule The Royal Niger Company

6. 7.

8. 9.

10.

Benin Northern and Southern Nigeria The Amalgamation of Nigeria Constitutional Changes

IV. Population

V. Administration and Social Conditions 1. Constitution and Government 2. Taxation 3. Living Conditions 4.

Trade Unions

5.

Justice

6.

Education Defense

7.

VI.

The Economy 1.

2.

3.

Production

Trade and Finance Communications I.

1.

Geology

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

and

Structure.

— Crystalline

rocks

of

Pre-

Cambrian age (Basement complex) comprise the larger part of These rocks make up the Jos plateau, the surface exposures. central areas of the northern plateau and the part of the southern The characteristic hill forms are hill belt l>'ing west of the Niger. inselbergs and kopjes of bare rock, found most often immediately below each step in the landscape. Basement rocks also form much of the eastern highlands especially in the northern districts) and (

of the plains immediately to the west.

The

oldest sedimentaries are of

Lower Cretaceous

age, exposed

chiefly in the Benue valley and extensive outcrops on the northw-estern side of the High plains of Hausaland and also along the southern margin of the hilly zone adjoining the coastal lowlands. Upper Cretaceous sediments lie immediately over Basement rocks along much of the Niger valley and overlap the Lower Cretaceous elsewhere: their most important exposure is east of the lower Niger, where they form the rolling country culminating in the Udi escarpment. Mainly sandstones, they give rise there to poor, sandy soils, badly leached and severely eroded, which in some densely populated districts have been cropped almost to exhaustion. Some of these sandstones are suitable for glassmaking and include clays that could be used for pottery, but the most important mineral of the Upper Cretaceous Limestones, series is the coal mined principally around Enugu. mainly of Lower Cretaceous age, are developed for cement manuYounger sediments are found along the coastal margin facture.

the Cross river basin, with less

(including large unexploited lignite reserves west of the lower Niger), in the northwest and in the Chad basin. Nigeria's commercial oil wells are mostly east of the Niger delta, near Port

Harcourt. Volcanic activity started in the Cretaceous and appears to have been most vigorous in the Tertiary. Extinct cones, sometimes severely eroded, are found in the middle and upper parts of the Benue valley, but the main areas are the Jos and Biu plateaus.

The Basement rocks contain some gold and other minerals, but the mineralized area of the Jos plateau produces abundant tin ore (cassiterite as well as smaller quantities of associated ores such as wolfram, tantalite and columbite. Small quantities of these ores are also found in the Basement areas away from the Jos )

Physiography..

gions :(

toward the Cameroons. The main rivers are the Niger (9.1).), entering the country in the northwest and flowing first southeast and then south to the Gulf of Guinea; its major tributary, the Benue (q.v.), rises in the mountains of the Cameroon republic. Outside the Niger system, the most important river is the Cross (q.v.), which flows into an estuary east of the Niger delta. The Jos plateau is an important hydrological centre; from it rivers flow to the Niger, to the Benue and northeastward to the inland drainage basin of Lake Chad. In the region of the Niger delta the coastal belt reaches its greatThis is an area of swamp covered with est width (about 50 mi.). mangrove and freshwater swamp forest, with patches of heavier The distributary chanforest on the islands above flood level. nels of the Niger form a complicated pattern, which varies from year to year. The coastal belt narrows eastward from the delta; westward it consists of an outer sand beach backed by mangrove, with mangrove and freshwater forest on the northern shores of the coastal lagoons. The tidal range is only three feet at Lagos and increases eastward to nine feet at Calabar. The creeks and lagoons form important waterways. The hilly belt behind the coastal lowlands is widest in the west, where its northern margin is about 200 mi. from the sea. Eastward it contracts and is crossed by the lower Niger in a narrow valley. The broad western part of this belt resembles the wide stepped plains of the northern plateau, but east of the Niger the landscape is characteristically one of gentle slopes rising to eastward-facing scarps; the Udi scarp, with coals exposed near its base, overlooks the broad plains of the Cross river. Parts of this eastern section have the appearance of open downland, in places badly scarred by huge erosion gullies hundreds of feet deep. The southern margin is wooded, but the forest has been impoverished by periodic clearing to allow cultivation. The drier northern and western margins of the belt are covered with a derived savanna of grassland and fire-resistant trees which have replaced the forest as a result of grass fires after clearing.

The Niger and Benue valleys form a great lowland arc across The rivers and their tributaries are mostly sluggish and in broad open valleys, but whereas the Benue is (in the flood season) navigable to beyond the Cameroon frontier, rapids prevent navigation of the Niger above Jebba. The valleys tend to be opthe country.

pressive from the high humidity accompanying evaporation from

The vegetation is mainly savanna woodland. The northern plateau in its central part consists of broad, stepped plains known as the High plains of Hausaland. Covered with sa-

the rivers.

vanna parkland, which thins into scrub along the northern frontier, and with gallery forest following the watercourses, these plains were ideal for cavalry, and there the Hausa and Fulani kingdoms developed and flourished. The soils are superior to those farther south, where the combination of heavy rainfall with a long dry season forms a hard, lateritic surface crust. In the northeast the plains fall to about 600 ft. in the sandy basin of Bornu (q.v.), the northern part of which is marked by lines of old dunes. East of the Gongola river and south of the Chad basin the extinct volcanic plateau of Biu rises locally to over 3.000 ft. The Jos plateau forms the uppermost step of the

1

)

—Nigeria

can be divided into six relief rea low coastal belt which includes the Niger delta ( 2 ) an ;

High

plains

but may be distinguished by its high bounding scarp (more than 2,000 ft. in places) and by its bare grassland surface. It is also notable for its tin fields, for its many extinct volcanic cones and for the small pagan groups who took refuge there and who executed the impressive terrace farming of the surrounding scarp, particuThe abrupt descent of the rivers from larly in the southeast. the plateau to the surrounding plains has been utilized for hydroelectric

The

plateau. 2.

adjacent hilly belt, rising in places above 2,000 ft.; (3) the valleys of the Niger and the Benue, above their confluence at Lokoja, altitude 250-600 ft.; (4) the broad northern plateau, consisting of stepped plains at altitudes of 600-2.500 ft., with steep-sided insel-

power. lie almost entirely in the Cameroons, but Eastern Nigeria include the Sonkwala hills, They are forested on the lower slopes, but

eastern highlands

masses which exceed 6,000 outlying

hill

in ft.

}

NIGERIA

501 equator vary from lush rain forest in the south to arid thorn scrub in the far north.

The

coastal veg-

etation consists largely of species that also occur on

the Atlantic

shores of tropical America. Three

mangrove (Rhizophora) form extensive thickets and forests in brackish swamps; behind these, in fresh water, the species of red

swamp

forest is characterized by various trees with breathing roots, such as the raffia palms Raphia screw pines (Pandanus) and the valuable abura timber (Mitra(

gyna

,

ciliata).

The rain-forest region is honeycombed with villages and farms. In the best forests the largest trees are 120-200 ft. tall and 10-

They include 20 ft. in girth. valuable timbers such as African mahogany

{Khaya

ivorensis),

walnut {Lovoa trichilioides) gxiarta. (Guarea cedrata), African ,

sapele

^P CONTOURS

1000 FT.l

DOVER

5,000 FT.

e

FEOERAL CAPITAL REGIONAL CAPITALS

e

=

REGIONAL BOUNDARY

RAILWAY MAIN ROAD

POLITICAL REGIONS. PRINCIPAL TOWNS. COMMUNICATIONS AND PHYSICAL FEATURES OF NIGERIA

the upper slopes are grassed. 3.

Climate.

out, there are

(Entandropkragma

cylin-

dricum), iroko {Chlorophora ex{Triplochiton celsa), obeche scleroxylon) and opepe iSarcocephalus diderrichii). Smaller trees include ebonies (Diospyros), kola nut (Cola acuminata),

— Although Nigeria has a

marked

differences

(J. C.

Ph.)

tropical climate through-

between north and south.

The

south has more rain,

less defined seasons and generally lower daily temperature ranges. Most of southern Nigeria has a mean annual rainfall exceeding 60 in., occurring chiefly in a rainy season between early April and The rain is brought by storms traveling from east late October. to west and varying in frequency: heralded by towering cumulonimbus clouds which bring a brief burst of wind and rain, easing into an hour or two's drizzle from an overcast sky. Daily temperatures during this season range between 20° and 28° C. (69° and 83° F. and relative humidities between 75% and 98%. In the southwest there is a brief season in late July and August when practically no rain falls, although high humidities and hea\'y' cloud persist. From November to March is a dry season dominated by daily temperatures between 21° and 32° C. (70° and 90° F.), )

70% and plentiful afternoon cumulus cloud. Thunderstorms occur irregularly, especially in November and March, while on a few occasions between midDecember and mid-February the harmattan (q.v.) wind may reduce night temperatures below 18° C. (65° F.) and daytime relative humidity below 40%. Northern Nigeria's climate is dominated by a dry season from early October to early June. For much of this, daily temperatures range from 15° to 35° C. (60° to 95° F.) and the sky is cloudless. Under the influence of the dust-laden harmattan the air is hazy and relative humidity often falls below 10%. From March onward it grows steadily hotter, especially at night, when humidity increases as the rains approach. These arrive suddenly in heavy thunderstorms which lower temperatures to levels similar to those of southern Nigeria. The rains cease abruptly in late September or early October, and soon the dry season is again established. The climate of both southern and northern Nigeria is modified locally by highlands. The Jos plateau, for example, is cooler and wetter than its surroundings, and the eastern highlands cooler and wetter than the remainder of Eastern Nigeria. (B. J. Ga.) 4. 'Vegetation. Broad belts arranged roughly parallel to the relative humidities often exceeding

—

camwood {Pterocarpus and Baphm) and silk rubber (Funtu-

Silk-cotton trees (Ceiba) and kapok trees (Bombax) grow farmlands and secondary forest, where oil palms (Elaeis giiineensis) are abundant, especially in the east. Small plantations of edible kola nuts, cocoa and Para rubber are common in the west. Fallow farmland is soon covered by quick-growing trees and by dense tangles of climbing shrubs which become large lianas when Where tall grass inleft to grow up with the developing forest. vades the fallows, fierce fires occur almost every dry season, gradually killing the forest species. This happens especially near the northern, drier limit of the forest regions, where wide tracts have become degraded to a savanna type.

mia). in

The

rain-forest region reaches only

50-150 mi. inland.

The

rest

covered with a more open vegetation of tall grass and of deciduous, fire-resisting trees. At its best the vegetation consists of closed woodland 20-60 ft. tall, but fires and shifting cultivation have caused the trees to be usually rather widely spaced amid the grass. Belts of such savanna run right across northern Africa between the Sahara and the rain forest. In the moister savanna regions tussocky grass 5-12 ft. tall and broad-leaved hardwood trees predominate. In the more arid regions shorter, feathery of the country

is

gum

grass and fine-leaved thorny acacia trees, including

(A. Senegal), are widespread.

Narrow

strips of

more

arable

or less ever-

green forest vegetation fringe the rivers and streams in the sa-

vanna regions. Savanna trees are used mainly as fuel, for rough building poles and for their fruits. Fruit trees common in and around towns and villages are: locust bean (Parkia), shea tree (Butyrospermum parkil) ,hz.ohab (Adansonia digitata) and tamarind (Tamarindus). The fan palm Borassus the doum palm Hyphaene and species of Raphia occur in the savanna; the date palm (Phoenix dactylis found only in towns, but a wild relative. P. reclinata, is ifera (

)

,

(

)

)

common

along the streams.

the rainy season the savanna trees come into new leaf, often with vivid tints, fresh grass growls up from the burned ground and numerous bulbous monocotyledons blossom. During the rainy

With

season the grass grows apace and the tree canopy thickens. Toward the end of this season the grasses flower and with them many During the of the Compositae and other dicotyledonous herbs.

NIGERIA

502

dry season the grass is burned and the vegetation remains charred for a lew weeks. Most of the extreme north is covered by a drift of sand formed during arid periods in Quaternary times. The climate has since become moister and the sand has been stabilized by vegetation. But where such ground has been cleared of its natural vegetation the loose sand is easily blown about whence a belief that the Sahara is encroaching into Nigeria. In fact, the northern boundary of Nigeria is separated from the desert by a wide belt of thorn woodland.

than other Nigerians. Much variation in physique and pigmentation occurs in the more certainly Negro population: the darkest skins are in the Sudan savanna, where insolation is high, and in the humid and largely forested south are some conspicuously lightskinned populations, notably among the Edo and Ibo (qq.v.).

There is little montane vegetation: the best example (in Sonkwala. Ogoja province! has close atfinities with that of the mountains of eastern and southern tropical Africa and includes some typically European genera and species. The flora of the Jos plateau also has many affinities with that of east and south tropical

the

and bare

;

(R.

Africa. 5.

Animal

trial species:

Life.

— The high

forest zone

poor

W.

J.

K.)

in large terres-

the t\-pical hoofed animals are the duikers ("dwarf

antelopes) and the red river hog.

monkeys

is

About

sometimes

12 species of arboreal

numbers: chimpanzees are found locally in this zone. The two most notable primates, the gorilla and the drill, inhabit the dense forest and are largely terrestrial: their range extends into the Cross river area. The manatee and hippopotamus occur in the Niger and Benue rivers, as well as in some of the creek country. The pygmy hippopotamus once occurred in the Owerri area but its present status is live in the forest,

in

great

unknown. The bush cow is found close to rivers throughout most of Niand the sitatunga in the swamps of the coastal areas and around Lake Chad. The most important ungulates of the open country are kob. waterbuck, reedbuck, roan and western hartebeest. Three species of gazelle and the scimitar-horned oryx inhabit the driest zones, but the Nigerian giraffe is becoming increasingly scarce and the black rhinoceros has almost certainly disappeared. Elephants, too, have greatly decreased, though still found in some places; the status of other animals is threatened continuously by the steady expansion of farming everywhere. The lion and serval range through savanna woodlands north of the high forest, the cheetah and caracal in the Sudan savanna zone while the leopard is found in small numbers almost everywhere. The commonest carnivores are the mongooses, civets and genets. Hundreds of species of birds are common, including such tropical families as parrots, hornbills, touracos, barbets, weaverbirds and sunbirds. There are ostriches in the extreme north, together with several species of storks and bustards. The most plentiful game geria

birds are guinea fowl, francolins (bush fowl), green pigeons, ducks

and geese. Tsetse flies exclude domestic stock, except some poor sheep and goats, from the forest zone, but horses, donkeys, camels, cows and pigs, as well as numerous sheep and goats, are kept in the north. Reptiles are plentiful both in variety and number, with three species of crocodiles, several turtles and tortoises and many lizards and snakes. The most important snakes are black cobras, green mambas, giant vipers and pythons. Nigeria's rivers and creeks abound in amphibians and fish. Invertebrate life is rich and varied: many species have not yet been described. Butterflies and moths are numerous in forest areas and the massive migration of butterflies is seen in open country. Many species are of outstanding size. There are large scorpions, and the Goliath beetles are

among

the world's largest insects.

U.

(G. S. Ce.)

THE PEOPLE

More than 100 languages and dialect clusters (probably all using tone lexically) have been distinguished in Nigeria, but a mere four of them are the mother tongues of 60% of Nigerians: Hausa and Fulani

Most

in

the north,

Voruba

in the

west and Ibo in the east.

of the languages in Northern Nigeria, including

Hausa

Shuwa (who

pastoral

Lake Chad,

is

in

are nevertheless reported to be Negro) near

the Semitic branch.

central Saharan family.

Some

Kanuri belongs to the

of the fishing tribes along the Niger

speak a dialect of Songhai, a middle Niger language given the status of a separate family. All southern and some northern languages, including Fulani, belong to the Niger-Congo family (Greenberg's classification). English, the language of commerce and higher education, is widely spoken and understood.

The main cultural and religious contrasts follow the division of the various social systems into Islamic states, typically African states and tribal societies with no centralized political authority. contrasts are softening under modern conditions and Christian and Muslim proselytizing. Islam, introduced in the 14th century, is professed by 44"^ of the people and is supreme in Northern Nigeria, where Christian missions in Muslim areas are prohibited. .•\bout 34'

A Yoruba woman

'^'^-

in

Western Nigeria carrying her water pots

mmiifiirrTHr r r r r niE^pinininnpiii^niiii I

I

I

'

I

r

i

i

i

b ,

I

The Central Bank

of

Nigei

Independence Square. Lagos

Einniinniiniiiiiipinnin

—

NIGERIA as well as the religious life of the inhabitants, although

much pagan-

ism still survived. There was little intercourse between these northern peoples and the pagan tribes inhabiting the forest country to the south, and until Europeans visited the coast the only contacts of Nigeria with the outer world were with the eastern Sudan and, across the Sahara, with the Muslim states of north Africa. 1.

Bornu and the Hausa Lands.

—The principal peoples

in the

north were the Kanuri,.who occupied Bornu (g.v.). the Hausaspeaking tribes and the Fulani. The empire of Kanem, of which

Bornu was a province, by the end of the 1 1th century a.d. extended both east and west of Lake Chad and included the greater part of the Hausa lands. Toward the end of the 14th century the power of Kanem waned and the empire shrank until little was left of it except Bornu. Meanwhile, to the west of Bornu, the fortunes of the Hausa states rose and fell. These states, the most important of which were Kano. Zaria, Daura, Gobir and Katsina, had existed from an early date, each independent of the others, and often fighting for supremacy but joining from time to time in a loose confederacy for mutual defense. Conquered in turn by Kanem and by Askia the Great, king of Songhai (Sonrhai) early in the 16th century they retained their identities under native rulers who acknowledged the suzerainty of the conquerors. When the influence of Songhai declined and the Hausa states recovered their independence, they engaged again in internecine wars and were overrun at different times by the armies of Bornu or of Kebbi, a state to the west of the Hausa lands, which was of importance in

—

—

the 16th century.

Meanwhile, for several centuries, there had been a steady movement into the Hausa lands of a pastoral tribe, the Fulani (g.v.), of whose origin little is known. While most of the Fulani remained with their herds, moving from place to place in search of water and pasturage, a number drifted to the towns and mingled with the Hausa population. Their intelligence and ability quickly established these "town Fulani" in positions of influence. Such a position had been gained by Usuman (Othman) dan Fodio, a fanatical Fulani sheikh of great reputed sanctity who had

made

the pilgrimage to Mecca. When, about 1802, Usuman intervened on behalf of a number of Muslims who had been enslaved, the pagan king of Gobir ordered his arrest and Usuman roused his followers to revolt. Recognized as sarkin musulmi Ccommander of the Faithful), Usuman was supported by the Fulani and some of the Mushm Hausa and easily defeated the forces of the king of Gobir, later conquering all the Hausa lands in a triumphant jihad, which was directed against lax or lukewarm Muslims and pagans. Bornu. a Muslim state, was overrun in 1808 but quickly recovered its independence. Fulani amirs were appointed as rulers of the various states and the Fulani empire was established from Gando (Gandu) in the west to Adamawa in the east. Usuman was succeeded by his son Bello who, as sultan of Sokoto (q.v.), was recognized as sarkin musulmi and suzerain of all the Fulani emirates.

The courts and the systems of government and taxation, which were based on Koranic law in the Hausa states, were adapted with httle change by the new Fulani rulers, and for a time a high standard of justice and administration was maintained. However, gradually the courts became corrupt and the administration extortionate and tyrannical (amirs raiding neighbouring pagan tribes and sometimes even their own subjects to get slaves). This state of affairs continued until the British occupation of the country. When the Bornu armies were defeated by the Fulani in 1808 and the mai ("king") was forced to flee before the invaders, the country was saved by the miUtary skill of Lamino (Mohammed al-Amin al-Kanemi), a Muslim sheikh born in Fezzan of Arab and Kanem descent. With a small force of fanatical followers he defeated the Fulani in a number of battles and drove them from Bornu. He restored the mai to his throne and allowed him to continue as the titular ruler but retained all power to himself, governing the country wisely and well, with the title of shehu ("sheikh"), until his death in 1835. The puppet mai then attempted to recover his lost power but was defeated and killed by Omar, Lamino's son, who continued to rule Bornu with the title of shehu.

503

In 1893 Bornu was invaded by

Rabah Zubayr

(q.v.), with

an army better armed and disciplined than that of Bornu, which he completely defeated, making himself the ruler of Bornu. In 1900, however, Rabah was defeated and killed by the French, who were extending their control over the western Sudan. 2. The Coastal Tribes.— To the south of Bornu and the Hausa lands there were a large number of tribes having various origins and customs and speaking distinct languages. Of these the largest and most important were the Yoruba and the Beni or Bini (see Benin), who occupied what later became the Western region of Nigeria, and the Ibo, in what later became the Eastern region. The Ibo tribe was divided into several clans speaking different dialects and lacking any central organization. For this reason it has practically no known history and was of little importance until after the British occupation. The same could be said of the numerous small tribes which inhabited the forest area and the moun-

tainous areas of the north.

The Beni and Yoruba, on

the other hand, had long-established which at various times reached a much higher standard of organization and culture than the other purely Negro peoples. When the first Portuguese ships reached the Nigerian coast in the states

ISth century, the Beni had long been an important nation and the oba (king) of Benin was a powerful monarch whose authority extended over the Yoruba country and even farther west. Friendly intercourse and a certain amount of trade, mainly in slaves, were estabhshed between the Portuguese and the Beni, but the tribe gradually declined in power as the oba came under the influence of a theocracy of fetish priests who maintained authority by the terror created through wholesale human sacrifices. They discouraged contact with Europeans, trade dwindled, and by the beginning of the 18th century Benin had lost influence. In the meantime the Yoruba tribe had risen in importance. Little is known of their origin, but they supposedly came from the northeast and perhaps from upper Egypt. The first settlement of the Yoruba in Western Nigeria was probably at Ife (q.v.) which was to remain the spiritual headquarters of the race. The alafin of Oyo was originally the ruler of the whole tribe, but about 1810 the breakup of his kingdom began, each clan, under its own king, becoming practically independent although the nominal suzerainty of the alafin continued to be recognized. The country was greatly weakened and suffered from repeated invasions from Dahomey, while the northern province of Ilorin (q.v.) fell to the Fulani from the north. The different clans Oyo, Egba, Ife, Ijebu and others became involved in internecine wars, the prisoners being sold at Lagos as slaves. 3. The Slave Trade.— Traffic in slaves begun by the Portuguese proved so lucrative that other nations were soon in compe,

—

tition

and the slave ships

the Guinea coast.

of several

European nations flocked

to

British ships were visiting the coast of Nigeria

by the 1 7th century. Much of the trade was with minor chiefs and tribes in the Niger delta and on the banks of other rivers, the slaves being obtained by these middlemen from the interior. Most of the slaves were prisoners of war or criminals, or were more brutally obtained by organized raids. In many cases payment was made for them by the European traders in potable spirits, arms and ammunition, which encouraged intertribal warfare and further debased an already barbarous people. Throughout the long period of unrestricted slave trade no European nation attempted to bring any part of Nigeria under its control. Feeling in Great Britain against the horrors of the slave trade resulted in the passing of an act in 1807 making the trade illegal for British subjects, but the trade was scarcely affected as ships of other nations continued to carry cargoes of slaves across the Atlantic. A British naval squadron was then stationed on the west African coast to intercept the slavers. British merchant ships

continued to

and the

Nigerian rivers and began oil and other products. This fact squadron greatly increased British

visit the estuaries of the

a legitimate trade, buying

palm

activities of the naval

among the Exploration

influence

coastal tribes.

—

At that time little was known of the interior was not even appreciated that the numerous streams of the Niger delta were in fact the mouths of a great river. 4.

of Africa

and

it

NIGERIA

504-

Existence of such a river had long been known, but its general diand outlet were matters for speculation. Several explorers failed before Mungo Park, in 1796, established the fact that the general course of the upper Niger was easterly. Park lost his life at the end of 1805 or early in 1S06 in an attempt to follow up his first discovery. It was not until 1S30 that the brothers Richard and John Lander ascertained that the Niger flowed into the Gulf rection

number

of European companies also began to trade on the Niger, but several of their ships were attacked and some of their trading and destroyed by the riverain tribes. In 1879 George Goldie-Taubman later known as Sir George Goldie, g.v.), who was interested in one of the companies, arranged a merger of

stations were looted

(

all

the British firms trading

was able

to

buy out the

on the Niger; and a few years later he French companies. Treaties were

rival

of Guinea, through the delta which had been known to Europeans {See Nicer River.) for more than 300 years. Other explorers reached northern Nigeria by traveling across the Sahara from Tripoli. In \S2i Dixon Denham and Hugh Clapperton (qq.v.) reached Bornu, where they were received by the mai and by the shehu Lamino. They then visited Sokoto and met Sultan Bello, returning safely to England in 1825. Clapperton died near Sokoto in 1827 on a second journey made from the Bight of Benin. Another extensive exploration was carried out by the German Heinrich Barth (g.i'. on behalf of the British government. He crossed the Sahara in 1850, visited Bornu and the Hausa lands

made with

and returned safely across the desert in 1855. Meanwhile an attempt had been made to follow up the discovery of the Lander brothers by a trading venture on the Niger to pro-

Rivers area, and courts of equity, composed of the leading African and European traders on the different rivers, had been established. In 1872 an order of the queen in council had regularized the judicial and administrative position of the consul, but he had for a time In 1887, however. Chief little means of enforcing his authority. Jaja of Opobo was removed and deported in consequence of his interference with trade and defiance of the consul. In 1891 a commissioner and consul general was appointed to the Oil Rivers, with his headquarters at Calabar, and in 1893 the territory was renamed the Niger Coast protectorate. 6. The Royal Niger Company. In 1886 a royal charter was granted to the company organized by Sir George^ Goldie. which later was called the Royal Niger Company. Chartered and Limited. The company was authorized to administer the delta and the country on the banks of the Niger and the Benue together with the hinterland but was forbidden to establish any monopoly of trade. The company at once set up courts of justice and the usual administrative services and raised an armed constabulary. Most of the Fulani empire was beyond its control; but in 1897. after a short campaign, the company's troops were able to subdue Ilorin and Nupe and to compel the amirs of these states to abandon slave

)

vide an alternative to the slave trade.

A company

w-as

formed by

a Liverpool merchant, Macgregor Laird (q.v.), who went in 1832 with two small steamers to a point above Lokoja, but disease decimated the crews and the expedition was abandoned. In 1S41 a large party, including missionaries, was sent by the British government in four ships, under the command of naval officers, to explore the Niger and to try to make treaties for stopping the slave In two months there were 48 deaths out number of others became It was not this enterprise also was abandoned. single ship, commanded by W. B. Baikie ig.v.), trade.

in the ships, while a

of 145

Europeans ill. and

seriously

until 1854 that a with a crew composed largely of Africans, was able to explore the Niger and the Benue and to do a certain amount of successful trading without any loss of life, the success resulting from the prophylactic use

of quinine.

The Beginnings

—

of British Rule. By that time the trade which the coastal Africans found remunerative, had greatly increased, while the slave trade declined in the Niger delta and on the Oil rivers to the east of it, although it was not until about 1840 that slave ships stopped visiting these rivers. To assist legitimate trade it was decided in 1849 to appoint a British consul for the Bights of Biafra and Benin, with his headquarters at Fernando Po. Selected for this post was John Beecroft, who had resided at Fernando Po for many years as superintendent of the 5.

in

palm

oil,

naval base there. Beecroft was soon engaged in negotiations with King Kosoko of Lagos, then the principal port in west Africa from which slaves were shipped, with a view to stopping the trade; but these were unsuccessful, and in 1851 the town was attacked by a naval force and captured after heavy fighting. Kosoko fled, and his uncle Akitoye, the legitimate ruler, was placed on the throne and signed a treaty providing for the abolition of the slave trade and of human sacrifice and for the protection of missionaries. A British consul was appointed to Lagos with the king's consent. In 1861, as Akitoye's successor Dosumu appeared unable to govern effectively or to prevent the revival of the slave trade, he was required to sign a treaty ceding his possessions to the British crown

and Lagos was annexed as a British colony. a time the existence of this colony, which effectively stopped the slave trade and provided a haven for runaway slaves, was in return for a pension,

For

strongly resented by the Yoruba in the hinterland of Lagos and especially by the Egba, who closed the trade routes and expelled all missionaries and European traders. At a later date, however. British influence increased in the

Yoruba country through

the efforts

of the governor of Lagos to bring to an end the civil wars which

had raged for so many years among the Yoruba. In 1888 a treaty with the alafin of Oyo placed the whole of the Yoruba country imder British protection. After his successful voyage in 1854 Baikie had established himself at Lokoja under the protection of the emir of Nupe and maintained his more or less official settlement from trading profits. A

the chiefs of tribes inhabiting the banks of the Niger

and the Benue and with the Fulani sultan of Sokoto, and at the Berlin conference of 1885 it was possible to claim that British interests were supreme on the Niger and the Oil rivers. This claim was admitted by the conference and a British protectorate was then declared over the Niger districts, which included the Oil Rivers area and the hinterland. Notwithstanding the proclamation of this protectorate, the British government was reluctant to incur additional expenditure on In the south, the the proper administration of the territories. vague authority of the consul had gradually increased in the Oil

—

company. Meanwhile, on the coast, the people of Brass, who were included except on payment in the Niger Coast protectorate and excluded of prohibitive dues from trading in their former markets on the Niger which lay within the company's territory, became increasingly hostile. In 1895 they raided the company's establishment at Akassa. killing many of the African employees of the company and carrying off others as prisoners, some of these being killed and eaten. This outrage was punished by a naval force. 7. Benin. Another naval force, assisted by the protectorate constabulary, had captured 1894) Brohemie. on the Benin river, the headquarters of the Jekri chief Nana, who had traded in slaves extensively. Nana was captured, tried and deported. The principal centre of the slave trade in the Niger Coast protectorate was then the city of Benin, which was also notorious for wholesale human sacrifices. King Overami of Benin had failed to implement a treaty he had signed in 1892 for the abolition of human sacrifice and of the slave trade, and the acting consul general, J. R. Phillips, suggested that he should visit Benin to discuss the matter. The king replied that he would be willing to receive Phillips in a few months' time, but Phillips was not prepared to wait and decided, in spite of warnings, to go at once to Benin. He so informed the king, assuring him that his party would be unarmed in reply Overami promised to send guides to meet the party. On Jan, 3. 1897, Phillips and his party landed at Gwato, where a friendly welcome was received through messengers sent by the king. The next day the party started for Benin and within a few hours it was attacked and massacred, only two of the Europeans, badly wounded, and a few Africans escaping. Phillips and 6 of his European companions and more than 200 Africans perished. A naval force was at once sent to the Benin river, and sailors and marines, with troops of the protectorate constabulary, captured Benin after severe fighting, about six weeks after the massacre. raiding and recognize the suzerainty of the

(

)

—

(

;

NIGERIA The

Benin when

was entered by the British justified its being styled "the City of Blood." Everywhere there were altars covered with human blood, bodies crucified on trees and other remains of innumerable human sacrifices. After a judicial inquiry, those who were directly responsible for the massacre were executed and Overami was deported. 8. Northern and Southern Nigeria. The whole of the southern part of Nigeria was then more or less under control and company's the successes against Nupe and Ilorin had strengthened its position in the north. There were, however, international difficulties. On the western frontier, disputes with France which were to be embittered in 1S9S by the Fashoda crisis at the opposite end of the Sudan) nearly led to war, and an imperial force state of

it

—

(

of African soldiers with British officers, the

West African Frontier

was raised in 1897 and placed under the command of Frederick Lugard (see Lug.ard, Frederick John Dealtry Lugard, 1st Baron). For a time the situation was critical, but the dispute was finally settled without fighting. {See Borgu.) These international difficulties and the complaint of the Brass people against the Royal Niger company led to the revocation of the company's charter, the British government assuming direct control of the company's territories on Jan. 1, 1900. The land in the delta and along the lower reaches of the Niger, which had been included in the company's territories, was added to the Niger Coast On May 1, protectorate, which was renamed Southern Nigeria. 1906, the Lagos territories were amalgamated with Southern Nigeria, the whole country being styled the Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria, with Lagos as the seat of government. The northern part of the company's territories became the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, with Lugard as the first high comforce,

missioner.

The Fulani emirates

still

retained their independence,

and slave raiding continued; but the principal slave raiders, the amirs of Kontagora, Nupe and Adamawa, were removed from office in 1901, and Bauchi and Bornu were brought under control the following year. The sultan of Sokoto refused friendly overtures. In spite of this the British administration was steadily extended, and a small garrison was stationed at Zaria. As the amir of Kano threatened to attack this garrison and refused to surrender the murderer of a British official, a force of about 700 African soldiers, with British ofincers, advanced against the mud-walled city of Kano, which was taken with little difficulty on Feb. 3, 1903. There was subsequently severe fighting against the main Kano army and the army of the sultan of Sokoto, who fled before the battle. Sokoto was then occupied, and the chiefs nominated a new sultan, whose appointment was approved by the high commissioner. The sultan and amirs who accepted British rule were installed with full ceremonial after agreeing to abolish slave raiding and to be guided by the advice of British officials. In return they were promised their religion would not be interfered with and that the Most of these existing system of Muslim law would be retained. amirs remained loyal and proved efficient administrators under British supervision.

A rising of a few fanatics against the sultan of Sokoto in 1906 was suppressed by protectorate troops, and there was some fighting against the pagan tribes who resisted the enforcement of law; otherwise there was little serious trouble, and British administration was quickly made effective throughout Northern Nigeria. Slave raiding was suppressed and the legal status of slavery was abolished, although many slaves remained voluntarily with their

505

Aug. 1914, World War I broke out, and Nigerian forces were soon in action against German troops in the Kamerun (see Cameroons). After some initial reverses on the

Seven months

later, in

combined Franco-British invasion of the Cameroons by the beginning of 1916. In 1922 a small part of the Cameroons was mandated by the League of Nations to the United Kingdom and was attached for purposes of administration to Nigeria. (The mandate was replaced in 1947 by a trusteeship agreement with the United Nations.) Before the end of the war Nigerian soldiers had also taken part in the fighting frontier, a

resulted in the conquest of the country

in east Africa.

In recognition of the gallantry and discipline of the west African

became their colonel-in-chief, and their title was Royal West African Frontier force afterward the Queen's Own Nigeria regiment). Throughout the war the loyalty of the Nigerians was generally quite marked, chiefs and people alike helping in every way. The same must be said of them in troops the king

altered

to

World War

(

when Nigerian troops served in east Africa against Burma against the Japanese. 10. Constitutional Changes. Following the amalgamation of 1914 and particularly after the end of World War II, there were a number of territorial and constitutional changes in Nigeria. In II,

the Italians and in

—

1914 the country was divided into three main areas, namely the Colony of Nigeria corresponding to the former Colony of Lagos) and two groups of provinces in the protectorate, the Northern and (

Southern provinces. The Southern provinces were later di\aded into two groups, the Eastern and the Western provinces. In 1951 these groups of provinces were officially renamed as the Northern, Eastern and Western regions.

In 1914 a legislative council for the colony alone had been set beyond its purview, but in 1923 was established which for the first time included a limited number of elected members, A radical change was made in the constitution of Nigeria in 1947. Houses of assembly for the three groups of provinces were set up, up, affairs of the protectorate being

a larger legislativ'e council

and there was also a house of chiefs for the Northern provinces. In each of the houses of assembly nonofficial members were in a majority over ex officio members. In addition there was a central legislative council for the whole of Nigeria, and in this body also there was a nonofficial majority. Public opinion was still not satisfied, and a quasi-federal constitution, introduced in 1951, provided for a central legislative house of representatives. Resulting friction between central and regional legislatures caused the introduction of yet another constitution

(the third in eight years) in 1954.

This set up the Federation

of Nigeria, comprising the Northern, Eastern the Southern

Cameroons (part

and Western regions, and the

of the trust territory)

Federal Territory of Lagos, The office of federal prime minister was created in Aug, 1957 the post being filled by Alhaji Abubakar Tafawa Balewa as a result of the constitution conference of 19575S, and full internal self-government was achieved by the Eastern and Western regions in 1957 and by the Northern in 1959. It was agreed that Nigeria would welcome the Southern Cameroons as a self-governing part of the federation. The British government then announced its willingness to grant independence to the federation on Oct. 1, 1960, and on the request of the Nigerian federal legislature this undertaking was implemented by the United King(

)

dom

May

On 31, 1961, the northern part of the trust territory joined the federation as part of the

parliament.

masters.

Cameroons

In the administration of Northern Nigeria, Lugard used the indigenous authorities, the amirs and other chiefs, in what became known as indirect rule. The native administrations had their own treasuries and received a proportion of the tax. Prevented by supervision from relapsing into past corrupt practices they proved to be capable of efficient local government. 9. The Amalgamation of Nigeria. Lugard ceased to be high commissioner in 1906 but returned to Nigeria in 1912 as governor both of Northern and Southern Nigeria, charged with the duty of amalgamating the two territories. This amalgamation was effected on Jan. 1, 1914, the whole country being known thereafter as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.

Northern region. Southern Cameroons united with Cameroun on Oct. 1, 1961, to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon. In May 1962 a political crisis in Western Nigeria led to the suspension of parliamentary government there; it was, however, restored at the end of the year. On Oct. 1, 1963, Nigeria became a republic, the post of governor being replaced by that of president.

—

(A. C. Bs.)

IV.

POPULATION

The census conducted in 1952-53, the second to be held in Nigeria (the first was in 1931), gave the total population as 29,In 1960 it was estimated at 35,091,000. The results 730,879.

NIGERIA

5o6

of the 1962 census were nullified and, according to the 1963 census, the total population was 55.653,821.

The

uneven, with marked concentrations in each of the three regions. Densities of 300-500 persons per square mile exist in the Ibadan and Oyo provinces of Western Nigeria and in the Kano and Katsina provinces of Northern Nigeria, where secondarj- concentrations also occur in Sokoto and Kabba provinces. In Eastern Nigeria considerable areas of Onitsha and Owerri provinces average SOO-1,000 per square mile and within these are probably the highest densities in tropical Africa. Over most of the middle belt of central Nigeria densities are less than 50 per square mile and large areas are virtually uninhabited. About 10% of the population is urban. Most of the largest cities are in the Yoruba country; they include Ibadan (capital of Western Nigeria), Lagos (the federal capital), Ogbomosho, Oshogbo, Ife, Iwo and Oyo. In Eastern Nigeria there are few large towns; they include Onitsha and the regional capital Enugu. Principal towns in Northern Nigeria are Kano, Sokoto and the regional capital Kaduna. (X.) distribution

is

ADMINISTRATION AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS

V.

—The

Constitution and Government struments that came into force on Oct. 1.

constitutional in-

1, 1963, provided for a federal republic consisting of the Federal Territory of Lagos and the regions of Northern, Western, Eastern and Mid-West Nigeria

(gq.v.)

The constitution sanctioned the establishregions and the alteration of regional boundaries.

{see Table).

ment of further

Regional governments may execute and maintain their own constitutions and make laws within the region, but not so as to prejudice federal

authority.

The Mid-West

region

was constituted

in

1963.

The head

of state is a nonexecutive president elected to office for The federal government includes the council of ministhe senate and the house of representatives, the last two forming the federal parliament. The council of ministers consists of a federal prime minister and a number of ministers who may

five years. ters,

either hold portfolios or be ministers of state attached to ministries.

Cabinet meetings are presided over by the prime minister, policy. The prime minister is appointed

and the council decides

...

.

,

,„

and

The house of representatives consisted (1963) of 312 members elected for five years by full adult secret ballot, except in Northern Nigeria, where only males may vote. The house is presided over appointed from among its members. The senate members; 12 from each region, 4 from Lagos and 4 selected by the president on the advice of the prime minister. Bills must be passed by both houses before being sent to the Bills may originate in either house, except president for assent. that the senate may not originate money bills and has limited delaying powers over other bills. The exclusive jurisdiction of the

by

a speaker

consisted of 56

federal

government embraces archives, aviation, external borrow-

ing, control of capital issues, currency, defense, external affairs,

immigration, maritime shipping and naNigation, mines and minmuseums, armed forces, telecommunications, trunk roads, railways and certain institutes of higher education. Each region is subdivided into pro\inces (see Table), has its own constitution and has a bicameral legislature consisting of an elected house of assembly and a nominated house of chiefs. An individual cannot be a member of a regional house and of the house of representatives. Each region has a premier and ministers and each parliament functions similarly to the federal parliament, except that bills receive assent from the regional governor. Regional authority extends over a "concurrent list" of matters which may have extraregional application and also over health, education, local government and development, local taxation and regional and local administration. Local authorities are in turn responsible for many social and economic services from which they derive revenue. Northern Nigeria's provincial government is based on former traditional local authorities (rulers and their courts) but the elecIn the other regions tive principle is gradually being introduced. native authorities have been largely replaced by local elected counerals,

The traditional chiefs are usually cils based on English models. presidents of their local councils and are thus integrated into the system. The municipality of Lagos and other large towns (Ibadan, Enugu, Onitsha, Port Harcourt,

by

etc.) are elected

....

Ntgena: Area and Population* '^ Political

by the president from the majority party in the house of representatives; members of the council are appointed on the advice of the prime minister.

adult suffrage.

Civil-service functions are perr j u a; i. who are conformed by officials trolled by regional public-service commissions, which are constitu•

i

nonpolitical

established

tionally

bodies

empowered

promote and

appoint,

to

public-

discipline

service officials. Political

—The

Parties.-

main

Northern Peoples' (N.P.C.), based on

parties are the

Congress Northern

Nigeria;

the

Action

(A.G.) and the United People's party (U.P.P.) based on Yoruba-speaking Western Nigeria; and the National Conven-

Group

,

tion of Nigerian Citizens (N.C.N.C, formerly the National Convention of Nigeria and the Cameroons), based on Ibo-domi-

The nated Eastern Nigeria. N.P.C. and the A.G. were formed the late 1940s but the N.C.N.C. dates back to 1937

in

when its founder, Nnamdi Azikiwe, joined forces with Herbert Macaulay, "the father of Nigerian nationahsm." The U.P.P. was formed in 1962 following a split in the 2. is

A.G.

Taxation.

—Most

revenue

derived from import and ex-

port duties, affecting the prices of

NIGERIA from 1961 new scales of diAnyone rect tax included many income earners hitherto exempt. with a deducible income became liable to pay a fixed rate of up to £N3 on incomes up to iN300, above which tax was levied on a graduated scale of up to ISs. in the pound. This had the effect of including women trading in their own right and the small farmers dependent on the sale of export produce. Conditions. These vary considerably between 3. Living town and country. Major projects operate in the larger towns to clear congested areas, but the heavy expenditure involved and the drift of people from the rural areas retard efforts to raise living standards and to provide full employment. In rural areas there is a gradual provision of clinics and maternity centres but little change in the basic pattern of life. Contrasts range from modern air-conditioned residences of towns and villages served by electricity to mud-built villages in forest or rocky plateau. Health. The general level of health and the eradication of dis-

consumer goods and

living costs; but

—

institutes

507 and regional governments conduct mass literacy cam-

paigns to reach the older generations. To fill the many vacancies for Nigerians in the professional and technical spheres, governments award numerous scholarships, tenable inside Nigeria and overseas in subjects ranging from architecture to zoology. Such scholarships normally entail an obligation to accept government service for five years on qualifying.

tals

Within Nigeria the University college, Ibadan, was opened in Attached to it is a teaching hospital providing training for doctors and nurses to degree standards. The college was associated with the University of London but in 1963 it became an independent university, awarding its own degrees. The University of Nigeria was opened in 1960 at Nsukka, Eastern Nigeria, and the University of Ife in Western Nigeria was founded in the following year. In 1962 the federal government opened the University of Lagos, and Northern Nigeria established the Ahmadu Bello university at Zaria, By 1970 the university population was scheduled to reach 10,000, The new universities absorbed the branches at Zaria, Enugu and Ibadan of the Nigerian College of Arts, Science and Technology, which had degree courses in engineering and professional subjects. Within the federation there are about 25 pubhc

in all areas.

libraries controlling a stock of

—

ease pose formidable problems, as the ratio of doctors to population is only about 1 :3S.OOO. Nevertheless, by the 1960s curative and preventive services were making headway through new hospi-

and the building of dispensaries, maternity homes and clinics There are localized campaigns to eradicate malaria, sleeping sickness, river blindness and other major tropical diseases, with help of units of the World Health organization and of the United Nations Children's fund, and local preventive campaigns against smallpox, yaws and tuberculosis. Health education occupies a prominent place in planning,

—

4. Trade Unions. Development of trade unions is officially encouraged to harmonize employer-worker relations, but most existing unions have been formed as groups of employees within a Most specific firm or organization and not on the basis of trades. unions are affiliated to the United Labour congress. By the early 1960s there were 400 trade unions with 200,000 members, 5.

Justice.

—The

federal

sessing original jurisdiction

supreme court is the highest, posand appellate functions; it consists of

1948.

350,000 volumes. Defense. The Nigerian army, formerly the Nigeria regiment of the Royal West African Frontier force, became a separate

—

7.

command

as the Nigerian Military forces in 1956,

tion of the republic

nals

rights.

—

The Nigeria police is responsible for maintaining law and order and consists of about 14,000 officers and men, with a few women police. Former local authority police forces have been brought under the control of the Nigerian police, 6. Education. Schooling was brought to Nigeria by the Christian missions, and most leading personalities of modern Nigeria (except Muslims) were educated in mission schools. In the early 1960s these schools provided over 50% of the primary and secondary education in the country. They receive government grants-inaid, and it is official policy for governments to take the controlling Police.

—

part in the educational system.

Universal primary education for children from the age of six years was introduced into Western Nigeria in 19S5 and into the federal capital of Lagos and Eastern Nigeria in 1957. By the early 1960s there were about 16,000 primary schools with 3,000,000 pupils. But of these only about 250,000 pupils were in Northern Nigeria, where universal primary education was confined to an area of Kano authority, though it was hoped that by 1970 at least

50%

of

all

children of school age in Northern Nigeria would be at

school.

During the same period there were about 290 secondary gramschools with 50,000 pupils, while Western Nigeria had in addition 420 secondary modern schools with about 65,000 pupils. Teacher-training institutions exceeded 300 with about 27,000 students (one-third of them women) and vocational and technical institutes numbered 44 with 8,000 students. The normal primary course is six years and the grammar school and technical courses are from four years. Evening classes are held at many technical

mar

the declaraIts

and normal administrative services. There are an officerand a boys' company. The army has a list of battle

training school

honours dating back to the Ashanti Wars of the 19th century and which include the Burma campaigns of World War II. The Royal Nigerian navy, established as the Nigerian Naval force in 1958, consists of a frigate and a number of patrol vessels based on Lagos. A Nigerian air force was created in the early 1960s. (W. H. I.) VI.

and the chief justice of each region.

human

On

was redesignated the Nigerian army.

strength of about 7,000 comprises five battalions of the Queen's Own Nigeria regiment, a reconnaissance squadron, engineers, sig-

the chief justice of the federation, at least three federal justices

Each region, including Lagos, has a high court of justice comprising a chief justice and six regional judges (five in Lagos). Power to appoint officers in the judiciary rests with the president in each region. Customary courts (and Muslim courts in Northern Nigeria) exist alongside magistrates' courts presided over by qualified lawyers. The constitution contains entrenched clauses safeguarding fundamental

it

1.

Production.

— Like

THE ECONOMY other countries of tropical Africa. Ni-

dependent upon primary production. The economy is based on agriculture and likely to remain so 80% of the working population is directly engaged in agriculture. Subsistence agriculture is still important in many parts but is being progressively modified by increasing internal trade and by expanding production for export. Agriculture is almost entirely small scale. Farmers cultivate on an average three to four acres, but total land requirements geria

is

;

are greater to allow for fallow periods to restore fertility.

Staple

food crops are roots (yams and cassava) in the south and cereals (guinea corn and millets) in the north, with a considerable overlap of these crops in the central parts. Trypanosomiasis restricts livestock (particularly cattle) to the northern part of Nigeria, Major cash crops for export are cocoa, oil palm products and rubber in the south and peanuts and cotton in the north, Nigeria makes a substantial contribution to world trade in some of these products. From the southern parts of the country hardwood timbers (obeche, abura, sapele) are exported, this trade having increased markedly since World War II, Geological surveys for Nigeria are incomplete, but the mineral deposits are not rich. Tin and columbite are mined chiefly on the Jos plateau and poorquality coal is mined near Enugu, Oil in commercial quantities was found in the Niger delta in 1959, and thereafter production expanded rapidly. There is much low-grade iron ore. Electric power generation is from petroleum, natural gas, coal or timber fuel. Some hydroelectric power is generated on the Jos plateau and there is a project for a Niger dam at Kainji, upstream from Jebba. Industrial development is restricted mainly to secondary industry and includes textile manufacture, oilseed crushing, sawmilling and the production of soap, margarine, plywood and furniture, the canning of meat and fruit, brewing and the manufacture of soft drinks and cigarettes, light metal fabrication, the assembly of automobiles and trucks, the manufacture of tires and cement production.

Fish

is

an important source of protein and more than ISO vari-

NIGER RIVER

5o8 eties are

found

and creeks.

in Nigeria's rivers, lagoons

Journal of an Expedition to Explore the Course and Continuation of the Niger, 2 vol. (1832) H Barth, Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa, 5 vol. 1857- 58 new ed,, 2 vol., 1890) Lady Lugard F. J. D. Lugard, The (Flora Shaw). A Tropical Dependency (1905) Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa (1922); Stephen Gwynn, Mungo Park and the Quest of the Niger (1934); Thomas Hodgkin, Nigerian Perspectives (1960) J. E. Flint, Sir George Goldie and the Making of Nigeria ( 1960) Margery Perham, Lugard: the Years of Authority, 1898-194! (1956-60) M. Crowder, The Story of Nigeria (1962). C. D. Forde and R. Scott, Native Economies of Nigeria (1946) International Bank, Economic Development of Nigeria (1955); National Economic Council, An Economic Survey of Nigeria, 1959 (1960) FedCurrent history eral Office of Statistics, Annual Abstract of Statistics. and statistics arc summarized annually in Britannica Book of the Year,

Bonga nets

are used along the coasts and commercial trawlers, based at Lagos, conduct sea fishing. Development of local inland and sea fisheries

;

;

(

;

;

is

encouraged by federal and regional authorities. 2.

Trade and Finance.

— Internal trade

is

chiefly in foodstuffs,

palm oil, kola nuts and dried fish. Cattle brought on the hoof from the north provide limited supplies of meat in southern Nigeria. particularly food staples,

;

;

;

;

chief Nigerian imports in order of value are cotton piece goods, manufactured items, machinery, foodstuffs, chemicals and fuels; nearly half come from the U.K. About two-thirds of exports

The

by value are made up by palm

oil

;

and kernels, cocoa, peanuts and

NIGER RIVER,

peanut oil; other leading exports are cotton, rubber, timber, tin, The U.K. takes the petroleum, hides and skins, and bananas. largest share of Nigerian exports, followed by the Netherlands, During United States. and the of Germany Republic the Federal the years immediately before and after independence, imports increased mainly through increased spending on capital equipment, while the low world prices for primary products failed to bring a corresponding increase in export income. Agricultural exports are controlled by statutory marketing boards which use their reserves to subsidize producer prices

and

to finance research

Congo, drains an area of about 580,000 sq.mi. Apart from its Niger (probably from the Latin niger, "black," though possibly from the Berber n'eghiren, "stream") it is also known in its upper section by the Mandingo name Djoliba (Joliba), meaning "the great big river," and as the Kworra (Quorra, Kovarra The latter names were more or Kwara) farther downstream.

common name

and develop-

ment. of Nigeria is the bank of issue and the curbased on the Nigerian pound (£N), linked at par with sterling by statute. General banking facilities are provided by both foreign and Nigerian banks. There is a stock exchange at Lagos. Revenue is derived from import and export duties and from income A proportion of the total is tax collected on a regional basis. allocated to the regions and the remainder retained by the federal government. More than ilOO.000,000 ($280,000,000) was spent on capital development during 195S-62. derived partly from a loan from the World bank and partly from the United Kingdom Colonial Development and Welfare fund. Further economic expansion under the National Development plan for 1962-68 provided for an expenditure of £N676,500,000, of which about 60% was to be capiAbout half the total was to be raised from foreign tal expenditure.

The Central Bank

rency

is

loans and grants. 3.

Communications.

—Railways, mainly of

3 ft. 6 in.

gauge and

single tracked, run inland over a total distance of about 2,500 mi,

from Lagos and Port Harcourt to Kaduna, Jos and Kano, with at Kaura Namoda, Nguru and (by 1964) YerwaMaiduguri. The road network covers about 40,000 mi. but only about 5.000 mi. are tarred and some routes are impassable during the wet season. Human porterage and animal transport are still important. Kano has for centuries been a great market and a focus of caravan routes from the Sahara and the Sudan. Navigation on both the Niger below Jebba and on the Benue is restricted to flood periods. Lagos (Apapa) and Port Harcourt are the chief ports. The Nigerian National line, formed in 1959 with Nigerian interests railheads

is one of about 30 shipping Lines providing regular services between Nigeria and other parts of the world.

as majority shareholders,

International air sernces from Lagos and Kano are scheduled by several companies, including Nigeria Airways, the national airline, which also maintains internal serWces. Radio broadcasting in(

conducted by federal and regional corporaThe newspaper press is the most highly developed in west tions. Africa. See also references under "Nigeria" in the Index. cluding television)

is

(R. M. P.) K. M. Buchanan and J, C. Pugh, Land and People (1955); C. T. Quinn-Young and T. Herdman, Geography R. W. J. Keay, An Outline of Nigerian of Nigeria, 4th rev. ed. (1954) Vegetation, 2nd ed. (1953); D. R. Rosevear, Checklist and Atlas of Nigerian Mammals (1953); P. J. Bohannan, Justice and Judgement Among the Tiv (1957) J. S. Coleman, Nigeria: Background to Nationalism (195S) K. O. Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 1S301SS5 (1956); C. D. Forde (ed.). Efik Traders of Old Calabar (1957); M. M. Green, [bo Village Affairs (1948) J. H. Greenberg, Studies in African Linguistic Classifications (1955); International .African Institute, Handbook of African Languages, part 2: Languages of Western Africa 1952) M. G. Smith, Government in Zazzau, lSOO-1950 (1960) G. Parrinder, West African Religion (1949) P. A. Talbot, The Peoples Bibliography.

—

in Nigeria

;

;

;

;

(

;

;

;

of Southern Nigeria, 4 vol. (1926). in

D. Denham and H. Clapperton, Narratives of Travels and Discoveries Northern and Central Africa. 2 vol., 3rd ed. (1828) R. and J. Lander, ;

the greatest river of west Africa and the and the

third longest of the continent (2,600 mi,) after the Nile

widely in use during the 19th century. The headwater streams of the Niger rise in the Fouta Djalon plateau in the Republic of Guinea near the frontier with Sierra Leone, at an altitude of about 2,500 ft, and less than 200 mi. from the Atlantic ocean. This area is referred to by the French as the "chateau d'eau" since it also has the sources of the Senegal and Gambia rivers and several streams that flow southwest and south. Much of the area traversed by the Niger in its long course to the sea in the Bight of Benin

is

composed

of old crystalline rocks.

however, because of recent earth movements, changes in climate and river capture, exhibits many features of youthful development. Its profile is broken with stretches of falls and rapids and with fast-flowing water in narrow sections alternating with broad, open valley sections with a slow-moving stream. In width the river varies from a few hundred feet to a maximum of nearly two miles at the confluence of the Benue. From its source the Niger flows in a general northeasterly direction through Mali toward the Sahara, and then turns in a great bend immediately below Tombouctou to flow to the east and southeast at Bourem, across the Republic of Niger and into Nigeria as far as the Benue confluence, and from there southward to the These changes in direction are in part the result of two sea. river systems which were originally distinct from one another. The upper section of the Niger at one time flowed out through the Senegal river and at a later stage terminated in a system of lakes, swamps and channels, the remnants of which now form the "inland delta" between Segou and Tombouctou. This was joined in the Quaternary^ era to the present middle and lower sections of the river whose headwaters were at one time in the now arid regions of the Sahara. During and after the wet season floodwaters spread out in the "inland delta" to cover an area the size of England and Wales. In this section the Niger receives a major tribuWindblown accumulatary, the Bani, which joins it at Mopti. tions of sand from the Sahara impede the flow of the river in the

The

river,

Tombouctou causing a progressive diversion of the course southward, and at Gao dry beds on the left bank of the river are evidence of former courses. Downstream from Tombouctou until it enters Nigeria the Niger receives few tributary streams and for some of the way the desert impinges directly on its left bank. The valley section to Yelwa varies, being broad and open where it is cut in Tertiary sandstones, and narrow and enclosed vicinity of

where the stream and Jebba there

The

best

known

is

flowing over crystalline rocks.

Between Yelwa

a series of rapids extending for about 50 mi. of these are at Bussa and they are in places viris

even by canoe. They effectively cut off the middle from the lower section of the Niger. Upstream from Yelwa the Niger is joined by the Kebbi river, the first of its major Nigerian tributaries which all flow in from the north. At Mureji, between Jebba and Lokoja, the Kaduna unites with the Niger which at Lokoja receives the Benue {q.v.). the greatest tributary of all and itself one of the major rivers of Africa. For some distance south of Lokoja the Niger flows in a restricted valley entually impassable

;

NIGER RIVER closed

by

hills

by sandstone cliffs up The valley then opens again, and some way below

and

in

some

places flanked

to ISO ft. high. Onitsha the great Niger delta begins. This is the largest delta It extends along in Africa and covers an area of 14,000 sq.mi. the coast for about 120 mi. from Forcados to Port Harcourt and inland for 140-150 mi., and is an area of innumerable intercon-

necting waterways and mangrove swamp, difficult to traverse and The main outlet channel of the for the most part undeveloped. delta is the Rio Nun. The delta is being gradually extended seaward by the increments of silt brought down by the river. Navigation. The broken profile of the river with its falls and rapids has prevented uninterrupted navigation. In the considerable navigable stretches, the flow of water fluctuates with the

—

seasonal variations of the several rainfall regimes which control the of water entering the main river and its tributaries. The upper Niger is navigable from Kouroussa in Guinea to Bamako in Mali from July to October. Below Bamako there are the Sotuba rapids which are followed by a navigable stretch of about 1,000 mi. entirely within Mali from Kulikoro to Ansongo. This is open for vessels, other than canoes, from late July or August until December. There is a considerable time lag in the movement of flood water downstream, particularly with the slow progress of water through the "inland delta." Water from the previous wet season in the upper Niger does not reach the Djerma Ganda region (Republic of the Niger) in the middle section until midJanuary, and Jebba in Nigeria until a month or more later. It is estimated that it takes a little less than a year for water from the upper reaches of the river to pass down to the sea. The flow of water near the mouth is never less than 1,000,000 cu.sec, which From is about three times the maximum flow at Kulikoro. Ansongo to Jebba in Nigeria the river is unnavigable, except for short stretches; e.g., for 75 mi. between Niamey and Gaya. Below Jebba navigation is uninterrupted by falls or rapids but river craft, canoes excepted, are dependent on the amount of water in the river. At Jebba, apart from the upper Niger floodwater, there is local floodwater in the river from early August until midNovember. Powered vessels can operate this far upstream (550 mi. from the sea) from August to February. They can operate Below to Baro (400 mi. from the sea) from July until March. the Benue confluence at Lokoja (332 mi. from the sea) the river is open all the year, though operations are restricted in April and May when the flow of water is less than at any other time. With the best water conditions the greatest permissible draft for fully loaded vessels is 7 ft. 6 in. These are power-driven craft towing barges alongside. The journey from the delta to Baro takes eight days, and the return journey six days. At Baro the river transport is linked with the Nigerian railway, through the lU-mi. branch line which joins the Lagos-Kano line at Minna. Burutu and Warri are the two ports in the delta which link the river transport with the sea. Both are approached from the sea by way of the mouth of the Forcados river. There a sandbar has limited the size of ships entering and leaving and the amount of cargo they can carry, but a channel was to be dredged in the 1960s to accommodate ships of up to 20-ft. draft, and was to Investigations were be protected with extensive breakwaters. also made of ways to improve navigation on the Niger within

amount

Nigeria.

—

River Fauna and Economic Aspects. Fishing is everywhere important to the riverine communities and from the middle Niger alone (the main market is at Dioro) about 20,000 tons per annum of smoked and dried fish is sent off to markets as far as Ghana. The river fauna is rich and diverse, the largest species represented being the hippopotamus and the crocodile, and the manatee also occurs. Large numbers of crocodiles are killed and their skins exported. The Niger perch and the tiger fish are the two bestknown fish. The former is found in many other African rivers; e.g., the Nile, where it is known as the Nile perch. In the Niger the largest specimens of perch caught have been just under 200 lb. tiger fish generally weigh less than 20 lb. In the RepubUc of MaU much of the crop cultivation is dependent on irrigation from the Niger and its tributaries. Population is frequently concentrated near the river, especially for some distance downstream

509

from Tombouctou where the desert reaches the left bank. After 1940 the French worked to control the water in the "inland delta" with both large and small projects. The main works are a large barrage at Sansanding and a smaller one at Sotuba, together with the building of irrigation canals and leveling of the land. The Sansanding barrage was begun in 1934 and completed in 1946; it is half a mile long with 500 sluice gates, and has a road across the top and a navigation canal leading round the dam. Irrigation water from these works has brought under cultivation land which was previously waste or poor seasonal pasture. Settlers have had to be attracted into these new areas and assisted to estabIt was inhsh themselves: 100,000 ac. are under cultivation. tended originally to grow cotton on the irrigated land but, compared with the Nile valley, the soils are not rich enough and the annual deposit of silt is not as much. Rice is the main crop and occupies 60% of the cultivated area. There have been some experiments with mechanical cultivation. The reduction in the flow of the river has had some effect on the problem of sand accumulation farther downstream, and there has also been some conflict of interests between the new cultivators and pastoralists who have traditionally used the land for seasonal grazing. The pastoralists are now restricted in their movements by canals and cropland. Throughout much of its length the Niger valley attracts herdsmen seeking pasture and water for their flocks and herds during the dry season. In Nigeria there are many parts of the valley which are considered to be potential rice-growing areas provided that some means can be found for controlling floodwater. By mid1960s work was in progress on a dam at Kainji (some distance upstream from Jebba) to control the river flow for the production of hydroelectric power, to improve navigation, to create a major fishing reservoir and to make agricultural development possible in the valley below Jebba. The delta area has been explored for oil for many years and there are several wells in production, the oil being exported via Port Harcourt. Exploration. The Niger is almost certainly the great eastward-flowing river reached by the young Nasamonians who had crossed the Sahara and whose journey is recorded by Herodotus. Vague references to a great river in west Africa are made in the writings of Pliny and Ptolemy. During the middle ages contradictory opinions were held as to the source, course and outlet of Idrisi, the 12th-century Arab scholar, maintained that this river. there was a common source for the Nile and the "Nile of the Negroes" (the Niger) in the Mountains of the Moon, and it is probable that he thought of the Shari (Chari), Lake Chad, Benue, Niger and Senegal as one great river flowing to the west into the Atlantic. This opinion was held by Henry the Navigator and when the Portuguese seamen discovered the mouth of the Senegal in 1445 they thought they had found its outlet. When it was proved that the Senegal was independent, there was a return to the idea of an eastward-flowing river which emptied itself into the Nile. In the 15th century Ibn Batutah, the Muslim traveler, was acquainted with the middle course of the Niger, from above Tombouctou to Gao. The great Arab traveler, Leo Africanus, who probably visited the western Sudan in 1513-15 and sailed on the Niger, for an unknown reason stated that it flowed westward and thus it was shown on maps of the 16th, 17th and ISth centuries. For much of this time access to the western Sudan from the north by way of the Sahara was impossible for Europeans because of the Euroclosing of the north African coast by Moorish pirates. pean traders on the coast of the Gulf of Guinea were either not interested or were unable to penetrate inland from the south. That the outlet of the great river was in the Gulf of Guinea, in the delta which was already known, does not seem to have been suspected until the end of the ISth century. In 17SS the African association was founded in London to promote discovery and trade and to attempt to determine the course of the Niger. Several unsuccessful attempts were made to penetrate the western Sudan from the north. Frederick Hornemann, the German explorer, undoubtedly reached the Niger about 1800, somewhere in central Nigeria, but he did not return to tell of his discoveries. In 1795-

—

97 the Scotsman, Mungo Park, traveled inland from the Gambia to reach the Niger at Segou, and to find it "glittering to the morn-

NIGGLI— NIGHTINGALE

5IO

Thames at Westminster, and flowing slowly This established the direction of the river's flow. Park went downstream some distance and then up to Bamako before returning to the coast. In 1805 after an arduous journey he was back at Bamako to commence the great journey downstream which ended tragically with his drowning in the rapids, probably at Bussa. No record remained of this journey and so this great section of the Niger was still unknown in Europe. Park had believed that the Niger flowed to join the Congo; others, among them James Rennell. the English geographer, that it flowed into a great swamp, "the sink of North Africa." In 1S02 a German, C. G. Reichard, suggested that it flowed into the Gulf of Guinea through the Rio Nun and he was supported in this opinion by an Englishman, James Macqueen. The explorations of A. G. Laing. \V. Oudney, D. Denham, H. Clapperton, Richard L. Lander and R. A. Caillie in the 1820s further revealed the interior parts of west Africa. They contributed little to solving the problem of the Niger's termination, though Clapperton believed that it was Proof of this came in 1830 when Richard in the Gulf of Guinea. Lander, who had accompanied Clapperton in 1825-27, returned with his brother John and made the journey by canoe from Bussa to Brass at the mouth of the Niger delta. With this knowledge the river was used for voyages from the coast into the interior in the 1830s and lS40s, and in 1854 W. B. Baikie in the steamer "Pleiad" made extensive voyages on the Niger and the Benue. The miding sun, as broad as the

to the eastward."

from Tombouctou to Say, was traveled by H. Barth during the course of his explorations, 1850-55. In

dle section of the river,

the latter half of the 19th century the lower section of the river was used as a trade route by European companies of which the

Royal Niger company (incorporated in 1886) was the most imThe company not only developed trade but also established British supremacy on this part of the river and laid the foundations for the administration of adjacent territories. In 1900 the British government assumed responsibility from the company and declared the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria. In the western parts of the Niger basin the French advance from Senegal was initiated by L. L. C. Faidherbe. Segou was reached in 1866 and forts established between the Senegal and the Niger between 1879 and 1881. A railway was begun in the following year and reached Kulikoro in 1904 to link the Niger with the upper hmits of navigation on the Senegal. The through line from Dakar to Bamako was not completed until 20 years later. In 1883 the French launched a gunboat, the "Niger," on the upper reaches of the river and this made the voyage downstream to Tombouctou in 1887. Nine years later M. Hourst navigated the river from Tombouctou to its mouth. In the late 19th century and early 20th century the Niger basin away from the river was explored particularly by the German, G. A. Krause (1886-87), from the Gold Coast and by the Frenchman, L. G. Binger (188789), from Senegal through to the Ivory Coast. These journeys revealed the considerable size of rivers (e.g., the Volta and its tributaries that were independent of the Niger system and flowed directly southward to the Gulf of Guinea. Though the upper reaches of the Niger and the Senegal in the west and the lower Niger in the east were of great importance for the French and British respectively in establishing their influence in west Africa, the Niger never fulfiUed the expectations of some of its earlier explorers, as it proved to be unsuitable for uninterportant.

—

)

Gotthard massif, and were pioneer studies applying physicochemical principles to the subject of stress metamorphism. He moved to a chair at Leipzig university (1915) and later at Tubingen (1918). This period saw the production of his Geometrische Kristallographie des Diskonschists of the northeast edge of the

tinuums (1919). which provided the idea of a systematic deduction of the space group by means of X-ray data and supplied a complete outline of methods that have since been used for the determination of space groups. He succeeded to the chair of mineralogy and petrology at the University of Ziirich in 1920. He served as rector of the Federal Institute of Technology in Ziirich (1929-32) and of the University of Ziirich (1940-42). Niggli died in Ziirich on Jan. 13, 1953. In the field of igneous petrology, Niggli was active in the study of petrographic provinces and he published, with Conrad Burn, Die jimgen Eruptivgesteine des mediterranen Orogens, two volumes (1945-49). Niggli's contributions to Swiss mineralogy are contained in the two-volume Die Mineralien der Schweizeralpen written in collaboration with others. Further major publi( 1 940 cations include Das Magma und seine Produkte (1937), Gesteine und Minerallagerstdtten (1948) and Die kristallinen Schiefer, revised edition, volume 1 (1924), with U. Grubenmann. )

,

(C. E. T.)

NIGHT BLINDNESS

(Nyctalopia) is a condition in which the sight is good by day or with good illumination but deficient at night or with reduced illumination. When a normal person leaves a lighted room and enters the dark, he initially fails to see clearly. Gradually his sensitivity to light improves, however, and after being in the dark for approximately an hour his eyes will have reached their maximum sensitivity to light. During this time visual purple (rhodopsin) has been built up in the retina. The vitamin A-deficient person makes visual purple more slowly and, since his eyes do not become accustomed to dim hghts in the normal way, he remains night blind even though in the dark for long periods of time. Visual purple is one of the pigments found in the rod cells of the retina. When hght falls on the retina, visual purple is bleached, and in the dark it regenerates. The accumulation of visual purple in the rods in dim light is the chemical basis of dark adaptation, during which the human eye becomes 10,000

more sensitive to fight than when it is light adapted. Night blindness may be inherited or acquired. Acquired night bfindness may be due to ocular defects, such as degeneration of the peripheral parts of the retina, especially the pigment layer of the retina. It is encountered in myopia, in detachment of the retina and in inflammations and degenerations of the optic nerve. Malnutrition associated with vitamin A deficiency is known to result in night blindness. Liver cfisease may produce it. It has been described following the ingestion of drugs such as quinine and carbon sulfide compounds. There are instruments capable of testing dark adaptation. See also Vision Adaptation; Eye, Human; Vitamins. (I. H. L.) times

:

NIGHTHAWK, a name the genus Chordeiles.

the nightjar or goatsucker family

Caprimulgidae ) Nighthawks on insects caught, as the bird about, in the open capacious, ^.^^^^^ whisker-bordered mouth. The common nighthawk (C. minor) inhabits most of North America, '' migrating south in winter. Less - iij exclusively nocturnal than other "'^ nightjars, it often flies about and (

^

I^V

NIGGLI,

(R.

PAUL

M.

P.)

(1888-1953), Swiss mineralogist whose Lehrbuch der Mineralogie (two volumes; 1924-26) set a new standard of achievement and provided a new vista of the content of modem mineralogy, was bom at Zofingen, Aargau canton, on June 26, 1888. He graduated as an engineer at the Ziirich technical high school but turned immediately to the field of mineralogy and petrology. His early researches dealt with the chloritoid

_^

-

'^'^^

^h'^

;

;

;

tion.

.

live

-

rupted na\igation. See also references under "Niger River" in the Index. Bibliography. R. J. Harrison Church, West Africa (1957) J. Richard-Molard, .ifrique Occidenlale Fran(aise (1952) Y. Urvoy, Les Bassins du Niger (1942) F. de Lanoye, Le Niger et les explorations de l'.4frigue centrale (1858); E. W. Bovill, The Golden Trade of the Moors (1958), with extensive bibliography of the literature of explora-

—

applied to certain American birds of Unrelated to true hawks, they belong to

-^-

COMMON NIGHTHAWK (CHORDEILES MINOR)

all day. Two proteccoloured eggs are laid gravel or on flat gravel In courtship the night-

migrates tively

among roofs.

hawk plunges toward the earth and pulls out of the "zoom" of air through its quills. It also utters a peated in

flight.

See also Nightjar.

NIGHTINGALE, FLORENCE

dive with a loud nasal peent, re-

(Dn. A.)

(1820-1910), English nurse, generally accepted as the originator and founder of modem

NIGHTINGALE whose achievements in public health were almost equally important, was born in Florence, Italy, on May 12, 1820, the second daughter of wealthy and cultured parents. Her socially ambitious mother intended that she should make a brilliant marriage, but such ambitions were vain. In 1837, at the age of 17, Miss Nightingale heard, as Joan of Arc had heard, the voice of God calling her to service. A period of perplexity followed as to the form of service she was to undertake, but by 1844 her vocation had become clear; she was to nurse the sick. A desperate struggle with her family ensued. Nursing at that time was disreputable, and nurses frequently were drunken prostitutes. In spite of the furious opposition she met, Miss Nightingale would not be turned from her determination. When Richard Monckton Milnes, later Lord Houghton, repeatedly pressed her to marry him, she refused, even though he was "the man I adore." Everything had to be sacrificed to her vocation. Years passed in misery and frustration, and it was not until 1851 that she was nursing,

allowed to gain her first nursing experience, with the Protestant deaconesses at Kaiserswerth in Germany, and not until 1853 that she left home to take her first post, the reorganization of a small hospital in Harley street, London, the Institution for the Care of Sick Gentlewomen in Distressed Circumstances.

The reorganization was a brilliant success, and it was her work in Harley street that led Sidney Herbert, secretary of war in the British cabinet, to invite her to undertake a mission to the Crimea. War with Russia had been declared in March 1854; by October England was ringing with the horrible state of the British military hospitals revealed by the special correspondent of the Times (London). Florence Nightingale sailed for the Crimea with 38 nurses on Oct. 21, 1854, and within a month found that she had more than 5,000 men in her charge. The so-called hospitals were vast dilapidated buildings, filthy, bare, not merely lacking medical equipment but destitute of every convenience for common decency. By superhuman efforts she brought order out of chaos, working day and night, often on her feet for 20 hours at a stretch and hindered at every turn by official jealousy and intrigue. Every night she made a personal inspection of the vast wards. But she more than make the hospitals sanitary; she revolutionized the treatment of the private soldier, and the army regarded her with something approaching worship. When the story of her achievements reached home, a great outburst of enthusiasm made her a national heroine, and £45,000 was raised by public subscription as a testimonial and placed at her disposal. But when she returned from the Crimea she insisted on going into retirement. She had dedicated her life to the welfare of the private soldier, and she believed that her popularity would prejudice the government against her. She retired so completely that when in 1907 she was awarded the Order of Merit the announcement came as a surprise; most people thought she had died half a century before. In fact, however, with Sidney Herbert's help, she had embarked on a movement for army reform, and in 1857, encouraged by Queen Victoria, she obtained a commission to inquire into the sanitary condition of the army. For the first time in history the food, housing and health of the soldier in peacetime were scientifically examined. In 1858 she published an immense volume. Notes on Matters Affecting the Health, Efficiency and Hospital Administration of the British Army. In 1859 a commission was set up to inquire into the sanitary condition of the army in India, and in 1863 its report was submitted to Miss Nightingale. Work for the army had become only a part of her activities. Military hospitals had led her to civil hospitals, military nursing to civil nursing, military health to public health. In July i860, with the sum subscribed as a testimonial, she opened the Nightingale training school for nurses at St. Thomas' hospital. From that date modern nursing may be said to begin. Every probationer entering the school was interviewed by Miss Nightingale and remained under her close supervision. The strain of this, however, was too great, and her health, shaken by her enormous exertions in the Crimea, gave way. Though an invalid, she continued to work, nevertheless, and became a ruthless taskmaster to others. The war office leaned on her advice, all sanitary papers were sent to her, she drew up regudid

511

framed warrants, reported on barrack plans. She was an acknowledged authority on India, though she had never been there, and viceroy after viceroy came to her for his "Indian education." As the years went by thousands of nurses came under her control; after 1862 district nursing was developed under her guidance; the work involved in that alone would have occupied the whole time of an ordinary woman. Not until 1872, when she "went out lations,

of office," did the fury of her work slacken. Then she became interested in mysticism, assisted Benjamin Jowett in the translation of the dialogues of Plato and compiled a book of extracts from the

Christian mystics. Personal relationships, especially with young people, became of increasing importance, and she enjoyed a tran-

darkened only by the gradual loss of her sight. She died on Aug. 13, 1910. By her express wish the offer of a national funeral and burial in Westminster abbey was refused, and her coffin was carried to the family grave in the little country churchyard of East Wellow, Hampshire, by six sergeants of the British quil old age,

army.

—

Bibliography. Sir E. Cook, Life of Florence Nightingale, 2 vol. (1913), which contains a bibliography of Miss Nightingale's writings; Lytton Strachey, essay in Eminent Victorians (1918) I. B. O'Malley, Life of Florence Nightingale, 1820-1856; a Study 0} Her Life Down to the End of the Crimean War (1931) Cecil Woodham-Smith, Florence Nightingale, 1820-igio (1950). (C. W.-Sh.; X.) the bird celebrated beyond all others for the vocal powers that, contrary to usual behef, it exercises at all hours of the day and night, during several weeks after its return from its winter quarters in the south. The song itself is indescribable, being variations on a complex plaintive air, though many attempts, from the time of Aristophanes to the present, have been made to express in syllables the sound of its many notes. Poets have descanted on the bird (which they nearly always make of the feminine gender) leaning its breast against a thorn and pouring forth its melody in anguish. But the cock alone sings, and there is no reason to suppose that the cause and intent of its song differ in any respect from those of other birds' songs {see Songbird). ;

;

NIGHTINGALE,

In contrast with the nightingale's voice is the inconspicuous coloration of the bird's plumage, which in both sexes is of a reddish brown above and dull grayish white beneath, the breast being rather darker and the rufous tail showing the only bright tint.

No

is found in America, but it is American thrush {q.v.) and a member of the same family, the Turdidae. The European nightingale {Luscinia megarhynchos) is abundant as a summer visitor, breeding in suitable localities in southern England and in Wales, On the continent of Europe it does not occur north of a hne stretching irregularly from Copenhagen to the northern Urals, Over south Europe otherwise it is abundant. The nightingale reaches Iran, and is a winter visitor to the Arabian peninsula and Africa, The larger eastern L. philomela, russet brown in both sexes, is a native

nightingale (genus Luscinia)

closely related to the

of eastern Europe,

L. hafizi of Iran

is

probably the Perso-Arabic

bulbul of poets.

The eral

English home about the middle of among migratory birds) arriving sevfemales. On the cocks being joined by their

nightingale reaches

April, the

males (as

is

days before the

partners, the

work

for

its

usual

which the long and hazardous journey of both was undertaken is speedily begun, and before long the nest is

completed.

uncommon

This

is

of a rather

kind, being placed on

or near the ground, the outworks

consisting chiefly of a great number of dead leaves ingeniously applied together so that the plane of each is mostly vertical. In the midst of the mass is wrought a deep cuplike hollow, neatly lined with fibrous roots, but the

EUROPEAN NIGHTINGALE (LUSCINIA MEGARHYNCHOS)

whole is so loosely constructed, and depends for lateral support so much on the stems of the plants among which it is gen-

NIGHTJAR— NIHILISM

S^2 erally built, that a slight touch disturbs

its

beautiful arrangement.

In this nest four to six eggs of a deep olive colour are laid and the young subsequently hatched. The nestling plumage of the nightingale differs

much from

that of the adult, the feathers above

being tipped with a buff spot, just as in the young of the European robin, hedge sparrow and redstart, thereby showing the natural affinity of all these forms. Toward the end of summer the nightapplied to several other birds. is a species of grosbeak {q.v.) ;

the Pekin nightingale or Japanese nightingale

(Liothrix luteus)

of

is

the Himalayas and China,

a small babbler

found also in

Hawaii.

NIGHTJAR

(Goatsucker), Caprimulgus europaeus, a bird erroneously beheved since very ancient days to have the habit imphed by its second name. The family to which it belongs (Caprimulgidae) is almost cosmopolitan, but is not represented The nightjar is characterized by in New Zealand and Polynesia. its flat head, wide mouth fringed with bristles, large eyes and soft plumage which results from Africa late in the

Europe autumn. Its moths and cockchafers, which it

in noiseless flight.

It

arrives in

spring, returning in the early

food consists of insects, chiefly

on the ground; the young clad in dark-spotted down,

rendering them, hke their parents, exceedingly difficult to see crouching on the ground.

The red-necked ruficollis)

common

is

when

nightjar

(C.

very similar to the

of, or

opposite

The

to,

the insertion

is wheel shaped, of a lilac-blue colour with a green, or sometimes white, spot at the base of each segment, and bears the yellow stalkless anthers united at their margins so as to form a cone in the centre of the

of a leaf.

corolla

flower.

The flowers are succeeded by egg-shaped scarlet berries, one-

fruiting branch of deadly nights"*" (atropa belladonna)

Both the berries and the foliage are poisonous, due to the presence of solanine, sometimes causing convulsions and death if ingested in large doses.

half inch long.

edible fruit.

Deadly nightshade or dwale is the belladonna {Atropa belladonna) a tall bushy herb of the same plant family and the source

nightjar in appearance

but has a reddish-buff collar and white throat patch and is some-

,

of several alkaloid drugs.

The name enchanter's nightshade is applied to weak-stemmed plants of the genus Circaea, of the evening primrose family (see

what larger. It occurs in Spain and Portugal. The Egyptian

Onagraceae).

nightjar (C. aegyptiiis) closely re-

sembles the common nightjar. Others are found throughout the

clusters

plant derives its names of bittersweet (not to be confused with false or climbing bittersweet \_q-v.'\ or waxwork, Celastrus scandens, highly prized for its decorative coloured fruit) and dulcamara from the fact that its taste is at first bitter and then sweet. The black nightshade (5. nigrttm), also poisonous, differs from the common nightshade in having white flowers in small umbels and globose black berries. It is a common and almost cosmopohtan weed in gardens and waste places, growing about 12 or 18 in. high, and has ovate leaves with the edge entire, sinuate or toothed. The plant is common in eastern North America. From the black nightshade have been derived the garden huckleberry (S. intrusum) and the wonderberry (5. burbanki), both with

ally sits parallel to the length of In this position the a bough. cock bird utters his curious loud burring song. The two eggs are

are

flower

The

catches on the wing at night. When resting the nightjar usu-

laid

The

smaller.

spring from the stems at the side

ingale migrates to its African winter haunts.

The name nightingale has been The so-called \"irginian nightingale

more or less heart shaped, with two leafy lobes at the base. The flowers are arranged in drooping clusters and resemble those of the potato (to which it is related) in shape, although they are much leaves,

Malabar nightshade

refers to twining herbaceous

vines of the genus Basella.

EUROPEAN NIGHTJAR (CAPRIMULGUS EUROPAEUS)

In America their place is taken by the allied species, Caprimulgus vocifenis, the whippoorwill {q.v.). The nighthawk (q.v.) is another common American species, with a voice quite different from that of the whippoorwill. or Evening School, a form of continuing education usually conducted by the public schools for older ado-

See also Solanum; Solanaceae. (N. Tr.; X.) NIHILISM is a philosophy of skepticism that originated in 19th-century Russia during the early years of the reign of Alexander II and was most clearly expressed in the literary criticism of Dmitri Pisarev. The term (from the Latin nihil, "nothing") was first used by Nikolai I Nadezhdin in an article in the Messenger of Europe, and it later was popularized by Ivan Turgenev in his celebrated novel Fathers and Sons (1862).

activities offered outside of regular

and adults through evening classes and other educational working hours. Night schools,

The philosophy of nihilism has often been associated erroneously with regicide and the policy of terror employed by a clandes-

especially in industrial cities, often stress vocational education

tine

old world.

NIGHT SCHOOL

lescents

(q.v.)

and

and recreational programs as well as genIn the early 20th century in the United States and

offer cultural

eral education.

Canada many night schools provided courses in English for new immigrants and in Canada such courses were again in demand after World War II. {See also Americanization.) Communist countries, especially the U.S.S.R. and Communist China, have used night schools extensively.

See

Adult Education.

NIGHTSHADE,

a general term for plants of the genus Solarium, of the nightshade family (Solanaceae), and to certain similar plants in the Solanaceae and other families. The species

which the name of nightshade is commonly restricted in North America and England is Solatium dulcamara, also called bittersweet or woody nightshade. It is a native of Europe, north Africa and temperate Asia and is widely naturalized, being a common plant in damp hedgebanks and thickets, scrambling over underwood and hedges, all over eastern and central North America and to

throughout England. It has slender, slightly woody stems, with alternate lanceolate

political

organization against

the

imperial

administration.

Fundamentally nihihsm represented a philosophy of negation of all forms of aestheticism; it advocated utiHtarianism and scientific rationalism. The social sciences and classical philosophical systems were rejected entirely. Nihilism represented a crude form of positivism and materiahsm, a revolt against the estabhshed social order; it negated all authority exercised by the state, by the church or by the family. It based its belief on nothing but scientific truth; science became the cure-all for social problems. All evils, nihilists beheved, derived from a single source, ignorance, which science alone would overcome. Prince Petr Kropotkin, the leading Russian anarchist, defined nihilism as a struggle against all forms of tyranny, hypocrisy and artificiality in favour of individual freedom. It was a revolt of an adolescent generation that cherished infinite faith in scientific truth. The thinking of nihihsts was profoundly influenced by such men as Ludwig Feuerbach, Charles Darwin, Henry Buckle and Herbert Spencer. Since nihihsm denied the duahty of man as a combination of body and soul, of spiritual and material substance, it

came

into violent conflict with ecclesiastical authorities.

Since

—

NIHONGI—NIJMEGEN questioned the validity of the divine right doctrine, they came into similar conflict with secular authorities. Since they scorned all social bonds and family authority, the conflict between fathers and sons was equally immanent, and it is this theme that is best reflected in Turgenev's novel. A comparison between Turgenev's hero, Bazarov. and Leonid Andreyev's Sawa, created during the early 20th century, reveals the deterioration of nihilist philosophy, which changed from a faith in science into a justificanihilists

tion of destruction.

(A. G.

M.)

NIHONGI,

also known as Nihon-shoki, both of which terms "Written Chronicles of Japan," was compiled in A.D. 720 under imperial proposal and consists of 30 volumes, all written in Chinese. This compilation contains traditional myths, legends and historical records of several of the politically powerful clans as well as those of the imperial family. Chinese and Korean materials were also collected, amplified and reclassified according to the ancient history of Japan. The Nihongi includes, therefore, an abundant amount of material concerning Japan's historical

mean

literally

period.

The other comparable ancient work, the Kojiki (q.v.), deals primarily with the divine and prehistoric ages. The Nihongi continues the story of the mythical origins down to a.d. 697, just before the Nara period. It describes the impact of early Chinese civilization, the introduction of Buddhism and the Taika reforms, by the Sui and T'ang dynasties. is the first of six officially compiled chronicles {Rikwhich continued to a.d. 887 by imperial command. The Nihongi was read ceremonially before the emperor at the imperial court during the Heian period and fragments survive of the annotations of some of the government scholars of that time. The first printing of the part entitled "Divine Age" appeared in 1599; the most complete commentary, Nihon-shoki-tsiishaku, was published in 1899 by lida Takesato. The English translation of the Nihongi was completed by William G. Aston in London in 1896. See also Japanese Mythology. (L H.) NIIGATA, a ken (prefecture) on the Sea of Japan coast of central Honshu, Jap. It includes the offshore islands of Sado and Ao. Area 4,855 sq.mi., pop. (1960) 2,442,037. Combined deposition of the Shinano and Aka rivers in the central part of the long coastline has created Niigata's key lowland, the Echigo plain. The rest of the prefecture is mountainous except for small southern coastal plains and lowlands along river courses. Niigata is Japan's largest rice producer and normally has the largest rice surpluses for shipment to city markets. Bad drainage and heavy winter snow cover prohibit winter cropping in most areas. Coastal fishing is practised. Cheap and plentiful hydroelectric power generated in the interior mountains has stimulated industrial growth (especially chemicals, metals and machinery) since 1940 in such cities as Niigata, Kashiwazaki, Naoetsu, Sanjo and Takada. Niigata produces large amounts of petroleum (Nagaoka and Kashiwazaki) and natural gas. Niigata City, the prefectural capital and largest city (pop. [1960] 314,528), is located on the sea edge of the Echigo plain at the mouth of the Shinano river. It was an important rice port in feudal times and has continued as the leading Sea of Japan port in spite of silting, strong winds and stormy winters. Coal and raw materials imports predominate. In addition to its port, general commercial and administrative functions, Niigata is a growing industrial city (chemicals, cotton textiles, metals, machinery, paper and shipbuilding). Excellent local deposits of natural gas and available hydroelectricity have attracted many large factories. An earthquake, Japan's most severe since 1923, struck the city and surrounding area in June 1964, causing loss of hfe, many injuries and extensive property damage. (J. D. Ee.) NIJHOFF, (1894-1953). Dutch poet and critic whose work had great influence on modern Dutch poetry, was born April 20. 1894, at The Hague. He studied law at Amsterdam and literature at Utrecht, and was for many years editor of the latter being strongly influenced

The Nihongi kokii-shi)

the long-established literary periodical,

De

a collection of symbolical

Gids.

He

poems expressing an

essentially

(Gd.

W.

Hs.)

NIJINSKY, VASLA'V (Waslaw)

(1890-1950), Russian dancer, whose remarkable performances with the Diaghilev ballet brought him an almost legendary fame. Born in Kiev, Feb. 28, 1890. Nijinsky studied under Legal and Oboukhov in the Russian Imperial Ballet school, St. Petersburg, graduating in 1908. Almost immediately, Sergei Diaghilev selected him as leading dancer of the company he presented in Paris in 1909. Diaghilev deeply influenced Nijinsky's entire career. Endowed with phenomenal technique and a genius for characterization, Nijinsky scored triumphs in Petrottchka, Carnaval, Scheherazade and Le Spectre de la Rose, all of which were created by Michel Fokine. A daringly original choreographer, Nijinsky created L'Apres-midi d'un Faune, Le Sacre du Printemps, Jeiix and Till Eulenspiegel (the latter produced in America without Diaghilev's personal supervision), all for the Diaghilev ballet. In 1913 Nijinsky married Romola de Pulzky. His brief career was terminated in 191 7 by the threat of insanity, which shadowed the rest of his life. He died in London on April 8, 1950. Nijinsky's sister, Bronislava Nijinska (1891), became a distinguished choreographer. See Romola Nijinsky, Nijinsky

(Ln.

(1934).

Me.)

NIJMEGEN

(Ger. Nimwegen), the oldest town of the Netherlands and the largest in Gelderland province, extends along the

Waal (southern arm of the Rhine) 10 mi. S.S.W. of Arnhem near the German border. Pop. (1960) 130,352 (mun.). An important

(1916),

modern

16th-century

died at

De Wandelaar

—

and heatand shoes are among its manufactures), it has excellent railway and inland water communications with western Europe. Nijmegen, the Roman Noviomagus, like Rome, was built on seven hills rising from the riverside. It was a free imperial city and later a member of the Hanseatic league; in 1579 it joined the Utrecht Union and the peace treaty between Louis XW, the Netherlands, Spain and the Holy Roman empire was signed there in 1678. Until 1874 it served mainly as a frontier fortress. The old town walls were demolished (1877-1884) and were replaced by a promenade and gardens. Subsequently a fine new town grew up on the south side. During World War II the town centre was badly damaged (it has since been rebuilt along contemporary lines), and later Nijmegen was the scene of a U.S. airborne landing. A beautiful park, the Valkhof, contains some remains of Charlemagne's palace. This was destroyed by Norsemen but was rebuilt by Frederick Barbarossa in 1155 and was finally demolished (1796), Only two portions remain; the choir of the 12th-century palace-church and a 16-sided baptistery, probably constructed between 800 and 1400, Both these have been restored several times. Close-by is the lofty 17th-century watchtower of the Belvedere (now a restaurant). The fine Renaissance Grote Kerk of St, Stephen, enlarged in the 15th and 16th centuries, was severely damaged in 1944; partly rebuilt, its renovated tower is again one of the town's most striking features. The Renaissance Raadhuis or town hall also sustained war damage but has been splendidly restored; a collection of 17th-century Gobelins forms the piece de resistance of its art collection. Other notable buildings include Latijnse school (1544-45), the Laekenhal (Cloth hall, now a restaurant), the Waag or Weighhouse (1612), the chapel of the old cloister Marienburg (now the municipal museum), the restored

MARTINUS

Hague, Jan. 26, 1953. Nijhoff began his literary career with

513

anguish and despair in traditional poetic forms. It was followed by Pierrot aan de lantaren (19 19), a poetic dialogue between Harlequin and Pierrot. His best-known collection, Vormen, appeared in 1924. He returned to more serious themes in Nieuwe Gedichten (1934) and Het unr U (1941). In Nijhoff's poetry simple everyday words are charged with power, and this makes his work almost untranslatable. In his prose sketch. De pen op papier (1927). he deals playfully with the process of poetic creation. He also wrote plays De Vliegende Hollander ("The Flying Dutchman'') (1930), written for an open-air performance by undergraduates, and a biblical trilogy, Het heilige hout (1950) and translated both classical and modern works. 5ee T. de Vries, M. Nijhog, wandelaar in de werkelijk heid (1946).

The

industrial centre (metal products, machinery, electrical

ing apparatus, paper, artificial fibres, soap, clothing

Besienderhuys, the

Brewershouse,

the

Protestant

NIJMEGEN, TREATIES

514

Children's orphanage and the

(1960). of

The Rijksmuseum

Roman

modern church of

Kam

St.

Peter Canisius

houses an important collection

antiquities.

Nijmegen

is

the seat of a

Roman

Catholic university (founded

1923) with an important medical faculty and hospital. (1678, 1679), the treaties TREATIES of peace terminating the great war that Louis XIV of France had begun in 1672 {see Dutch Wars). Negotiations having begun in 1676, the first treaty was concluded between France and the esCates-general of the United Provinces of the Netherlands on Aug. 10, 1678. France agreed to return Maastricht and to remove the protectionist discrimination against the Dutch contained in 1667. This was dependent on the second J. B. Colbert's tariff of agreement, which was concluded between France and Spain on

NIJMEGEN,

OF

17, 1678, by which Spain renounced Franche-Comt6 and agreed to frontier changes in Flanders, Hainaut and Artois. The peace represented a defeat for the French attempt to subdue the United Provinces politically and commercially, but was otherwise a substantial achievement: Louis XIV had withstood a powerful The coalition and obtained important concessions from Spain. estates-general made peace against the advice of William III of

Sept.

Orange, stadholder of Holland, who saw the European as well as the Dutch interest, and without the agreement of the Holy Roman emperor Leopold I, who continued fighting for some months longer. At length Leopold too accepted French terms, by the treaty of Feb. 5, 1679, keeping Philippsburg (which his forces had taken) but renouncing Freiburg im Breisgau and granting free access to France also continued to it from Breisach (French since 1648).

occupy Lorraine, since the duke, Charles V, refused the conditions imposed for his restoration. Two further treaties in 1679 terminated hostilities between France and Brandenburg (peace of St. Germain, June 29) and between France and Denmark (peace of Fontainebleau, Sept. 2). Brandenburg and Denmark restored to France's ally Sweden the territories taken by them in the war. the Greek goddess of victory (Lat.,

does not appear personified in Homer.

is

came

war but

in all other undertakings.

In fact, Nike

to be recognized as a sort of mediator of success

between gods and men. At Rome, Victoria was worshiped from the earliest times. The legendary Evander was said to have erected a temple in her honour on the Palatine before the foundation of Rome itself. She was identified with the obscure Sabine goddess Vica Pota and others. Special games were held in her honour in the circus, and generals erected statues of her after a successful campaign. She came to be regarded as the protecting goddess of the senate, and her statue in the Curia Julia (originally brought from Tarentum and set up by Augustus in memory of the battle of Actium) was the cause of the final combat between Christianity and paganism toward the end of the 4th century. Victoria had altars in military camps, a special set of worshipers and colleges, a festival on Nov. 1, temples at Rome and throughout the empire. Representations of Nike-Victoria are numerous. (1855-1922), Austro-Hungarian conNIKISCH, ductor who followed the tradition of Hans von Biilow. Born at Lebenyi Szant Miklos on Oct. 12, 1855, he studied in Vienna from 1866 to 1873 under J. Hellemesberger, W. Schenner and F. 0. Dessoff. In 1878 he was appointed coach at the Leipzig opera and He in the following year he became principal conductor there. was conductor of the Boston Symphony orchestra (1889-93) and of the Gewandhaus orchestra at Leipzig from 1895 until Tiis death there (Jan. 23, 1922). During this time he was also conductor of the Berlin Philharmonic orchestra, with which he toured widely. In 1897 he succeeded von Biilow as conductor of the Philharmonic

ARTHUR

She

the daugh-

the piano he appeared in recitals with his pupil Elena Gerhardt,

F. B.)

Victoru).

In Hesiod she

cess not only in

gradually

Hamburg. He toured the U.S. with the London Symphony orchestra in 1912 and conducted the Ring at Covent Garden His style was in 1913. He excelled in performances of Wagner. marked by intensity of romantic expression and his technique by severe precision and economy of gesture. As an accompanist at

(I.

NIKE,

OF— NIKOLA YEV

the messenger of victory), erecting a trophy or recording a victory on a shield, or, frequently, hovering with outspread wings over the victor in a competition; for her functions referred to suc-

and of the infernal river Styx, and is sent Nike does not to fight on the side of Zeus against the Titans. appear to have been the object originally of a separate cult at Athens. She was at first connected and confounded with Pallas Athena, the dispenser of victory, but gradually separated from her. As an attribute of both Athena and Zeus, Nike is represented in art as a small figure carried in the hand by those divinities. Athena Nike was always wingless, Nike alone winged. She also appears carrying a palm branch or a wreath (sometimes a Hermes staff as ter of the giant Pallas

concerts at

the Lieder singer. See F. Pf_ohl, Arthur Nikisch (1925).

NIKKO,

a small town in Tochigi prefecture, one of the chief centres of pilgrimage and sightseeing in Japan, lies in the Kwanto region of Honshu about 90 mi. (145 km.) N. of Tokyo, at the edge

Nikko National park. Pop. (1960) 33,348. A Shinto shrine to have existed at Nikko as early as the 4th century a.d., and Buddhist temple was founded there by Shodo Shonin. Since the 1 7th century, however, Nikko has been dominated by the great Toshogu shrine dedicated to the first of the Tokugawa shoguns, Tokugawa leyasu, who was buried there in 1617, and the Daiyuin mausoleum dedicated to his grandson lemitsu (lyeThe mitsuj, the third Tokugawa shogun, who died in 1651. shrines and associated buildings are notable for their gorgeous colour and detail, but are thought by some to be overdecorated and often weak in design. Their magnificent setting, especially the grove of giant Japanese cedars in which they stand, greatly enhances the attractiveness of Nikko. There are scores of hot of

seems

in 767 a

mineral springs in the scenic Nasu volcanic area of the national park which also includes mountain peaks, waterfalls and lakes. The Nikko Botanical garden of alpine flora is maintained by (R. M.) Tokyo university. an oblast of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, U.S.S.R., formed in 1937, covers an area of 9,614 sq.mi. Pop. (1959) 1,013,839. The oblast lies on the Black sea plain (Prichemomorskaya Nizmennost), which slopes down gently from the Dnieper uplands in the extreme north to the Black sea coast. The northern part is very much cut up by gullies, and soil erosion

NIKOLAYEV,

generally

NIKE. FROM A BRONZE VESSEL. ERN ITALY, ABOUT 490 B.C.

PROBABLY MADE

IN

A GREEK CITY OF SOUTH-

is

severe.

The Southern Bug

river crosses the oblast

and enters the sea by a long, winding estuary. There is little other surface water and even the larger rivers, such as the Gniloi Yelanets and Ingul, nearly dry out in summer. The coast has many lagoons and drowned valleys, often sealed off by sandbars. The whole area is steppe, with chernozem soils developed on loess, and a high proportion is plowed up for winter wheat, maize (com), sunflowers

NIKOLAYEV—NIKON

515

and sugar beet. Vineyards and gardens are widespread, especially on the left bank of the Bug. Cattle and sheep are kept in large numbers. Only 400,310 (39%) of the people are urban. Apart from the administrative centre of Nikolayev, the 4 towns and 11 urban districts are all small. Industry is chiefly concerned with In the north much granite is processing agricultural products.

those who disagreed with him. On assuming the patriarchate he consulted Greek scholars employed in Moscow and the books in the patriarchal library and concluded not only that many Russian books and practices were badly corrupted but also that the revisions which the circle of Vonifatiev had promulgated introduced new corruptions. He now undertook a thorough revi-

(R. A. F.) of an oblast in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, U.S.S.R., stands on the left bank of the estuary of the Southern Bug, at the Ingul

and rituals in accord with their Greek models about uniformity in the whole Orthodox Church. When his onetime friends rejected his reforms, Nikon had them exiled. Assisted by Greek and Kievan monks and supported by the Greek hierarchy, he now carried out several reforms of his own: he al-

quarried.

NIKOLAYEV, a

town and administrative centre

about 40 mi. from the Black sea and 65 mi. from Odessa. Pop. (1959) 226,207. It was founded, near the site of the ancient Greek Olbia, in 1788 as a naval base, after the Russian annexation In the IS 70s a railway was built to the of the Black sea coast. port. It is now one of the most important Soviet Black sea ports outfall,

and a major shipbuilding centre specializing in tankers, trawlers, dredgers and diesel-propelled craft. Other engineering products include cement- and road-making machinery, equipment for metallurgical and coke-chemical factories, pumps, roller bearings and conveyer belts. There are also clothing, footwear and food industries. Nikolayev has shipbuilding and pedagogic institutes and an observatorj'. The port has rail links southeast to Kherson and the Crimea, northeast to Dnepropetrovsk and north to Kiev and central Russia. It was held (1941-43) by the Germans during

World War

(R. A. F.) II. a to^Ti and port of Khabarovsk krai of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, U.S.S.R., stands at the head of the Amur estuary, on its northern bank. Pop. (1959) 30.923. Founded in 1850, it was for a few years thereafter the main Russian settlement of the far east. It declined, however, and is now overshadowed by the new port and naval base of Sovetskaya Gavan, 300 mi. S., which has rail communication with the interior. Transshipment from seagoing to river craft takes place at Nikolayevsk and there are shipbuilding and repair yards. A fishing fleet is based there. Other industries include furniture, brick and confectionery making, and brewing. Iron ore

NIKOLAYEVSK-ON-AMUR,

mined in the vicinity and sent to the steel mill at Komsomolskon-Amur. Nikolayevsk is the focus for local air services.

is

(R. A. F.)

NIKON

(NiKiTA Minin) (1605-1681), Russian patriarch and

movement that caused the schism in the Russian Orthodox Church, was born in the village of Vel'demanovo in the province of Nizhni Novgorod (now Gorki), the son of a peasant of Finnic stock. After acquiring the rudiments of an education in a nearby monastery, Nikon married, entered the clergy and settled in Moscow; but the death of all three of his children caused him to seek repentance and solitude. For the next 1 2 years (1634—46) he lived as a monk, as a hermit and finally as an abbot In 1646 he came on monastic busiin several northern locaUties. ness to Moscow, where he made so favourable an impression on the young tsar Alexis and on the patriarch Joseph that they appointed him archimandrite (abbot) of the Novospasski monastery the leader of a reform

Moscow, the burial place of the Romanov family. stay there, Nikon became closely associated with the

in

During

his

circle led

by

Stefan Vonifatiev, and the priests Ivan Petrovich (all natives of the Nizhni Novgorod province), which strove to revitahze the church by bringing about closer contact with the mass of the faithful and to purify religious books and rituals from errors and Catholic accretions. With their help Nikon became first metropoHtan of Novgorod (1648) and then patriarch of Moscow and all Russia (1652). Nikon accepted the highest post in the Russian church only on condition that he should receive full authority in matters of dogma and ritual. In 1654, when the tsar departed for the campaign against Poland, he asked Nikon to supervise the country's administration as well as watch over the safety of the tsar's family and in 1657, with the outbreak of the new war with Poland, he endowed him with full sovereign powers. Nikon, enjoying the friendship of the tsar, the backing of the reformers and the sympathy of the population of Moscow, stood at the pinnacle of his career. the

tsar's

confessor,

Neronov and

Awakum

;

It

was not

long, however, before

infuriated his opponents

by

Nikon alienated his friends and methods and brutal

his high-handed

treatment of

all

sion of Russian books to bring

tered the form of bowing in the church, replaced the two-fingered manner of crossing with the three-fingered one and ordered that three alleluias be sung where tradition called for two. An ecclesiastical assembly that he convened in 1654 authorized him to proceed with the revision of liturgical books. He next began to remove from churches and homes icons that he considered incorrectly rendered. To quell mounting opposition to these moves he called in 1656 another assembly, which excommunicated those who failed to adopt the reforms. Though all the changes introduced by Nikon affected only the outward forms of religion, some of which were not even very old, the population and much of the clergy resisted him from the beginning. The relatively uneducated clergy refused to releam prayers and rituals, while the mass of the faithful was deeply troubled by Nikon's contempt for practices regarded as holy and necessary for Russia's salvation. This was the origin of the Raskol or great schism with the Russian Orthodox Church. Yet what really brought about Nikon's downfall was the hostility of the tsar's family and the powerful boyar families; they resented the autocratic manner in which he exercised authority in the tsar's absence and also objected to his claims that the church was su-

perior to the state.

When Alexis returned to Moscow in 1658, relations between tsar and patriarch were no longer what they had been. Grown in selfconfidence and incited by relatives and courtiers, Alexis ceased to consult the patriarch, though he avoided an open break with him. Nikon finally acted after several boyars had insulted him with impunity and the tsar failed to appear at two consecutive services at which Nikon ofiiciated. On July 20 (new style; 10, old style), 1658, he announced his resignation to the startled congregation in the Church of the Assumption in the Kremlin; shortly afterward he retired to the Voskresenski monastery. Nikon had apparently hoped in this manner to compel the tsar, whose piety was well known, to recall him and to restore his previous influence. This did not happen. After several months in self-imposed exile, Nikon began to regret his decision and attempted a reconciliation, but the tsar either refused to answer his letters or urged him to formalize his resignation. Nikon refused to do so on the ground that he had resigned merely from the Moscow see, not from the patriarchate as such. For eight years, during

which Russia was effectively without a patriarch, Nikon stubbornly held on to his post, while Alexis, troubled by lack of clear precedent and by the fear of damnation, could not decide on a formal deposition. Finally, in Nov. 1666, Alexis convened a council attended by the patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria to settle the dispute. The charges against Nikon were presented by the tsar himself. They concerned largely his behaviour in the period of the tsar's absence from Moscow, including his alleged arrogation of the title of "grand sovereign"; many of the charges were entirely without foundation. The Greek hierarchy now turned against Nikon and decided in favour of the monarchy. A Greek adventurer, Paisios Ligaridis (now known to have been in contact with Rome), was particularly active in bringing about Nikon's downfall.

The

council deprived

Nikon

of all his sacerdotal func-

and on Dec. 23 (N.S.) exiled him as a monk to Beloozero. It retained, however, the reforms he had introduced and confirmed the excommunication of those who had opposed them and who were henceforth known as Old Ritualists (or BeUevers). In his The succeedlast years Nikon's relations with Alexis improved. ing tsar, Fedor III, recalled Nikon from exile; but Nikon died on Aug. 27 (N.S.), 1681, on the way back to Moscow. tions

NIKOPOL—NILE

5i6

Nikon was one of the outstanding leaders of the Russian Orthodox Church, an able administrator and firm in his principles. His ultimate failure was due to two main factors: (I) his effort to establish the hegemony of church over state had no precedent in Byzantine or Russian past and could not be enforced; and (2) he had an uncontrollable temper and an autocratic character that alienated all who were in contact with him and enabled his opponents first to disgrace and then to defeat him. Bibliography. W. Palmer, The Patriarch and the Tsar, 6 vol. (1871-76) N. F. Kapterev, Palriarkh Nikon i tsar Aleksei Mikhailovich, 2 vol. (1909-12) M. V. Zyzykin, Patriarkh Nikon: ego gosudarstvennyya i kanonicheskiya idei, 3 vol. (1931-38) P. Pascal, Avvaktim et les dibuts du Raskol (1938) W. K. Medlin, Moscow and East Rome

—

;

;

;

;

(R. E. Pi.)

(1952).

NIKOPOL,

Pleven okrug (district), northern Bulgaria, picturesquely situated on the bank of the Danube, east of the mouth of the Osum tributary, 23 mi. N.E. of Pleven city. Pop. (1956) 5,763. It had in the past been confused with Nicopolis ad Istrum, founded by Trajan, but in 1871 the site of the latter was established as the xillage Nikyup on the Rositsa river about 50 mi. S.E. of Nikopol and the Roman town was largely uncovered by Nikopol was an important Danubian stronghold the 1960s. (ruined fortresses still dominate the town) founded by the ByzanIt was the scene tine emperor Heraclius early in the 7th century. There in 1396 Sultan Bayazid I defeated a of many battles. crusader's army led by King Sigismund of Hungary, an event that decided the fate of the Balkan peoples for centuries. During the Russo-Turkish Wars the Russians under Gen. N. P. Krudener stormed and captured the town (1S77). Farming, viticulture and fishing are the main means of livelihood. The river port is small and shallow. (An. Be.) NIKOPOL, a town in Dnepropetrovsk oblast of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Repubhc, U.S.S.R., stands on the northern shore of the Kakhovka reservoir (Kakhovskoye Vodokhranilishche) on the Dnieper, and on the Zaporozhe-Krivoi Rog railway 65 mi. S.S.W. of Dnepropetrovsk city. Pop. (1959) 82,992. Founded as Nikitin Rog in the 1630s at a strategic crossing of the river, it was renamed Nikopol in 1782. It is important as the centre of the world's largest deposit of manganese, first mined there in 1886. Reserves are estimated at more than 500,000,000 tons. The metallurgical industry produces steel tubes, cranes and agricultural machinery, and food processing and brewing are also important. A dam protects the lower part of the town from the raised waters (R. A. F.) of the reservoir. NILE, an African river whose basin is the dominant feature of the northeastern quarter of the continent. Its length as the water flows from its most distant source to the entry of the Rosetta branch of the Nile delta into the Mediterranean is about 4,157 mi. This source is the head of the Luvironza in latitude 3° 40' S. and about 30 mi. E. of Lake Tanganyika. The Nile is probably the longest river in the world. The Mississippi-Missouri was once taken to be the longest but the U.S. army engineers later gave the length from the most remote source of the Missouri to the sea as 3,891 mi. The Amazon also may be more than 4,000 mi, long, but its length is taken from maps on a scale of 1:1,000,000, while the Nile has been measured from maps on scales ranging a

town

in

from 1 :100,000 to 1 :250,000, More detailed maps of the Amazon on a larger scale would be Hkely to increase its estimated length because of the effect of sinuosity. The name Nile comes from the Greek Neilos (Latin Nilus), whose origin is unknown. Aiguptos in the Odyssey is the name of the Nile (masculine) as well as of the country of Egypt (feminine) through which it flows and survives both in the name Egypt and in the name Copt (gupti in the Arabic of upper Egypt), At the present time the Nile in Egypt and in the northern Sudan is called En Nil, El Bahr ("the river") or El Bahr en Nil (Nahr an Nil). The basin covers approximately 1,100,000 sq,mi,, or about onetenth of the area of Africa, It embraces parts of Uganda, Kenya, Tanganyika, Rwanda and Burundi, the Republic of the Congo, most of the Sudan, part of Ethiopia and the cultivated portion of Egypt (U.A.R.). It supports a rapidly increasing population, estimated at more than 50,000,000 in the mid-1960s, of whom about half live in Egypt. It is possible to travel by car in the dry season

over most of the basin; but south of latitude 15° N. over the plains of the Sudan, motor transport is not usually possible from May to November. There are all-weather roads on the Lake plateau (around Lake 'Victoria in the Great Rift valley) and in the higher country leading to it and the Nile-Congo watershed. Three principal streams form the Nile. The largest in volume Nile, which draws practically all its water from is the Blue Ethiopia and contributes four-sevenths of the total supply of the main stream. Next comes the 'White Nile, which is the longest branch and supplies two-sevenths of the total its headstreams flow into Lakes Victoria and Albert; and lower down in the Sudan it receives the Sobat, which obtains its water mainly from Ethiopia. The White Nile and Blue Nile join at Khartoum. Last there is the Atbara, draining the northwestern part of Ethiopia and joining the main stream 200 mi. N. of Khartoum, which contributes the remaining one-seventh. The Blue Nile and Atbara are both muddy rivers in flood time and bring down the soil that has made the cultivable land of Egypt and is still adding to it. From the Atbara junction over the great S-shaped bend to the Nile delta and to within a few miles of the Mediterranean there is not enough rain to produce any crops, and so this area depends entirely on irrigation by Nile water. The river is navigable from the sea to the high Aswan dam and then to Wadi Haifa (about 951 mi.), and the Aswan dam and the barrages are passed by locks. Between Haifa and Khartoum the river is broken up by the cataracts, and ordinarily navigation is possible only in short stretches. From Khartoum the White Nile is navigable for 1,104 mi. to Rejaf, 100 mi. from the Uganda border, the Jebel AuUa (Jabal al Awliya') dam, 25 mi. S. of Khartoum, being passed by a lock. From Rejaf to the Uganda border the river is again beset with rapids, but there is navigation from Nimule on the border into Lake Albert and up ;

Between the Victoria Nile to the foot of the Murchison falls. Lakes Albert and Victoria there are two successions of rapids with a navigable stretch which includes Lake Kyoga (Kioga) between them. The Blue Nile is navigable during flood for 385 mi. as far as Roseires (Er Roseires; Ar Rusayris), though it is interrupted by the Sennar dam which has no lock. During the flood season the Sobat is navigable up to Garabela and the Bahr el Ghazal up to Wau (Waw). Regular air services operate on important routes throughout the Nile basin, inluding Ethiopia. White Nile. The main stream of the White Nile begins on the Lake plateau of east Africa, where there are two separate river systems, the Victoria Nile and the Lake Albert system. Most of this country lies 4,000 ft, or more above sea level and thus enjoys Two rivers, the Niavarongo (Nyawarongo) a pleasant climate. and Ruvuvu, may justly be considered the headwaters of the White Nile, since they join together to form the Kagera (q.v.), the most important tributary of Lake Victoria, The Kagera is a stream 510 mi. long from the source of the Luvironza to its mouth, near which it is 80 yd. wide. Of the other tributaries of Lake Victoria (g.v.), the largest from the point of view of discharge is the Nzoia in the northeast, which has rather less than half the discharge of the Kagera and is torrential, with only a small flow in the dry season; it draws its water from Mt. Elgon and the high country to the northeast of Lake Victoria. The lake has an area of about 26,800 sq.mi. inclusive of islands and is like a small sea as

—

it is

subject to considerable storms.

The Nile

leaves

Lake Victoria

which are now submerged because of the dam at the Owen falls a mile or more lower down. At this point the supposed connection between the level of Lake Victoria and sunspots may be mentioned. From 1896 to 1927 maximum and minimum lake levels coincided with maximum and minimum sunspot numbers, thus giving rise to the theory of a connection. Later, however, this regularity disappeared. Moreover, on theoretical grounds the connection is unlikely, so the coin-

by the Ripon

falls,

cidence in the

first

of the records

must be considered

as acci-

dental. Indeed, by the middle of the 20th century no connection between sunspot activity and any portion of the Nile had yet been estabhshed. The river below the lake, known as the Victoria Nile, is first beset with rocks and rapids but becomes navigable just above Namasagali (50 mi. from the lake). Below this are the combined Lakes Kyoga and Kwania, which are shallow with many

NILE arms filled with papyrus-reed swamp. Masses of papyrus are broken loose by strong winds and sometimes have closed the Victoria Nile completely. Navigation has been abandoned and is being replaced by extensions of railways. Below Kyoga the Nile is navigable until it turns westward, after which there is a series of rapids finishing with the Murchison falls. There the Nile passes through a narrow cleft in the rock and falls a distance of about 120 ft. A short distance from the Murchison falls the Victoria Nile enters Lake Albert (g.v.). Lake Albert is at the tail end of another river system which starts from near some of the Kagera sources but on the northern side of the Mfumbiro, or Virunga, volcanoes. The principal headstream of this system is the Rutshuru river, which runs along the Rift valley northward to Lake Edward (g.v.). Lake George, which is much smaller, is joined to Lake Edward by a broad channel. The Semliki river, a fair-sized river, connects Lake Edward with Lake Albert. It flows places

in

through thick forest along the western side of the

Ruwenzori range, of which it receives the drainage. Lake Albert lies between the high escarpments of the Rift valley, which in places come down abruptly to the water. It has an area of about 2,050 sq.mi. Below Lake Albert the river is known as the Albert Nile or Bahr el Jebel ("river of the mountain"), by which name it is known in the Sudan. For about 140 mi. the Bahr el Jebel is a placid stream, often with swampy edges abounding in mosquitoes; but at Nimule, on the Sudan-Uganda boundary, it ceases to be navigable for nearly 100 mi. as it descends from the plateau to the Sudan plains. Just below Nimule are the Fola (Fula) rapids, a fine sight, where the river rushes through a confined channel between rocks. After its arrival in the plains of the Sudan the country is flat except for rare rocky hills outcropping from the plain. Between Lake Albert and the plains the river receives some tributaries of a torrential nature, of which the principal is the Aswa from the southeast. The principal feature of the Bahr el Jebel when it reaches the plain is the large swamps of the Sudd region, where half its water is lost. Through these swamps the river winds between walls of high vegetation, papyrus, reeds and elephant grass, which except for lagoons and side channels extend from the river to the dry ground on either side, which may be miles away. Very few people are seen when once the river enters

swamps since only occasionally does it touch the higher ground. The country on the edge of the swamps provides good grazing, which lasts into the dry season, as the river, when high, floods a lot of country that is not permanent swamp. Most of the tribes of the

Nuers, Dinkas and Shilluks, are cattlevery primitive fashion. In the 19th cenby blocks of vegetation (Arabic, sudd). Between 1899 and 1904 the river, which had been completely blocked over long distances, was cleared. Since nagivation became regular and frequent these blocks have only very rarely been formed in the main stream, though less-frequented streams are occasionally blocked. About halfway through the swamps a separate channel, known as the Bahr ez Zeraf (Bahr az Zaraf) ("river of giraffes"), has been formed near the edge of the dry ground on the east and follows an independent course to the White Nile. In former times it was sometimes connected with the Bahr el Jebel, and a permanent connection has been made by means of two cuts dredged where the two streams are close together. At the tail end of the swamps the Bahr el Jebel is joined by the Bahr el Ghazal from the west and the two together flow eastward as the White Nile, being joined later by the Bahr ez Zeraf. The Bahr el Ghazal ("river of gazelles") is formed by the junction of a number of torrents coming from the southwest these southern plains,

owning people tury the Bahr

living in a

el

Jebel was frequently closed

and west. The main stream is the Jur, which is navigable in flood up to a point south of Wau, the capital of the Bahr el Ghazal province. Next to the Jur in size is the Lol, into which a numIt ends in swamps to the west of the Jur, el 'Arab; other streams end in swamp to the east. The effect of the swamps is that very little water flows out of the mouth of the Bahr el Ghazal into the White Nile. In the southern part of the Bahr el Ghazal basin the principal tribe

ber of tributaries flow. as also does the Bahr

is

that of the Azande,

who came

are agriculturalists and craftsmen.

originally

from the Congo and

THE NILE RIVER AND

The Sudd

ITS

TRIBUTARIES

swamps ends at the juncBahr el Ghazal and the Bahr el Jebel, although there some swamp fringing the White Nile nearly as far as the mouth of the Sobat. The Sobat draws the greater part of its water from the Ethiopian plateau, though a little comes from the south. It is formed of two main streams, the Baro flowing from east to west and the Pibor from the south. From the Ethiopian mountains to the White Nile the country is flat grass plain liable to be flooded in the rains and in parts waterless in the dry season. The Sobat is in flood from July to October on its headwaters and, as a result tion of the is

region of large permanent

;;

NILE

5i8 from flooded areas, remains high

of the inflow

at its

mouth

until

navigable in flood to Gambela on the Baro and to Pibor Post on the Pibor, but the journey for the greater part is monotonous. The Pibor is occasionally blocked by vegetation. From the Sobat mouth to Khartoum the White Nile is a wide placid stream with a very small slope and often a narrow fringe After Jebelein (Al Jabalayn) the country gradually of swamp.

December.

It is

forest gives place to thorn scrub, almost desert. At Kosti the railway follows the Blue Nile southeastward to Sennar and then turns southwestward on its way to El Obeid crosses the White Nile on a bridge with an opening span. Twentyfive miles from Khartoum is the Jebel Aulia dam, containing a lock, which form? a reservoir the effect of which, when full, extends beyond Renk. 2S0 mi. upstream. Between Malakal and Khartoum end the regions of Negro peoBantu in the far south and then ple speaking their own languages Sudanic and begins a region where the people are of mixed Arab and Negro descent and speak Arabic. In fact, Arabic is understood by riverside people and people on the main routes all over the southern Sudan, while in Uganda and east central Africa the

becomes more

arid

and savanna

Khartoum from Khartoum that until near

it

is

—

—

lingua franca

is

—

Swahili.

Blue Nile. This is the source of nearly 70% of the Nile flood. The reputed source of the Blue Nile is a spring to the south of Lake Tana (q.v.) in Ethiopia, from which flows the Little Abbai or Abbai, the principal tributary of the lake. The lake is in a basin at an altitude of about 6,000 ft. (1,840 m.), but with high mounno great distance. It has an area of about 1,418 sq.mi. The Blue Nile leaves the lake (3,673 sq.km.) and is shallow. over a series of rapids and very soon drops into a deep gorge in Tracks places 4,000 ft. below the general level of the plateau. tains at

descend to the river at places where at low stage there are fords. It is usually a two days' journey with mules to descend, cross the Tributary river and climb up the other side of the canyon. streams have cut similar ravines, and the scenery is magnificent both in scale and ruggedness. It is not possible to travel along the bottom of the gorge and the river is continually interrupted by rocks and rapids. There is a bridge at Shafartak where the road from Addis Ababa to Gojam crosses the river. Only a small portion of the Blue Nile water comes out of Lake Tana; by far the greater part is from tributaries, some of which are important streams, for example the Bashilo, Jamma, Guder, Dadessa (Didessa), Dabus, Balas, Binder and Rahad. The water is derived from the rain that falls on the Ethiopian plateau and not from melting snow as sometimes stated. The highest mountains in Ethiopia reach 15,000 ft. but snow seldom falls on them. A dam was under construction in the 1960s at Roseires and halfway between there and Khartoum is the Sennar dam, by means of which an area of 1,000,000 ac. in the Gezira between the Blue and the White Niles is irrigated. The water is impounded in flood and used in February and March. It is a good example of co-operation —originally between the government, a foreign company holding a concession and the Sudanese tenants, then, after the concession

had terminated, between the government and the tenants only. The Gezira project is well planned, and irrigation is based on careful measurement by weirs and other devices of the quantities of water entering the feeders from the main canal. The principal crops are cotton, millet and lubia [a kind of bean). Between Sennar and Khartoum the Blue Nile receives two tributaries: the Binder and the Rahad. These, like the Blue Nile, are torrential but, unlike it. dry up entirely except for pools (.though both are considerable streams in flood).

Main

flows between deserts with a

north.

In this stretch the Nile receives

desolate, particularly in the

Utilization, below.)

From Aswan northward

to Cairo the river

bordered by a width Outside this is

is

flood plain of alluvium gradually increasing to a

maximum

is cultivated by irrigation. At the beginning of the 20th century basin irrigation down to the head of the delta. In this system the land is watered by short canals, which can receive water only when the river is in flood. These deliver the muddy water on to the land, which is divided into compartments or basins by cross banks running from the river bank to the higher desert edge. The water is held in these basins to a depth of several feet for some During this time the land is well w-eeks and deposits its mud. soaked, the river falls and the remaining water is then returned. After this seeds are planted in the mud to produce the single annual crop, which gets only such extra water as can be lifted from wells. This system was in use for thousands of years without any deterioration of the soil; but with an uncontrolled river the area that could be watered was variable and liable to be reduced in a low flood, with the possibility of famine. In perennial irrigation as distinguished from flood irrigation much smaller quantities of water are run on to the land every two or three weeks and two or three crops are grown in the year. This began to develop on a

of about 12 mi. which

the desert.

was practised

from canals in the time of Mohammed Ali Pasha, toward the middle of the 19th century. A necessary feature is the barrages or low dams which have been built across the Nile at various points to enable its level to be raised so that it can flow at all times into main canals, whose heads are just above the barFrom the main canals there are branch canals, and these rages. again divide into smaller canals called distributaries, which deBy the liver the water to irrigation ditches and so to the land. end of the 19th century cultivation in the delta itself was all perennial, depending on the Mohammed Ali barrage (below Cairo at the head of the delta), above which the three main canals of lower Egypt begin; in 1903 an auxiUary barrage was built at Zifta (q.v.), 54 mi. downstream. During the 20th century barrages were built at Nag' Hammadi and Asyut in upper Egypt, by means of which a large part of upper Egypt was converted to the perennial system and another barrage at Isna improved basin irrigation. Buring the time of low supply, when all the water is needed for irrigation, the Rosetta (Rashid) branch is closed at the barrage and the Bamietta (Bumyat branch nearly so. while both are completely closed near the sea: the first by the Idfina barrage with its sluices, the second by an earth bank built each year by February and washed away by the rising flood in August (during this time waterborne traffic large scale

)

in the delta follows the canals).

The crops grown during the

low stage of the river are cotton, rice, sugar cane, peanuts, sesame and millet. In the flood season the principal crop is maize (corn) and in the winter the crops are wheat, barley, clover, beans, flax, onions and lentils. Cotton is the most valuable crop and occupies

more than one-quarter of Egypt's principal export.

the total cultivated area.

The Nile from Aswan

It

to the sea

is

also

is

con-

though control is not com(See also Hydrology, below, and the Physical

trolled in the interests of irrigation,

— The

main stream, from Khartoum northward, narrow strip of vegetation on either Where the soil permits, the banks and neighbouring flatland side. are cultivated by the use of Nile water and support a small population. These conditions continue to Aswan and a little farther Nile.

From Abu Hamad onward

the valley is often rocky and neighbourhood of the Fourth cataract and for more than 100 mi. S. of Wadi Haifa, where the country is known as the Batn al Hagar ("belly of stones"). Wadi Haifa is just below the Second cataract and is within the area affected by the heightened Aswan reservoir, which ponds water up as far back The low Aswan dam, which has been raised as the cataract. twice, has a height of nearly 53 m. (174 ft.) and a length of 2 km. (li mi.) and stores 5,300,000,000 cu.m. of water. (The high Aswan dam is discussed under Irrigation, Flood Control and Water

gareb).

its

last tributary,

the

Atbara river (q.v.), which in flood is a large muddy river and in the dry season is a string of pools. A dam was under construction at Khashm el Girba (Khashm al Jarbah). The Atbara's principal tributaries are the Setit, or Takkaze, and the Bahr as Salam (An-

plete in flood time.

Geography and Economy sections of Egypt.) Climate and Health. In Egypt the months

—

are hot in the daytime, but there

perature after sunset.

is

The winter months

is

to

October

usually have clear

The

bright days with cool or even cold nights.

northern Sudan

May

a considerable drop in tem-

climate of the

similar except that the temperatures are higher.

Upper Egypt and the northern Sudan are characterized by low humidities, and the region from Haifa to Atbara is one of the driest in the world.

In the central Sudan from

Khartoum

to

Renk

NILE or Roseires during the

months

the days are not unduly hot,

December, January and February and the nights are cool, while the

of

humidity is low; then the temperature increases until May or June, after which the onset of the rains causes it to drop; September and October are liable to be oppressive. In the southern Sudan the average temperature is lower than farther north and varies less through the year; the highest temperatures occur from January The climate of to April and the lowest are in July and August. the high country of Ethiopia and central Africa is temperate, and above 5,000 ft. the nights are cold. Around Lake Victoria the temperature does not vary much through the year.

There Mediterranean coast from S to 8 in. annually) and over the delta, but this decreases rapidly with distance from the sea, being about 1 in. in Cairo; it falls usually in the months from November to March. (2) A region extending from just south of Cairo to just north of Atbara is practically rainless. (3) There is next a steady increase of rainfall southward of the rainless region. (4 Regions of fairly heavy rainfall are found on the Ethiopian and Lake plateaus, where a total of more than 72 in. is reached in places, the average rainfall of both plateaus being about 50 in. On the whole the rainfall of the Nile basin is scanty, and hence for the size of its basin the discharge of the Nile is small. From Khartoum southward over the Sudan plain and in Ethiopia the maximum of rainfall is in July and August, but the rainy season is increasingly long toward the south and as the altitude of the country increases. On the Lake plateau there is no month when rain may not fall. There are two minima and maxima, the minima being in January and June-July. In the southern and central parts of the basin, malaria, carried by the anopheline mosquito, is common. All over the basin dysentery and typhoid fevers are endemic. The parasites that cause these are usually taken in food, while water and flies are also agents of infection. In Egypt and some other parts of the basin schistosomiasis (bilharziasis and ancylostomiasis, diseases caused by microscopic worms, are widespread They are either contracted by drinking infected water or by wading or bathing in it. In cer-

The

is

a

principal features of the rainfall are as follows: (1)

little

rain on the

(

I

)

tain districts relapsing fever occurs, transmitted

at night.

ground or

by the

bite of a

houses and comes out Sleeping sickness in the southern Nile basin was for-

tick that lives in cracks in the

merly responsible for many deaths. stringent control measures,

it

in

However,

as

a

result

has practically disappeared.

of

It is

from one person to another by the bites of species of tsetse same genus carry trypanosomiasis of animals and so cause mortality among cattle, horses and donkeys. Vegetation. The desert region outside the Nile valley extends from the Mediterranean to about the latitude of Atbara. Much of this area is almost rainless, and there is no vegetation except in favoured places such as the oases, where underground water comes to the surface, or along drainage lines where after rain the subsoil may remain moist for a long period. As regions of scanty but regular rainfall are reached, the country becomes dotted with small thorny shrubs, mostly acacias. These begin about the latitude of Atbara and grow increasingly thickly toward the south. After rain the country becomes green with grasses and small herbs but these rapidly dry up after the rain ceases. South of this are types of savanna country. The first is thorny savanna containing small thorny trees and after the rains grass and herbs. This covers much of the central Sudan from latitude 10° to 15° N. South of this is found true savanna country, consisting of open grass plains on which trees are rare except in a few places near the rivers, and on which the grass may grow from 6 to 10 ft. high. During the rains these plains are often swampy. True savanna covers a good deal of country from Malakal to Bor and from the Bahr el Jebel to the foothills of the Ethiopian plateau. During the dry season, which lasts about half the year, the grass dries, and over parts of the Lake plateau and most of the southern Sudan it is burned every year. This kills many species of trees and stunts the growth of the remainder, so limiting the vegetation. In the savanna zone the rivers are often fringed with reed swamp, more particularly the Bahr el Jebel in the Sudd region from Lake No carried

files.

Flies of the

—

to

519

Bor and

papyrus,

tall

Bahr

Ghazal. In this swamp grow reeds, and floating plants such as Vossia cuspidate,

also the lower

el

Echinochloa and Pktia stratiotes.

Papyrus swamps are also found

Lake plateau. In 1958 the water hyacinth (Eichhornia), a dangerous pest, appeared on the White Nile and is now found from Juba to Jebel Aulia, and on the Sobat and Bahr el Ghazal. It is also found in the drains of lower Egypt. The true savanna country changes into savanna forest, which in the valleys of the

fringes the Blue Nile near Roseires and southward and covers the western slopes and parts of the plateau of Ethiopia, the southern el Ghazal basin and large areas of Uganda, the Lake plateau and its slopes. Savanna forest consists of trees of

parts of the Bahr

medium

height casting little shade, while the ground is covered with grass and perennial herbs. Tropical rain forest does not exist in great quantity in the Nile basin, but it is found in river valleys along the Nile-Congo divide and in patches on the Lake plateau

and

Rain forest is characterized by a large number of and several strata of vegetation, so that practically all the space is utilized and a wonderful luxuriance of plant life results. (H. E. Ht.) River Fauna. At least 55 genera and 1 12 species of fishes are known from the Nile system, but only 16 species are endemic to the area. The greater number of species is recorded from the White and lower Niles, only about one-third of these also occurring in the Blue Nile and then mostly below Roseires. The Blue Nile has, however, a slightly greater proportion of endemic species, all of the genus Barbus, and confined to its upper reaches. The Aswa river, a tributary of the upper Nile, has a pecuUar ichthyofauna composed of typical Nilotic species and others characteristic of the Lake Victoria basin. Nonendemic Nilotic species are widely distributed in east and west Africa, particularly the Niger system. Notable species are the perchlike Tilapia nilotica, the giant Nile perch (Lates niloticus), which may weigh more than 200 lb., and in Ethiopia.

species

—

several species of catfishes including the

Raad

or electric catfish

capable of producing a discharge of 300-400 volts, Synodontis batensoda which habitually swims upside down, and the airbreathing catfish Clarias iazera. The common eel penetrates as far as Khartoum. Fishes feature in the graphic art of ancient Egypt and certain species were apparently venerated; e.g., the snoutfish Mormyrus caschive ) and the Nile perch. The reptiles most intimately associated with the Nile are the Nile crocodile, found in most parts of the river, the soft-shelled turtle, and three species of monitor lizard: Varanus griseus, an essentially Asian and north African species, ranges along the Nile to about the Atbara where it meets the northerly limit of distribution of the savanna species (V. exanthematicus) the Nile (

;

monitor (V. niloticus), occurs throughout the river system, except in lower Egypt. About 30 species of snakes, of which less than half are harmless, are associated with the Nile river; the range of

some has been extended by ship transportation. The hippopotamus was common throughout the Nile system historical times but is now extinct except south of Khartoum. (P. H. Gr.;

History of Exploration.— The

in

a. G. C. G.)

earliest traces of

man

are stone

implements found in many parts of the basin, some of which were made perhaps 100,000 years ago. The most recent in Egypt are found with early pottery and come down to c. 4500 B.C. The historical period begins c. 3400 B.C. and follows a period known as predynastic in which metal instruments began to be used as well as those of stone.

When

the early flint-implement people Hved,

warm and humid. Lakes and what is now desert and the country was covered with vegetation and inhabited by animals now only found in tropical Africa. The mildness of the climate allowed men to Hve in shelters made of reeds or branches and did not force them to live in caves, as in northern countries, where traces of their occupation would have been preserved. Consequently the only remains of these early men are their durable flint instruments, which are the climate of north Africa was rivers existed in

widespread over northeastern Africa. Gradually the climate became drier, the rivers shrank and ultimately, perhaps 20,000 years ago, desert conditions were established as they are at present. The result of this change was to concentrate people on the edges of the

NILE

520

Nile valley. In the valley itself the river probably covered most of the land when in flood and left huge marshes when it fell again and retired to its trough. In these marshes primitive people living on the edges of the valley hunted hip|ioj«)tamuses, water-loving antelopes and wild fowl. As the rainf.Tll over north Africa de-

who

followed a trade route of the Arabs from the east Lake Tanganyika. On the return journey Speke went north and reached the southern end of Lake Victoria, which he thought might be the origin of the Nile. This was followed in 1860 by another expedition by Speke and J. A. Grant under the auspices of the Royal Geographical society. They followed the (qg.v.),

coast and reached

like its present

creased and the country became arid, the Nile shrank to something volume, and the beginnings of agriculture probably started on the edges of the valley. Actual history in the basin begins in Egypt 5,000 or 6,000 years ago and is based on deductions from pottery and utensils found in tombs. Later there are the inscriptions, pictures and carvings

previous route to Tabora and then turned toward Karagwe, the country west of Lake Victoria. There they saw the high Mfumbiro, or Virunga, mountains 100 mi. to the west (they thought that they might be the Mountains of the Moon) and discovered the Kagera river. From the information that he was

on the monuments which record contemporary events, and so down through ancient Egyptian, Greek, Roman and Arab times

able to collect Speke thought that the Kagera must be the principal tributary of the lake. Continuing around the lake he finally reached

to the present. Little is known of the early history of the Nile basin outside Egypt and this comes from the excavations in the northern Sudan and occasional references on Egyptian monuments

Ripon falls (1862), at which point he wrote "I saw that old Father Nile without any doubt rises in Victoria Nyanza." Speke then made his way northward with Grant, for part of the way along the Nile, until they reached Gondokoro, nearly opposite the present Juba. They heard rumours on the way of another large lake to the west but were unable to visit it and passed the information on to Sir Samuel White Baker (q.v.), who met them at Gondokoro, having come up from Cairo, Baker then continued his journey south and discovered Lake Albert. Neither Speke nor Baker had followed the Nile completely from the Ripon falls to Gondokoro, and Baker, who saw the northern half of Lake Albert, was told that it extended a very long way to the south. The discoveries of Speke and Baker are now commonly held to have settled the origin and course of the Nile, but at the time the unexplored gaps and the very elementary state of the science of hydrology led people to think that there was still an element of doubt. The question was settled when, between 1874 and 1877, Gen. C. G. Gordon and his officers followed the river and mapped part of it. In particular Lake Albert was mapped and Col. Charles Chaille-Long, an American, discovered Lake Kyoga. In 1875 Henry (later Sir Henry) Morton Stanley (g.v.) traveled up from the east coast and circumnavigated Lake Victoria. His attempt to get to Lake Albert was not successful, though he traveled up the Katonga swamps and got as far as the escarpment above Lake George, from which he was forced to turn back by tribal unrest. Finally he marched to Lake Tanganyika and traveled down the Congo to the sea. In another memorable journey in 1889 to relieve Emin Pasha, Stanley traveled up the Congo and across to Lake Albert, where he met Emin and persuaded him to evacuate his Equatorial province, which had been invaded by the Khalifa's forces {see Emin Pasha, Mehmed). They returned to the east coast by way of the Semliki valley and Lake Edward, and Stanley saw the snowy peaks of Ruwenzori for the first time. Thus by 1890 the main features of the Nile basin were known, though there still remained much to be explored and also the business of map making, which 60 years later was still not fully complete in detail. After 1900 the expansion of perennial irrigation in Egypt and its beginnings in the Sudan created demands for more water when the river was low. These led to hydrological

to people farther south.

It

seems

down

likely that the ancient Egyptians,

Red sea as far as Somalia and up the Nile beyond Khartoum, knew nothing of the source of the river which they deified as Apis (Hapi), who irrigated and nourished their crops. Herodotus, who visited Egypt c. 460 B.C. and although they traded

the

some account of the country and a about what lay to the south as far perhaps as the beginning of the Sudd region. He observed that Egypt was a land given to the Egyptians by the Nile. By the 1st century a.d. trade down the traveled up to Aswan, has left

little

Red

and the east coast of Africa was well established, must have led to trade with the interior. It was probably rumours of snow-capped mountains and great lakes in the interior reached the Mediterranean. Because of the difficulties of travel in the Sudan it seems unlikely that the connection of the Nile with these was actually established; it was and due

sea to India

this

to this that

probably an intelligent guess.

Strabo about the beginning of the

it was well known that the annual rise of the Nile was due to rain on the high mountains of Ethiopia. Ptolemy, who hved in Alexandria in the 2nd century a.d. and wrote treatises on astronomy and geography, thought that the White Nile came from the high snow-covered mountains in central Africa, called the Mountains of the Moon (commonly identified with the Ruwenzori range), and passed through two lakes. His map corresponds in a general way with what actually exists and must have been

era says that

a collation of information then current as travelers' tales.

With Portuguese expeditions to Ethiopia in the 15th and 16th more definite knowledge was obtained. The first Euroto see the source of the Blue Nile was Father Pedro Paez, a Spanish Jesuit, who visited it in 1613. Later, about 1770, James Bruce, the British explorer, spent some time near Lake Tana and the headwaters of the Blue Nile and then returned from Gondar to the Blue Nile at Sennar and so down the Nile to Cairo. Modern exploration of the Nile basin begins with the conquest of the northern and central Sudan by Mohammed Ali Pasha and his sons from 1821 onward. As a result of this the Blue Nile was known as far as its exit from the Ethiopian foothills, and the White Nile as far as the Sobat mouth. During his last visit to the Sudan about 1837 Mohammed Ali gave orders for the exploration of the White Nile so as to solve the problem of its origin, which had interested the civilized world for 2,000 years. Three expedicenturies

pean

SeUm Bimbashi, were made between 1839 and 1842 and two got to the point about 20 mi. beyond the present port of Juba, where the country rises and rapids make navigation very difficult. These expeditions were accompanied tions under a Turkish officer,

by Georges Thibaut (Shawki Ibrahim), Jacques Pons d'Arnaud (Arnaud Bey) and Ferdinand Werne who published accounts of their journeys.

After these expeditions traders and missionaries penetrated the country and established stations in the southern Sudan. From an Austrian missionary, Ignaz Knoblecher, in 1850

came reports of lakes farther south. In the 1840s the missionaries Johann Ludwig Krapf, Johannes Rebmann and J. Erhardt, traveling in east Africa, saw the snow-topped mountains Kilimanjaro and Kenya and heard from traders of a great inland sea which might be a lake or lakes. These reports led to fresh interest in the Nile source and to an expedition by Richard Francis Burton and John Hanning Speke

the

studies,

and

irrigation projects described below.

Hydrology.

— Nile studies may be

said to have

begun

at a

very

the ancient Egyptians recorded river levels on Nilometers, some of which still remain. However, before the 20th century there was very httle detailed knowledge about the Nile water supply and its origin, and the greatest developments took place after World War I. The levels and discharges of the early date,

as

main stream are now measured points from the Kagera, beyond Lake Victoria, to the sea, with the exception of the Blue Nile beyond the Sudan boundary. Between 1901 and 1904 Sir William Edmund Garstin made a hydrological reconnaissance of the White Nile from Lake Vicprincipal tributaries and of the at

many

Khartoum, and C. E. Dupuis examined the Atbara and also the Binder (tributaries of the Blue Nile) and visited Lake Tana. The results of these reconnaissances, with recommendations for the improvement of Egypt's water supply, were published in 1904 in a report on the basin of the upper Nile. In 1906 Sir Henry Lyons pubUshed his Physiography of the Nile Basin, in which was collected all the information from travelers and scientific explorers available at the time. In the previous toria to

the

Rahad and

NILE year the Sudan branch of the Egyptian Irrigation service had been formed, which with the Physical department was to continue studies of the upper Nile. In 1925 the Sudan formed an irrigation service, and in 1947 Uganda started a hydrological survey. The principal feature of the Nile regime is the annual flood. The river at Wadi Haifa, where it enters Egypt, usually begins to rise in June, reaches its maximum at the beginning of September and then falls away at a decreasing rate. It is low from February to the middle of July, and during this time its natural supply is insufficient for the irrigation requirements of Egypt. Although the flood is a fairly regular phenomenon it varies both in volume and in date. These variations are important, since a very high flood brings danger of flooding in Egypt and the northern Sudan, and a low one may mean a shortage of irrigation water later. The flood is caused by the Blue Nile and Atbara rivers whose waters come from rainfall on the Ethiopian highlands and bring down mud washed off the land surface into the many small streams that they form. The two rivers come down in flushes, which are gradually smoothed as they travel down the river. The average flows of the Nile and its principal tributaries are shown in the ac-

companying graphs.

It is clear that the greatest part of the total contributed by the Blue Nile and the least by the Atbara, but at the low time of the year the White Nile is the most important stream. The White Nile also receives some water from the Ethiopian highlands, which altogether produce 84% of the Nile supply, while the remaining 16% comes from the Lake plateau

flow

is

of central Africa. When the Blue Nile is rising rapidly it holds up the White Nile discharge, which begins to increase only when the rise slows down. The effect of the Blue Nile is therefore to make a natural reservoir of the White Nile, and this effect is now

produced

artificially

on a greater scale by the Jebel Aulia dam,

Khartoum a

short distance up the White Nile, which adds 2,000,000,000 cu.m. to Egypt's low-stage supply. The Atbara draws its supply from the northern part of the Ethiopian plateau, but little is known of the hydrology of its tributaries. The rainfall that causes its flood comes from the same source as that faUing in the Blue Nile basin, and this is probably the South situated south of

Atlantic

(see below).

In flood

its

level fluctuates rapidly like

and after the flood it soon ceases to flow. receives two tributaries in the Sudan, both com-

that of the Blue Nile,

The Blue Nile

Rahad and the Binder. They are strong streams in flood but, like the Atbara, are reduced to pools later. When at their maximum, they produce together about 10% of the Blue Nile's discharge. Of the tributaries of the Blue Nile outside the Sudan practically nothing is known from a hydrological point of view. Lake Tana has been studied and only produces about 7% of the discharge of the Blue Nile. The lake is important because it offers the possibility of an economical reservoir for the

ing from Ethiopia, the

joint use of the

Sudan and Egypt and power

for Ethiopia,

excess evaporation losses would be small. About half of the discharge of the White Nile

is

where

provided by the

Sobat, about half by the Bahr el Jebel and an insignificant portion by the Bahr el Ghazal. The Sobat is formed by two main streams, the Baro coming from Ethiopia and the Pibor coming from the south, though its main tributaries also come from Ethiopia.

Flushes occur on the headstreams of the Sobat, but when they reach the plains they overflow and flood large areas of country. The effect of this is to smooth out all the peaks and to delay the

maximum at the mouth by a couple of months. Sobat, like the Blue Nile and Atbara in flood time, brings

arrival of the

mud from

The down

amount gets into the main White Nile. The graph C shows the average contributions to the White Nile of the Sobat and Bahr el Jebel. It will be noticed that the Bahr el Jebel's discharge varies very little throughout the year. This is due to the regulating effect of the large swamps of the Sudd region on the Bahr el Jebel. When a rise occurs upstream of the swamps, most of it flows out of the river into the marshes and only a very small part of the increase is left at their tail. As large areas are below the river level, the water that enters them is lost by evaporation and by transpiration from the luxuriant vegetation, with the result that the Bahr el Jebel loses Ethiopia, though only a small

u.

o200

521

NILE

522

of central Africa valuable as potential storage reservoirs. Lake Victoria was made into a reservoir (1954) by the Owen Falls

dam

on the Victoria Nile, just below

its outfall

from the

lake.

In

can be stored to meet from the lake is harnessed by a provide power for industries in Uganda.

this the surplus discharges of high years

the deficit of low ones.

The

hydroelectric plant to Origin of the Xile Flood.

fall

—

It is known that the greater part of the Nile water comes from rainfall in Ethiopia. The development of meteorology in the 20th century made it clear that the causes of such phenomena as the Indian monsoon and other tropical

must be sought in the general circulation of the atmosphere. In 1910 J. I. Craig put forward the theory that the Ethiopian rainfall is caused by a current of moist air coming from the South rains

Atlantic across Africa.

The following

is

the evidence.

The pos-

Mediterranean sea, the ocean and the South Atlantic ocean. The Mediterranean and Red seas are ruled out because of intervening deserts and the fact that there is no stream large enough to reach the sea on the eastern side of the highlands. On the whole the winds of the rainy season blow across Africa from the Gulf of Guinea to Ethiopia. The rainfall is heaviest over the coast and the Congo basin, diminishes over the Sudan plains and is again South and east of the fairly heavy on the Ethiopian plateau. plateau, rainfall is scanty and large areas are desert or semidesert. Much work has been devoted to Periodicity and Prediction.

sible sources of rain in Ethiopia are the

Red

sea, the Indian

—

the search for periodicities in natural phenomena and the long series of records of the Roda (Cairo) Nilometer have afforded

valuable material. The most complete portion extends, with gaps, from A.D. 622 to a.d. 1522 and gives maximum and minimum levels. In spite of uncertainties because of repairs and renewals of the gauge, to changes of the river channel, to vagaries of gauge observers and to defects in the records, much useful information When the maximum levels are can be extracted from them. plotted in order, the principal feature is the occurrence of terms of

years when, on the whole, floods are above the average and of others when they are below; but there is no obvious regularity about their occurrence. Low floods may occur among high ones and \'ice versa. For example, in the latter half of the 19th century a very low and a very high flood occurred in successive years, with a difference at Aswan of 9 ft. between their peaks. Many people have analyzed the records, and periodicities have been found varying from 2 to 240 years in length, but

all

of

them have small

amplitudes of the order of 10 cm. The largest so far found has an amplitude of 17 cm., or 34 cm. between minimum and maximum floods. These periodicities are completely masked by the irregularities and, although they may have theoretical importance, are of no use for the practical business of attempting to forecast the flood.

Forecasts of the river,

when they can be made, are The flood of moved north of

able value in the practice of irrigation. curs

when

the tropical rain belt has

of consider-

the Nile octhe equator.

Following the theory put forward by J. I. Craig {see above), many attempts have been made to find numerical relations between the Nile flood and other meteorological phenomena chosen from all over the globe, as a means of forecasting. Although some relations have been found nothing of practical value has emerged.

Two

other types of forecast are successful and in regular use. The first depends on the time taken by rises or falls of the river to travel downstream and on the flattening that they undergo as

Past records of river levels have been analyzed, this analysis curves and tables have been made showing long a well-marked change of level takes to travel over the various reaches of the river and how much is lost on the way. This varies with the height of the river. For example, the time from Roseires on the Blue Nile to Aswan, a distance of 1,540 mi., varies from 10 days at the top of the flood to 35 days at the lowest

they proceed.

and from

how

levels.

This type of forecast

is

very useful when the Blue Nile

and Atbara begin to rise, and plans must be made for the sowing of crops. The amount of these depends on the amount of available water, of which some must be retained in the Aswan reservoir so that

it is

not empty before the natural supply of the rising river the crops. If the flood is a high one, this type

is sufl&cient for

of forecast is again useful to predict the height to which the river is likely to rise in lower Egypt, so that suitable measures can be taken to prevent breaches of the river banks. The other successful type of forecast is based on the fact that when the rains in Ethiopia are over, usually by the end of October, the Blue Nile falls regularly in much the same manner each year. Consequently the discharge in one month influences those in the following months, and a forecast can be made in November for the following months up to May or even June. This forecast is extremely useful as it gives an idea of the water that will be available for summer crops and whether the prospects are favourable for a large area under rice. Irrigation, Flood Control and Water Utilization. In Egypt in the early 1960s about 6,000,000 ac. were cultivated by irrigation, of which 700,000 ac. were on the basin system of flood irrigation (derived from the pharaonic system of agriculture) and the remainder were on perennial irrigation utilizing dams and reservoirs and of great economic importance (see Mai?t Nile, above; see also Egypt; The Economy). In the Sudan about 1,000,000 ac. were irrigated in the Gezira {q.v.) by water taken into a canal just above the Sennar dam; about 1,200,000 ac. were irrigated by pumps drawing from the river; and an area in Northern province of about 90,000 ac. in good years was watered by flooding. Elsewhere in the basin of the Nile cultivation by irrigation is prac-

—

tically nonexistent.

The irrigation year may be divided into two parts, which are roughly from August to January when the river supply is in excess of requirements, and from February to July when it is necessary to add to the natural flow of the river by water stored from the previous time of excess. The storage of water in the Jebel AuUa reservoir begins in August when there is definitely an excess in Egypt. This is White Nile water, which is free from silt, and it is used for irrigation in Egypt as soon as the natural river is insufficient. The Sennar dam is in use from the middle of July to the end of March.

Its reservoir

is

first

of

all filled

to the level re-

quired to supply the Gezira canal and later to full storage level. During February and March the canal takes only water previously stored in the reservoir, since at this time Egypt has a right to the natural flow. reservoir

Further water

from October, and

this

is

stored for Egypt in the

is

drawn upon

all

Aswan

after the supply

from the Jebel Aulia reservoir is exhausted. At the height of the silt content of Nile water averages about 2,500 parts per 1.000,000 by weight, and for the whole flood period from July to October about 1,600 parts per 1,000,000. This is much less than is carried by many other rivers, for example the Colorado, the Missouri and the Indus. Most of this has passed by the time that

flood the

Aswan reservoir begins to be filled. It occasionally happens, however, that the reservoir is partially filled at the top of a high flood to reduce the maximum levels in Egypt. So far only an insignificant amount of mud has been deposited in the reservoir by this procedure. Nile water contains on the average about 1 70 parts per 1,000.000 of dissolved salts. This is not a great amount and is only about half that in the Thames, but more than in many other the

British rivers.

By the middle of the 20th century the rapidly increasing popuEgypt and the Sudan had made further conservation works on the Nile urgent. Proposals for these were made in 1946 in The Nile Basin, vol. vii, by H. E. Hurst, R. P. Black and Y. M. Simaika, and were accepted as the pohcy of the Egyptian government in 1949. They involved as a main principle over-year storage, the theory of which was worked out by Hurst {Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Paper 2447 [1951] and Proceedings, Institution of Civil Engineers, part 1, vol. v [1956]). Over-year storage was essential, since in 1913-14, for instance, the whole discharge of the river had been less than were the requirements of Egypt and the Sudan in the middle of the 20th lations in

century.

The

projects comprised, in the

first

place, a large reser-

Lake Victoria, produced by the Owen Falls dam, which would form the main reservoir for over-year storage and would also provide hydroelectric power for use in Uganda; by means of this, reservoir water would be stored in good years to supplement the supply of bad ones. An adjunct to this reservoir was to be a voir in

NILE,

BATTLE OF THE

dam near the outlet of Lake Kyoga. Third, a Lake Albert was required to control water from the Semliki river and the large quantity coming in seasons of unusually heavy rainfall from the tributaries of Lake Kyoga and the amount of water sent down to the Sudan and Egypt. Fourth, regulator or low reservoir in

view of the losses of water in the swamps of the Bahr el Jebel, it was obviously useless to provide large storage reservoirs if half their outflow would be lost, the Jonglei diversion canal was designed to bypass the swamps; this would leave the Bahr el Jebel at Jonglei below Bor and join the White Nile between the mouths of the Bahr ez Zeraf and the Sobat. A regulator would divert about half the discharge down this canal, and the remainder would flow down the Bahr el Jebel at a level that would reduce the losses to normal, so that there would be a gain of water in addition to the regulated distribution produced by the lake reserThe Jebel Aulia reservoir was to continue to act as it alvoirs. ready did and to store water mainly from the Sobat flood. Fifth, a projected dam at the outlet of Lake Tana, if the lake could be used to its full capacity, would provide water for the increase of cultivation in the Sudan, a measure of over-year storage and also a reserve in case of emergency in Egypt, such as might be caused by a very low flood, as well as hydroelectric power for Ethiin

as

opia.

Finally, a large dam on the main Nile below the Atbara would provide a reservoir for flood protection with, in addition, some stored water from all floods except the low ones, for use in the Nothing was planned to reduce the losses following low stage. in the Bahr el Ghazal basin, the only large source still remaining. These projects could only be carried out after agreements between Egypt, the Sudan. Ethiopia, the Republic of the Congo and the east African territories. The Owen Falls dam has been built and the Sudan carried out a far-reaching investigation into the effects of the Equatorial Nile projects on the country and its people. (See Report on the Equatorial Nile Project and Its Effect

on the Southern Sudan, 1954.)

The Equatorial Nile project would develop storage of White Nile water nearly to its maximum, but could do little to store the floodwaters of the Blue Nile and Atbara, which at present flow to sea. From the point of view of capacity the best situation for would be on the main Nile below the Atbara it would deal with the combined flow. To meet need a proposal was made for a high dam (Sudd al Aah) at Aswan, and surveys showed that the valley had no outlets and was of a favourable shape with a large capacity. A project was drawn up by Egypt for a rock-fill dam with tunnels round its ends in the granite river bank to carry the flow, at a site about 4 mi. upstream of the present dam. The maximum water level would be about 60 m. above the top level of the present reservoir, and the reservoir when full would extend about 90 mi. beyond Wadi Haifa (which would be inundated), and would have a capacity of 157,000,000,000 cu.m., of which the lowest 30.000,000,000 would be used as a silt trap, the next 97,000,000,000 for overyear storage and the top 30,000,000,000 for flood protection for Egypt. Evaporation is heavy in this region, but the Aswan site is the most favourable so far found, and high evaporation is inseparable from storage of a large part of the flood. Work on the Aswan high dam was in fact begun in 1960 with Soviet financial and technical assistance after agreement between Egypt and the Sudan was reached regarding sharing of water and indemnities to the Sudan for flooded lands. In 1964 the Nile was diverted through the tunnels. The project can be of use both to Egypt and the Sudan and forms an essential part of any comprehensive scheme for Nile conservation. It would also produce a large amount of hydroelectric power. The Sudan government also prepared a Nile Valley plan which provided, in addition, for dams at Roseires, Atbara and on the Baro in Ethiopia for annual storage, and dams at Semna (within the Aswan high dam reservoir) and in the Blue Nile canyon in Ethiopia for over-year storage. It has employed an electronic computer to try out the working of the plan based on the years 1905-52. A hydroelectric power scheme on the low Aswan dam began working in 1960. Any of the dams already mentioned offers a reservoir to do this

junction, where

this

a possible site for the development of power, but a some cases is the distance between the place where the

be produced and that where

drawback in power could

could be usefully employed.

it

The

primary need is for water for irrigation. See also references under "Nile" in the Index. (H. E. Ht.) Bibliography.— H. E. Hurst, P. Phillips, R. P. Black and Y. M. Simaika, The Nile Basin, 9 vol. with supplements (1931-61) papers of the Egyptian Irrigation Service, Survey and Physical Departments (Cairo); H. E. Hurst, The Nile (1957); H. G. Lyons, Physiography G. W. Grabham and R. P. Black, Report of the of the Nile (1906) Mission to Lake Tana (1925); F. Newhouse, Training of the Upper ;

;

Irrigation (1934Nile (1939) J. D. Atkinson, Handbook of Egyptian 35) Sir William Willcocks and J. I. Craig, Egyptian Irrigation (1913) Newhouse, M. F. G. lonides and Nile Control M. MacDonald, (1920) G. Lacey, Irrigation (1950); J. D. Tothill (ed.), Agriculture in the ;

;

;

;

Sudan (1948); Sudan Notes and Records (periodical, Khartoum); H. B. Thomas and R. Scott, Uganda (1935, 1949) G. A. Boulenger, ;

Zoology of Egypt: the Fishes of the Nile (1907); C. Gaillard, "Les poissons representes dans quelques tombeaux Egyptiens," Mem. Inst. Franc. Archeol. Orient. 51 (1923) P. H. Greenwood, Fishes of Uganda ;

(1958), "A Collection of Fishes Zool. Soc. Lond., 140 (1963).

From

the

Aswa River System,"

Proc.

NILE, BATTLE OF THE, was fought between the British and French fleets in Abu Qir bay, near Alexandria, on Aug. 1, 1798. The British government, having heard that a large-scale expedition was to sail from Mediterranean ports under the command of Napoleon Bonaparte, ordered the earl of St. Vincent, the commander in chief of the main British fleet, which was at that time based on Lisbon, to detach ships under Rear Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson to reconnoitre off Toulon and to watch enemy movements. But Nelson's own ship, the "Vanguard," was dismasted in a storm on May 20, 1798, and his frigates, dispersed, returned to Gibraltar. Meanwhile. St. Vincent had sent him a further detachment which joined Nelson on June 7, bringing his strength up to 14 ships of the line and one brig. The French expedition eluded the British warships, sailed first for Malta, which was seized early in June, and established a garrison at Valletta. After a week at the island Bonaparte sailed with his armada for his main objective, Egypt. Finding Toulon empty, Nelson was left to guess the French purpose. He guessed right but, having no frigates for reconnaissance, missed his quarry, reached Egypt first, found the port of Alexandria empty, and impetuously returned to Sicily, where he revictualed. Then, baffled but determined, he made for Egypt once more and on Aug. 1 at last descried the main French fleet of 13 sail of the line and 4 frigates under Adm. F. P. Brueys at anchor in Abu Qir bay. Although there were but a few hours before nightfall, and although Brueys, with his ships securely ranged in a sandy bay flanked on one side by a battery mounted on Abu Qir Island, was in a strong defensive position. Nelson gave orders to attack at once and to concentrate on the French van. He left full initiative Captain Thomas Foley in the French were disposed, decided to risk finding sufficient depth of water to get his ship round the head of the French line and thus inside and behind their position. He succeeded, and was followed by Samuel Hood in the "Zealous," by Davidge Gould in the "Audacious" and by Sir James Saumarez, Nelson's second-in-command, in the "Orion." Nelson himself, in the "Vanguard," was the first to attack the French from the seaward side and he was followed by each succeeding ship except the unlucky "CuUoden" which struck on a shoal. Thomas Troubridge, her captain, was able to signal a safe course to the "Alexander" and the "Swiftsure," which were the to his subordinates with great success.

the "Goliath" led in and,

last to

come

when he saw how

into action, after nightfall.

For some hours the battle was

fierce. Nelson himself being in the head. The climax came about 10 p.m. when Brueys' 120-gun flagship "L'Orient," by far the biggest ship in the bay, blew up with most of her ship's company, the admiral included. Shortly afterward the fight was resumed and it continued for the rest of the night.

wounded

Only two French ships of the line, "Le Genereux" and Rear Admiral Villeneuve's flagship "Le Guillaume Tell," escaped capture or destruction. Together with two frigates, they beat out of the bay during the morning of Aug. 2, no British ship being then in a condition to dispute their passage, though none, not

;;,

NILGIRIS— NILOTES

524

even the "Culloden," had actually sunk. Nelson's losses were 218 killed and 677 wounded. The French lost about ten times that number. "Victory," said Nelson, "is not a name strong enough for such a scene."

The

effect of the battle of the Nile was manifold. It heartened to resist French expansion and isolated Bonaparte's army Egypt, ensuring its ultimate disintegration. It also ensured that Malta would in due time be retaken from the French, and restored British prestige throuKhout the Mediterranean. Nelson him.self was rewarded with a iieeraRe. See Oliver Warner, The Battle of the Nile (1960). (0. M. W. W.) NILGIRIS ("blue mountains"), a hill system in south India giving its name to an administrative district of Madras. The Nilgiris form a plateau at a general elevation of 6,500 ft. above sea level, rising abruptly from the plains except on the north where their base rests upon the Wynaad and Mysore uplands, at about 2,000-3,000 ft. The general aspect of the higher parts is grassy and downlike, interspersed with slioiii or woodland. The Wynaad (partly included in the administrative district) and the Ochterlony valley comprise broken valleys, once wholly forested, now doited with tea and coffee plantations, whose output provides the chief commerce of the district. The timber forests include teak; eucalyptus and Australian wattle have been planted extensively on the higher Wynaad country. Animal life includes the Nilgiri ibex wariatu ) tiger, panther including the black variety wild boar, bear, muntjac barking deer and chital spotted deer quail, partridge, snipe, wood snipe and woodcock, spur fowl and the indigenous jungle fowl are among the game birds. The Nilgiris are detached from the main Deccan plateau by the deep Moyar river valley. Other streams are the Bhavani, the Pykara and the Calicut; none is navigable but with their tributaries they are fished for mahseer, Carnatic carp and trout. Archaeological monuments abound. The Nilgiris are inhabited by the tribal Kota and Toda {qq.v).

Europe

in

(

(

.

)

(

The

Nilgiris

are

)

increasing in

(

)

importance for hydroelectric

The Pykara project (70.200 kw. installed capacity) and Moyar valley power station (35.000 kw. are the main plants.

power. the

)

Nilgiris District is the smallest in Madras: area 9S4 sq.mi.; pop. (1961) 409,308. The administrative headquarters are at Ootacamund (q.v.), the chief summer resort of south India, at the terminus of a branch line, 41 mi. N.N.W. of Podanur junction on the main Southern railway (Madras to the west coast). The hne is rack metre-gauge from Mettupalayam, 30 mi. below Ootacamund. The mean annual temperature is 14° C. (58° F.)

December-January above 6,000 ft., at ° from the equator. The mean annual rainfall is 49 in. BeOotacamund other main towns are Coonoor, Wellington, Dotacamund and Kotagiri. (L. D. S.) there are night frosts in

only

1 1

sides

NILO-HAMITES, a

cluster of peoples of east Africa, defined

by

their languages which are mainly Nilotic with influence from Cushitic or Hamitic sources {see Nilotes). The Nilo-Hamiticspeaking peoples include several groups, each defined by closely related languages and customs. Most Nilo-Hamites are pastoral-

and it is certain that all these groups have been pastoralists at one time or another; all lack centralized political authority but ists,

most cases recognize the partially secular authority of prophets or rainmakers; and almost all have a system of age sets based in

upon circumcision

as the basis of political organization (see

Age

Set).

The most northerly Nilo-Hamites are pastoral groups of the southeastern Sudan, of whom very little is known; they include the Didinga, Murle, Longarim and Nyangiya, with a combined population of about 35,000 in the 1960s. To their west are the Bari-speaking tribes west of the Nile, who practise agriculture to have adopted much of the culture of their Sudanicspeaking neighbours. They comprise the Bari (q.v.; 35,000), Kakwa with whom may be counted the Fajelu and Nyangbara,

and seem (

in all 125,000), the

Kuku and Nyefu

(30,000), the Mandari (36,-

000) and smaller groups. East of the Nile near the Uganda border are the Lotuko-Lokoiya group of tribes (about 70,000). The central Nilo-Hamites are mostly pure pastoralists and include the

Karamojong (56,000),

Jie (18,000)

and Dodoth

(20,-

000) of northeastern Uganda, the Topotha. Donyiro and others of the southeastern corner of the Sudan (in all 45,000), the Turkana (about 80.000) of the northern Kenya desert. The Teso (463.000) and Kumam (56,000) of central Uganda and the outlying Teso group known as Tesio in Kenya (about 45,000) have forsaken pastoralism and today practise sedentary agriculture. The southern Nilo-Hamites speak cither Nandi or Masai. The former include the Nandi (q.v.; 117,000), Kipsigis (Lumbwa; about 160,000), Keyo (Elgeyo; 40,000), Tuken (Kamasya; about 67,000), Suk (Pokot; 45,000), Marakwet and Endo (together 30,000), Sabaot, Pok and Kony (in all 24,000), all of whom hve in north and central Kenya, and the Sehei (24,000) on the northern slopes of Mount Elgon in Uganda. Far to the south in Tanganyika are the Tatoga and Barabaig (64,000). Except for these last, all Nandi tribes have adopted agriculture, the Marakwet-Endo, Keyo and some Pokot having complex irrigation works; the Nandi and Kipsigis especially are highly progressive farmers. The Masai (q.v.) speakers include the Masai of the rift valley, in both Kenya and Tanganyika (180,000), the Arusha of northern Tanganyika (63,000) and the Samburu (22,000), Njemps (Njemusi) and others of northern

Kenya who

are really to be counted as outlying

Baraguyu or Kwavi of central Tanganyika are dispersed across a wide region living in small communities amid settled Bantu tribes; they number 20,000, and are often considered to be Masai. All the Masai speakers wholly or mainly depend on pastoralism. See also Africa: Ethnography (Anthropology'): Northeast Africa and East Africa; Didinga; Lotuko. Bibliography. G. W. B. Huntingford, The Northern Nilo-Hamites, The Southern Nilo-Hamites, and The Nandi oj Kenya (1953) P. and Masai

tribes; the

—

;

H. Gulliver, The Central Nilo-Hamites (1953); C. G. Seligman, Races oj .Africa (1957) C. G. and B. Z. Seligman, Pagan Tribes of the Nilotic Sudan (1932) P. H. Gulliver, The Family Herds (1955), Social Control in an African Society (1963). (J. F. M. M.) NILOTES, a number of east-central African tribes living in the southern Sudan and north Uganda and extending into neighbouring territories. The name refers to their habitat, mostly the region of the upper Nile and its tributaries, and to a linguistic unity that distinguishes them from Nilo-Hamitic neighbours with similar physique and culture (see Nilo-Hamites). Four subdivisions of the Nilotic languages are generally recognized the closely related languages of the Dinka and Nuer iqq.v.): the northern Lwoo languages spoken by such groups as the Shilluk, Anuak, Burun, Maban, Jo Luo, Thuri and Bor; and the southern Lwoo languages of the Acholi, Lango (q.v.), Alur, Jopadhola, Ja Luo and lesser known groups. Nilotic languages are closely related to the Nilo-Hamitic languages, particularly in vocabulary, but their affinities in a wider classification of African languages are obscure and there is considerable disagreement in P.

;

;

:

the literature (see

The

African Languages).

genetic origins of the Nilotes are likewise uncertain and

disputed. A mixture of Hamitic and Negro ethnotypes in their ancestry is a basic assumption. Blood group studies suggest that a very high frequency of the Rh chromosome, cDe, may be a special Nilotic character. There is considerable genetic divergence between the northern and southern groups both in ABO blood group frequency and the presence of the sickle-cell trait. Nilotes tend to be dolichocephalic with frizzy hair and dark complexion; northern Nilotes are tallest (average 1.78 m., or 5 ft. 10 in.) with

They have been said to show proud, individualistic and aggressive behaviour, scorn for foreigners and dislike of innovation. Although a distinctive ethnic group, Nilotic tribes vary in culture and exceptions to any generalization can be found among one or more tribes. The southern Luo (q.v.) tribes in particular are divergent because of admixture with Nilo-Hamitic and Bantu slender build.

neighbours.

Men and unmarried girls traditionally go naked, except for ornaments; a skin cloak is sometimes knotted over the shoulder. Marwomen usually wear leather aprons back and front, suspended from the waist. Cicatrization and the extraction of lower incisor teeth have been common; the forehead is often scarred. Elaborate hair styles are produced with grease and cattle dung and the body Material culture is poor, although is sometimes coated with ashes. ried

the Jo

Luo were noted ironworkers.

;

.

NIMAR—NIMES Most

Nilotes occupy savanna country alternately subject to

and drought. They pursue a mixed economy of pastoralism and hoe cultivation, supplemented by fishing, hunting and a little food gathering. Although they may cultivate out of necessity, except for the Anuak, they are pastoralists with a great love of cattle; cattle enter into every aspect of society. Milk and milk products, with grain, are staple foods. Cattle are not slaughtered indiscriminately for meat; they are paid in compensation and bride wealth, and their ownership determines status and wealth. Nilotic peoples have a rich cattle vocabulary; they spend much time caring for the herds and erecting large stables or kraals for their protection. It is common for a man to train and decorate the horns of his favourite ox, and in many cases he is addressed by the animal's name. Cattle assume ritual importance, being dediflooding

cated and sacrificed to ancestors or spirits. Nomadic or transhumant movements are especially pronounced among the Nuer and Dinka. In the wet season they live in permanent village settlements above flood level and cultivate and herd in the vicinity of well-built, circular houses. In the dry season they occupy temporary cattle camps near permanent water supplies and pasture, living in windbreaks, for fishing and herding.

Other Nilotic tribes are more sedentary.

The Shilluk are the most highly organized, having a divine king who symbolizes the whole realm. Organized chieftainships, associated with rainmaking, court ceremonial and royal emblems, are

found also among the Anuak, Acholi and others. In contrast, the Nuer, Dinka and Luo of Kenya are classified as tribes without based on a relationship between lineage segments co-ordinated with territorial segments. A dominant clan is associated with a tribal territory; dominant lineages of this clan are found in subdivisions of the tribe. The principle of opposition between segments and their fusion in relation to larger segments is marked; descent is patrilineal. Ritual experts are often rainmakers among the Dinka and Nuer they act also as mediators and peacemakers in feuds between lineages and between territorial subdivisions. There are strong rulers, their egahtarian society being

;

ancestor cults and belief in a supreme being. Totemism exists in some tribes but is important only among the Dinka. See also

Africa: Ethnography (Anthropology); Negro; Kavirondo. BiBLiOGMPHY. A. J. Butt, "The Nilotes of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and Uganda," Etknogr. Surv. Africa: East Central Africa

—

H. Greenberg, Studies

in African Linguistic Classification D. F. Roberts, E. W. Ikin and A. E. Mourant, "Blood Groups of the Northern Nilotes," Annals of Human Genetics, vol. 20 (19S5) C. G. and B. Z. Seligmann, Pagan Tribes of the Nilotic Sudan (1932)

(1952) (195S)

;

J.

;

;

;

A. N. Tucker and M. A. Bryan, The Non-Bantu Languages of NorthEastern Africa (1956); J.'Middleton and D. Tait, Tribes Without Rulers (1958) M. D. Sahlins, "The Segmentary Lineage: an Organization of Predatory Expansion," American Anthropologist, vol. 63 ( 1961) (A. J. Bt.) ;

NIMAR,

East and West, are two districts in the Indore adMadhya Pradesh, India. (area 4,132 sq.mi.; pop. [1961] 685,150) forms a "bridge" nearly SO mi. wide between the Narmada (Narbada) river and the Vindhya mountains in the north and the Tapti river and the Satpura range in the south. Forest covers 44% of the ministrative division, southwest

East Nimar

area.

The

principal crops are jowar, cotton, rice

and peanuts.

A

thermal power station at Chandni serves the western parts of the district. There are a cotton textile mill and a paper and straw mill at Nepanagar. The district headquarters are at Khandwa (g.v.), a railway junction on the Central railway. Burhanpur (g.v.), a textile trade centre, was the Deccan headquarters of the Mogul empire (1559-1636). At Mandhata (g.v.), 31 mi. N.W. of Khandwa, are noted Hindu temples. West Nimar (area 5,206 sq.mi.; pop. [1961] 990,464) extends from the Satpura range to the Narmada valley. The valley portion has fertile lava soil but the rest is broken by spurs of the Satpura range. Bijagarh fort (25 mi. S.W. of Khargone) is of historical interest.

The

Of the

total area

57%

is

arable and

12%

and peanuts. Large-scale industries are lacking, but there are numerous medium- and small-scale factories in the district. Maheshwar has some handlooms and a match factory. The district headquarters are at Khargone (pop. [1961] 30,652), which lies 35 mi. E. of forested.

chief crops are jowar, wheat, rice, cotton

525

Jalwania, a town on the Indore-Bombay road. Khargone became important under the Moguls, when it was the chief town of a mahal (revenue division) and then of the Bijagarh sircar, or sarkar (administrative district), under Akbar.

NIMBUS:

(S.

M.

A.)

see Glory.

NIMES, a town of southern France, capital of the dipartement of Card and seat of a bishopric, lies 267 km. (166 mi.) S.S.W. of Lyons by road, between Avignon and Montpellier. It also connected by rail with the Paris-Lyons-Marseilles line and with Clermont-Ferrand. Pop. (1962) 85,884. Nimes lies at the foot of the Monts Garrigues, a chain of barren hills to the north and west. The highest of them is the Mont Cavalier on the summit of which stands the Tour Magne (Turris Magna), a ruined Roman tower. To the south and east the town dominates the plain of the Vistre brook, which is largely covered with vines. The central and oldest part of the town is encircled by boulevards along the sites of the old fortifications. It is there that most of the Roman remains, for which Nimes is celebrated, are to be found. The most famous is the amphitheatre (Les Arenes) which is the best-preserved in France. It dates from the 1st or 2nd century a.d. and was used as a fortress at various times during the succeeding centuries. During the middle ages it was a separate quarter of the town with its own church it was cleared in 1809. It is built of large stones put together without mortar and forms an ellipse with external measurements of about 440 by 330 ft. The arena is 227 by 126i ft- The elevation (70 ft. in all) is composed of a ground floor with 60 arches, an upper floor, also with 60 arches, and an attic with corbels pierced with holes, to keep up the velarium or awning. The building, which holds 24,000 people, has four main entrances, one at each of the cardinal points, and 124 exits which lead from the 35 rows of the amphitheatre into the interior galleries. The arena was originally intended for gladiatorial shows, naval spectacles, chariot races and wolf or boar hunts, and for some time has been used for bullfights. The famous Maison Carree, a Roman temple 82 ft. long by 40 ft. wide, was dedicated, according to an inscription, to Gaius and Lucius Caesar, adopted sons of Augustus, and dates from the beginning of the Christian era. It houses a collection of sculpThe temple of Diana, near the ture and classical fragments. Fountain garden (Jardin de la Fontaine), was certainly attached to the baths, the remains of which are visible nearby. Two Roman gateways, the Porte d'Auguste, formed of two main arches flanked by two smaller ones and dating from a.d. 16, and the Porte de France, still stand. The Tour Magne is 92 ft. high and was once higher. It is the oldest monument in Nimes, but its original function is not known. It was used as a watchtower and was subsequently turned into a fortress by the counts of Toulouse in the middle ages. Near the Tour Magne is the reservoir from which the water carried by the Roman aqueduct, Pont du Gard, was distributed throughout the town. With its status as a capital, and with the temple of Augustus, the basilica of Plotina (erected under Hadrian), the temple of Apollo, the pools, the theatre and the circus (erected in Nero's reign), the Campus Martius and the fortifications of Augustus, Nimes must have been one of the richest Roman towns in Gaul. The cathedral (St. Castor) which is thought to occupy the site of the temple of Augustus, is partly Romanesque and partly Gothic in style; the churches of St. Paul and St. Baudile are modern; the Fountain gardens owe their name to a spring which varies considerably in volume and flows into the Vistre; the town's water comes from the Rhone. The noveUst Alphonse Daudet (18401897) and the Provengal poet Jean Reboul (1796-1864) were natives of the town. It is the seat of a bishopric (under the archbishop of Avignon), a prefect, a court of appeal, an assize court, county courts and commercial courts and a chamber of is

commerce. At the end of the middle ages the crafts of Nimes, which derived fresh energy from the arrival of a colony from Lombardy and Tuscany, preserved their importance so well that before the Revolution about half the total community was engaged in manufacture, chiefly of products derived from silk. Woven cloths,

NIMITZ—NIMRUD

526

shawls, carpets, handkerchiefs, ribbons and braids, clothes, boots and shoes, brandy, leather goods, candles and machinery are now manufactured there, and there are some foundries. Nimes also has an important trade in wine and brandy, grain, groceries and overseas produce. Limestone qyarries which supplied the amphitheatre and other buildings are still worked in the vicinity. Nimes, the ancient Nemausus, was so called after the sacred wood in which the Volcae Arecomici (who submitted to Rome in Strabo asserts that it was 121 B.C.) held their assemblies. the capital of a region containing 24 vassal towns and was independent of the proconsuls of Gallia Narbonensis and that it was established as a veterans' college by Augustus and endowed with numerous privileges. The town erected a temple and struck a medal in honour of its founder. The medal, which later furnished the design for the armorial bearings granted to the town by Francis I, bears on one face the heads of Caesar Augustus and Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (Augustus' head is crowned with laurel) and on the other a crocodile tied to a palm tree (suggesting that the original settlers were veterans of the Roman Egyptian army), with the legend col nem (Colonia Nemausis). Agrippa built the The public baths, the temple of Diana and the Pont du Gard. walls (built by Augustus), 30 ft, high and 10 ft. broad, extended for almost 4 mi. in circuit, fianked by 90 towers and pierced by 10 gates. Hadrian erected two monuments of his benefactress Plotina at Nimes. At the height of its prosperity the town was ravaged by the Vandals (407); the Visigoths followed (720) and turned the amphitheatre into a fortress which at a later date was burned with the town gates when Charles Martel drove out the Nimes became a republic under the protection of Saracens. Pippin the Short. In 1 185 it passed to the counts of Toulouse who enclosed the town with ramparts less vast than those of Augustus (which became part of the boulevards). The town took part in

S. Truman's commisand individual rights, was named a UN commissioner for India and Pakistan and served as a regent of the University of California. In 1947, in answer to interrogatories by German Adm. Karl Donitz, on trial for war crimes, Nimitz gave his justification for the unrestricted nature of U.S. submarine

Subsequently Nimitz headed Pres. Harry

sion on internal security

warfare in the Pacific during World War II. TDsum bas-reliefs which depicted the king's military triumphs and the magical genii, In addition to the protective figures who guarded his person. Acropolis, which covered about 65 ac. of ground, there was an

mous northwest

outer walled town, and the whole city was nearly 900 ac. in area. The work begun on Calah by Ashurnasirpal II was completed by his son Shalmaneser III and other monarchs; Adad-nirari III, Tiglath-pileser III and Esarhaddon added palaces of their own.

The most important religious building, founded in 798 B.C. by Queen Sammu-ramat (Semiramis of Greek fame), was Ezida, which included the temple of Nebo (Nabu). god of writing, and of The ancient library discovhis consort Tashmetum (Tashmit). it contained many religious and magical texts, and in an annex to the building a throne-room, occupied by Esarhaddon, produced tablets which embodied "treaties" ratified in the year 672 Incorporated within these documents was the last will and B.C. Several paragraphs clearly testament of the king of Assyria. defined the succession: his son Ashurbanipal, to be king after him Shamash-shum-ukin in Babylon. Many other in Assyria, and documents were also found. Of the buildings in the outer town the most important is Fort Shalmaneser, an arsenal which occupied at least 12 ac. of ground. This and other buildings have yielded

ered within

:

;

NINEBARK—NINETEENTH-CENTURY ART thousands of carved ivories, mostly

made

and 8th cen-

in the 9th

now the richest collection of ivory in the world. The technique of cutting and the sensitive artistry display the astonishing level of craftsmanship which had been achieved after turies B.C.,

generations of experirnent in Syrian, Phoenician and Assyrian

workshops.

Of these

pieces perhaps the

most famous are the ivory

Mona Lisa and a pair of chryselephantine plaques depicting a lioness killing a Negro against a background of papyrus and lilies which are incrusted with carnelian and lapis lazuli and overlaid with gold. head known as the

In the 7th century B.C. Calah declined in importance, for the Sargonids tended to use Nineveh as their residence, but nonetheless the place continued to be extensively occupied down to the fall of Nineveh in 612 b.c, Calah having previously been sacked in the year 614. Perhaps the most interesting historical record unearthed in the city was a sandstone stela of King Ashurnasirpal II which celebrated the opening of the city in the fifth year of his reign and gave a list of the important buildings, gardens and irrigation schemes, as well as of the flora and fauna which he had acquired, and finally recorded a feast which he gave to 69,574 persons over a period of ten days. The menu was written

down

in detail.

;

ment. It grows from five to ten feet high, with strong, recurving stems, shedding bark and small, white or pinkish flowers, in um-

by clustered, inflated, reddish folHcles. There are variegated and dwarf varieties. P. monogynus, of the western U.S., is shorter and has somewhat kidney-shaped leaves. bellate clusters, followed

NINE MEN'S MORRIS,

a game played with counters on a Muhle (Germany and Austria), Marelle (France), Mylla (Iceland), Siegen Wulf Myll (Poland) and The Mill, Morelles, Merry Peg, etc., in England. The board {see diagram) comprises three concentric squares and several transversals, making 24 points of intersection. Two play-

known

as

ers,

each provided with nine counters of

his

own

colour,

upon the

row upon any

the player

so,

lay pieces

alternately

points, tht object being to get

three in a

is

line.

On

doing

remove from

entitled to

the board one adverse counter, but not one that is in a "mill," a row of three.

THE MILL BOARD

Having placed

all

players continue

moving

the

same

object.

their

A

counters,

the

alternately, with

"mill"

may

be

opened by moving one piece

off the line returning the piece to its original squares omitted counts as a new "mill." The player who first captures all the adverse pieces wins. A move is limited from one point to the next along a line, but the rule is often made that

modern play the diag-

tn

lines

when

usually

are

a player has only three pieces left he

may move them from

any point

to any point regardless of the lines. In modern play the diagonal lines of the board are usually omitted, to lessen the advantage of the first player.

The mill game was often played by shepherds with stones upon a diagram cut into the turf. Shakespeare alludes to this practice in A Midsummer Night's Dream (act ii, scene i) The nine men's morris

is

fiU'd

up with mud,

And

the quaint mazes in the wanton green For lack of tread are indistinguishable.

"Morris" the

Napoleon became emperor in 1804, David was designated first painter and the concept of imperial majesty, ever present in the emperor's mind, became David's ruling obsession. His influence was decisive, not only in painting, but in the formulation of appropriate styles of decor and furniture, of which the so-called Empire style became popular throughout Europe and even in the United States. {See Neoclassical Art.) In architecture. Napoleon's hankerings for Roman grandeur, by the work of P. F. L. Fontaine and C. Percier, were consummated in J. F. Chalgrin's design for the Arc de Triomphe de rfetoile. For the most part, however, the 19th century's at-

;

NINEBARK,

onal

—

satisfied

—

Bibliography. A. H. Layard, Nineveh and Its Remains, 2 vol., 2nd ed. (1850), Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon (1853) Iraq, vol. xiii-xxiii (1951-62) M. E. L. Mallowan, Twentyfive Years of Mesopotamian Discovery (1956). (M. E. L. M.) any shrub of the genus Physocarpus of the rose family (Rosaceae). One of the best known is P. opulif alius, with oval or roundish leaves, native from Quebec to Minnesota, south to South Carolina and Colorado, and commonly planted" for orna-

board, also

527

broad tendencies can be loosely contained within the categories of classicism and romanticism, the characteristic spirit which informed the significant art of the whole century was a militant and creative individuality. Classicism. In the opening years, the classical tendency was in the ascendant. In France, out of the Revolution, came a rigid and conscientious neoclassicism with J. L. David as its chief exponent. This resurgence was, on the one hand, the culmination of a prevailing vogue for Greek and Roman antiquities and, on the other, an active repudiation of the Arcadian frivolities of rococo. At the same time, neoclassical pictures fulfilled the purpose of Revolutionary propaganda by relating the solid virtues of republican Rome with those of the new republic of France. When

{i.e.,

game bears

Moorish)

is

the

name

a fanciful resemblance.

of a square dance to which (G. Mh. X). ;

NINETEENTH-CENTURY ARCHITECTURE:

see

Modern Architecture.

NINETEENTH-CENTURY ART. remarkable for a medley of

artistic styles

The I9th century was and

attitudes.

If the

tempts to create a style consisted of quotations from the Greek. In Germany the Greek revival was a wholehearted and enthusi-

movement which produced some

astic

distinguished' classical

adaptations by L. von Klenze and K. F. Schinkel. In England, Sir John Soane's Bank of England had commendable originality and John Nash created an architecture parlante, a style for every occasion, classical for the Regent's park and Regent street frontages, Hindu for Brighton pavilion, Gothic for his own country

house.

{See

Modern Architecture.)

Romanticisni.

—

David's direction was generally sustained by D. Ingres, A. L. Girodet-Trioson, F. Gerard and fall of Napoleon, David was exiled. The A. J. neoclassical movement, deprived of both leadership and propagandist significance, was confronted with fiercely critical attacks by the romanticists on the grounds that it was sterile and repetitive. By the end of the first quarter of the century, romanticism had spread through Europe like an epidemic, emerging as a reaction from the repressive nature of 18th-century rationalism. As such, it offered an escape for the emotion from an insistent cult of reason and a release for the personality from disciplined compliance with convention. The first aim of the romantic artist was self-expression and his typical expression tended to be evocative of more than it stated. The movement, literary in origin and character, exploited a repertoire of constantly recurring themes, such as the feelings of the artist in the presence of nature, nostalgia for an irretrievable past, the whole gamut of emotional states and every aspect of liberty. In England, romanticism was innocently present in the verse and graphic work of William Blake, dramatically apparent in the apocalyptic visions of John Martin and the macabre nightmares of Henry Fuseli, gently appealing in the Shoreham period (1826-35) of Samuel Palmer. In Germany, there were the brilliant romantic writings of Friedrich von Schlegel, the folklore researches of Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, and the pictures of K. F. Schinkel, C. D. Friedrich and P. 0. Runge. In France, J. L. A. T. Gericault depicted the terror, pity and horror of the wreck of the frigate "Medusa" and E. Delacroix glorified freedom and expressed wide-eyed admiration for Lord Byron in his "Massacre at Chios." Toward the middle of the century the Gothic style revived with more animation in England than elsewhere. Victorian Gothic was a romantic expression both of a partiahty for medievalism and of a revulsion from an insistent and pervasive industrialism. John Ruskin, its advocate, genuinely beheved that the Gothic style would be an inspiring liberation from the enslavement of classical traditions. Yet its revival was only further proof that architectural design had become an incoherent sham. Industrial design exemplified by the Great exhibition of 1851 had reached its nadir {see Design, 19th-century). Artists Uke the Pre-Raphaehtes his pupils J. A.

Gros, but with the

NINEVEH

528

the temple of Nebo (Nabu) on behalf of the British museum and discovered the site of the palace of Ashurnasirpal. In 1931-32, together with M. E. L. Mallowan, he made a sounding for the first time from the top of the acropolis (Quyunjik), 90 ft. above the level of the plain down to virgin soil. It was then proved that

attempted to escape from the hideous present. Others sought self-justification in the comfortable theory of art for art's sake. A hater of maWilliam Morris witnessed their withdrawal. chinery, he maintained that the artist must once again become a craftsman and the craftsman an artist, that art must be made by and for the people. "What business have we with art at all,"

over four-fifths of this great accumulation is prehistoric. The first settlement, a small Neolithic hamlet, was probably founded not later than the 6th millennium b.c. An obsidian blade industry suggests that there was contact with Van in eastern Armenia from the beginning. Samarran and Halaf painted pottery of the subsequent Early Chalcolithic phases, characteristic of the north, was succeeded by gray wares such as occur westward in the Jebel Sinjar. In the course of this period the farmers used clay sickles of a type found in the 'Ubaid period, and these implements imply contact with the south. A little before and after 3000 B.C. unpainted Ninevite pottery was similar to that used in Sumerian At Nineveh a number of large mudcities such as Ur and Erech. brick burial vaults, unfortunately plundered, up to nine feet in city was rich in Early Dynastic times; height, suggest that the thousands of beads similar in type to hoards found in tombs in the neighbouring site of Tepe Gawrah were probably associated with the Ninevite burials. The most remarkable object of the 3rd millennium B.C., however, is a realistic bronze head, life-size, cast and chased, of a bearded monarch. It is probable that this, the finest piece of metal sculpture ever to be recovered from Mesopotamia, may represent the famous King Sargon of Agade, c. 2350

can share it?" (See Arts and Crafts Movement). However, the absence of any organized patronage had given rise to the 19th-century notion of the artist inevitably in

he asked, "unless

with his

conllict

all

own

age.

With no

specific social function, the

The general public were and academies, each dictating their own preferences and prejudices, were his showrooms. The tremendous popularity of works by Sir David Wilkie, Sir Edwin H. Landseer and W. P. Frith was indicative of the average level of appreciation. Realism. The classical and romantic movements had one area of common ground: both were idealist in their refusal to Midway between both, a accept the world as they found it. realist tendency was in evidence throughout the 19th century. assessments of man and his beuncompromising Goya, with his haviour, was its starting point. His unflinching observation was later matched by that of H. Daumier, who invested the capacity with a kindUer derisiveness. Last of the great realists was G. Courbet, who chose to paint only what he could see and what he saw was the rich variety of his immediate world. Impressionism. The final significant movement of the 19thcentury was Impressionism and the approach to Impressionism painter worked prophetlike in isolation. his patrons;

the salons

—

—

B.C.

was by way of landscape painting. Early in the century, J. M. \V. Turner and J. Constable had anticipated the work of J. B. C. Corot and the Barbizon school by a wholly new conception of landscape painted in the open air and based on natural vision. Impressionism was the direct consequence of this innovation. Of the Impressionists, C. Monet was unique in pursuing his analysis of colour and light to its furthest conclusions. P. Cezanne's comment, "Monet is only an eye. But, my God, what an eye!" was a shrew'd summary of the Impressionists' shortcomings and But, by the ISSOs, the very brilliance of their achievements. accomplishment had pushed representational painting into a culFurthermore, de-sac along which progress seemed impossible. the development of photography had undermined any assumption that the future of painting would be concerned with the imitation The response to this situation emerged in Ceof appearances. zanne's methodical "constructions after nature," in the acutely personal romanticism of V. Van Gogh and the decorative sym-

boUsm

At the

of P. Gauguin.

close of the century, largely on

the foundation of their work, the

developed.

See also

modern movement began and

Painting; Sculpture.

—

Bibliography. James Laver, French Painting and the Nineteenth Century (1937); Roger Fry, Characteristics of French Art (1932); R. H. Wilenski, French Painting 1300-1900, rev. ed. (1949) The JourMario nal of Eugene Delacroix, Eng. trans, by Lucy Norton (1951) Praz, The Romantic Agony, Eng. trans, by Angus Davidson, 2nd ed. (1951) Hans Sedlmayr, Art in Crisis, Eng. trans, by Brian Battershaw (1958) John Canaday, Mainstreams oj Modern Art (1959) Nikolaus Pevsner, Pioneers of Modern Design (1949) and An Outline of European Architecture (1943) Pierre Lavedan, French Architecture (1956) John Ruskin, Modern Painters (1843-60); E. Hesketh Hubbard, A Hundred Years of British Painting 1851-1951 (1951) William Gaunt, The Aesthetic Adventure (1945) John Rewald, The History of Im;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

pressionism (1946).

(F.

W.

W.-S.)

NINEVEH,

the most populous and the oldest city in Assyria, lay on the east bank of the Tigris opposite modern Mosul (in Iraq). From time immemorial, roads from the foothills of Kurdistan debouched there, and a tributary of the Tigris, the river Khawsar, added to the value of the fertile agricultural and pastoral

lands in the district. The first to survey and map Nineveh was C. J. Rich in 1820, a work later completed by Felix Jones and Excavations have been undertaken published by him in 1854. intermittently since that period by many persons. A. H. Layard during 1845-51 discovered the palace of Sennacherib and took back to England an unrivaled collection of stone bas-reHefs together with thousands of tablets inscribed in cuneiform from the

Hormuzd Rassam continued During 1929-32 Campbell Thompson excavated

great hbrary of Ashurbanipal II.

the

work

in 1852.

Surprisingly, there is no large body of evidence to show that Assyrian monarchs built at all extensively in Nineveh during the 2nd millennium B.C., certainly not during the four centuries that succeeded Shamshi-Adad I when Assyria was of little account owing to the power of the superior Hittite, Kassite and Mitannian

An

dynasties. a victorious

interesting historical document however describes campaign of Ashur-uballit I (1365-30 B.C.) against a

The Kassite usurper, during a period of Assyrian renascence. fame of Ishtar of Nineveh had indeed reached the ears of the Pharaoh before that, for her statue was sent to Egypt by TushLater ratta, king of Mitanni, in order to restore his health. monarchs whose inscriptions have appeared on the acropolis include Shalmaneser I 1275-45 B.C.; and Tiglath-pileser I, both of whom were active builders in Ashur; the former had founded Calah (Nimrud). But Nineveh had to wait for the neo-Assyrians, particularly from the time of Ashurnasirpal II onward, for a considerable architectural expansion. Thereafter successive monarchs kept in repair and founded new palaces, temples to Sin, Nergal, Unfortunately, Nanna, Shamash, Ishtar and Nebo (Nabu). owing to severe depredation Uttle remains of these edifices. It was Sennacherib who made Nineveh a truly magnificent city, laid out fresh streets and squares and built within it the famous "palace without a rival," the plan of which has been mostly recovered and has overall the dimensions of about 600 by 630 ft. It comprised at least 80 rooms, of which many were lined with sculpture. A large part of the famous "K" collection of tablets was found there some of the principal doorways were flanked by human-headed bulls. At this time the total area of Nineveh comprised about 1,800 ac, and there were 18 great gates which peneAn elaborate system of 18 canals trated its defensive walls. brought water from the hills to Nineveh, and several sections of a magnificently constructed aqueduct erected by the same monarch were discovered at Jerwan about 25 mi. distant. His successor Esarhaddon built an arsenal in the Nebi Yunus, south of Quyunjik, and either he or his successor set up at its entrance as trophies statues of the Pharaoh Taharqa (Tarku) to celebrate the conquest of Egypt. These were discovered by Fuad Safar and Mohammed Ali on behalf of the Iraq antiquities department in 1954. Ashurbanipal constructed a new palace at the northwest end of the acropolis. It was this king who founded the great library and ordered his scribes to collect and copy ancient texts through{

;

out the country.

The "K"

or fragments of tablets

potamia.

The subjects

collection included over 20,000 tablets

and incorporated the ancient

lore of

Meso-

are literary, religious, administrative, and

NINGPO—NIOBE

529

NINIAN

Various branches of learning represented include mathematics, botany, chemistry and lexical texts. The library in fact is still a mass of information about the ancient world and will exercise scholars for many generations to come. (See also Babylonia and Assyria: Language and Literature.) Extensive traces of ash which represent the sack of the city by Babylonians, Scythians and Medes in 612 b.c. have been observed in many parts of the acropolis. Thereafter the city ceased to be important, although there are some Seleucid and Greek remains. Xenophon in the Anabasis recorded the name of the city as Mespila. In the 13th century a.d. the city seems to have enjoyed some prosperity under the atabegs of Mosul. Subsequently houses continued to be inhabited at least as late as the 16th century a.d. In these later levels imitations of Chinese wares have been found. Bibliography. A. H. Layard, Nineveh and Its Remains, 2 vol., 2nd ed. (1850), Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon (1853) R. Campbell Thompson el al., in Liverpool Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology, vol. x\'iii-xx (1931-33); R. Campbell Thompson and R. W. Hutchinson, A Century of Exploration of Nineveh (1929). (M. E. L. M.) (formerly Yin Hsien or Ninghsien), the name of a district and of its administrative seat, commonly called Ning-po shih (city), an important port near the mouth of Hangchow bay in northeastern Chekiang province of China. The city (pop. [1953] 237,500) is about 12 mi. above the mouth of the Yung

(NiNiAS, RiGNA, Trignan), SAINT, early British bishop of the church known as Candida Casa (at Whithorn, Scot.), was the first to preach Christianity among the southern Picts. He lived before the missionary activities of St. Columba, who arrived from Ireland about 563. Some scholars, misunderstanding a phrase in the authentic writings of St. Patrick, placed Ninian's

Feng-hua and Yuyao tributaries. have been built Hills rise in back of

woman, who cured a sick child by the power of prayer, and then healed the Georgian queen. The king was later convinced of the truth of her preaching by an eclipse of the sun, which plunged him and his followers into dense murk, until he thought of appealing to the God of Nino. A church was erected at the old Iberian

there are large

numbers of

letters.

—

;

NINGPO

Chiang

The

at the confluence of the

old walled city

lies

between

these, but suburbs

across both tributaries which are bridged.

the fertile plain in which the city is situated. The river is navigable to vessels up to 20 ft. draft and 350 ft. length as far as the

career in the last years of the 4th century and stated that he had dedicated his church to the memory of Martin of Tours on hearing of the latter's death (397), which is impossible, as there were then no dedications of churches except in honour of a martyr. The idea of Ninian's having trained in Rome, though found already in Bede's ecclesiastical history, is almost certainly imaginative

propaganda from the Anglian clergy, who had then recently the Celtic churchmen in the present Wigtownshire. in Scotland. His feast day

replaced

Ninian later became a principal patron is

Sept. 16.

—

Bibliography. A. B. Scott, St. Ninian, Apostle of the Britons and the Picts (1916) W. D. Simpson, Saint Ninian and the Origins of the Christian Church in Scotland (1940). For a critical assessment of the legend see P. Grosjean, "Les Pictes apostats dans I'Epitre de S. Patrice," ;

Analecta Bollandiana, vol. 76 (1958).

(PL. Gn.)

NINO

(Nina), SAINT (fl. c. a.d. 330), a holy woman who converted the Iberians (Georgians) of the Caucasus to Christianity during the reign of Constantine the Great. The earliest account of her apostolate stems from the church historian Rufinus, who evidently heard it from a Georgian prince. Nino was a captive

anchorage opposite Ningpo. The old foreign settlement was situated on the left bank of the Yung Chiang across the Yuyao from the walled city. Chenhai is an outport for Ningpo at the mouth of the Yung and is protected from sea storms by Tinghai and other

supernatural agency. place c. a.d. 330.

islands.

bellishments,

Ningpo is an ancient seat of learning and Buddhist religion. It has occupied its present site since a.d. 713 and was one of the earliest sites of European settlement in China. The Portuguese arrived there in 1520, but were driven out by the Chinese 25 years later because of their illegal activities. Subsequent restrictions made foreign trade with Ningpo virtually impossible. During the Chinese-British war of 1840-42, British warships blockaded Ningpo, but in 1842 the treaty of Nanking opened the port to for-

Georgian tradition as niece of the patriarch Juvenal of Jerusalem (d. 458), and as a companion of the holy Ripsime and her company of virgins, martyred by the Armenian king Tiridates III (d. 330). The shrine of St. Nino is at Bodbe in Kakhetia (now part of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic) her feast day is Jan. 14 in the Georgian Orthodox Church and Dec. 15 in the Roman Catholic Church.

However, the superior situation of Shanghai at the Yangtze valley greatly restricted Ningpo's commercial hinterland. On the seaward side, Ningpo acts as the market centre for the Chou-shan Islands, and a national fish market was established at Ningpo in the 1950s for the productive sea fisheries in the area. After the outbreak of the Chinese-Japanese war in 1937 Ningpo was one of the few ports to remain open until after 1940. The city exports cotton grown in neighbouring districts; other products shipped include native drugs, tea, reed mats and fish, most of these going to Shanghai. Ningpo imports large quantities of sugar, largely from Fukien province, and textiles and other manufactures from Shanghai. It has some foreign trade but its domestic trade is far more important. Ningpo manufactures cotton and silk yarns and cloth, electrical supplies, canned goods, knitwear, candles and soap. The city has canal, railroad and highway connections with Hangchow in the west. The railroad was destroyed during World War II, but restored in 1955, and extended about 25 mi. E. to the town of Ts'ai-ch'iao. A highway leads southward to Chekiang coastal towns. (H. J. Ws.) NINGSIA (Ninghsia), former province of China, in western Inner Mongolia. Upon its abolition in 1954, the province was merged with Kansu iq.v.). In 1956, most of former Ningsia, settled by Mongols, passed to the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region Nei Mengku Tzu-chih Ch'u) The rest of former Ningsia, inhabited largely by Hui (Chinese Muslims), was constituted in 1958 as the Ningsia Hui Autonomous Region, equivalent to a province (capital, Yinchwan; area 30,039 sq.mi.; pop. [1958 est.] 1,822,000, of whom one-third were Chinese MusUms). See also Mongolia, Inner. (T. Sd.) eign trade.

gateway

(

capital of

The

Mtskheta;

Nino has since been overlaid with fabulous emsome of them anachronistic, including the miraculous destruction of the Georgian pagan idols. Nino is represented in story of St.

later

;

See D.

M. Lang,

to the

.

main pillar was raised into position by These events are supposed to have taken

its

NINUS,

Lives and Legends of the Georgian Saints (1956). (D. M. La.)

Greek mythology, the eponymous founder of the city of Nineveh; also the name of the city itself. He was said to have been the son of Belos or Bel; to have conquered in 17 years the whole of western Asia with the help of Ariaeus, king of Arabia; and to have founded the first empire. During the siege of Bactra in

he met Semiramis, the wife of one of his officers, Onnes, whom he took from her husband and married. The fruit of the marriage was Ninyas; i.e., "the Ninevite." After the death of Ninus, Semiramis, who was accused of causing it, erected to him a temple stades high and ten stades broad near Babylon. The legendary aspects of this story were disproved in igio. For the

tomb nine

Semiramis. Another Ninus is described by some authorities as the last king Nineveh, of successor of Sardanapalus. NIOBE, in Greek mythology, the daughter of Tantalus and wife of King Amphion of Thebes, is the typical sorrowful woman, weeping for the loss of all her children. According to the Iliad she had six sons and six daughters and boasted of her superiority in this respect to the Titaness Leto (g.v.), who had only two children, the twin deities Apollo and Artemis. As punishment for her pride Apollo killed all Niobe's sons and Artemis killed all her daughters. The bodies lay for nine days unburied because Zeus had turned all the Thebans to stone, but on the tenth day they were buried by the gods. Niobe went back to her Phrygian home, where she was turned into a rock on Mt. Sipylus (Yamanlar Dag. northeast of Izmir) which continues to weep when the snow melts above it. Both Pausanias and Quintus Smyrnaeus refer to this historical aspects, see

;

NIOBIUM—NIPISSING

530

rock of Niobe as one which resembled a weeping

saw

it

The

from

woman when

they

a distance.

story of Niobe well illustrates the favourite Greek theme

that the gods are quick to take vengeance on human pride and arrogance (liybris). Niobe is the subject of lost tragedies by both Aeschylus and Sophocles, and Ovid tells her story in his Metamorphoses. The number of her children, which varies with different authors, is generally given after Homer as seven sons and seven daughters. In certain late accounts one son and one daughter were said to have survived. The name Niobe may be of non-Greek origin and derive from Asia Minor, which seems also to be the source of her story.

See Pauly-Wissowa, Real-F.ncyclopadie der classischen Altertumswissenschafl vol. 17, col. 644-706 (1936). ,

NIOBIUM,

element closely associated with tantalum in ores and in properties, was named in 1844 by German chemist Heinrich Rose after the goddess Niobe, daughter of Tantalus. Actually, it was first discovered in 1801 in a New England mineral by British chemist Charles Hatchett, who called the element columbium (see Columbite). International agreement among chemists in 1949 established the name niobium with symbol Nb, but the name columbium, symbol Cb, persisted a metallic

strongly in the U.S. metallurgical industry. The pure metal looks like steel and has a combination of propmake it a valuable engineering material. Alloying ad-

erties that

ditions enhance

melting point of 2,468° C. (4,474° F.), combined with a density of 8.57 (only slightly more than iron), excellent ductility and good strength, makes it attractive as an alloy base for high-temperature applications. Although it has excellent corrosion resistance, niobium needs protection against oxidation above about 400° C: hence, alloying, a protective coating or operation in vacuum or inert atmosphere is needed for prolonged high-temperature use. Because of its relatively low resistance to thermal neutrons, compatibility with uranium, corits

usefulness.

Its

rosion resistance and strength, some niobium alloys are used in atomic-energy reactors. An early application has been for cladding fuel elements in atomic-powered submarines. Niobium is a useful alloying addition to

columbium

it

)

is

many

added

other metals.

to

some

As ferroniobium

(ferro-

stainless steels to give stability

on welding or heating. Additions of only 0.05% niobium raise the and refine the grain size of some carbon steels. Many hundreds of miles of gas pipeline, for example, are made

yield strength

from

steel containing

niobium.

Principal sources of niobium are the minerals columbite and the low-grade but more abundant pyrochlores, a series of complex oxides containing essentially calcium, sodium, niobium, tantalum

and

with Africa, Brazil, Canada and Norway among the Natural abundance is estimated to be somewhat less than that of nickel. A chief difficulty in preparation of the pure metal has been separation from tantalum. This is done comfluorine,

chief suppliers.

mercially by solvent extraction in a hydrofluoric-sulfuric acid, methyl isobutyl ketone system, although fractional distillation of chlorides resulting from chlorination of ferroniobium is an alter-

nate method.

pounds

Among methods

for reducing

to metal are reduction of the oxide

the purified com-

by carbon

or

niobium

carbide in vacuum, hydrogen or magnesium reduction of the chloride, sodium reduction of double fluorides and fusion electrolysis.

Niobium

is

consolidated and purified further by electron-beam or Vacuum sintering of powder is also used for

vacuum-arc melting. consolidation.

Compounds of niobium are of minor importance. However, the carbide, usually blended with tantalum or tungsten carbides, is used in the making of some cemented carbide items, or cermets, for high-temperature use. In the chemical industry the metal is useful because of corrosion resistance although it is inferior to heavier, more expensive tantalum in hydrochloric acid, hot concentrated sulfuric acid and concentrated alkalies. In electronics, the superconductivity of niobium-zirconium and niobium-tin, together with ease of fabrication, is of interest in making fine wire for magnetic coils. Niobium has the atomic number 41 its atomic weight is 92.906. One stable form of the element, Nb''^, is known, and 12 radio;

active isotopes (89, 90, 91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100 and 101) in the outer un-

have been prepared. The electron arrangement filled orbits (N and 0) is; 4s-, 4p", 4d^ 5s'.

—

RiBi.iooRAPHY. B. VV. Gonser and E. M. Sherwood (cds.), Technologv of Columbium (Niobium) (1958) C. A. Hampel (cd.), Rare Melah Handbook, 2nd ed. (1961); D. L. Douglass and F. W. Kunz (edi.).. Columbium Metallurgy (1961). (B. W. G.) ;

NIOBRARA,

the largest river in northern Nebraska, U.S.,

rises near Lusk, Wyo., flows east across the High Plains, the northern fringe of the Nebraska sandhills and the low eastern plains to

join the Missouri river at Niobrara.

The name

is

of Indian origin

and means "running water" or "spreading water." Both designations are apt the Niobrara has a more uniform flow than do most plains streams, because of steady groundwater contributions from tributaries in the sandhills; in its lower course it is wide and shallow. It is 447 mi. long, drains 12,000 sq.mi. and has an annual flow of 1,100,000 ac.ft., with a peak in late spring and summer. In the late 1950s, about 24,000 ac. in the river basin were irrigated, mainly in the western reach where Box Butte reservoir served 12,000 ac. at Mirage flats. Ranching, concentrated in the sandhills, has traditionally been the most important activity in the Niobrara basin. Additional sources of farm income have been hogs, corn and wheat. See also Nebraska: Physical Geography :

The Economy. (D. S. St.) NIORT, a market town of western France, prefecture of the departement of Deux-Sevres, is situated 63 km. (39 mi.) E.N.E. of La Rochelle by road on the Sevre river, above its silted estuary. Pop. (1962) 36,265. Below Niort the Sevre, navigable for small craft, now traverses an amphibious tract of reclaimed marshland Marais Poitevin), which occupies a former re-entrant of the sea. The town grew up on the left bank of the river in the shelter of Henry Plantagenet's castle, erected in 1155, the keep of which dominates the river by two square towers. Franqoise d'Aubigne, marquise de Maintenon (1635-1719), second wife of Louis XIV, was born in Niort. The town was one of the centres of Protestantism in western France and suffered severely by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. It has old tanning and leatherworking industries, but is chiefly a market and rural service centre for the productive Marais Poitevin and other neighbouring farmlands of Poitou and the southern part of Vendee. South and north of the castle the tall spires of the church of Notre Dame (14711540) and the 19th-century church of St. Andre overlook the old town near the river. Back from the river the street system focuses (

upon the spacious Place de la Breche. (Ar. E. S.) NIPIGON, a lake and river of Thunder Bay district, Ont.

The

is the largest in Ontario exclusive of 30 mi. N. of the bay of the same name on ft. above sea level. It is roughly elliptical in shape. 70 mi. long and 50 mi. wide, more than 500 ft. deep and contains more than 1,000 islands. It has a muchindented shoreline measuring about 464 mi. The name is an Indian word meaning "deep, clear-water lake." lake, 250 ft. in its 30-mi. The river, which drains the drops course; it is the largest stream flowing into Lake Superior. Power stations on the river at Pine Portage. Cameron and Alexander develop a total of 312,000 h.p. The entire Nipigon region is noted for fishing and hunting. (F. A. Ck. NIPISSING, a lake in Ontario (elevation 643 ft., area 330 sq.mi., length 45 mi., width 9 mi.), situated midway between Georgian bay and the Ottawa river. It was discovered early in the 1 7th century and became a major voyageiir route west. It discharges its water by the French river into Georgian bay, and is separated by a low watershed former portage from Trout lake, source of the Mattawa river, tributary of the Ottawa. This route has been suggested as a possible canal route linking Lake Huron with

lake, area 1,870 sq.mi.,

the Great Lakes.

Lake Superior,

It is

at an altitude of 852

)

(

)

Ottawa valley. North Bay, a city of 2S 781 inhabitants (1961), serves as

the

a

wholesale and retail distributing centre on the north shore of the lake. Small local industries and recent important mining operations have

begun on Manitou Island.

North Bay

is

the

hub of a

large tourist industry; a daily steamer service connects the city

with the French river vacation area.

(F. A. Ck.)

NIPPON— NIS NIPPON,

the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese

name

of

Japan, "sun origin." See Japan. NIPPUR, an ancient sacred city of Mesopotamia, was situated on the Euphrates river about 45 mi. S.E. of Babylon; the site, the modern name of which is Niffer (Nuffar), lies about 100 mi. S.S.E. of

Baghdad

in the

Although

Diwaniyah liwa of Iraq.

it

was

never a political capital, Nippur played a dominant role in the religious life of Mesopotamia. Long since, the river has moved miles westward and the ruins of the city resem.ble a series of low hills rising

from the surrounding

alluvial plain.

In Sumerian mythology Nippur apparently existed from the beIt was the home of Enlil, the storm god, the rep-

ginning of time.

resentation of force, the god

who

carried out the decrees of the

assembly of gods that met at Nippur to determine the course of events and the destiny of all beings. It was at Nippur that Enlil, according to one account, created man. As the god of force and the executor of the divine assembly's will, Enlil could delegate his authority to the temporal ruler of

any of the Sumerian cityand Assyria.

What

531

here implied is the waning away of deluded egocentricity, with its attendant passionate, sensual and selfish desires. According to the Buddha's analysis of the human situation, these deluded desires fetter man, together with all sentient beings, to the round of rebirth and consequent ill or suffering (dukkha), one afflicted existence succeeding another. When these desires are transcended by those who follow the Path which he announced, there is the experience of spiritual freedom and enlightenment that is Nirvana. The corresponding term, Nibbana, in the Pah Buddhist scriptures, is held by some expositors to refer explicitly to the negation (»i) In a sense, of the "jungle of lust, ill-will and delusion" (vana). therefore, Nirvana means extinction. But most Buddhists emphasize that this does not mean annihilation; Nirvana is not the end of life, but rather the end of all that confuses Hfe and hinders is

it is "the extinction of afflictions." As such, it is poetically described in the Buddhist scriptures as the harbour of refuge, the further shore, the cool cave, the match-

well-being;

less island

amid

home

the floods, the

states and, in later times, to the kings of Babylonia

also said to be changeless, deathless

Although a king's armies could subjugate the country, the transference to that king of Enlil's divine power to rule had to be sought and sanctioned. The necessity of this confirmation from the divine assembly at Nippur made the city and Enlil's sanctuary there especially sacred, regardless of which dynasty ruled Mesopotamia. {See also Babylonia and Assyria; Religion: Sumerian Pantheon: Farming Regions.) The first archaeological expedition from the United States to Mesopotamia excavated at Nippur from 1889 to 1900; the excavations were resumed in 1948. The southwestern half of the city was a residential and business district; the records of the commercial house of the Murashu family (c. 44S-C. 403 B.C.) were found there. The eastern section, also residential, has been called the scribal quarter because so many cuneiform tablets were found in the houses. Most of the tablets were business documents, but many copies of Sumerian hymns, myths and wisdom texts were also recovered. In fact, the excavations at Nippur have been the primary source of the Hterary writings of Sumer. The northern section of the city, the religious quarter, contained temples to Enhl and other gods and goddesses of the Sumerian pantheon. Very little is known about the prehistoric town except that it did exist. It probably was centred beneath the religious quarter By the mid-3rd millennium B.C. the city probably of the town. had reached the extent of the present ruins and was fortified. The most important temple, dedicated to Enlil, undoubtedly underlies the existing ziggurat to the same god. Naramsin, king of Akkad from c. 2267 to 2230 B.C. (or 2291-55), rebuilt the city walls and temples, but most of his work was obliterated by the extensive and

the "not born, the not-become"; nihilation."

The

reality

of ease, the holy city.

It is

and without limitation.

It is

it is

beyond

all

"neither origination nor an-

change and suffering,

it

is

peace, security, supreme joy, unspeakable bhss. While interpretations vary in different contexts of Buddhist

thought, there

general agreement that Nirvana

is

is

an exalted

spir-

may

be realized here and now. In the Theravada (Hinayana) tradition, the nature of the goal is indicated to some extent by the degrees of moral and spiritual mastery set forth in the Noble Eightfold Path and by what is said of the character and condition of the saint (the arahat) who has followed this Path: Nibbana is "the state of him who is worthy." In the Mahayana tradition, to reahze Nirvana is to realize one's own inherent itual state that

Buddha-nature, and this is generally interpreted as a change of outlook rather than a change of being. In Vedanta (Indian) thought Nirvana is identified with union with Brahman. Parinirvana, used sometimes with particular reference to the state after death, signifies complete achievement but in itself implies neither immortality

—

nor annihilation one of the questions to which the Buddha is said For Nirvana is "deep, to have given "indeterminate" answers. unfathomable." As it means enlightenment there is, apart from this enlightenment, no knowing until the goal itself is reached. Nirvana has to be experienced. All that can be defined is the Path. See also Metempsychosis: Eastern Thought.

—

Bibliography. U Thittila, "The Fundamental Principles of Theravada Buddhism," pp. 102-103 and 111-112, and Hajime Nakamura, "Unity and Diversity in Buddhism," pp. 381-382, in Kenneth W. Morgan (ed.), The Path of the Buddha (1956) I. B. Horner, "Buddhism: the Theravada," in R. C. Zaehner (ed.), The Concise Encyclopedia of Living Faiths, pp. 282 ff. (1959) Ninian Smart, Reasons and Faiths: ;

;

monumental constructions

of

Ur-Nammu,

dynasty of Ur, who reigned from

c.

the

2130 to

c.

first

2112

king of the 3rd B.C. (or

2113-

2096). Ur-Nammu laid out Enlil's sanctuary, the Ekur, in its present form. The sacred enclosure was oriented with its corners to the cardinal points of the compass. A ziggurat or temple tower, probably three stories high, and a temple were built in an open courtyard surrounded by casemated walls which contained shrines, priests' quarters and storerooms. The following kings of Ur, Isin

and Larsa kept the sacred buildings in repair but there is little evidence of temple construction by the kings of Babylon (c. 18001600 B.C.), although Nippur was a thriving city at that time. Later, the Kassite and Assyrian kings made extensive repairs and restorations. Minor changes in Neo-Babylonian times brought the glories of Nippur to an end. The Parthians constructed a massive citadel that completely buried Enlil's sanctuary and its enclosure walls. A.D.

From

the city

lage until

it

the close of the Parthian period in the 3rd century fell

into decay

was abandoned

Bibliography.— J. P.

and probably was no more than a

vil-

13th century a.d. H. V. Hilprecht, Excavations at Before Philosophy (1949); S. N.

in the 12 th or

Peters, Nippur, 2 vol. (1897) Lands (1903) C. S. Fisher, ;

Explorations in Bible Nippur (1905); H. Frankfort et al., Kramer, From the Tablets of Sumer (1956) The Illustrated London News, June 28, 1952, Aug. 18, 1956, Sept. 6, 1958. (R. C. Ha.) a Sanskrit term ( Pali Nibbana) names the ulti;

;

NIRVANA,

,

mate goal of Buddhist thought, aspiration and practice. Literally, it means "waning away" (as of a flame when the fuel is exhausted).

an Investigation of Religious Discourse, ch. ii, iii (1958); T. R. V. Murti, The Central Philosophy of Buddhism, 2nd ed., pp. 47, 271 ff. (1961) L. de La Vallee Poussin, The Way to Nirvana (1917), Nirvana (1925) T. Stcherbatsky, The Conception of Buddhist Nirvana (1927) R. H. L. Slater, Paradox and Nirvana (1951); F. Heiler, Die Buddhistische Versenkung, 2nd ed. (1922); Vamakami Sogen, Systems of (R. H. L. S.) Buddhistic Thought (1912). NIS (Nish), chief town of the Nis srez (district) in the Socialist Republic of Serbia, Yugos., stands on the Nisava river not ;

;

;

far

from

its

confluence with the southern Morava, 246 km. (153

mi.) S.S.E. of Belgrade

by road

via Kragujevac.

Pop. (1961)

81.073.

The town is important both commercially and also strategically it commands the only two valleys affording easy access from

since

Europe to the Aegean; it is the meeting point of several Balkan highways; -and the main railway from Belgrade and the north divides there for Sofia, Bulg., and Salonika, Greece. It has railway workshops and Ught industries (cigarettes, textiles, leather, central

flour).

Good

was founded

The

in

coal supplies are within easy reach. 1

A

university

960.

Roman

city Naissus, which probably superseded a was mentioned as an important place in the second century in Ptolemy's Guide to Geography, and the old fortress on the right bank of the river is believed to have been built on its site. Under its walls in a.d. 269 the emperor Claudius destroyed the army of the Goths, and Constantine the Great was

ancient

Celtic settlement,

NISHAPUR—NITHARD

532

(c. 280). The emperor Julian improved its defenses but the town was destroyed by the Huns under Attila in the 5th century, and restored by Justinian. In the 9th century the Bulgarians concjuered it, but ceded it in the 11th century to the

born there

whom

Hungarians, from it

Manuel I took 12th century the town was in

the Byzantine emperor

Toward the end of the hands of the Serbian prince Stephen

in ll"j.

the

Nemanya

(Stevan

Nemanja), who there received hospitably the German emperor Frederick I Barbarossa and his crusaders. In MIS the Turks captured Nis from the Serbians. In 1443 the Hungarians and the Serbs retook it from the Turks, but in 1456 it again came under Turkish rule and remained for more than 300 years the most important Turkish station on the road between Hungary and Constantinople.

In the

lirst

Serbian uprising, 1809, the Serbians, led

by Stephan Sindjelic, resisting the Turkish onslaught near Nis, lired their powder magazine and destroyed both themselves and the enemy. The Turks built a brick tower about li mi. S.E., in which they embedded more than 900 Serbian skulls. The ruins are still The Serbian army libercalled Cele Kula ("Tower of Skulls"). ated Nis in 1877 and the town was ceded to them by the treaty of Berlin (.1878). In World War I, Nis was for a period the capital of Serbia, and on Nov. 24, 1914, the Serbian parliament and government issued their declaration of war aims: liberation and In World War 11 unification of all Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Nis was severely damaged by bombing and many streets in the old Turko-Byzantine style were destroyed. (V. De.) Neyshabur), a town in Khurasan ostan (province) of Iran, lies 46 mi. W. of Meshed (Mashad), and 3,920 ft. above sea level. The town, which has shifted its position repeatedly in historic times, is situated in a wide, well-watered and Pop. 1956) fertile plain at the southern foot of Kuh-e Binalud. 25,820. The surrounding area produces grain and cotton. Besides the marketing and other activities of a local centre there is some manufacturing and processing including leather, carpets, vegetable oil, cotton ginning and pottery. At Ma'dan, 32 mi. N.W. of Nishapur at 5,100 ft., are the famous turquoise mines which have supplied the world for at least 2,000 years. Communications are excellent as Nishapur is linked by road, and since 1958 by railway, with Teheran and Meshed. Nishapur derived its name from its alleged founder Shapur (a.d. 241-272). It was once one of the four great cities of Khurasan, rivaling Ray (Rhages), and was an important place in the 5th century as the residence of Yazdegerd II (438-457). But when the Arabs came to Khurasan (641-642) it was of such minor importance that it did not even have a garrison. Under the Tahirids it became a flourishing city again and rose to importance under the Samanids (874-999). Tughril (Toghrul), the first Seljuk ruler, made Nishapur his residence in 1037. The decline set in in 1 1 53 when the Ghuzz Turkmens overran the country and partly destroyed the town. In 1208 most of it was devastated by earthquake and was hardly rebuilt when it was ravaged by the Mongols. Rebuilt, it suffered again from Mongol invasion (1269) and from another earthquake, and never again achieved its former great-

NISHAPUR

(

(

ness.

The Gadam Gar (1643),

a fine

domed mausoleum,

lies

a

few

Excavations by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, in 1934-40, disclosed rich, significant architectural and artistic remains of both the Seljuk and pre-Seljuk periods. Adjacent to the mosque of the Imamzadeh Mahruk, 4 mi. S.E. of Nishapur, is the tomb of the astronomer-poet Omar Khayyam, who was born in Nishapur a fine marble shaft and sarcophagus built in 1934. Nearby is the grave of the celebrated poet and mystic Farid ud-din 'Attar. (H. Bo.) NISHINOMIYA, Japanese city of Hyogo prefecture, located midway between Kobe and Osaka in the continuous urban-industrial belt along the eastern Inland seacoast of Honshu. Pop. (1960) 262. 60S. It occupies a narrow lowland between Osaka bay and interior Mt. Rokko. Nishinomiya is famed for its fine sake (rice wine) and produces 30 different brands. Its coastal sections are assigned to industry (metals, machinery, chemicals, rubber goods, soap, cosmetics and beer) and to bathing resorts. It has a large professional baseball stadium and excellent railway and road miles to the east.

—

connections with adjacent eastern and western urban areas. (J. D. Ee.) NISI PRIUS, in law, a term denoting a trial court and, in

England, especially the queen's bench division of the high court. It derives from the time when the sheriff was ordered to bring jurors to Westminster for trial "unless before" (nisi prius) the day set the assize judges had come to the sheriff's county to hold (P. B. K.) trials. See Assize.

NISUS,

the

name

of two figures in classical mythology and

literature.

Nisus, in Greek mythology, was a son of Pandion, king of 1. Megara, and is eponymously connected with the Megarian port of Nisaea. Nisus had a purple lock of hair with magic power; if preserved, it would guarantee him life and continued possession When Minos (g.v.) besieged Megara, Nisus' of his kingdom. daughter Scylla fell in love with Minos or was bribed; she betrayed her city by cutting off her father's purple lock. Nisus w'as killed or killed himself and became transformed into a sea eagle. Minos despised Scylla and brought about her death either by dragging her, tied, after his ship or by abandoning her, so that she desperately swam after him and drowned. Scylla then changed into a sea bird (Gr. keiris, Lat. ciris), possibly a heron, constantly pur-

sued by the sea eagle. The story appears as early as Aeschylus, but the most famous accounts occur in the Ciris, often attributed

and in Ovid's Metamorphoses, 8, i ff. Nisus in X'irgil's Aeneid is a Trojan, son of Hyrtacus, close friend of Euryalus. In the funeral games, when he slips and falls, he helps Euryalus win the foot race by tripping the leader (Aeneid Later, fighting the Italians, he sacrifices himself vainly 5, 315 ff.). to rescue Euryalus from the enemy, but earns poetic immortaUty (Aeneid 9, 176 ff.). (Wm. S. A.) to Virgil, 2.

NITEROI,

a city

of Rio de Janeiro,

is

and port of

Brazil,

and capital of the

state

located on the eastern side of the entrance

Guanabara bay opposite the city of Rio de Janeiro, with which Like Rio de connected by ferry. Pop. (1960) 228.S26. Janeiro, this city is located on low ground at the heads of the numerous bays that indent the shore. The several sections of the city are separated by steep rocky ridges that extend into the water. Niteroi is separated from the open ocean by the steep slopes of the main ridge running parallel to the coast. In addition to serving as capital of Rio de Janeiro state since 183s (except for the period 1S94-1903 when Petropolis was the capital), Niteroi is also a residential suburb of Rio de Janeiro city. The best residential districts include Icarai and Sao Francisco, both of which are bordered by fine beaches. In and around to

It

is

Niteroi there are important manufacturing industries, including Brazil's chief shipbuilding and repairing yards and metal industries which use steel manufactured at Volta Redonda (g.v.). There are textile mills and food processing plants; other manufac-

tures

include

flat

glass,

matches,

tobacco products,

chemicals, explosives and pharmaceuticals.

There

is

furniture,

a large ce-

ment plant nearby. The central business district is in the part of the city known as Sao Lourenqo. The first settlement on the eastern side of the bay was made by the Portuguese in 1671. At this time a chapel was built in Praia Grande near an Indian village, not far from one of the present ferry terminals. The settlement became a village in i8ig when it was named 'Villa Real da Praia Grande. In 1834 the city Rio de Janeiro and the federal district were separated from Rio de Janeiro state; the following year Praia Grande became the In 1836 it became a city and was renamed capital of the state. Niteroi, a name derived from the Indian word Nyteroi, "hidden water." In spite of the new residential suburbs and industrial districts, Niteroi remains even more characteristically Portuguese than its neighbour across the mouth of the bay; the narrow irregular streets and the architecture of the buildings are little changed. The name of the city was formerly spelled Nictheroy. (P. E. J.) (d.' 844), Prankish count whose historical work gives an invaluable narrative of the dissension between the sons of the emperor Louis I the Pious, was the son of Charlemagne's daughter Bertha by Angilbert, head of Charlemagne's chancery and poet (called the "Homer" of the court). Through his mother, of

NITHARD

NITHSDALE—NITRIC ACID AND NITRATES was the cousin of Louis I's sons, and when war out between them on their father's death, he emerged as

therefore, Nithard broice

the valued counselor of the youngest of them, Charles II the Bald.

A

formidable military strategist, he played an important part in Fontenoy (June 25, 841), when Charles defeated his eldest half brother Lothair I. In the same year Charles asked Nithard to write an account of contemporary events. Heavily biased against Lothair, Nithard's history (Historiarum libri iv) is nevertheless a work of considerable interest, almost the sole source on the war. He had important sources and official documents at his disposal, providing, for example, the full text of the Strasbourg oaths of Feb. 842, sworn by Charles in German and by his half brother Louis the German in French. Nithard rarely had leisure to write until some time after the events that he describes; even so, his account of the battle of Fontenoy, written four months after it took place, is remarkably vivid. In 843 Nithard was made lay abbot of St. Riquier (east of Abbeville) by Charles the Bald, but held this benefice for a few months only: he was killed on June 14, 844, in a fierce battle against the forces of Pepin II of Aquitaine, who was trying to prevent reinforcements from reaching Charles at the siege of Toulouse. The text of his work is printed in Moniimenta Germaniae historica, series Scriptores, 3rd ed. (1907), and, with French translation, by P. Lauer, Histoire des fils de Louis le pieux (1926). (J. De.) the battle of

WILLIAM MAXWELL,

5 th Earl of NITHSDALE, (1676-1744), Scottish Jacobite chiefly remembered for being rescued by his wife from the Tower of London, was the only son of Robert (d. 1683), 4th earl, to whom he was served heir in 1696 (see also Maxwell). He married Winifred, daughter of William Herbert, 1st marquess of Powis. Nithsdale soon became known as a Jacobite and in 1712, anticipating the possible consequences of his support for the Stuarts, he resigned his estate to his son Wilham. He took part in the Jacobite rising of 1715, was captured at Preston and was tried and condemned to death in Jan.-Feb. 1716. The countess, on hearing of her husband's capture, went to London, traveling in very difiicult conditions, and there gained access to the king. George I. however, refused to receive her petition, and when she knelt before him and took hold of the skirts of his coat he dragged her half across the room before he could break away. Finding that no pardon could be obtained, the countess laid

a plan to rescue her

husband from the Tower

of

London.

With

the

help of two Jacobite ladies, she cleverly helped her husband escape from his cell on the night before the day fixed for the execution

(Feb. 24) by disguising him as a

The

woman.

escaped from England and was followed by his wife after she had gone back to Scotland to rescue important legal papers which proved the transfer of the estate to their son. After a short stay in France, the earl and countess went to Rome, where they lived in poverty and obscurity. The earl died there on March 20, 1744, and the countess in 1749. earl

NITON:

see

NITRA

(Ger.

Radon. Neutra; Hung. Nyitra), a town

West

in the

AND

eaii forte.

R. Glauber devised the process in common use for by heating a nitrate with concentrated sulfuric acid. The true nature of nitric acid was not determined until the 18th century when A. L. Lavoisier (1776) showed that it contains oxygen. In 1 784 H. Cavendish synthesized it by passing a stream of sparks through humid air, pro\'ing that nitrogen is also a conIn 1648

many

J.

years, viz.,

Gay-Lussac and C. L. Berthollet Nitric acid has been known as agita dissolutiva, aqua prima, spiritus acidus nitri, spiritus nitri fumans Glauberi and aqua fortis. Free nitric acid, formed in moist air by the discharge of atmospheric electricity (lightning), is found to a very slight extent in rain water and is also formed in the soil by the oxidation of nitrogenous organic matter. It is neutralized by the basic substances in the soil to form nitrates, principally saltpetre, KNO3, and Chile saltpetre. NaNO^, the latter being found in greater abundance and concentrations. Physical Properties. Pure 100% nitric acid is a colourless liquid whose specific gravity at 25° C. relative to water at 4° C. is 1.50269, melting point —41.59° C, and boiling point 86° C. at one atmosphere of pressure. It fumes strongly on contact with moist air and is miscible with water in all proportions. A water solution containing 68% of the acid, which is the approximate composition of the concentrated acid of commerce, is a constant-boiling or azeotropic mixture at atmospheric pressure with a boiling point of 120.5° C. and a specific gravity of 1.41. A stituent of the atmosphere.

established

its

J. L.

exact composition in 1816.

—

68% nitric acid may be separated by atmospheric pressure into the constant-boiling mixture and a distillate of more dilute acid; one with more than 68% nitric acid yields a residue of the constant-boiling mixture and a distillate of the more concentrated acid. The very concentrated or pure acid undergoes decomposition when boiled and, with the water formed, may be converted to the The composiconstant-boiling mixture by repeated distillation. tion of the constant-boiling mixture varies with the pressure at solution containing less than distillation at

which in the

(region) of southern Slovakia, Czech., lies at the foot of the small Zobor massif above the east bank of the Nitra river and 116 km. (45 mi.) E.N.E. of Bratislava. Pop. (1961) 36,479. It was important from the 9th century onward as a strongpoint and a religious centre. The first Christian church of Slovakia was established there (830) and was consecrated by the missionary saints Cyril and Methodius. The ramparts of the medieval castle still surround the upper town, now crowned by the 18th-century bishop's palace. The railway constructed during the 19th century up the west (opposite) bank of the river bypassed the town but this has been compensated in part by a road bridge and a good road network. To the south is a rich region of Slovak arable farming on chernozem soils and the town has foodNearby at processing industries and an agricultural college. Mylnarce is a factory for industrial ceramics. (H. G. S.) NITRE, naturally occurring potassium nitrate, or saltpetre; "cubic nitre," or Chile saltpetre, is sodium nitrate. A source of nitrogen compounds, nitre was employed in the earliest recorded preparation of nitric acid (see Nitric Acid and Nitrates) and

Slovak kraj

533

manufacture of gunpowder, fireworks, etc. It occurs as crusts on the surface of the earth, on walls, rocks, etc., and in caves. It forms in certain soils in Spain, Italy, Egypt, Iran and India. It occurs with sodium nitrate in Chile, and in the United States it has been found in caves in the Mississippi valley. The colour is white and it has a vitreous lustre. The composition is KNO3, with 46. 5'^ KoO (potash) and 53.5% NnOg. See also Potassium: Potassium Nitrate. NITRATES. Nitric acid, HNO3, an NITRIC ACID important mineral acid, was one of the earliest of the nitrogen compounds to be prepared and used. Its preparation by the distillation of a mixture of nitre (potassium nitrate), alum and blue vitriol is ascribed to Geber (q.v.). A similar method was described by Albertus Magnus in the 13th century and by Raimon Lull, who prepared the acid by heating nitre and clay and called it

was used

is

it

distilled.

Chemical Properties. solutions

—Pure

decompose slowly

4HNO3 -^ 2HoO

+

nitric

acid or

its

concentrated

into water, nitrogen dioxide and oxy-

4NO2

-I- Oo: the rate of the decomposiThe contion is increased by light and by higher temperature. centrated acid is therefore usually coloured yellow because of the presence of the nitrogen dioxide, some of which remains in the solution. Nitric acid forms two compounds with water in the solid phase, the monohydrate, HNO3H2O, melting point —37.68° C, and the trihydrate, HNOj^HoO, melting point -18.47° C. Nitric acid may be- considered to be the hydrate of nitrogen pentoxide although it is almost never prepared by hydration of the oxide. Conversely the pentoxide is normally prepared by dehydrating the concentrated acid with phosphorous pentoxide: Nitrogen pentoxide is a 2HNO3 P2O5 -^ NnOs 2HPO3.

gen:

+

+

white solid that sublimes at 32.4° C. and decomposes readily into nitrogen dioxide and oxygen. Nitric acid is a strong acid; in dilute water solutions it is almost completely ionized to hydrogen ions. H*. and nitrate ions. NO 3. Its salts with strong bases are not hydrolyzed in aqueous solution and are neutral to indicators. It neutralizes hydroxide bases and

»»

:

AND NITRATES

NITRIC ACID

534 weak

salts of

Because of

acids to form nitrates {see below).

its

strong oxidizing properties, a dilute solution of the acid does not yield hydrogen when treated with metals but is reduced to one

ammonium

of the oxides of nitrogen, to nitrogen or to

ever, with very active metals

hydrogen

Most

is

ion.

How-

(magnesium, for example), some

liberated along with the other reduction products.

of the nitric acid produced

is

consumed

in the

manufac-

ture of fertilizers, explosives, plastics, lacquers, synthetic fabrics

and dyes by the reaction of the acid on organic compounds. Fuming nitric acid is used as an oxidizer in rocket propellants. In one type of reaction, organic nitrates and water are formed

OH

groups react alcohols and other compounds containing with the acid. Nitroglycerol, commonly called nitroglycerin, is w^ith mixture of concentrated a made bv the treatment of glycerol nitric and sulfuric acids: CaHjiOHla -j- iHiNOg CjHr,! N0:,)3 3HoO. The sulfuric acid combines with the water, increasing

when

^

+

the concentration of nitronium ion (NO J ), a powerful nitrating agent. Cellulose in the form of cotton or wood fibres is similarly treated to obtain cellulose nitrates. The extent of nitration (i.e., the

number

lose)

of nitrate radicals combining with a unit of the cellu-

controlled to produce either guncotton (smokeless powder)

is

base for pyroxylin lacquers and plastics and certain types of fibres. In organic nitrates the nitrogen atom is bonded to an oxygen atom, which in turn is hnked to a carbon. Another type of reaction of nitric acid and organic compounds inor,

with

less nitration, the

compounds in which the nitrogen bonded directly to the carbon atom.

volves the formation of nitro

of the group — NOo is Toluene (methylbenzenel reacts with nitric acid in the presence of concentrated sulfuric acid to form trinitrotoluene, more com-

atom

monly known as TNT: CeH^CHg [See Explosives.) -t- 3H2O.

acid

number of possible reduction products that may be obThe oxidation or valence number of the nitrogen in nitric

is

it

"""S;

may

NO

nitric oxide,

NOn ('*"4), ammonium ion,

be reduced to nitrogen dioxide,

("^2), nitrogen,

N2

(0), or to

NH;J' (~3), depending upon the temperature, the concentration of the acid, the presence of catalysts and the activity of the metal or other reducing agent involved.

In general, the more concentrated the acid the less the change in number of the nitrogen. For example, copper re4HNO3 concentrated) duces the concentrated acid to NO2 Cu the oxidation

+

:

-^Cu(N03)2

8HNO3

+

(dilute)

ducing agent

2NO2 + 2H2O, and the -^ 3Cu(N03)2 + 2N0

may

(

+

dilute acid to

NO: 3Cu

+

stronger re-

4H2O.

A

number

cause a greater change in the oxidation

of the nitrogen, as:

4Zn

+

IOHNO3

(dilute) ->

4Zn(N03)2

-f

NH4NO3

+ 3H2O

wherein the reduction product is ammonium nitrate. On the other hand, the concentrated acid may oxidize the metal or nonmetal to a higher valence stage than does the dilute acid, as

+

+ 2H2O, and + 2H2O

6HNO3 (concentrated) -> H2SO4 -f 6N02 S 3SO2 4N0 3S -f 4HNO3 (warm, dilute)

When

-

copper or chromium

+

placed in contact with concentrated nitric acid it becomes inactive or passive to the acid and to certain other substances with which it normally reacts passive iron reduces neither hydrogen ion nor cupric ion, and passive copiron,

+

+ HNO3

NaHS04

(gas).

Commercially, nitric acid is manufactured by three processes. The older method, practically obsolete at mid-20th century, is Chile saltpetre, a commercial similar to the laboratory method. form of sodium nitrate, is heated with an equimolal amount of pressure in iron retorts. under reduced concentrated sulfuric acid Nitric acid boils out of the reaction mixture and is condensed An attempt to bring about a reaction bein glass containers. tween another molecule of sodium nitrate with the second hydrogen in the sulfuric acid molecule results in decomposition of the nitric acid because of the high temperatures necessary to make the reaction go.

The second and most common method

of manufacturing nitric Ammonia can be oxidation of ammonia. synthesized as cheaply per pound of nitrogen as Chile saltpetre can be mined and purified, and as a result it largely supplanted the

acid

is

by

catalytic

A mixture of lo'^r ammonia and 90% heated to 300° C. and passed over a platinum gauze catalyst, which is heated initially to 900°-l,000° C. Heat liberated in the reaction is sufficient to maintain the catalyst temperature. About latter as a source material.

air

is

ammonia is oxidized to nitric oxide: 4NH3 + 5O2 — From the catalyst the gases pass into absorption 2N0 -f O2 —» 2NO2 and 3NO2 + HoO -^ 2HNO3 + NO. The third method of nitric acid manufacture involves the direct 90'^"f

of the

-f

6H2O.

towers where two reactions take place:

wolfram and molybdenum the oxides of the metals are formed. The behaviour of the acid as an oxidizing agent is complex because tained.

—

prepared by gently heating an equimolal mixture of pure concentrated sulfuric acid and pure sodium nitrate under vacuum and condensing the evolved gaseous acid at a temperature near or NaNOa — below its melting point. The reaction is H2SO4

+ 3HNO3 -> CH3C6H2(N02)3 4N0

Nitric acid is a powerful oxidizing agent; it oxidizes nearly all of the metals except platinum, rhodium, iridium, tantalum and gold. Most metals yield nitrates, but with tin, arsenic, antimony,

of the

Copious quantities of water and mild tion of xanthoproteic acid. bases such as sodium bicarbonate solution will assist in neutralizand external exposures. internal ing the effects of Manufacture. In the laboratory pure anhydrous nitric acid is

is

;

Passivity may be destroyed by per does not reduce silver ion. scratching the surface, by the action of reducing agents, or by the effect of a strong magnetic field. It was thought at mid-20th century that the formation of an oxide film on the surface of the

metal was the cause of the phenomenon. Nitric acid is highly toxic if taken internally, producing a widespread gastroenteritis, burning pain in the esophagus and abdomen, and bloody diarrhea. Death may occur from collapse or from secondary destructive changes in the intestinal canal. On the skin a characteristic yellow staining appears, due to the forma-

union of atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen in an electric arc: 2N0, followed by the last two reactions of the amNo monia process. Equilibrium in the arc reaction favours formation For example, at of nitric oxide only at very high temperatures. 3,900° C. the reaction is only 10% complete at equilibrium. However, if the reaction mixture is quenched quickly to a temperature below 1,000° C. it may be frozen at the high-temperature equilibrium proportions. Under the most favourable conditions, the yield The process is not comof nitric oxide is only about 2.5%. mercially competitive with the ammonia oxidation process even (See Nitrogen, Fixin locations where electric power is cheap.

+ 02^

ation OF.) Nitrates. Inorganic nitrates are chemical compounds with the type formula Me(N03)„, where Me represents a metal atom and n may be one, two, or more depending on the valence of the

—

metal.

Nitrates are crystalline solids at ordinary temperatures. metallic con-

They may be white or coloured, depending on the stituent. As a group they are the most water soluble

of

all

metallic

Nitrates are prepared by reaction of the desired metal, its oxide or its carbonate with nitric acid. Nitrates of base metals decompose according to the equation 2NaN03-* 2NaN02 Oo when heated, whereas nitrates of the less active metals are converted to oxides under the influence of heat: 2Cu( N03)2-* 2CuO -f 4NO2 -f On. When heated to high tempersalts.

+

atures, nitrates are strong oxidizing agents

comparable to

nitric

acid.

Many

nitrates are hygroscopic;

i.e.,

they absorb atmospheric

unprotected. Potassium nitrate is an important Some nitrates contain water of crystallization when exception. precipitated from aqueous solution, one or more water molecules per nitrate molecule forming an integral part of the crystalline

moisture

if left

of water varies with Heating the hydrated salts depending on the oxide, causes partial to complete conversion to

structure of the solid material.

The amount

the substance and the temperature.

metallic constituent.

Nitric acid

is

driven

off as

a gas.

an equilateral triangle, with oxygen atoms surrounding the central nitrogen atom. Nitrates are determined qualitatively by reduction with ferrous ion, Fe-'*, to nitric oxide and subsequent formation of FeNO-"^, a complex

The

nitrate ion has the structure of

NITRIDES ion with a characteristic

The

deep-brown colour.

reaction taives

place in the presence of concentrated sulfuric acid, which is added to a solution of the unknown and ferrous sulfate in such a way that the two solutions do not mix.

A brown

layer at the interface

indicates the presence of nitrate ion.

of nitrate ion

by aluminum

is

Quantitative determination usually accomplished by reduction to ammonia

in alkaline solution, distillation of the

ammonia

into

excess standardized sulfuric acid and back titration with standardized

sodium hydroxide

Nitrate ion forms an insoluble (4.5-dihydro-l,4-diphenylimino-l,2,4-triazole). solution.

salt with nitron permitting the gravimetric determination of nitrates. For other nitrogen compounds see Nitrogen. See also references under

"Nitric Acid and Nitrates" in the Index. Bibi.uk;raphy.— \V. M. Latimer and J. H. Hildebrand, Reference Book of Inorganic Chemistry (1951); F. Ephraini. Inorganic Chemistry, 4th Eng. ed. (194J) D. M. Yost and H. Russell, Jr., Systematic Inorganic Chemistry of the Fijth-and-Sixth-Groiip Nonmelallic Elements (1944). (VV. R. Fe.; N. H. X.) are binary compounds of nitrogen with the ele-

535

C. to yield

some cuprous

nitride, Cu.-jN; at

600° C. zinc

converted into zinc nitride. Zn;,No. 3. .\mides and imides of many elements undergo thermal decomposition to yield the nitrides. Nonmetallic halides. in particuis

ammonia at ordinary temperatures amides or imides, which may be heated to effect deammonation removal of ammonia, analogous to dehydration by which hydroxides are converted to oxides) and eventually to give the nitrides. Thus, treatment of boron trichloride with ammonia gives first the diboron tri-imide. B^CNH).,,, which on heating loses ammonia to form the nitride, BN. lar,

react with gaseous or liquid

to give the (

NH3

above

>BN

>B2(NH)3

BCl,

125°

The amides

C.

of such metallic elements as magnesium, calcium,

;

NITRIDES

ments. They apparently do not occur in nature, although F. A. Bannister reported the presence of titanium nitride, TiN. in the mineral osbornite, found in the Busti, India, meteor. The simple nitrides may be regarded as derivatives of ammonia in which the hydrogen atoms are replaced by a metallic or nonmetallic element. Their composition may be represented by formulas corresponding to the normal valence ("oxidation number) of the elements based upon their position in the periodic classification; for example. Group I, Li;;N; Group II, Mg:iN\,; Group III, AIN Group IV, Si.jNj. Where an element is capable of existing in several oxidation states, corresponding nitrides may be capable of existence; for example. PN and PuN-,. In addition to these simple nitrides, compounds with nitrogen are formed by such transition elements as chromium, iron and cobalt, whose structure and composition are more complex and do not conform to valence rules. Reference is also made to three classes of bifiary nitrogen compounds that differ markedly from the simple nitrides: (0 the hydronitrogens, compounds of hydrogen and nitrogen, which formally resemble the hydrocarbons (see Ammonia); (2) compounds with the more electronegative elements such as oxygen, ;

and the halogens, which are discussed under the respective elements, and (3) the trinitrides, containing the N3 radical, which sulfur

are derivatives of hydrazoic acid, one of the hydronitrogens (see

Hydrazoic Acid), Preparation. Many of the

+

nitrogen (see Nitrogen, Fixation of). In some cases carbides can be heated directly with nitrogen as in the production of beryllium nitride: 3BeoC 2Nn -^ 2Be3N\ 3C.

+

2.

+

Gaseous ammonia may serve as the nitriding agent for con-

some instances, Cuprous oxide reacts with ammonia at 300°

version of certain metals, oxides, sulfides and, in halides into nitrides.

at higher temperatures.

KNH2 M=(where

heat

»

M=

M(XH2)2

Mg, Ca,

>

Sr, Ba, Zn,

M.iN2 Cd, Ni", Co)

The amides of the alkah metals, with the exception of lithium, do not give nitrides on heating. Reaction of certain metallic

with potassium amide affords a procedure whereby may be obtained nitrides that are unstable at the temperatures required to effect direct combination of metal with nitro4.

in

liquid

gen.

ammonia

The following

as

the

solvent

salts

medium

nitrides are precipitated

from liquid ammonia

solution under these conditions: mercuric nitride, nitride.

TfjN, and bismuth

nitride.

Hg=-1 Tl*

)

in

Uquid

NH3

+ NH2

HgjNo, thallous

BiN. (from

KNH2)

^

HMN2 TI3N

BiN

Bi'- J

Ammonia; Solutions.) Aqueous ammonia converts the

[See also 5.

oxides of silver, gold and

the platinum metals into highly explosive

assumed

to be nitrogen

compounds, possibly

compounds nitrides.

that are

These are

often referred to as the fulminating metals, 6. Careful decomposition of the alkali and alkaline-earth azides by heating gives mixtures of nitrides with the respective metals. (See Hydrazoic Acid, A large number of nitrides have been described in the chemical literature. These may be listed con)

—

nitrides can be prepared by direct combination of the elements with nitrogen, but such reactions take place much less readily, and then usually, only at higher temperatures, than the corresponding oxidation reactions. A few elements, notably lithium, magnesium and the alkaline earth metals, burn in air to give mixtures of the oxides and nitrides. Nitride formation is aided by using active nitrogen, by reducing the elements to a fine state of subdivision, by employing the amalgams and by using catalysts, such as lithium nitride. Nitride formation by direct combination has been observed to take place with the following elements: Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Li. Be, B, Al, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Ti, Zr, Th, V, Cb, Ta, Cr, Mo, W, U, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Si, Ge and P. Despite their high reactivity, sodium, potassium, rubidium and cesium do not appear to form nitrides by direct combination. In general, elements of the B subgroups of the periodic classification show little inclination to react directly with nitrogen. Nitrides may also be prepared by indirect methods, of which the following are the more important: 1. Mixtures of the oxides with carbon can be converted to nitrides by heating in a nitrogen atmosphere. This procedure is used for the preparation of aluminum nitride in accordance with the equation AUO^ -F 3C No -^ 2A1N 3C0 and constitutes the basis for the Serpek process for the fixation of atmospheric

+

strontium, barium, zinc, cadmium, nickel and cobalt precipitate when potassium amide is added to solutions of their salts in liquid ammonia. These products likewise undergo deammonation

veniently on the basis of type formula with element with which nitrogen is combined.

M

representing the

;

NITRIDING—NITROCELLULOSE

536

method of preparation and the subsequent thermal history of the compound. Thus, many of the nitrides prepared at lower temperatures by deammonation of the amides or iniides hydrolyzc rapidly; if these same nitrides are sintered by heating to a high temperature, they become relatively inert to attack by chemical agents (e.g., boron nitride, BN). Structural changes to highly polymerized aggregates are involved. High-temperature treatment in some instances the

changes the composition of the nitrides to products of lower nitrogen content c.i;., trititanium tetranitride, Ti3N4, is converted into titanium nitride, TiN. Certain nitrides such as those of boron, BN, silicon, SiN, titanium, TiN, zirconium, ZrN, and tantalum, TaN, are extremely refractory materials with melting points near or above 3,500° C. Where this property is combined with chemical inertness such nitrides have found use in the manufacture of equipment that must withstand chemical action at high temperatures. Crucibles ;

by various molten ferrous metals. The nitrides of titanium, zirconium and tantalum are furthermore characterized by their extreme hardness and are used either alone or in admixture with borides and/or carbides for hard-njetal alloys and abrasive compositions. Boron nitride has long been know-n to form hexagonal crystals that resemble graphite in structure and physical properties. Spe-

and then distilled. It is a highly poisonous yellowish liquid possessing a strong smell similar to that of oil of bitter almonds. It boils at 210.9° C. and melts at 5.7° C. The products of its electrolytic reduction vary with the conditions: in SCr sulfuric acid solution it yields />-aminophenol L. Gattermann, 18

NITROGEN tissue proteins partly

from animal proteins and partly (sometimes Plants synthesize their

wholly) from vegetable proteins of food.

proteins from inorganic compounds in the soil and to some extent from free nitrogen in the atmosphere. P. E. M. Berthelot found

from the air, hence he concluded that microorganisms are concerned with the assimilathat sterilized soils do not take up nitrogen

tion.

Leguminous plants such as peas, beans and clover can utilize atmospheric nitrogen by the action of a bacterium. Rhizobium (or Pseudomonas rudkicohi) of which there are several strains. The process takes place through the root hairs and involves the production of nodules on the roots, which contain Y-shaped as.

sociations

of

bacteria

that

anaerobic bacteria in the

are

called

bacteroids.

Free-living

that are able to fix nitrogen are

soil

Clostridium pasteurianum (S. N'inogradsky. 1893) and AzotoCertain algae bacter chroococcum (M. W. Beijerinck, 1901). The also fix nitrogen and are of importance in tropical soils.

amount

of nitrogen fixed

by bacteria increases by

protozoa are present in the

30%

if

certain

although protozoa feed on bac-

soil,

teria.

Ammonium

salts

in

the

soil

are oxidized to nitrates

by the

agency of microorganisms, the process being called nitrification They are first oxidized to nitrites by (S. Vinogradsky, 1890), organisms belonging to the genera Nitrosomonas, and the nitrites are then oxidized to nitrates by another bacterium called Xitrobacter. The processes depend on free aeration and a neutral or alkaline reaction in the

soil.

The

nitrate

is

assimilated but

is

re-

duced in the plant to ammonia. Other kinds of bacteria decompose nitrogen compounds in the soil and, by this process of denitrification, return free nitrogen The combined nitrogen content of cultivated soil is to the air. generally enriched and renewed by means of nitrogenous fertilizers such as nitrates and ammonium salts. Nitrogen is also fixed in the form of oxides by electrical discharges in the atmosphere, and conveyed to the soil in the form of nitric and nitrous acids by rain, these acids forming nitrates and nitrites in the soil. Altogether about 250,000 tons of nitric acid are said to be formed in this way in 24 hours. Some observations show, however, that the combined nitrogen content of rain does not increase during a thunderstorm. Compounds of Nitrogen and Hydrogen. three zine,

— Nitrogen

forms

hydrazine normally function as bases and form secondary compounds, N4H4 and N5H5, respectively, with hydrazoic acid. With alkali metals, ammonia and hydrazine form compounds in which part of their hydrogen

is replaced by a metal. Hydrazine [q.v.'). NoH^, with the structure H^N-NHo diamidel, was originally obtained by T. Curtius 1887) from organic compounds containing two nitrogen atoms linked together. It is made commercially by a process devised by Friedrich Raschig (1907). Sodium hypochlorite solution is mixed with a small quantity of glue and warmed with excess of concentrated am(

(

monia. An intermediate compound called chloramine, NHoCl, is formed, which reacts w'ith the excess of ammonia to form hydrazine. After addition of sulfuric acid and cooling, hydrazine sulfate, 2N2H4-H2S04, crystallizes. When this is distilled under reduced pressure with concentrated potassium hydroxide solution, a colourless fuming liquid, called hydrazine hydrate, is obtained. From this, anhydrous hydrazine is obtained by distilling with solid sodium hydroxide or barium oxide (which remove water) under reduced pressure. It is a colourless liquid, boiling point 113.5° C, which freezes to a white crystalline solid, melting point 2° C. Hydrazine decomposes on heating, 3N2H4 —> N2 4NH3, and reacts violently with halogens, forming nitrogen and halogen

+

N2H4

+

Hydrazine rapidly de-^ No 4HI. and when hot attacks glass. It is a weaker base than ammonia, forming two series of salts; e.g., N2H4-HC1 and N2H4-2HC1. Hydrazine and its salts are poisonous. They

hydracids,

-|-

2I2

stroys cork and rubber

are

very powerful reducing agents, precipitating

from solutions of Hydrazoic acid

many

metals

their salts. [q.v.),

HN3,

also discovered

+

(boiling point 37°

by Curtius (1890),

C, melting

—80° C),

with a very unpleasant odour. It is very dangerously poisonous and explosive, decomposing with a blue flash on heating. The solution is acid and dissolves many metals, forming salts called azides. which, especially those of the

point

heavy metals, are explosive; lead azide

In its used as a detonator instead of mercury fulminate. action on metals nitrogen is evolved (not hydrogen, except a trace with magnesium 1, and part of the acid is reduced to ammonia. With ammonia and hydrazine it forms the colourless is

compounds NH3HN3 (or N4H4 and N2H4-HN3 (or The group — N3 in hydrazoic acid behaves like a halogen;

crystalline

N,;H5l.

)

azides give a white precipitate of

X-ray spectra group are in a

shown

is

it

AgNg

From

with silver nitrate.

that the three nitrogen

atoms

in

the

straight line, not in a ring.

—

Oxides of Nitrogen. The oxides of nitrogen are nitrous o.xide. X2O: nitric o.xide. NO: dinitrogen trioxide, N2O3: nitrogen dioxide. NOm. and its polymer, dinitrogen tetroxide. N2O4; dinitrogen pentoxide, NoO^; and an unstable higher oxide of uncertain :

formula, perhaps NO3. Xitrous o.xide, N2O, was discovered by Joseph Priestley 1772) by exposing "nitrous air" NO to iron or alkali sulfides, when the gas diminished in volume and became a better supporter of combustion than common air. It was studied by Sir Humphry Davy (q.v.) (1799), who called it nitrous oxide and prepared it N2O -f 2H2O. the by heating ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3 method now used. He showed that it has anesthetic properties, in some cases preceded by peculiar effects that led to its name "laughing gas." Nitrous oxide can be synthesized from its elements only with difficulty and under special conditions D. L. Chapman. R. A. Goodman and R. T. Shepherd. 1926 ). It is produced by the reduction of nitric acid under certain conditions; It is made in the e.g., by the action of zinc on the dilute acid. pure state by the action of hydroxylamine hydrochloride on sodium nitrite in equimolecular proportions in solution, hyponi(

)

(

^

(

trous acid being an intermediate product,

NoO

compounds with hydrogen, ammonia (q.v.), NH3; hydraN2H4; and hydrazoic acid or azoimide, HN3. Ammonia and

539

formed by the action of an oxidizing agent, e.g., nitric acid, on hydrazine, 3N2H4 -(-50—* 2HN3 -f SHmO. The sodium salt is formed on passing nitrous oxide over heated sodamide. NaNH2 NjO -^ NaNg -\- H2O. Pure hydrazoic acid is a colourless liquid is

-f-

tion of

2H2O. It ammonia.

Nitrous oxide

is

is

formed

in special

NH^OH

-|-

HNOm —

circumstances by the oxida-

a colourless gas with a pleasant sweetish odour

H

times that of air. At 1.9777 g. per litre. 15° C. one volume of water dissolves 0.7778 vol. of nitrous oxide, forming a neutral solution. It is more soluble in alcohol (3.268 Nitrous oxide supports combustion better than vol. at 15° C).

and

taste, density

common air (it kindles a glowing chip, like oxygen) because it decomposes into a mixture of one volume of o.xygen and two volumes of nitrogen at a fairly low temperature (beginning at 520° C). It is an endothermic compound; i.e., contains more energy than its elements and can be decomposed into oxygen and nitrogen by the explosion of a detonator. The molecule is linear, the two nitrogen atoms being adjacent. On cooling or under pressure (50 atm. at 15° C.) it forms a colourless liquid, boiling point —88.7° C, on rapid evaporation of which a white solid, melting point —90.8° C, is formed. The critical temperature is 36.5° C. and the critical pressure 71.66 atm. The

chief use of nitrous oxide

is

as an anesthetic in operations

of short duration, but prolonged inhalation of the pure gas causes death. is

About 22

1.

is

required to produce insensibility, and oxygen A very- pure gas must be used;

usually administered as well,

made by the decomposition of ammonia nitrate by heat, the temperature being carefully regulated to avoid the formation of ammonia and nitric oxide, and to minimize the formation of nitrogen. The gas is washed with solutions of ferrous sulfate and potassium hydroxide, and with milk of lime, and the gas is dried and One kilogram of ammoliquefied by pressure in steel cylinders. nium nitrate gives 182 1. of the gas. Nitrous oxide also is used as a food aerosol. Nitric oxide, NO, which is formed from its elements by the action of electric sparks or a high temperature, No -f- Oo —» 2N0, was first obtained by J. B. van Helmont about 1620, and R. Boyle it is

> »

»

NITROGEN

540

(1660), but was more carefully studied by Priestley (1772), who called it "nitrous air" and obtained it by the action of dilute nitric acid on copper or mercury, 3Cu 8Hi\03^3Cu(N03 )o 2N0 4HmO. Copper turnings and a mixture of equal volumes of nitric acid and water may be used. The gas so prepared contains nitrogen and nitrous oxide. The pure gas is obtained by shaking a mixture of nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid with mercury, or by dropping a solution of sodium nitrite and potassium ferroNO, 2H+ — cyanide into dilute acetic acid, FelCN),-!" Fe(,CN )^~ NO HoO, or by the action of sodium nitrite solu-

+

+

+

+

+

tion on an acidified solution of potassium iodide,

—»

+

+

+ 2N0 +

2H0O.

The

colourless gas

2N0

2

+

2I~

+

may

be collected over water, or, if required pure, over mercury. It has a density of 1.3402 g. per litre, slightly greater than that of air. At 15° C, one volume of water dissolves only 0.051 vol. of the gas. It is not easily liquefied and has a boiling point of —151.7° C. and a melt4H"''

lo

ing point of

—163,6° C.

The

liquid

and

solid are distinctly blue.

temperature is —96° C. and the critical pressure 64 atm. The molecule contains an odd electron in its structure, and nitric oxide is paramagnetic, its susceptibility being half that of oxygen. Nitric oxide, although it is endothermic, is the most stable oxide of nitrogen, being dissociated into its elements only to about Consequently, burning substances continue 3.5 2NO2F N2,

alkaline solution of

SO3

is

formed.

+

with fluorine to a halogen derivative of nitric acid (melting point

+

ing point

—166° C, boil—72.4° C). The compounds NO3F and NO2CI are also

known.

Nitric oxide and

all

higher oxides of nitrogen are poi-

sonous.

Dinitrogen trioxide (nitrous anhydride), N2O3, was obtained by J. R. Glauber (1648). When nitric acid (56%) is distilled with arsenious oxide or starch, and the red vapour cooled in a freezing mixture, dark-blue liquid N2O3 is obtained, 2HNO3 HoO AsoOj. On evaporation, the liquid deAsoOs —» N2O3 composes almost completely into nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide, but these recombine on liquefaction by cooling: N2O3 «z± NO -fNOo. Although the gas is mainly a mixture of nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide, only about 2% of N2O3 being present at 15° C, it

+

+

+

is absorbed by solutions of alkalies with formation of nitrites, and by concentrated sulfuric acid with formation of nitrososulfuric acid ("chamber crystals"), thus behaving as if it consisted of N2O3. As absorption proceeds, the equilibrium is displaced to the left in the above equation. Only traces of nitrous acid are formed by the action of water, since the acid is unstable and decomposes, partly into dinitrogen trioxide (to which the blue colour of the solution is due) and water, and partly into nitric oxide and nitric acid: 3HNO2 -* HNO3 + 2N0 + H2O. According to H. B. Baker and M. Baker 1900), when liquid dinitrogen trioxide is dried by long exposure to phosphorus pentoxide, the vapour formed from it consists of N^Og molecules, but other (

workers could not repeat

this

experiment.

salt used in many organic preparations (e.g., of dyestuffs), is mostly manufactured by absorbing higher oxides of nitrogen formed by the oxidation of ammonia in alkali solutions. Older methods of preparation are by heating molten sodium nitrate with metallic lead, NaNOa -f Pb

Sodium

nitrite,

NaNOo, an important

—> NaNOn

-j- PbO, or by adding sulfur to fused sodium nitrate sodium hydroxide, 3NaN03 + S + 2NaOH -»• 3NaN02 Na2S04 + HoO. Nitrites are reducing agents, forming nitrates, usually in acid solution, but they also liberate iodine from acidified potassium iodide, being reduced to nitric oxide tsee above).

+

and

The

chloride

of

nitrous acid, nitrosyl

chloride,

NOCl,

is

a

yellow gas formed by the direct combination of nitric oxide and chlorine, by the action of phosphorus pentachloride on sodium nitrite, by heating nitrososulfuric acid with sodium chloride, or (together with chlorine) by heating a mixture of concentrated ni-

and hydrochloric acids (aqua regia) HNO3 + 3HC1 -^ NOCl + 2H2O. It has been used for bleaching flour. Nitrogen dioxide, NO2, and dinitrogen telroxide, N2O4, exist in

tric

:

-f CI2

equilibrium in varying proportions as a red gas, the mixture being sometimes called "nitrogen peroxide." The gas is formed by the direct union of nitric oxide and oxygen (see above). Nitrogen dioxide

is

—» 2PbO

usually prepared by heating dry lead nitrate,

4NO2

2Pb(N03)2

+

O2. and condensing the nitrogen dioxide to a liquid in a tube cooled in a freezing mixture, the oxygen passing on.

A

-f

very pure gas

is

with potassium nitrate:

made by warming

2NO2, or by adding fuming to

liquid

2N2O4.

-j-

and phosphorus pentoxide and distilling: N2O3 -|- N2O5 — Dinitrogen tetroxide in a good freezing mixture solidifies dinitrogen

nitric acid

trioxide,

to nearly colourless crystals

— 9.04°

nitrososulfuric acid

S02(0H)0N0 + KNO3 -> KHSO4

(the liquid supercools), melting at

Both these forms consist mainly of N2O4. On warming, the liquid becomes red, because of formation of nitrogen dioxide molecules, N2O4 2NO2, and boils at 21.9° C. to form a red vapour. On heating, the colour of the gas deepens, because of further dissociation, and at 140° C. it is nearly black, dissociation being then complete. At still higher temperatures, nitrogen dioxide dissociates into nitric oxide and oxygen, this being complete at 620° C, when the gas is colourless, 2NO2—» 2N0 -f O2. On cooling, all these changes are reversed. Since the volume increases, the extent of dissociation may be calculated from the density of the gas. At atmospheric pressure it varies from about 15% at the boiling point to 89.3% at 100° C, and 100%. at 140° C. The gas kindles a glowing chip and supports the combustion of brightly burning phosphorus. A mixture with hydrogen is reduced to ammonia when passed over heated platinum. With water, the liquid, or gas, forms nitric and nitrous acids, 2NO2 H2O — HNO3 HNOo, and the nitrous acid decomposes (see above). With ice-cold water, blue hquid dinitrogen trioxide separates. In the absorption of nitrous fumes in water, as in the preparation of nitric acid by the oxidation of ammonia, the evolution of nitric oxide necessitates adequate oxidation space for its reoxidation to nitrogen dioxide. Alkalies absorb the gas with formation of nitrite and nitrate, 2NO2 2K0H -» KNO2 -f KNO3 -f H2O, the process being somewhat slower than in the case of dinitrogen trioxide. The liquid forms a violently explosive mixture with gasoline or other hydrocarbons. The gas diluted with air has been C. to a honey-coloured liquid.

^

+

+

+

used in bleaching flour. Dinitrogen pentoxide (nitric anhydride), N2O5, was discovered by H. E. Sainte-Claire Deville (1849) by the action of dry chlorine on warm silver nitrate, 4AgN03 2CI2 > 4AgCl -)- 2N2O5 -|- Oo. It is best prepared by adding phosphorus pentoxide to a cooled concentrated nitric acid, then distilling the product in a current of ozonized oxygen, drying the gas with phosphorus pentoxide and condensing in a receiver cooled in solid carbon dioxide

—

+

and ether: It is also

+ P2O5 -^ NoOj + 2HPO3. formed by passing ozonized oxygen into cooled 2HNO3

dinitrogen tetroxide:

N2O4

+

03—* NoOj

+

O2.

The

liquid

colourless

below 0° C, but are very hygroscopic. On if not quite pure they melt with some decomposition into nitrogen dioxide and oxygen, and also decompose on exposure to light. Rapid heating causes explosion. Phosphorus and potassium burn in the liquid on warming, and charWith water, nitric acid is coal burns if previously ignited. formed. Trinitrogen tetroxide, N3O4, is said to be formed as a greenish solid by passing nitric oxide into liquid oxygen, or by the action of crystals are stable

warming they sublime, but

NITROGEN, FIXATION OF on solid

oxide at the temperature of liquid air. It decomposes into dinitrogen trioxide and nitric oxide above the temperature of liquid air (R. L. Hasche, 1925). A higher oxide of air

nitric

NO3, is apparently formed by the action of an on a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen, and has a characteristic absorption spectrum. Hyponitrous acid, H^NsOo, with the structure is formed by the action of nitrous acid on hydroxylamine {see above), but is best obtained as a salt by the reduction of a solution of sodium nitrite with sodium amalgam: 2NaN02 -f 4Na -\nitrogen, perhaps

electric discharge

HON=NOH,

2H20^ NaaNaOa + 4NaOH

(Edward Divers, 1871). The free is obtained in colourless crystals, which at once decompose with feeble explosion, H2N2O2 -^ N2O H2O, by the action of dry hydrogen chloride in ether on silver hyponitrite, and evaporation at room temperature. The acid and its salts are reducing agents. An isomer of hyponitrous acid is nitramide, perhaps with the formula NH2NO2. Oxyhyponitrous acid (hyponitric acid, or nitrohydroscylamine), H2N2O3, is known in the form of salts. Nitrogen Halides. Nitrogen trifltioride, NF3, is a colourless gas, melting point —208.5° C, boiling point —129° C, formed by the electrolysis of ammonium hydrogen fluoride (0. Ruff and Nitrogen trichloride, NCls, is a yellow, very L. Staub, 1928). acid

+

—

explosive

oil,

formed by the action of chlorine on ammonium

chloride solution, or the action of excess of chlorine on

+

ammonia

+

Dulong, 1811): NH3 3HC1. In the 3Clo -^ NCI3 last reaction, two intermediate compounds are formed, viz., monochloramine, NH2CI, which has been obtained pure in colourless (P.

L.

crystals, melting point

—66° C, and

dichloramine, NHCI2,

known

only in solution, formed by acidifying monochloramine solution. Nitrogen trichloride boils at 71° C, but easily decomposes with violent explosion on heating or shock. The vapour has a pungent smell and attacks the eyes and

mucous membranes.

The

liquid

explodes on exposure to bright light, and in contact with turpentine

and with many sohds. tion in benzene is fairly

It is

stable.

decomposed by ammonia. A soluThe vapour can be used in bleach-

ing flour (agene process).

Nitrogen tribromide, NBrg, and the compounds NH2Br and have been reported. Nitrogen iodide was obtained by B. Courtois (1812) as a black powder by the action of ammonia solution on iodine, and drying at room temperature on filter paper. Its formula is NI3NH3 (F. D. Chattaway, 1900j. It is very explosive, detonating when gently pressed, with evolution of violet fumes of Nitrogen tri-iodide, NI3, is a iodine. It is an oxidizing agent. black powder obtained by the action of ammonia gas on potassium iodobromide, KIBr2, washing with water, and drying (H. W. Cremer and D. R. Duncan, 1930). See also Ammonia; Hydrazine; Hydrazoic Acid; Hydroxylamine; Nitric Acid and Nitrates; Nitrogen, Fixation of; and the references under "Nitrogen" in the Index. Bibliography. J. W. Mellor, A Comprehensive Treatise on Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry, vol. viii (1940) Gmelins Hand-

NHBr2

—

;

buch der anorganischen Chemie, System-Nummer 4, Stickstoff (1936) 2nd ed. (1951, J. R. Partington, General and Inorganic Chemistry 1952); D. M. Yost and H. Russell, Jr., Systematic Inorganic Chemistry (1944, 1946) Sir T. E. Thorpe, Dictionary of Applied Chemistry, 4th ed. by J. F. Thorpe and M. A. Whiteley, vol. viii (1947) Chemical Society, Recent Aspects of the Inorganic Chemistry of Nitrogen (1958) I. Asimov. World of Nitrogen (1958) W. L. Mosby, Heterocyclic Systems With Bridgehead Nitrogen Atoms (1961) M. J. Astle, Industrial Organic Nitrogen Compounds (1961). (J. R. P.) ;

.

.

.

.

.

.

,

;

;

;

;

;

NITROGEN, FIXATION OF.

The term

"fixation

of

nitrogen" has been given to any chemical process whereby "free" nitrogen, one of the elements, is caused to combine chemically with other elements to form nitrogen compounds. The atmosphere is a great reservoir of nitrogen, this element accounting for nearly four-fifths of the volume. Nitrogen is chemically inert, and, under ordinary conditions, does not react with other elements. A number of rather drastic processes have been discovered for "fixing" nitrogen (i.e., causing it to enter into chemical combinations but these are processes one would not expect to find operative in nature. Yet, nitrogen )

in

combined form

fertile soils, in every living wool and feathers, in coal and such naturally occurring chemicals as saltpetre and ammonia.

thing, in in

many

is

found

in

all

foodstuffs, in silk,

541

Fixed nitrogen is found in the basic substance of living matter, the protoplasm; it is present in the nucleus of every living cell. During the early decades of the 19th century, Nicolas Theodore de Saussure, Jean Baptiste Boussingault, Justus von Liebig and others demonstrated that growing plants obtain their fixed nitro-

gen from the soil. Animals, in turn, secure their fixed nitrogen through the consumption of plants or of other animals that use plants as food. The astonishing fact was discovered, however, that when crops were removed from a field, the decrease in the fixed-nitrogen content of the soil was less than the amounts acLiebig rightly concluded counted for by the crop removals. that the fixed-nitrogen supply of the soil was replenished from the atmosphere, but he contended that the process did not involve any Since he knew that rain fixation of free atmospheric nitrogen. water always contains traces of dissolved nitrogen compounds, and that both animal and vegetable matter release ammonia during decay, Liebig postulated that the released ammonia was returned

This "ammonia cycle," from earth atmosphere and return to earth, does occur, but it accounts for only a small part of the fixed nitrogen that the soil receives from the atmosphere. Not until 1886 was it known that certain microorganisms are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen and thus replenish the soil's supply. Of these, the most important are the Rhizobium genera of bacteria and the Azotobacter. The former are found on the roots of leguminous plants and the latter live independently to the earth in rain water. to

in the soil. In 1960 James E. Carnahan demonstrated that nitrogen is converted to ammonia by cell-free extracts of Clostridium pasteurianum in the presence of pyruvate. In the mid-1960s, attention was focused on the function of pyruvate (i.e., salts of pyruvic acid, such as sodium pyruvate). One of the tentative findings was that pyruvate can serve as a source of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and at the same time act as a reducing agent. The enzyme or enzymes involved were not known, although it had been shown that ferredoxin (a protein) or methyl viologen (a

dye) participate in electron transport. (See also Bacteriology: Some Activities of Bacteria: Nitrogen Fixation; Leguminosae: Leaves and Roots; Nitrogen; The Nitrogen Cycle; Soil: Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria.) Although Liebig and his contemporaries did not arrive at a correct explanation as to the source of fixed nitrogen in the soil, they did make clear the importance of fixed nitrogen in agriculture. Nitrogenous materials long had been used as fertilizers although

was unknown. As a result of making coke from coal was recovered and utilized as fertilizer, as was sodium nitrate agriculture was practised inin Chile. Wherever deposits from tensively there developed a demand for nitrogen compounds to supplement the natural supply of the soil. the reason for the beneficial effects the

new knowledge, ammonia

In addition to the

demand

released in

for fixed nitrogen in agriculture, there

were other urgent and growing needs for nitrogen compounds. The increasing quantity of saltpetre used in the manufacture of gunpowder led to a world-wide search for natural deposits of this nitrogen compound. Industrial demands and the advent of high By explosives called for an ever-larger supply of fixed nitrogen. the end of the 19th century it was clear that recoveries from the coal-carbonizing industry and the importation of Chilean nitrate could not meet future agricultural and industrial demands. Moreover, it was obvious that in the event of a major war a nation cut off from the Chilean supply soon would be unable to manufacture munitions in adequate amounts. It appeared that the fixation During the of atmospheric nitrogen offered the only solution. final decade of the 19th century and the opening decade of the 20th century, intensive efforts culminated in the development of commercial nitrogen fixation processes. Fixation of Nitrogen as the Oxide.

—

Air is essentially a mixture of one volume of oxygen with four volumes of nitrogen. Both gases are in the free, or elemental, condition and do not If, however, react with each other under ordinary conditions. air or any other mixture of oxygen and nitrogen is heated to a very high temperature, a small portion of the mixture reacts to form the gas nitric oxide. On allowing the gas mixture to cool slowly, the nitric oxide decomposes almost completely into oxygen

NITROGEN, FIXATION OF

542 and nitrogen. equilibrium

At any given temperature there exists a dynamic This may be expressed the three gases.

among

chemically thus: O2

The arrows

N2

-I-

+ 43,200 cal. ?=* 2N0

indicate that the reaction

may

proceed

in

either

Although all chemical reactions direction as conditions change. are of this sort in theory, conditions are often such that the reacThe chemical tion proceeds almost exclusively in one direction. In the reaction expression may then be written as an equation.

now under

consideration, both the forward and reverse reactions into account. Change of pressure has no effect on the equilibrium, but when the temperature is increased the equilibrium shifts to the right; i.i\. a larger proportion of nitric oxide is formed. At ordinary temperatures practically no nitric oxide

must be taken

present, but at the temperature of an electric arc a small percentage of nitric oxide is formed. Inasmuch as the nitric oxide into its elements on cooling, it would appear that an "arc" process could not serve as a commercial method of nitrogen fixation. It can serve as a practical process, however, when adThe vantage is taken of the rates of the reactions involved. expression given above is for an equilibrium. It reveals chetpical is

decomposes

nothing as to the time required to establish the equilibrium. It is well known that most chemical reactions are greatly accelerated as the temperature of the reactants is increased and, conversely, are retarded as the temperature is decreased. In the present case, equilibrium is reached quickly at the very high temperature of the If the mixture of gases then is cooled rapidly, the rate of arc. the reverse reaction drops to nil; i.e., the decomposition of the nitric oxide virtually ceases, and the high-temperature equilibrium is,

so to speak, "frozen."

2N0 all

+ O2 5=4 2NO2

indicated reaction proceeds from left to right until nearly

the nitric oxide has been converted to the dioxide,

latter polymerizes partially to set

2NO2 And, when the trates.

The

NO2.

The

up another equilibrium, thus:

^ N204

NO2 — N2O4

water, nitric acid

is

mixture is brought into contact with formed. (See also Nitric Acid and Ni-

)

foregoing facts form the basis for a practical process of

of nitrogen as the oxide through the use of the high temperature

and rapid heat exchange and heat economy possible in a "-Royster stove." This piece of equipment is a modification of the heatexchange stoves long in use on blast furnaces, the essential difference being the substitution of small pieces of highly refractory In the material for the usual brick checkerwork in the stoves. The refractory process two or more Royster stoves are used. filling in one such stove is brought up to a high temperature by burning gas therein. Air is then passed through the stove and, at the high temperature prevailing, a small portion of nitric oxide The high-temperature equilibrium is then "frozen" is formed. by passing the hot gas into an unhealed stove. The nitric oxide in the cool gas issuing from the second stove may then be recovered. When most of the heat in the first stove has been transferred to the second stove, the direction of air flow through thetwo stoves is reversed. Inasmuch as the heat transfer between the two stoves cannot be quite complete without disturbing conditions necessary in the process, one stove must be reheated occasionally with gas.

Fixation of Nitrogen as a Cyanide.— Another chemical method of fixing nitrogen was discovered about 1828 by Desfosses, who observed that potassium cyanide was formed when a stream of nitrogen was passed through a red-hot mixture of potash and

In 1772 the English chemist Joseph Priestley observed that the passage of an electric spark through a small volume of air confined over water brought a decrease in gas volume, and that the water became acidic. Priestley did not interpret this result correctly and two years elapsed before the correct interpretation was given by another English chemist, Henry Cavendish. Thus was discovered what later became known as the "spark" or "arc" method of nitrogen fixation. At that time, however, electrical energy was far too costly to permit the use of such a process. By the end of the 19th century, mechanical means of generating large quantities of electric energy had been evolved, and the use of water power to drive electric generators finally brought the cost of electric energy down to a range where nitrogen fixation by the spark or arc method became economically feasible. Many experimenters then turned attention to the problem, and by 1902 Charles S. Bradley and D. R. Lovejoy had a small plant using a spark process in operation at Niagara Falls, N.Y. This venture failed commercially, however.

an iron tube. In 1842 a small plant using the cyanide built in France and was operated for a few years. Many other attempts were made to find a practical process based on cyanide formation, the latest during World War I, but no commercially successful cyanide process had been adopted at mid-2oth century. Fixation of Nitrogen as a Nitride. At high temperatures in

method was

—

nitrogen will combine directly with some metals to form their nitrides (q.v.), most of which can be hydrolyzed to form the

metal hydroxides and ammonia. During the decade 1909-19, unsuccessful attempts were made to apply a nitride process developed by 0. Serpek in which nitrogen, aluminum oxide and carbon were heated together to form aluminum nitride. Fixation of Nitrogen as a Cyanamide. During the period

—

1895-98, Adolph Frank and Nikoden Caro conducted investigaimprovement of methods for producing cyanides. In the course of this work they discovered that crude calcium carbide and nitrogen would react at 1,000° C. to form calcium cyanamide rather than a cyanide. The chemical reaction may be written thus: tions directed toward the

nitrogen fixation.

In

1904 Christian Birkeland of

and Samuel Eyde, an engineer, used an arc method in a small plant that was the forerunner of large and commercially successful plants. In 1908 a large arc process plant was established at Notodden. Nor. In the Birkeland-Eyde process an electric arc was spread into a disk of flame by means of a magnetic field. Air was blown through the disk and then mixed immediately Oslo, Nor.,

air, thus "freezing" the high-temperature equilibrium. Several modifications of the arc process were developed in the

with cold

in countries

carbon

The nitric oxide does not remain long as such in the cooled gas mixture but begins to react with the free oxygen present when the temperature falls below about 600° C, thus:

The

two decades of the 20th century, and small plants were built other than Norway. The arc process was, however, inherently inefficient in the use of energy, and the absorption towers required for the reaction of the nitrogen oxides with water were large and costly. Better methods of fixing nitrogen were soon discovered and the process was eventually abandoned. In the decade 1940-50 new interest was aroused in the fixation first

CaC2

+ N2 ^

Pure carbide reacts slowly,

by

if

CaCN2

+

C

at all, but the reaction

is

catalyzed

Calcium fluoride is the catalyst Crude calcium cyanamide may be used directly

alkalies or alkaline earths.

commonly

used.

as a fertilizer.

A

cyanamide plant was built in Italy in 1907. Within the next five years, large plants were built in Germany, Dalmatia, France, Switzerland, Norway, Canada and Japan. The cyanamide process was the first nitrogen fixation process to be so widely used. During World War I the United States government built a very large cyanamide plant near Wilson dam, Alabama. Calcium carbide and nitrogen are the raw materials for the cyanamide process. The nitrogen may be obtained by the partial liquefaction and fractional distillation of air. The carbide is made by the heating of coke and high-grade lime in an electric furnace, large calcium

the chemical reaction being:

CaO The carbon monoxide is 1

drawn

off in

+ 3C ->

CaC2

+

CO

gas escapes from the furnace.

The

carbide

molten form, cooled, ground and then heated

,000° C. and treated with nitrogen.

The

nitrifying reaction

is

to

exo-

NITROGEN, FIXATION OF thermic and continues spontaneously once started. The resultant mass of crude cyanamide is cooled, ground and granulated for use as a fertilizer, or the cyanamide may be hydrolyzed and the fixed liberated as ammonia CaCN2 + iHgO -^ CaCOs + 2NH3. The cyanamide process is an elaborate one. The electric energy

nitrogen

:

required to produce the necessary carbide is relatively large per ton of fixed nitrogen finally obtained, although it is not so large as the energy required in the arc process.

The development

of

new manufacturing processes has been

rapid during the 20th century. of the

first

Within a decade after the erection

was

fast be-

also to

become

plant using the arc process, that process

coming obsolete, and the cyanamide process was

development. Subsequent to World War I, no new cyanamide plants were built, although some of those then extant were still in operation at the beginning of obsolete within a decade after

its

World War II. Fixation of Nitrogen as Ammonia. The direct synthesis of ammonia from elemental nitrogen and hydrogen has proved to be the most economical method discovered for the fixation of nitrogen. This method is being utihzed in many countries and has become one of the largest and most basic processes of

—

chemical industry the world over. During the closing decade of the 19th century and the early years of the 20th century many investigators studied the gaseous system nitrogen-hydrogen-ammonia. Among those prominent in this work in the period 1904-08 were Fritz Haber (q.v.), G. van Oordt, R. LeRossignol, W. Nernst, F. Jost and K. Jellinek. The research of Haber and his associates convinced the Badische Anilin- und Sodafabrik that it was economically feasible to manufacture ammonia. The German firm then threw its great engineering and technical resources into the project and in 1910 a pilot plant was put into operation. This was the forerunner of a commercial plant that began production in 1913 with a capacity of 7,000 tons of fixed nitrogen per year. It

was well known when Haber and

his associates

began their

research on ammonia synthesis that no ammonia is formed when nitrogen and hydrogen are brought together under ordinary condi-

and pressure. It was known that a trace of formed when a silent electric discharge is passed mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen. It had also been ob-

tions of temperature

ammonia through a

is

served that complete decomposition of

ammonia cannot be

effected

by

heat. Regardless of these clues to the existence of a true equilibrium, such as represented by the expression

N2

-t-

3H2

^ 2NH3

4- 24,000

cal.,

several investigators of note contended that no such equilibrium

could be found.

The

situation was, therefore, one of confusion co-workers clearly demonstrated the existence and measured the concentrations of the gases under several conditions of temperature and pressure. Inasmuch as the foregoing expression of equilibrium indicates that one volume of nitrogen and three volumes of hydrogen combine to form two volumes of ammonia, it follows, according to the Le Chatelier principle (see Le Chatelier, Henry Louis), that the higher the pressure on the system the larger the proporuntil

Haber and

his

of the equilibrium

tion of

ammonia

at equilibrium; that

-is,

the equilibrium

is

shifted

toward the smaller volume. It will be recalled that this effect of pressure is different from the case of the nitrogen-oxygen-nitric oxide equilibrium, on which a change in pressure had no effect. The effect of temperature on the equilibrium in the two cases is reversed. In the nitrogen-oxygen-nitric oxide equilibrium the higher the temperature the larger the proportion of nitric oxide,

whereas in the nitrogen-hydrogen-ammonia equilibrium the higher the temperature the smaller the proportion of ammonia. The table shows the effect of temperature and of pressure on the percentage of ammonia formed at equilibrium when one volume of nitrogen and three volumes of hydrogen are caused to react. From the table it is apparent that an ammonia synthesis process should be carried out at a temperature as low and at a pressure as high as maj^e practical and economical. Again, the rates of reaction toward equilibrium must be taken into account. At

543

NITROGEN HARDENING—NIVELLE

544

meet an anticipated demand for ammonia in the production of munitions. The output of some of these plants was diverted to the production of agricultural fertilizer in the form of ammonium nitrate. A( the close of World War II most of the German synthetic ammonia plants lay in ruins; the United States had become the world leader in ammonia producwere

built in the U.S. to

Similar double-base formulations are used extensively rocket and missile propellants and in some gun propellants.

glycerin. in

A

serious problem in the use of nitroglycerin as an explosive

tion,

relatively high freezing temperature (13.2° C, or 56° F.). This disadvantage is avoided by using nitrated mixtures of glycerol and closely related polyhydric alcohols such as ethylene glycol (HOCHo-CH^OH). For example, the eutectic nitrate mixture

per year.

composed

with a fixed nitrogen capacity of more than 1,000,000 tons See also Chemical Industry: Haber Ammo7iia Process; Fertilizers and Manures; Nitrogen Fertilizers. (H. A. Cs.) Bibliography. H. A. Curtis (ed.), "Fixed Nitrogen," American Chemical Society Monograph No. S9 (1932) U.S. Tariff Commission, Chemical Nitrogen (1937) D. M. Yost and H. Russell, Jr., Systematic Inorganic Chemistry (1944); R. E. Kirk and D. F. Othmer (eds.). Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, vol. 1, "Ammonia," by R. M. N. Gilbert and F. Daniels, "Fixation Jone.s and R. L. Baber (1947) of Atmospheric Nitrogen in a Gas Heated Furnace," Industr. Engng. Chem., 40:1719-23 (1948) W. G. Hendrickson and F. Daniels, "Fixation of .\tmospheric Nitrogen in a Gas Heated Furnace," Industr. Engng. Chem., 45:2613-15 (1953); W. G. Frankenburg et al. (eds.). Advances in Catalysis and Related Subjects, vol. 5, "Latest Developments in Ammonia Synthesis" by Anders Nielsen (1953) P. H. Emmett (ed.). Catalysis, vol. 3, "The Catalytic Synthesis of Ammonia From Nitrogen and Hydrogen" by W. G. Frankenburg and "Research on Ammonia Synthesis Since 1940" by C. Bokhoven, C. van Heerden, R. Westrik and P. Zwietering (1955) C. L. Duddington, Micro-

is

of 71% ethylene glycol dinitrate and 29% nitroglycerin has a freezing point of —29° C, compared with the 13.2° C. for

nitroglycerin alone.

—

;

;

;

;

;

;

organisms as

.Allies

(1961).

its

Biologic Effects.

—

skin

Nitroglycerin has a sweet, burning taste and its vapour is absorbed readily through the and produces violent headaches, but repeated exposures re-

duce

this effect to nil.

is

it

somewhat poisonous;

relaxes the

Taken orally, usually as a sublingual tablet, smooth muscles of the blood vessels; hence it is

administered to relieve or prevent cardiac pain.

See Ballistics; Propellants ; Explosives; Dynamites ; Nobel, Alpred Bernhard; Propellants; Solid Propellants ; Rockets AND Guided Missiles; Rocket Propellants: Solid Propellants.

—

Bibliography. P. Naoiim, Nitroglycerine and Nitroglycerine Exby E. M. Symmes (1928); Sir Thomas Edward Thorpe, Dictionary of Applied Chemistry, vol. iv, 4th ed. (1937-56); Tenney L. Davis, The Chemistry of Powder and Explosives, 2 vol. (1941-43); R. E. Kirk and D. F. Othmer (eds.), Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, vol. 6 (1951) Melvin A. (iook. The Science of High Explosives (1958); Donald B. Chidsey, Goodbye to Gunpowder (1963). (B. E. An.) plosives, Eng. trans,

;

NITROGEN HARDENING: see Nitriding. NITROGLYCERIN Glyceryl Trinitrate)

powerful explosive and an important ingredient of most dynamites. It is used also (with nitrocellulose) in some propellants, especially is a

(

for rockets

and

and as

missiles,

a vasodilator in the easing of

cardiac pain such as occurs in angina pectoris. Properties.. Nitroglycerin is a heavy, oily liquid that is colourless when pure but usually is pale yellow in the commercial

—

grades.

Its specific gravity is 1.60 at IS" C.

mula

C3H5N3O9 and

is

The chemical

the structural formula

CH(ON02)-CH2(ON02)

;

is

for-

CH2(ON02)-

the positive oxygen balance

(i.e.,

more

than enough oxygen atoms are available for oxidizing the carbon and hydrogen atoms while nitrogen is being liberated) and the high nitrogen content (18.5%) account for the fact that nitroglycerin is one of the most powerful explosives known.

4C3H5(ON02)3-> 6N2

Thus one pound (0.454

-I-

12CO2 -f IOH2O -h O2

kg.) of nitroglycerin produces 156. 7 cu.ft.

(about 4,437 1.) of gas. The resulting detonation wave moves at approximately 7,700 m. per second; this compares with a rate of less than 7,000 m. per second for TNT (trinitrotoluene). Nitroglycerin is extremely sensitive to shock and to rapid heating; it begins to decompose at 50°-60° C, is significantly volatile at 100° C. and explodes at 218° C. It is only slightly soluble in water and in glycerol, is fairly soluble in ethyl alcohol and methyl alcohol,

and

benzene,

etc.

is

miscible in

all

proportions with ether, acetone,

—

Preparation Nitroglycerin, the nitric acid triester of glycerol, was first prepared in 1846 by A. Sobrero by adding glycerol (glycto a mixture of concentrated nitric and sulfuric acids at 10° C. or below. The main function of the sulfuric acid is to absorb the water formed in the chemical reaction. Continuous manufacturing processes developed in the 1940s by Mario Biazzi and others came to be widely used. These processes offer greater safety than older methods because the reactants and the explosive final product (nitroglycerin) literally trickle through the apparatus, rather than being concentrated in a large nitrator charge. Uses. The comparatively safe use of nitroglycerin as a blasting explosive became possible after Alfred B. Nobel developed dynamite in the 1860s. He mixed liquid nitroglycerin with an absorbent nonexplosive material such as charcoal or kieselguhr (diatomaceous earth), with more active sodium nitrate (and an absorbent) or even with nitrocellulose. The nitroglycerin gelatinizes the nitrocellulose to produce blasting gelatin, a very powerful blasting agent. Nobel's discovery of the ability of nitro-

erin)

—

glycerin to gelatinize nitrocellulose led to the development of ballistite, the first double-base propellant and a precursor of cordite; both ballistite and cordite contain 30%-40% of nitro-

FRANCESCO SAVERIO

(1868-1953), Italian NITTI, statesman, a left-wing Liberal who was prime minister for a critical year after World War I {see Italy: History), was born at Melfi (Potenza) on July 19, 1868. He became a barrister and professor of public finance at the University of Naples and then entered parliament in 1904. He was minister of agriculture, industry and trade in Giovanni Giolitti's fourth cabinet (March 19U-March 1914) and minister of the treasury in V. E. Orlando's first cabinet (Oct. 1917-Jan. 1919). Four days after the fall of Orlando's second ministry (June 19, 1919) Nitti himself became prime minister. His adoption of the system of proportional representation (Aug. 15, 1919) resulted in an important increase in the Socialist and Christian Democratic (Popolari) deputies at the elections on Nov. 1919, but he failed to conciliate either group. An epidemic of strikes and disorders caused by the Communists, the Nationalists and the Fascists

weakened

his position,

and on

1920, he finally resigned. Nitti was reelected to parliament in May 1921, but did not stand in the elections of April 1924, held under Mussolini's regime. He left for Switzerland, but

June

9,

During World War II he was arrested Aug. 1943 and interned in Austria. Freed in April 1945, he returned to Italy and attempted to reenter politics. In June 1948 he became a de jure member of the Italian senate. He died in Rome on Feb. 20, 1953. Nitti published several books on economic and political questions. The best known was L'Europa senza pace (1921; Eng. trans. 1922), followed by La Decadenza dell'Europa (1922; Eng. trans. 1923), in which he recommended a radical revision of the treaty of Versailles. He also left memoirs; Meditazioni deU'esilio 1947) and Meditazioni e ricordi (1953). (1856-1924), comNIVELLE, mander in chief of the French armies on the western front for five months in World War I, whose career was wrecked by the failure of his prescription for a prompt and decisive victory, was born at Tulle on Oct. 15, 1856. An artilleryman who had passed through the ficole Polytechnique and the Ecole Superieure de Guerre, he served in Indochina and in Algeria. During the first phases of World War I he was in France commanding a brigade in 1914 and an army corps by the end of 1915. On May 2, 1916, he was appointed to command the 2nd army at Verdun, succeeding Gen. Petain at the height of the battle. Nivelle inspired in October and December two French counterattacks which proved to be dazzling successes (see Verdun, Battles of). The government and nation, despondent at France's great losses and small reward during the year, saw Nivelle as the man of the hour. Gen. Joffre, who had commanded the French armies since the beginning of the

from 1925 lived by the Germans

in Paris. in

(

ROBERT GEORGES

;

NIVERNAIS— NIZAMABAD war, was removed, and on Dec. 12 Painleve, the French prime minister, promoted Nivelle over the heads of many seniors to take his place.

Nivelle at once proclaimed that the methods he had perfected at

He expounded

Verdun could win the war.

the theory of great

He convinced the French government and the British prime minister, Lloyd George, that, in one day, he could produce a complete rupture of the German lines in France. So enthusiastic was Lloyd George that he placed the British armies in France under Nivelle's command for his great offensive. Yet despite this backing and despite the brilliant success of the British diversionary attack at Arras, Nivelle steadily lost the confidence of his own chief subviolence, particularly of artillery, allied with great mass.

ordinates and finally that of his government.

Hindenburg attack, but on April to the

offensive on

line

The German

next

French armies. as

resulting

commander

On May

from Nivelle's

promises.

earlier

The

was replaced by Petain Dec. 1917 he was transferred to 1921 and died in Paris on March 23, I: The Penultimate Year.

15, 1917, Nivelle

and

north Africa. He retired in 1924. See also World War

in

—

Bibliography. Mermeix, Nivelle el Painlevi. Hellot, Le Commandement des gineraux Nivelle et E, L. Spears, Prelude to Victory (1939).

NIVERNAIS,

.

.

.

(1919); F. E. A.

PHain, 1917 (1936) (Jn. A. T.)

France under the ancien regime, was the country administered from Nevers (q.v.). The province was bounded southwest by Bourbonnais, west by Berry, north by Orleanais and northeast, east and southeast by Burgundy. Detached from Burgundy by the end of the 10th century, the countship of Nevers was held by the male descendants of Count Landry (d. 1028) till 1181; passed through marriages to the house of Dampierre, counts of Flanders, in 1280; went as part of the Flemish inheritance to a junior branch of the house of Burgundy in 1405 and was inherited by a junior branch of the house of Cleves in 1491. It was made a duchy of France in 1539. By marriage (1566), the duchy came in 1601 to a branch of the house of Gonzaga, which sold it to Cardinal Mazarin in 1659. Mazarin left it to his nephew Philippe Julien Mancini, whose descendants held it till the French Revolution as the last great fief still not reunited to the French crown ( the military governorship of the province was usually granted by the king to the feudatory lord himself). In 1 790 most of Nivernais became the departement of Nievre. NIXIE (Nixy), a female water sprite. The word is adapted from Ger. Nixe, the male water sprite being Nix. The general term for both the male and female is nicker, a kelpie. NIXON, (1913), 36th vicepresident of the United States, was born at Yorba Linda, Calif., Jan. 9, 1913, of Quaker parents. He graduated in 1934 from Whittier college, California, where he specialized in constitutional history, and from Duke university law school, Durham, N.C., in 1937. Nixon practised law in Whittier for five years and, after serving as attorney in the office for emergency management in Washington, D.C., Jan.-Aug. 1942, was commissioned lieutenant, junior grade, in the U.S. navy and left active service in 1946 as lieutenant commander. Nixon was elected a Republican representative of the in

;

RICHARD MILHOUS

12th congressional district of California in Nov. 1946, unseating the veteran Democratic incumbent, H. Jerry Voorhis, after a series of joint platform discussions reminiscent of the Lincoln-Douglas

He was returned to congress unopposed in 1948. In the house of representatives he helped draft the Taft-Hartley a prominent role in preparing the case against Alger Hiss, a former state department official convicted of perjury in connection with communist espionage. In Nov. 1950 Nixon, in a hard-hitting senatorial contest, defeated Helen Gahagan Douglas and became the junior senator from Cali-

debates.

Labour Relations act and played

fornia.

national security council in the president's absence, headed a cabi-

labour-management disputes. He and his wife Pathroughout the world as ambassadors of American good will and were generally well received. Because of discontent of certain elements in Latin America with U.S. policies, and to Nixon's reputation as a foe of communism, he was the victim of mob violence and threat of assassination in Caracas, Venez., in

the outbreak of widespread mutinies in the

in chief;

President Eisenhower promoted this development and Nixon because of his ability became a leading spokesman of the administration. Nixon presided over meetings of the cabinet and of the tion.

net committee on price stability for economic growth, and served

16, 1917, in

month witnessed

with charges that Nixon had illegally benefited from a private fund raised by his supporters. In answer to demands that he withdraw from the race, Nixon made a dramatic and successful defense in a nation-wide television broadcast. The office of the vice-president during Nixon's tenure regained some of the importance intended by the framers of the constitu-

disorganized the northern sector of his

master the German defense in depth; and though the French took 20,000 prisoners and 147 guns in less than a week, they utterly failed to break through the German lines. French casualties were high, though not unusually so; but nothing could diminish the disillusionment

the Republican national convention of 1952 as the vice-presidential running mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower and elected by a decisive margin. The campaign opened

retreat

dreadful weather, he launched his remaining sectors. His preparations failed to

(.he

545

He was nominated by

as mediator in

tricia also traveled

May 1958. On the occasion of Nixon's presence at the official opening of the first American exposition in Moscow, in July 1959, he engaged in the celebrated "kitchen debate" with Premier Nikita Khrushchev. Nominated for the presidency at the i960 Republican convention, Nixon campaigned vigorously, but was defeated November election by his Democratic opponent. Sen. John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts. In 1962, running for governor of California, Nixon was defeated by incumbent Edmund G. Brown. Nixon was the author of Six Crises (1962 ).

in a close race in the

—

Bibliography, E. Mazo, Richard Nixon (1959) W. Costello, The Facts About Nixon (1960); J. Keogh, This Is Nixon (1956). (P.S. S.)

NIZA,

;

MARCOS DE

ian Franciscan friar

(Frav Marcos)

who reached

New Mexico

(c.

1495-1558),

Ital-

the "seven cities" of the Zufii

was born in Nizza (Nice) about 1495. He went to America in 1531 and served in Peru, Guatemala and Mexico. He was sent to Culiacan (at 24° N. in Mexico) and there freed Indian slaves from regions to the north. Later he was sent on an advance party under the Negro Esteban to cross the deserts to the stone-built cities of Cibola where Esteban was killed. Marcos claimed to have come within sight of the cities but then returned in haste and fear. From Indian reports made to please him he described large towns with precious stones, gold and silver, but F. V. de Coronado in 1540 found them to be small and poor. Marcos' report led to the great expedition of Coronado in Indians

in

western

in 1539,

1540 into the region of the Colorado river, the furthest penetration made by Spain. Marcos was made provincial of his order for Mexico in 1541. He died in Mexico on March 25, of the continent ever

1558.

His journey and the kilhng of Esteban reveal that Spanish slave and the treatment of Indian women by the Spaniards had antagonized lands far to the north of those reached by Spaniards, and were a factor in limiting Spanish settlement to Mexico for a long time. raids north of Culiacan

See Richard Hakluyt, Divers Voyages, ed. bv J. 178 (1928). '

M. Dent,

pp. 136(A. Ds.)

NIZAMABAD, a town and district of Andhra Pradesh, India. The town, formerly known as Indur, is the headquarters of the district, and lies 90 mi. N.N.W. of Hyderabad on the HyderabadGodavari valley Hne of the Central railway. Pop. (1961) 79,093. The fort on a hill to the southwest was originally a temple where a tank reservoir) was built, now forming a source of water supThe remains of a great fortified temple, known as the fort ply. of Indur, also to the southwest, have been converted into a jail and college of arts and science. There are two old and richly carved Jain temples at nearby Yellareddipet. Nizamabad has an American mission. Industries include rice husking, khandsari sugar processing and the production of reinforced concrete water pipes. The town is a centre of trade and commerce and has a (

number of cottage industries. Nizamabad District (area 3,105 sq.mi.; pop. [1961] 1,022,013) is bounded north by the Godavari river (which separates it from

—

NIZAM AL-MULK— NKOLE

546

Adilahad district") and west by the Manjira. a tributary of the Godavari (which separates it from Nanded district). The climate is hot and slightly humid. The averafie annual rainfall is about 45 in. Rice, jowar, wheat, sugar cane and pulses are the principal crops. The Nizam Sagar project provides better irrigational facilities for large-scale production of sugar cane and rice; its reservoir was constructed by damming the Manjira. The dam, stretching across the two arms of the river, is more than 2 mi. long and carries an 84-ft,-wide motorable road. The main canal, 100 ft. wide and 10^ ft. deep, falls into a small lake, AH Sagar, which, with its rugged mountain scenery, gardens and rest house, is a pleasant tourist resort. The district has large tracts of forests yielding valuable timber. At Bodhan, 16 mi. W. of Nizamabad town, are large sugar and alcohol factories, and at Kamareddy (southeast) is another alcohol factory, Armur, to the north, is

known

for its artificial silk cloth.

There

is

a Christian mission

hospital tor lepers and a \'ishnu temple at Dichpally.

NIZAM AL-MULK '("Orderer

of the

(S. Ah.) Kingdom"; Abu Ali

Hasan

ibn- .-Xli) (1018-1092), minister successively to Alp Arslan and Malik Shah (qQ.v.). the great Seljuk rulers of Iran, was born,

probably on April 10, 1018 (one authority has 1019/20), at Radkan near Tus in Khurasan. The Seljuks supplanted the Ghaznevids as rulers of Iran in 1040 and some time thereafter Nizam entered the service of .\\p Arslan. By 1059 he was vizier of Khurasan. His fortunes rose with his master's and when Alp Arslan became sultan Nizam al-Mulk assumed charge of the whole administration. He also took part in military operations, being charged with reducing the rebellious province of Fars in 1067. As a great Iranian vizier he conspicuously exemplifies the chief minister's role of mediator between a despot, in this instance an alien Turk, and his Persian subjects. He kept Turkmen immigrants, who had entered Iran with the Seljuks, engaged in hostilities outside the country; he enhanced the dignity and prestige of the Seljuks by inculcating canons of royal behaviour and etiquette; and he tempered military harshness with lessons in judicious clemency and conciliation. He built up Seljuk power with the sultan as the keystone in an integrated administration and encouraged the recognition of local rulers as honourable vassals. On Alp Arslan's death in 1073 Nizam al-MuIk was left with wider powers, Malik Shah being only a youth, but by 1080 the sultan had become less acquiescent. Nizam al-Mulk antagonized the sultan's favourite, Taj al-Mulk; he also made an enemy of the sultan's wife Turkan Khatun, preferring a son by another wife for the succession. The great vizier was assassinated on Oct. 14, 1092, while traveling with the court between Isfahan and Baghdad. His murderer was disguised as a Sufi but associated with the Assassins. The view is also held, however, that Taj al-Mulk and Turkan Khatun, if not Malik Shah himself, were privy to the plot. Nizam al-Mulk in fact failed to achieve the order he had striven for. His hurried but important book on government, the Siyasat Nama, composed shortly before he died, proves this. It was a last effort at least to record the theory of a practice he hoped would be established. He did, however, restrain some abuses, and left them condemned, notably in connection with the granting of

W.

fiefs to soldiers of the sultan.

(P.

NIZAMI (Jamaluddin or Nizamitddin Abu Elyas ibn Yusuf) (c. 1135-1203 or perhaps 1217),

Persia's lead-

A.)

Mohammed

ing romantic poet, was born at Ganja (Kirovabad) in the Caucasus, where he spent the whole of his life. Although he enjoyed the

patronage of a number of rulers and princes, he was distinguished by reluctance to indulge in extravagant panegyrics, as well as by his simple life and blameless character. Living at a time when Sunni fanaticism was at its height, he was a kindly and tolerant man and his poetry, which is full of reflections on life and people, reveals broad sympathies and deep insight into psychology. His wide learning is shown by his frequent references to historical, literary

and

scientific topics (he

was especially interested

in astron-

omy and

music), while his love of nature is seen in his wellobserved descriptions and his likable characterizations of animals, particularly in Leila va

Only

a

Majnun.

handful of his odes (qasida) and lyrics (ghazal) have some authorities claim that he wrote as many as

survived, though

but his reputation rests on his great quintet {Kluimse) of matlinavi (rhymed couplet) poems, totaling some 30.000 couplets, which were imitated by many later poets. He drew his inspiration from both Firdausi and Sana'i (qq.v.) but is recognized in his own right as the first great dramatic poet of Persian literature. His first mathnavi, Makhsan al-Asnir (1174-75; English translation by Gholam Hossein Darab. Tlic Treasury of Mysteries, 1945) is mystical and philosophical, and may be compared w'ith Hddiqat al-Haqiqa by Sana'i. This was followed by three romantic poems Khosrati va Shirin (1180/81), a legend of the love of the Sassanian emperor Khosrau II and his rival Farhad for the Caucasian princess Shirin; Leila va Majnun (1188; abbreviated paraphrase by J. Atkinson, 1836), the popular Bedouin romance that may be described as the "Romeo and Juliet" of eastern folklore; and Halt Peikar (1197; English translation by C. E. Wilson, The Seven Beauties, 1924), a collection of stories of the Sassanian monarch Bahram Gur, the central episode of which is the relation of tales, somewhat on the lines of the Thousand and One Nights, by seven princesses, each dwelling in a palace of a different colour. His last work, possibly completed shortly before his death, was the Eskandarname (1200; English translation of part by H. W. Clarke, The Sikander Nama, 1881), two fulllength poems on the life of Alexander the Great, the first of which treats of his legendary exploits, while the second describes him as a prophet and seer, Nizami is admired in Persian-speaking lands for his originality and his sweetness and clarity of style, though it must be. admitted that his love of language for its own sake and of philosophical and scientific learning sometimes led him into obscurity.

20,000 couplets;

i

—

Bibliography. Nizami's complete works have been edited by 'Vahid Dastgerdi, 7 vol., 2nd ed. (1954 et seq.). See also E. G. Browne, A Literary History of Persia, vol. ii (1938) E. Berthels in Encyclopaedia (L. P. E.-S.) of Islam, vol. iii (1936). ;

NIZHNI NOVGOROD: NIZHNI

see Gorki.

TAGIL, a town of Sverdlovsk oblast of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, U.S.S.R., stands on the Tagil on the eastern slopes of the central Urals, about 120 km, Pop. (1959) 338,501. Tagilskaya (75 mi.) N. of Sverdlovsk. Sloboda was founded in 1625 as a peasant settlement, and later a monastery was established. Iron ore of good quality has been

river,

mined

in the vicinity

(Gora Vysokaya) and iron worked

Tagil since the early 18th century.

The

at

Nizhni

integrated iron and steel

under the early five-year plans,

one of the largest in and coke-chemical industry. Nizhni Tagil is also an important producer of rolling stock and has timberworking and cement industries. Copper is also mined nearby and sent to Kirovgrad, 35 mi. to the south, for refining. Railways link Nizhni Tagil to Sverdlovsk, Alapayevsk, Perm and Serov, The town has pedagogic and polytechnical inplant, built

is

the U.S.S.R., with associated coking batteries

stitutes.

(R. A. F.)

NKOLE,

an east African people, also known as Banyankole, Bantu group who occupy the area between Lakes Edward and George and the Tanganyika border in southwestern Uganda, The present Nkole kingdom, with a population (1960s) of about 500,000, represents the traditional kingdom of that name with the addition of the neighbouring similar kingdoms of Mpororo, Igara, Buhwezu and Busongora. Together these form a modern administrative district with a common local government headed by the ,\nkole or Nyankole, of the Interlacustrine

mugabe. Although they speak a common language, the Nkole are divided quite distinct social groups; the pastoral Hima (Bahima), two who constitute about 10% of the population, and the agricultural These different ecoIru (Bairu), who make up the remainder. nomic pursuits give Hima and Iru quite different modes of life. The Hima dwelling is the kraal made up of thatched, beehiveshaped huts arranged in a circle with the intervening spaces filled with branches of thornbush to form a cattle pen. When the grazing in a particular area is exhausted, the kraal, which may house from 12 to more than 100 people, is moved to an area of fresh pasture. The Iru, on the other hand, are sedentary hoe-cultivators of millet, plantains and sweet potatoes who live dispersed in single. traditional ruler, the into

NKRUMAH— NOAILLES though often polygynous, family homesteads surrounded by their gardens and granaries. Both Hima and Iru are divided into patri-

and Uneages, though exogamy extends only to children same grandparents. Both groups marry with the payment of bridewealth, goats being the medium among the Iru and cattle among the Hima. Hima and Iru are commonly rather different physically Hima being generally taller, more slender and lighter in colour and much Nkole traditional history is concerned with explaining how Originally, it is the two groups came to form a single society. said, they lived separately, exchanging their economic products. lineal clans

of the

— —

Then there appeared a wonderful people, the bacwezi, who, like Hima, were tall, light-skinned pastoralists and who conquered

the the

Nkole and their neighbours, establishing a dynasty of kings. At length the people began to disobey the bacwezi and the latter fled the country; however, one, Ruhinda, was persuaded by an Ruhinda thus became the founder of Iru headman to remain. This legend provided an ideological foundacomposite society in which Iru lived in a politically subordinate but economically symbiotic relationship with Hima. The relationship was further supported by a religious system in which the spirits of the departed bacwezi •nt'ct communicated with by mediums. Marriage between Hima and Iru was prohibited, but Hima sometimes took Iru women as concubines. Hima were bound to the mugabe by clientship a bond formed by the client's swearing fealty to the mugabe and making periodic gifts of cattle to him. From among his clients the mugabe chose district chiefs, military captains and the prime minister, the ngaiizi. Often these officials rose in the ruler's service from the band of pages formed by boys sent by Hima families to the royal kraal. Iru headmen were appointed over communities of their fellows and through them Hima chiefs collected tribute in agriSee also Uganda; Bantu (Intercultural and craft products. lacustrine). Bibliography. K. Oberg, "The Kingdom of Ankole in Uganda" in African Political Svstems, ed. by M. Fortes and E. E. Evans-Pritchard (1940) J. Roscoe.'rAe Banvankole (1923) K. Trowell and K. Wachsmann, Tribal Crafts of Uganda (19.=;3) M. C. Fallers, "The Eastern Lacustrine Bantu," Ethnographic Survey of Africa (1960). the present dynasty.

tion for the traditional

—

—

;

;

;

(L. A. Fs.)

NKRUMAH, KWAME

(1909-

),

Ghanaian statesman,

the leading nationalist figure in the transformation of his country

from the Gold Coast colony into the republic of Ghana, was born Nkroful (perhaps on Sept. 18, 1909). Educated at a Roman Catholic elementary school and at the teachers' training college of Achimota, he became a schoolmaster in 1931 but went to the United States in 1935 in order to further his education. In 1939 he graduated at Lincoln university in Pennsylvania. He showed a talent for leadership when he was elected president of the African Students' Association of America. Nkrumah went to England in 1945 and attended the London School of Economics. In 1947 he returned to the Gold Coast to become secretary general of the United Gold Coast convention. Two years later he formed his own Convention People's party, demanding immediate self-government for the country. Arrested in 1950, he was released from prison on his election to the legislative assembly in Feb. 1951. In March 1952 he became prime minister of the Gold Coast colony. When the Gold Coast under the name of Ghana became independent on March 6, 1957, Nkrumah became its prime minister. On the same day, in Accra, a monument was erected glorifying Nkrumah as the osagyefo, "messiah" or "liberator." When, on June 30, 1960, Ghana was proclaimed a republic, he became its president. He published his autobiography, Ghana, in 1957 and / Speak of Freedom: a Statement of African Ideology in 1961. See also Ghana. (in the Douai version of the Bible, Noej appears in Genesis v, 29 as son of Lamech and tenth in descent from Adam. He is the hero of the story of the Deluge (Gen. vi-viii », being represented as the patriarch who, because of his blameless piety, was chosen by God to perpetuate the human race after his wicked contemporaries had perished in the flood. He receives a divine warning of the impending disaster, and is instructed to build an ark, in which he and his family are preserved alive. In accordance with God's instructions Noah took into the ark specimens of all animals, at

NOAH

547

from which the stocks might be replenished. The story has close affinities with Babylonian traditions, in which Utnapishtim plays the part corresponding to that of Noah.

The narrative of Gen. ix, 18-27 belongs to a different cycle, which seems to know nothing of the flood story. In the latter Noah's sons are married, and their wives accompany them in the ark; but in this narrative they would seem to be unmarried, living in the tent with their father; nor does the shameless drunkenness of Noah accord well with the character of the pious hero of the flood story. Three different motives may be traced in Gen. ix, 18-27: first, the passage explains to whom agriculture, and in particular the culture of the vine, was due; second, it attempts to provide in the persons of Noah's three sons Shem, Ham and Japheth, ancestors for three of the races of mankind, and to account in some degree

Ham

(for

for their historic relations; third,

whom

original text)

it

by

its

censure of

it is almost certain that Canaan stood in the reprobates the licentious Canaanite civilization.

(W.

See also Genesis.

NOAHIDE LAWS,

L.

W.)

a talmudic term denoting seven biblical

laws which were given prior to the revelation on Sinai. Addressed to Adam, and in a complete form to Noah, they are considered

binding on humanity at large, while Israel, in addition, is to obey Using Gen. ii, 16 as the starting the Sinaitic commandments. point for its exegesis, the Babylonian Talmud (Sanhedrin 56-60) considers the Noahide laws to be the prohibition of idol worship of blaspheming the name of God; the command to establish courts of justice; and the prohibition of murder, adultery and robbery. After the Flood a seventh law was added; the prohibition of

and

eating flesh cut from a living animal (Gen.

ix,

4).

Some

sages

added such prohibitions as partaking of the blood drawn from a living animal, castration and sorcery, increasing the number of such laws to 30 (Hullin 92a). However, the "seven laws" with minor variations were accepted as the authoritative doctrine. As basic statutes for the safeguarding of monotheism and an ethical order of society, they provided the legal framework for the alien residing in Jewish territory (Abodah Zarah 64b). As primarily moral and rational laws, independent of national and denominational limitations, they provided postbiblical Judaism with the concept of universal

human

rights.

Moses Maimonides regarded a person "who observed the Noahide laws as commanded in the Torah" to be "one of the pious of the Gentiles, assured of a portion in the world to come" (MishHugo Grotius recogneli Torah, Hilkhoth Melakhim VIII, 11). nized the importance of the Noahide concept for the idea of international law; the jurist John Selden noted the relationship between the Noahide laws and modern legislation the deist writer John Toland saw in them a link between Judaism and Christianity; and the neo-Kantian philosopher Hermann Cohen stressed the ;

moral implication of the concept. See G. F. Moore, Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era, N. Isaacs, "The Influence of Judaism on Western i, passim (1946) in E. Bevan and C. Singer (eds.), The Legacy oj Israel, pp. 383(N. N. G.) 387 (1927). vol.

;

Law,"

NOAILLES,

a great

French family, taking

its

name from

the

lordship of Noailles, southeast of Brive, in Limousin (in the modern departement of Correze). Tracing their descent back to the

13th century, members of the family attracted notice in the 16th: Antoine (1504-1562), seigneur de Noailles, became admiral of

France in 1547 and was ambassador to England from 1553 to 1556; brother FEANgois (1519-1585), bishop of Dax from 1555, was ambassador to England (1556-57), to Venice (1558) and to Turkey 1572); and a third brother, Gilles (1524-1597), having preceded Frangois in England, was ambassador to Poland and to Turkey before succeeding Frangois as bishop of Dax. Antoine's son Henri (1554-1623) was created comte d'Ayen in 1593 (Ayen Henri's grandson Anne (d. 1678), a is northwest of Brive). protege of Cardinal Mazarin and premier captain of Louis XIV's bodyguard from 1648, was created due de Noailles and a peer of France in 1663; he also had the governorship of Roussillon, to His which his descendants were usually appointed thereafter. eldest son Anne Jules (1650-1708), 2nd due de Noailles, became a marshal of France in 1693 and was viceroy of Catalonia in 1694, his

(

NOAILLES— NOBEL PRIZES

5+8

War of the Grand Alliance. Anne's second son. Louis bishop, of Cahors 1679), then of Chalons (1680-95> and ultimately archbishop of Paris (from 1695), is from remembered as the lonp-suffering cardinal de Noailles 1700) ha\inB approved Pasquier Quesnel's Reflexions morales, he was attacked by the Jesuits as pro-Jansenist and his opposition to Pope Clement Xl's bull i'iiii;cnili(S ended ambicuously in 1728. during the

Antoine (1651-1729>,

(

I

:

;

when he accepted

it

unconditionally after signing a preliminary

protest against any such acceptance.

From 1907

the praise of Marcel Proust.

to 1912 she traveled in search of health; on returning

which all the famous of the Her subsequent books of verse were Les Vivants et les Morts (1913) and Les Forces eternelles (1921). In 1921 she was elected to the Academie Royale de Belgique. Le Livre de ma vie (1932) was an unfinished autobiography. She died in Paris on April 30, 1933. to Paris she established a salon to

world were drawn.

See E. de

Adrien M.wrice (167S-1766I, 3rd due de

won

established her reputation and

La Rochefoucauld, Anna de

Noailles (19S6).

(H. G. Wh.)

Noailles, eldest son

2nd due. married FranQoise d'Aubigne, niece of Mme de Maintenon, in 169S: fought well in Spain during the War of the Spanish Succession, earning the rank of grandee in 1711; presided over the council of finances from 1715 to 1718 during the regency. but quarreled with the chief minister. Guillaume Dubois; was made a marshal of France in 1734; lost the battle of Dettingen in 1743; and acted as minister of state from 1743 to 1756. His son Louis (1713-17931 became due d'Ayen a title subsequently borne by the eldest son of each successive due de Noailles in 1737; 4th due de Noailles in 1766; and a marshal of France in 1775. The latter's brother Philippe fl715-1794), due de Mouchy. also became a marshal in 1775; he and his wife (Anne Louise d'Arpajon. nicknamed Mme fitiquette). having been favourites of the court of Versailles, were both guillotined during the Revolution (June 27, 1794). Jean Paul Franqois properly Jean Louis Fran(;ois Paul: 1739-1824). 5th due de Noailles. did some military service before devoting himself to chemistry, for which he was elected to the Academic des Sciences in 1777 having emigrated during the Revolution, he was received into the reconstituted peerage in 1814. As he had no male issue (his daughter Adrienne was Lafayette's wife), the peerage passed to his grandnephew. Paul (1802-1885), 6th due de Noailles, the historian who produced four volumes on the life story of Mme de Maintenon (1848-58) and was elected to the Academic Frangaise in 1849. Paul's grandsons were: Adrien Maurice (1869-1953). 8th due de Noailles, whose only son and grandson were killed in World War II; Helie, marquis de Noailles (1871-1932), father of the 9th due; and Mathieu (1873-1942), whose first wife was the poetess the comtesse de Noailles (q.v.). The 1st due de Mouchy (see above) had two sons: Philippe Louis (1752-1819). 2nd due de Mouchy and prince de Poix; and Louis Marie (1756-1804). vicomte de Noailles. The former, deputy to the estates-general, was the sponsor and momentarily the commander of the national guard at Versailles in 1 789, emiof the

—

—

(^

:

NOBEL, ALFRED BERNHARD

(1833-1896), Swedish chemist and engineer, who is noted as the founder of the Nobel prizes, was born at Stockholm on Oct. 21, 1833. He spent only two terms in school and thereafter was taught by tutors. About 1850 he was sent on travels to complete his education as an engineer and spent about a year in the United States. He was in

On his return to Sweden after a stay in Petersburg, he studied explosives, especially nitroglycerin. ill-health all his life.

St.

He

found that when nitroglycerin was incorporated with an absorbent, it could be safely used. In 1867 he was granted a British patent for dynamite and in 1868 a U.S. patent. Nobel next combined nitroglycerin with another high explosive, guncotton, and obtained a transparent, jellylike substance which was a still more powerful explosive than dynamite. Blasting gelatin, as it was called, was patented in 1876. It combined the high power of nitroglycerin with the comparative safety in handling of dynamite. About 13 years later Nobel produced ballistite, one of the earliest of the nitroglycerin smokeless powders and a preinert substance like kieselguhr

cursor of cordite.

Nobel's claim that his patent covered the latter

was the occasion of vigorously contested lawsuits between him and the British government in 1894 and 1895; eventually the courts decided against Nobel. An accomplishment of importance equal to that of his explosives was his construction and perfection of detonators for such explosives as could not be

made

to explode

by simple firing. His detonators contained fulminate of mercury. These detonators made it possible to set off the explosive energy of nitroglycerin, guncotton, etc., at will; without detonators such ex-

could not be used at all. From the manufacture of dynamite and other explosives, and from the exploitation of the Baku oil fields, he amassed an immense fortune. He never married. He was lonely and this together with his ill-health imbued him with pessimism and a satirical view of mankind which was nevertheless combined with benevolence and belief in the future of humanity. At his death on Dec. 10, 1896, at San Remo, Italy, he plosives

grated in 1791, returned to support Louis XVI in 1792, re-emigrated, returned to France in 1800 and was received into the reconstituted peerage in 1814. From him descend the later dues de

left the bulk of his fortune in trust to establish five prizes in peace, physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, and literature. See

Mouchy and

Bibliography. Fritz Henriksson, The Nobel Prizes and Their Founder Alfred Nobel (1938) Ragnar Sohlman and Henrik Schiick, Nobel, Dynamite and Peace, trans, by Brian and Beatrix Lunn (1929) Hertha E. PauU, Alfred Nobel, Dynamite King, Architect of Peace (1942) Henrik Schiick et al., Nobel: the Man and His Prizes, ed. by Nobel Foundation (1950; 2nd ed. 1962), for a biographical sketch and accounts of the prizes of the Nobel Foundation. (R. E. 0.; X.) PRIZES. These prizes, five in number, are awarded annually by four institutions (three Swedish and one Norwegian) from a fund established under the will of Alfred Bernhard Nobel Distribution was begun on Dec. 10. 1901, the fifth anni(g.v.). versary of the death of the founder, whose will specified that the awards should annually be made "to those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind" in the fields of physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature and peace. The institutions mentioned as prize awarders by Alfred Nobel in his will are: the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, physics and chemistry; the Royal Caroline Medico-Chirurgical institute, physiology or medicine; the Swedish Academy, literature (all in Stockholm) and the Norwegian Nobel committee, appointed by the Norwegian storting parliament in Oslo, peace. The Nobel Foundation, established in pursuance with the provisions of the will, is the legal owner and functional administrator of the funds and

The vicomte de

Noailles. meanAmerica before being elected to the estates-general of 1789; he made his name by proposing the abolition of feudal privilege on Aug. 4. Emigrating in 1792, he went to the United States but took part in the French operations of 1803 in Haiti and died of wounds at Havana, Cuba, on Jan. 9, 1804. His son Alexis (1783-1835), comte de Noailles, a royalist and an upholder of the papacy against Napoleon (who arrested him for a time in 1809), played some part at the congress of Vienna in 1814 and in French politics from 1815 to 1830; his male while,

princes de Poix.

had served with Lafayette

in

line died out in 1926.

NOAILLES, ANNA-ELISABETH DE BRANCOVAN, Comtesse de

1876-1933 ). French poet who transmitted her vivid personality in accomplished traditional verse and became the most widely acclaimed French woman poet of the early 20th century. (

She was born Anna Elisabeth de Brancovan in Paris on Nov. IS. 1876. her father a Rumanian prince, her mother Greek. After her father's death in 1885 she was introduced to a social life which brought her into contact with writers, philosophers and politicians. In 1897 she married the comte Mathieu de Noailles. Le Coeur innombrable (1901), her first collection of poems, describing the French landscape, was received with enthusiasm. After writing the novels La Nouvelle Esperance (1903), Le Visage Smerveille (1904) and La Domination (1905), she resumed her poetic career with Les i.blouissements (1907), a collection that

Nobel

Prices.

—

;

;

;

NOBEL

;

(

)

.

body of the prize awarders, but not concerned with the prize deliberations or decisions, which

serves as the joint administrative it is

NOBEL PRIZES Table X.— Nobel

1905

Prize Winners (Physics, Chemistry), 1901-1950

549

—

NOBEL PRIZES

550 Table Year

II.

Nobet Prize Winners (Physiology-Medicine, Literature, Peace), 1901-1950

—

NOBEL PRIZES Table 111.— Nobel Year

SS^

Prize Winners (Physics, Chemistry), 1951-1964

Physics Pioneer work on transmutation of atomic nuclei by artificially accelerated atomic

(Brit.)

1951

(Ire.)

Edwin McMillan* Glenn Seaborg*

(U.S.) (U.S.)

particles

Discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance in solids

1953

(Neth.)

Method

1954

(Brit.)t (Get.)

Statistical studies on wave functions Invention of and studies with coincidence

of

ntrast microscopy

pha

Method

Archer Martin Richard Synge

(Brit.)

Hermann Staudinger

(Ger.)

Work on macromolecules

Linus Carl Pauling*t

(U.S.)

Study of the nature of the chemical bond

(U.S.)

First synthesis of a polypeptide

(U.S.S.R.)

Work on

(Brit.)

ical

of identifying and separating chemelements by chromatography

method WiUis Lamb,

Jr.

Polykarp Kusch*

(U.S.)

Discoveries concerning the hydrogen spec-

(U.S.)t

trum Measurement

of

magnetic moment

Vincent

Du

Nikolai

Semenov

Vigneaud

hormone

of elec-

tron

William Shockley

John Bardeen Walter Brattain

(U.S.) (U.S.) (U.S.)

Sir Cyril

Tsung-Dao Lee Chen Ning Yang

Discovery of violations of the principle of parity {the principle of space reflection

Sir

Hinshelwood

the kinetics of chemical reactions

(Brit.)

Alexander Todd

symmetry) Pavel Cerenkov Ilya Igor

Frank

Tamm

(U.S.S.R (U.S.S.R (U.S.S.R

)

Discovery and interpretation of the Ceren-

)

1959

Frederick Sanger

kov effect (emission of light waves by electrically charged particles moving faster than light)

.)

Confirmation of the existence of the anti-

1960

Donald Glaser*

(U.S.)

Development

1961

Robert Hofstadter

(U.S.)

Determination of shape and

Rudolf Mossbauer

(Ger.)

Discovery of the "Mossbauer effect"

Lev D. Landau

(U.S.S.R.) Contributions to the understanding of condensed stales of matter (superfluidity in liquid helium)

of the bubble

chamber

Jaroslav Heyrovsky

(Czech.)

WiUard Libby*

(U.S.)

Development

Melvin Calvin

(U.S.)

Study of chemical steps that take place dur-

Discovery and development of polarography of

technique of radiocarbon

dating size of

atomic

ing photosynthesis

(Ger.) J, Hans D. Jensen Maria Goeppert Mayer* (U.S.)t Eugene Paul Wigner (U.S.)t

Development of shell model theory of the structure of atomic nuclei Principles governing mechanics and interaction of protons and neutrons in the

Charles H. Townes Nikolai G. Basov Aleksandr M.

Work

Giulio Natta

.

of

polymers in the

Karl Ziegler

atomic nucleus (U.S.)

(U.S.S.R.) (U.S.S.R.)

in quantum electronics leading to construction of instruments based on maser-laser principles.

Dorothy M. C. Hodgkin

(Brit.)

Determining

Note: Nationality given is the citizenship of recipient at the time award was made. •Contributor to EncyclopcBdia Britannica. fNaturalized citizen. JAwarded two Nobel prizes: chemistry (1954); peace (1962).

Table Year

IV.

the

structure

compounds essential cious anemia

Prokhorov

Nobel Prize Winners {Physiology-Medicine, Literature, Peace), 1951-1964

in

of

biochemical

combating perni-

NOBILE— NOBRE

552 rest exclusively with the four institutions.

Each award

consists

of a gold medal, a diploma bearing a citation, and a sum of money; the amount depends on the income of the foundation and has

ranged from about £11,000 ($30,000) to about £17,000 ($50,000). The selection of the prize winners starts in the early autumn of the year preceding the awards, with the prize institutions sending out invitations to nominate candidates to those competent under the Nobel statutes to do so. The basis of selection is professional competence and international range; self-nomination automatically disqualifies.

Prize proposals

tee in writing before Feb.

1

must reach the proper commit-

of the year of the prize decision.

On Feb. 1 the Nobel committees start their work on the nominations received. If necessary, the committees may be authorized to call in experts, irrespective of nationality. During September and early October the committees submit recommendations to their respective prize-awarding bodies

—only

in rare cases has the

question been left open. The final decision by the prize awarders must be made by Nov. IS. A committee recommendation is usually but not invariably followed.

are secret at

all

stages.

except the peace prize

The

prize

is

either given entire to one person, divided equally

1935 was taken as an affront. Whenever possible later, the onetime refuser has explained his situation and on application received

—

the Nobel gold medal and the diploma but not the money, which has already been paid back into the funds. Prizes are withheld or not awarded when no worthy candidate in the meaning of Alfred Nobel's will can be found, or when the world situation prevents the gathering of information required

happened during Worid Wars I and II. open to all, irrespective of nationality, They can be awarded more than once to

prizes are

same recipient. The ceremonial presentations of the prizes for physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, and literature take place in Stockholm, and that for peace in Oslo, on Dec. 10, the anniversary of Alfred Nobel's death. The laureates usually receive their prizes in person. The general principles governing awards were laid down by Alfred Nobel in his will. In 1900, supplementary rules of interprethe

taUon and administration were agreed upon between the executors, representatives of the prize awarders and the Nobel family, and confirmed by the king in councO. These statutory rules have on the whole remained unchanged, but have been somewhat modified in application; e.g., the ambiguous words in the will, "idealistic tendency" as qualification for the prize for literature, were in the beginning interpreted verbally, but have gradually been in-

more

flexibly, as the list of laureates

shows.

and medical prizes have proved to be the least controversial, while those for literature and peace by their very nature have been the most exposed to critical differences. The peace prize has been most frequently reserved. scientific

the field of aircraft construction.

In 1926, together with Roald Ellsworth, he flew in his semirigid airship the "Norge" over the north pole from Spitsbergen to Alaska. No-

Amundsen and Lincoln

bile was promoted to general in the Italian air force and appointed professor of aeronautical engineering at the University of Naples.

Although the type was

and delicate was with an almost identical airthat Nobile undertook in 1928 a new series of criticized as being too small

for use in the polar regions, ship, the "Italia,"

it

over unexplored areas of the arctic. On the third flight the airship crashed on the ice north-northeast of Spitsbergen. A international rescue operation was launched; Nobile and flights

seven of his companions were eventually rescued, but the catastrophe cost, directly or indirectly, 17 lives. Nobile's conduct was the subject of fierce controversy and an Italian commission of in-

in

The

Avellino, on Jan. 24, 1S85. Trained as an engineer in Naples, he did much pioneer work for Italy during and after World War I in

an institution.

before a set date, the prize money goes back to the funds. Prizes have been declined and in some instances governments have forbidden their nationals to accept Nobel prizes. Those who win a prize are nevertheless entered into the list of Nobel laureates with the remark "declined the prize." The motives given for nonacceptance may vary, but the real reason has always been external pressure; e.g.. Hitler's decree of 1937 forbade Germans to accept Nobel prizes because the peace prize to Carl von Ossietzky

terpreted

,

vast

most two works, or shared jointly by two or more (in more than three) persons. Sometimes a prize is withheld until the following year; if not then awarded it is paid back into the funds, which happens also when a prize is neither awarded nor reserved. Two prizes in the same field can thus be awarded in one year; i.e., the prize withheld from the previous year and the current year's prize. If a prize is declined or not accepted

The Nobel

UMBERTO

to individuals,

at

race, creed or ideology.

NOBILE,

(1885) Italian aeronautical engineer and explorer, a pioneer of arctic aviation, was born at Lauro,

and the voting

practice never

to reach a decision, as

;

deliberation

not be appealed against. Official support, diplomatic or political, for a certain candidate has no bearing on an award since the prize awarders, as such, are independent of the state,

A

;

may be given only which may also be given to Prizes

Work cannot be proposed posthumously, but a prize duly proposed may be so awarded, as with Dag Hammarskjold (for peace; 1961) and Erik A. Karlfeldt (for literature; 1931). The awards may

between

BiBLioGR.\PHY.— Nobel Foundation, Les Prix Nobel (annual) F. KapWinners, Charts, Indexes, Sketclies, rev. ed. (1941); H. Schiick et al., Nobel: the Man and His Prizes, ed. by the Nobel Foundation, 2nd ed, (1962) L. J. Ludovici, ed. Nobel Prize Winners (1957); E. Bcrgcngren, Alfred Nobel, Eng. ed. (1962); E. Farber, Nobel Prize Winners in Chemistry, 1901-1961 (1963). (N. K, St.) lan, .\obel Prize

quiry, in disaster,

all

probability partial, found

whereupon he resigned

him responsible

his rank.

for the

In 193 1 he took part

voyage of the Soviet vessel "Malygin," and from 1932 to 1936 he was concerned with the construction of dirigibles in the Soviet Union. He was reinstated in 1945 and resumed his teaching post at Naples. In 1946 he was a Communist deputy in the Italian in the arctic

constituent assembly.

Nobile published numerous works, both on aeronautics and Posso dire la verita (1945), a final statement of his view of the "Italia" tragedy. (P. A. B. G.) NOBLE, SIR ist Bart. (1831-1915), British physicist and artillerist whose classical researches with Sir Frederick Abel on fired gunpowder contributed greatly to the progress of gunnery, was born at Greenock, Renfrewshire, Scot., Sept. 13, 1 83 1. Educated at Edinburgh academy and the Royal Military academy, Woolwich, London, he entered the royal artillery in 1847 and, as secretary of the select committee on smoothbore and rifled cannon, he devised an ingenious method of comparing the accuracy of fire of each type of gun. He became assistant inspector of artillery (1S59 ). then served on the ordnance select committee and the explosives committee, but left the service to join the firm of Sir William (later Lord) Armstrong (q.v.) of which he became chairman in 1900. About 1862 he applied his chronoscope, a device for measuring ver>- small time intervals, to determine the velocity of shot in gun barrels with different powders and charges. He was an advocate of nitro (smokeless) powders. Noble was elected a fellow of the Royal society (1870), awarded a royal medal of the society (1880) and created a baronet (1902). He died in Argyll, Scot., on Oct. 22, 1915. His papers were collected as Artillery and Explosives (1906). , (D. McK.) NOBRE, (1867-1903), Portuguese poet, whose So ("Alone") the only volume of his verse published during his lifetime gives an intensely personal expression to the deep vein of melancholy in the national character, was born in Oporto on Aug. 16, 1867, the son of a well-to-do middle-class family. He studied law unsuccessfully for two years at Coimbra university, and then, during 1890-95, attended the fecole Libre des Sciences Politiques in Paris, Having been a consumptive, Nobre spent his remaining years in travel. In Paris, where his memories of a childhood spent in the company of peasants and sailors of northern Portugal contrasted sharply with his impressions of the cosmopolitan drabness of the Left Bank, he wrote the greater part of the Sd (1892; final version, 1898), in which he succeeded in blending the traditional trend of a genuine and simple lyricism with the more refined and subtle perceptiveness of the French Symbolists. This line of literary development evolves clearly from his early compositions, Primeiros Versos (1921), to the valedictory garland of Despedidas (1902). The So met with a mixed reception, but became one of the most his polar experiences, including

ANDREW,

ANTONIO

—

—

.

NOBREGA—NODIER popular works of poetry in Portugal. Its originality springs partly from the creation of a personal mythology applied to significant place-names of a sentimental itinerary; a quasi-Franciscan acceptance of death adds the uneasy note of a subdued protest against the transiency of the world. Nobre's rejection of reality and his narcissism, however, engender a cloying sense of frustraHis vision of Portugal partakes of the bucolic enchantment tion. that it describes in the fluent vein of a nursery tale. Herein lies its strength and its major weakness. Nobre died at Foz do Douro on March 18, 1903. Bibliography. Vitorino Nemesio, "0 Sd de Ant6nio Nobre," in Ondas Medias, pp. 351-356 (1945) Alberto de Serpa, "Antonio Nobre," Perspectiva da Literatura Portuguesa do Seculo XIX, ed. by J. Caspar Simoes, vol. ii, pp. 457^77 (1948); Guilherme de Castilho, Antonio Nobre (1950). (L. de S. R.) (1517-1570), was the Portuguese founder of the Jesuit mission of Brazil. In Bahia, where

—

;

NOBREGA, MANUEL DA

he arrived from Lisbon lege in the

new

world.

in 1549,

He was

he founded the

the

first

first

Jesuit col-

provincial of the Brazil-

He was again provincial in 1570 but died in Rio de Janeiro before the news of the appointment reached him. Nobrega was instrumental in estabhshing the Jesuit college around which Sao Paulo grew (1554) and is therefore known as the founder of Brazil's largest city. When the French under Nicolas de Villegagnon, including many Huguenots, settled in Rio (1555), Nobrega moved heaven and earth against them. They were expelled in part because he ian province of the Society of Jesus (1553-55).

named

won

over to the Portuguese side the

Tamoio Indians (1563).

no individual," Robert Southey wrote, "to whose tal." In many so greatly and permanently indebted. ways because of Nobrega, southern Brazil was destined to remain Catholic and Portuguese. See also Brazil: History. (M. Ca.) INFERIORE (formerly NocERA dei Pagani; an-

"There

is

ents Brazil

is

.

.

NOCERA

cient

NucERiA Alfaterna),

a

town

in

Salerno province, Campania

region, southern Italy, situated at the foot of Montalbino, 23 mi. ft. above sea level. Pop. (1961) 42,924 The origin of the epithet dei Pagani ("of the panot historically estabHshed and is sometimes attributed to Pagum village or to Pagano, the name of an important local medieval family. Nuceria Alfaterna, sacked by Hannibal in 216 In the .old castle, Helen, widow of B.C., was rebuilt by Augustus.

E.S.E. of Naples. 135

(commune).

gans")

is

King Manfred of

Sicily, died in captivity

the battle of Benevento.

and

in the 12th century

The it

(1271) five years after

became an episcopal see sided with Innocent II against Roger city early

its walled centre. In the nearby village of Nocera Superiore is the circular domed church of Sta. Maria Maggiore (dating from the 4th century). Other ancient ecclesiastical buildings include S. Antonio's (13th century, with an altar piece by Andrea da Salerno), Sta. Anna's monastery (with frescoes by Francesco Solimena), S. Andrea's convent 14th century ) and S. Giovanni's convent (dating from the 11th century). Nocera Inferiore now ranks first economically in the province because of its agricultural exports, its well-established lumber mills, canning, macaroni and textile plants.

of Sicily suffering for

its

choice the destruction of

(

(Lu. L.; Al. M.; Sa. P.)

NOCTURNE,

the name, principally found in the 19th cen-

tury, of a form of music. It originated from the Italian notturno, an 18th-century form of music associated with, or to be played during, the night, as opposed to serenata, an evening piece. Nottnrnos for various combinations of instruments and in several movements were written by Haydn, Adalbert Gyrowetz and Mozart, whose Eine Kleine Nachtmusik also comes under this heading. The French form, nocttinie, was first used in 1814 by John Field as the title of pieces for the piano in different styles, and later by Chopin who established the romantic or introspective

character of the nocturne.

A

similar conception

is

seen in the

nocturnes for piano by Gabriel Faure. The term was also used by Mendelssohn for an interlude in his Midsummer Night's Dream music, and by Debussy as the title of three pieces for orchestra. The German form of the word, NachtstUck, was used for pieces by Schumann and Paul Hindemith, NODDY, the name apphed to seabirds of the genus Anoiis, of the tern {q.v.) subfamily, and especially to A. stolidus, showing

so

little

fear of

man

553 as to be judged stupid.

It is heavier in flight

than most terns, with shorter wings and less forked tail. The plumage is of a uniform sooty hue, except the light gray crown of the head. The noddy is generally distributed throughout tropical and subtropical oceans. It breeds in astounding numbers, on low cays and coral islets, making a nest composed of seaweed or small twigs. Other birds of the same genus are the darker Pacific noddy (A. s. sidgwayi), the still darker Galapagos noddy (A. s. galapagoensis) and the white-headed noddy (A. leucocapillus) (from the Lat, nodus, "loop"), in astronomy, the inter-

NODE

section of the ecliptic (the apparent path of the sun stars) with the path of the celestial sphere.

moon

among

the

or of a planet projected on the

The ascending node

is

the one where the

body

crosses from the south to the north side of the ecHptic, the oppo-

one being the descending node. An eclipse or transit of a planet has to occur when the moon or planet is at or near a node, for that is the only time that the sun, moon or planet and earth can be lined up suitably. In the geometry of curves, a node is the name given to the loop formed by a continuous ASCENDING NODE curve crossing itself. The point of crossing is termed a "double point," and at it there are two noncoincident tangents to the curve; the remaining species of double points termed acnode, spinode or cusp admits of two coincident tangents. See also Curves. (H. M. Lo.) (1780-1844), French writer, an early NODIER, master of the fantastic story, was born on April 29, 1780, at Besanqon, and educated there. The political agitation of the time and his experience of the Terror made a deep impression on him; he escaped from reality into a world of fantasies fed by his omnivorous reading and his passion for natural history. The turmoil of these early years ended with his marriage to Desiree Charve in 1808; this was followed by periods of employment as secretary and librarian, and of writing and travel. In 1824 he was appointed curator of the library at the Arsenal. He died in Paris on Jan. 27, 1844. Nodier is generally remembered for such stories as his Histoire 1830), Le Songe d'or (1832), Jean FranQois dii Chien de Brisqiiet les Bas-Bleus ( 1832) and Tresor des jeves et fleur des pais (1833), written in a prose always classically pure but with a simplicity that sometimes seems a little childish; and also for the literary salo7i in his rooms at the Arsenal, where from 1824 to 1830 he gathered round him the principal representatives of the newly formed romantic school. It is unjust, however, to recall only these two aspects of his many-sided career. He had an encyclopedic mind and studied a wide range of subjects botany, entomology, in each of which he displayed extensive, linguistics, bibliography though not always infallible, erudition. He wrote in many different literary kinds, publishing poems, critical studies, philosophical essays, books of travel, reminiscences of his youth, novels (Jean Sbogar, 1818; Mademoiselle de Marsan, 1829) and a fantasy which eludes classification {Histoire du roi de Bohhme et de ses sept chateaux, 1830). But it is his stories which remain outstanding, though the best are not those constantly anthologized for children, Nodier's originality was to find in the world of dreams an untapped source of literary inspiration. Smarra ou les demons de la niiit (1821) is a prose poem of nightmare; Trilby (1822), another prose poem, is a reverie of love; La Fee aux miettes (1832) describes the delusions of a "lunatic" in its root meaning of one made mad by the site

—

—

CHARLES

(

—

—

By this revelation of the creative power of dream and by equation of a state of innocence with certain conditions normally called mad, Nodier was rebelling against the tyranny of "common sense" {le bon sens) and opening up a new territory to Gerard de Nerval, Lautreamont (qq.v.) and the surliterature. realists explored the same realm and hailed him as a precursor of moon. his

their

own

fantasies.

Bibliography. tastiques, ed.

— Contes,

ed.

by M. Laclos,

de Charles Nodier (1914)

;

by P. G. Castex (1961); Contes fan(1957) A. Cazes, Morceaux choisis

2 vol.

J. Larat,

;

La

Tradition

et I'exotisme

dans

NO DRAMA— NOEL-BAKER

554 Voeuvrr de CharUs Nodier (1923) :nd cd. (194b).

;

A. B^guin, in

L'Ame Romantique, (P.-G. C.)

NO DRAMA.

Toward the end of the 14th century a father and son, Kan-ami and Zeami {sec Zeami Motokiyo), by makinp innovations and retinemcnts in sanigaku-no an entertainment derived from ancient native and foreicn sources created the no theatre of Japan, which survives in modern times in much the same form as that in which it was conceived. Kan-ami's troupe, previously associated with a Shinto shrine, was taken under the patronage of the temporal ruler, the shogun Yoshimitsu. Thereafter and well into the igth century the no was a fashionable amusement of the aristocracy and the warrior class but certain performances, called subscription no, were open to and popular with commoners. The no thus greatly influenced the subsequent dramatic expression of the commoners, the puppet theatre and the kabuki, which ap-

—

—

peared at the end of the i6th century. The no is nonrealistic. The actors,

They wear theatrical some roles are masked.

dancers.

all male, are singers and versions of 14th-century costumes

The rhythmical basis of the peris provided by two or three drummers and a flutist. A chorus of six or more men chants the narrative parts of the play and in formance

and sometimes the words of the characters. Classification of No Plays. Out of more than 2,000 plays, about 240 the majority of which were written during the 15th century constitute the modern repertoire. These are divided

—

—

—

into five principal groups.:

(i) congratulatory pieces praising the prosperity of the country; (2) plays about warriors, as men and as ghosts; (3) those which usually have an elegant, beautiful woman as leading character; (4) plays (the largest group, containing various types) dealing with insanity, obsession and his-

concerning demons and gods. The daylong performance consisted of a play from each of the groups, in the above order, with comic interludes in colloquial language (kydgeji) played between them; after 1945 the usual protorical characters; (5) pieces

traditional,

gram consisted of two or three plays with comic interludes. Construction of No Plays No plays are written in poetic

—

form, using a variety of complex, untranslatable literary devices. Usually there are only two important roles: the shite or principal character and the waki or secondary one. Considered apart from the Japanese classification, the plays are of two types: those set entirely in the ''real" world, and those in which an apparition or supernatural being appears. The majority of the plays and those most frequently performed belong to the latter group. These vary in detail but the general

monk, enters

first;

he

is

form

The waki,

often a priest or joined by the shite at a place of historical is

this:

The shite, though appearing to be an ordinary person, reveals unusual knowledge of the spot. The shite then exits. During a short interlude he changes costume and mask and reappears for the second part in his true form. He is described in his first appearance as the "helore''-shite, in his secor religious significance.

NO ACTOR; CHORUS AND MEMBER OF THE ORCHESTRA

BACKGROUND

IN

ond as the "aittx" -shite ; there is often a complete contrast between the two, so that they are entirely different roles. The shite

may

first be a beautiful girl, then a serpent; an old village woman, then a demon; a boy, then the spirit of a warrior. On his second shite, with the help of the chorus, gives an account

appearance the

by his principal dance. A hunter and the punishment he later suffers in hell for this sin. The woman who in life had an illicit passion for a priest reveals her true nature by wearing the mask of a demon and a costume of stylized pattern suggesting the scales of his essential being, climaxed

dances his killing of birds in

The

of a snake.

life

great warrior relives his last battle.

All such

characters are chained to their earthly passions, which bind them to the world of actuality and prevent their attainment of nirvana. to the priest or monk to pray for the repose of their Because the priest possesses knowledge of the likeness of things he receives requests for deliverance and enlightenment not only from the spirits of human beings, but also from the snow, a butterfly or the wisteria. Staging. The stage has two principal areas: the stage proper, about 18 ft. square; and the bridge {hashigakari) about 6 ft. wide and between 33 and 52 ft. long, which connects the dressing room with the stage proper and is used for entrances and exits by the principal characters. Lesser characters and musicians use a low door in the upstage corner of the stage. The chorus occupies an area to the left of the actors; the instrumentalists sit at the rear of the stage. Both playing areas are roofed, as they were in the earliest outdoor theatres, although most no stages are now

They appeal spirits. all

living

—

,

constructed within a building. The out-of-doors is also recalled in the stylized pine tree painted on the rear wall of the stage, the painted bamboo design on the narrow wall to the side of it, the

between the playing areas and the audi-

strip of white pebbles

torium and the three small pine trees in front of the bridge. The supporting the roof have conventional spatial values and determine the pattern of the actor's movement. Scenic objects, rarely used, do not often resemble literal objects, but merely suggest them. Many properties are similarly sketchlike; the most frequently used is the folding fan, which closed, partially closed or open conveys any meaning suggested by its form or manipu-

pillars

—

—

lation.

See also Kabuki Theatre;

Drama"

Mask; and

references under

"No

in the Index.

—

Bibliography. Arthur Waley, The No Plays of Japan (1953) Noel Peri, Le No (1944) Zemmaro Toki, Japanese No Plays (1954) P. G. O'Neill, A Guide to No (1954); Shigetoshi Kawatake, An Illustrated History of Japanese Theatre Arts (1956). (Ea. E.) ;

;

;

JOHN

"TAKIGI NO

NIGHT

TRADITIONALLY PLAYED

IN

THE LIGHT OF A BONFIRE AT

British NOEL-BAKER, PHILIP (1889), statesman and internationalist who advocated international disarmament in the cause of world peace and who was awarded the Nobel peace prize in 1959. Born in London, Nov. i, 1889, of a Quaker family, he was educated at Bootham school, York; Haver-

NOETHER— NOGUCHI Cambridge. President of the Cambridge Union society in 1912, he also capDuring World tained the 1924 British Olympic Games team. War I he served with the Friends' and other ambulance units in France, Belgium and Italy, being decorated for distinguished conduct. After working at the peace conference in igig as a member of the British delegation, he joined the secretariat of the League ford

Pennsylvania, and at King's

college,

of Nations.

He

college,

Nansen in his work for refugees, assembly and Arthur Henderdisarmament conference at Geneva,

assisted Fridtjof

Lord Robert Cecil

at sessions of the

son, the president, at the world

1932-33In the house of

commons Noel-Baker represented Coventry (1929-31), Derby (1936-50) and South Derby after Feb. 1950, as a Labour member. Between 1945 and 1951 he was successively

minister of state,

of state for

secretary of state for air, secretary relations and minister of fuel and

Commonwealth

power. Aided by a fluent command of seven languages, he campaigned for 40 years for peace through international disarmament. The Arms Race: a Programme for World Disarmament (1958) was acclaimed as a monumental survey of the whole disarmament problem. (L. R. A.) (1882-193S), German (AMALIE) mathematician who specialized in higher algebra, was born at Erlangen on March 23, 1882. Her father Max Noether (18441921) was a distinguished mathematician; a younger brother, Fritz Noether, became professor of applied mathematics. She studied in Erlangen, later in Gottingen, where she passed her habilitation examination in 1919, after earlier objections from some members

EMMY

NOETHER,

of the faculty opposed to

woman

555

Rome; and

there was a quarrel between Anagni and the neighbouring town of Ferentino. At dawn on Sept. 7, 1303, Noga-

east of

ret and Rinaldo di Supino, captain of Ferentino, entered Anagni with a small force to arrest the pope (who was intending next day

Super Petri solio, excommunicating Philip); but whose family was pursuing its own vendetta against Boniface, entered Anagni with his men at the same time, and the pope fell into their hands. Nogaret saved the pope's life, but the violence of the Colonna faction not only frustrated his carefully prepared show of legality but provoked the people of Anagni, who had at first connived at the coup, to rise on Sept. 9 in defense of the pope. Forced to abandon his enterprise and to flee to Ferentino, Nogaret returned to France early in 1304. Nogaret had acted as a sincere Christian desirous of freeing the church from a pope whom he thought unworthy; but Boniface's successor Benedict XI, though he exculpated Philip, issued the bull Flagitiosicm scelus (June 7, 1304), excommunicating Nogaret and 15 other participants in the outrage. Philip, however, raised Nogaret's pension from 300 to 800 livres and, on Sept. 22, 1307, apto issue his bull

Sciarra Colonna,

pointed him keeper of the great seal. Nogaret was from 1307 much occupied with the conduct of PhiUp's proceedings against the Templars (q.v.). After long appealing against his excommunication, he obtained absolution from Pope Clement V on April 27, 1311, with the proviso that he should go as a pilgrim to the Holy Land at the first opportunity and stay there until the pope should recall him. He died, however, before executing this proviso, in April 1313. His influence has been exaggerated, and' it is a mistake to see his hand in all the state trials of Philip IV's reign.

lecturers.

In 1922 she became extraordinary professor in Gottingen, a position she held until 1933, when she left Germany to accept a professorship at Bryn Mawr college, Pennsylvania. She died on

R. Fawtier, See R. Holtzmann, Wilhelm von Nogaret (1898) "L'Attentat d'Anagni," Melanges d'archiologie el d'histoire, Ix (1948). (F. Ct.; X.)

April 14, 1935.

NOGINSK, a town of Moscow ohlast of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, U.S.S.R., stands on the Klyazma river, 54 km. (34 mi.) E. of Moscow city. Pop. (1959) 92,760. It developed in the 15th-16th centuries as Yamskaya settlement, and was known later as Rogozhi and, from 1781 (when it became In the 19th century the textile a town) to 1930, as Bogorodsk. industry developed there and it is now one of the most important Cottons form over three-quarters textile centres of the U.S.S.R. of its production, but wool and silk goods are also made. Other products include parts for tractor engines, needles and reinforced concrete. A branch railway joins Noginsk to the Moscow-Gorki (R. A. F.) line. (1876-192S), Japanese bacterioloNOGUCHI, gist, was born in Inawashiro, Fukushima, Japan, Nov. 24, 1876. He graduated from Tokyo Medical college in 1897 and two years At the University of Pennsyllater emigrated to Philadelphia. vania he assisted Weir Mitchell in his studies on snake venoms. In 1904 Noguchi went to the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research in New York city, where he worked the rest of his life. He was the first to demonstrate spirochetes of syphilis in the central nervous system of patients dying of paresis and tabes dorsalis, thereby proving the syphilitic origin of those diseases. He improved the technique and theory of the Wassermann reac-

Emmy Noether's

and ideal theory have the development of modern algebra; she

studies on abstract rings

been of importance for

also exerted great scientific influence

through her

many

able pupils.

(0. Oe.)

NOGALES,

town

Mexican state of Sonora, contiguous with and across the border from Nogales, Ariz., U.S., and port of entry into Mexico. Pop. (I960) 37,657. The Pacific highway leading to Mexico City (1,500 mi.) via Hermosillo, Guaymas, Mazatlan and Guadalajara begins at this point. A rail line follows the same route. Nogales is noted for its cavern restaurant, a cafe in a cave which was once used as a jail under Chureas hill. Nogales is a U.S. -Mexican trading centre in cattle and minerals. Irrigation of large areas of the state brought increased wealth to Nogales, but the main farm areas are to the south. (J. A. Cw.) NOGARET, GUILLAUME DE (d. 1313), French magistrate, one of the most vigorous of the legistes or expositors of the royal power, especially in ecclesiastical affairs, was born between 1260 and 1270 at St. Felix-de-Caraman, the son of a bourgeois of Toulouse; his family, which was later accused by his enemies of a desert

in the

having adhered to the heresy of the Cathari, held a small property at Nogaret nearby. He began his career as a teacher of jurisprudence at Montpellier in 1291, entered the royal service as jugemage at Nimes about 1294 and seems to have been with King Philip

IV

(q.v.) in

Normandy

in 1295.

A member

of the king's

was entrusted in 1296 with missions to Bigorre and to Champagne for the enforcement of the king's rights there. In 1299 he began to style himself miles, or knight. Nogaret is chiefly remembered for his role in Philip IV's conflict with Pope Boniface VIII {q.v.). Little is known of his mis-

council, he

Rome

On March

7, 1303, however, Philip authormeasures against the pope and five days later, on March 12, at a meeting in Paris, it was Nogaret who, after denouncing the pope ( 1 ) as irregularly installed, ( 2 ) as a heretic, (3) as a simonist and (4) as a notorious sinner, demanded the summoning of a general council of the church to try him. Proceeding to Italy, he established himself at Staggia in Tuscany, whence he made contact with the pope's enemies, including some cardinals. The pope, meanwhile, was spending the summer at Anagni, south-

sion to

ized

him

in 1300.

to go to Italy to take

;

HIDEYO

tion.

Adapting a method first employed by Theobald Smith, Noguchi devised ingenious means of cultivating microorganisms that had never before been grown in the test tube. He discovered a number of new microorganisms which he erroneously described as

now known to be caused by viruses; trachoma and yellow fever. He succeeded in growing spirochetes which he believed to be those that cause causes of infectious diseases e.g.,

poliomyelitis,

syphilis.

During

;

his lifetime,

Noguchi was regarded

as one of the world's

greatest bacteriologists, but of his later "discoveries" only a few e.g., the cultivation of the parasite of Oroya fever (Carrion's

—

disease) and verruga peruana, which he showed to be different have stood the test of time. manifestations of the same infection

—

He was

a dedicated

and indefatigable

of his claims.

scientist,

and no one who

the sincerity of his own belief in the validity When he learned that other bacteriologists had

knew him could doubt

—

NOGUCHI—NOISE AND

556

announced that yellow fever was caused by a virus, Noguchi went to British West Africa to join them, in order to resume his study of that disease. While doing so, he contracted yellow fever and (C. P. M.) died in .Accra on Mav 21 |i)28. ), U.S. sculptor of Japanese NOGUCHI, ISAMU 1904descent, one of the strongest advocates of the expressive power of abstract shapes, was born at Los Angeles, Calif., on Nov. 7, 1904. To his terra-cotta and stone sculptures Noguchi brought some of the spirit and mystery of early art, principally Japanese earthenware, studied during residences in Japan. Trained as a premedical student at Columbia university, Noguchi sensed the interrelatedness of bone and rock forms, the comparative anatomy of existence, Recognizing the appropriateness as seen in his "Kuros" (1945). of sculptural shapes for architecture, he made many important contributions toward the aesthetic reshaping of physical environment. His garden for UNESCO in Paris (1958), his playground, lamp, chair and table designs have won international praise. He also designed a monument to the dead and a bridge for Hiroshima, but only the latter was actually built. See C. Giedion-Welcker, Contemporary Sculpture (1955). .

(

(A. E. El.)

NOm, VICTOR

(properly Yvan Salmon) (1848-1870), French journalist whose death brought sensational discredit on the reigning dynasty in the last year of the second empire, was at Attigny Vosges on July 27, 1848. With only a rudimentary education, he worked first as a watch repairer in his father's shop and later as a florist before joining L'^poque, a Paris newspaper, as a gossip writer. He subsequently wrote for many other

born

)

(

On Jan. 10, 1870, he presented himself with a colleague, Ulric de Fonvieille, at the house of Prince Pierre Napoleon Bonaparte, a first cousin of the emperor Napoleon HI, to deliver a challenge to a duel from journals, the last being the republican Marseillaise.

another journalist. Paschal Grousset.

An

altercation ensued, dur-

Noir's ing which the prince drew his revolver and killed Noir. funeral, on Jan. 12, became a riotous republican manifestation.

The emperor ordered an

Tried by a special high court of was acquitted on March 25 on his statement that Noir had provoked him by slapping his face an allegation which had been denied by Fonvieille. inquiry.

justice at Tours, the prince

—

NOISE AND ITS CONTROL. as

any undesired sound.

noise

is

In acoustics noise

According to

is

defined

this definition, the

sound

may

be music to some and noise to others. Usually, a mixture of many tones combined in a nonmusical man-

of church bells ner.

Measurement and Specification.—The measurement of any sound stimulus is commonly made with a sound-level meter and a frequency analyzer see Sound The sound-level meter comprises a microphone and associated electronic equipment. The analyzer is an electronic device for separating the noise into its tonal components, or into groups of tonal components. The results of a measurement are given in decibels (db), which is called the soundlevel and is equal to 20 times the logarithm of the ratio pressure of the sound pressure in the air to a reference sound pressure (usually 0.0002 dyne per square centimetre). For example, a sound pressure of one dyne per square centimetre has a soundpressure level of 74 db. The decibel is to sound what the degree It indicates the magnitude of the sound, but is to temperature. not the reaction of human beings to it. Typical sound levels in decibels, considering all audible tonal components contained in the sound are shown in Table I. Outdoors, the sound levels decrease six decibels each time the distance between the source and the microphone is doubled. Conversely, the sound increases six decibels each time the distance is halved. Indoors, the acoustics of the room greatly modify this rule. The intensity of a sound source may be indicated by the total power in watts that it produces in the air around it. Acoustic powers of common sound sources are shown in Table II. The total range is nearly 100,000,000,000,000 times the Table mini(

)

.

mum. Sounds may be divided into three classes: (1) those that are composed of one or more pure tones, such as a note from the piccolo

:

(2 j those that contain a great

many very closely spaced

tones,

ITS

CONTROL

Table

I.

Typical Overall Sound Levels 1

At a given distance from noise source

standard sound

level

meter)

Environmental

^ I '

—

NOISE

AND

ITS

Those tonal components of a noise that lie between 300 and 5,000 cycles per second interfere most with conversation {see Hearing). Sudden damage to hearing may result from the noise of a blast or an explosion. Gradual damage may result from continued exposure to noise over a period of years. Other factors being equal, a steady sound (such as that of a textile mill) will be less likely to damage hearing than one that is impulsive (as that of a pneumatic hammer or a drop forge). People vary considerably in their susceptibility to such damage. Many companies periodically test the hearing of workers in noisy areas and transfer those who show signs of deafness. Those who work around jet aircraft, in boiler ners.

shops, in drop-forge shops or those who use metal-cutting, chipping and shaping tools are most likely to suffer gradual loss of

Deafness and Impaired Hearing). Solution of the Noise Problem. In approaching a noise problem first consider the source. Can a quieter machine or operation be substituted? Can the noise intensity be reduced? Can a useful change be made in how the noise is directed? Are resilient pads beneath the noisy device of any use? Can a muffler be used? Second, consider the path from the source to the listener. Can the source or the listener readily be moved, so that the two are farther apart, to reduce the sound level? Should a barrier be erected between the source and the listener? Is a total enclosure

hearing (see

—

Table Power (watts)

II.

Acoustic Power for Various Acoustic Sources

CONTROL

557

—

NOLA— NOMADS

558

of transmitted noise varies inversely as the square of the distance

between source and receiver.

Power or

thrust levels, of course, are

also of great importance.

A

found in altering airport Complaints often are reduced when pilots are instructed to make an initially rapid climb at full thrust to some minimum altitude, such as 1 .200 ft. (thus rapidly increasing the distance between the aircraft and persons on the ground followed by a reduced rate of climb at reduced power or thrust to cruising altitude. Such a procedure, however, represents a compromise between the safest and most efficient combinations of engine power and aircraft speed and those combinations that result in the least annoying noise levels. It is also possible to reduce complaints by directing low-flying aircraft over less densely inhabited areas, although at many airports such changes in flight patterns may not be effected without partial solution to the

flight

problem

is

patterns and aircraft takeoff procedures.

)

,

undesirable sacrifices in safety, especially as regards prevailing wind directions. A more satisfactory solution to the problem involves the development of devices to suppress jet engine sound at the source without too seriously affecting weight, drag or power output. Another serious noise problem is the so-called sonic boom pro-

duced by airplanes traveling

at speeds greater

The phenomenon

speed of sound.

is

the shock

Mach

than

1.

the

wave generated by

the aircraft; traveling at the same speed as the aircraft, it produces at the ground a sudden pressure change audible as a sound like a

thunderclap or an explosion. A sufficiently intense shock wave can impair hearing or damage buildings. {See also Aerodynamics: Supersonic Aerodynamics.) (W. Li.) Law. In law, noise may be defined as an excessive, offensive, persistent or startling sound. By the common law of England free-

—

dom from

noise

is

essential to the full

enjoyment of a dwelling

house and noises that affect that enjoyment may be actionable as nuisances. But it has been laid down that a nuisance by noise, supposing malice to be out of the question, is emphatically a question of degree. The noise must be exceptional and unreasonable. Ringing of bells, building operations, vibration of machinery, fireworks, bands, a circus, merry-go-rounds, disorderly crowds, dancing, singing, etc., have been held under certain circumstances to constitute nuisances so as to interfere with quiet and comfort and have been restrained by injunction. The concept of legalized nuisance, such as the nuisance arising from noise produced by public transportation, has found some favour in U.S. courts. In the United States, many cities have passed ordinances containing noise abatement provisions, conformity with which can be determined by readings from a sound-level meter and a frequency analyzer with frequency bands approximately one octave in width (the eight frequency bands commonly used are 20-75, 75-150, 150-300, 300-600, 600-1,200, 1,200-2,400, 2,400-^,800 and 4,80010,000 cycles per second). Individual states have passed laws establishing means for measuring damage to hearing and schedules of compensation that are related to the percentage of hearing damage.

BiBHOGRAPHY.

Journal, Acoustical

Society

seg.); L. L. Beranek, Acoustics (1954); P. (eds.),

of

America (1929

Lord and

Noise Measurement and Control (1963).

et

F. L. Thomas (L. L. B.)

NOLA,

The town

is on the Naples-Foggia-Avellino railway. The district produces vegetables, fruit, maize (corn) and hemp. A city of the Aurunci, it had the Oscan name of Novla (new town) late in the 5th century B.C. In a.d. 14 Augustus died there. It was an episcopal see from the 3rd century and the birthplace of St. Felix. A fief of Guy de Montfort in 1269, it passed to the Orsini; from 1528 it followed the fortunes of Naples.

(1836-1930), German philologist whose work dealt with Semitic languages and the history of Islam, was born at Harburg, March 2, 1836, and studied at Gottingen, Vienna, Leiden and Berlin. In 1859 his history of the Koran won the prize of the French Academie des inscriptions; he rewrote it in German with additions {Geschichte des Korans, 1860). He taught at Gottingen (1861), Kiel (1868) and Strasbourg (1872). Noldeke died Dec. 25, 1930, at Karlsruhe. NOLLEKENS, JOSEPH (173 7-1 8 23), British sculptor, was born on Aug. 11, 1737, in Soho, London, where his father, a native of Antwerp (the "Old NoUekens" of Horace Walpole), was a painter of some repute. At the age of 13 Joseph entered the In 1760 he went studio of the sculptor, Peter Scheemakers. to Rome and his marble bas-relief, "Timoclea before Alexander," brought him a prize of 50 guineas from the Society of Arts in 1762. David Garrick and Laurence Sterne were among the first English visitors who sat for busts. On his return to England he became an associate of the Royal Academy (1771) and in 1772 a full member. By that time he had become known to George III, whose bust he executed and, until about 1816, he was the most fashionable portrait sculptor of his day. Other portraits were those of William Pitt, Charles Fox, the prince of Wales (afterward George IV), George Canning, Spencer Perceval, Benjamin West and Lords Castlereagh, Aberdeen, Erskine, Egremont and

He

Liverpool.

himself preferred his imitations of the work of "Venus Anointing Herself." His work is

the ancients, such as the

remarkable for delicacy, but deficient in vigour and originality. in London on April 23, 1823. See J. T. Smith, NoUekens and His Times (1949). (A. K. McC.) PROSEQUI, in Anglo-American law, the termination, at the prosecutor's instance, of proceedings against a person accused of crime by indictment or information where it appears that the interests of justice do not require him to be brought In English law, the power to enter a nolle prosequi is to trial. vested in the attorney general and is rarely used. In the United

NoUekens died

NOLLE

States the

power

many more The

B.C.).

The Gothic

cathedral (13th century) is dedicated to the town's patron St. Paulinus, patrician of Bordeaux, elected bishop in 410, in

whose honour the Festa

dei Gigli (festival of the lilies)

is

celebrated

in June. The Orsini palace (1460) has Catalan doors and windows. The philosopher Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) was born at Nola.

is

an important adjunct to Particularly in large cities,

criminal prosecutions are initiated than

it

is

feasible

ttolle

settlement, as where a thief agree? to

make

restitution to his vic-

In some states, the common-law rule that the entry of a nolle prosequi is within the sole discretion of the district attorney tim.

obtains; in others, his discretion

is subject to leave of court. entered before trial, the nolle prosequi does not bar a subsequent prosecution on the basis of a new indictment or information. (H. L. Pr.) (Gr. nomas, -ados, "roaming about for pasture"), still

When

or trader nomads.

which lay between Abella (Avella) and Nola (2nd century

and

prosequi serves as a screening device by which the district attorney is enabled to exercise a measure of control over the criminal docket. It is also used to effect an informal to try.

among them St. Felix. There are still traces of basilicas and constructions of the 4th and 5th centuries, to which the Cenobites •withdrew. In the Seminary at Nola the Cippus Abellanus was dis,

generally exercised by the prosecuting officer,

the administration of criminal justice.

peoples

covered ( 1 750) on which is engraved in Oscan the treatise governing the administration and laws of the area of Hercules' sanctuary,

is

typically the district attorney,

a town in Napoli province, Campania region, Italy, lies 23 km. (14 mi.) E.N.E. of Naples in the fertile and highly cultivated Campania plain. Pop. (1961) 24,523 (commune). There are traces of an amphitheatre, and a necropolis with frescoed tombs. Nearby is Cimitile where the bodies of Christian martyrs were

buried,

(M. T.A.N.)

NOLDEKE, THEODOR

NOMADS

who lead a migratory life, having no fixed abode. Although nomas referred to pastoral nomads, the modern term

the Greek

nomad three

is applied to all wandering peoples, of which there are main types: primitive nomads, pastoral nomads and tinker

Primitive Nomads.

—The most primitive peoples known today

Age people all over the world. A people which does not produce food, but only collects that which nature provides, cannot usually stay in one place for very long. After a day or two or a few weeks, depending on the natural resources, the game within walking distance of a camp is killed or frightened away, and the tubers, seeds, fruits and other vegetable food within the same radius will also be exhausted. When food becomes scarce, the primitive band must move to another camp are nomadic, as were Stone

NOME—NOMENOE often assumed that nomads wander aimlessly, without a fixed territory. Actually the primitive nomad who depends for survival on what he can find to eat must know the territory in site.

It is

—

which he roams -location of waterholes, where certain plants grow and the habits of the game. Thus each nomadic band, of perhaps from 20 to 50 persons, establishes rights over the territory within which it migrates, although its members may visit bands in other territories.

(See

Bushman.)

—

Pastoral Nomads. Pastoralists in central Asia and the middle east who depend on domesticated livestock for a livelihood also migrate in order to find pasturage for their animals, and like primitive nomads they have an established territory. Pastoral nomads may be classified according to their economy and by their pattern of migration. Economy. The reindeer

—

breeders of Siberia, such as the Urianghai of the Altai mountains, depended on hunting as well as reindeer breeding for subsistence, and the 12th-century Mongols In central .^sia generally also obtained their meat by hunting. pastoralists could, and often did, subsist entirely on animal products, although they welcomed trade goods when these were available.

On

the fringes of the grasslands families which had lost

their animals

engaged

but only grudgingly.

Stockbreeding was the basis of the pastoral economy and nomadism the preferred way of life. In southwest Asia and north and east Africa (also in Tibet which, although geographically a part of central Asia has a nomadic pattern more like that of southwest Asia), pastoral nomadism and settled agriculture have always been interdependent. The camel-breeding Rwala Bedouin of Arabia pracin agriculture,

ticed no agriculture, but they were dependent on grain and other products obtained from their settled neighbours in exchange for camels. The proud Masai of east Africa, who would not condescend to till the soil, obtain grain and other goods from subordinate tribes. A majority of the nomadic tribes in southwest Asia and north Africa practice some cultivation, planting crops and harvesting them between seasonal migrations. These peoples may be described as seminomadic or even semisedentary, for many have fixed abodes where they dwell for a part of each year. Patterns of Migration. The migration pattern of pastoral nomads depends to a considerable extent on topography and climate. Some Kazakh groups, for example, made migrations of many hundreds of miles between winter quarters in the south and summer pasturage in the north. Other Kazakh groups moved only a few miles between winter quarters at the foot of the mountains and high summer pastures. In the Altai region, where the pastures were rich, units followed the same route year after year. In the southern Urals, where pastures were more uncertain, a scout

—

was sent ahead and the first to arrive at a suitable site established rights on the campsite for his group. In Arabia the Bedouins camped during the hot summer months near a town or oasis, then moved out onto the desert after the rains. In arid Arabia there could be no fixed itinerary such as that of the Altaian Kazakhs, but each group had its established territory, and beyond that smaller groups owned certain wells. Seminomads have permanent dwellings where they plant crops before moving out with their livestock in search of grazing. In western Syria and parts of north Africa winter villages are at the foot of the mountains and the animals are taken into the uplands during the summer. In southern Somaliland the people dwell in fixed villages, but send their animals out with the

—

to plateau grasslands in the rainy season

at the height of the

dry season.

and

men

twice a year

to the river

banks

—

Tinker and Trader Nomads. In parts of Asia primitive nomads were caught up into a larger society in such a way that they remained nomadic but became dependent on other groups. In Arabia the Sulubba or Slebs are such a people. In addition to hunting, the Slebs breed white asses; the women are prostitutes, while the men do tinkering for the Bedouins and guide them into desert recesses unfamiliar to the camel breeders. In India and West Pakistan there are nomadic peoples who make and sell baskets and other simple products or hire out as labourers on construction jobs. The best-known tinker and trader nomads are the gypsies. Believed to have originated in India, gypsy bands

migrated

559

various parts of Europe and the United States, tinkering, horse trading and telling fortunes. in

—

Nomadism

in the 20th Century. Nomadism has been a way people, but it is on the wane. Few primitive in mid-2oth century, although a number were described during the preceding century. Pastoral nomads have been settling down through the centuries. Many groups have made a gradual transition from full nomadism to seminomadism to sedentary life, and whole peoples, under economic or political pressure, have taken up agriculture or, as in the Soviet Union, have become settled stockbreeders. By the 1960s most of the pastoral nomads in the Soviet Union had been settled, and in Iran the nomadic population had dropped from one-third to one-fifth in the first half of the 20th century. The nomadic way of life dies slowly, however. In the 1960s pastoral nomads were numerous enough in Chinese central Asia (Sinkiang) to be a political force. Gypsies still migrated in the United States, alth.ough traveling in Cadillacs instead of carts. A few primitive Bushmen roamed the Kalahari desert of South of life for

many

nomads survived

game and plant food, and Australian aborigines went "walkabout" when they felt the strictures of sedentary life Africa in search of

unendurable.

See also Migration.

—

Bibliography. Elizabeth E. Bacon, "Types of Pastoral Nomadism in Central and Southwest Asia," Sthwest. J. Anthrop., 10:44-68 (1954) Klaus Ferdinand, "Afghanistans Nomader," Nationalmuseets Arbejdsmark 1956, pp. 61-72 (1957) Josef Henninger, "Pariastamme in Arabien," Festschrift St. Gabriel, pp. 501-539 (1939); Johannes Nicolaisen, "Some Aspects of the Problem of Nomadic Cattle Breeding among the Tuareg of the Central Sahara," Geografisk Tidsskrifl, Si: 62-105 (1954) F. Barth, Nomads of South-Persia (1961); E. JannesHojeberg, Nomads of the North (1962). (El. B.) ;

;

;

NOME,

a town of Alaska, U.S., on the south Seward peninsula shore of the Bering sea. 525 mi. W. of Fairbanks; at one time (igoo) the largest settlement in the territory. Gulch gold was found near the site of Nome on Anvil creek in Sept. 1898; the town was established the following year and diggings on the ocean

beach were first worked in July iSgg. The rush to Nome in 1900 was one of the most remarkable stampedes in U.S. mining history; the town soon had hotels, banks, stores, several newspapers and weekly mails from the United States; for part of the year there were, it was estimated, 20,000 inhabitants. By 1903 the population had greatly decreased; in 1920 it was 852 by the federal census, growing to 2,316 residents in 1960 (principally Eskimos). In 1905 the gold output of the Nome region amounted to about $2,500,000, nearly all from placers. Into the second half of the 20th century gold was still the principal industry, although the annual production had fallen in value to about $1,500,000. Transportation, tourism, government construction and Eskimo fur and ivory production accounted for most of the town's employment. The town is served by several airlines and roads radiate into the tundra. A few miles of narrow-gauge railway are preserved as a tourist attraction.

Nome was first called Anvil City; the name Nome is derived from Cape Nome, first so called on a chart dated 1849, ^"^ said to have been a draftsman's mistake for the query "PName" on the original chart.

(J. E.

„

NOMENOE

(d. a.d. 851),

Cl.)

duke of the Bretons who fought

successfully against the Prankish king Charles II the Bald.

The

Carolingian emperor Louis I the Pious, whose predecessors had never gained effective control of Brittany, appointed Nomenoe as

duke or permanent missus (see Missi Dominici) to keep order in Armorica; i.e., the specifically Breton country west of Nantes and Rennes. Nomenoe quelled a serious revolt in 837, but refused to admit Prankish troops to his duchy. When Louis died and war broke out between his sons (840), Nomenoe at first promised loyalty to the youngest of them, Charles the Bald, and even, in 842, suppUed him with troops. Soon, however, Nomenoe turned against Charles and occupied Rennes, which Charles had to besiege in Nov. 843.

During the next three years Nomenoe's raids into Maine and Anjou provoked vain counterattacks by Charles, who came to terms in 846.

Nomenoe

obtained a de facto independence which

NOMINALISM— NOMOGRAPHY

56o

enabled him to strengthen his authority in Brittany. Nevertheless he launched an offensive toward the Bessin country (around Bayeux) in 847. In 849 he substituted his own nominees for the pro-Frankish bishops in Brittany and severed the connection of In 849 also he ravaged their sees with the bishopric of Tours. Anjou; and in 850 he took Nantes. He died near Vendome on

grams have been widely used in engineering, in industry and in Equations in many variables the physical and natural sciences. are handled by using a sequence of scale alignments or by employing networks of scales, and a great diversity of problems can

March

tiquity.

7,

851.

See E. Durtelle de Saint-Sauvcur, Historie de Brelagne (1935) F. Lot L. Halphcn, Le Eigne de Charles It Chauve {840S77), vol, i (J. De.) ;

and

(1909).

NOMINALISM.

Nominalists deny that universals (g.v.) arguing that the existence of a general word does not imply the existence of a general thing named by it, though indeed there must be some similarity between the particular things to which the general word is applied. Extreme nominalists would withhold exist,

perhaps Roscelin withheld only his adversaries' word for this). But, unless this concession

(e.g.,

it,

it is

but we have granted, the

is made to appear enPerhaps extreme nominalism, if anyone ever held it, might be explained as an excessive reaction against exaggerated forms of Platonic realism. Such a reaction was natural in the middle ages when enthusiastic Platonists verbally denied the reality of material objects. Whenever realists go too far in their depreciation of material objects an alliance between empiricism and nominalism is to be expected; the most notable medieval example of a synthesis of this kind was the work of William Ockham (but he can also be regarded as a conceptualist;

application of general words to particulars tirely arbitrary,

which

is

absurd.

see below).

In the middle ages, when Platonic and Aristotelian realist docwere associated with orthodox religious belief, nominalism

trines

made to seem heretical. But if nominalism is considered simply as a logical doctrine, stripped of these associations, it is interesting for what it asserts than for what it denies. It denies that Platonic realism is needed in order to explain our ability to think and speak in general terms. It also seems to deny that Aristotelian realism is needed for this purpose; but this denial is not so unequivocal, since a moderate nominalist (e.g., Hobbes, even though some of his dicta suggest extreme nominalism) would say that there must be some similarity between the particulars to which a given general word is applied, and this is very like saying that a universal must be present in them. What it asserts is, in Hobbes's words, that ratio est oratio, that thought is essentially the same kind of thing as speech. Now thought and speech would be impossible if the world did not contain series could be

more

of similar things. tion

how

But, given this condition,

it

is

a further ques-

exactly thought and speech operate; and the nominalist's

be solved.

The

use of graphic schemes for computation goes back to anThe graphic solution of spherical triangles was in vogue

in the time of Hipparchus, 150 B.C., and simple charts were designed by the mathematicians of the middle ages. The publication of Rene Descartes's Discours de la methode (1637), which introduced analytic geometry to the world, gave a powerful im-

petus to graphical methods and provided their analytical backThe theory of nomograms rests largely on analytic ground.

geometry.

Co-ordinate Papers.

—The use

of squared paper for the rep-

resentation of relations between two quantities fields.

A

point on the paper

is

and its distance V above a horizontal and downward being reckoned negative). X and Y are called co-ordinates. An equation f(X, K) = is pictured by plotting the points whose co-ordinates satisfy the equation. The resulting graph is a line or curve from which corresponding values of A' and Y may be determined visually. The eye is guided by the vertical rulings along which X is constant and the horizontal rulings along which Y is constant. The values of A' and Y are commonly written along the axes. It is clear that nothing is essentially changed if the values which are marked on the axes are not proportional to the distances from the origin but more or less arbitrary scales are used. Points whose co-ordinates satisfy a given equation can be plotted as before and a curve be drawn from which corresponding values can be read. The form of the curve can be altered and in some cases simplified. These notions were developed by Leon Lalanne in his Anamorphose logarithmique in 1842 and further advances were made by J. Massau and Charles Lallemand in the 1880s. A is to use such scales that the graphs of the equations under consideration become straight lines, which are easy to draw. c = 0, where u, b, c are constants, The equation afix) -f bg(y)

basic idea

becomes the straight and Y along the axes

line

+ +

aX

to the

bY

+c

=

if

functions in the equation; namely,

X=

j(x),

mY = nX +

have the scales X = x, F = log y. Fig. I shows a paper made with the scales

symbols correctly; i.e., that it involves the possession of concepts. Also, it is not clear in exactly what sense all thinking can be said to be the using of symbols. On the other hand, it is hard to see what the conceptualist adds to the nominalist's theory when he says that thinking depends on the possession of concepts. Perhaps he is drawing attention to such things as flashes of understanding. It might be possible to reconcile nominalism and conceptualism if the nominalist's analogy between thinking and using something were not pushed too far. See also references under "Nominalism" in the Index. (D. F. P.)

\

the science of calculating charts.

Its

ob-

X

Y =

g(y).

Well-known examples based on this principle are the commercial logarithmic and semilogarithmic papers. The former papers use the scales X = log a;, Y = log y and are convenient for plotting the graphs of relations of the form y™ = ax". Since this may be written m log y = ra log * + log a, the graph on this paper is the straight

NOMOGRAPHY,

the distances

marks x and y are determined by the

to this is that they both operate by using symbols, either symbols like mental images. This immediately brings him into conflict with some forms of conceptualism (q.v.), in which it is maintained that the ability to think correctly involves something more than the ability to use

is the general study of the representation, by means of diagrams called nomograms, of mathematical laws (Gr. nomas, "a law") which are expressed analytically by means of equations. Such graphical devices, once carefully drawn, yield the solutions of complicated problems with speed and w'ith slight labour. They are especially helpful when many numerical problems of a similar sort are to be solved and when high accuracy is not required. They can be used by a person without special knowledge or experience and without the mastery of a difficult technique. Nomo-

many

distance A'

to the right of a vertical axis

linguistic symbols, or nonlinguistic

ject

its

axis (distances to the left

answer

sets of

familiar in

located by giving

is

line

log

0.

The semilogarithmic papers A'

=

x^.

Y =

y^.

NOMOGRAPHY Thus, the points marked I.

4,

from

9.

2, 3, ... on the axes are at distances the origin. The graph of the ellipse i,

— + ^ 64 36

=

1

'

is

the broken line of the figure.

and

its

The hyperbola

asymptotes

are the parallel lines made of short dashes. These simple graphs £an be used for the usual purposes; e.g., we read from the figure that the ellipse and hyperbola intersect at (6.3, 3.6). An equation in three variables F{X, Y, Z) = is represented in the cartesian system by a surface in three-dimensional space. To reduce the representation to a two-dimensional picture the use of contours is introduced. With Z held fixed, there is an equation in A' and Y, whose graph is drawn. This is done for various values of Z and the values are written beside the curves. Other

Z can be estimated \dsually. The resulting figure resembles a geographic map with contour Hnes upon it or a weather map showing isothermal Unes or isobars. Sometimes the contours can be reduced to straight lines by a happy choice of scales on the axes. An equation of the form yields a straight line for each p{z)j{x) q{z)g{.y) -\- r{z) = values of

+

fixed

2,

equation

=

say

Zq,

now

is

using the scales A'

=

linear in the variables:

/(«),

Y =

P{zq)X

-\-

g{y), since the q{Zfi)Y r(2o)

+

For example, a chart for solving right triangles can be y^ = 2- by drawing contours across made from the equation «Giving 2 the values 9, 9.5, 10, etc., we get the heavy slantfig. I. ing lines of the figure. To find the hypotenuse of a right triangle whose sides are lo and 7.5 we are led to the point marked in the figure, from which 2 = 12.5. Alignment Charts. The word nomogram is sometimes restricted to a special type of chart which is used by bringing the points of three scales into alignment. In fig. 2 is shown an 0.

+

—

.i±_L

S6.

NONCONFORMISTS

562 where

a, b, c

values are constants, to the plane of the chart

another chart.

The degree

of a curve remains invariant,

we get whence

remain collinear and we still have an alignment chart for the equation. Because of the large number of constants at our disposal the chart can be thrown into a multitude of forms. collinear points

Projective transformations are used to bring distant portions of a chart back on the page, to change the positions of scales so as to

make

the best use of the space on the page and to get convenient

arrangements generally. lines and a hyperbola.

The

We

scales of

scales into intersecting lines, or

A

useful result

3 consist of

two

make

parallel

the curved scale parabolic or

some portion which we wish

circular, or greatly magnifj' larly to use.

fig.

could, for example, carry the linear

is

that a

particu-

convex quadrilateral covering

any part of a chart can be carried into a rectangle of desired mensions so that it fits on the page. See Graph; Chart.

—

di-

BiBLiOGR.\PHV. C. Runge, Graphical Methods (1912) J. Lipka, Graphical and Mechanical Compulation (1918) L. R. Ford, Alignment Charts (1944) U. S, Davis, Chemical Engineering homographs (1944), Nomography and Empirical Equations, 2nd ed. (1962) R. D. Douglass and D. P. .Xdams, Elements of Nomography (1947); A. S. Levens, Somography (194S); D. P. Adams (ed.), An Index of Nomograms (1950); 0. Bcncdikt, The Nomographic Computation of Complicated and Highlx Saturated Magnetic Circuits (1962) J. R. Jones and H. J. Allcock, The Nomogram. 5th ed. (1963). (L. R. Fd.) ;

;

;

;

;

NONCONFORMISTS, form

English Protestants

who do

England.

The word Nonconformist was

first

used

not con-

Church of

to the doctrines or practices of the established

and the Act of Uniformity (1662), to describe the "conventicles" (places of worship) of the

Nonconformists are also called "dissenters" (a word first used of the five "Dissenting Brethren" at the Westminster Assembly of Divines in 1644-47). As a result of the movement begun in the late 19th century by which Nonconformists of different denominations combined together, leading to formation of the Free Church Federal council iq.v.), they are also called "Free Churchmen." The term is loosely applied in England and Wales to all Protestants dissenting from Anglicanism: Baptists, Congregationalists, Methodists, Unitarians and even such independent groups as the Society of Friends Quakers ), the Plymouth Brethren, the English Moravians, the Churches of Christ and the Salvation Army. In Scotland, where the estabSeparatist congregations.

(

(

church is Presbyterian, members of other churches, including Episcopalians, are Nonconformists.) The first English Nonconformists were influenced by the con-

lished

Reformation and,

like the

Puritan party in the Church

more radical reform of doctrine and within the established church. The first Separatist congregation in London, under their pastor, Richard Fitz, met in of England, wished only for a ritual

where they were arrested in 1567 Uniformand Supremacy. Such religious separatism was regarded as dangerous for both religious and political reasons, and Independents (also called Brownists, after their founder, Robert Browne, and, later, Congregationahsts) and Baptists were subjected to organized persecution. Those who carried on Browne's work, as leaders of a Separatist congregation in London. Henry Barrow, John Greenwood and John Penry, were executed in 1593; Barrow and Greenwood for their treasonable assertion that "Christ is the only Head of his Church and His laws may no man alter," Penry ostensibly for complicity in the Marprelate controversy. As a result, many Independents and Baptists went into exile in Hol-

secret at the Plumber's hall,

for treasonable opposition to the Elizabethan Acts of

ity

land.

After the failure of the Church of England Puritan party to win over James I at the Hampton court conference (1604), the king threatened all Puritans, including the Presbyterians (who wished to reorganize the

Church of England as a disestablished Presbymust either "conform themselves" or be

terian church), that they

Among those who chose exile were the group known as the Pilgrim Fathers, who spread the ideas of Engharried out of the land.

dissent to the new world, ultimately influencing the development of the U.S. constitution and respect for civil liberties. Under Cromwell and the Protectorate, Presbyterianism predominated, although the Independents and Baptists also gained ground. lish

I

—

—

—

)

(

(

within five miles of a town, or any place w'here they had ministered; the Corporation act (1661), which forbade municipal office to those not taking the sacraments at a parish church; and the Test act 1673 ), which insisted that all formist ministers to live, or

visit,

(

officials of

the crown should receive Anglican

communion.

In 1689, however, a Toleration act was passed which demon-

the penal

in

acts following the Restoration (1660)

tinental

and several left-wing radical groups (the Diggers, Levellers, Fifth Monarchy Men developed the Lollard strain in dissent; while others -Shakers, Ranters and Quakers wished to restore the spiritual enthusiasm of the early church, the Quakers especially reasserting need for dependence on the guidance of the "inner light." The rigorous laws of the Puritans produced reaction, further justified by the association in the public mind of dissenters with regicide, fanaticism and republicanism. After the Restoration, fear led to penal laws against Nonconformists the so-called Clarendon code. The Act of Uniformity reauthorized the Prayer Book (see Common Prayer, Book of and redefined the doctrines and rites of the Church of England, requiring that all clergy appointed under the Commonwealth should receive episcopal reordination and accept the Thirty-Nine Articles of 1571. Those who refused numbering 2,000, including, as well as Presbyterians, some Independents and Baptists) were ejected from their livings: the "Great Ejectment," or "Ejection." Other restrictive acts included the Conventicle acts (1665 and 1670), which made meetings for worship illegal, even in private houses, where more than four outsiders w^ere present; the Five-Mile act 1665) forbidding Noncon-

Church of England had been abandoned, and that hope lay only in toleration of division. Toleration was limited, allowing Nonconformists to have their own places of worship (provided that these were unlocked and their locality notified ), and to appoint their own preachers and teachers, subject to acceptance of certain oaths of loyalty, and of most of the Thirty-Nine Articles. Social and political disabilities remained, however, and Nonconformists were still denied office (as were, also, Roman Catholics). This led to the practice of "occasional conformity," but in 1711 an Occasional Conformity act imposed fines on any who, after receiving Anglican communion, were found worshiping at Nonconformist meetinghouses. A bill introduced by Viscount Bolingbroke to prevent the growth of schism by forcing all those who taught or kept schools to take an oath of allegiance to the Church of England was frustrated by Queen Anne's death, on Aug. 1, 1714, the day when it was to take effect. Had it become law, it would have destroyed the intellectual and educational power of dissent, which had made an important contribution to education by the foundation of "dissenting academies." Between 1663 and 16SS. more than 20 academies had been founded, and more than 30 more were started during 1690-1750. These, begun for the training of Nonconformist ministers to whom the universities were closed, became centres of learning, offering a wider, more liberal education than the universities then provided, strated that the idea of a "comprehensive"

including business training, science and sociology as well as theology and the classics.

The Toleration grew

act did not apply to Unitarians,

in the 18th century.

of Rational Dissent,

Deism

whose numbers

Their strength was allied to the growth (q.v.)

and

belief in

human

perfectibil-

Side by side with this intellectual development went a spirboth Nonconformity and the Church of England. It was partly against this that the leaders of the evangelical revival

ity.

itual decline in

Anglicanism and the founders of the Methodist movement reMethodists were only gradually forced into a position of Nonconformity and until the mid- 19th century were not generally regarded as Nonconformists. Quakers, how-ever, were so regarded, and with other dissenters and evangelical Anglicans played a leading part in such movements for social reform as the abolition movement, the temperance movement, reform of prisons, and the founding of Sunday schools, charity schools, orphanages and asylums. Methodists took the lead in the evangelization of the growing slum population in the late 18th and early 19th centuries and popularized dissent by building chapels; by open-air evangelism; by writing hymns; by organizing all members of Methodist societies into "classes"; and by

in

acted.

starting circuits for ministers

and lay preachers.

—

NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING The

and standing during the 18th century led to increased restiveness at ci\'il and political disabiliThe Board of Dissenting Deputies comprising laymen from ties. the Baptist. Congregational and Presbyterian denominations which in 1727 had formed the Board of Dissenting Ministers in London was founded in 1732 to fight for equality, redress of injustices and relief of distress caused by the discrimination under which the Nonconformists suffered. Among the abuses they attacked were gain in Nonconformist wealth

—

unjust rates, illegal impressment, discrimination in collection of tolls. e\iction for voting against Tory landlords for the Nonconformist alliance with the Whigs, begun by their support for the Revolution of 16S6. had continued), and the election by munici(

Nonconformists to otSces denied them under the Test and Corporation acts (this last for the purpose of acquiring their palities of

fines for refusing to serve).

The deputies appealed unsuccessfully

in 1735 and 1739, but In 1811 they achieved repeal of the Five-Mile act and, in 1828, of the Test and Corporation acts. Other disabilities were removed in 1868, when aboHtion of church rates reheved Nonconformists of the necessity to pay for the upkeep of parish (Church of England) churches; and in 1880, when the Burials act made churchyard burial of dissenters legal. They also played a part in the founding (1828) of London university (g.v.). the first nonsectarian university; in the opening to all of Oxford and Cambridge (1871); in the fight for inclusion in the 1870 Education act of a clause prohibiting specifically denominational teaching in national schools; and in the demand for disestablishment of the Church of England. Although to some extent superseded by the Free Church council (which successfully protested against the le\'j'ing of rates from Nonconformists for church schools in 1902). the Dissenting Deputies still exist. In England as a whole during the 19th century, the "dissenting interest" formed a separate group, advocating freedom of conscience and developing its own educational and social institutions. Nonconformists greeted the 1832 Reform bill with enthusiasm; the towns enfranchised by it were centres of dissent, and training in lay preaching and in the church meeting had fitted dissenters to express their opinions democratically. From the Methodist chapel and the Congregational and Baptist church meeting came the leaders of Chartism, the Labour party and the trades unions, while the link between the Nonconformist wealthy middle classes and the Whigs was continued in support for the Liberal party. The Liberal gov'ernment of 1906-10 has been called the most complete expression of the "Nonconformist conscience" (a phrase first used after the O'Shea divorce case, which drove Charles Stewart Parnell

for repeal of the Test

a grant

from

was made

and Corporation acts

for relief of distress.

political life).

The

political

and

Nonconformity was

social influence of

at its

height in the mid- 19th century, backed by solid middle-class Victorian power. Because the professions had been closed to them,

many

dissenters, especially those educated in the "dissenting academies," had become scientists or had gone into business or trade. Nonconformist manufacturers and shipping owners became wealthy and powerful, and through their support the churches to which they belonged gained influence.

In the 20th century the general decline in church attendance and religious observance, growing concern at disunity in the face of the need for worldwide mission, and the consequent growth of the ecumenical movement (q.v.) somewhat replaced the rancour and arrogant separatism of the preceding centuries. There is still a place in English life for the Nonconformist witness, however, and for assertion of all that is best in the Puritan tradition and the

"Nonconformist conscience." See Confessions of Faith, Protestant; Puritanism; articles on the various denominations (Baptists, Congregationalism, Methodism, etc); on such independent groups as Salvation Army; Friends, Society of, etc.; on the leaders and on relevant monarchs and statesmen. See also English History; England,

Church

of; Reformation; Chartism. Bibliography. E. A. Payne, The Free Church Tradition

of

—

England (1944)

;

in the Life E. Routlev, English Religious Dissent (1960) J. S. ;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

.

;

.

.

.

.

.

;

;

;

;

;

;

NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING. employ

indirect

measurements

that

Nondestructive tests do not damage test objects to

detect flaws and measure performance properties of engineering

and structures. Test indications must be correlated with strength or serviceability determined by past experience or by destructive mechanical tests of similar items. Human senses often serve as nondestructive tests. Visual inspection reveals size, shape, surface discontinuities and finish. Dimensions are gauged and surface irregularities detected by touch. Cracked metallic parts are detected by striking with a hammer and listening to their vibrations. For centuries, skilled craftsmen have controlled the quality of their work through frequent inspections. They personally rejected defective materials or parts. Modern, high-speed production methods, however, offer little opportunity for such direct sensory inspection. In many operations parts move at high speeds behind shields and the workmen watch the performance of machines, rather than the product being fabricated. To ensure reliability, scientific nondestructive tests must be used to materials, parts, assemblies

detect discontinuities and to measure performance properties of

these products.

Nondestructive tests also are used to discover minute defects or hidden internal conditions that can cause premature service failures under severe operating conditions such as extreme tem-

Nondestrucperatures, high stresses or damaging environments. tive tests are essential in prevention of disastrous failures of complex engineering systems such as those required for nuclear power systems, jet aircraft, missiles, space vehicles and military equipment, and process industries such as chemical and petroleum refining. They can also detect service damage prior to failure, and are cheaper and faster than dismantling complex equipment for direct inspection. Economic benefits result from their use to eUminate waste of materials, loss of machine and labour time, and user dissatisfaction.

—

Probing Media and Detection Systems. Each nondestrucmethod requires some form of probing medium to explore

tive test

a detection system to reveal its reactions to the test discontinuities or material properties. Probing media include elec-

object, and

tromagnetic waves, mechanical vibrations, electric and magnetic penetrants, heat, movements of electrons or ions, and other forms of energy or motions of matter. Detector signals must be amplified to useful levels, and converted to forms suitable for human interpretation or for actuation of display, recording or conMany different physical effects are used in probing trol de\'ices. fields, liquid

media and

in detectors

and amplifiers for

basic information on the physical

volved

test indications.

phenomena and

in the applications illustrated in

—

For

relationships in-

the following examples see

X-Rays; Ultrasonics; Magnetism, etc. Penetrating Radiation Tests. Electromagnetic waves,

simi-

Ught waves but of much shorter wavelengths (0,001 to 2A; one A = 1 X 10" " metre), are used as probing media in penetratRadiation sources include electronic X-ray ing radiation tests. generators and radioisotopes that emit gamma rays. Their highenergy photons have wavelengths small compared with inter-atomic lar to

Whale, The Protestant Tradition (195S) H. W. Clark, .4 History of English Nonconformity, 2 vol. (1911-13); E. G. Rupp, Studies in the English Protestant Tradition (1949) C. Barrage, Early English Dis-

563

E. J. Hobsbawm, Primitive Rebels (1959) ; H. Davies, The Worship of the English Puritans (1948) W. Haller, Liberty and Reformation in the Puritan Revolution (1955) G. F. Nuttall, Visible Saints (1957), The Holy Spirit in Puritan Faith and Experience (1946) G, S, Wakefield, The Independents in the English Civil War E. D, Bebb, Nonconformity and Social and Economic Life, (1958) 1660-lSSO (1935) G. R, Cragg, Puritanism in the Period of the Great Persecution (1957) ; D, Coomer. English Dissent Under the Early Hanoverians (1947) ; J. H. CoIIigan, ISth-Century Nonconformity (1915) A. Lincoln, Some Political and Social Ideas of English Dissent, 17631800 (1938); T. Parker, Dissenting Academies in England (1914); 1662-1820 H. McLachlan, English Education Under the Test Acts Puritanism in (1931) M. G. Jones, The Charity School Movement Action (1938) J. W. Ashley Smith, The Birth of Modern Education (1954); R. H. Tawney, Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (1926); W. K. Jordan, Development of Religious Toleration in England, 4 vol. (1932^0); R. G. Cowherd, The Politics of English Dissent (1956); E. Troeltsch, The Social Teaching of the Christian Churches, 2 vol. (German, 1911 Eng. tran.s. 1931) H. Lovell Cocks, The Nonconformist Conscience (1943) Sir E. Barker, Britain and the British People (1942) F. Tillyard, "The Distribution of the Free Churches in England," Sociological Review, xxvii (1935) E. K. H. Jordan, Free Church Unity (1956).

senters (1912)

NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

5^4

flaw depth or part thickness can Echo magnitude be measured. can be used to estimate flaw areas, in comparison with standard test blocks containing drilled holes. The method provides extreme sensitivity to cracks and laminar flaws (difficult to detect with X-ray tests), voids, inclu-

spacings, and penetrate through solid materials opaque to light. Radiation is partially absorbed and scattered within materials, de-

pending upon wavelength, material thickness and density, and the types of atoms present. The transmitted radiation beam forms

shadow images of voids and discontinuities, changes of material thickness and segregations of differing densities. In film radiography, the shadow image is recorded by photographic films. In direct fluoroscopy, a phosphor screen fluoresces with a brightness proportional to radiation intensities. Electrostatic image tubes can be employed to enhance the brightness of fluoroscopic images. In xeroradiography, a photoconductive coating on a metal plate is electrically charged, and discharges locally when exposed to the radiation image. The resultant latent electrostatic image is developed by spraying the exposed plate with Special X-ray-sensing oppositely-charged, pigmented particles.

sions,

camera tubes can be used in closed-circuit television systems that reproduce images at a distance from the radiation source. Human observers interpret the X-ray images to detect internal

immersed ducer

processing.

Many

other industrial applications exist where opaque

materials are inspected by penetrating radiation tests. Radiation hazards must be controlled in all industrial applications of penetrating radiations because of the biological

these radiations can induce in

human

operators.

damage

Recommended

by the National Committee on Radiation Protection (N.C.R.P.) and in state and municipal safety codes. Ultrasonic Tests. Sound waves (or mechanical vibrations) at

practices are specified

in water,

supported

and the transat

a

distance

from the surface being scanned. Large-scale automatic systems have been developed to display

discontinuities such as gas holes, porosity, slag inclusions, shrink-

be used in thickness or mass-per-unit-area gauges to measure sheet materials in rolling mills, or coatings applied to sheet materials, often with feed-back controls to reduce process variations. X-ray diffraction and fluorescence analysis techniques are used to identify constituents, measure strain and follow structural changes during

many

contact with test-object surfaces, with an oil-film couplant. In immersion tests, the test object is

television

age defects, cracks, cold shuts (discontinuities in cast metal), misruns and other flaws in castings and weldments, and voids in brazed bonds. Positions and dimensions of internal components in complex assemblies are also measured from X-ray images, as are evidences of corrosion wall-thinning, fatigue cracking and other forms of deterioration of products in service. Geiger counters, scintillation counters, ionization gauges, semiconductor crystals such as cadmium sulfide, and other point detectors provide signals proportional to radiation intensity. They can

and

segregations

other discontinuities. In contact ultrasonic tests, the transducer is held manually in

FIG.

I.

— (TOP)

DEFECT

IN

AN ALU-

MINUM ALLOY DIE FORGING; (BOTTOM) OSCILLOGRAM SHOWING DE-

cross-sectional

or

map-Hke

fac-

simile images of test objects

internal

discontinuities.

and Such

systems are used to inspect sheet

FECT

and plate, tubes, forgings and complex assemblies such as bonded laminates or brazed honeycomb structures with remarkable resolution of detail. Electromagnetic Induction Tests. An alternating magnetic

—

used as the probing medium in electromagnetic induction test object is placed within the influence of a magnetizing coil carrying alternating current of suitable frequency. Eddy currents and varying states of magnetization are induced within the The magnetic fields of the test test object by transformer action. object are superimposed upon the exciting field, and can be detected either through their reaction on the exciting coils or by means of an additional pick-up coil system. The amplitude and phase relations of the output signals are analyzed by suitable electric cir-

field is

The

tests.

cuitry, to separate insofar as feasible the effects of test material

—

high frequencies (200,000 to 25,000,000 cycles per second) are used as the probing media for ultrasonic nondestructive tests. They are created in piezoelectric transducers and transmitted into solid test materials through films or layers of liquid couplants such as oil or water. Ultrasonic beams can be directed or focused like of light. They are partially reflected at interfaces where there are changes in material density or elasticity, and are refracted at interfaces between materials in which sound travels at different

beams

velocities.

Within

solid materials, vibrational

modes

that can be

and compression) waves, shear or transverse vibration waves, surface waves (like those on the ocean), and special modes related to dimensions of Ultrasonic waves propagate well in finethe sound conductor. grained wrought materials, but tend to scatter and be attenuated

established

include

longitudinal

(rarefaction

in coarse-grained structures such as large castings.

The echoes

which return from material boundaries or discontinuities can be used to measure material thickness, to detect discontinuities, and

some material properties. Under ideal test conditions, echoes from flaws of very small dimensions can be detected through considerable thicknesses of materials. Many variations exist in ultrasonic test methods. In ultrasonic resonance testing, longitudinal waves at varying frequencies establish resonance in parallel-surfaced parts when the round-trip transit

to indicate

time equals the time between successive waves from the transducer. This permits measurement of material thickness, detection of laminar flaws in sheet or plate, and detection of corrosion wallthinning or wear during service. In pulse-reflection testing, a brief burst of sound waves travels from transducer through the test object, reflecting

continuities.

from the opposite surfaces or from intervening disinitial pulse and return echoes are displayed on

The

a cathode-ray oscilloscope

iq.v.)

as a function of time, so that

FIG.

2.

— PART

SECTIONED BY SAWING TO SHOW DEPTH OF CRACK. AFTER CRACKS ARE SHOWN WITH MAGNETIC PARTICLES

SOME SURFACE GRINDING,

—

;

NONE—NONIUS MARCELLUS conductivity, permeability, dimensions, shape and flaws.

565

Rod, bar,

can be corrected at low cost.

Thermal Tests.— Heat

tubes and symmetric test objects can be passed through test coils at high speeds to measure dimensions, alloy composition, hardness, strength properties and other characteristics, or to detect discontinuities such as cracks, seams, laps, wall thinning and others.

Small probe

coils

can also be scanned over in

European

industries.

Eddy

resultant

cur-

the surface, attracting accumulations of magnetic particles which Visible or fluorescent dyes upon the them to be seen readily even when the disconthemselves would be invisible because of their minute size

tinuities

or subsurface locations.

The

test finds

wide industrial application

in response to gradients temperatures. Heat-repelled coatings are appHed by

tation in

— FILTERED

PARTICLE TEST WITH BLACK LIGHT GIVING FLUORESCENT SURFACE INDICATION OF A DRYING CHECK IN UNFIRED SANITARY WARE. TEST IS MADE BEFORE GLAZE IS APPLIED FIG.

4.

fluid

spraying, and test parts pass un-

der

infrared

evaporate

The

test

Other Methods

—Many

fractures in railroad

In magnetic probe tests, a sensitive magnetometer or Hall effect detector is used to measure magnetic fields at the surfaces of ferromagnetic materials. Measurements of the residual field or its coercive force permit evaluation of material hardness, tensile strength Ferromagnetic material thickness or results of heat treatment. can be measured in terms of saturation flux linkages. Anisotropic conditions in rolled sheet materials can also be detected. Liquid-Penetrant Tests. The probing medium used in liquidpenetrant tests consists of a light petroleum distillate containing visible or fluorescent dyes. Test parts, after cleaning, are immersed or sprayed with liquid penetrant, which enters surfaceconnected discontinuities. After penetration, excess surface fluid is washed off, and a porous developer coating which serves as a blotter is applied. Penetrant trapped in discontinuities then seeps back into the developer coating, tending to spread laterally so as to amplify indications. An alternative system involves application of an emulsifying agent to aid in removal of the surface penetrant, providing increased sensitivity over penetrants which contain emulsifiers when applied. Surface-connected ''"=• 3.—d^e penetrant indeca TION OF CRACK IN HEAT RESISTANT cracks, seams, laps and other linALLOY DIESEL VALVE

particles provide probing electric fields

Filtered-Particle Tests.— With porous materials such as some ceramics, solid particles are suspended in a liquid penetrant. When the liquid penetrant soaks into the porous material, the particles are filtered upon its surface. At cracks and other surface-connected discontinuities, much more penetrant enters, and numerous particles are filtered out at the entrance. Accumulations of particles coated with visible or fluorescent dyes are readily visible and greatly amplify test indications. in this

manner

Wet

clay materials are inspected

prior to kiln firing since defects present at this stage

the

coating

solvent.

objects emerge with a

other nondestructive tests have been

developed.

to permit light to enter the fine defects).

lamps which

varnish-like coating in which pigments reveal the temperature distributions attained during the heating transient.

ferrous materials.

ear discontinuities are shown by streaks, and porosity by dots or areas of indications, when processed parts are examined under suitable illumination. Test sensitivity is adequate to reveal discontinuities too fine to be seen with a light microscope (since wavelengths of visible light are too great

heat

create temperature gradients and

in detection of cracks, seams, laps, inclusions or segregations in

—

distribu-

colours at specific temperatures,

delineate the discontinuities. particles permit

temperature

and temperature-sensitive phosphors vary in fluorescent brilliance under ultraviolet exci-

—

to the surface. M'here surface or near-surface discontinuities transverse to the direction of magnetization introduce gaps in the magnetic flux path, some of the flux lines tend to "leak out" at

used ther-

by temperature-sensitive coatings or remote infrared detectors. Temperaturesensitive paint coatings change

duction processes since measurements often take only a few thousandths of a second. They produce electrical signals that can be

phed

is

in

tions being indicated

rent tests are particularly well-suited to high-speed automatic pro-

analyzed statistically by electronic circuits and used directly to control processes or produce records. Magnetic-Field Tests. Ferromagnetic materials such as iron or steel can be tested by using magnetic fields as the probing medium. In magnetic-particle tests, the parts are suitably magnetized and a suspension of finely-divided magnetic particles is ap-

medium

mal tests of metallic materials and bonded assemblies, with the

measure Such methods

test parts to

local discontinuities or variations in properties.

have found wide application

as the probing

Electric current tests are used to detect transverse rails, in rail

tinuities in insulating materials

detector car systems.

Electrified

and detectors for disconand coatings. Brittle lacquers and

birefringent plastics are used in coatings to detect strain distributions. Pressure and leak tests are performed with liquid penetrants

and gases such as helium or halogen vapours (which can be detected by sensitive instruments). Chemical reagents which react with specific constituents of test materials are employed in chemical spot tests. Many other nondestructive test methods and applications are described in the literature.

and Operator Requirements.

Test Limitations

—

All

nonde-

structive tests are specific, and have limited capabilities and appli-

Complete inspection and quality assurance usually require the use of two or more tests, to cover all possibilities of material conditions and discontinuities that could lead to premature failure in service. All nondestructive test measurements are indirect, and their indications must be correlated with serviceability by other means^ such as destructive tests of similar specimens under simulated service conditions, or by extensive service experications.

—

ence with similar objects or materials. In most test methods that involve

human

interpretation, the

and judgment of the inspector are vital to test reliability. The inspector must have adequate knowledge of the nature of materials and their processing, of the design requirements and conditions of service, and of the influence of discontinuities upon performance. This extensive knowledge is rarely available in industrial personnel, and continued indoctrination and training are estraining

sential in maintaining inspector qualifications with rapidly-develop-

modern

ing fields in

industry.

See also Electricity, Conduction of; Isotope; Nuclear Instruments Photography Scientific and Applied Photography. For general mechanical (destructive) testing see Hardness Testing; Materials, Strength of: Testing of Materials. :

;

—

Bibliography. Society for Nondestructive Testing, Nondestructive Testing Handbook, ed. by Robert C. McMaster, 2 vol. (1959). See also publications of the Society for Nondestructive Testing (journal Materials Evaluation and conference proceedings in book form) of Committee E-7 on Nondestructive Testing of the American Society for Testing Materials; of Commission V of the International Institute of Welding; and of other technical societies. (R. C. McM.)

NONE, at the ninth

the last of the "little hours," appointed to be recited

hour

i.e.,

3 p.m.

See Breviary; Hours, Canonical.

NONFEASANCE: see Malfeasance. NONIUS MARCELLUS (date unknown),

African Latin

grammarian and lexicographer, author of the De compendiosa doctrina (a sort of lexicon, in which are preser\'ed extracts from the works of many earlier writers), was born at Thubursicum

—

,

NONJURORS— NONPARTISAN LEAGUE

566 Numidarum century

between the end of the 2nd and the Sth

(in Algeria)

a.d.

— the

The De compendiosa is lost. The first 12

doctritui consists of

20 chap-

and grammar and in the brief remaining chapters words are grouped according to the nature of what they refer to. Except in the last chapter examples are given from ancient authors. There are editions by L. Mueller dSSS') and W. M. Lindsay (1903). Nonius was a man of little understanding or accuracy but posterity is indebted to him for preserving fragments of Latin tragedies and the satires of Lucilius and Varro. ter's

16th

deal with language

See Pauly-VVissowa, Real-Encyclopadie der classischen Altertumswissenschait xvii (1936) W. M. Lindsay, Nonius Marcellus' Dictionary of Republican Latin (1901). (G. B. A. F.) ,

;

NONJURORS,

the

name given

to those beneficed clergy of

the Church of England and of the Episcopal Church in Scotland refused to take the oaths of allegiance to William III and Man,' II in 16S9 because they had previously taken the oath to

who

They included many men of devotion and learning and was a serious loss to the church. There were about England, including William Sancroft, archbishop of Canterbury, and four others of the seven bishops who had refused to read in their churches James II's second Declaration of Indulgence in I6SS Thomas Ken of Bath and Wells, John Lake of Chichester, Thomas White of Peterborough and Francis Turner of Ely, together with the bishops of Chester, Gloucester, Norwich and Worcester. Other distinguished nonjurors were WilKam Sherlock, master of the Temple: Jeremy Collier, ecclesiastical historian; George Hickes, dean of Worcester: Henry Dodwell, Camden professor of history at Oxford; and Henry Hyde, 2nd earl of ClarenJames

II.

their secession

400

in

—

don.

Believing in the doctrine of nonresistance to established authorthe nonjurors argued that James II was still the rightful king

ity,

and likened the position of William III to that of Oliver Cromwell. They were ordered to take the oath of allegiance by Aug. 1 1 689. but were allowed six months' grace before deprivation. With the

king's

approval,

Burnet, bishop of Salisbury, atnew order, but they refused the generous terms offered and were deprived of their sees and other benefices in Feb. 1690. Although they had only a small following among the mass of the people, who did not have to take the oath, Sancroft and his colleagues claimed to represent the true Church of England, and in 1693 requested James II, in exile in France, to nominate two new bishops to continue the episcopal succession. James chose Hickes and Thomas Wagstaffe, who were consecrated in 1694 as bishops of Thetford and of Ipswich respectively. In 1713 Collier. Nathaniel Spinckes and Samuel Hawes were consecrated as "bishops at large," without territorial titles. Ken, the most eminent of the nonjurors, disapproved of the succession of bishops and held that the schism should be ended, but the number of nonjurors was augmented in 1714 by those who refused to swear allegiance to George I. The introduction by the nonjurors of a new communion office in 1718 including four "usages" taken partly from primitive litur-

tempted

gies

to reconcile

Gilbert

them

to the

first Book of Common Prayer of Edward among them, dividing them into "usagers" The four usages were the mixed chalice: pray-

and partly from the

VI caused

a schism

and "nonusagers."

ers for the faithful departed;

the Oblatory prayer, offering the elements to the Father as symbols of his Son's Body and Blood; and a prayer for the descent of the Holy Ghost on the consecrated elements. In 1731 both groups accepted the usages and united, but other internal dissensions followed. Their numbers were now very small, but the episcopal succession was maintained until 1805,

when

the last congregation came to an end. The nonjurors' public worship was conducted in chapels or oratories and in private

houses.

In Scotland the nonjurors included the greater part of the clergy of the Episcopal Church, which ceased to be the state church in 1690. The Scottish episcopal clergy maintained their opposition

government

to the

Edward, the Young when the bishops agreed to recognize George number of Presbyterians in Scotland, principally until the death of Charles

Pretender, in 1788, III.

A

among

large

the

Cameronians

{q.v.), also refused to take the oaths of

Mary, but as their refusal was on different grounds they are not usually referred to as nonjurors.

allegiance to William and

See J. H. Overton, The Nonjurors (1902); H. Broxap, The Later Non-Jurors (1924).

NONNUS Roman

of the

42S-C. 450), the most notable Greek epic poet was born at Panopolis (Akhmimj in Egypt. the Diotiysiaca, a hexameter poem in 48 books

(fl. c.

period,

His chief work is whose main subject, submerged in a chaos of by-episodes, is the god Dionysus' expedition to India. Nonnus' fertile inventiveness, felicitous descriptive fantasy well served by a unique command of the language, appropriateness of word-coinage, unrivaled fluency of versification and vast literary knowledge made of him the

much-imitated leader of the last Greek epic school. By uniting an essentially Homeric diction to stylistic elements found, in isolation, in his various epic antecedents or drawn from other genres, he achieved a kind of literary syncretism parallel to the religious one which is evident in the Dionysiaca, an erudite and valuable mythological storehouse. Nonnus' style, cumbersome with its ever-recurring, often daring metaphors, its constant, repetitive abundance, its exorbitant adjectival ornamentation and its unremittingly bombastic, frenzied tone, appealed to the taste of the time. His excessive indulgence in formulas and the restricted

by him (some as a sign of virtuosity, some influenced by the prevalence of stress over pitch in contemporary pronunciation) to the structure of the hexameter add to the metrical limits set

monotony

of his verse. Later in hfe he was converted to Chrisand composed a hexameter paraphrase of St. John's Gospel (Metabole), which shows all his earlier stylistic faults, particularly inflation, whereas his colourful imagination and descriptive ability had now dried up. tianity

Dionysiaca, ed. by A. Ludwich, 2 vol. (1909-11), and by R. Keydell (1959) Ludwich's text with (1940) in the Loeb series; Metabole, See also R. ed. by A. Scheindler (1881), in the Teubner series. Keydell in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopadie der clasrischen Altertumswissenschaf't, vol. 7, col. 904-920 (1936); R. Koehler, Vber die Dionysiaca des Nonnos (1853), on mythological sources; P. Maas, Greek Metre (1962); J. (jolega, Studien iiber die Evangeliendichtung des Nonnos (1930). (Gi. G.) B1BL10GR.APHY.

in the

Teubner

Eng. trans, by

series,

;

W. H. D. Rouse

NONPARTISAN LEAGUE,

common name

for the

Farm-

Nonpartisan Political league (often abbreviated N.P.L.), founded in North Dakota in 1915 and known after 1917 as the National Nonpartisan league. It was dedicated to rescuing the farmer from alleged economic abuses by local bankers and by grain speculators and railroad and elevator officials of Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minn. Another of its goals was the recovery of political control of North Dakota from these same interests and their agent, Alexander McKenzie, an expert in the manipulation of "inwsible government." Founder of the league was Arthur Charles Townley (1SS0-19S9). but much credit for awakening the people should be given to John H. Worst and Edwin F. Ladd of North ers'

Dakota Agricultural college. The American Society of Equity and various other farm groups had secured adoption, in 1910-12. of a constitutional amendment permitting the state of North Dakota to build, own and operate grain elevators in Minnesota or Wisconsin, or both. But the state legislature refused ("Feb. 1915) to implement the amendment and one member reportedly ad\nsed the concurrent convention of The the Equity members "to go home and slop the hogs." frustrated farmers were now ripe for any form of militant leadership. This was immediately supplied by Townley, a bankrupt flax grower who had recently been a Socialist organizer without benefit of Karl Marx. He and Fred B. Wood, a farmer near Deering, N.D., wrote the first constitution for the Nonpartisan league and immediately began the drive for members. The strategj' was to support candidates from either major party who would pledge themselves to vote for state-owned elevators, mills, banks and hail-insurance companies. The dynamic Towmley excoriated the "enemy" and rosily pictured the better days to come if his Usteners would buy league memberships at $2.50 and support its program. (The cost of memberships later rose to $6. then $9. then $16.) Well over 20.000 farmers hopefully joined up, many giving postdated checks for the fee.

The

league's slate for 1916,

NOOT— NORA headed by Lynn J. Frazier (1874-1947) for governor and William Langer 1886-19S9) for attorney general, won a smashing victory. In 1919 its creature legislature delivered as promised a state-owned Bank of North Dakota, a mill and elevator association, a hail-insurance company and a home building association. After weathering great difficulties these enterprises finally prospered under new management, though the home building association was later dis(

continued.

Townley's control over the league lasted only four years. Efforts to extend the organization into other states enjoyed some brief success in Minnesota, where it spawned the Farmer-Labor party, and in Idaho and South Dakota. Frazier and Langer, later in and out of the league, drove Townley into the political wilderThe league suffered a defeat in 1921 when its man. Governess. nor Frazier, was recalled by the voters. The defeat was tempered, however, by the failure of six antileague measures initiated by the Independent Voters association I.V.A. the league's sworn enemy. One year later Frazier won personal vindication for himself and for the league by victory in a contest for the U.S. senate. The league virtually disappeared after 1924, though Langer revived it in 1932. The league tended to become a tight pohtical machine under Langer's control; later it again declined in power. In 1956 the league affiliated with the Democratic party: in 1958 Senator Langer defied it and won re-election without a campaign. See also North D.^xkota. (

)

,

See Robert L. Morlan, Political Prairie Fire : the Nonpartisan League, 1915-1922 (1953), the latest and best book on the league. Fred A. Shannon, American Farmers' Movements (1957), puts the topic into historical perspective and includes reprints of pertinent documents.

NOOT, HENRI

(L. L. S.)

VAN DER

(1731-1827), Belgian leader during the revolution of Brabant in 1789. was born in Brussels on An advocate at the sovJan. 7, 1731, the son of a landowner. ereign council of Brabant, he began in 1787, in protest against the Holy Roman emperor Joseph II's reforms, to threaten the Austrian government with appeal to article 59 of the Joyeuse Entree (q.v.), which released the Brabangons from allegiance to a prince who violated the constitution. This won him the support of the common people and of the clergy and influenced the guilds to raise a militia. The government insisted on the disbanding of the militia, but the estates of Brabant recognized Van der Noot as their defender. When his arrest was ordered, he fled to Breda in Dutch territory (Aug. S, 17SS). Nominated "plenipotentiary of the Brabangon people" by a group of guildsmen, he visited London and The Hague, offering Belgium to the house of Orange; and he also obtained verbal assurances of support from Prussia. As it turned out, however, the revolution was launched by his rival, the democrat J. F. Vonck, who thought that the Belgians should rely on their own efforts; and it was \'onck's general, J. A. van der Meersch. who won the battles against the Austrians. Even so. Van der Noot entered Brussels in triumph on Dec. 18, 1789. Appointed minister of the United Belgic States, he set himself out to eliminate Vonck and Van der Meersch. whose desire for a more representative form of government he denounced as an attack on religion and on the constitution. Vonck was driven out and Van der Meersch was arrested; but the Prussian general N. H. von Schoenfeldt. replacing the latter, was defeated by the Austrians. who recovered Brussels in Dec. 1790 isee Belgium: History). His incompetence having served to wreck the revolution. Van der Noot went into exile till the French had conquered Belgium. He was imprisoned for a time under the Directory (1796) and then remained in obscurity till 1814, when he emerged to plead for the return of Belgium to Austrian rule. He died at Strombeek on Jan. 12. 182 7. (C. Ve.) NOOT, (c. l539-c. 1595 1. Dutch poet, an ambitious opportunist and the pioneer of the Renaissance in the Netherlands, was born in Brecht c. 1539. The new metres and interest in classical learning are seen in his first poems Ronsardian odes and sonnets) in Het Bosken 1568) and in his last major work Lofsnng van Braband 1580) written in the (vain) hope of gaining nomination as the poet laureate of his province. His Het Theatre oft Toon-neel (1568 1, written and published in London while he was in exile, was translated into

JONKER JAN VAN DER

(

I

(

English with

567 Edmund

Spenser's assistance.

His chief work, the

is complete only in his German translation, Das Buck Extasis (1576), though there are French and Dutch versions first half. Van der Noot died in Antwerp c. 1595.

epic Olympias,

of the

See C. A. Zaalberg (ed.). The Olympia Epics of Jan van der Noot (1956). (P. K. K.)

NOOTKA

(AHT), an Indian linguistic group of the southwest coast of Vancouver Island, B.C., whose territory extended from Cape Cook to San Simon point (near Victoria) and inland to the watershed. The Nootka, together with the Makah of northwesternmost Washington, constituted one of the two main divisions of the Wakashan linguistic stock. The second was the highly divergent Kwakiutl of northern Vancouver Island and the adjacent mainland. Salishan was spoken by all other natives of the island. The Nootka were located near the middle of the Northwest Coast culture area and their ways of life perhaps represent more

Nootkans were located on bays or inlets. They made a specialized type of cedar dugout canoe, a remarkably seaworthy craft. These canoes and an intimate knowledge of coastal waters enabled the Nootka and Makah to travel considerable distances for sea-mammal hunting, visiting and trading. Both hunted the whale, a dangerous economic activity in which only two other coastal tribes engaged. Both also exploited the dense forests at their backs for game, roots and berries. Art was highly developed in the Northwest Coast manner. Totem poles and other elaborate stylized carvings were characteristic. Ceremonial feasts and property exchanges, called potlatches, were frequent. Northern Nootkan groups formed a social and political confederacy but the southern groups retained local autonomy. Numerous group names ended in -aht (e.g., Nitinat, Clayoquot, hence some early writers used Aht as a Kyuquot, Mooachaht collective designation. Capt. James Cook entered Nootka sound in 1778, at which time the population of the Nootka was perhaps 6,000, the Makah 1,500. Henceforth the fur trade flourished and the Indians rapidly acquired iron tools and many other appurtenances of western culture. best the older and

were oriented

to the sea

)

basic aspects of that culture.

and

their villages

;

See Philip Drucker, Indians of the Northwest Coast (1955); James G. Swan, "Indians of Cape Flattery," Smithsonian Contributions to KnoudedRe, vol. 16, (1870). (V. F. R.)

NORA, an ancient site about 22 mi. S.W. of Cagliari (Carales) on the southern coast of Sardinia. Although according to tradition it was founded by Iberians from Tartessus, it occupies a characteristically Phoenician site, a triangular promontory ending in a steep cliff

(Capo

di Pula).

The name Nora

is

related to the

proto-Sard norake (tower, castle j. Remains of a Sardinian nuraghe or towerlike monument were found nearby, and blocks from another were incorporated in a building identified as the Punic temple of Tanit. Apart from these, the earliest antiquities discovered at Nora are Plipenician, dating from the 7th century B.C. {See Sardinia: History.) In the Republican period, after the Roman annexation of Sardinia, Nora was its capital; under the Empire, it became a mtinicipiiim.

The

latest

Roman

inscription

records repairs of

its

aqueduct by Theodosius II and Valentinian III, a.d. 425-450; the last ancient writer to mention Nora, the Anonimo Ravennate (c. A J). 700), describes

it

as a prcesidiicm (fortified outpost).

Excavations in 1952-54 brought to light a wealthy imperial city overlying a typical Punic port. The Punic town, unfortified except for a watchtower at the tip of the promontory, had narrow irregular streets and buildings of characteristic Carthaginian construction. A tophet, where the bodies of cremated children were buried in great jars under steles carved with a temple fagade and an image of the goddess Tanit, whose identity is confirmed by a graffito (q.v.)

on

a vase of the 3rd

century

the violence of the period of the First Punic

B.C., is

War.

evidence for

The imperial

from the Flavian period; a fine theatre, an aqueduct, a temple of Juno (probably the Carthaginian Tanit in Roman form), a handsome nympheum. baths and private villas were uncovered. The ruins of a paleo-Christian church, dedicated to the local saint, Efisio. and rebuilt in 1089, stand nearby. See G. Pesce, Nora, Guida agli Scavi (19S7). (E. H. Ri.) city dates

568 NORADRENALINE

NORADRENALINE—NORDAU (Norepinephrine or Levarterenol),

one of the hormones produced by the medulla of the adrenal gland. It has an effect on the body similar to that of stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system, producing rise in blood pressure, increase in concentration of blood sugar, etc. See Adrenaline and NoR.AnRF.NALiNE: .'Xdrenal Glands; Hormones, Vertebrate. GAIUS (d. 82 b.cV turbulent Roman popular leader at the turn of the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C. When tribune of the people [c. 10,^ b.c."> he accused Q. Servilius Caepio of having in 105 brought about the defeat of his army by the Cimbri through rashness; Caepio was condemned and went into exile. About ten years later Norbanus himself was accused of treason because of the disturbances that had taken place at the trial of Caepio, but the eloquence of M. Antonius, grandfather of the triumvir Mark Antony, procured his acquittal. During the social war (the war of the Italian socii or allies) Norbanus, as praetor Durin 88, successfully defended Sicily against the Italian allies. ing the civil war between Marius and Sulla he sided with Marius; as consul in 83 he was defeated by Sulla at Monte Tifata, 3 mi. E. of modern Capua (Casilinum), and again in 82 by Q. Metellus Pius at Faenza (Faventia in Cisalpine Gaul). He fled to Rhodes, where he committed suicide while the Rhodians were debating whether to hand him over to Sulla. See E. Badian, "Caepio and Norbanus," Historia, vi, pp. 318 ff. •

NORBANUS,

to the

Sambre

valley.

France's major coalfield, buried beneath

the chalk, crosses the ddpartement as a narrow strip

the

modern

exploitation of the coalfield.

From

the earliest pits

near Valenciennes at the beginning of the 19th century, mining spread westward, transforming the agricultural countryside. Alongside the mines great quantities of patent fuels are prepared and there are coking and distillation plants. Iron and steel works are especially concentrated along the canalized Escaut (Scheldt) Engineering, glass, chemiriver in the vicinity of Valenciennes. Valenciennes cals, and other heavy industries are also carried on.

and Douai are the chief towns on the

coalfield.

Off the coalfield, to the southeast, are other steel

(1957).

NORBERT,

1080-1134), archbishop of MagdeSAINT burg, reformer and founder of the canons regular of Premontre (variously known as Premonstratensians [g.f.], Norbertines, White canons). Born between 1080 and 1085 in Xanten, Ger., Norbert became a canon of the collegiate church of Xanten, but (c.

he lived a worldly life at the court of the emperor Henry V. He was converted during a thunderstorm in 1115 and ordained a Failing to reform his fellow canons at priest in the same year. Xanten, he became an itinerant preacher who urged reform of morals for clergy and laymen alike. Unsuccessful in an attempt to reform the chapter of St. Martin at Laon, France, he was prevailed upon to found a religious institute at Premontre near Laon (1120), of which the characteristic feature was the combination of St. an extensive, priestly apostolate with monastic discipline. Augustine's rule was adopted and the constitutions were modeled on those of the Cistercians. At Antwerp in II 24 Norbert preached He successfully against the heresy of Tanchelin or Tanchelm. was chosen archbishop of Magdeburg in 1126. Like his friend St. Bernard of Clairvaux he supported Innocent II against the He died on antipope and won over the emperor Lothair II. June 6, 1134, and was canonized in 1582. His feast day is June 6 (but July 11 in the order). Bibliography. L. Goovaerts, &crivains, artistes et savants de I'orde de Premontre, vol. iv, 367-383 (1909); G. Madelaine, Histoire de 5. Norbert, 2 vol., 3rd ed. (1928) C. J. Kirkfleet, History of St. Norbert (1916) A. Zak, Der heilige N orberfil^iO) H. M. Colvin, The While Canons in England, ch. 1 (1951) L. T. Anderson, St. Norbert of Xanten (1955). (L. T. An.)

—

;

;

;

;

NORD,

the most northerly dSpartement of France, lies southwest of the Belgian frontier in French Flanders and French Hainaut and extends inland from a 20-mi. frontage on the Straits of Dover to the western flanks of the Ardennes uplands beyond It is bounded to the west by Pas-de-Calais the Sambre valley. and to the south by Aisne. Area 2,229 sq.mi. Pop. (1962) 2,293,112. After Seine, Nord is the most populous departement of France and contains in the continuous built-up area of LilleRoubaix-Tourcoing one of France's largest urban agglomerations, with about 750,000 inhabitants, as well as numerous smaller minThis frontier ing and industrial towns on the coalfield nearby. district did not become part of France until the 17th century, and Flemish remains the language of the inhabitants of its northeast(For historical ern corner between Dunkerque and the frontier.

County of.) Behind the straight dune coast the reclaimed marshlands of the maritime plain are intersected by a dense network of drainage canals. Farther inland there follows a sandy plain with a few

aspects see Flanders,

World War I. Lille and extends

salient residual hills that played a great role in

The chalk

floor of the Flanders basin

emerges at

from the Bel-

gian frontier east of Valenciennes to its western border beyond Douai. Except where it has been sterilized by towns and industry, the country is intensively farmed and produces large quantities of grain (wheat, oats, barley), sugar beet, potatoes and other vegeFlax, tobacco, chicory and hops are tables, and fodder crops. also grown, and market gardening is important. An exceptionally heavy density of livestock is maintained, and farming is especially concerned with fattening young cattle, milk production for fluid Sugar refining, alcohol sale and butter making, and pig rearing. distilling, flour milling, and brewing are widespread, important industries. The major industrial development, however, is associated with the old-established cloth-manufacturing towns and

ing works, with

North of the

Maubeuge and Fourmies

as

and engineer-

outlying centres.

coalfield, textile industries are especially important,

much

engineering and Lille especially manufactures and agricultural machinery, besides having large boiler and locomotive works. Roubaix-Tourcoing is the chief seat of woolen textile manufacture and accounts for most of the French production of worsted. Linen is still an important product of Armentieres and Lille. Cotton mills are more widespread, and now synthetic and mixed fabrics are very much used. Manufacture of synthetic fibres has been introduced into the mining towns and, farther south, Cambrai, long famous for its linen, has modern hosiery factories. Raw cotton is largely imported through Le Havre, but in most other respects Dunkerque (q.v.) serves the industrial area with the imported raw materials it needs as well as with large quantities of imported food. An artificial port, greatly improved since 1880, it is now the third port of France in volume A reof trade and has shipbuilding and oil-refining industries. markable system of navigable waterways, interconnecting the canalized eastward-flowing rivers of Flanders, augments the railways and roads that bind together the industrial complex and

but there

is

textile

provide it with its external contacts. Lille (q.v.), a former capital of French Flanders, is the prSjecture and regional capital as well as the chief business and shopping centre of the immediately surrounding urban area. It is the centre of a

modern

bishopric, established in 1913, that comprises

the northern part of the departement, the bishopric of Cambrai corresponding with the southern part. The court of appeal is still

located at the old ecclesiastical and university city of Douai,

but Lille, with a modern university established in 1887, is now the centre of educational administration. The departement consists of six arrondissements, centred upon Dunkerque, Lille, Douai, Valenciennes, Cambrai and Avesnes. Although modern warfare has taken its toll of old buildings, some fine hotels de ville and belfries have miraculously survived. Elaborate, outdated fortifications and defensive moats are features of several of the old towns of French Flanders and Lille still shows Vauban's great citadel outside the old town. (Ar. E. S.)

NORDAU

(originally

Sudfeld),

MAX SIMON

(1849-

1923), Jewish-Hungarian writer, a prominent Zionist and the author of rationalist attacks on society which had a vogue at the time. Nordau (he changed his name in 1873) was born in BudaAfter qualifying as a doctor in 1875 he pest on July 29, 1849. moved to Paris in 1880 where he practised medicine. Two books.

Die konventionellen Liigen der KuUurmenschheit (1883; Eng. trans. The Conventional Lies of Our Civilisation, 1884) and Entartung (1892-93; Degeneration, 1895), made his name. In 1892

NORDENFLYCHT— NORDHORN Nordau met Herzl and became an enthusiast for his plans for a Jewish state. He was vice-president of the first six Zionist conwhere he shone as a speaker. After disputes over policy he resigned in 1921, dying in Paris on Jan. 22, 1923. His works include Gejuhhkomodie 0892) and Die Drohnenschlacht (1897) (fiction); Doktor Kohn (1898) (play); Paris unter der 3. Republik (1881); and Die Krankheit des Jahrhtinderts (1889). See A. and M. Nordau, Max Nordau (1943) (17181763), Swedish poet, remembered for her sensitive love poems, was born Nov. 28, 1718, at Stockholm. She fought all her life to keep her faith although disturbed by the ideas of the Enlightenment, and this conflict is expressed in her reflective poetry. The deaths of her fiance in 1737 and of her husband soon after their marriage in 1741 inspired her finest poems, some of them published in Den sorgande Turtur-Dufwan (1743 ). During the 1750s she enjoyed a literary collaboration with Gustav Philip Creutz {q.v.) and Gustav Fredrik Gyllenborg. In 1761 she fell tragically in love with a man much younger than herself, and her poems about him mark the height of her achievement. She died at her home near Stockholm, June 29, 1763. Her Samlade skrifter were edited by H. Borelius and T. Hjelmqvist, 4 vol. (1924-38). gresses,

NORDENFLYCHT, HEDVIG CHARLOTTA

Bibliography.

—

J.

Kruse, Hedvig Charlotta Nordenjlycht (i8g5) romantik, i, pp. 146-196 (igi8) H. (L. G. Bz.) ;

M. Lamm, V pplysningstidens Borelius,

;

Hedvig Charlotta Nordenflycht (ig2i).

NORDENSKIOLD, (NILS) ADOLF ERIK,

Baron

(1832-1901), Finnish-Swedish scientist and arctic explorer, was born in Helsinki on Nov. 18, 1832. During his studies at Helsinki university he incurred the displeasure of the authorities for his Swedish and western sympathies, and in 1858 he settled in Stockholm. During this year he made his first arctic expedition, to Spitsbergen under Otto Torell, and was appointed professor and curator of the mineralogical department of the Swedish State museum. He now undertook a series of further expeditions to Spitsbergen in 1861 with Torell again, and in 1864, 1868 and 1872-73 as leader and made fundamental contributions to the knowledge of the geology of the area, while in 1870 he led an expedition to west Greenland to study the inland ice. During the 1868 expedition, partly financed by the Goteborg businessman Oscar Dickson, the patron who was to provide such decisive support for all his subsequent expeditions, Nordenskiold reached 81° 42' N. in the mail boat "Sofia." In 1873, after a winter had been spent in difficult conditions in north Spitsbergen, he crossed the ice sheet of North East Land. Nordenskiold's thoughts now turned to what was to be his greatest achievement the accomplishment of the northeast passage. In two preliminary voyages in 1875 and 1876 he penetrated the Kara sea to the mouth of the Yenisei. On July 21, 1878, Nordenskiold sailed from Tromso on board the steam vessel "Vega"; he reached Cape Chelyuskin on Aug. 19, and after being frozen in at the end of September near Bering strait, completed the voyage in the following summer. The "Vega" made a triumphal voyage home via the Mediterranean and when Nordenskiold re-entered Stockholm on April 24, 1880, he was made a baron by King Oscar. In 1883, on his return from west Greenland, where he penetrated far onto the inland ice, he became the first to break through the southeast coast's great sea ice barrier. In 1893 he was elected to the Swedish Academy. He died at Dalbyo on Aug. 12, 1901. Nordenskiold's bibliography lists 178 works. Geologist, mineralogist and geographer, he also broke new ground in his contributions to the early history of cartography. His two great works in this field are Facsimile-atlas (1889), and the indispensable collection of hand-drawn maps and charts entitled Periplus (Eng. trans, by F. A. Bather, 1897). (P. A. B. G.)

—

—

—

569

standing of the glacial geology of the world as a whole. In 1898 he visited Klondike in the Yukon, and in 1900 he accompanied G. K. Amdrup to east Greenland. Nordenskjold's long-planned project for a scientific expedition to the south polar regions was

embarrassed by serious financial difficulties, but on Oct. 16, 1901, the "Antarctic" sailed from Goteborg. In Feb. 1902 a station was established on Snow Hill Island off Graham Coast, and there Nordenskjold wintered with five companions. The "Antarctic," which wintered at South Georgia, was crushed in the pack ice of Erebus and Terror gulf (Feb. 12, 1903) when trying to relieve them the following summer. The crew wintered in 1903 on Paulet Island. But in November of that year the Argentine vessel "Uruguay" under Capt. J. Irizar rescued all parties of the expedition (Antarctica, 1905). Important geographical discoveries had been made in the course of long sledge and boat journeys, and probably few polar expeditions have achieved greater scientific results; these were subsequently published in a model manner in Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der schwedischen Sudpolar-Expedition 1901-1903, six volumes (1905-20). Nordenskjold made minor expeditions to west Greenland in 1909 and to Peru and western Patagonia in 1920-21. He became the first natural scientist at the University of Goteborg when he was appointed to the new chair of geography there in 1905, and in 1923 became the first rector of the Goteborg school of advanced commercial studies. Nordenskjold was concerned to popularize and synthesize his science and achieved this successfully in a number of works. Religion was important for him, and in later years he made active contribution to the ecumenical movement. He died in Goteborg on June 2, 1928. (P. A. B. G.) a long, narrow, low-lying island and the largest of the East Frisian group, Germany, which after the par-

NORDERNEY,

World War II became part of the Lower Saxony, Federal Republic of Germany.

tition of the nation following

Land

of

(state)

long and up to \\ mi. broad and its dunes rise to about 68 ft. The northern coast is exposed to storm waves, but more sheltered water lies to the south in the Wattenmeer between the island and the mainland. Most of the population (7,331 in 1961) lives in Nordseebad Norderney, a leading coastal resort and small fishing port with shipping service to Norddeich (5 mi.) on the It is 8 mi.

(Ha. T.)

mainland.

NORDHAUSEN,

town of Germany

in Erfurt Bezirk (dis-

of Thuringia which after partition of the nation following

trict)

World War It is

a

II

became part of the German Democratic Republic.

situated on the Zorge river on the southern slopes of the

Harz mountains, at the west end of the Goldene Aue, a fruitful plain watered by the Helme, 64 km. (40 mi.) N.W. of Erfurt city. Pop.

(1961

est.)

Historic buildings that survived the

39.944.

World War

II include the 17th-century Rathaiis with the oaken Roland monument (1717), an ancient symbol of civic Hberty, the late Gothic Roman CathoHc cathedral (with a Romanesque crypt) and the Protestant church of St.

heavy

Blasius extant.

air

(

attacks of

13th century).

The

Remnants

of medieval

town walls are

public "Gehege" park dates from the 18th century.

1928), Swedish geographer and explorer, was born at Hassleby,

a museum, a theatre, a teachers' training college, an and a sports school. To the former main industries, the distillation of rye-whisky and tobacco manufacture, have been added shaft-sinking processes and The town dethe manufacture of tractors and excavators. veloped around a castle and market founded by the Saxon king, Henry I (the "Fowler"), in the early 10th century near the older Prankish settlement of Northusen. It was made a free imperial town in 1220, accepted the Reformation in 1522 and lost its independence in 1802 after annexation by Prussia. This association ceased when, in 1945, Nordhausen fell within the limits of Thuringia. The city's limits were extended in 1950 with the incorporation of the neighbouring villages of Salza and Krimderode. (Wa. M.)

Smaland, on Dec. 6, 1869; he was the nephew of Baron A. E. Nordenskiold (q.v.). At Uppsala university he first specialized in geology, and in 1894 he became lecturer in mineralogy and geology there. An expedition which he led to Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego (1895-97) made important contributions to the under-

Saxony, which after partition of the nation following World War 11 became part of the Federal Repubhc of Germany. It Hes on the Vechte river 4 mi. from the Dutch border and about 70 km. (44 mi.) N.W. of Miinster. Pop. (1961) 39,449. Part of the Augus-

NORDENSKJOLD, (NILS) OTTO (GUSTAF)

(1869-

There are

institute of agricultural technology

NORDHORN,

a

town

of

Germany, Land

(state) of

Lower

—

NORDLAND— NORFOLK

570 tinian

monastery (founded 1394) and the Protestant church (14S9) are extant. The town is on a branch railway, the main road from Bremen, and the Ems-Vechte and Siid-Nord canals. Textiles form the main industry and there are petroleum wells nearby. First mentioned in 890 and chartered in 1379, it suffered

Spencer, femile Durkheim and H. G. Wells, he developed a highly individual view of society, and in his numerous later writings theoretical treatises, travel books and journalistic works, short preached a Utopian world society based on a stories and novels

heavily from plague, fire and war in the 15th and 16th centuries. Its area was expanded in the 1920s by the addition of neighbouring

died at Stockholm, April 15, 1942.

—

were published See

coninuinitie.-;

NORDLAND, a

fylke (county) of northern Norway, extends from about latitude 65° N. to the northernmost point of the Vesteralen archipelago, about two-thirds of arctic circle.

area being north of the Area 14.79S sq.mi.; pop. (1960) 237.193. Fjords its

penetrate into the mainland, which is sheltered by numerous islands. Lying within the zone of the Caledonian folding. Nordland has an alpine landscape with several peaks higher than 4,900 ft. (Oksskolten 6,283 ft.). Habitation is mostly confined to the coastal lowlands and to fluvial deposits around the heads of the

though farmland exists up to 900 ft. in the inland valleys. Mosjoen. Mo. Bodo, the administrative centre, and Narvik (q.v.) are towns of 5.000-14,000 inhabitants. About one-eighth of the fish catch of Norway is landed in Nordland. Cod fisheries from February to mid-April on the eastern side of the Lofoten Islands are of special importance. Animal husbandry, formerly a subsidiary occupation, is now to a great extent the main occupation even in some coastal areas. Pyrites are mined in the Sulitjelma and Mo areas. New mines are being developed in the iron ore deposits in the Dunderlandsdal {q.v.). Water power has given rise to electrometallurgical and chemical industrial plants. Railways run from Bodo to Oslo and from Narvik to Sweden: fast coast^al lines sail to Bergen. (L. H. He.) NORDLINGEN, BATTLES OF, two battles of the Thirty Years' War *,q.v.). fought near Nordlingen in Swabia. In the first battle, on Sept. 5 and 6, 1634, the Holy Roman emperor Ferdinand II's army, under the nominal command of his son Ferdinand III (then king of Hungary) and the actual direction of Matthias Gallas, together with a Spanish force led by the cardinal-infante Ferdinand, decisively defeated the Swedish army under the dual command of Gustav Karlsson Horn and Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar. The resumption of hostilities by the Poles after the end of the Polish-Russian "War of Smolensk" had forced the Swedes to dispatch large contingents against them; Gallas therefore disposed of vastly superior forces; and the incompatibility of the bold Bernhard and the irresolute Horn threw away the success that the Swedes had on the first day of battle. Horn was taken prisoner and remained in captivity until 1642. The complete rout of the Swedish army, mainly effected by Gen. Jan de Weert, led to the dissolution of the Heilbronn alliance of 1633 and the end of Swedish preponderance in southern Germany and forced the cardinal de Richeheu into bringing France into active parfjords,

ticipation in the war.

In the second battle, on Aug. 3, 1645. the French under Turenne and the due d'Enghien later prince de Conde fought an imperial and Bavarian army under Franz von Mercy and Jan de Weert at Alerheim, 5 mi. E. of Nordlingen. The battle is memorable for Mercy's death and for Turenne's brilliant generalship, which turned De Weert 's almost completed victory into defeat. (

)

—

BiBLiOGR.*PHY. For the battle of 1634 see E. Leo, Die Schlacht bei For J. Fuentes, La Batalla de Nordlingen (1906). the battle of 1645 see S. Riezler. Die Schlacht bei Alerheim, in Sitzungsberichte of the Munich academy (1901). (S. H. S.)

Nordlingen (1900)

;

NORDRHEIN-WESTFALEN:

see

North Rhine-West-

PH.ALIA.

NORDSTROM, LUDVIG ANSELM

(1882-1942), Swedwhose best work describes life in his native province, was born at Harnbsand (the "Obacka" of his novels), Norrland, on Feb. 25, 1882. He studied at Uppsala and became a journalist, travehng widely at home and abroad. A follower of Strindberg, in his early works (the collections of short stories Fiskare, 1907; Borgare, 1909; and Herrar, 1910; and the novel De tol'j sondagarna, 1910), he treated themes from his birthplace with imaginative power, ironic realism and humour. Keenly interested in economics and industrialism, and influenced by Herbert ish writer

which he called "totalism." He Selections from his diary Ur Ludvig Nordstroms dagbocker (1955).

universal economic

M.

in

solidarity

Kring

Slicrnstedt, till I'rbs

Fran Obacka

ett

(1954).

aktenskap (1953); G. Qvarnstrom, (H. En.)

NORD-TR0NDELAG,

a /y/Ae (county) of central Norway. Area 8.673 sq.mi.; pop. (1960) 116.635. It includes undulating lowland around Trondheimsf jord, forested uplands and valleys to the east and north the northern is Namdal and the rather rugged and humid coastal district west of Namdal. The Trondheimsf jord area was comparatively densely populated even in early historic times. Frosta was one of the judicial centres of the country in the middle ages. At Stiklestad, Olaf Haraldss0n (St. Olaf fell in battle (1030). Nord-Tr0ndelag is one of the best agricultural regions of Norway. Manufactures of wood and pulp are of importance in most districts. Pyrite is mined in Namdal and iron ore west of the Trondheimsfjord. Considerable water power potential is developed in the Namsen river system and further developments were scheduled for the 1960s. Steinkjer, the administrative centre, Namsos and Levanger are the chief towns. The jylke is traversed by the railway to Nordland with a branch line to Namsos. (L. H. Hg. NORE, THE, a sandbank in the Thames estuary marked by a lightship, the first to be established in English waters (1732). The name is used also of the area of the estuary roughly coinciding with the naval port of Sheerness. The Nore anchorage was much used by the fleet in the wars of the 17th and ISth centuries. In 1797 sailors at the Nore mutinied against conditions, and their leader, Richard Parker, was hanged from the yardarm of his ship. The commander in chief, the Nore, is the naval commander of the eastern area of England. See G. E. Manwaring and B. Dobree, The Floating Republic (1935). NORFOLK, EARLS OF. Norfolk is the premier English dukedom and earldom. Ralph the Staller (c. lOll-c. 1069), 1st earl, an obscure figure, was probably a Breton and obtained the earldom c. 1067. His son, Ralph de Guader (c. 1040-?1096). 2nd earl, a follower of William the Conqueror, )

(

)

)

AND DUKES

forfeited the title

when he revolted

against the king in 1075.

The

earldom lapsed until it was granted by King Stephen to Hugh BiGOD U. 1095-1177 in 1141. The Bigod earis of Norfolk were prominent in the reform movements of the 13th century; Roger (d. 1221), 2nd earl of this line, was one of the council of 25 set up by Magna Carta in 1215 and Roger (c. 1212-1270), 4th eari, played an important role in the movement against Henry III between 1258 and 1265. On the death of Roger, 5th earl, in 1306, the title lapsed until Edward II granted it to his younger half brother. Thomas of Brotherton 1300-1338), in 1312. He supported Queen Isabella in 1326 and helped bring about the deposi)

(

tion of

Edward

in 1327.

On Thomas' death the title passed in the female line and his daughter Margaret (c. 1320-1400) was created duchess of Norfolk for life in 1397 at the time her grandson, Thomas Mowbray (c. 1366-1399), was created duke (see Norfolk, Thomas Mowbray, 1st duke of). The dukedom lapsed on the death of John 1444-1476 ). 4th duke of this creation, but the earldom passed to his daughter Anne, wife of the young Richard, duke of York, w-ho was murdered in the Tower of London. On her death the earldom (

became extinct. The dukedom was given in 1433 to John Howard (c. 14301485). whose mother, Margaret, was a daughter of Thomas, the 1st Mowbray duke of Norfolk. He served Edward IV assiduously, was created baron in 1470 and was treasurer of the royal household from 1467 to 1474. He subsequently supported Richard III, who created him duke of Norfolk in 1483 and made him earl marshal of England. Norfolk was killed fighting for Richard at Bosworth (Aug. 22. 1485), and the title was later under attainder (see Howard). Thomas (1443-1524), the 1st duke's son, was created earl of Surrey in 1483 but was an attainted captive after Bos-

;

NORFOLK worth until 1489 when he was released by Henry VII and restored He then to his earldom but not to the dukedom of Norfolk. served the king in Yorkshire and the north. Henry VIII used him on public business despite Surrey's dislike of Thomas Cardinal Wolsey. He commanded the army that defeated the Scots at Flodden field (Sept. 1513), and was created duke of Norfolk in Feb. 1514. He was guardian of England during the king's absence in France (1520) and acted as lord high steward at the trial of his friend Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham. Among Norfolk's sons were Thomas Howard (1473-1554), 3rd duke of Norfolk (g.v.), William (c. 1510-1573), 1st Lord Howard of Effingham, and the admiral Sir Edward Howard (c. 1477-1513). The 3rd Howard duke of Norfolk was succeeded in 1554 by his grandson Thomas (1538-1572; see Norfolk, Thomas Howard, 4th duke of) since his own son was executed in 1547 for treason (see Surrey, Henry Howard, earl of). The 4th earl was executed in 1 572

and the dukedom was not restored to the Howard family until 1660 when Thomas Howard (1627-1677) became 8th duke. Both Charles (1746-1815), 11th duke, and Henry (1791-1856), By act of parlia13th duke, held prominent Whig sympathies. ment (1824) the dukes of Norfolk were empowered to act as hereditary earl marshal (g.v.) despite their adherence to Roman Catholicism, Henry (1815-1860), 14th duke, added the surname of Fitzalan. Bernard (1908), 16th duke, succeeded to the title in

1917.

NORFOLK, THOMAS HOWARD,

3rd

Duke

of (1473-

Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard, and who held important political offices under Henry VIII, was the eldest son of the 2nd duke. He married Anne, daughter of Edward IV, in 1495, thus becoming a brother-in-law of Henry VII, who had marHe became lord high admiral in ried Anne's sister Elizabeth. 1513, led the van of the English army at Flodden in September, 1554), uncle of

and was created

earl of

Elizabeth, daughter of

Surrey

in Feb. 1514.

Edward

Stafford,

In 1513 he married

duke of Buckingham.

Surrey went to Ireland as lord deputy in 1520 but soon vacated his post to command the fleet which sacked Morlaix and ravaged the neighbourhood of Boulogne in 1522; in 1523 he raided and devastated southern Scotland. He succeeded his father as lord treasurer in 1522 and as duke of Norfolk in May 1524, and as the most powerful nobleman in England he headed the party hostile to Thomas Cardinal Wolsey. He favoured the divorce of Henry VIII from Catherine of Aragon and the king's marriage with Anne Boleyn. Norfolk became president of the council in 1529 but his position was shaken in 1536 by the fall of Anne Boleyn, at whose trial and execution he presided as lord high steward. But his military abilities rendered him almost indispensable to the king, and in 1536, just after the rising known as the Pilgrimage of Grace had broken out, he was dispatched into the north of England; he temporized with the rebels until the danger was past, and then, as president of the council of the north, punished them with great severity. Sharing in the general hatred against Thomas Cromwell, Norfolk arrested the minister in June 1540. A conservative in religion, he and Bishop Stephen Gardiner were thereafter the chief opponents of Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, the earl of Hertford, Lord Lisle and the "advanced" group in Henry's council. He led the English army into Scotland in 1542 and into France in 1544; but the execution of Catherine Howard, another of his nieces who had become the wife of the king, had weakened his position.

In Dec. 1546 his son Henry Howard, earl of Surrey (g.v.), was Norfolk himself suffered the same fate as accessory to the crime. Surrey was executed in Jan. 1547; his father was condemned to death by a bill of attainder, but before the sentence was carried out, Henry VIII died. Norfolk remained in prison during Edward VI's reign, but in Aug. 1553 he was released and restored to his dukedom and later in the month he acted as lord high steward at the trial of John Dudley, duke of Northumberland. In Jan. 1554 he was sent to suppress the rebellion which had broken out under Sir Thomas Wyat, but his men fled before the enemy. He died on Aug. 25, 1554, at Kenninghall in Norfolk. (R. B. Wm.) arrested on a charge of treason;

571

NORFOLK, THOMAS HOWARD,

4th Duke of (1538-

1572), executed for his intrigues with Mary Stuart, was the son of Henry Howard, earl of Surrey (g.v.), and was born on March

After his father's execution, the council removed him mother's charge and he was given as tutor John Foxe, the Protestant martyrologist. Restored to his father's title on Mary I's accession, he succeeded his grandfather as duke of Norfolk in Aug. 1554. Although too young to take much part in affairs in Mary's reign, he was in favour both with her and with Elizabeth I. After some hesitation he took command of the English forces in the north during the intervention in Scotland in 1559-60 and presided over the commission of enquiry in 1568 into the quarrel between the Scots and Mary Stuart, who had just fled to England. Jealous of the earl of Leicester's favour and William Cecil's influence with Elizabeth, and having recently lost his third wife, he listened readily to suggestions from William Maitland of Lethington and others that he should marry Mary. He was not, however, bold enough to ask Elizabeth's consent or disloyal enough to agree to a rising against her; and while he hesitated, Elizabeth in Oct. 1569 had him arrested. He was released in Aug. 1570, after the suppression of the rising of the northern earls, but soon allowed himself to be drawn into Roberto Ridolfi's plot for a Spanish invasion to put Mary on the Enghsh throne. Its discovery led to his execution on Tower hill on June 2, 1572, despite Ehzabeth's reluctance to order his execution. He died protesting his innocence and that "he was never a papist." By his first marriage to Mary, daughter of the earl of Arundel, 10, 1538.

from

his

who became earl of Arunmother; by his second marriage he left

the duke of Norfolk left a son, Philip, del (1580) in right of his

two sons, Thomas Howard, William Howard.

1st earl of Suffolk

NORFOLK, THOMAS MOWBRAY,

(1603), and Lord (R. B. Wm.)

Duke of (c. 1366-1399), one of the lords appellant in 1388 and perhaps best remembered for his quarrel with Henry, duke of Hereford (afterward Henry IV). The son of John, 4th Lord Mowbray, he was a youthful companion of Richard II and was made earl of Nottingham in 1383. Jealousy of Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, the king's favourite, probably led Nottingham to join the nobles, led by the earl of Arundel and the duke of Gloucester, who sought to limit the king's power. Richard was at their mercy after De Vere's defeat at Radcot bridge (Dec. 1387) and Nottingham's moderation helped to dissuade the lords appellant against the king's deposition, in favour of "appealing" (arraigning) the royal favourites in the Merciless parliament (1388). For nearly two years power lay in the hands of the lords appellant. But as soon as the king regained his authority, in 1389, he showed Nottingham marked favour and detached him from his former colleagues. Later he became captain of Calais and the royal lieutenant in northeastern France. Richard took him to Ireland in 1394 and soon afterward sent him to arrange a peace with France and his marriage with Isabella, daughter of Charles VI. But the earl's supreme service to the king was in 1397 when Richard took a tardy but severe vengeance upon three of the appellants. In their turn these lords were appealed of treason before parliament and, as on the former occasion, Nottingham was one of the accusers. Gloucester was entrusted to his keeping at Calais and in Sept. 1397 he reported that his prisoner was dead. The duke had been murdered and Nottingham was perhaps responsible, although the evidence against him is not conclusive. Nottingham was created duke of Norfolk in 1397. He then began to fear for his own safety and took the duke of Hereford into his confidence. Hereford informed the king, who summoned Norfolk to his presence, and at Oswestry, Norfolk accused Hereford of speaking falsely. A court of chivalry decided that the dispute should be settled by single combat at Coventry; but when everything was ready for the fight, Richard interposed and ordered both combatants into banishment (Sept. 16, 139S). Norfolk was exiled for life and deprived of his offices, although not of his titles. This quarrel forms act I of Shakespeare's Richard II. Norfolk died in Italy, at Venice, on Sept. 22, 1399.

—

1st

Bibliography. M. V. Clarke, Fourteenth Century Studies (1937) A. B. Steel, Richard II (1941) T. F. Tout, Chapters in the Adminis;

—

NORFOLK

572 trative

Hhtory

of

Mediaeval England,

vol. iii-iv

(1928). (T. B. P.; X.)

NORFOLK,

an eastern county of England, bounded north and east by the North sea, northwest by the Wash, south by SufThe geofolk and west by Cambridseshire and Lincolnshire. graphical area, excluding tidal water, is 2,054.3 sq.mi., the county being the fourth in size in England. Physical Features. Norfolk is low-lying, the highest areas being a little more than 300 ft. above sea level, while in parts of the Fenland the surface is below ordnance datum (mean sea level The solid geology of the area as defined for ordnance survey). is relatively simple, the superficial geology complex, giving rise to subregions. The most important rock of the well-defined natural county is the Chalk outcropping in west Norfolk as a long broad ridge mostly more than 200 ft. above ordnance datum and dipping sharply eastward until at Great Yarmouth its surface is 4S0 ft. below ordnance datum. Beneath the Chalk on its western edge lie the older beds of Kimeridge Clay, Lower Greensand and Gault and from the Norwich area to the coast the Chalk is chiefly overlain by the marine Crag deposits. Successive glacial advances have moulded the surface topography by the deposition of large areas of boulder clays, sands and gravels that have later been eroded. Postglacial changes of land and sea level have led to the formation of peats and clays in low-lying regions. Parts of the 90-mi. long coastline are diversified by dunes of blown sand, and spits and islands of shingle and sand. Generally the west and northwest coasts are subject to accretion but from Sheringham southeast to Caister-on-Sea there has been marked

—

erosion.

Nine subregions characterized by distinctive combinations of vegetation and land utilization may be recognized in Norfolk: (1) About one-eighth of the English Fenland lies within

soil,

the county. In the north silt predominates, in the south peat. Its intensive cultivation is only possible through the maintenance of an elaborate system of drainage. (2 ) The North Alluvial plain

extends along the north coast from Hunstanton to Cley and consists entirely of marshland, much of it salt marsh. (3) The Greensand belt runs southward for about 25 mi. from near Hunstanton and is characterized by undulating heathland and magnificent woodland and by the use of carstone as a building material. (4) The Breckland in southwest Norfolk is a thinly populated area with an unusually sandy soil. Agriculturally the area is marginal and its former extensive heaths have been largely replaced by modern coniferous forests. (5) The "Good Sands" region comprises the upland area of northwest Norfolk and for centuries has been the principal area for barley cultivation and sheep-rearing. (6) High Norfolk occupies the centre of the county almost from the north coast to the southern boundary with Suffolk and is characterized by

its

heavy loam

soils

and

is still

well

(7) The the thinnest of

wooded.

Cromer-Holt ridge consists of coarse gravels \^'ith ending seaward in lofty cliffs where landslides are common. (8) The Loam region of northeast Norfolk possesses good soils, largely arable, is well wooded and thickly populated. (9) The Broadland (see below) consists of marshland, often below hightide level, in the lower courses of the Bure, Yare and Waveney rivers and their tributaries. Archaeology and History. Norfolk is rich in archaeological evidence of past human cultures though many prehistoric structures have largely been destroyed by the extensive arable farming of recent centuries. Paleolithic flint implements mainly of the Acheulean-Clactonian cultures occur commonly in gravel beds and soils,

—

indicate

human

occupation in interglacial periods.

Flint

tools

by Mesolithic hunters are found on the lighter soils. Kelling is the best-known site. In all subsequent periods, as well as in the Roman and early Anglo-Saxon periods, population was mainly concentrated on the relatively easily worked soils of the Breckland and west Norfolk. The Cromer-Holt ridge and the Norwich area also attracted settlers. The heavier afforested soils of High Norfolk and the Loam region were not fully exploited until late Saxon times. Seaborne invaders chiefly entered the area by the rivers draining into the Wash or along those which flow out at Yarmouth. By land, the Chalk ridge linked west Norfolk with southern Engleft

land and was traversed by the important Icknield way. The chief monuments of the Neolithic Age in Norfolk are the extensive group of flint mines (Grimes Graves) in the Breckland

and elsewhere in the Chalk area, in addition to two long barrows and the henge monument at Arminghall. There are exten.sive traces of the Beaker invaders from the Rhineland and to them and their Middle Bronze Age successors may be attributed most of the numerous round barrows. It was only in the Late Bronze Age that this metal was freely available in Norfolk and many this. The beginning of the Iron Age (about 500 B.C.) saw the arrival of fresh invaders from the continent, well represented by a farmstead excavated at West Harling. In the 3rd century B.C. a new ruling class came from the SeineMarne area of France and provided the dynasty which ruled those living in Norfolk and northwest Suffolk known later as the Iceni. To the last phase of the Iron Age belong a group of remarkable hoards of gold and bronze ornaments and gold, silver and tin coins. The remains of the Roman era in Norfolk are not impressive, possibly due to the perishable nature of much of the building material employed and to the comparatively late romanization resulting from the severe repression which followed the revolt of Queen Boadicea in a.d. 61. The administrative centre was the walled town at Caistor-by-Norwich (Caistor St. Edmund) fortified and there was a port at Caister-by-Yarmouth. Villa estates were most common in west Norfolk and the Fenland was thickly settled by peasant cultivators. In the 3rd and 4th centuries there was a coastal fort at Brancaster to repel Saxon pirates. The road system is still imperfectly known. From about a.d. 400 Norfolk received fresh immigrants Angles, Frisians and Saxons from northwest Germany and the Low Countries but the detailed geography and chronology of these intrusive groups are uncertain. By about 550 the smaller units had been brought under the control of an East Anglian monarchy which for a brief period, under Redwald in the early 7th century achieved a temporary dominance but later fell under the sway of its neighbours. Norfolk became oiScially Christian in 631 and formed part of the diocese of East Anglia until this was divided in 673 and the bishop's see for Norfolk established at North Elmham, where substantial remains of the 10th-century cathedral may be seen. To the 8th century belongs the develop-

metalsmiths' hoards attest

—

ment of town life at Thetford and at Norwich where a mint was in operation by about 920. From mid-9th century Norfolk was subject to Danish invasion. In 869 the Danes wintered at Thetford and King Edmund was killed. East Anglia becoming part of the Danelaw and receiving large numbers of Danish settlers, especially in Flegg north of Yarmouth. In the renewed Danish invasions of the early 11th century both Norwich and Thetford were burned. Despite these setbacks, late Saxon times in Norfolk saw a great growth of population and a corresponding expansion of cultivated land through the deforestation of much of central Norfolk. By the time of the Domesday survey of 1086 Norfolk was one of the most thickly populated and wealthiest regions of England and remained so throughout the medieval period. The opening up of central Norfolk led to the development of Norwich while Thetford remained static, the bishop's see being transferred from there to Norwich in 1094. Yarmouth and Lynn were also important towns as early as the Norman conquest. The medieval prosperity of Norfolk rested on its successful agriculture and on its worsted production. This medieval wealth is reflected Surin its magnificent buildings both secular and ecclesiastical. viving castles include such imposing structures as Norwich, Castle the and Oxborough ranging from Rising, Caister, Baconsthorpe 12th to the 15th centuries. The numerous monasteries suffered severely at the Reformation but Norwich cathedral survives from a rich Benedictine monastery and there are substantial traces of other religious houses such as the Dominicans (Black Friars) at Norwich, and monasteries at Castle Acre, Binham, Thetford and Wymondham. Little remains of the Augustinian house at Little Walsingham, one of the most famous shrines of the middle ages. Many parish churches were rebuilt in the 14th or 15th centuries size

and

rich embellishments.

and are conspicuous

for their

—

NORFOLK of medieval Norfolk was ruffled from time to time by baronial warfare, the rising of 1381, the private strife of the 15th century revealed vividly in the Paston letters (g.v.) and

The peace

During the formidable rebellion of Robert Ket (Kett) in 1549. the Civil War Norfolk was largely on the parliamentary side but

some magnates supported

the king and

Lynn was held on

his be-

half.

Many great country houses from the 16th century onward survive to attest the wealth of the county based on successful sheep farming and later agricultural developments. these great buildings are East

Outstanding among

Barsham manor house

Raynham

(early 16th

Holkand Wolterton park (18th century) and Sandringham mansions, among which (g.v.) has special interest as the Norfolk home of the royal family. Broadland. The Norfolk broads (lakes) are situated in close the relationship to the three confluent rivers of east Norfolk Waveney, Yare and Bure with its tributaries, the Ant and the Thurne. A few broads lie just over the border in Suffolk but belong to the same system. Physically the broads are of two types side-valley, such as South Walsham and the Ormesby-RollesbyFilby series, and bypassed, such as those at Wroxham and Hoveton where they were originally separated from the river channel which passes close to them. Investigations based on thousands of borings and supplemented by documentary evidence show conclusively that the broads originated as peat cuttings in late Saxon and early medieval times and were abandoned due to a rise in sea level. During the 19th century many were steadily reduced in size by the encroachment of vegetation on former open water, and some have disappeared completely. The Norfolk broads, and the river system which links them, form an important recreation area, with pleasure boats, both sailand power-propelled, centred chiefly on Wroxham, Potter Heigham, Stalham and Yarmouth. There are more than 150 mi. of navigable waterway. Only the Yare is used by seagoing trading vessels, bringing mainly coal and timber to Norwich. The unique physical and vegetational characteristics of the region are reflected in its rich and varied natural history. Many rare birds, insects and plants in this area are likely to survive if physical conditions remain constant as a result of the establishment of nature reserves at such places as the following broads Alderfen, Barton, Hickhng, Ranworth, Cockshoot and Surlingham (all under the care of the Norfolk Naturalists' trust); Horsey mere (National Trust), Calthorpe broad, Bure marshes and Martham broad with Winterton dunes (Nature Conservancy). Besides the Broadland nature reserves there are other important reserves in the county. Scolt Head Island (Norfolk Naturalists' trust. National Trust and Nature Conservancy) is extremely important for its physical structure, bird and insect life. Blakeney point (National Trust) is well known for its geographical features, bird life and botany. In Breckland. typical heathland is preserved at Weeting and East Wretham (Norfolk Naturalists' trust). century), BHckling and

ham and Houghton many 19th-century

halls (early 17th century),

halls

—

—

—

Population and Administration. trative county

is

— The area of the adminis-

2,035.8 sq.mi. with a population in 1961 of 389,-

216. The municipal boroughs are King's Lynn (pop. [1961] 27,554); Norwich, a city and county borough, a cathedral town and the county town (119,904); Thetford (5,398); and Yarmouth. properly Great Yarmouth (52,860), a county borough. There are 10 urban districts. The county is in the southeastern circuit, and assizes are held at at

Norwich.

Norwich and King's Lynn.

Lynn have

The county quarter sessions meet Norwich, Yarmouth and King's

separate courts of quarter sessions.

Norfolk

is

in the

Norwich except for three rural deaneries in west NorThese are six county parliamenfolk, which are in that of Ely. tary divisions South-West, North. Central, and South Norfolk, King's Lynn, and Yarmouth (which includes the county borough of Yarmouth") as well as the parhamentary borough of Norwich which returns two members. Agriculture, Industries and Communications. The diocese of

— —

—

county

is

largely agricultural, the chief crops being barley, wheat,

sugar beet, oats, vegetables and root crops. Large areas are devoted to peas for canning or freezing. Most kinds of hvestock

573 and the county produces

are raised,

a greater

number

of turkeys

than any other in Britain. Catering for visitors and holidaymakBroads area and the coastal towns of Sheringham, Cromer and Great Yarmouth, is a big summer industry. Norwich (g.v.), the county town, is the main industrial and marketing centre. Agricultural machinery is made in many towns and the old silk industry survives in Norwich. Of three large, well-known boys' schools in the county, two are in Norwich, namely, King Edward VI's school and the City of Norwich school. The third, Gresham's school, was founded at Holt, near Sheringham, in 1555, by Sir John Gresham. In 1953, after serious floods had done much damage along the coast, seawalls were rebuilt and stronger defenses put up against the sea's encroachment. Fishing is carried on from Great Yarmouth and several smaller ports. The other principal trading port is King's Lynn (Lynn). ers. especially to the

The railways main towns.

of the Eastern region of British railways serve

the

eastern rivers afford water communication

The

with Great Yarmouth, while the Great and Little Ouse and some of the drainage cuts communicate with Lynn. BiBLioGR.^PHY. F. Blomefield and C. Parkin, An Essay Towards a Topographical History of Norfolk, 2nd ed., 11 vol. (1805-10); Victoria County History of Norfolk, 2 vol. (1901-06); M. R. James, Suffolk and Norfolk (1930); The Land of Britain, pt. 70 (1938); H. M. Cautley, Norfolk Churches (1949) C. P. Chatwin, East Anglia and Adjoining Areas (British Regional Geology) (1948); W. A. Dutt, Norfolk, rev. by E. T. Long, "Little Guides Series," 9th ed. (1949); Norfolk and Norwich Archaeological Society, Norfolk Archaeology Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists' Society, Transactions (1847) (1869); P. W. Blake et a/., The Norfolk Wc Live In (1958); Geog. Sac. J. M. Lambert et al., "The Making of the Broads," Roy.

—

.

.

.

;

;

(1960)

(R. R. C.)

R. R. Clarke, East Anglia (1960).

;

NORFOLK, an independent

city

and seaport

region of eastern Virginia, U.S., about 18 mi.

ocean near the mouth of Chesapeake bay.

Its

W.

in the tidewater

of the Atlantic

harbour of

Hamp-

ton Roads (g.v.), formed by the junction of the James river and two tidal estuaries, the Nansemond and Elizabeth rivers, is one of the world's most magnificent harbours. About the harbour are

Portsmouth, Chesapeake, Hampton and Newport News (gg.v.). In 1960 Norfolk, the largest city in The Norfolk-Portsmouth Virginia, had a population of 304,869.

also located the port cities of

standard metropolitan statistical area, consisting in 1960 of the cities of Norfolk, Portsmouth, South Norfolk, Virginia Beach and the counties of Norfolk and Princess Anne, had a population of In 1963 South Norfolk and Norfolk county merged to

577,504,

form the part

of

city of Chesapeake, and Princess Anne county became Virginia Beach (g.v.). (For comparative population

figures see table in Virginia: Population.)

History.

—The

history of Norfolk began with an act of the

Virginia general assembly of June 1680, on instructions from the King, which required each county to purchase 50 ac. and lay out in order to encourage "trade and manufactown in lower Norfolk county was to be located "on the Easterne Branch on Elizabeth river at the entrance of the branch." The required land was purchased from Nicholas Wise, a carpenter, for 10,000 lb. of tobacco, and the town was

a

town and warehouses

ture."

Land

for the

In 1705 the house of burgesses made it a port and landing, retaining the name Norfolk, and it was incorporated as a borough in 1736 with Samuel Boush as mayor and Sir John Randolph as recorder. The commerce of Norfolk for many years depended chiefly on trade with the people of eastern North Carolina, who brought such raw materials as tar, pitch, juniper shingles, plank, hides and tobacco over treacherous waterways or crude roads. As business increased, artisans set up their crafts and shipbuilding and ship repairing became important industries. Later a brisk trade developed with Barbados and the West Indies; and, as merchant ships became too large to load and unload conveniently at the quays along the rivers and bays, Norfolk became a busy warehouse centre. In recognition of its importance and the loyalty of its citizens. Gov. Robert Dinwiddle in 1753 presented Norfolk with a silver mace still cherished by the city. The American Revolution brought complete destruction to Norfolk. At first the Norfolk citizens were outspoken against the laid out in 1682.

of entry

NORICUM

574 Stamp

and Great Britain's "most tyrannick exercise of unlawful power," as one of their protests stated it. But when the royal governor. Lord Dunmore, started open warfare against Virginia and protests ended in bloodshed, much of the population, especially the Scottish merchants, who had close ties with their mother country, made the town a rallying point for Tories. In Dec. 1775 Governor Dunmore took over Norfolk as his headquarters, declared martial law and defeated a group of \'irginia act

city. Later in the Col. William Woodford and his \'irginia rillemen completely routed the British at Great Bridge and occupied Xorfolk. On New Year's day of 1776 Dunmore's fleet anchored in the

militiamen at Kempsville, southeast of the

month

Elizabeth river, bombarded the town and set warehouses. The British burned 19 houses in

some of the all. The \'irginians town after the bombardment, fire

to

under Woodford burned more of the and the following month the rest of the town, except for St. Paul's church (which still has one of Lord Dunmore's cannon balls imbedded in its walls), was destroyed to prevent its use by the British.

Although the restoration of Norfolk was surprisingly rapid, the of the West India trade by Great Britain, restrictions on trade and privateering by the French, British and Spanish during the Napoleonic Wars, a disastrous fire in 1799. rivalry of the fallsuch as Richmond and lack of an adequate commercial program by the state prevented even more substantial progress. During the War of IS 12 Norfolk was twice saved from invasion by the British. The first time, local militia, reinforced by U.S. marines, beat off a land attack on Portsmouth. An able defense of Craney Island (near the mouth of the Elizabeth) by Gen. Robert B. Taylor prevented the second invasion by barge. After that war canals and railroads brought improved communications and increased trade with North Carolina and the whole Roanoke river valley. Norfolk continued to grow and in 1845 was incorporated as a city, but yellow fever struck in 1S55, killing about lO'vc of the population, and in 1861 came the Civil War. Shortly after the outbreak of hostilities the navy yard at Portsmouth was burned and the port abandoned by Federal forces. During the next year the Confederates repaired and made good line cities

use of the shipyard facilities in the area, ing the "Virginia,"

first

among other

things, build-

ironclad warship to be tested in battle,

from the remains of the Union ship "Merrimack'' (see "Monitor" of). In May 1862, however, Norfolk fell to Union forces under Gen. John E. Wool and remained an occupied city, part of the time under Gen. Benjamin Franklin Butler

AND "Merrimack," Battle

throughout the remainder of the war. of Norfolk was accelerated after 1870 because of the completion of railroads converging on the port with its superior facilities. The extension of the Norfolk and Western railroad to the coal fields of Virginia and West Virginia in 1883 started a trade which made Hampton Roads one of the world's greatest coal ex(q.v.),

The progress

porting ports.

During World Wars first

I and II Norfolk experienced accelerated caused by heavy shipments to the Allies, and both wars by the activities at the military Correspondingly severe was the postwar defla-

in the later phases of

posts in the area. tion following

World War

I

when many

of these posts were closed After World War II Norfolk during which many of the outlying

or reduced to skeleton installations.

experienced a building boom sections of the city were transformed from woods, fields and into urban communities.

swamps

of the North Atlantic Treaty organization

Commerce, Industry and Transportation.

(NATO).

—Trade

in

Nor-

mostly of exporting bulk cargoes such as coal, tobacco, cotton, timber, truck crops and grain. Although it is the Atlantic coast leader in e.xport tonnage and stands high in the value of exports, import tonnage is relatively low. This was initially because of the mountains that stand between Norfolk and the major consumer markets of the eastern and midwestern U.S., thus making inland transportation of goods expensive and causing Norfolk to lose this import trade to ports such as New York and Baltimore, and later to the lack of a thickly settled manufacturing folk consists

hinterland. is perhaps the most important of Norfolk's indusbut the city also produces chemicals, fertilizers, insecticides, peanut and cottonseed oil, sea foods, textiles, automobiles, agri-

Shipbuilding

tries,

machinery and electric motors. Norfolk is connected to every port city

cultural

bridge, tunnel, ferry or, in the case of

in

Hampton Roads by

Hampton, by

a combination In 1964 another bridge-tunnel was completed across the entrance of Chesapeake bay to Cape Charles, previously connected to Norfolk only by ferry. The Dismal Swamp canal ( 1828) and the Albemarle and Chesapeake canal (1860), both parts of the Atlantic Intracoastal waterw-ay (g.v.). connect Norfolk with Currituck and Albemarle sounds in North

bridge-tunnel completed in 1957.

stifling

prosperity, at

(SACLANT)

—

Government The city of Norfolk, which in 1906 annexed the town of Berkley on the south side of the Elizabeth river, adopted a council-manager form of government in 1918 which controls the city's municipal affairs. The port of Hampton Roads is under the jurisdiction of a state port authority created in 1926.

Holdings of the federal government are also extensive in and around Norfolk. The more than 20 major military installations and commands include the naval operating base (SeweU Point), the naval air station (Breezy Point) and the amphibious training base (Little Creek) on the northern edge of the city; the Norfolk naval shipyard and the naval hospital in Portsmouth; and the headquarters of the U.S. Atlantic fleet and the supreme allied

command,

Atlantic

Carolina.

Education and Culture.

— In addition

to excellent public-

parochial-school systems, Norfolk contains Old (

Dominion

and

college

1930). until 1962 Norfolk college of the College of William and a division of Virginia State college (1935). Also im-

Mary and

portant in the cultural life of the city are the Norfolk Symphony orchestra and the Norfolk Museum of Arts and Sciences. Places of historical interest include the Myers house (1791). St. Paul's

church (1739), the .Adam Thoroughgood house (c. 1636-40) and 1850) is now a memorial to 1794). The city hall Ft. Norfolk Gen. Douglas Mac.\rthur who was interred there in 1964. Parks and Recreation. Besides being a busy commercial and industrial city, Norfolk also offers much in the way of recreation. Ocean View, a beach resort area on Chesapeake bay, lies within the city limits and Virginia Beach is only about IS mi. E. on the Atlantic. The Norfolk Municipal gardens in the northeastern section of the city contain beautiful displays of azaleas and camelNear the city are also fishing grounds and additional bathing lias. (R. L. Mo.) beaches. was in Roman times a district south of the Danube comprising central Austria and parts of Bavaria. As a Roman pro\-ince its western boundary, against Raetia (^.'c'.). was approximately the Inn river; in the south it met Italy at the summit of the Carnic .Alps; and in the east, at least by Tiberius' time, the frontier with Pannonia iq.v.) was a line running south from a point west of Vindobona (Vienna). But the earlier Celtic kingdom had been larger: on the east it included Carnuntum iq.v.), Szombathely, Hung.). Poetovio (Ptuj. Yugos.) and Savaria (

(

—

NORICUM

(

Emona

(Ljubljana), together w'ith the portion of the tribe of the Taurisci which lived near the source of the Save or Sava river.

This kingdom was a Celtic confederacy dominating an earlier Illyrian population. It received Roman protection in the late 2nd century B.C., and had developed a fine culture in the late La Tene period, while Latin legends on coinage and other Latin inscriptions attest a marked measure of romanization. Its wealth came from minerals, iron and also gold: Strabo fiv. 208) tells of a which led to an Tauriscan gold mine discovered about 140 B.C. inrush of Romans and a drop in the price of Italian gold by onethird.

The kingdom was annexed, apparently

Rome

as a bloodless conquest,

and the new^ province was placed under an equestrian governor, first called a praefectiis but from Claudius' time a procurator. Roman traders and settlers now came in even greater numbers, and romanization was rapid. Claudius made five of the Norican communities, including the capital. Virunum (near modern Maria Saal in Carinthia). into Roman municipia; many Noricans entered the legions and the province was exceptional in providing soldiers for the praetorian guard, even in the early 1st

by

c.

15 B.C..

;

j

j

i

I

i;

j

',

NORILSK—NORMANDY century a.d. Crude iron was exported to Italy, especially to Aquileia, but there were also steel manufactures in the province, and Norican swords were familiar to Horace. After the barbarian invasion of 167 (see Marcomanni) the frontier was reorganized, and legio II Italica was stationed in Noricum, its commander becoming the governor of the province. Its camp, by the end of the 2nd century at any rate, was at Lauriacum (Lorch, part of modern Enns). Under the later empire Noricum suffered severely from raids by Alamanni and other tribes, and was settled by Franks and Goths before the end of the 5th century.

—

Bibliography. E. Polaschek in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopddie der classischen Altertumswissensckaft, xvii, 971-1048 (1936) A. Alfbldi in Cambridge Ancient History, xi, pp. 540 ff. (1936). (G. E. F. C.) ;

NORILSK, a

town

Krasnoyarsk krai (territory) of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic and the most northerly town of the U.S.S.R., lies at the foot of Mt. Shmidtikhi in the Putoran mountains (Gory Putorana in the valley of the Rybnaya river, between Lakes Melkoye and Pyasino. Pop. (19S9) 109,442. Norilsk was founded in 1935 as a mining centre for the rich variety of minerals in the area. Copper, nickel, cobalt, platinum and a There are enriching and copper-smelting little coal are exploited. plants in the town and a thermal power station. A railway links Norilsk to the port of Dudinka on the Yenisei, 72 km. (45 mi.) to in

)

the west.

,

(R. A. F.)

NORMAL SCHOOL, an institution for the training of teachThe first school so named, the 6cole Normale Superieure (1794), was intended to serve as a model for other teacher-training schools; it later became the College of Pedagogy of the University of Paris. The first normal school in the United States was established at Lexington, Mass., in 1839. Normal schools were founded chiefly to train elementary-school teachers. They were commonly state supported and offered a two-year course beyond high school. In the 20th century the tendency has been to extend teachertraining requirements to at least four years and, especially after World War II, for the schools to broaden their programs, so that by the 1960s most former normal schools had become colleges or ers.

universities.

See Teachers, Training of.

NORMAN, MONTAGU COLLET NORMAN,

1st

St. Clere (1S71-19SO), British banker, came from a family of merchant bankers with important connections in the United States. He left the family firm and in 1916 joined the Bank of England as assistant to the deputy governor. Norman was himself appointed deputy governor in 1918, and governor in 1920, a post he held for 24 years, longer than any previous governor of the bank. This period was notable for the many grave problems that arose after World War I, when Great Britain's financial

Baron, of

ascendancy was first undermined, for the multiplication of the central bank functions in the modern state and for the development of closer relations between the central banks of all countries and in particular between those of Great Britain and the United States. On his retirement in 1944 he was raised to the peerage, taking the He died title Baron Norman of St. Clere in the county of Kent. on Feb. 4, 1950. (Ga. S.) Sep Sir Henry Clay, Lord Norman (1957).

NORMAN,

a city in central Oklahoma, U.S., 18 mi. S. of City, is located on a plateau overlooking the valley of the South Canadian river; the seat of Cleveland county. Norman is the marketing and distribution centre of an extensive agricul-

Oklahoma

which produces livestock and dairy products. There are and some light industry. Beginning as a tent city in April 1889, when Oklahoma was opened to white settlement, Norman was named in honour of an engineer who, in the 1870s, had aided in constructing the Santa Fe railroad through the territory. Before the settlement the railroad tural area

also oil wells in the vicinity

Norman Switch. Incorporated in 1902, Norman adopted a commission-manager form of government in 1919. The University of Oklahoma (see Oklahoma: Education), with 12 schools and colleges, was established there in 1892 on land donated by the people of Norman. The city is also the site of a called the site

575

mental hospital and a cerebral palsy institute. For comparative population figures see table in Oklahoma: Population. (Ge. H. S.) an ancient province of northern France. Its boundaries were approximately as follows: west and north, the state

NORMANDY,

English channel; northeast, the Bresle river, separating Normandy from Picardy; east, the Epte river, separating the Vexin Normand from the Vexin Frangais; southeast, a border between the SeineEpte confluence and the Eure-Avre confluence, separating Normandy from the westernmost appendage of the government of the lle-de-France and from Orleanais; south, the Avre and upper

Sarthe rivers as far as Alengon, separating Normandy from eastern Maine; and southwest, the Collines de Normandie and the lower Couesnon river, separating Normandy from western Maine

and from Brittany. It thus corresponds, in terms of modern ddto Manche, Calvados, Seine-Maritime and Eure (qq.v.), with Orne iq.v.) apart from Mortagne and Domfront. The provincial capital was Rouen (q.v^. Ancient History. The Seine and Eure valleys were inhabited in paleolithic times. The Cotentin peninsula and its hinterland have megalithic monuments like those of Brittany. Prehistoric metallurgy was affected by contact with the British Isles. Conquered by the Romans in 56 B.C. the future Normandy was organized in the 4th century a.d. as the province of Gallia Lugdunensis partenients,

—

II.

Some Germanic

settlement on the coast was begun before the Roman empire. On the overthrow of the kingdom of Syagrius in 486 the country passed under Merovingian collapse of the western

The Franks did little to modify the administrative promoted the foundation of great abbeys (St. Wandrille, Jumieges, Fecamp, Mont-St. -Michel). In the Merovingian partitions of France, the country was included in Neustria (q.v.), a name later taken sometimes to mean Normandy in particular. Prankish

rule.

structure, but

The Norman Dynasty. Normans were

—The

Vikings

iq.v.),

Northmen

or

raiding the coast in Charlemagne's time; and as the

Carolingian kings became weaker the invaders penetrated farther Finally the French king Charles III the Simple (q.v.) came to terms with Rollo, the chief or duke of the largest band of Normans, accepting him as his vassal for part of the territory.

inland.

This transaction (autumn 911?), known as the treaty of St. Clairis recorded only by the strongly pro-Norman Dudo It seems that Rollo was (q.v.), writing nearly 100 years later. originally enfiefed with lands in the dioceses of Rouen, Lisieux and Evreux. Subsequently, however, Rollo obtained rights over the Bessin (the country round Bayeux, where there had been a settlement of Normans independent of him) on transferring his allegiance to the Robertian king Rudolph (Raoul) in 923. Rollo was baptized in 912, but is said to have died a pagan (927, 932 or 933?). His son William I Longsword was steadfastly Christian. William did homage to King Rudolph in 933 for the Cotentin and Avranches, where the local Normans had been regarded as more or less dependent on Brittany; and after Rudolph's death he came to terms with King Louis IV, of the restored Carolingian dynasty. In 942 he was assassinated. William's young son and successor Richard I was taken into protective custody by Louis IV. Campaigning to bring the Normans under control and perhaps to reunite the fief to the crown's domains, Louis was in 945 taken prisoner by the Normans (who had been reinforced from Scandinavia or Denmark and was handed over by them to the Robertian Hugh the Great, whom he had tried to entangle in his enterprise. Returned to his people, Richard

sur-Epte,

)

withstood the last Carolingian attempts to subdue the duchy and, in 987, was instrumental in securing the French crown for the Robertian Hugh Capet, his brother-in-law. Richard II, who succeeded his father Richard I in 996, held his own against a peasant insurrection, helped Robert II of France against the duchy of Burgundy, repelled an English attack on the Cotentin and conducted a war against Eudes, count of Chartres, On his death (1026 or against whom he asked for Danish help. 1027), his sons Richard III and Robert I (see Robert, dukes of Normandy) disputed the succession till the former's opportune death a year or two later. Robert I, known to legend as Robert

NORMANDY

576

the Devil, obtained the Vexin Frangais from Henry I of France, whose side he took in the troubles following his accession. He died on his way home from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1035. Robert was succeeded by his bastard child William H (see William I. king of England). Henry I of France took advantage of

Young King had

the situation to recover the Vexin Frangais. but supported William the barons of the Bessin and the Cotentin rebelled, so that

crowned duke of Normandy

the rising was defeated in the battle of \'al-aux-Dunes, near Caen,

The treaty of Messina (1191), which Philip and Richard concluded in Sicily on their way to the crusade, did not terminate the question of Gisors and the Vexin, which Philip consequently tried to annex, with the connivance of Richard's brother John (see John, king of England), during Richard's captivity in Germany. On his return Richard won a great victory over Philip at Freteval, near Vendome, in July 1194; but at the end of 1195 he concluded the treaty of Louviers, renouncing the Vexin Normand. He then began the rapid construction of the great stronghold of ChateauGaillard (q.v.), enclaved within the Vexin. When Philip had renewed hostilities in 1198, Richard won another victory at Courcelles in September; and by the treaty of Jan. 1199 the only

when

when William formed his alliance by marriage with Flanders, Henry turned against him. A French invasion from Picardy was defeated by the Normans at Mortemer in 1054 and a joint French and Angevin invasion at in

In

1047.

the

1050s,

however,

V'araville in 105S.

While the dukes had been consolidating their power for the past 150 years, the growth of the Norman population had outstripped the expansion of their territory. This explains the major role taken by sons of the Norman baronial houses in enterprises abroad: especially in the expeditions which led to the foundation of the Norman kingdom of Sicily. Comparable to the last-named achievement, but of far greater importance to Normandy itself, was Duke William's own conquest of England, from 1066. During William the Conqueror's absences in England, Normandy was under the regency of his consort, Matilda of Flanders, with whom their eldest son Robert Curthose or Courteheuse (see again Robert"! was associated from 1067 except when he was in rebellion against his father. Phihp I of France, alarmed at his Norman vassal's excess of power, did what he could to weaken the duchy by favouring rebellion and invasion; and William died on an expedition for the recovery of the Vexin Frangais (1087). The personal union of Normandy and England was then broken Curthose became duke as Robert II. but England passed to his next surviving brother, king as William II. The brothers, however, were not long at peace: Robert, as the more convenient vassal, had Philip's support; and William II was finally helped by his other brother Henry, On William H's death (1100) Robert's designs on England were frustrated by this other brother who became king as Henry I (g.v.). Fraternal quarrels continued, despite negotiation; and in 1106 Henry defeated Robert in the battle of Tinchebrai and became duke of Normandy himself, Louis VI of France took up the cause of Robert's son William the Clito against the revived Anglo-Norman power. Henry I, however, had his own only son William the Aetheling recognized as heir to Normandy and, in 1119, decisively defeated Louis VI and William the Clito at Bremule, in :

Normand. When the .'\etheling was drowned (1120), made further trouble in Normandy, but he died in 1128. With Henry I's death (1135) the male line of the house of Rollo came to an end, and the Norman succession was long disputed. In 1144. however, Geoffrey Plantagenet, count of Anjou, second husband of Henry I's daughter IMatilda (q.v.), finally won Normandy from the rival the ^'e.xin the Clito

The Angevins and the French Conquest.

—

He and Matilda ceded the duchy to their son Having inherited Anjou and Maine from his father (1151) and acquired .\quitaine by marriage (1152), the duke became king of England as Henry II (q.v.) in 1154.

land) to the French princess Alice, who would have had the same dowry as Margaret, had not taken place. Philip supported Richard in the rebellion that

in

1 1

50,

Efficiently divided for administrative purposes into viscounties men who were originally the duke's vassals for their office but not for the territory that they administered (baillis were later appointed to super\'ise groups of viscounties), Normandy became

under

model state. It was also the geographic centre of the so-called Angevin empire. It was thus a primary objective for the Capetian kings of France in their struggle against the Plantagenet Angevins a

of England.

Louis VII of France,

who had

his price for recognizing the

obtained the Vexin Normand as Angevin accession to Normandy, went

to war with Henry on the latter's Aquitanian marriage, but later, by the treaty of Gisors (1158), agreed that Gisors and the Vexin Normand should be the dowry of his infant daughter Margaret, who was to marry Henr>''s eldest son Henry, later known as the Young King. Later intermittent warfare between Louis VII and Henry ended with the treaty of Montlouis (1174); but Philip II Augustus (q.v^ resumed the struggle. In 1187 he began by demanding the surrender of the Vexin, on the ground that Henry the

hastened Henry IPs death, and Richard was at Rouen in July 1189, before his

English coronation.

Norman

place left to Phihp was Gisors.

Three months

later

Richard was dead.

Though John secured the Norman and the English crowns (April-May 1 1 99 ), his nephew^ Arthur of Brittany was put forward by a strong party in the other Angevin terriPhilip favoured Arthur till, by the treaty of Le Goulet tories. (May 1200), he obtained from John not only the Vexin Normand for the succession

but also the countship of Evreux, as well as concessions not affectNormandy. Less than two years later, however, John was declared to have forfeited all his French fiefs; and in summer 1202 Philip invaded Normandy. Chateau-Gaillard, which John had retained, fell after a long siege; and when Rouen capitulated in June 1204 all Normandy was Philip's. Yet it was only with the treaty

ing

of Paris (1259) that the English

the loss of

Normandy

Normandy and there were

and

crown

to France.

the Capetians.

specifically

acknowledged

—Already under the Angevins

communes in Normandy (see Commune [Medieval]) when he entered Rouen, Philip Augustus had to guar;

in 1204,

antee the town's charter, the so-called Stablissements (dating from Throughout the 13th century the arbitrary lewing of c. 1170). services and taxes by the French kings was resented. To conciliate issued the two ordinances together opinion Philip IV and Louis

X

known as the Charte aux Normands (1314-15), guaranteeing a number of privileges to the duchy: there was to be no extraordinary taxation "save in absolute necessity"; vassals were not to be forced to do military service beyond the normal term due; free men were not to be put to the torture save in grave presumption of a capital crime and the Norman exchequer (a court of justice as well as a financial bureau) was to have cognizance of all cases arising within the duchy, without any evocation to the Paris parle;

tnent.

—

The Hundred Years' "War. In the first phase of the Hundred War (g.v.) one of the Norman barons, Godefroy d'Har-

house of Blois,

Henry

died in 1183 and that the newly projected marRichard (see Richard I, king of Eng-

riage of the latter's brother

Years'

court, was already conspiring in 1343 against Philip VI of France and his son John (the future John II of France, on whom the duchy had been bestowed) before Edward III of England landed Subsequently the French position in in the Cotentin in 1346. Normandy was weakened by the fact that the malevolent Charles II (q.v.) of Navarre held lands there; but though the draft treaty

London (1359) stipulated cession to England, the treaty of Bretigny (1360) left Normandy to France. Charles V. whom John had made duke of Normandy in 13SS, began his reign as king of France by sending Bertrand du Guesclin to defeat the Navarrese at Cocherel on the Eure (1364); but in the Cotentin the EngUsh and the Navarrese long held their ground. French taxation led to the revolt of the Harelle in Rouen (1381of

821.

The English king Henry

V's victorious campaigns began with

his capture of Harfleur in Sept. 1415;

and by 1420

all

Normandy

except Mont-St. -Michel was in English hands. Though the English established a council for Normandy and emphasized the duchy's separateness from France (cf. the foundation of the University of

Caen by Henry VI

in 1432), there

was always some resistance

NORMANS to their regime;

and after the death of the capable governor, John,

duke of Bedford,

gathered strength: the Pays-deThe French reconquest, however, was postponed till 1449. After the battle of Formigny (q.v.), in 1450, the last English strongholds surrendered.

Caux

this resistance

rose in 1435, the Val-de-Vire in 1436.

—Louis XI

The French Province. Normandy to his brother

of France gave the duchy Charles in 1465 but soon took it back and finally persuaded the French estates-general at Tours in 1468

of

Normandy inalienable from the French crown. ThereNormandy was governed as a province, though for some time Charte aiix Normands was theoretically maintained. The ex-

to declare

after

the

chequer became a parlement, with

permanently at Rouen. and trade from the start of the 16th century revived the maritime tradition.

Norman

its

seat

participation in overseas exploration

Protestantism made great headway in Normandy, especially at the University of Caen. There was bitter fighting between Catho-

and Huguenots in the periods 1561-63 and 1574-76 before the contest between King Henry IV and the Holy League. Despite Henry's victories at Arques (1589) and at Ivry (1590), Rouen, with occasional rehef from the Spanish Netherlands, held out for the League till March 1594. Oppressive taxation during the Thirty Years' War provoked the rising of the Va-nu-pieds ("Barefeet") in 1639, which was ruthlessly put down. The attempt of the governor, Henry due de Longueville, to rally Normandy to the Fronde in 1649 was a fiasco. Louis XIV's intendants worked to assimilate Normandy's institutions to those of France and to promote still further its commerce and its maritime activity. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) led to a mass emigration of Huguenots, who had contributed greatly both to the economy and to the navy; but lics

final

Normandy soon recovered its prosperity in the 18th cenThe departements into which Normandy was dissolved in

even so tury.

1790 generally took a "federalist" attitude during the French Revand the western areas were favourable to the Chouans

olution, {q.v.).

For the Normandy landings and the campaign of the Allies in 1944 see World War II. See also references under "Normandy" in the Index.

who began to make destructive plundering raids on the west in the 8th century (see Viking). In the form "Normans" the term refers particularly to those Vikings who settled in north-

later, Iceland,

ern Francia (the Frankish kingdom) and to their descendants, who together founded what became the duchy of Normandy and sent out fresh expeditions of conquest and colonization to southern Italy

and

Sicily, to

mans

England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland.

did not themselves

won

mark out

The Nor-

the boundary of the territory

France it was approximately the ancient ecclesiastical province of Rouen, itself in turn based on the Gallo-Roman province of Lugdunensis Secunda. But from an early period this territory acquired the name ortmannia (Normandy) and this fact, together with the settlers' adoption of Christianity and the speech and culture of the Franks, shows that the people of Normandy must be regarded as historically distinct from, though clearly related to, the other pirate colonists of Scandinavian stock, whether they

in

:

N

in Britain, Ireland, the

Loire valley or elsewhere.

Origins and Character.— During the second half of the 9th century. Viking raids on the northern and western coast lands of France had been growing in scale and frequency. In the last decades of the century a number of Scandinavians, of whom the majority were probably Danes, had secured a permanent foothold on Frankish soil in the valley of the lower Seine. In an unknown year during the first decade of the 10th century, a Viking named Hrolfr (Rollo), nicknamed the Ganger ("walker"), who had already gained a reputation as a great leader of Norse raiders in Scotland and Ireland, came to the Seine and soon emerged as the outstanding personality among the heathen settlers. Rollo was probably a Norwegian, the son of Rognvald, earl of

Romsdal

in

ing position

made

the so-called Treaty of St. Clair-sur-Epte with the Vikings, allowing them to occupy the land between the Epte and the sea stretching from the Dives river on the west to the Bresle river on the east.

More

(the district of

western Norway). He had certainly achieved a leadamong the Seine Vikings by 911 when, as a result of

It

may

be assumed that this Frankish concession was

conditional on the Vikings' accepting Christianity and performing military service for the Carolingian monarchy.

Within a genera(933) the Norsemen, still largely heathen in religion and piratical in behaviour, had extended their rule westward to MontSt. -Michel, wresting from the Bretons the districts of Lower Normandy the Bessin, Avranchin, Cotentin and Coutances. From tion

—

933 to the victory of William the Bastard at Val-es-Dunes in 1047, the history of the

by the

Normans

in

Normandy

struggle of a line of ruthless

(q.v.)

was dominated

and forceful

rulers, calling

themselves variously counts of Rouen or Normandy and counts or dukes of the Normans, to establish pohtical hegemony over the Frankish population of Upper and Lower Normandy and over their Scandinavian ruling class. In this struggle the two halves of Normandy were, not without difficulty, welded together, and the racial personality of the Normans was evolved. Despite their permanent settlement in Gaul, their conversion to Christianity, their adoption of the French language, and their abandonment of sea-roving for Frankish cavalry warfare, the Normans retained many traits of their Viking ancestors. They displayed an extreme restlessness and recklessness, an unquenchable greed for wealth and power, a love of fighting accompanied by courage that was often foolhardy, and a craftiness and cunning which frequently went hand in hand with outrageous treachery. A reader of the sagas who turns to the chronicles that narrate the deeds of the Normans in Normandy, Britain or southern Italy cannot fail to be struck at many points by the close similarities between the Norsemen proper and their half-gallicized kinsmen the astonishing daring of exploits by which, time and again, a mere handful of men would vanquish an enemy many times as numerous, the unequaled capacity for rapid movement across land and sea, the brutal, sacrilegious violence, the fondness for vivid and often unflattering nicknames, the precocious sense of the use and value :

of

NORMANS, originally Nortmanni (Northmen), the term used generally in western Europe to denote the barbarian heathen pirates from Scandinavian lands, especially Denmark, Norway and,

577

the battle of Chartres, the FrankLsh king Charles III the Simple

money

—

all

these things were equally true of

The conquest

Normans.

Norsemen and

Ulster by John de Courci iq.v.') almost every detail, form the theme of a saga telling of some heroic Viking enterprise. In the same way, the part played by Bohemund I (q.v.) in the first crusade at once recalls the irresponsible bravery and cunning of a Viking free-

might

of

easily, for instance, in

booter.

Among

the

Norman

cially characteristic,

traits regarded by contemporaries as speperhaps the most significant for history were

their utterly unbridled character (effrenatissima gens, in the phrase

of Geoffrey Malaterra, the 11th-century author of the Historia

[The

) and the capacity for quick and fruitand adaptation. The former was historically imporit meant that wherever a Norman state survived at all, as in Normandy itself, England or Sicily, it threw up, by a process akin to natural selection, a line of outstandingly able and ruthless rulers. William Longsword (d. 942), Richard II (d. 1027), Robert (q.v.) the Devil and William the Bastard, counts or dukes Normandy; of the last named (see William I) and his two sons, William II Rufus and Henry I, kings of England; Robert Guiscard (from Hauteville in Lower Normandy), his brother Roger I and nephew Roger II (gq.v.), rulers of Apulia and Sicily, were all among the most powerful and successful secular potentates of their age in western Europe. Provided that men of this calibre had good material to work upon, as they undoubtedly had in England and Sicily, they were able to create political institutions which proved stable and enduring (see English History: The Normans; Sic-

Sictda,

Sicilian History']

ful imitation

tant because

ily: History).

—

The Norman Role in European History The Normans began as pagan destroyers, bent upon almost senseless plundering and slaughter. Forced to come to terms with the Carolingian and Capetian dynasties, to adopt French as their own language and Christianity as their religion, they quickly became missionaries and proselytizers of the civilization which they had attacked and which had ultimately absorbed them. They early grasped the principles

NORMANS

578 of Carolingian feudalism (^.v.l,

and Normandy became

in the

1

1th

century one of the most highly feudalized states in western Europe. Although the duke's own .urviliiim debitum performed to the king of France was a more ten knights, he himself could count on the service of hundreds of mailed knights, many of whom fought under the banner of the great

Norman

The art of castle-building was Normans became masters in the effective motte-and-hailey castle

feudatories.

not a

Norman

invention, but the

use of the simple yet enormously

—

a

mound (motte) topped by

a

timber pahsade and tower, surrounded by a ditched and palisaded These little fortifications, which were comenclosure (bailey). plementary to the warfare conducted in open country by small units of cavalry, became the hallmark of Norman penetration and conquest. Again, although the Normans were at first learners and imitators in the practice of fighting on horseback, they took to cavalry warfare as to the manner born. Mounted on much the same breed of destrier or war horse as his Prankish, Ange\'in or Breton opponent, wearing the heavy mail hauberk or bymie that was general among the warriors of northwestern Europe, protected by a conical helmet with long nasal, and by the familiar kite-shaped shield, armed with a long, broad-bladed sword and a slender lance, the Norman horse soldier of the 11th and 12th centuries proved on countless occasions that he could outfight and overwhelm the most powerful forces brought against him. To some extent, no doubt, this was due to the great importance -which the Norman knightly class attached to the training of young warriors. They eagerly adopted the carefully fostered cult of knighthood, to some extent Christian in inspiration and based upon the belief that there should be in society an order of w-arriors dedicated to the art of cavalry warfare, which had grown up in the northwestern portion of the old Carolingian empire in the 10th and 11th centuries. But in the 11th century, when the Normans won their reputation, the Christian qualities in knighthood were almost neghgible. The Nor-

man

mounted soldiers who had relittle room for the feelings of humanity and mercy with which Christian teaching was later to endow the concept of chivalry. To find a parallel it would be necessary to cite their terrible kinsmen, the Jomsborg Vikings, or even, still farther afield, the Seljuk Turks, barbaric mounted warriors whose role in Islam was curiously simDar to that of the Normans knights were fierce and brutal ceived an arduous training that left

in

Christendom,

Normans became the typical exponents of Caroand of cavalry and castle warfare, so they also, narrower sense, became the exponents and champions of religious orthodoxy. The conversion of the Scandinavians of Normandy was a slow and gradual process. Even by the end of the 11th century the Norman episcopate had barely accompHshed the task of restoring one of the most desolated provinces of the western church. But under the patronage of the ducal house religious life flourished and a number of Norman monasteries, notably Bee, Fecamp, St. Evroul and St. Stephen's, Caen, became renowned centres of Benedictine life and learning. This was chiefly due to the encouragement given to non-Norman scholars and reformers, such as the Italians William of Dijon, Lanfranc of Pa\'ia and St. Anselm of Aosta. to make their home in Normandy. The great religious and ecclesiastical revival which marks 11thcentury Normandy found another expression in the enormous popularity among the Normans of pilgrimages to Rome and the Holy This yearning for pilgrimages was one of the factors reland. sponsible for the Norman conquest of southern Italy (c. 1030-71) and of Sicily (1060-91). The other main factor was the emergence in the first half of the 11th century of what was virtually a new aristocracy in Normandy. In the struggles that accompanied this profoundly important social movement, and especially during the long minority (1035^7) of William the Bastard, many Norman nobles, and some younger sons with few prospects of inheritance at home, journeyed to the Mediterranean, inspired by a naive mixture of religious devotion, love of adventure and desire for fresh conquests. In the south, once they had transformed themselves from casual bands of mercenaries and freebooters into the ruling class of a mixed Lombard, Byzantine and Saracenic state, the Normans stood for championship of the reformed and reformJust as the

lingian feudalism

though

in a

ing papacy.

In this situation there was an irony highly characNormans, for their role as protectors of the Holy See and of orthodoxy was founded on the battle of Civitate (1053) in which they inflicted a crushing defeat on a papal army under Leo IX, and on the terrible sack of Rome which they carried out, ostensibly on behalf of Pope Gregory VH, in 1084, Surprisingly, the part played by the Normans in the early crusades was relatively teristic of the

and aggressive erecby Robert Guiscard's

slight, consisting chiefly of the typically selfish

tion of the short-lived principality of Antioch

Bohemund and

eldest son

his

nephew Tancred.

The

role of the

Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries may be summed up by saying that by their fierce energy and enterprise they extended the practice of centralized authoritarian rule, feudahsm and cavalry warfare, and that through their simple devotion to the papacy they helped to spread the ideas of the reform movement in

Normans

in

the western church.

Adaptation of Institutions in

Sicily

and the British

— Geoffrey Malaterra said that the Normans were quick

Isles.

to imitate

whatever they saw, and this faculty of imitation is evident in all the different countries where the Normans settled. But Norman is certainly not the whole story

imitation was never slavish, and of

Norman

achievement.

A

truer explanation of

would be that they combined

Norman

success

a boundless self-confidence with a

wonderful capacity for adapting to their own purposes the institutions they found in newly won territories. Thus, in Apulia and Sicily their control was based on faith in their own military superiority, in their strategic use of castles and harbours, and in their importation of feudalism to govern the relations of the count or king with his greater subjects. But in government they adopted the highly advanced and largely literate techniques already developed by the Greeks and Saracens. Though champions of the papacy, they preserved the existing tradition of religious toleration, which was accompanied by complete racial toleration. Without this toleration the Norman kingdom of Sicily w'ould not have been possible. It was inevitable that the distinctively Norman character of Sicily should vanish during the 12th century, as the stream of Norman migration dried up, yet under the two Rogers and the two Williams it was, undeniably, a Norman vigour and attention to detail and a Norman concern for the strength of the royal financial system which made Sicily one of the richest and most powerful states of the Mediterranean, North of the English channel, the Normans similarly brought their own brand of feudalism and their own ideas of strong personal government and fiscal institutions. But as in Sicily they adopted many existing native institutions and customs. In England even at the end 1135) of Henry I's reign the whole structure of royal government remained fundamentally Anglo-Saxon monarchy, king's council, royal seal and writing office, the shire system and the sheriffs, the twofold revenue system consisting of the produce of royal estates compounded into annual cash pa>'Tnents, and a direct tax or geld levied on the landowning class, all originated from before the Conquest. But under Norman direction, and with a number of Norman innovations such as the exchequer, the itinerant justices and the sworn inquest (see English Law: The Norman Age), this S3'stem worked much more efficiently after 1066 than before, and, a fact of equal importance, England was made safe from foreign invasion, Norman influence on the church in England also worked powerfully in the direction of better organization and discipHne, In Scotland, after the accession of David I (q.v.) in 1124, the Normans penetrated in significant though never large numbers. They w'ere encouraged by the ruling house and in consequence, though one can hardly speak of a Norman conquest of Scotland in the accepted sense, the Scottish kingdom by the late 12th century was thoroughly normanized in many features, notably military feudalism and methods of royal government. Here adaptation was of Celtic rather than Anglo-Saxon institutions, and the contrast between Scottish earldoms, to many of which men of Norman descent succeeded, and the English earldoms, w-hich William I restricted and his successors turned into \irtually honorific titles, remained striking as late as the 13th century. An earldom in Scotland remained an integral element in the administrative and mili(

—

NORMAN STYLE—NORRIS tary structure of the feudal kingdom.

In Wales and. Ireland, where

the Normans settled at first in very small numbers, the degree of adaptation to native conditions was perhaps more marked than anywhere else. In Wales Norman lords acquired Welsh princi-

and lordships intact and adopted many Welsh customs, including even the right of private war and a fixed share of booty captured from enemies. At the same time, they introduced towns and castles. The Normans in Ireland behaved in much the same way, though at first they were subject to a more stringent control by the English crown, which for a century maintained an efficient government at Dublin. Many Norman families in Ireland, however, as in Scotland, became thoroughly merged with the native palities

population.

had many shortcomings. Few ineminence in the 11th or 12th centuries, still fewer leaders, were of pure Norman stock. Norman literature

is

negligible beside English or French.

identifiably

They are represented as dwelling by the "world tree," Yggdrasil's ash; and thus may also have been regarded as dispensers of blessing and fertility. K. C. K.) the northernmost and largest Idn (county) of Sweden, lies between the Gulf of Bothnia, Finland and Norway. Pop. (1960) 261,672; area 40,879 sq.mi. It extends for about 135 mi. from east to west, and for about the same distance from south to north, projecting into Lapland and the Arctic circle. From the coast, the land rises to the barren mountainous frontier with Norway, and there ancient rocks are exposed. In this district is the highest land in Sweden Kebnekaise, 6,965 ft.), unexplored until 1880. The upland is crossed by depressions and that of Tornetrask allows a route to ice-free Narvik (g.v.), permitting winter export from the five iron-mining centres around Kiruna. A number of large, long lakes in these depressions help to regulate the river flow. Railways extend in the coastal zone through Boden to the frontier town of Haparanda (connecting with the different gauge of Finland) and inland through the Lapp centre of Jokkmokk. The region was occupied late by Swedish settlers but now has considerable significance through its mineral wealth. Few crops can mature in the short summer and timber is slow growing. The Lule river (Lilla Luleav) has been harnessed at Porjus for power, which supplies the Narvik railway and industrial centres in the south. At Porjus and Lulea {g.v.; the county town) there is electrical smelting of iron. (A. C. O'D.) sociated with them.

(

NORRBOTTEN,

(

Summary .^The Normans tellectuals of spiritual

579

Skuld, perhaps meaning roughly Past, Present and Future. In consequence of their presence at births, midwifery is sometimes as-

Norman work

is

In the graphic arts

Norman

outstanding.

little

architecture,

impressively massive and enduring as it can be at its best, was a not specially original variant of the Romanesque of northern Europe. Nevertheless, they produced numerous leaders who worked for order and respect for the law in an age when barbarity and anarchy were still prevalent, and, in Sir Frank Stenton's phrase, "politically, they were masters of their world." See also references

under "Normans"

in the Index.

—

Bibliography. C. H. Haskins, The Normans in European Historv (1916), Norman Institutions, 2nd ed. (1960) D. C. Douglas, The Rise of Normandy (1947), "Rollo of Normandy," English Historical Review, vol. Ivii (1942) ; M. de Bouard, "De la Neustrie carolingienne a la Normandie feodale," Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, vol. xxviii (19SS); J. H. Round, Feudal England (1S9S); F. M. Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, 2nd ed. (1947); F. Chalandon, Hisloire de la domination normande en Italic et en Sicilie, 2 vol. (1907); G. H. Orpen, Ireland Under the Normans, 4 vol. (1911) R. L. G. Ritchie, The Normans in Scotland (1954) J. Lloyd, A History of Wales From the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest, 2 vol., 3rd ed. (1939) J. G. Edwards, "The Normans and the Welsh March," Proceedings of the British Academy, vol. xlii (1956). (G. W. S. B.) ;

;

NORRIS,

FRANK

(Benjamin Franklin Norris) (1870-

1902), U.S. novelist of the naturalistic school, was born in Chicago, 111., March 5, 1870. He studied art in Paris and attended the University of California, Berkeley, and Harvard. He was news correspondent in south Africa, 1895; editorial assistant on the San Francisco Wave, 1896-97; and war correspondent in Cuba

;

for McClure's Magazine, 1898.

;

NORMAN

STYLE,

in architecture, the

Romanesque

style

developed in Normandy and England during the nth and 12th centuries, up to the time of the general adoption of Gothic architecture in both countries. Since it was only shortly before the Norman conquest of England that Normanciy became settled and civilized enough to produce an architecture, the origin in both countries is the same, and early types are extremely similar. This

common

early

Norman

from Romanesque

Norris'

Francisco.

is a tragedy of mean streets in San The Octopus (1901), first of a projected trilogy. The Wheat, pictures with bold symbolism the growth of

McTeague (1899)

Epic of the the wheat in California and the struggle of the ranchers with the railway corporation. The Pit (1903) deals with wheat speculation on the Chicago board of trade, and The Wolf, unwritten at his death, would have shown the wheat relieving an old-world famine. Vandover and the Brute (1914) is a memorable study of degeneration.

love of

After the example of Zola and the naturalists, Norris empha-

geometric ornament such as zigzags, general crudeness in the scant figure and leaf carving, and a daring originality in construction ideas, possibly owing much to the fact that Lanfranc of Pavia (d. 1089) had introduced Lombard ideas into many Norman ab-

and environment in human life. Early influenced by Kipling and by popular notions of evolution, he exalted primitivism, but he finally adopted a more humanitarian ideal and began to view the novel as a proper agent for social betterment. He thus gave an impulse to the "muckraking" movement which followed, though he disavowed overt propaganda in the novel {see Muckrakers). He strove to return American fiction, then dominated by historical romance, to more serious themes. Despite philosophic inconsistencies and romantic intrusions in his work, Norris was a writer of great original force. He

differed

in its

beys.

Although the English and French phases of the style were thus became different. The French was characterized by careful structural articulation (Abbaye-auxDames and Abbaye-aux-Hommes, Caen, both founded in 1062 but altered later) and elaboration of tower and spire (St. Michel de identical at the start, they soon

Vaucelles, Caen-, 12th century).

In England the chief characteristics are enormous length of church plan, the frequent use of great round columns for the nave arcade (Gloucester cathedral, 1089-1100; Tewkesbury abbey, 1123; and Durham cathedral, alternate piers, 1099-1 128) and great decorative richness (Prior's door, Ely cathedral, late 12th century; St. Mary's chapel, Glastonbury abbey, 1186; the front of Iffley church, 12th century; and the Galilee porch at Durham, c. 1 1 75). The general Norman structural genius is most markedly shown in the buttressing system and in the ribbed vault of Durham cathedral, whose date is much debated, being placed as early as 1 133 and as late as the 13th century. See Romanesque Architecture; Gothic Architecture; see also references under "Nor-

man

Style" in the Index.

NORNS

correspond in Germanic belief to the Moirai (see Greek; the name is found only in Scandinavian sources. They are usually represented as three and as spinning or weaving the fate of men. Some sources name them UrSr, VerSandi and

Fate)

in

sized the determinism of heredity

died in San Francisco, Oct. 25, 1902. Among his other works are: Moran of the Lady Letty (1898), Blix (1899), A Man's Woman (1900) and The Responsibilities of the Novelist (1903). His writings were collected (10 vol.) in 1928, and The Letters of Frank Norris edited by F. Walker in 1956. Bibliography. Franklin Walker, Frank Norris (1932) Ernest Marchand, Frank Norris: a Study (1942); Maxwell Geismar, Rebels and Ancestors, with bibliography (1953). (E. Md.)

—

GEORGE

;

NORRIS, WILLIAM (1861-1944), US. senator from Nebraska noted for his advocacy of many political reforms and of public ownership of hydroelectric power plants, was born on a farm in Sandusky county, 0., on July 11, 1861. The death of his father and of his only brother left the family in straitened circumstances. At an early age Norris became the chief support of the farm household and was able to attend school only in the winter. Largely self-educated, he taught school and studied law at Northern Indiana Normal school (now Valparaiso university). He was admitted to the bar in 1883 and two years later moved to

NORRIS— NORTE DE SANTANDER

SSo

Nebraska to begin practice. He was soon elected prosecuting attorney of P'urnas county and in 1S95 became district judge of tlie 14th judicial district, serving until 1902 when he successfully ran for congress as a Republican, He was re-elected for five successive terms, becoming leader of an insurgent group which in 1910 forced reforms in the house rules to reduce the autocratic control of the speaker.

In 1912 Xorris was elected to the senate, where he served until As a senator he became known as an independent who, in His strong his own words, "would rather be right than regular." antiwar convictions led him to vote against the entry of the United and he denounced the Versailles States into World War I, treaty that followed it. He fought for many political reforms, such as presidential primaries and the direct election of U.S. senators. Norris was the author of the 20th amendment to the constitution which abolished the so-called "lame duck" sessions of congress. He introduced bills for the retention of Muscle Shoals as a government power-development project and for establishing the Tennes1943.

see \'alley authority.

The

named

He was

TVA

dam, completed

was farm relief legislation and coauthor of the Norris-LaGuardia act, which restricted the use of injunctions in labour disputes and opened the way for a changed legal concept of labour-management relations. Though always a Republican. Norris felt his party ties lightly; he endorsed Theodore Roosevelt in 1912, La Follette in 1924, Smith in 192S and Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1932, 1936, 1940 and 1944. Norris spent a half century in public life, 40 years of it in congress. His last fight was an unsuccessful attempt to pass legisin his

honour.

first

also a leader in the

He died Sept. 2, 1944, in In 1945 his book Fighting Liberal was published.

lation outlawing the poll tax.

Neb.

in 1936,

demand

See Richard Lowitt, George 1S61-1Q12 (1963).

NORRIS, JOHN

W.

Norris: the

Making

for

McCook,

('1657-1711), English philosopher, notable

(

The poems cf.

chiefly represented in his Collection of Miscellanies, A. B. Grosart (ed.), The Poems of John Norris, 1871) (

and the translations must be ranked as minor works. The mystical and moral writings are those in which Norris shows most clearly the influence of the Cambridge Platonists, in particular that of Henry More and of Ralph Cudworth. In An Idea of Happiness (1683), following Plato, he places the soul's highest happiness in the contemplative love of God. The Theory and Regulation of Love appeared in 16S8, with Norris' correspondence with More as an appendix. Other publications of this group were Reflections upon the Conduct of Human Life (1690), in the form of a letter to Lady Masham Christian Blessedness, or Discourses upon the Beatitudes (i6go); Practical Discourses on Several Divine Subjects, 3 vol. (1691-93); and Letters Concern;

Love of God (1695), being

ing the

his correspondence with

defends that doctrine against Henry Dodwell.

—

BiBLiOGR.^PHY. F. J. Powicke, A Dissertation on John Norris (1S94) F. I. Mackinnon, The Philosophy of John Norris of Bemerton ( 1910) J. H. Muirhead, The Platonic Tradition in Anglo-Saxon Philosophy (1931). ;

;

NORRISTOWN, U.S.,

mi.

is

a borough of southeastern Pennsylvania, located on the north bank of the Schuylkill river, about 18 of Philadelphia, the seat of Montgomery county. The

N.W.

present site was purchased by Isaac Norris and William Trent from William Penn, Jr., in 1704, and was originally known as Norriton plantation. When Montgomery county was created in

1784 the Pennsylvania legislature instructed that its courthouse be erected in Norriton township along the Schuylkill, and the com-

munity which grew around the courthouse was named Norristown and incorporated in 1812. The river and then a canal encouraged its growth, and in 1834 it obtained a railroad connection w-ith Philadelphia. The city rises on gradual slopes northward from the river, with factories on the river shore giving way to increasingly better residential districts as the ground rises. IManufactures include metal and fibre products, machinery, drugs and tires. For comparative population figures see table in Pennsylvania: Population.

of a Progressive, (R. B. N.)

both as a continuator of Cambridge Platonism and as an exponent of the theories of Nicolas Malebranche, was born at CollingbourneKingston in Wiltshire. Educated at Winchester and at Exeter college. Oxford, he became a fellow of All Soul's college in 1680. In 1689 he was appointed to the living of Newton St. Loe in Somerset. Thence in 1691 he was transferred to the rectory of Bemerton in Wiltshire, where he spent the remainder of his life. His numerous publications include poems and translations; moral and mystical writings: and theological and philosophical works, as well as a political tract. A Murnival of Knaves, or Whiggism Planely Displayed and Laughed out of Countenance 1683). 1687;

from human reason only in degree, not in nature. His most imAn Essay Towards the Theory of the Ideal or IntelWorld, appeared in two parts (1701-04): the first treats the intelligible world absolutely; the second considers it in relation to human understanding. This w'ork is a complete exposition of the system of Malebranche, in which Norris refutes the assertions of Locke and the sensualists. In A Philosophical Discourse Concerning the Natural Immortality of the Soul (1708) Norris portant work.

ligible

Mary

(R. F.

We.)

NORRKOPING, a major port

and industrial town of Sweden, in the Idn (county) of Ostergotland, stands on the Motala river, 2\ mi. above its outflow into the Baltic trough through an inlet known as Braviken, 113 mi. S.W. of Stockholm. Pop. 1960) 90,In the neighbourhood are some remarkable hallristningar 680. rock carvings) of the Late Bronze Age. The town was founded about 1350 and received its charter in 1384. Frequent fires (notably in 1719 when the Russians burned the town during the Northern War) have caused rebuilding on modern lines. The more important buildings include St. Olai church (1767; restored 1949); the town hall (1910); Hedvig's church (1673); two medieval churches, at Ostra Eneby and Tingstad (with unique mural paintings); Holmen tower (1751); the grammar school (1862) and technical school (1959); and the museum and art gallery (1946). Louis de Geer 1587-1652 ), a Dutchman, is credited as being the (

(

(

first

to introduce industry successfully there.

velopment was the

falls in

The

basis for de-

the river, which afford motive

power

which dominated Norrkoping from the 1660s to the 1950s) and for factories producing food products, paper, lithography, radio and television sets, farm equipment, rubber and chemicals. The completion in 1961 of the fairway, the Lindo canal, permits the harbour, now one of the most important in Sweden, to take vessels up to 30 ft. draft. Norrkoping is a focus for both rail and road transport between Stockholm and the south and west of Sweden; there is an airport at Kungsangen on the eastern outskirts. (Ar. J.; K. v. S.: B.H. He.) see Norwegian Language and for the textile industry

(

NORSE LANGUAGE:

Scandinavian Languages.

NORSE MYTHOLOGY:

see

Germanic Mythology and

Heroic Legends.

Astell. _

Norris'

considerable philosophical

work was Reflections upon a Late Essay Concerning the Human Understanding, appended to the first edition of Christian Blessedness ; in this he first

many later criticisms of Locke's theory, though he agreed with Locke in dismissing the doctrine of innate ideas. His adoption of Malebranche's theory of divine illumination involved him in controversy with the Quakers, against whose notion of "the Light within" he published Two Treatises Concerning the Divine Light (1692). His Account of Reason and Faith (1697) is one of the best of the many answers to John Toland's Christianity anticipated

Not Mysterious:

reason, according to Norris, is nothing but the exact measure of truth, that is to say, divine reason, which differs

NORTE DE SANTANDER,

a

department of the republic

of Colombia, located in the eastern Cordillera adjacent to Vene-

was created in 1910 from the provinces of Cucuta. Ocana and Pamplona, which formed the northern part of the department of Santander. Area 7.796 sq.mi.; pop. (1961 est.) 418.040. The eastern Cordillera bifurcates in Norte de Santander, one arm continuing northward as the Sierra de Ocaiia and Sierra de Motilones while the other bends eastward to form the N'enezuelan Andes. The largest rivers in the department drain into Lake Maracaibo. The Catatumbo region, near the Venezuela border, is an important oil-producing area. Agricultural products are grown largely for local use. In the cooler uplands w'heat, potatoes, barley, maize and zuela.

It

NORTH horse beans are the principal crops. Coffee and sugar cane are grown on the middle slopes and lower valleys, as in the vicinity of the capital city of Cucuta, pop. (1961 est.) 142,230. (Js. J. P.) The English title of Lord North of Kirtling was created in 1554 for Edward North ic. 1496-1564), a successful lawyer, clerk of the parliament (1531-40) and chan-

NORTH, BARONS.

cellor of the court of

by

his eldest son

augmentations

( 1

544-48)

.

He was

Roger (1531-1600), 2nd baron,

succeeded

a courtier

and Ed-

who married the daughter of Lord Chancellor Rich. ward's second son was Sir Thomas North iq.v.), the translator of Plutarch. The 2nd baron's grandson Dudley (1582-1666), 3rd baron, son of Sir John North and of Dorothy, daughter and heiress soldier

of Dr. Valentine Dale, was educated at Cambridge and in 1600

married Frances, daughter of Sir John Brocket of Brocket hall, Hertfordshire. He was a prominent figure at the court of King James I and was a close friend of Prince Henry. In 1606 he discovered the springs of Tunbridge Wells, which cured North himself of a complaint and quickly became famous. He supported and subscribed to the expedition to Guiana made by his brother Roger North (c. 1585-(;. 1652) in 1619, and when Roger departed without leave Dudley was imprisoned for two days in the Fleet prison. In 1626 he attached himself to the party of Lord Saye and Sele who

sympathy with the aims of the house of commons, but when War broke out North took no part in it. In 1645 he was placed on the admiralty commission and acted as lord lieutenant was

in

the Civil

He died at Kirtling on Jan. 16, 1666. His elder son Dudley (c. 1602-1677), 4th baron, increased the family fortune by marrying Anne, the daughter of Sir Charles Montagu, brother of the 1st earl of Manchester. He was an accomplished and studious man. His numerous children included for Cambridgeshire.

Francis (1704-1790),

who became

lord chancellor as

Lord Guil-

Dudley North (q.v.; 1641-1691), the economist; John (1645-1683), who became master of Trinity college, Cambridge, and professor of Greek in the university; and Roger North (16531734), the lawyer and historian. The eldest son Charles (1635ford; Sir

1691), 5th baron, was created Lord Grey of RoUeston (1673) during his father's life. Charles's son William, 6th baron, died without issue in 1734, and the barony passed to a cousin Francis North, 3rd Baron Guilford and afterward 1st earl of Guilford {see

Guilford, Barons and Earls of).

His son Frederick (1732-1792), 2nd earl of Guilford, is historically famous as Lord North, prime minister from 1770 to 1782 {see North, Frederick North, Lord). Frederick's son George Augustus (1757-1802), 3rd earl, left no male issue and the barony of North fell into abeyance till 1841 when it vested in one of his daughters Susan 1797-1884). wife of John Sidney Doyle, who took the name of North. Her son WiLtiAM (1836-1932) succeeded as 11th baron, the title now being separate from that of Guilford. His great-grandson John Dudley (1917-1941), 13th baron, succeeded to the title in 1938 but the title again fell into abeyance when he was killed on active service in 1941. (1641-1691), English merchant, SIR civil servant and economist, was born in Westminster on May 16, 1641, 4th son of Dudley, 4th Lord North (see North. Barons). He entered the Levant trade at an early age and spent many years residing in Smyrna and Constantinople and traveling, finally returning to England, a wealthy man. in 1680. He then served under Charles II as one of the sheriffs of the City of London and received a knighthood; under James II he was appointed a commissioner of customs; a confirmed Tory, he retired from public affairs shortly after the revolution of 1688. He died on Dec. 31, 1691. His fame rests on the contribution to political economy made in his Discourses Upon Trade: Principally Directed to the Case of the Interest, Coynage, Clipping, Increase of Money, published anonymously in 1691 or possibly 1692. This work attracted little (

NORTH,

DUDLEY

attention until rediscovered and reprinted in 1822, after James Mill had hailed the importance of Sir Dudley's ideas as summa-

by his brother, Roger North, published in Research suggests that the preface of the Discourses and perhaps some concluding paragraphs advocating freedom of trade and enterprise were contributed by Roger. The Discourses, though brief and aphoristic, are probably the rized in the biography

1744.

581

most thoroughgoing statement of free-trade theory made in the 1 7th century. Though the older view is taken of trade as the exchange of superfluities, it is insisted "that the whole world as to trade, is but as one nation or people, and therein nations are as persons." Sumptuary laws and legal restrictions on interest rates are denounced as harmful and ineffective. Subsequent monetary doctrines are anticipated in the insistence that the supply of

money

can be left to free market forces "without any aid of politicians." The Discourses conclude: "It is peace, industry, and freedom that brings trade and wealth, and nothing else." See J. R. McCuUoch (ed.). Early English Tracts on Commerce (1856; reprinted 19S4) W. Letwin, "The Authorship of Sir Dudley North's Discourses on Trade," Economica, vol. xviii, no. 69 (Feb. 1951). (T. W. H.) ;

NORTH, FREDERICK NORTH,

Lord, afterward 2nd 1732-1792), prime minister of Great Britain during the American Revolutionary War, for the conduct of which he was widely attacked. He was born in London on April 13, 1732, and was educated at Eton and Trinity college, Oxford.

Earl of Guilford

(

Elected member of parliament for Banbury at the age of 22, he represented the town (of which his father was high steward) for nearly 40 years. The duke of Newcastle made him a lord of the treasury in 1759 and he held this office under Lord Bute and George Grenville until 1765. On the fall of Lord Rockingham's first ministry in 1766 he was sworn a member of the privy council and made paymaster general by the duke of Grafton. On the death of

Charles Townshend in Sept. 1767 he became chancellor of the exchequer. North succeeded Grafton as prime minister in Feb. 1770 and continued in office for 12 of the most eventful years in English history (see English History). George III had at last clinched the defeat of the Newcastle-Rockingham connection and found in

North a congenial chief minister. The path of the minister in parliament was a hard one; he was popular and an able debater but at times he had to defend measures which he had not designed and of which he had not approved, and this too in the house of commons in which the oratorical ability of Edmund Burke and Charles James Fox was ranged against him. During peacetime North's financial administration was sound but he lacked the initiative to introduce radical fiscal reforms. The most important events of his ministry were those concerned with the American Revolution {q.v.).

He

cannot be accused of causing

it,

but one of the

first

was the retention of the tea duty, and it responded to the Boston Tea Party with the Coercive acts of 1774. Underestimating the colonists' powers of resistance, he attempted to combine severity and conciliation. He faced war halfheartedly and was easily depressed by reverses; after 1777 it was only the king's repeated entreaties not to abandon his sovereign to the mercy of the Rockingham Whigs that induced him to defend a war which at times he felt to be both hopeless and impolitic. In March 1782 he insisted on resigning, after the news of Lord Cornwallis' surrender at Yorktown made defeat in the house of commons imminent. He had been rewarded for his assistance to the king by honours for himself and sinecures for his relatives, but in April 1783 North formed a famous coalition, much to George Ill's disgust, with Fox and became secretary of state with him under the nominal premiership of the duke of Portland. The coaHtion went out of office on Fox's India bill in Dec. 1783. For about three years North continued to act with Fox in opposition, but failing eyesight then caused his retirement from politics. He succeeded to the earldom of Guilford on his father's death in 1790 and died in London on Aug. 5, 1792. See Sir Lewis Namier and J. Brooke, History of Parliament: the House of Commons, 1754-1790, vol. iii (1964). (I. R. C.) acts of his ministry

NORTH,

THOMAS

SIR (1535-1603?), English translator of Plutarch's Lives was the source for many of Shakespeare's plays, was born in London on May 28, 1535. Possibly a student at Peterhouse, Cambridge, he was entered at Lincoln's Inn, London, in 1557, where he joined a group of young lawyers interested in translating. In 1574 North accompanied his brother Roger, 2nd Baron North, on an embassage to France. Thomas North had an extensive military career: he fought twice whose version

NORTH

582 in Ireland as captain

(1582 and 1596-97), served

in the

Low Coun-

(1585-S7?) and trained militia against the threatened invasion of England in 15SS, He was knighted about 1596-97. He was justice of the peace for Cambridge in 1592 and 1597, and pensioned by the queen in 1601. He died in 1603 or soon afterward. In 1557 North translated (from the French) Antonio de Guevara's Libro del emperador Marco Aiirelio con reloj de principes under the title Diiill of Princes K. N. Colvile, ed., 1919). Guevara's elaborate prose influenced many early English translators, but North did not originate the mannered style which culminated in Lyly's Eiiphues. His translation (from the Italian) of tries

(

The Moral Philosophie uj Doni (1570; J. Jacobs, ed., 18SS), was rapid and colloquial narrative. Plutarch's Lives of Noble Grecians atid Romans, translated in 1579 from the French of Jacques Amyot, has been described as "after Malory's Morte D' Arthur and the Book of Common Prayer the earliest great oriental beast fables.

masterpiece of English prose" F. 0. Matthiessen, Translation: an Elizabethan Art, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1931). There is an edition by C. F. T. Brooke, 5 vol. (1929-30). Shakespeare actually paid North the compliment of putting his prose directly into blank verse. (H. H. Ds.) THE, as a section of the United States, has always had rather indefinite boundaries, and its boundaries have varied from one period to another. In colonial times a distinction was sometimes drawn between the northern and southern mainland settlements of British America, with the Potomac river as the dividing line. Thus, in The Administration of the Colonies 1 764 Thomas Pownall, who had become royal governor of Massachusetts in 1757, referred to the "Northern British Colonies" as distinct from the "Carolinas and other southern Colonies." More commonly, however, a threefold division was made: New England, the middle (

NORTH,

(

)

,

colonies and the south.

After the American Revolution the same kind of sectional classification was continued and, with the growth of the nation, was expanded. The pioneer American geographer Jedidiah Morse, in The

American Geography (1789), wrote of "the Northern, or more properly Eastern, Middle, and Southern States." Later, as population spread beyond the Allegheny mountains, Morse and other geographers added the West as a separate section. In retrospect, the historian Frederick Jackson Turner (in The United States, 1830-1850: the Nation and Its Sections, 1935) defined and described a total of six sections as existing in the 1830s and lS40s. These sections consisted of (1) New England, (2) the middle Atlantic states, (3) the south Atlantic states, (4) the south central

north central states and ( 6) Texas and the far west. as 1796, in his farewell address, George Washington

states, (5) the

As early

The question

of slavery in the territories

was the most prominent North and bring it

of the political issues that tended to unite the

South during the 1850s. Outright abolition Though a majority of northerners had was in some degree morally wrong, comparatively few of them joined or supported antislavcry societies, and still fewer believed that the federal government possessed the constitutional power to abolish slavery in the states where it was into conflict with the

was not a serious

come

Lssue.

to feel that slavery

already established. In addition to the territorial question, however, there were matters of economic policy on which the North

and the South differed. Generally the North favoured and the South opposed federal aid to industry and transportation through such measures as protective tariffs and direct expenditures for roads and canals. The political differences between the North and the South reflected the differential economic and social development of the two parts of the country. In the North of the 1850s industrialization and urbanization had proceeded and were proceeding much further and faster than in the South. The ethnic composition of the people was more varied, with a considerably larger number of German, Irish and other immigrants settling in the North (though the proportion of Negroes remained smaller than in the South). The northern population was growing faster, the free states gaining by 41% and the slave states by only 27% between 1850 and 1860. There was more social and intellectual ferment in the "Yankee world," with its numerous and productive authors and its reform movements of all kinds. There was also a higher rate of both school attendance and literacy. By the 1850s distinctions between the East and the West were obscured by those between the North and the South. At ojie time the West both northwest and southwest had formed something of an economic unit, with ties of trade that followed the OhioMississippi river route. Then these ties were weakened and largely replaced by new ones joining the northwest with the northeast rather than the southwest. Among the new ties were the commerce of the Great Lakes and the Erie canal (opened in 1825) and the

—

traffic

—

of the railroads connecting the northwest with northeastern

seaports.

Chicago, for example, had a

York by 1852. The North attained

rail

connection with

New

highest self-consciousness as a section At that time "the North" was synonymous its

during the Civil War. with "the Union." It included not only the free states but also the border slave states of Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky and Missouri (though there was considerable pro-southern sentiment in the border area, and Kentucky and Missouri were represented in the congress of the Confederate States as well as that of the

used the expressions "the North" and "the South" (as well as "the East" and "the West"). He warned that the federal union would be in danger if a time ever came when political differences were based upon geographical lines. By 1S60 that time was at hand. Americans then commonly talked as if there were but two sections,

United States). The North gained two states with the admission of West Virginia in 1863 and Nevada in 1864. Except for a brief period at the beginning of the war, the North maintained control of all the western territories except the Indian Territory (Okla-

the North and the South, and as flict of interests between them.

The 23 states of the Union (not counting West Virginia or Nevada) had a population of approximately 22,000,000. as compared with approximately 9,000.000 (including more than 3,500,000 slaves) for the 11 states of the Confederacy. The 23 states contained a disproportionate share of the economic resources of the entire country. The North possessed, for example, 81% of the factories and produced 75% of the nation's wealth. But regional differences within the North reappeared even during the Civil War, when sectional unity was at its greatest. These wartime differences could be seen in such political controversies as that between Illinoisans demanding internal improvements (roads and canals) at federal expense and Pennsylvanians opposing them. The differences could be seen also in the agitation of the midwestern Peace Democrats, the so-called "Copperheads," who were motivated more by antagonism to the northeast and especially to New England than by attraction to the South. During the postwar reconstruction (1865-77) sectional selfconsciousness persisted in the North, and even after that time it was kept alive by Republican politicians who resorted to "waving the bloody shirt" (i.e., recalling wartime hatreds) for electioneering But in the last two decades of the 19th century the purposes.

The North, lution

and the

as

it

Civil

if

there were a fundamental con-

developed during the period between the RevoWar, consisted of the free states. At the time

of the Revolution, or soon afterward, 7 of the original 13 states abolished slavery. By the Northwest ordinance of 1787 slavery

was prohibited in the Northwest Territory, and formed from that territory they made slavery boundaries.

banned

By

the Missouri

as

new

illegal

states

were

within their

Compromise

of 1820 slavery was in the Louisiana Purchase north of latitude 36° 30' except

was admitted to the Union as a slave state. became a free state by its own choice and in accordance with the Compromise of 1850. By the Kansas-Nebraska act of 1854 the slavery prohibition of the Missouri Compromise was repealed; slavery was to be permitted in Kansas and Nebraska if the settlers in those territories desired it, but in 1861 Kansas was admitted with a constitution forbidding slavery. As of 1861 there were 19 free and 15 slave states, and the boundary between them followed the Mason and Dixon line (which separated Pennsylvania for Missouri, which

California

and Maryland), the Ohio tude 36° 30'.

river,

and (except for Missouri) the

lati-

homa).

NORTH ADAMS—NORTH AMERICA East-West division in national politics often predominated over the North-South division. In the reform movements culminating in the Populist revolt, western and southern farmers aligned themselves against the "interests" of the East. Thus "the North" lost some of its vahdity as a sectional concept. Meanwhile, in the later as in the earlier 19th century, geographers recognized no single North but divided the northern part of the United States into several regions. Thus William Swinton, in his Elementary Course in Geography (1875), listed New England, the middle states, the western or central states and the Rocky Mountain or Pacific states, in addition to the southern states. The federal census, in 1910 and after, included the northern states in the following classifications: New England, middle Atlantic, east north central, west north central, mountain and Pacific. The remaining census classifications (south Atlantic, east south central, west south central) included certain states that were at least partly northern in background and spirit such as Delaware, Maryland, West Virginia, Kentucky, Oklahoma and Texas, not to mention the District of Columbia.

—

In the 20th century, geographers, sociologists, historians, business organizations and governmental agencies adopted various regional concepts to suit their own special purposes. It became less feasible than ever to treat the North as a single, clear-cut entity. Yet "the North" continued to be mentioned frequently in ordinary discourse. The term was used chiefly to indicate what was opposite from the South. Sectional self-consciousness both in the North and South increased with the rise of civil rights for Negroes as a major issue of national politics, especially after the supreme court's

While, with respect formal equahty for Negroes, northern folkways were being renorthern pattern of life in many other resisted in the South, the spects was being readily accepted. Industrialization and urbanization, now proceeding even more rapidly in the South than in the North, tended to make the former more and more like the latter. (R. N. Ct.) a city of Berkshire county in northwestern Massachusetts, U.S., on the Hoosic river, is located in the northern Berkshires, 4 mi. S. of the Vermont border and 19 mi. N.E. of Pittsfield. Within the city limits is a natural bridge 50 to 60 ft. high across Hudson brook. Among the city's educational facilities is State ColManufactures include boots and lege at North Adams (1897). shoes, machinery, electronic components, wire, paper, textiles and chemicals. Limestone is also quarried in the vicinity. In the western part of the city are the ruins of Ft. Massachusetts, built in 1745 by the Massachusetts Bay colony as a frontier defense and burned in 1746 by the French and Indians. Initially settled about 1737, North Adams had several false starts before being permanently settled in the 1770s by Quakers from Rhode Island. Incorporated as Adams in 1778, North Adams was set off and incorporated as a separate town in- 1878; it was chartered as a city in 1895. For comparative population figures see table in Massachusetts Population. (R. C. L. S.) is that part of the African continent between the Mediterranean coast and the Sahara desert. The area in which the vast majority of its 50,000,000 inhabitants live is restricted to a fairly narrow coastal belt and to the lower Nile valley. Geologically, climatically and historically it belongs to the Mediterranean and to "White Africa," in contradistinction to "Black" or Negro Africa, the subcontinent lying south of the Sahara. The peoples of north Africa are relatively advanced and usually Muslim in religion. At various times they have been subdecision against school segregation in 19S4. to

NORTH ADAMS,

:

NORTH AFRICA

ject to

European

and the economic links and Mediterranean from southern Europe

political control,

cultural influences across the

have usually been strong.

Most of north Africa has a marked dry season with low rainfall, and cultivation depends frequently upon irrigation. Egypt is an outstanding example of a country that can support more than 25,000,000 people, admittedly at a low standard of living, through intensive production based on the skilful application of irrigation. Elsewhere European settlers have been estabHshed, notably in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and in parts of Libya, and were formerly

much

583

Mineral deposits include iron ore, phosphates and petroleum, and manufacturing inin many of the rapidly dustries are well developed expanding towns. There have been important political changes throughout north Africa since World War II. Reference should be made to the separate articles on the countries making up the region: Algeria; Egypt; Libya; Morocco; Tunisia; all these are independent sovereign states. See also Africa; Arab; Atlas Mountains; Barbary; Berber; Libyan Desert; Moors; Nile; Sahara. responsible for

agricultural production.

(R.

NORTHALLERTON,

an urban

district,

W.

Sl.)

market town and

the administrative capital of the North Riding of Yorkshire, Eng., in the Richmond parliamentary division, 32 mi. N.W. of York by It is on a slight Area, 5.7 sq.mi. Pop. (1961) 6,726. eminence at the foot of the Cleveland and Hambleton hills, 3 mi. from the bank of the river Swale, where the western scarp of the Wolds causes the Vale of York to narrow to a width of 10 mi. forming the Northallerton Gate. Thus situated, midway between the coast and the manufacturing areas in the west of the county, it forms the gateway to the dales. The Romans are thought to have had a signal station there, on the terraced mounds of Castle hills, and the Conqueror chose it as a camping place for his army in 1068. According to the Domesday survey the Normans ravaged the area Northallerton to such an extent that it was still waste in 1086. In 1138 they were suffered much from warfare with the Scots. defeated by the English in the battle of the Standard, and their bodies were thrown into pits at a site still known as Scots Pits lane. In 1174 the castle was destroyed and in 1317 the town was burned by the Scots under Robert Bruce. Northallerton had been given by William Rufus to the bishop of Durham, whose successors continued to hold it until it was taken over by the ecclesiastical commissioners in 1865. According to an inquisition taken in 1333, the town, markets and fairs were held by the burgesses governed by two reeves and the bishop's bailiff. This form of government continued until 1851, when a local board was formed, and this was superseded by an urban district council in 1894. As a borough by prescription, Northallerton returned two members to the parliament of 1298, but was not represented again until 1640 when From 1832 to 1885 it reits earlier privileges were restored. turned one member. The church of All Saints, a cruciform building dating from 1120, Near it is the is mainly Early English with a Perpendicular tower. ancient Porch house, where Charles I was imprisoned, and the site of the Carmelite friary founded in 1356 by Edward III. Mount Grace priory, founded in 1397, was destroyed at the dissolution of the monasteries. Its ruins, 5y mi. N.E. of the town, display one of the most complete ground plans in England of a pre-ReformaThe North Riding county library tion Carthusian monastery. building was opened in 1938 in Northallerton. The town hall was The county built in 1874 with a market hall on the ground floor. The hall was opened in 1906 and the county courthouse in 1936. town has a considerable trade in dairy farming and has held a metalworks, tanning mills, since 1205. There are flour weekly fair and leather finishing, spring manufacturing, agricultural engineering, dried milk making, timberyards and laundering. AMERICA, the northern part of the land mass comprising the Americas of the western hemisphere, which includes continental United States and Canada (sometimes referred to as Anglo-America), and Mexico and the countries and islands of the Caribbean area (generally called Middle America; g.v.). As thus defined, it is the third largest continent, occupying more than 9,000,000 sq.mi., slightly above 16% of the earth's land area, with a population of about 266,000,000. North America is bounded on the north by the Arctic ocean, on the west by the North Pacific ocean and the Bering sea, on the east by the North Atlantic, with the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean sea to the southeast. It is separated in the northeast from Greenland (which is situated on the North American continental shelf and is sometimes considered part of North America) by Baffin bay. To the south, it is connected with South America by the Isthmus of Panama at lat. 7°-9° N., and extends for more than 5,000 mi. to 83° 7' N. on the north coast of EUesmere Island. Its

road.

NORTH

NORTH AMERICA

58+ greatest width of 100°

about 4,000 mi., roughly bisected by the meridian

is

W.

between the two major Canada and the United States have both experienced the colonizing effects of Great Britain, and many

Tremendous components of

cultural differences exist

^-^

the continent,

evidences of their common British heritage a common language, common political and many everyday customs. Middle .America, ceived its cultural imprint more from Spain the countries of South America is primarily

\

are evident, including legal institutions,

and

on the other hand, reand Portugal, and like Latin

in its culture.

Economic differences are as marked as social and political contrasts. Canada and the United States are outstandingly rich in natural resources and possess highly industrialized economies. In Middle .America, farming, often at a subsistence level, is still the

dominant activity; industrial production is very small when compared with that of the two large nations to the north, and the level of prosperity is decidedly lower. This article is divided into the following sections and subsections: I.

Physical Geography 1. Geological History and Physiography 2.

Climate

3. \cgctation and Animal Life IL Natural Resources 1. Water Resources 2.

Soils

3.

Minerals

4.

Land Use

in. .\nthropology 1. Ethnology 2. Languages 3. Physical Anthropology IV. Prehistory and Archaeology L Early .American Hunters 2. The Desert Culture 3.

California

4.

Northwest Coast

5.

The Eastern Archaic The Plains Archaic The American Arctic

6. 7.

Early American Planters Eastern Village Farmers Southwestern Village Farmers V. Exploration and Settlement 1. Early Spanish Explorations 2. French, English and Dutch Explorations before 1772 3. Pacific Coast, Northwest and Arctic Explorations 8. 9.

FfG.

10.

3.

posited on the shield

It is not

The

to

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Geological History and Physiography.

— North America

may

be divided into five areas which are roughly homogeneous with respect to the types of rock present and their structural rethe geologic history of the region and

lationships,

appearance.

its

present

—

Canadian Shield. The Canadian shield includes some of the oldest rocks on the face of the earth. The region, as a whole, is composed of ancient crystalline rocks whose complex structure attests to a long history of uplift and depression, mountain building and erosion. Some of the ancient mountain ranges may still be recognized as a ridge or belt of hills, but the present appearance of the physical landscape of the Canadian shield is not so much a result of the folding and faulting and compression of the rocks millions of years ago as it is the work of ice in relatively recent geologic time. During the Pleistocene, the vast continental glaciers which covered northern North America had this region as a centre.

The

ice. in

moving

Some

of this material

was deit was

the ice melted, but the bulk of

resulting surface consists of rocky, ice-smoothed hills with

relief of 100 ft., and irregular basins, which are mostly by lakes or swamps. In places, the old mountain ranges may be recognized by hills several hundreds of feet in height. South and west of the Canadian shield the Central Lowland. ancient basement of crystalline rocks was covered by sediments derived from mountains to the west and east, and from the shield This broad region was little affected by the forces that itself. warped the earth's crust. Domes and arches, basins and troughs filled

summarize the continent's main natural, economic, anthropologic, historic and demographic aspects. These features receive further treatment in separate articles on the individual countries and regions, the major natural features, tribes and other specific subjects discussed. (C. F. Ko.)

1.

when

an average

intended to present here the story of nations or of

I.

REGIONS OF NORTH AMERICA

carried south to be deposited in the Central lowland.

Population Growth Racial Composition

tribal peoples, but

— PHYSIOGRAPHIC

lying mantle of weathered rock.

4. European Settlement VI. Population 1. Distribution 2.

1.

to the south, scraped the land bare of its over-

—

can be detected in the structure of the old Paleozoic sediments of the central lowland, but within any local scene the rocks appear The western portion of the lowland was to be almost flat lying. veneered by more recent Mesozoic and Tertiary sediments derived from the Rocky mountains. These were eroded by the relatively few streams of the dry Great Plains into steep-sided river valleys and canyons separated by broad flat uplands.

by the glaciers of the Pleistocene was dumped and north of the Ohio river. The tonguelike glacial lobes formed ridges and rows of hills 100 to 200 ft. high about their margins (end moraines) although most of the area within the lobes has a more even surface with hills ranging from 20 to 100 ft. in height. The disorder with which the drift was deposited resulted in many undrained pockets or depressions which filled with water to form lakes or swamps. South of the glacial border the old sediments form a hilly transition to the Appalachian highlands and their western extension the OzarkOuachita upland. In this zone, the relief ranges up to several hundred feet, and is usually roughest along the many stream valleys which drain the area.

The

debris carried

east of the Missouri river

—

NORTH AMERICA

Plains of western Canada.

Fields of ripening grain and farmsteads near Calgary, Alberta

Aerial vie Arctic plains. tundra, north of the Arctit

Sharp ridges and mountain glacial features, characteristic of the Cordille region, form a setting for Peyto lake, Banff National Park, Alberta

SCENES OF CANADA

Plate

II

NORTH AMERICA

NORTH AMERICA

Rocky Mountain system:

Plate III

fertile valley

Rich mineral deposits have

led

in

Wasatch mountains, north of Prove, Utah. develooment of the area

to the industrial

Central lowlands: islands and sloughs of the Mississippi river near Lansing, Iowa. The Mississippi and its branches drain large areas of the interior and Gulf coastal plains

Pacific coast: headland erosion has caused bizarre rock formations such as the

Needles and Haystack at Cannon beach, Ore.

Mountain system: wilderness of the Sierra the Merced river in Yosmite National park

Nevada range.

Pacific

Deer watering at

SCENES OF THE UNITED STATES

Basin and range region; gypsum sands of the White Sands National monument area near Alamogordo,

N.M. «,

ICENTRE BIGHT, -LIFE"

®

U6I. TIME

Plate IV

NORTH AMERICA

Southwestern coast of Mexico: Acapuloo has rugged coast, crescent beaches and tropical flora

Valley in southeastern Mexico: small arable valleys break the rugged terrain and provide most of the agricultural production in this region

Sierra Madre Oriental: Mt. Orizaba, snowcapped volcanic peak on the border of the states of Veracruz and Puebia

SCENES OF MEXICO

NORTH AMERICA — Paleozoic

585

deposited at roughly the same geologic time as those of the central lowland were subjected to considerably greater uplift and folding and fault-

way, but it presumably was much affected by glacial erosion and deposition, in consequence of which it, like the St. Lawrence, has many large lakes in its course. The regime

The area of most intensive mountain represented by the crystallized sediments of the Piedmont and the Blue Ridge mountains in the southern portion of the highlands and by the mountains of New England and eastern

of this great north-flowing river is strikingly unlike that of its south-flowing analogue on account of its course being from a warmer to a colder chmate; hence while Mississippi floods have a

Appalachian

Highlands.

sediments

ing in the area to the east.

building

Canada

is

to the north.

Directly to the west of the crystallized zone are ridges and valleys, their northeast-southwest lineament attesting to the

com-

Successive periods of uplift and erosion, accompanied by folding and faulting, created the complex structures that permitted the present topography to develop on the alternating hard and soft rocks of the area. The compressional pression from the east.

forces died out to the west, and the land, although uplifted further

and hence with greater

relief,

has

much

the

same structural charThrough-

sissippi in a general

free southward discharge, the floods of the Mackenzie have an obstructed northward discharge due to ice dams. Indeed, but for the complications that appear to be related to the outspread of Lau-

rence,

now

flowing to

at that time.

hill region and the ridge and valley area, the relief ranges from 300 to 1,500 ft,, with the steepest slopes and highest hills to be found along the valleys of the many streams which carve the

depth

—

The ther

Canada and inner Alaska,

world.

The Columbia,

ocean floor by a

rise in sea

Rocky mountains

ward through

all

is

one of the great rivers of the

of hardly inferior rank, drains a large area

of the Cordilleran system in

of the

to

below those Yukon, flowing from far-

chief rivers that discharge to the Pacific rank

that discharge to the Atlantic; but the

gives evidence of its youth in

extensive marshes and swamps,

gulf,

erosion.

peculiar in having one of

its

Lawrence

floor,

rocks dip uniformly toward the sea, and the margin of the plain

any of which could be converted

St.

Lake Superior is peculiar in apparently attributing its great to a somewhat pronounced displacement of its basin in addition to whatever deepening it gained by glacial

out this

{See Appalachian Mountains.) Coastal Plain. The simplest structure of North America is to be found in the coastal plain. This is an area of relatively soft, young (Mesozoic and Tertiary) sediments overlapping the crystalline rock of the Piedmont in the east, the central lowland in the west, and extending as far south as the Yucatan peninsula. The

Hudson bay and

For a time, be discharged by the Mackenzie and Mississippi. during the presence of the ice sheets, that simpler system was realized for the Mississippi, when it carried to the Gulf of Mexico much drainage now received by the St. Lawrence and Nelson; the flood plain of its lower trunk was probably given its wide breadth

acteristics of the eastern portion of the central lowland.

area,

Lawwould

rentian ice sheets, the areas drained by the Nelson and the St.

its

in

Canada and the United

States;

it

is

head branches rise at the eastern base Montana, so that its waters flow west-

the Cordilleran ranges of

its

latitude.

The

bands of rock of varying resistance to erosion, creating belts of hills 100 to 200 ft. high alternating with flattish vales of very low

muddy current into the Gulf of California. {See also separate articles on the rivers.) 2. Climate. The climatic character of an area derives from the operation of weather mechanisms over a long period of time.

relief.

The weather

level of only a

The

dozen

Colorado discharges a

feet.

dip of the plain toward the sea has exposed successive

—

Somewhat younger than the ancient mounCanadian shield and those of the Appalachian area, the high rugged mountains of the western Cordillera exhibit the Western

Cordillera.-

tains of the

greatest relief of the continent.

The

structural picture

is

so di-

verse as to include almost every conceivable type. The general north-south lineament of the ridges of varying rock type defines also the direction of the valleys and structural depressions which

from the mountain slopes. In the north and on the highest peaks in the south, glaciation has sharpened the ridge crests and provided still more debris with which to choke the valleys. Volcanoes, both active and dead, form some of the highest peaks and are often even the more impressive because of their relative isolation from other high mountains. Exare filled with debris eroded

tensive outpourings of lava and the exclusion of some areas from intensive folding and faulting while they were being uplifted thou-

sands of feet produced vast tablelands and plateaus. The rocks in this region range from the youngest sediments to the oldest crystallines, depending on the geologic history of the particular local unit.

—

Drainage. The successive crustal movements by which North America was developed have determined the growth of several great river systems. The broad upheavals which developed the medial plains had the effect of engrafting many rivers from the eastern and western highlands upon trunks of unusual dimensions. Thus the Mississippi system, some of whose eastern tributaries probably date from early Mesozoic times, received great reinforcement by the addition of many long western branches in late Tertiary time, roughly contemporaneous with the uplift of the southern coastal plain, by which the lower trunk of the river was extended from its mid-length into the gulf. The present headwaters of that river trunk to which the name Mississippi has been rather arbitrarily applied are of very modern date, as they are consequent upon the abundant glacial deposits of northern Minnesota and relatively modern courses appear to have been taken by the earlier-born Ohio and Missouri rivers around the margin of invading Canadian ice sheets, which displaced them from earlier ;

courses.

The evolution of

the

Mackenzie resembles that of the Mis-

—

of

North America is of two main types: mid-latitude, between polar and tropical air; and tropical, air plays no part, and hence, in which frost

the result of conflict in is

which cold polar

uncommon

or nonexistent.

Mid-latitude

Weather and

Climate.

—The

vagaries

of

the

weather of most of the United States and Canada are because of the location of the North American land mass in a zone of interaction between polar and tropical air masses. Air generally assumes the character of the surface over which it lies for periods of several days or weeks. As a result of the general circulation of the atmosphere, air masses are drawn together over North America from such unlike source areas as the Canadian arctic and the expanses of the Atlantic ocean in the tropics. The differences in the heat and moisture characteristics of these air masses result in the development of storms, known as cyclones. The zones of conflict between unlike air masses are known as storm tracks, the cyclones moving generally from west to east. As the northern hemisphere warms with the increasingly vertical attitude of the sun's rays in summer, the storm tracks shift northward. These shifts in the position of the storm tracks largely determine the nature of the climate of various portions of North America. The Canadian arctic lies generally to the north of these storms, and is characterized by cold winters and cool summers with little precipitation in either season.

Winter is the time of greatest storminess. Many cyclones enter the continent from the North Pacific ocean, having originated over eastern Asia or the waters immediately off the Asiatic coast. These cyclones deliver little moisture in the lowlands, but the mountains of the western Cordillera cause lifting and chilHng of the air, thus ensuring heavy rain and snowfall on the western slopes. Most of the storms enter the continent north of San Francisco bay, but an occasional storm delivers heavy rain to southern California. As the cyclones from the North Pacific ocean move over the western Cordillera, they lose most of their moisture. Often these cyclones are rejuvenated as they descend the leeward slopes of the mountains into the central lowland. The more northerly of these are centred on the Alberta storm track, deUvering small quantities of snow, but with a high frequency of occurrence, to the northern

NORTH AMERICA

586

and the Canadian shield, especially in the vicinity of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence valley. The more southerly storm tracks, called the Colorado and Texas cyclones, are able to draw in air from the Gulf of Mexico. This warm, moist tropical central lowland

enables much heavier snowfall to be delivered to the central lowland and the St. Lawrence valley, but with less frequency than is the case with the Alberta-type storm. This air, in crossing the southeastern United States, usually delivers heavy rain showers as well, so much so that some portions of the lower Mississippi valley actually receive more moisture under these conditions than in the air

summer

season.

During the summer half year, the cyclone

The northwest

Pacific

coast

belts shift northward.

receives storms

from the Asiatic

source area, but they are somewhat less frequent during this season and result in less rainfall than in winter. The shift of the storm tracks aw'ay from the southwestern United States creates desert conditions in the lowlands. The highlands receive thunder-

storm

rainfall

from an occasional errant

air

mass

of Atlantic ocean

origin.

East of the Rockies a somewhat different picture prevails. The shift of the cyclone belts results in a lowered frequency much of the area, but this is more than offset by the torrential nature of the rainstorms that do occur. This is due to

northward

of rainfall in

the tropical characteristics of the air which is drawn into the North American land mass from the Gulf of Mexico and the tropical areas of the Atlantic ocean. Most of the eastern United States and Canada receive the bulk of their moisture from summer thunderstorms and the cyclones which draw the tropical air northward. Tropical Weather and Climate. Tropical North America (Central America and the islands of the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico) is little affected by the mid-latitude cyclones. Instead, the weather and hence the climate of these areas is characterized by relatively monotonous heat, unaffected by frost except in the high mountains. The seasons are recognized by their wetness or dryness, rather than by cold or warmth. Just as the bulk of mid-latitude North America receives most of its moisture during the northern hemisphere summer, so does this tropical regime. The mechanisms causing moisture to fall are more complex in the tropics, but seem also to be associated with the vertical attitude of the sun's rays. The same air that delivers moisture to the eastern United States and Canada in the summer drops rain from thunderstorms as it surges through this area. Hurricanes are common in late summer, and are also responsible for heavy precipitation. The northern hemisphere winter is characterized by less frequent rain showers in this area, and by a predominance of clear, sunny skies.

—

3.

Vegetation and Animal Life.— Patterns of vegetation and

animal a

more

life

generally conform to the broad controls of climate.

On

topography and

soils have altered and modibroad zones. Man has also made his impress, changing the pattern and character of the flora and fauna with the use of fire, the clearing of forests, plowing of grasslands, and grazing of

local scale,

fied these

domesticated animals. Thus the North American landscape of the 20th century shows the influence of all these factors. Temperature and moisture availability differences set the stage for consideration of the major variations in distribution. Arctic.

—The long

cold winters and short cool summers of the far north create an environment that is too harsh for tree growth. Mosses in the extensive bogs, and lichens and short herbaceous plants on the better-drained uplands compose the bulk of the tun-

dra vegetation.

Relatively few animal species can exist there. Caribou, musk ox, polar bear and arctic fox are the larger varieties. Lemmings and the arctic hare are characteristic. Hordes of mosquitoes plague summer visitors. Few birds stay the winter, al-

though many species migrate to nest there in the summer. Subarctic. Longer and milder summers to the south enable the forest to appear in the form of dwarf birches, willows, alders and spruce. As temperatures become less severe, the taiga or northern

—

coniferous forest covers the landscape. Relatively pure stands of spruce, fir and several species of pine are intermingled with birch, willow, larch and poplar. There is little undergrowth except near

FIG. 2.

—VEGETATION

SOURCES OF NORTH AMERICA

Carnivores, such as the black bear, lynx, fox and wolves are present, as are deer, moose, elk and caribou. Rodents abound, streams.

among them

squirrels, porcupines, rabbits

and beavers.

Wood-

peckers and jays are common birds. Both arctic and subarctic life forms trend far equatorward along the east and west coastal areas where high elevations modify the warmer conditions of the lower latitudes. The western Cordillera blocks moisture-bearing

winds and creates rain shadows that set lower timber-line limits based on aridity. There the conifers give way to desert and grassland forms.

The windward tion,

slopes of the mountains receive

and near the

Pacific ocean dense

more

growth

heavy

precipita-

results, as well as

Cold temperatures at high elevations result in an upper timber line. Tundralike vegetation is found above this level, which gradually descends as one proceeds north until, in central Alaska, trees are found only in giant forest trees 200

ft.

or

in height.

the valleys.

Eastern Forest and Coastal Plain. clones bring

Deciduous

warm

tree

— In the central lowland, cy-

tropical air as far north as the Great Lakes.

forms assume dominance

in the

natural conditions, and the conifers die out.

landscape under

Birch, beech, maple

and oak are predominant in the north, and walnut, oak. hickory and the tulip tree in the south. Much of the forest has been cut over, especially on the flatter uplands and in fertile soil areas. The stream valleys remain wooded and provide shelter for the smaller mammals and birds that have withstood the pressures of civilization. Deer and fox may be found where there is sufficient cover, and skunks, raccoons and muskrats join the squirrels and rabbits as significant forms. Hawks and thrushes are important

Numerous

birds.

varieties of insects are present, as are

many

reptiles.

The

sandy belts of the coastal plain are generally covered

by

NORTH AMERICA open longleaf pine forests which nnay be relicts from glacial periods. The stream valleys of the coastal plain are likely to be very poorly draineci, with swamp trees such as cypress and gum as dominant forms. The outermost margins of the coastal plain are occupied by marshes in which the characteristic vegetation consists of grass forms.

—

Moisture variability from year to year and fire Grasslands. probably combined to slow the extension of forest vegetation into the dry w-est, after a climatic change had produced desert conditions in the heart of the interior.

As

a result, the first e.xplorers

found a broad belt of grassland between the forested humid east and the deserts of the west. The eastern portion has long been cultivated, but on the drier, western grasses, grazing is still the most significant land use and some semblance of the natural cover remains. The grasslands of the east consist of dense growth of Glades occur in the tall varieties, often six feet or more in height. forests, often on droughty limestone or sand plains. In the prairie triangle of Illinois and Iowa, or on the margins of the Great Plains in Oklahoma and Texas, the grasses become dominant on the uplands. Only the stream valleys remain in forest or woods, for the break in topography of the belts of bluffs and the dampness of the bottom lands protect the trees from prairie

and from drought. grasses and herbaceous vegetation of the prairies become less dense, and less tall bunch grass forms in the western steppe These in turn form the transition to desert vegetation lands. types in the driest parts of the west. Only along the moist valleys of perennial streams are cottonwoods and other deciduous Shrub forms, such as mesquite, are present in trees to be found. the warmer margins where high evaporation increases dryness, but: they did not become dominant until man controlled fire. Although lack of moisture in summer and occasional blizzards in winter constitute formidable hazards, large numbers of animals Noteworthy were the tremendous are found in the grasslands. herds of bison, which have been practically exterminated. Antelope, coyote, jackrabbits, prairie xiogs and ground squirrels are

fires

The

common forms

that remain in great numbers.

Insects such as

grasshoppers and locusts and ants are characteristic. Turtles, lizards and various snakes (some of them poisonous) have adapted to the environment. Deserts. In the desert even less moisture is available for plant growth than in the grasslands. The only perennial streams are those which flow from exotic, humid sources. Plants and animals have had to adjust to long periods with little or no moisture. Shrub forms become dominant over grasses; these include sagebrush, greasewood and creosote bush. High evaporation rates and closed topographic depressions combine to produce high saline concentrations in many of the soils. Thus, salt tolerance is another attribute necessary for plant growth. Around depressions or stream valleys there is often a zonation of plants, with the most

—

found nearest the centres, and the least on the betterdrained uplands. In the driest places numerous forms of cacti abound. Some of these may attain heights of 20 to 30 ft. Much of this landscape is not suited to intensive grazing, and so only in the irrigated valleys was the natural vegetation materially dissalt-tolerant

turbed.

The

where water is so Fox are present and feed on rabbits. Owls, lizards and snakes may be found. But the total numbers and the varieties of animal life are less than in more well-watered areas. Tropical Forests. The dry deserts and grasslands extend well equatorward into Central America. The better-watered portions of the tropics are covered by a dense growth of broadleaf evergreen trees. Several "stories" of tree and shrub growth are likely, with vines and lianas common. Seasonally well-watered areas are characterized by savanna, a tall grass landscape with scattered larger animals have difficulties surviving

scarce.

—

trees which are particularly dense near the water courses. Monkeys and squirrels, ants and termites, snakes and a wide variety of colourful birds constitute the animal life. In both vegetation and animal life, the number of species and the density of individuals increase in these frost-free, well-watered climates. See also the Physical Geography sections of United States (of America),

587

Canada, Mexico, West Indies, Central America; and Arctic, The. (N. E. S.) II.

NATURAL RESOURCES

When

the pioneers of Anglo-America took possession of the land there was a superabundance of natural resources. Subsequently,

wasteful exploitation was not only condoned but frequently encouraged. Vast tracts of virgin timber were destroyed, wild game

This situation was further killed and soils became eroded. aggravated by the severe droughts of the 1930s and the consequent wind erosion in the dust bowl of the high plains. By mid-20th century, the U.S. and Canadian governments, alarmed at the wasteful practices and ignorance, undertook conservation measures and established agencies to study the problem. Genuine attempts are being made to gear the economic system to nature. (See Wildlife Conservation; National Parks and Nature Reserves; Soil Erosion and Conservation; Natural Resources.) 1. Water Resources. In North America, as in other parts of the world, water has six major uses: domestic, irrigation, industry, transportation, power and waste disposal. Nearly all of these uses have expanded rapidly, partly because of expanding populations and industries, but also because per capita needs have been increasing rapidly. As a consequence, actual or impending shortages of water have occurred in many parts of the continent, not only in areas of small precipitation but also in many of the more densely populated portions of the humid sections. The availability of water has thus become a major concern for the people of North America. Man has come to identify three principal sources of water: (1)

was

—

snow; (2) surface supplies, in and oceans; and (3) subsurface sources, usually brought to the surface by wells or springs. In North America, few attempts have been made to control precipitation, or to use that source of water directly, but there have been tremendous efforts to conserve waters by constructing reservoirs and other storage

precipitation, usually as rain or

the rivers, lakes

facilities in order to provide larger supplies at places not adequately served by lakes, rivers and other natural reservoirs. These reservoirs, both natural and artificial, have become the major

source of water for the North American people. Underground supplies, including well water and spring water, were proved adequate only in a few areas with particularly favourable climate

and geological conditions.

Water resources must always be viewed in the light of both In populous industrial areas such as the quantity and quality. northeast United States, southeast Canada and the central plateau

much water is utilized for sewage and industrial wastes that adequate domestic supplies are frequently diSicult to obtain, in spite of the relatively heavy rainfall and large surface storage facilities of those areas. The natural mineral content of underground waters also varies a great deal, being very high in most areas underlain by limestone rocks and low in areas having acid rocks. In North America nearly all of the plains and plateau areas have limestone rocks and are consequently supplied with of Mexico, so

hard (mineralized) water from underground sources. In the arid sections of northern Mexico, the western United States and portions of western Canada, water for irrigation is of Giant storage reservoirs are used to hold prime importance. winter precipitation until the water is needed for summer crops. Many streams in these areas have their sources in high mountains and, since many of the reservoirs are located at relatively high elevations, water power is cheaply and abundantly pro-

duced.

The most serious deficiencies of water appear in dry areas that have experienced marked urban development, notably in the Los Angeles (g.v.) metropolitan area of southern California where the new demands of a rapidly expanding population have been added to those of irrigation agriculture. An extensive system of aqueducts brings water to the area from the Colorado river; the Feather river project to make available water from the humid northern part of the state was begun in 1960 and a program of securing additional supphes by purification of sea water was projected. Long-distance transportation of water is not confined to

NORTH AMERICA

588

low-rainfall areas, however, since extensive supply systems were

New

constructed to bring water to

\'ork anti other urban-industrial

from hi^thland areas that lie considerable distances In this manner, surpluses of water in many of the less

centres, usually inland.

populous areas were created to satisfy needs in metropolitan centres, where local supplies were inadequate. Water for supplemental irrigation is being used increasingly by farmers in the upper Mississippi valley, where, in summer, short Supplies usually are obtained periods of drought may occur. either from wells or streams, and the severe competition for water prompted several states in that area to enact irrigation Problems of water scarcity have appeared in all parts of laws. the continent where there are considerable numbers of people. Power, recreation and navigation uses of water differ from the others as they do not materially affect either the quantity or Hydroelectric power is most quality of available supplies. cheaply generated where there is heavy precipitation on high

The best resources are therefore in the states and provinces border the north Pacific coast of the United States and Canada, although eastern areas, which have splendid natural storage facilities in the Great Lakes and the lakes of the Canadian shield, also possess important power resources. Water for recrealand.

that

tion

is

available in

all

sections of the continent, either in natural

man-made demands

and canals. Water smooth terrain and a productive tributary area. In North America, the major navigation resources lie in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence system, the Mississippi river and its branches, and the river systems of northwest Canada. lakes and streams, or in

transportation

2.

Soils.

colour,

—

generally

Soils are classified in

texture, origin

reservoirs a

relatively

many

ways, according to their etc., but most signifi-

and development,

made

cantly, according to the uses that can be

A

of

them

in agricul-

man

only in the light of This kind of perspective is necessary if we are to understand why, in North .•\merica, the best soils are those that can be made to successfully produce specific annual crops, especially the grain crops and tural production. its

soil is

valuable to

usefulness in producing a valuable commodity.

cotton, which are of great importance in man's existence.

Soils

that produce only trees, grass or weeds, on the other hand, are

usually considered less desirable, regardless of the lushness and

vigour of their vegetation. Therefore, the quality of a soil is judged by its food-producing capacity, and if, in the course of human progress, this need changed, so would soil evaluations. The geography of North American soils is most easily approached through the location of native vegetation, the dominant feature of which is a large, centrally located grassland region that is roughly triangular in shape, with apexes lying near the cities of Chicago on the east, San Antonio (Texas) on the south, and Edmonton (.Alberta) on the north, and which has the richest soils of the continent. To the west and southwest lie the less fertile dry-land soils of the western United States and northern Mexico, which were formed under a vegetation cover of shrubs and related plants. To the north, northwest and east lie the lessproductive soils of the areas that were originally in forest; and beyond them in the north are the generally infertile soils of the tundra. Only in the great central grassland did nature provide the physical environment necessary to form soils best suited for modern crop production.

The relative infertility of soils in both the dry regions and the humid forested regions is attributed to both climatic conditions and the characteristics of the parent material (rock) from which soils are formed. Limestone and its associated sedimentary rocks generally provide soils with minerals needed by grains and other annual crops.

Soil-building materials in the central grassland region of North .\merica generally contain those minerals, which

were brought

to the area mainly by ( 1 continental glaciers, in the area generally north of the Missouri and Ohio rivers; (2) streams of running water, in a broad belt lying immediately east of the Rocky mountains; or (3) wind, in scattered areas generally near the southern margins of the glacial deposits. In the southern

portions of the central grassland area,

rock has a high calcium content and

)

much is

of the native surface

disintegrated into soils

having these same general characteristics. Outside the grassland region, where climates are either colder, drier or more humid, poorer soils usually occur. In the humid areas, deterioration is attributed to the removal of soluble minerals (especially nitrates, potash and phosphate) by heavy rainfall and the percolation effect of ground water, so that those minerals are available only to deep-rooted plants such as trees and vine.s. In the cold and dry regions poor fertility is due to lack of humus, the sparseness of the vegetation and consequent lack of annual contribution of vegetable matter such as roots, Soils deficient in humus genleaves and branches to the soil. erally are unable to store moisture near the surface and thus cannot support shallow-rooted vegetation such as the grain crops and cotton. Mineral deficiencies of humid-climate soils may be offset considerably by the application of fertilizers; and water deficiencies in dry soils may be overcome by irrigation. Both these procedures provide good examples of the ways in which man can adapt his natural environment to his better advantage. The foregoing describes only the very general features of soils geography in North .\merica. Locally, there are many small areas where a combination of good parent materials and a favourable climate have produced soils of marked fertility. In the humid areas of the southeastern United States, as well as in Mexico and Central .America, favourable materials often appear in the alluvial flood plains of major streams, the deposits of basaltic lava from nearby volcanoes and other fissures, and local occurrences of limestone. Soils derived from lava occupy many of the most fertile valleys of southern Mexico, and limestone soils are prominent in Cuba. In the humid tropics, the river valleys, deltas and basins that can accumulate new (and unleached) minerals brought as alluvium from lime-rich upstream sources nearly always have the richest soils. In dry areas, the best soils usually occur in catch basins where water storage is sufficient to support considerable amounts of humus-giving vegetation. [See also Soil.) 3. Minerals. Most of the world's mineral wealth is taken from rocks that appear at or near the earth's surface. A few are derived from the waters of the sea, or from the atmosphere, but Among the their quantities and economic importance are small. great families of rocks, sedimentary types are the main sources for the production of the mineral fuels (coal, petroleum and natural gas), as well as most of the building stone, many kinds It is from the other of rare earths and a few of the metals. great families, the igneous and metamorphic types, however, that most of the ores, the metal-bearing rocks of modern industrial

—

civilization, are taken.

The

general distribution of the three kinds

may

therefore be used to identify areas in which these three great classes of minerals, the fuels, the metals and the other

of rocks

may be found. Large areas of North .\merica were occupied by ancient seas periods when the mineral fuels were being formed with sedimentary rocks. The sedimentary regions include nearly all of conterminous United States, except for relatively small sections adjacent to the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, as well as most of western Canada. Alaska and northern Mexico, and large areas in the West Indies and beneath the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean sea. Changes in the earth's crust, associated particularly with the appearance of the Rocky mountain system in the western portions of the continent, caused much of the sedimentary surface to be folded, broken, uplifted and in large part removed by erosion in areas affected by that major geological disturbance. Volcanic fires probably destroyed large amounts of fuels that were contained in sedimentary rocks, but at the same time, aided by the tremendous pressures present in the disturbance, seem to have created favourable conditions for the concentration of metallic minerals into beds, veins and other deposits to form rich mineral-bearing rock. This process was frequently aided by These the percolation of water through newly exposed rocks. are believed to be the general circumstances under which the mountainous sections of western North America became the continent's leading source of ores, with the notable exception of nonmetallic types,

during geological

iron.

NORTH AMERICA mostly obtained from rocks that lie in the Canadian shield region near the margin of a much older mountain mass, whose interior rocks were long since exposed when the surface was removed by continental glaciation. These igneous and metamorphic rocks, which occupy most of eastern Canada and portions of the adjacent United States, are also important sources of nonferrous Mines in the area of the Canadian shield, together with ores. those in the Canadian Rocky mountains, provide a major element in the Canadian national economy. In Mexico the most important nonferrous metal is silver and in the western United States it is copper. Large reserves of iron ore occur in both areas, and there are many lesser metals, such as gold, silver, lead and zinc, much of which occurs in complex ores which yield several nonferrous metals. Metamorphosed and folded rocks in northern Arkansas yield bauxite for aluminum, and similar formations in Alabama yield iron ore for the Birmingham steel industry. Southeast Cuba also produces iron ore. Iron

is

Outside the ore-producing areas lie the great sedimentary basins extend from the Arctic ocean, on the north, southward through the middle of the continent, to the highlands of northern South America. There are produced most of North America's mineral fuels. It is of considerable significance that most of the continent's coal and a very considerable fraction of its petroleum and natural gas are produced near the margins of these sedimentary basins, where much folding and faulting was experienced in the formation of mountains. These crustal changes often had the effect of compressing coals into harder and more valuable fuels, and forming "traps" for the underground accumulation of petroleum and natural gas. Drilling of wells to great depths has shown that these crustal deformations often occur at considerable distances from present or former mountains, but the tendency for coal, petroleum and natural-gas production to transpire most prominently near the margins of the sedimentary basins is nevertheless a readily observed geographic fact. Other minerals occur in almost endless variety. Some, such as sand, gravel and the stone that is crushed for use in concrete work, are found almost everywhere, but are of limited value, expensive to ship, and are mined only if a market exists. Others, such as gold and uranium, are extremely rare, and so valuable that they are likely to be mined wherever they are found. Thus, many communities in North America are connected with some sort of mining or related activity, but centres, where mining is the dominant element in the local economy, occur only where favourable conditions of geological occurrence and location in relation that

to markets are present. 4.

been

Land held

Use.

— Economic

within

relatively

development of North America has narrow geographic limits by the

character and spatial distribution of the resources described above. All such developments must be considered, however, not only in the light of available resources, but also as a consequence of the aspirations

and productive capacities of the people who

inhabit the continent.

The broad facts of land utilization include agriculture, manufacturing and trade, but the simple facts of economic development in North America indicate that less than one-fifth of the productive activity is concerned directly with the resources of nature and the raw materials that are extracted from the land, such as crops, minerals, fish and timber. The remaining four-fifths of the productive effort is devoted either to further refinement of natural materials that have already been transformed into manufactured goods, or to the rendering of services that satisfy human wants directly. In North America, the latter type of production is generally more important than the former, which is concerned with goods. An understanding of the relative importance of the two kinds of production is vital to an understanding of patterns of land in North America. In general, these considerations seem to indicate that conditions surrounding resource utilization and the production of raw materials may be expected to account for the location of only a minor fraction of the total productive activity and that the location of the remainder must be accounted for in some other way. In other words, there is no

utilization

589

reason to expect the spatial distribution of production to bear any specific resemblance to the distribution of that continent's resources.

Nearly one-half of all the goods and services are produced in a relatively small area that lies generally south of a line drawn westward from Quebec in Canada, to Minneapolis in Minnesota and thence south to St. Louis, Mo., and eastward to Baltimore, Md. Other areas of major importance appear in southern California and in the southern portions of the central plateau of Mexico. These regions, which together constitute less than onetenth of the land area of the continent, but which account for more than one-half its total production of goods and services, do not appear prominently on any map of raw-materials production. Their resources apparently are not ordinarily considered in surveys of the type undertaken here. The most basic preliminary observation may well be that most of the working hours of the people of North America are spent in rendering services rather than in changing the form of goods. Fundamentally nearly all services must be rendered while in close proximity to the customer, as in the case of barbers, physicians, teachers, salesmen and many others. Thus it appears that the most important factor in the location of services is the presence of considerable numbers of people who have an appropriate vol-

ume

of

money and

But what brings further complicated, as types of manufacturing are

a desire for those services.

these people to an area?

The problem

is

frequent research shows that many attracted by potential customers; this provides a basis for understanding why the location of only a minor fraction of these productive activities can be accounted for in terms of the location of natural resources. What apparently happens is that in the early stages of production, the location of activity

is

rather closely

adjusted to the existence of local resources. Raw materials leaving the farms, forests and mines, whose locations are adjusted to the presence of those resources, may be subjected locally to a small amount of elemental processing, such as canning, sawing or milling; but most of the work of increasing their usefulness is likely to be carried on in some distant location nearer markets for the finished products. These manufacturers, together with others in the region, attract additional service employees, and the ultimate outcome of this concentration appears in the great industrial cities and metropolitan regions.

The locations of markets for the continent's products must be considered in any e.xplanation of the distribution of land uses. Historically, the greatest concentrations of population and productive activities first appeared at the western termini of the North Atlantic trade route to Europe, over which exports from Canada and the United States reached their most important world markets. Seaport cities with good harbours grew and prospered as this export trade expanded, and, in the process, developed large import, financial, industrial and other related economic interests. With the westward movement of population and production, these same types of activities were attracted to cities nearer those markets, and they sought sites mainly along major transportation routes, notably the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence waterway and the major trunk-line railroads. Climate and raw materials were also important in the rise of other metropolitan centres such as Los Angeles and the Federal District of Mexico. Many analysts believe that, in the long-run future, favourable concentrations of resources will come to outweigh historical factors in determining the location of economic activities.

By mid-20th century, regional planning (g.v.) in North America, demonstrated by the TVA, for large areas of like characteristics, grew out of a series of initiatives. Politically directed, it is based mainly upon the social and natural-resource structure, and economically seeks the fullest development of local resources and skills. Natural resources are also discussed in The Economy (H. H. McC.) sections of articles on the various countries. III.

Ethnology.

—The

ANTHROPOLOGY

American Indians had their origins in and are basically Mongoloid in physical type. The new world may be dismissed as the home of fossil human development 1.

Asia,

NORTH AMERICA

590

because no fossil progenitors have been found and the evolution of the primates clearly occurred in the old world. The date of arrival in North America as yet has not hocii accurately established but occurred sometime during the last glacial period. i'ee Archaeology: Prehistory: The A'cu' World Prior to Urbim Civilization.) (

— The

incomers to the new world possessed a series of traits that were relatively ancient and were shared with most cultural groups in the old world. These included the use of fire and the fire drill; the domesticated dog; stone implements of many kinds; the spear thrower, harpoon and simple bow; cordage, netting and basketry; crisis rites and shamanistic beliefs and practices. Important traits lacking in the new world but known in the old world included various significant domesticated animals, Culture.

earliest

plants and artifacts

— including

cattle, sheep, the goat, pig, horse,

camel and reindeer; w^heat. barley and plow; iron; and stringed instruments.

rice;

the wheel and the

The

higher cultures of

enough advanced traits to w-arrant the new world, all calling them civilizations, were spread from the valley of Me.xico south to Peru. The economic base of the American high cultures was horticulture with maize, beans and squash the staple crops. These crops were cultivated from the St. Lawrence river in the north to the Rio de la Plata in South America. The plants were tended by hand, using only the simple digging stick or a hoe. Middle .America was a region of towns, therefore, of higher political organization, and in Mexico and Peru of considerable empires. The intellectual achievements, dependent upon the existence of a priesthood, culminated in the mathematical and calendrical systems and in an incipient system of writing employed by the Maya and Aztec. iSee Archaeology; Mesoamerica; Aztec; Maya India.vs; Middle America.) The question of whether or not the advanced techniques used by the higher cultures of America were independent inventions or the result of contact and borrowing from the old world is still debated. No evidence is presently available to document the possibility of old world contact, and until such evidence is forthcoming the most probable conclusion is that of independent invention. Analysis of the known intellectual achievements shows them to be unique. The Maya devised position numerals and a sign for zero, but their system of numeration was vigesimal and they were using the system several hundred years before the sign for zero was invented in the old world. Culture Areas. According to Harold E. Driver and William C. Massey there were at the time of European contact about 240 different tribal entities in North America; these were divided into posses.sing

—

a

number

of groups or culture areas.

{See

fig.

3.)

Classification of groups of tribes into culture areas

by anthropologists

is

an attempt

to reduce the complexity of cultural types to

fewer, meaningful units.

Ideally, a culture area

is

a geographic

region inhabited by tribes that resemble each other in the totality of culture traits

more than they resemble other

tribes.

Because

of the variable diffusion of traits, however, there are often con-

siderable differences

among

tribes within a culture area.

In the

1800 there were fully nomadic bison hunters, semisedentary hunters who practised some agriculture, and sedentary village farmers. The following classification is somewhat arbitrary but necessarily so in a brief summary. Nine culture areas are listed and indicated in fig. 3. The more important or better-known areas are described in separate articles and in Prehistory and Archaeology below. The main areas are: (1) arctic coast {see Eskimo); (2) subarctic, which includes both Athapaskan and Algonkian forest hunters (see Canada: Native Peoples; Athapaskan; Algonkian Tribes); (3) northwest coast; (4) basin-plateau, the area of somewhat marginal cultures in the intermontane west; (5) California; (6) southwest, including northern Mexico {see Pueblo Indians); (7) plains (see Plains Indians; Siouan Indians); (8) eastern woodlands (see Muskogean Indians; Iroquois); (9) Mesoamerica (jee Aztec; Toltec; Archaeology: Mesoamerica). Indian Population. The number of Indians in North America at the time of Columbus was estimated by A. L. Kroeber at about 1,000,000 north of Mexico and about 5,000,000 in Mexico and Central America. Numbers fell significantly after contact with the Plains culture area of

c.

—

a.d.

FIG. 3.

— CULTURE

AREAS OF ABORIGINAL NORTH AMERICA

Europeans, mainly because of increased warfare and some alien diseases such as measles and smallpox which were fatal to many.

Some tribes became extinct; others merged and lost their identity. Since about 1910 the Indian population has steadily increased, and some, like the Navaho (q.v.), were more numerous in the 1960s than in aboriginal times. 2. Languages. The outstanding characteristic of American Indian languages is their diversity. There are more than 60 language families in North America, comprising over 500 languages, but these have been reduced to a smaller number of superstocks by Edward Sapir and others. No genetic relationship to any language group in the old world has been fully demonstrated as yet. One may conclude from this that the ancestors of the Indians left the old world so long ago that any relationship was lost through linguistic change. (See American Aboriginal Languages; Central and North American Languages. ) 3. Physical Anthropology. American Indians are not uniform in physical type but are basically Mongoloid. They exhibit

—

—

some

including reddish-tan skin colour, pronounced cheekbones, prominent noses, thin lips, well-developed distinctive

traits,

chins and heavy faces.

Hair and eye colour

is

uniformly dark ex-

cept in cases where admixture with Europeans has occurred.

Some

of the classic Asiatic Mongoloid physical traits, such as epicanthic

eye fold and fatty cheeks, are generally absent in the new world populations, excepting the Eskimo. See also Indian, North American; Indian, Latin-American; Folklore (American Indian); and The People sections of articles on the various countries in the Americas, (R, J. R,)

IV.

PREHISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY

North American prehistory is a complex and variable record of man's adaptation to the various continental environments and of

NORTH AMERICA more than 25,000 years. The earliest records of the peopling of North America are scanty and it is difficult to characterize their culture beyond calling it a hunting and gathering economy with simple stone and bone tools. The earliest remains were found in the western United States, Mexico and South America. First settlers seem to have crossed the Bering straits region from Asia during the expansion of the last major Pleistocene ice sheets. As the great ice sheets developed and expanded they not only covered major land areas in the northern his developing culture over

hemisphere but they also brought considerable areas of the continental shelves above sea level. In the arctic this provided a tundra coastal plain across which man could move from Asia to North America. The amount of the earth's moisture incorporated into the ice probably lowered the sea level hundreds of feet. Asia and America were thus not separated by the gradual rise of the sea until about 9,000 years ago; Ukely sites of the earliest migrants are now below sea level.

Some ants

is

authorities believe that the culture of the earliest inhabitrepresented by crude scrapers shaped by percussion, chop-

and a few bone perforators. Such tools are equated with an eastern Asiatic mid-Pleistocene complex which lasted well up into the Late Paleolithic when more advanced and varied industries were developed in western Asia and Europe and spread pers, knives

east

and northeast.

The Americas were

major land mass, with the possiby prehistoric man, who first had to develop the cultural equipment to exist in the arctic area. Once this adjustment was made, during the WiJrm-Wisconsin glaciation he was able to move, by way of the nonglaciated areas, into the Mackenzie basin and into continental United States. The time of the initial dispersal into North America is estimated to be between 25,000 to 35,000 years ago. Some period of time should be allowed for the gradual spread of the first Americans the last

ble exception of Australia, to be occupied

throughout the varied environments during the retreating phase of the Wisconsin ice. There were significant displacements of vegetational and climatic zones to the south during this period. 1. Early American Hunters. In contrast to the sparse

—

knowledge of the period from 25,000 to 10,000 years B.C. is the considerable body of data on the cultural pattern of primarily hunting people whose remains were found from the Pacific to the Atlantic and from the Gulf of Mexico to the borders of the last major stand of the Pleistocene ice sheets in the north cen-

Kx

591

NORTH AMERICA

592 Northwest Coast.

— In

the north Pacific part of the United States and in western British Coiiimhia. soine of the early sites of the hunters had Huted blades, crude choppers and cutting tools. 4.

Between 9000 and 7000 B.C. there were varied economic activities but with an emphasis on hunting. By about 8000 B.C. some sites showed a strong orientation toward salmon fishing, particularly during the salmon runs, and tended to emphasize the use of bone and antler tools. The burin, a chisellike bone working tool, was found in these levels along with prepared cores and blades. During the postglacial warming period which culminated between 3000 and 2000 b.c. the inhabitants of the dryer areas without permanent streams took on more of the traits of the Desert culture to the south, while others turned toward riverine fishing and marsh resources or to food from the sea. In the first millennium B.C. the Marpole complex, a distinctive ground slate complex, was known in the Fraser river area with basic resemblances to the northwest coast historic culture in maritime emphasis, woodworking, large houses and substantial villages. The emphasis on ground slate and

woodworking

tools

is

like that in the eastern boreal forest Archaic,

emphasis in northwestern Siberian early NeoAnother culture trait of ultimate Siberian origin lithic cultures. Columbia area shortly after a.d. 1 was a the British which came to second introduction of the polyhedral core and blade, regarded as In most of a distinctive part of the Arctic Small Tool tradition. the areas of the northwest coast clear indications of the beginnings of the historic cultures were not known until about a.d. 1300. 5. The Eastern Archaic. In the eastern woodland area, partly as a result of the variety of forest environments, climatic differences and physiographic features, there developed a series of regional adaptations to local food supplies. The change from the primarily hunting economy of the early American hunters was gradual and is clearly seen in

and

recalls similar

—

from Archaic sites read like a listing of the early historic fauna. Various game-gathering devices, including nets, traps and pitfalls, were used besides the spear and dart thrower. Fishhooks, gorges and net-.sinkers were known, and in some areas fish weirs were built. River, lake and ocean mollusks were consumed and their discarded shells formed large shell middens near the favourable collecting areas. The deep shell middens have preserved a record of stylistic change and the introduction of new industries to the Archaic economy. While relatively little of the vegetal foods were preserved, nut hulls are known and the grinding and pounding stones attest to this type of food supply. Probably a great many native roots, berries, fruits and tubers known as used in the early historic period were incorporated into the diet during the Archaic. Also the extensive list of plant medicines recorded by the early colonists were probably a part of the primitive Archaic pharmacopoeia. The large variety of chipped-flint projectiles, knives, scrapers, perforators, drills and adzes reflect regional styles and changes during the long Archaic period. The Late Archaic was distinguished

by the gradual development of ground and polished, grooved stone axes, celts, pestles, gouges, adzes, plummets and forms attached to the spear thrower. This was a reflection of a growing versatility Trade and exchange are also in the technology and economy. the distribution of native copper implements from the Michigan-Wisconsin area to as far south as Louisiana and Florida, and the finds of southeastern marine shells as far north as the An extensive system of upper Mississippi-Great Lakes area. trails and water routes was probably in existence during the Late

known from

Archaic.

The

great boreal forest zone of spruce, fir and pine which now New England and the maritime provinces of Canada

runs from

slowly evolving projectile point and other implement changes. The pattern of life became one of

mixed hunting and collecting, with some groups by 6000 B.C. developing a taste for riverine and coastal hving with abundant fish and moUusk resources to supplement the vegetational products such as acorns, seeds, berries

and tubers. During the long eastern Archaic from 8000 to 1500 B.C. regional diversification was developed and strong continuities or traditions may have been seen in local areas, some of which are named in fig. 5. These reflected both the greater exploitation of regional environments through generations of experimentation and greater familiarity with the resources, and the resultant resistance of the environmentally conditioned culture to group mobility. It was during the Archaic that significant early linguistic diversification

and

during

probably occurred, which varieties of

physical types developed.

The a

typical Archaic house

small

circular

structure

was with

wooden posts

for the wall

roof supports.

The covering was

and

probably bark. Cooking was done in the open by boiling in containers of wood, bark or hides or by baking in pits or by roasting and grilling. Identification lists of mammal, fish and bird bones

HUNTING AND GATHERING CULTURES

IN

NORTH AMERICA. ABOUT 3000

B.C.

NORTH AMERICA westward to the Canadian plains and the Mackenzie valley gradually acquired its present distribution following the retreat and Its present distribution was melting of the Canadian ice cap. reached by about 2500 B.C. This forest zone is not well known archaeologically because of its inaccessibility and the absence of modern settlements. The forest cover and the climate had a limiting effect on the cultural development and on the general pattern of hunting and fishing. These efforts were supplemented by some use of plant material. The early historic Algonkian tribes of the area from the Naskapi on the east to the various Cree (g.v.) and Ojibwa {g.v.) bands to the south and southwest of Hudson bay were the cultural descendants of the cultural adaptation which took place in this forest zone. In the upper Great Lakes area the Old Copper culture has a interest because copper implements and weapons were made from the native copper of the Lake Superior basin. This culture appeared about 3000 B.C. and lasted about 2,000 years. It was a northern expression of the Late Archaic. Its tools and weapons, particularly in the adzes, gouges and axes, clearly inIn the area dicate an adaptation to the forest environment. south of James bay to the upper St. Lawrence about 2000 b.c, there was a regional variant called the Laurentian Boreal ArIn chaic and in the extreme east the Maritime Boreal Archaic. this eastern area, slate was shaped into points and knives of similar form to the copper implements to the west. Trade between the eastern and western areas could be recognized and this evidence, along with general similarities of the culture, suggests that water transportation by canoe was known at this time. Along the southern border of the central and eastern boreal forest zone between 1500 and 500 B.C. there developed a distinctive burial complex, reflecting an increased attention to burial ceremospecial

These burials, many including cremations, were often accompanied by red ochre, caches of triangular blanks, fire-making kits of iron pyrites and flint strikers, copper needles and awls, and polished stone forms. The triangular points of this complex may have represented the introduction of the bow and arrow from the pre-Dorset and Dorset cultures east of Hudson bay. The earliest Woodland pottery appeared in the Great Lakes area about 1000 B.C. It is another of the culture traits derived from northeastern Asia and across northern Alaska to northwestern Canada. The route by which it reached the Great Lakes is not known. 6. The Plains Archaic. In the western plains from about 8000 to 3000 B.C. the fluted blade points were no longer made, and many styles or types were produced which were identified by such local names as Plainview, Angostura, Milnesand, Agate Basin, Scottsbluff and others. These minor varieties of dart and spear point and their primarily hunting culture may be included in the term Piano. The Piano complex or culture type was a direct descendant from the fluted blade early American hunters. Their primary game animal was the bison, for the larger animals of the preceding period had died out or were exterminated. The stone complex associated with the Piano hunters was markedly similar from site to site over a considerable period of time during which the climate became increasingly warmer and until the major warm period was reached about 3000 to 2000 B.C. As the climate moderated, peoples of the Late Piano complex moved north into Saskatchewan and Alberta (see fig. 5) with the grazing game animals, and by 3000 B.C. had reached the arctic tundra zone in the Northwest Territories of Canada at Grant and Dismal lakes and Great Bear river. Important elements of this culture also moved east in the Mississippi valley and western Great Lakes area. Many of the sites of this culture type were kill sites with abundant bison bones which accounted for the number of implements and tools associated with hunting and leather working. In the tundra zone the major game animal was the caribou. However, some choppers, pounders and milling stones were known, and living sites indicate that the Piano economy was not as limited as it may seem. 7. The American Arctic. There is little evidence of man in the American arctic in the period between 25,000 and 10,000 years ago, and only scattered finds and no excavated sites of culture which could have occupied the period between 8000 and 5000 B.C. There were some finds of fluted blades and of Piano forms which nialism.

—

—

593

probably reached Alaska via the Mackenzie corridor, and also knives and graving tools of immediate Siberian origin which may have been of this same antiquity. In the Seward peninsula and in the Brooks range there were indications of a land hunting and to some degree sea-mammal hunting group which may have been related to some of the boreal forest cultures to the south. Their estimated time period would be from 5000 to 3000 B.C. Interior Alaska and western Canada are not well known archaeologically. Between 3000 and 2000 b.c the Arctic Small Tool tradition developed in northwestern Alaska. It was based on the hunting of caribou and other tundra animals along with some dependence on sea mammals. This culture included some elements from the northern spread of the Piano hunters to northwestern Canada but was primarily derived from northeastern Asia. It gradually spread eastward in the Canadian tundra to the northwest and northeast side of Hudson bay, into extreme northeastern Canada, and to western and northern Greenland. This eastern spread was accomplished by 1000 B.C. In the dominant culture centre of the arctic, the Bering sea area, there developed from 500 B.C. to a.d. 500 a number of cultures identified as Paleo-Eskimo whose primary adaptation was that of sea-mammal hunting. These cultures blended elements of the earlier Arctic Small Tool tradition with pottery and other traits from the Lena valley, and with elements from cultures which developed along the northeastern Siberian coast. The sea-mammal hunting economy gradually moved eastward as the Thule culture and became the economic base for most of the Eskimo groups in the central and eastern coastal arctic by the time of European expansion into the area. Another branch of the sea hunting culture was found in southeastern Alaska where it came into the historic period with the Aleut and western Eskimo.

—

Early American Planters Primitive agricultural pracbegan in Mexico by 6000 to 4000 B.C., and by approximately 2000 B.C. were known on the northern fringe of the Mesoamerican culture area. Maize was not the only crop plant, for gourds, 8.

tices

squash, peppers, cotton and varieties of beans were also domestiMaize was grown in the southwestern United States by cated.

but most of the other domesticates did not arrive and after a.d. 1. The early introduction of maize in the southwest had no marked effect on cultural development, and the existence of pottery, storage pits, domestic houses with semisubterranean floors and lateral entryways were not known unThese houses had wood uprights for walls, central til about A.D. 1. roof supports, radiating beams and wattle and daub plastered walls. Ceremonial houses were much larger than the domestic homes and they show no evidence of everyday occupational debris. Two important cultural traditions, Hohokam and Mogollon (qq.v.), developed in southern New Mexico and Arizona (see fig. 6). These two traditions, developed from similar late preceramic phases of the Desert culture, were influenced by similar traits from northwestern Mexico but evolved into different complexes as the result of differing environmental conditions and subsequent cultural accretions from Mexico (see Southwestern Village Farmers

2000 to 1000

B.C.

until just before

The Maker of

below).

early Anasazi (g.v.) culture expressions called Bas-

the Four Corners area (namely northwestern New Mexico, southwestern Colorado, southeastern Utah and northeastern Arizona) were primarily stimulated through contact with Mogollon populations to the south. These early small settlements were the first village agriculturalists in the southwest. On about the same time level were the first village cultures of the east which, however, developed an elaborate burial ceremonialism. The cultural expressions of the east known as Early Woodland were in some part a development from Late Archaic complexes and in part stimulated by new techniques and concepts which came into the area from a number of directions. Woodland pottery was introduced from northeastern Asia about 1500 B.C. and burial mounds made their first appearance slightly later (see Mound Builders). It is beheved early agricultural activities began about 1000 to 500 B.C. although clear evidence for this in the humid east is not yet available. It is not certain whether agriculture was introduced directly from northeastern Mexico or by way of the southwest. The best-known culture types were

ket

NORTH AMERICA

594 Adena,

which

began in Early Ohio valley, and Hopewell {Q.V.). which marked the beginning of Middle Wood-

Woodland

in the

land in the northern Mississippi

and Ohio valley. Both these cultures were stimulated by the arrival of concepts and practices from Mexico that were recognized by the production of figurines, ear spools and certain ceramic innovations such as the Late negative painted pottery. Adena and Hopewell reached their peak of development and expansion during a relatively warm minor climatic phase between 200 B.C. and A.D. 200, which allowed a northern spread of this early agricultural economy into Wisconsin and the southern half of Michigan.

The

village areas of

Hopewell varied for

Adena and from ^

ac.

Circular and oval

to about 5 ac.

houses

in size

single

family occu-

pancy w'ere built of wood and bark, and storage and refuse pits were excavated

The in to,

in the village area.

villages w^ere usually located

major stream valleys adjacent or on,

flood plains.

easily

tilled

alluvial

The earthwork patAdena and

terns of Ohio valley

Hopewell were placed in or near the village and are ceremonial expressions not clearly understood by archaeologists. The size and complexity of these geometric earthworks and the accompany-

—

mounds compare fa- FIG. 6. DISTRIBUTION OF EARLY AMERICAN FARMERS AND CONTEMPORANEOUS GROUPS IN NORTH AMERICA, vourably with those of northwestABOUT A.D. 1 ern Europe during the Bronze and Early Iron ages. Extensive trade and travel by these peo- utilitarian products reflected the tribal groupings of the period. An pie was proved by raw materials brought into the Ohio-Illinois outstanding feature of this culture type was the earthen temple areas from the Rocky mountains, North Dakota, Lake Superior, mound, which served as a raised platform on which the major the southern Appalachians, and the Gulf and South Atlantic sea- community buildings were placed. These council houses and coasts. Ohio, particularly, served as a distributing centre for "temples" served as the political and ceremonial centres. The ceremonial goods and special products over a wide area in the platform mounds were placed on the sides of a central plaza which eastern United States. These cultures were the first indications of served as a ceremonial centre for the tribal community during imcraft specialization and of social stratification. portant recurrent functions or during times of crisis. The more There is a clear evidence of cultural regression between a.d. permanent buildings, both family and community, were of wattle 200 and 700 in the north-central United States following the Hope- and daub construction, usually rectangular in floor plan. In some well expansion and florescence. This is attributed to a minor cold areas large, circular charnel houses received the remains of the phase which did not allow a continuation of agriculture in this dead, but burial was normally made in large cemeteries, or in area under the techniques then current. While there was concur- the floors of dwellings. The size of the ceremonial tribal centres rent change in the south, this did not take the form of a lowering varied from 10 ac. to 100 ac. Important household industries of the cultural level. involved the production of mats, baskets, clothing and a variety 9. Eastern Village Farmers. The last major cultural devel- of vessel forms for specialized uses. Food surplus was kept in opment in the eastern United States is called Mississippian be- ground storage pits and in storage cribs above the ground, cause its primary centre was in the valley of the Mississippi river. One of the more striking developments was the production of and along its major tributaries, and in the southeast. This pre- ceremonial costumes and ornaments, for use in the religious ceredominantly agricultural complex was a marked cultural advance monies that were conducted by an organized priesthood with a over earlier stages in the east. Its initial growth and expansion well-established ritual. The religious symbolism spread throughwas at approximately the same period (a.d. 700-1200) as that of out the Mississippian complex and a number of centres of producthe southwestern Anasazi complex. {See fig. 7.) The initial tion of specialized ceremonial items are known. Other innovations growth was along the Mississippi between modern St. Louis and were walled fortifications with timber palisades and bastions surVicksburg. It was stimulated by the introduction of concepts, re- rounding the village, which reflected an increase in intergroup agligious practices and improved agricultural procedures from northgression and a tendency, continuing into the historic period, toward ern Mexico, which resulted in a sedentary societal organization. The intergroup conflicts apthe development of confederacies. By A.D. 1000 large villages were in existence with subsidiary vil- parently were primarily quests for prestige and revenge instead lages and farming communities nearby. Regional specialized proof means of territorial expansion or economic control. duction in pottery, projectile points, house types and other Many of the tribal groups of the early historic period particiing burial

—

NORTH AMERICA pated in the Mississippi culture. Among these were the Caddoanspeaking tribes of Arkansas, Oklahoma, Texas and Louisiana (see Caddo the southern Siouan Osage and Quapaw (see Siouan Indians) the Natchez, Choctaw, Chickasaw and Creek (qq.v.), who were Muskogean-speaking (see Muskogean Indians) the Cherokee (q-v.) of the Iroquoian linguistic family (see Iroquois); and the Algonkian-speaking Illinois, Miami and Shawnee (see Algonkian Tribes). Along the eastern and northern periphery, such tribes as the Siouan Catawba (q.v.) and Tutelo, the eastern Algonkian Powhatan and Micmac (qq.v.), the Iroquoian tribes of the eastern Great Lakes, and the Algonkian tribes of the forest zone south of Hudson bay and the western Great Lakes, all retained the older Woodland complex but with some indications of Mississippian influence. The extent of this influence seems to have depended on their nearness to the more advanced cultural complex, and on their ability to maintain an agricultural economy along with hunting ;

)

;

;

and gathering. There was a spread of Woodland culture during Middle Woodland into the eastern part of the plains from Oklahoma to North Dakota, with some sites, particularly in eastern Kansas, clearly forming a part of the Hopewellian complex (see fig. 6). Some of the Woodland traits went as far west as the high plains in Colorado. Most of the Woodland sites in this latter area were, however. Late Woodland in their relationships and probably began about a.d. 700-800. In the plains there was evidence of corn and bean cultivation during Middle Woodland, and in Late Woodland cultivation of gourds and squash. Between about a.d. 300400 and a.d. 800 there was little occupation of the western part of the plains by agricultural people because of the relative aridity.

595

After A.D. 800, however, Late Woodland populations had spread west to the eastern slopes of the Rockies and were in contact with

eastward-moving Puebloan people. A favourable agricultural period was indicated by the marked increase in village size and in population density for the next 400 years, during which hospitable areas along major streams were occupied by various interrelated cultural groups collectively known as the plains Mississippi cultures. Part of this complex was connected to the developing Mississippi complexes to the east by diffusion, and to some degree by a migration of such groups as the Omaha (q.v.) and Ponca from the St. Louis area by about a.d. 1000. Some cultural characteristics such as the earth lodges with entranceways had connections into the southwest, but the major orientation was toward the Mississippi valley. Together with a northward expansion of agricultural people along the Missouri into North and South Dakota before a.d. 1200, segments of the Upper Republican adaptation were developing along stream and creek valleys west into the high plains {see fig. 7) but because of increasing aridity in the western area they subsequently withdrew to the east. Between A.D. 1500-1700 the high plains from New Mexico to Wyoming and in eastern Oklahoma, Kansas and Nebraska were preempted by horse-using, semiagricultural and plains Apache and Comanche (qq.v.).

tradition

Prehistoric village agriculturalists of a plains Mississippi came into the historic period as the Pawnee, Arikara, Hidatsa, Crow (qq.v.) and Wichita.

Mandan, 10. Southwestern Village Farmers.— The southwestern vilwere distributed from eastern Utah and southern Colorado through most of New Mexico and Arizona. The ef-

lage farmers

fective agricultural area varied with fluctuations in climate that profoundly affected the ability of the Indians to occupy marginal regions. While corn and some other agricultural plants were introduced from Mexico between 2000 B.C. and a.d. 1, the first village complexes, with S to 15 pit or surface houses, ceremonial

and pottery, did not appear until shortly before a.d. 1 in southern Arizona

buildings, refuse pits

and New Mexico. Two of the major farming complexes began at this time Mogollon was located in the mountainous belt of west central New Mexico and :

east central Arizona, while

Hoho-

kam was

located in the desert area of the Gila basin of southern Arizona. The latter group de-

pended upon irrigation for its crops while Mogollon depended upon rainfall and stream diversion over flood plains. Mogollon

became the pattern of agriculture adopted by the Indian groups of the Four Corners area along with other traits from the south, and developed into the Anasazi or Puebloan culture, the third major farming complex of

later

(q.v.)

the southwest. The geographical expansion, population growth and striking

development of permanent vilmultiroom and multi-

lages with

level buildings

period

from

came during the

a.d.

700 to

1200,

which coincided with a minor

cli-

matic period of favourable distribution of rainfall for plant growth over the entire southwest. FIG. 7.

— EXPANSION

OF FARMING VILLAGES AND CONTEMPORANEOUS WESTERN AND NORTHERN HUNTING-GATHER-

ING CULTURES IN NORTH AMERICA. ABOUT A.D. 1000

For the same climatic reasons, there was an expansion of popu-

.

NORTH AMERICA

596

and cultural movement from central and western Mexico into northwestern Mexico. Trade and cultural stimuli then moved from northwestern Mexico into the American southwest at a time when the climate in both areas was most favourable for population and cultural growth. Indicating such cultural movement, cast copper bells, parrots, ball courts, shell trumpets, pottery vessel shapes and designs were found: they clearly reflect the transmission of religious beliefs and ceremonies. These southern influences were blended into local and regional complexes. The Anasazi village agricultural complex had expanded by a.d. 900 to occupy northeastern Arizona, southwestern Colorado and By a.d, 1100 expansion had taken northwestern New Mexico. place into the \irgin river valley of southeastern Nevada, north as far as the Great Salt lake and northwestern Colorado, to the east into southeastern Colorado and to the Pecos and upper Canadian river valleys of New Mexico. Some of the important cultural lation

characteristics, incorporated into the architectural plan, that iden-

Anasazi of this period are stone masonry, multiroom and mulhouse structures and oriented kivas ceremonial chambers) Textured and corrugated, gray cooking and utilitarian pottery and pottery with black painting on white slip are also found. During this period there was probably a development of priestly offices and of rituals and ceremonialism. The increasing population concentration in large pueblos was apparently organized into households according to lineage. Control of the agricultural activities was presumably in the hands of clan leaders who were also the priests who officiated in the rain-producing ceremonies. During this period some of the larger village populations ranged from 300 to more than 1,000 people. tify

tistory

{

Primarily because of increasing aridity there was a marked rebetween 1 100 and 1300 from its northAs a result, a conern, western and eastern limits of expansion. centration of the pueblos took place in northeastern Arizona, and traction of Anasazi culture

along the Rio Grande and its immediate tributaries, and in the present Zuiii area of western New Mexico. In these favourable areas the Anasazi groups were able to maintain their societies by sand-dune farming with floodwater and some canal irrigation. The increased importance and elaboration of religious rain-producing

ceremonies between 1300 and 1540 is deduced from paintings on kiv-a walls and from a more elaborate symbolism in pottery decoration. Polychrome painting on pottery was the major decorative technique. At this time the village houses were grouped around one or more plazas, as in the upper Rio Grande and Little Colorado areas.

The

early historic and modern Pueblo Indians (q.v.), from the and Hopi {qq.v.) on the west to the Rio Grande groups on the east, were the direct descendants of the Anasazi populations. The MogoUon complex in its early phases from 200 B.C. to a.d. 700 consisted of relatively small villages of pit houses grouped near a large ceremonial structure. The pit houses had a round to quadrangular floor plan, sometimes with long, lateral entries.

Zuiii

No organization of the village structures into a pattern is apparent and trash disposal was random. The dead were buried flexed, sometimes with brownish-textured, polished, red-filmed and redpainted pottery. While the initial impetus for sedentary village life

appeared early

in the

MogoUon

area there was an apparent

period of cultural quiescence about a.d. 400 to 600. With the growth and spread of the Anasazi complex in the period after 700, the

main flow of culture was from that area, and MogoUon vilfrom A.D. 900 to 1100 were a blend of local development During the climatic deteriora-

lages

strongly influenced from Anasazi.

MogoUon territory in southwestNew Mexico was abandoned. The western Puebloan groups of

tion after a.d.

ern

1200

much

of the

the late prehistoric period also

The Hohokam limited to

by extensive tion.

They

seem

to represent this blend.

culture of southeastern Arizona was primarily

river valleys.

Their agriculture was made possible

irrigation canals

which required intervillage co-opera-

main

lived in villages of scattered pit houses

made

of brush

and mud, which were dispersed along the streams and canals. Their main settlements and major culture growth took place also during the period a.d. 700-1200. Following this for 200 years, there was a blend with Anasazi and Mexican elements and a tend-

ency toward the construction of more compact settlements surrounded by compound walls with a few massive multiroom and two-story buildings. Some of the other distinct characteristics were etched shell ornaments, paddle and anvil shaping and finishing of pottery, red-on-buff pottery, excellent stone carvings, wellmade projectile points and grooved stone axes, ball courts, small kivas, cremation, and relatively little evidence of trade and influences from northwestern Mexico. Such historic groups as the Pima and Papago (qq.v.) are regarded as descended from the

Hohokam

people.

North American prehistory presents a great variety of cultural adaptations from the early hunting and gathering groups that initially occupied the U.S. territory and gradually moved into the Canadian area to the early historic agricultural societies and hunting, fishing peoples. The major climatic and ecological areas strongly influenced the culture types which arose from 12,000 to 3,000 years ago. Following the introduction of agriculture and associated concepts from the dominant Mesoamerican civilization there developed two important centres of farming societies, in the southwest and in the Mississippi valley. Their growth and development was arrested by the intrusion of European explorers and colonists, and North America rapidly became a part of western civilization. See also Archaeology; Indian, North American; Indian, Latin-American; for Prehistory and Archaeology of Middle America see Middle America. (J. B. Gn.)

—

V.

EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT

Although Northmen from Scandinavia established colonies on Greenland during the 10th century and evidently reached North America in a series of expeditions about a.d. 1000 their experiences contributed little to the eventual European exploitation of the continent.

Europeans entered an age of geographical discovery during the 15th century, reflecting developments in economic, social and Merchant groups had political life under way for some centuries. developed in western Europe, eager to expand trade and able to finance increasingly ambitious ventures. Most valuable of trade goods were the spices, coming overland from the orient to the eastern end of the Mediterranean. Since Italian merchants controlled the spice trade, merchants to the northwest wished to

new routes to The intellectual

find

the east.

climate was prepared for an age of discovery by Renaissance scholars who developed an interest in the natural world, reviewed the speculations of the Greeks about the earth, and hazarded their own. At the same time Europeans were advancing in ship construction and improving navigational aids. After the first discoveries the new printing press allowed wide distribution of explorers' accounts, encouraging other venturers.

The rise of national states. Portugal. Spain. France, England and the united Netherlands, contributed also to the age of discovery. Monarchs encouraged exploring ventures in hope of increasing trade and acquiring treasure or territory. In the tradition of militant Christianity, Europeans wished to convert the nonChristians of the world. With the coming of the Reformation in the early 16th century, moreover, religious differences sharpened national rivalries as Protestants sought to outstrip the

Roman

Catholic Spanish and Portuguese, whose kings had divided the new worlds between themselves with papal approval in the treaty of Tordesillas of 1494.

—

1. Early Spanish Explorations. In 1492 Christopher Columbus reached the Bahama Islands with three ships, proceeding then to Cuba and La Espafiola (Hispaniola). A Genoese adventurer. Columbus sailed under a commission from the Spanish crown. Encouraged by tales of lands beyond the Canary Islands and stories of oriental riches, Columbus accepted the theory that the earth was spherical and sought the east by sailing west. He was probably motivated by a sense of Christian mission and a desire to rule new lands as Spanish governor, to win riches and to be known as a great geographer. Returning to Spain. Columbus maintained that he had reached the eastern fringe of Asia. Although he traversed much of the Caribbean and traced the mainland coast from Honduras to the Isthmus of Panama in three sub-

NORTH AMERICA

597

sequent voyages, Columbus found no passage to Cathay, the medieval name for China. As governor of the Indies he also failed, but his discoveries of gold and pearls drew others and the royal fifth of such treasure interested the Spanish rulers. (See Columbus, Christopher.) Based on La Espaiiola, Spanish captains probed the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico and Central America, hoping to find a western passage, to establish principalities and to exploit local resources. Shortly after 1500, Ferdinand V gave rights of conquest and gov-

ernment on the Mosquito Coast and the adjacent South American coastline to two adventurers, Diego de Nicuesa and Alonso de Ojeda. From their ventures, initially plagued by disease, dissension and hostile Indians, emerged Vasco Nufiez de Balboa who led a force across the isthmus to the Gulf of

Panama

in

1513.

(See Balboa, Vasco Nunez de.) From the isthmus, captains worked north along the Pacific and Caribbean shores. By 1516 Diego Velazquez de Cuellar had subjugated Cuba and he directed the attention of his lieutenants to the mainland (see

Velazquez de Cuellar. Diego).

In 1519 Hernan Cortes (q.v.) ledthe third of such expeditions. Retracing the routes of his predecessors along the Gulf of Campeche, Cortes burned his boats at Veracruz and penetrated the mountains with a small force to Tenochtitlan (Mexico City), the Aztec capital of Montezuma II (g.v.). By astute diplomacy, brilliant soldiering and adept handling of Indian allies he broke and plundered the rich Aztec empire. Ignoring Velazquez in Cuba, Cortes became governor of the new

Mexico City, and subdued the surDuring the mid-1 520s his men clashed in Honduras with forces from the isthmus. The general outlines and topography of Central America and southern Mexico were now becoming clear. •Some Spanish adventurers pushed north from La Espafiola. In 1513 Juan Ponce de Leon threaded the Bahamas and skirted peninsular Florida. (See Ponce de Leon, Juan.) Alonso de Pineda (1519) traced the shore of the Gulf of Mexico from the Florida keys to the Panuco river in Mexico. During 1524-25 the Portuguese Esteban Gomes coasted from the Grand Banks to Florida in Spanish service. Later expeditions probed the continental interior. Panfilo de Narvaez (g.v.) landed a large party in Florida in 1528. Eight years later, two survivors, Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca and the Negro slave Esteban, reached northern Mexico after walking from Galveston bay. Cabeza de Vaca's tale encouraged minds inflamed by stories of Inca treasure and Indian region, established himself at

rounding

territories.

legends of the seven cities of Cibola. Expeditions begun by Hernando

(Fernando) De Soto and Marcos de Niza (Fray Marcos) in 1539 and by Francisco Vazquez de Coronado in 1540 followed routes which stretched, when combined, from the Grand canyon to the Savannah river, ascended the Mississippi valley beyond the Ohio and linked the upper waters of the Brazos to the Kansas river. (See De Soto, Hernando; Niza, Marcos de; Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de.) Early major Spanish explorations were completed in 1542-43 when Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo and Bartolome Ferrelo surveyed the Pacific coast from lower California to a point beyond latitude 42° N., although minor figures explored in the eastern Appalachians and the southwest after 1550. (See also Latin America.) 2. French, English and Dutch Explorations Before 1772. While the Spanish exploited the lower latitudes, other European captains ranged the coasts to the north. Backed by the British crown and Bristol merchants, the Genoese John Cabot (g.v.) made such a voyage in 1497. Subsequent EngUsh, Portuguese and French expeditions found little of interest until the Frenchman, Jacques Cartier (g.v.), ascended the St. Lawrence river in a series of expeditions beginning in 1534. But he found no equivalent to Aztec or Inca treasure and interest in the interior waned. In 1578-79 Sir Francis Drake (g.v.) explored the Pacific coast of North America to 48° in an attempt to find a passage to the east. Increasingly, however. Frenchmen and Basques fished the Gulf of St. Lawrence and incidentally began a trade in furs with the natives. American furs, particularly beaver, were sufficiently popular in Europe by 1600 that the French king tried to nurture the trade by assigning it as a monopoly to favoured merchants.

—

F-FRANCE

N-NETHESLANOS R-RUSSIA S-SPAIN

—

FIG. 8. PRrNCIPAL EXPLORERS OF NORTH AMERICA: GENERAL LOCATION AND DATES OF THEIR MOST IMPORTANT DISCOVERIES

French fur traders founded Port Royal in 1605 but in 1608 Quebec became the centre of the trade. From there the governor of French Canada, Samuel de Champlain, hoped also to discover a '

Pacific passage

(see

drew the French

Champlain, Samuel

de).

The

fur trade

was always profitable to forestall tribes seeking to act as middlemen. After 1615 the desire of the RecoUet (Franciscan), Jesuit and Sulpician religious also

orders to

But the

into the interior since

Christianize

the

Indians

it

contributed to exploration.

hostile Five Nations of the Iroquois (g.v,), west of the

Hudson and below

the St. Lawrence and Lake Ontario, impeded Allies of the Dutch at Fort Orange, these Iroquoians fought the northern tribes friendly with the French. Because of the Iroquois the French initially avoided the lower lakes and folthe French.

lowed

the

Ottawa

into

the

interior,

traversing

to

Georgian

bay.

From

explorations of Champlain, of subordinates like and of the missionaries, the French, in 1650, underLawrence-Great Lakes system in a general way, although western Lake Superior and southern Lake Michigan were unexplored. They knew also of both the Hudson and Susquehanna river routes to the sea and had heard of a northern sea beyond the Laurentian divide. During the 1660s, French activities impinged on those of the English. Annoyed by trading restrictions in New France and by the hampering Iroquois, Pierre Esprit, sieur de Radisson, and Medart Chouart, sieur de Groseilliers, sought British backing to establish a northern trade outlet, having perhaps been themselves to James bay. As a result Englishmen organized the Hudson's Bay company (g.v.). They were already familiar w'ith the approaches to Hudson bay and its general character through the efforts of English explorers including Sir Martin Frobisher, John Davis and the

fitienne Brule,

stood the

St.

—

NORTH AMERICA

598 Henry Hudson

iqq.v.),

who had

all

sought a northwest passage to

Russian interest

in

the relation of Asia to North America i)romi)te(i early ISth century. N'itus Jonassen Bering

theorient around 1600.

exploration in

The French now attempted to w'iden their sovereignty in North America. During 1671-72, Paul Denis, sieur de St. Simon, followed the Saguenay and Rupert rivers to James bay. Simon Francois Daumont. sieur dc St. Lusson, proclaimed French rule of interior North America at Sault Ste. Marie in 1671. Daniel Greysolon. sieur Dulhut (Duluth), declared French sovereignty at Lake Mille Lacs (in present Minnesota) and descended the St. Croix and Mississippi rivers to the Wisconsin while rescuing Father Louis Hennepin from the Sioux Indians. The French also tried to push south to Spanish territory in order to confine the British settlements along the .\tlantic coast. In 1673 Louis Jolliet and the Jesuit, Jacques Marquette ^qg.v.), followed the Fox-Wisconsin traverse from Green bay and descended the Mississippi almost to the Arkansas, returning by the Illinois river to Lake Michigan. Nine years later Rene Robert Ca\'elier, sieur de La Salle, descended to the mouth of the Mississippi and claimed the whole region, which he named Louisiana, for France, (See La Salle, Rene Robert Cavelier, Sieur de.) Mississippi valley, After reaching the lower the French sought trade connections with the Spanish settlements. Notable in this effort were the expeditions of Louis Juchereau de Saint Denis from Natchitoches. La., to San Juan Bautista (\'illahermosa), Mex., in 1714; of Benard de la Harpe along the Red, Arkansas and Canadian rivers between 1719 and 1722; and of Pierre and Paul Mallet. Beginning in the winter of 1738-39 the Mallet brothers followed the Missouri, the Platte and the South Platte into the high plains, angled southwest to Taos and Santa Fe and returned to the Mississippi along the Canadian and Arkansas

(q.v.). although his achievement was disparaged, traversed Bering in 1728. Both he and Alexei Chirikov reached southern Alaska in 1741 and Russian traders began the China trade in Aleutian sea otter and seal. Russian efforts provoked response from Spain, Great Britain, France and ultimately the United

rivers.

In the northern plains Pierre Gaultier de Varennes. sieur de la A'erendrye. countered British competition by pushing trading posts beyond Lake Superior, baiting his request for a western trading monopoly by promising to seek the Western sea. Between 1731 and 1744, Verendrye and his sons discovered and described lakes

Winnipeg, Winnipegosis and Manitoba and their relation to the major rivers of the region. They reached the Black hills and mapped the upper Missouri but decided that the Saskatchewan river provided the best route to the Pacific. While the French ranged from James bay to the Gulf of Mexico, the British and Dutch explored below the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi. Englishmen established Jamestown in 1607 and the Dutch occupied the Hudson valley following its discovery by Henry Hudson in 1609. By 1650 fur traders were searching for passes through the Appalachian barrier. During 1671 \'irginians discovered the upper Kanawha. Two years later James Needham reached a Cherokee village on the upper Tennessee river and accompanied braves to the Kanawha and the Ohio rivers and to the junction of the Chattahoochee and the Flint rivers. During 1692-94 Arnout Cornelius \'iele from Albany descended the Ohio, perhaps to the Mississippi. During the late 1690s, Carolinians reached the junction of the Arkansas and Mississippi rivers and followed an expatriate French trader, Jean Couture, down the Tennessee to the Ohio. Carolinian competition with French and Spanish in the Gulf hinterland revealed the topography of this region. Initially the Hudson's Bay company showed little interest in the interior, allowing superior trade goods to draw the Indians to Hudson bay. Henry Kelsey's expedition during 1690-92 was an exception to this policy. Kelsey ascended the Hayes river

from York Factory, crossed the head of Lake Winnipeg and explored beyond Lake Winnipegosis. Kelsey was the first European to see the Canadian plains. Spurred by French activity, the company sent Anthony Henday into the interior in 1754. He pushed beyond longitude 113° W. between the major branches of the

Saskatchewan. Seeking in 1770-72 to locate the source of copper brought by Indians to company posts, Samuel Hearne reached the lower Coppermine river, crossing Great Slave lake to strike the Slave river while returning. Hearne's discoveries long discouraged exploration in the barren lands northeast of his route. 3. Pacific Coast, Northwest and Arctic Explorations.

the

strait

States.

By sea, Spanish expeditions of 1774 and 1775 coasted from California to latitude 57° N. Capt. James Cook (q.v.). cruised from Oregon to Bering strait in 1778, seeking the terminus of a northwest passage. After his death the expedition reached latitude 70° 44". Official Russian, Spanish. British and French expeditions and numerous traders probed the northwestern coast after 1785.

On land, the Spanish pushed their settlements to San Francisco bay during the 1760s and 1770s, exploring back from the coast in the process and seeking trails to link this frontier to Santa Fe and Taos. During 1776-77 Father Silvestre Velez de Escalante led a notable expedition from Sante Fe northwest to Utah lake, southwest to Sevier lake and the upper Virgin river, and back to Santa Fe.

On the northern plains, the North West company of Montreal replaced the French fur traders after New France passed to Great Seeking to forestall the Hudson's Bay comBritain in 1763. pany, and to tap the fur fields of the Russians, Sir Alexander Mackenzie (q.v.) descended the Mackenzie river from Great In 1793 he followed Slave lake to the Arctic ocean in 1789. the Peace river into the Rockies, traversed to the Eraser and then cut overland to the Pacific to complete the western passage by land. After the United States purchased Louisiana, the official Lewis

and Clark expedition ascended the Missouri, crossed from the Jefferson fork to the Pacific slope and reached the mouth of the Columbia in 1805 {see Lewis, Meriwether; Clark, William). American traders and trappers soon explored the Rockies and Great Basin to the south. To the north, British fur traders explored the Fraser and upper Columbia and entered the upper Yukon country. Meanwhile, servants of the Russian-American company pushed into the interior of Alaska. Prior to 1818 explorers by sea in the north had stopped short of Point Barrow and on land had reached the arctic coast only at the Mackenzie and the Coppermine rivers. In the next 40 years, the British admiralty; the Hudson's Bay company and private scien-

The landtific ventures revealed the features of the arctic. based expeditions of Sir John Franklin, John Rae iqq.v.) and Thomas Simpson explored most of the coastline between Point Barrow and the Melville peninsula. On sea, Frederick W. Beechey filled the gap west of Point Barrow, Lt. William later Sir William) Edward Parry {q.v.) sailed from Baffin bay to Melville Island and Sir John Ross {q.v.) explored the Boothia peninsula and, with his nephew James (later Sir James) Clark Ross {q.v.), determined the position of the north magnetic pole. When Sir John Franklin sought the northwest passage in 1845, ice trapped his ships south of Prince of Wales Island and the crews perished. During the next decade searching parties ranged the arctic, amassing information about the arctic archipelago. But not until 1903-06 did Roald .Amundsen iq.v.) sail from the Atlantic to the Pacific north of the continent. Settlement. Although Swedish and Dutch 4. European traders established colonies on the Delaware and the Hudson during the 1 7th century and Russian traders were active on the west coast of North America for more than a century, their contributions in settling North America were minor in comparison to those of the Spanish. French and English. Spanish Settlement. During the 16th century individuals, willing to organize expeditions and transport colonists, obtained contracts from the Spanish crown, allowing them to exploit regions in North America, Although the contracts conveyed extensive rights of government and economic privileges, the authority of these impresarios was usually soon challenged by royal officials. After 1535 the viceroyalty of New Spain provided the major frame of government for Spanish holdings in the Caribbean and on the (

—

—

NORTH AMERICA

599

mainland, north of the Isthmus of Panama. Dissatisfaction with prospects and desire to find adventure and wealth, or to carry Christianity and European culture abroad, impelled Spaniards to seek the new world. Impresarios, and sometimes the crown, encouraged such movement, although only SpanBy 1570 the ish citizens of undoubted orthodoxy could migrate. white population of New Spain numbered about 54,000, mainly the sophistiAndalusian antecedents. possibility of riches, of The cation of many natives and the climate, encouraged the Spanish to use Indian labour widely. The crown soon forbade Indian slavery but it persisted, and other systems of forced labour also evolved. Spanish arms, European diseases and the new regimen almost extinguished the island natives, whom the Spanish replaced by African slaves. There were more than 93,500 Negroes and mestizos in New Spain by 1570. Although the mainland Indians also decreased in numbers they always dominated the popuSpanish settlement lation, numbering about 4,000,000 in 1570, was characterized by considerable miscegenation.

The

success of Cortes caused an exodus from the Caribbean

islands,

The Greater

Antilles developed a prosperous sugar plan-

economy, but smaller islands remained unoccupied. After the initial conquests, Spanish settlement on the mainland reflected mining and agricultural opportunities and strategic considerations. The preliminary conquest was complete in Central America by 1600 but portions of the region remained unconquered in 1700. By 1600 Spanish colonization, pushing north from the valley of Mexico, had reached points due west of the mouth of the Rio Grande. Although silver and gold mines like those of Zacatecas produced concentrations of population, much grain and livestock was produced in New Spain. Dominican, Franciscan and Jesuit missions helped pacify the Indians in frontier regions. At times, colonies of civilized Indians were moved to the frontier to assist soldier and missionary. After Huguenot colonization on the Florida coast threatened tation

Spanish shipping in the Bahama channel, the Spanish finally occupied Florida during the 1560s. Missionary efforts in Virginia failed but missions along the Carolina and Georgia coasts survived. At the end of the 16th century Juan de Oiiate colonized New Mexico and Santa Fe was established in 1610. During the 18th century the Spanish pushed their Pacific frontier from the Sonora region to San Francisco bay. Settlement of the British Colonies and the United States. After the Virginia company of London founded Jamestown, the English estabhshed numerous colonies along the North American coast from Maine to Georgia and in the West Indies. Individuals sought patents from the British crown, which conferred upon them territorial and administrative privileges in the new world. Economic opportunities attracted most colonial promoters, although experience in Virginia dispelled hope of matching Aztec treasure. But desire to modify Anglican church doctrines, or to alleviate the condition of nonconformists and indigents influenced promoters

—

number

The crown never closed the colonies to Although companies or proprietors originally controlled the colonies, they were ultimately in most cases brought directly under the crown. The English colonists engaged in farming, fishing, shipbuilding and trade, with tobacco, rice and indigo important in the southern mainland colonies and sugar plantations characterizing the Indies. Although important, the mainland fur trade was never dominant. Mortality was high initially in Virginia and Plymouth but emigration attracted Englishmen because of enclosures on estates in Britain, high land prices, dissatisfaction with Stuart political and religious policies and the generous colonial systems of land disposal and government. Many emigrated as indentured servants. During the 1630s a large Puritan migration arrived in Massain a

of colonies.

religious dissenters.

chusetts, soon itself supplying emigrants for Connecticut,

New

Island and

Hampshire.

A

to develop Pennsylvania in 1682.

British

Quaker migration began

Germans and Scotch-Irish came

after 1700 to settle mainly in Pennsylvania the. south.

Scottish,

Rhode

Welsh and Huguenot

and the colonies

to

settlers arrived also.

many African slaves were brought to the southern By 1760 the British colonies in North America were

BRITISH TERRITORV

FRENCH TERRITORV

SPANISH lEBRITORY

UNEXPLORED TERRITORY

FIG. 9.

— AREAS CLAfMED BY BRITAIN.

FRANCE AND SPAIN

IN

NORTH AMER-

ICA IN 1750

supporting about 2,000,000 inhabitants of European and African origin.

Indian relations, land policy, topography, soil fertility and a of minor factors modified settlement. The agricultural frontier was in the piedmont region until 1700 and was roughly

number

marked by

the Alleghenies until 1800.

The

Mississippi provided

the frontier of the early 19th century in the United States. During the 1840s pioneers established the Oregon, Utah and California settlements.

Subsequently miners flocked to the Cordil-

of gold and silver strikes followed the California discoveries of 1848. Between 1860 and 1900 farmers occupied the high plains. Established settlements provided setas

leras

tlers for

mal

a

succession

new

lands, the pioneers migrating generally along isother-

Immigration to the United States averaged about 10,000 annually between 1790 and 1830: by the 1850s the average inflow had risen to slightly more than 280,000 people yearly and during the 1890s it was almost 370,000, Many immigrants remained in the older regions, but Germans, Scandinavians and British particularly helped to settle the northern territories and lines.

states.

The small farms and urban orientation of these regions apparently attracted the foreign-born more strongly than did the systems of slavery and plantation agriculture prevalent in the southern section of the United States before the Civil War.

American Frontier.)

{See also

—

Settlement of the French Colonies and Canada. French settlein New France (Canada) and Acadia (the coast Nova Scotia) on the North American mainland. The fur traders, required to transport colonists under their trading monop-

ments developed of

After 1600

olies,

colonies.

only 1,800 French on the

performed these obligations unsatisfactorily. There were Bay of Fundy when Acadia passed to

NORTH AMERICA

6oo England

in

company holding to

assume

Ineffective administration

1713.

direct

by the merchant

monopoly in New F"rance led the crown control in 1663 when the colony numbered about the fur

Thereafter settlers were obtained by ottering free passage and land on easy terms and by inducing French soldiers to remain in New France. The government inducted girls from France as wives for settlers and seigneurs brought in colonists to work their land grants. For a time during the 18th century, French criminals were transported to the colony. After 1680 the population grew mainly from natural increase. Since royal policy barred dissenters and French agriculture experienced few disruptive changes, little interest in emigration developed in France. Settlement in New France spread out from Quebec, Trois Rivieres and Montreal along the St. Lawrence, penetrating the back coun.Mthough primarily try along the Richelieu but little elsewhere. a farming settlement by the 18th century. New France produced 2.500.

agricultural surplus and the fur trade

little

dominated

its

com-

merce. Established in 1699, Louisiana (q.v.) developed under a merchant proprietor and later the Compagnie des Indes Ocoidentales. In 1731 it became a royal province and was enlarged to include the Illinois country. The fur trade, agriculture and lead mining in Missouri occupied the residents. By 1760 the French mainland colonies of North America had a European population of about 80,000 while the Indies numbered an additional 45:000 plus about 300.000 slaves. Aside from the French nucleus. Great Britain, then including Ireland, and the American colonies provided most of the settlers for the British provinces which ultimately amalgamated as the dominion of During the 1760s New Englanders moved to Nova Canada. Scotia and merchants lished

communities

in

from New York and New England estabQuebec and Montreal. The American Revo-

Canada, Nova Scotia Brunswick. Between 1790 and 1815 many settlers from the United States entered Upper and Lower Canada. After 1815 immigration from the British Isles became important, including lution caused Loyalists to migrate to L'pper

and

New

and Scottish crofters (tenant farmers). The Eraser river gold rush in 1856 drew a polyglot population to Although British Columbia but this province developed slowly. Lord Selkirk established a colony of Scottish settlers in the valley of the Red River of the North in 1812 (see Red River Settlement"!, and the fur trade left some retired servants and metis, or half-breeds, few settlers entered the Canadian prairies before 1890. The government actively promoted the region and by 1930 Irish famine refugees

settlers

from the older provinces, from the United States, Great and central Europe had occupied most of the

Britain, western

arable land.

the

Territorial

17th century.

America. On the mainland Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica emerged, although the countries of Central America together formed the Central American Union

between 1823 and 1839 (see Central America). In 1835 settlers from the United States in Texas revolted, proclaiming a republic which gained admission to the United States After a short war with the United States, Mexico in in 1845. 1848 renounced claims to Texas and also ceded New Mexico and upper California. In 1853 the United States acquired the Gadsden Purchase lying south of the Gila river isee Gadsden Purchase). The boundary between the United States and the northern British provinces was extended along the forty-ninth parallel beyond Lake of the Woods to the crest of the Rockies in 1818 and to the Pacific in 846. Russia and Great Britain set the interior boundary of Alaska by treaty in 1825 and Russia sold this region to the United States in 1867. Important changes in territorial administration occurred in the In 1867 Nova Scotia and New British provinces after 1S60. Brunswick joined Canada (modern Ontario and Quebec), in the dominion of Canada. Canada purchased Rupert's Land from the Hudson's Bay company in 1869, British Columbia joined the federation in 1871, Prince Edward Island in 1873 and Newfoundland, 1

including Labrador, in 1949.

Following the Spanish-American War in 1898, Cuba gained independence from Spain, and Puerto Rico was ceded to the United States (as were Guam and the Philippines). Panama declared its independence from Colombia in 1903 and granted a Canal Zone in perpetuity to the United States. The United States purchased the \'irgin Islands from Denmark in 1917, and in 1958 the West Indies federation was established within the Commonwealth of Nations. The federation broke up in 1962. See also Americas, The; Latin America; Central America; and Arctic, The; and the History sections of United States (of America); Canada; Mexico; Greenland; West Indies; and of articles on the Cen(A. G. Bo.) tral American and Caribbean republics. VI.

In

1655 the British occupied

Spanish-held

Jamaica and subsequently gained footholds on the Honduras and Mosquito coasts. The French established themselves on the uninhabited portions of Haiti.

During 1664 England seized New Netherland and in 1713 acFrench claims to Acadia, Newfoundland and Rupert's Land, the region draining into Hudson bay. In 1 763 France ceded all mainland territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain and west of that river to Spain. Concurrently Spain surrendered Florida to the British. Following the American Revolution, the United States in 1783 obtained the territory south of Nova Scotia and the Canadas, and east of the Mississippi, while Spain regained quired

POPULATION

North America, with approximately 9'7c of the world's population, ranks as the third most populous continent in the world, next to Asia and Europe, Because it occupies about 16% of the world's land area, its population density is below that for the world as a whole. 1.

—

Adjustments in North America. The European monarchs assumed that their sovereignty followed their nationals in the new world but colonial policies, European wars and American rivalries produced territorial adjustments in North .\merica. When the Spanish focused their attention on the mainland, English. French, Dutch and Danes seized unoccupied Caribbean islands, from the Bahamas to the Windward group during

Major

United States in the treaty of 1819, the United States accepting here also a western boundary for Louisiana which left Texas in Spanish hands. Beginning in 1810 revolution shattered the Spanish empire in

Distribution.

the continent.

— People are

quite unevenly distributed within

The southeastern quarter

of

Canada and the

east-

ern United States contains one of the world's great population concentrations. In this area live more than four-fifths of the U.S. population and nearly two-thirds of Canada's, comprising the densest urban concentrations and

many

of the largest cities

two countries. The most densely settled area for its size is to be found about the mouth of the Hudson river in what is known as the New York-Northeastern New Jersey Standard Consohdated area or Greater New York. From this centre northeastward to Boston and southwestward to Baltimore is the largest aggregation of people on the whole continent. Some of the islands of the West Indies are also very densely populated. Barbados contains an average of more than 1,200 of the

persons per square mile. this tiny island of the

Since a majority of the population of

West Indian group is rural, its density is some of the more heavily populated rural

comparable to that of Other Caribbean islands which areas elsewhere in the world. have high rural densities include Martinique. Puerto Rico. Jamaica, the Windward Islands, the Leeward Islands and the republic

Florida.

of Haiti.

Napoleon wrested Louisiana from Spain in 1800 but revolt in Haiti jeopardized French plans in America and paved the way for the independence ultimately of Haiti and the Dominican Republic. The United States purchased Louisiana from France in 1803 (see Louisiana Purchase). The Spanish transferred Florida to the

Almost other Middle and South .American republics. one-half of Mexico's inhabitants are found in the basins and valdistrict representing less city, in a capital about the leys clustering

The of

distribution of population w'ithin

Mexico

many

than one-seventh of the country's entire area.

is

representative

NORTH AMERICA Area and Population of

the Countries of

North America, 1960-63 and 1880-82, with Density per Square Mile

6oi

NORTHAMPTON

6o2

paralivc Studies of North American Indians (19S7) Fred Eggan (ed.), Social Anthropology of North American Indian Tribes, new ed. (19SS) F. \V. Hodge (ed.), Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico, 2 vol. (1907; reprinted 1959); Diamond Jcnness, Indians of Canada, Bull. 65, Nat. Mus. Can. (1932); A. L. Krocber, Cultural and Natural Areas of Native North America (1939) Sylvanus G. Morlcy, The An;

;

;

Maya (1946) George P. Murdock, Ethnographic Bibliography of North America (1953); J. W. Powell, Indian Linguistic Families of America North of Mexico, 7th Ann. Rep., Bur. Amer. Ethnol. (1891) Thorsten Scllin (ed.), American Indians and American Life, The American Academy of Political and Social Science (19S7) John R. Swanton, The Indian Tribes of North America, Bull. 145, Bur. Amer. Ethnol. (1952); Ruth Undcrhill, Red Man's America (1953); George C. Vaillant, Aztecs of Mexico (1941); Clark Wissler, The American Indian, 3rd ed. (1938); E. C. Baitv, America Before Man (1953); James cient

;

;

;

B. Griffin (ed.), Archeology of Eastern United States (1952) T. M. N. Lewis and Madeline Kneberg, Tribes That Slumber (1958); Paul S. ;

Indians Before ColumS. Martin, Digging into History (1959); E. H. Selin America (1952); Gordon R. Wiley and Philip H. M. Phillips, Method and Theory in American Archaeology (1958) Wormington, Ancient Man in North America, 4th ed. (1957); American Antiquity, published by the Society for American Archaeology, contains the most up to date presentation of .American prehistory. Exploration: Hakluyt Society, Publications (1847) J. Franklin Jameson (ed.). Original Narratives of Early American History (190617); Publications of the Champlain Society (1907); John Bartlet Brebner, The Explorer of North America, 1492-1806 (1933); JeanLawrence J. Burpee, The Search nette Mirskv, To the Arctic! (1948) for the Western Sea (1935); Clarence C. Hulley, Alaska. 1741-1953 (1953); George VV. Brown, Canada (1950); Ray W. Billington and J. B. Hedges, Westward Expansion: a History of the American Frontier (1949) (blarence H. Raring, The Spanish Empire in America (1947) Colonization of Silvio Zavala, New Viewpoints on the Spanish America (1943); Angel Rosenblat, La Poblacion Indigena De America Desde 1492 Hasta La Actualidad (1945) Gordon Ireland, Boundaries, Possessions, and Conflicts in Central and North America and the Caribbean (1941) J. H. Parry and P. M. Sherlock, A Short History of the West Indies (1957); G. S. Graham, Empire of the North Atlantic (1958). (A. G. Bn.; N. E. S.; H. H. McC; R. T. R.; T. B. Gs.)

Martin, George I. bus (1947); Paul lards. Early Man

Quimby and Donald

Collier,

;

;

Edward VI. Widely influential, he was created lord He was a leader of the chamberlain for life in 1550. Protestant party and was one of those who did homage to Lady Attainted under Queen VI's death. Jane Grey after Edward Mary in Aug. 1553, his title was restored by Elizabeth I, He died without issue at Warwick on Oct. 28, 1571, and his title became accession of

great

extinct.

son of Henry Howard 1547) earl of Surrey, was created earl of Northampton on in blood in 1559 (his father Although restored 1604. March 13, had been attainted and executed in Jan. 1547) he won little favour in Elizabeth's reign and was arrested in 1S71 on a charge of

Henry Howard (1540-1614), younger

(d.

marry Mary Stuart. He died unmarried in London and his title became extinct. William Compton (c. 1568-1630), 2nd Lord Compton, was created earl of Northampton on Aug. 2, 1618. His wife was Elizabeth, daughter of Sir John Spencer, lord mayor of London from 1594 to 1595. Compton died in London on June 24, 1630. His son Spencer Compton (1601-1643) accompanied Prince Charles (afterward Charles I) to Spain in 1623 and in the Civil War was colonel general of royal forces in Northamptonshire and Warwickshire. He was killed commanding the victorious royaUst forces at the battle of Hopton Heath on March 19, 1643. Wilaspiring to

on June

16, 1614,

;

;

;

;

;

NORTHAMPTON, EARLS AND MARQUESSES

The earldom

OF.

Northampton was united with that of Huntingdon until 1136, again possibly from about 1146 to 1157 and for the last time between 1174 and 1184. Both titles were first bestowed in 1065 upon Waltheof (d. 1076), son of Siward, earl of Northumberland. Waltheof, himself earl of Northumberland from 1072, was involved in a conspiracy against WiUiam I in 1075, forfeited his titles and was executed on May 31, 1076. His daughter Matilda (d. 1130/31) married first Simon de St. Liz (d. c. 1111), who was styled earl of Northampton by 1091, and secondly David I (c. 1082-1153), king of Scotland. David held the titles from 1113-14 until 1136. His stepson, the second Simon DE St. Liz (d. 1153), was recognized as earl of Northampton, possibly by 1141, and may later in Stephen's reign also have held the Huntingdon title. His son, another Simon (c. 1138-1184), was probably recognized as earl of Northampton from 1155 to 1157; of

he held both titles after 1174. On his death in 1184 without issue, the earldom of Huntingdon passed to David, a grandson of King Da\'id I; the

title

of earl of

Northampton became

extinct.

William DE BoHUN (c. 1312-1360), youngest son of Humphrey de Bohun, earl of Hereford and Essex, was created earl of Northampton in March 1337. With his elder brother Humphrey, he helped the young Edward IH rid himself of Roger Mortimer's tutelage in 1330. He served in the Scottish and French wars of Edward

III

and was

at the battle of

Crecy (1346) and the

siege

He was succeeded at his death in Sept. 1360 by Humphrey de Bohun (1342-1373), who also inherited

of Calais.

his

son,

the

earldom of Hereford and Essex in 1361. Humphrey died in Jan. 1373, leaving only two daughters. The elder, Eleanor, married Thomas of Woodstock (d. 1397), afterward duke of Gloucester, the youngest son of Edward HI; but although he received the 3rd penny of the county in 1374, he seems never to have been recognized as earl of Northampton. The 3rd penny of the county was transferred in Dec. 1384 to Henry Bolingbroke (13661413), earl of Derby, afterward king Henry IV, the husband of Humphrey's younger daughter Mary. On his accession as king in Sept. 1399, all his honours became merged in the crown. Willlam Parr (1513-1571), only son of Sir Thomas Parr and brother of Catherine, 6th wife of King Henry VIII, was created marquess of Northampton on Feb. 16, 1547, shortly after the

James (1622-1681), also a royalist, held household appointments under Charles II. James's 3rd son, Spencer Compton, earl of Wilmington was prime minister (first lord of the treasury) from Feb. 1741 until Aug. 1743. On the death of James Compton (1687-1754) on Oct.- 3, 1754, without male issue, the barony of Compton descended through his daughter Charlotte, while the earldom of Northampton passed George was succeeded to James's brother George (1692-1758). in turn by his nephews Charles Compton (1737-1763) and Spencer Compton (1738-1796). Spencer's son Charles (17601828) was created marquess of Northampton on Sept. 7, 1812. William Bingham Compton (1885) is 6th marquess and liam's son

14th earl of the

Compton

NORTHAMPTON,

line.

and parliamentary borough and the county town of Northamptonshire, Eng., lies 66 mi. N.W. of London by road. Pop. (1961) 105,421. a municipal, county

The streets of the business centre of Northampton converge on All Saints' church which was rebuilt during the late 17th cenOther noteworthy churches are St. tury in the classical style. Sepulchre's, which retains a rotunda (c. 1110); St. Peter's, a magnificent example of late Norman architecture; and St. Matthew's, masterpiece of the late 19th-century local architect Matthew Holding and now containing a "Madonna and Child" by Henry Moore and a painting of the crucifixion by Graham Sutherland. The nave of the Roman Catholic cathedral (bishopric founded 1850) was built in 1864; a new chancel and a central tower were completed in 1960. At nearby Hardingstone is one of the three surviving Eleanor crosses. The guildhall (1864 with later additions) is a sumptuous example of Victorian Gothic designed by Edward Godwin. The borough has a theatre, two museums and an art gallery, grammar schools, a school of art and a college of technology. Northampton lies in the valley of the river Nene, and thus is bypassed by the Grand Junction canal, and the London Midland region main railway line. A branch canal was completed in 1815, and a branch railway in 1845; the present Castle station, on the site of the medieval castle, was opened in 1881 when a loop line via Northampton was constructed to relieve congestion on the main line. The London-Yorkshire motorway, opened in 1959, passes near the borough boundary (southern access at Collingtree, northern at Heyford, respectively 3 and 5 mi. from the town cenA small private airfield exists at Sywell. 6 mi. N.E. tre). The principal industry in Northampton is shoe manufacturing, traditionally shoes for men, but since the end of World War II there has been considerable production of women's shoes as well. The number of shoe factories and of workers has fallen but output has remained steady. Leather is also produced in large quantities. Engineering is well established in Northampton and some of the surrounding villages; manufactures include tapered roller bear-

NORTHAMPTON—NORTHAMPTONSHIRE

603

components, earthmoving equipment, lifts (elevators) and electronic instruments. The town is an important retail centre, serving Northamptonshire and north Buckingham-

agreed upon by the king of England and the magnates

shire.

at

ings,

motor-vehicle

The

earliest reference to

under the year

a.d. 914.

Northampton occurs

Town

in a

chronicle

walls and a castle were built

by

Massachi;setts: Population.

NORTHAMPTON, ASSIZE

(D

OF,

a

number

H.

S.)

of ordinances in

council

Northampton in 176. They were issued as instructions to six committees of three judges each, who were to visit the six circuits into which England was divided for the purpose. Parts of the 1

Senlis (c. 1100). Northampton was a place of importance during the early middle ages, and its first charter was granted in 11S9, but about 1300 it began to decline. Several national

assize repeated the substance of

councils, some of the early parliaments and the trial and condemnation of Thomas Becket (1164) were held in the castle. The Yorkists defeated the Lancastrians (1460) just outside the town walls during the Wars of the Roses. Northampton was for parliament during the Civil War, and after the Restoration the castle

presentment were to inquire, and those who failed at the ordeal were to lose a hand as well as a foot. An important section defined some of the rights of the heir, the lord (or lords) and the widow of a deceased free tenant; its protection of the heir's right to succeed to land established the possessory action of mort d'ancestor. The justices were also ordered to hear pleas of novel disseizin (recent ejectment from a free tenement) arising since May 1175, and to try proprietary actions commenced by the king's writ for the recovery of land held by the service of half a knight's fee or less. In their fiscal capacity they were to inquire into escheats, churches, lands and women in the king's gift. Monies accruing to the king from proceedings before the justices were among the receipts for which royal bailiffs were to account at the exchequer. As a result of the rebellion of 1173-74 it was provided that an oath of fealty should be taken by all, "to wit, barons, knights, freeholders, and even villeins (rustici),'' and that anyone who refused should be arrested as the king's enemy; the justices were to see that castles whose demolition had been ordered were razed, to inquire into castle-guard and to prepare a register of fugitives.

Simon de

and town walls were demolished. Much of the town was destroyed by fire in 1675. Shoe manufacturing began in the 17th century, but the industry on a large scale did not develop until after 1815. During the late 19th century the inhabitants of Northampton acquired a national reputation for the expression of uncompromising radical opinions. Charles Bradlaugh, the social reformer, was elected member of parliament in 1S80; parliament, however, refused to acknowledge him until 1886. although he had been reelected by his constituents on four subsequent occasions. In 1923

Margaret Grace Bondfield, the first woman member of the cabinet, was elected member of parliament for the borough. At Great Brington, 6 mi. N.W. of Northampton, the church contains the tombstones of the brothers Laurence and Robert Washington, the former (d. 1616) an ancestor of President George Washington. Both stones display the Washington arms. The family moved from Sulgrave ig.v.), also in Northamptonshire, to Brington about 1600: according to borough records an earlier Laurence Washington, grandfather of Laurence and Robert, was mayor of Northampton in 1532 and 1545. (V. A. H.)

NORTHAMPTON,

a city

U.S., on the Connecticut river,

of west central Massachusetts,

located about 16 mi. N. of Springfield; the seat of Hampshire county. is

Since its founding in 1654, chiefly by settlers from Connecticut, Northampton's character has reflected much of the general development of New England. Throughout the 18th century it was a self-sufficient agricultural community; its pastor from 1729 to 1750 was Jonathan Edwards (q.v.). After the American Revolution it was the scene of several debtors' demonstrations during Shays's rebellion. (See Massachusetts: History.) In the 19th century Northampton became a major stagecoach and the northern terminus of a canal from New Haven, Conn., stop completed in 1834. Railroad connections with the south and east came in 1845. The establishment of a woolen factory in 1809

ushered

boomed

in a

slow transition from agriculture to industry, which

American Civil War. Manufactures include brushes, cutlery, wire cable, caskets and optica! equipment. The silk industry, once the leader, declined in the 1920s. Smith college was founded under the will of Sophia Smith after the

young women with a men. Chartered in 1871 and opened at Northampton in 1875, Smith became the largest independent college for women in the U.S. The Smith college school for social work, which trains social caseworkers and prepares students for the degree of master of social sciences, was (1796-1870) of nearby Hatfield

to provide

college education equal to the best offered to

founded in 1918. From 1925 the college sent groups of students abroad to study during their junior year. George Bancroft, the historian, founded his Round Hill school for boys in 1823 on the site occupied after 1867 by the Clarke School for the Deaf. The People's institute, now primarily a community centre, was founded by the novelist George Washington Cable in 1896 for adult education. Northampton was also the home of Sylvester Graham (17941851 ). the advocate of coarse flour for whom the graham cracker was named. Calvin Coolidge. 30th president of the U.S., who began his law practice in Northampton, died there in 1933. Incorporated as a town in 1656 and as a city in 1883. Northampton is part of the Springfield-Holyoke standard metropolitan statistical area. For comparative population figures see (.ihle in

some provisions of the Assize of 1166), but with several differences. Thus, arson and forgery now appeared among the crimes about which juries of

Clarendon

(

See .\. L. Poole, From Domesday Book to Maj^na Carta (1951). text is printed in W. Stubbs, Select Charters, 9th ed. (1913); an Enulish translation in English Historical Documents, vol. ii, cd. by D. C. DouRlas and G. W. Grccnaway (1953). (Er. S.)

The

NORTHAMPTONSHIRE

(abbr. Northants), an east midland county of England, is bounded north by Lincolnshire, northwest by Rutland and Leicestershire, west by Warwickshire, on the southwest by Oxfordshire, and southeast by Buckinghamshire. Bedfordshire, Huntingdon and Peterborough, and Cambridgeshire and Isle of Ely. The area of the geographical county including the Soke (or Liberty) of Peterborough (83.6 sq.mi.) is 998. 2 sq.mi. (On April 1. 1965, the Soke of Peterborough was united with Huntingdonshire to form the new county of Huntingdon and Peterborough; this article deals with the situation before this reorganization.)

Physical Features. is

very simple.

known

It

—

The underlying structure of the county forms part of the Jurassic escarpment, there

Northampton uplands, which run up

to 735 ft. at near the Warwickshire border. All the rocks are of Jurassic age, the dip being in a general way to the southeast and the strike from southwest to northeast. The oldest and most westerly belt consists of Lias formations which cover a large surface in the southwest and centre around Banbury (Oxfordshire), Daventry and south of Market Harborough (Leicestershire), and they are also exposed along the rivers near Towcester. Northampton. Wellingborough and Kettering. The hard ferruginous marlstones of the Middle Lias were in the past much used for

Arbury

as the hill

Upper Lias is worked for bricks at Raunds and formerly in many other places. Next above the Lias the Northampton sands, important for their iron ore. the county containing one of the main ironstone fields in Britain; it has been mainly worked in the district north of the Nene between Thrapston and Northampton as far north as Corby which is now the centre of the main mining area. Through the middle of the county from the southern border northeast to Northampton. Rockingham and Peterborough, is a wide elevated tract of Oolitic rocks, containing the most famous building freestone of the County, a Another variety, Lincolnshire Oolite, known as Weldon stone. building material, while the

lie

Barnack Rag. of which Peterborough and Ely cathedrals are built, was worked out in the 18th century, while the lower beds near the borders of Rutland yield a limestone which splits easily into slabs, known as Collyweston "slates," formerly much used for roofing. Along the southeastern border of the county a belt of Oxford Clay occupies the surface. Boulder Clay is widely dis-

NORTHAMPTONSHIRE

6o4

tributed over the uplands and in the east glacial

and river gravels are also

The southwestern portion

of the county,

and

plentiful.

forms the principal watershed of the midlands; the Ouse with its tributary the Tove. the Cherwell, the Avon, the Loam, the Wellnnd and the Nene have their sources in this region. The Nene river flows slowly In appearance in a northeasterly direction draining to the Wash. the county is unspectacular; there are no moors or large commons. Apart from the opencast mines and the built-up areas, most of the land is farmed though there are substantial tracts of woodland, relics of Rockingham, Salcey and Whittlewood forests. The largest of the reservoirs at Pitsford, over 3 mi. long and with a capacity of 3.900,000,000 gal, was opened in 1956. Other stretches of water have been adapted for sailing and swimming. At Peakirk near Peterborough is a bird sanctuary of the Wildfowl trust. The National trust owned 31 ac. in the county in 1961 and protected 607 ac. History. In primitive times the waters of the North sea reached almost to the foot of the Northamptonshire uplands, then Paleolithic tlint implements have covered with dense forest. been found in the gravels of the Nene river. Peterborough is a type site for the pottery of one of the most important secondary Beaker and other Bronze Age pottery has Neolithic cultures. been found on the uplands. Iron Age A, B and C cultures are represented and a number of hill forts are known. Hunsbury, 1^ mi. S.W. of Northampton, is the most famous of these and has yielded a bronze decorated sword scabbard which is an important example of pre-Christian Celtic art, as is a fine bronze mirror from Desborough. Two main Roman roads, now known as Watling and Ermine streets, crossed the west and east of the county respecImportant tively and a network of other roads has been traced. Romano-British settlements were situated at Towcester, Whilton, Irchester, Castor and probably Kings Sutton. Castor was a main In centre of pottery manufacture in the 3rd and 4th centuries. the 6th century the Middle Angles penetrated up the Nene valley; in the 7th century Penda, king of Mercia, brought the whole area under his control, and his son Peada founded an abbey at Medeshamstede (now Peterborough) in 6SS. Foundations also existed at Oundle, Brixworth and other places, but were destroyed when in 870 the district was overrun by the Danes; Peterborough iq.v.) was recolonized about 965. The shire is probably of Danish origin, being the area which owed allegiance to Northampton as a military and administrative centre in the 10th century. In 917, when Edward the Elder, after fortifying Towcester, recovered Northampton, this area extended to the Welland, and at the time of the Domesday survey the boundaries approximated to those of the county

—

of the

modern county.

From

Naseby

the county returned four

in 1645.

the time of Robert

Browne

(d.

1633), the independent

members

in

two

divisions.

Under the

1949 act the divisions of the county and Soke of Peterborough were: Kettering, Peterborough, South Northants and Wellingborough. The county borough of Northampton also returned one

member. As the archdeaconry

of Northampton (mentioned in the 12 th century), Northamptonshire was part of the diocese of Lincoln down to 1541 when with Rutland it was separated to become the new diocese of Peterborough. The archdeaconry of Oakham consisting of the northern half of the diocese (including Rutland)

dates from 1875.

Northampton

also gives its

name

to a

Roman

Catholic diocese founded in 1850. Architecture. Of monastic foundations the abbey church of Peterborough (now the cathedral) is the only remaining one of importance. At Geddington and also at Hardingstone, on the outskirts of Northampton, there are Eleanor crosses erected by Edward I. The county is famous for its churches, many with

—

To the Saxon period belong the towers of Earls Barton church and Brigstock, the chancel arch of Wittering, the remarkable tower and figure of the Seated Christ at Barnack (early 11th century). Oldest of them all is Brixworth church built about 675. Of Norman work, excluding Peterborough, the finest examples are St. Peter's and St. Sepulchre's, Northampton, and the tower of Castor church. St. Mary's (Early English and Decorated) in Higham Ferrers is one of the finest churches in the county; those at Irthlingborough and Lowick (with their lantern towers), Warmington (fine Early English work), Rushden, Finedon, Raunds and Fotheringhay (g.v.) should be mentioned. The county is rich in family chapels with monuments and statuaries such as those of the Spencers at Brington and Montagus at Warkton. Rockingham castle is now mainly Elizabethan or Jacobean though it was originally built by William I and has a surviving magnificent broached spires.

by Edward I. Fotheringhay and Northhave disappeared. Barnwell castle built in 1266 has four round towers and an imposing gateway. The wall paintings (about 1330) in Longthorpe tower near Peterborough are unique in a secular building. Kirby hall, a beautiful Elizabethan building now a ruin, taken over by the ministry of works, was once the residence of Sir Christopher Hatton (d. 1591), lord chancellor of England, who also rebuilt Holdenby, which later became a royal residence but was mostly demolished in 1655. Castle Ashby is Ehzabethan with a front by Inigo Jones, and Althorp park dates from the 16th century. Burghley house near Stamforii, the most spectacular Elizabethan courtyard building in the country, was built by Sir William Cecil (afterward Lord Burghley). The Triangular lodge at Rushton built by Sir Thomas Tresham, a noted Cathohc recusant, is a remarkable allegory of gateway and

ampton

The Geld roll (William I) and Domesday Book (1086) mention 28 hundreds in Northamptonshire, part of Rutland being assessed under this county, but by 1316 the hundreds had been reduced to 20. At the time of the Domesday survey the chief lay tenant in Northamptonshire was Robert, count of Mortain, whose fief escheated to the crown in 1106. The large estates of William Peverel, founder of the Augustinian abbey of St. James at Northampton, also escheated to the crown in the 12th century. In the 15th century the most famous family was the Wydvilles (Woodvilles), who owned Grafton Regis where Edward IV secretly met and married Elizabeth Woodville in 1464, Northampton (g.v), because of its central position and the proximity of its forests in which there were royal hunting lodges, was a favourite meeting place of the councils and parliaments of the Norman and Plantagenet kings. Henry II and Thomas Becket met at Northampton in 1163. In 1215 the barons besieged the castle and in 1264 Henry III captured it from the younger Simon de Montfort. During the Wars of the Roses Henry VI was deIn 1607 there was a serious feated at Northampton in 1460. revolt in the county against enclosures of arable land for sheep pastures which had already brought wealth to many county families such as the Spencers and Knightleys. In the Civil War the county declared largely for parliament, Charles I being defeated at the battle of

in St. Giles' churchyard, Northampton), the county has been noted as a centre of nonconformity. William Carey, the Baptist missionary to India, was born at Paulerspury in 1761, and Dr. Philip Doddridge moved his academy to Northampton when he became independent pastor there in 1729. The Pytchley hunt (removed to Brixworth in the early 19th century) came into prominence in the second half of the ISth century and later the Grafton and FitzwiUiam hunts had kennels in the county. Northampton's first charter dates from 1189, Brackley from about 1260 and Higham Ferrers (g.v.) from 1251. From 1547 Brackley and Peterborough each returned two members to parhament, and in 1557 Higham returned one. Under the act of 1832

churchman (buried

hall rebuilt

castles

the Trinity.

Lamport

hall (National trust) has a central block

designed by John Webb between 1654 and 1657 and Thorpe hall near Peterborough was built in 1653-56 by Peter Mills. Boughton house near Kettering is notable for its north fagade, the most Easton French looking late- 17th-century building in England. Neston is a perfect example of a house by Nicholas Hawksmoor manor 1700-02). smaller houses Sulgrave [g.v.) is (built Of

home of George Washington. Population and Administration. The population

the ancestral

—

of the administrative county (904.6 sq.mi.) in 1961 was 292,584; of the Soke of Peterborough, itself an administrative county, 74,442; and of the county borough and county town of Northampton,

NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION There are four municipal boroughs, namely Brackley (pop. [19611 3,208), Daventry (5,860), Higham Ferrers (3,753), and Kettering 38,659 Peterborough, the only municipal borough in the soke, had a population of 62,340. There are nine urban and ten rural districts, two being in the soke. The population of Corby in 1961 was id.ill, of Wellingborough 30,583, and of Rushden, 17,377. Corby (q.v.), a village in 1931 (pop. 1,596), is a New Town covering 4 sq.mi. (not quite coincident with Corby urban district) with a population (1961) of 35,880. The court of quarter sessions sits at Northampton and there are nine petty sessional divisions. Northampton and the Soke of Peterborough have separate courts of quarter sessions. There are 294 civil 105,421.

(

)

.

parishes, 25 being in the soke.

The Economy.

—

About 94% of the geographical county is While towns have gradually encroached on farmland,

farmland.

the restoration

of

land

left

derelict

after

opencast

ironstone

mining has partly restored the balance. During World War II there began an increase in tillage from 93,000 ac. (1939) to 230,000 ac. (1944); by the mid-1960s the figure exceeded 260,000 ac. Cereal crops have increased nearly threefold since 1939 and potato acreage is eight times the 1939 figure. Sugar beet covers above 6,000 ac. mainly in the neighbourhood of Peterborough near which is a large sugar beet factory. The county is best known, however, for livestock rearing, the area of permanent grass, mostly on the hilly uplands, covering about two-fifths of the total farmland. The number of sheep, so important a factor in the county's

economy

in the 15th to 18th centuries,

has

increased considerably since 1939. Important county agricultural shows are held annually at Overstone near Northampton and at

Peterborough, and there is an agricultural institute at Moulton. The industries of the county are mainly concentrated in a belt of towns along the London-Carlisle road, about Northampton, and in the steel town of Corby where more than 9,000 workers are employed in the huge iron and steel works. Smaller industrial centres are at Brackley, Towcester and Daventry (radio installations). Peterborough is now an industrial city with a number of important engineering works. The chief industries of Northamptonshire include the manufacture of boots and shoes and tanning; at Kettering there is a shoe research institute. Engineering is the next most important industry, mainly at Northampton where there are tapered roller bearing, electrical, electronic and general engineering works. At Northampton and at Kettering the manufacture of clothing is well estabhshed; corsets

made

Desborough. Box making and printing, the manufacture of plastic dolls and foodstuffs are among the other industries of the county. At Northampton there is a large brewery. Among older trades now discontinued are lacemaking, of which Wellingborough was a centre, the making of whips formerly carried on at Daventry, of ropes, of clay tobacco pipes at Northampton, of paper in various mills, but especially the weaving of cloth (a staple industry of the county down to about 1800). Lying between London and the industrial north, Northamptonshire is traversed by four main railway routes, though, because are

at

the gradient

down

Birmingham Une, Northampton.

to the

Nene was

too steep, the main

built in 1838, runs a

London

to

few miles to the west of

The Watling street crosses the southwestern part of the county. In the 18th century Towcester, which lies on it, and Northampton prospered on their inns. Near Towcester lies Silverstone, a popular centre for motor racing. The Great North road also crosses the county at the w-estern end of the Soke of Peterborough, while the A 6 runs through the central industrial belt. The Ml motorway enters the county near Hartwell passing through Watford gap to Crick, a branch (M 45) running west to Coventry and Birmingham. Other main roads run from the Oxfordshire border through Northampton to Stamford via Kettering and tc Peterborough via Wellingborough. The former Grand Junction and Grand Union canals pass through this county. There is a small airport at Sywell outside Northampton.

—

Bibliography. J. Morton, The Natural History oj Northamptonshire (1712); J. Bridges, The History and Antiquities of Northamptonshire Compiled From the Manuscript Collections of John .

.

.

Bridges by P. Whalley,

605

G. Baker, The History and Antiquities of the County of Northampton, 2 vol. (1822-41) Victoria County History of Northampton, 4 vol. (1902-37); F. Whellan and CO., History, Topography and Directory of Northamptonshire (1874), 2nd cd. of a similar work by VV. Whellan and co. (1849) P. J. Harris and P. \V. Hartop, Northamptonshire, Its Land and People (19.S0) Nikolaus Pevsner, Northamptonshire, "Buildings of England Scries" (1961). (P. I. K.) Z

vol.

(1791);

;

;

;

NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO) was established by the treaty signed on April 4, 1949, in Washington, D.C., by representatives of 12 countries: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom and the United States. This list was increased to 14 during the Korean War, when in Feb. 1952, in accordance with the provisions of art. 10, Greece and Turkey acceded to the treaty. Three years latet, in May 1955, the Federal Republic of Germany entered the alUance.

Treaty Provisions.

—The

North Atlantic treaty consisted of

14 articles, the most important of which were art. 6, defining the area to be covered by the treaty; art. 5, the "trigger" clause, setting forth the obligations of the member states if an armed at-

tack should occur within the defined area; and art. 2, providing the basis for political and economic co-operation within the alliance. As modified with the adherence of Greece and Turkey,

included "the territory of any of the Parties in Europe or North America, the Algerian departments of France, the territory of Turkey or the islands under the jurisdiction of any of the Parties in the North Atlantic area north of the Tropic of Cancer." Within this vast expanse, far greater of course than the North Atlantic plus western Europe, the parties agreed (under art. 5) that "An armed attack against one or more of them shall be considered an attack against them all; and consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs, art. 6 explicitly

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

each of them,

in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defense recognized by Article 51 of the Charter of the United

Nations, will assist the Party or Parties so attacked by taking forthwith, individually and in concert with the other Parties, such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area." The hope of the members that the treaty would transcend the essentially defensive, miUtary features of art. 5 was expressed in art. 2;

ment

"The

Parties will contribute toward the further develop-

of peaceful

and friendly international relations by strength-

ening their free institutions, by bringing about a better understanding of the principles upon which these institutions are founded, and by promoting conditions of stability and well-being. They will seek to eliminate conflict in their international economic policies all

and

will

encourage economic collaboration between any or

of them."

The treaty formally and definitively recognized that a brief chapter of world history had ended, a chapter which had been marked by a European and American coalition with the Soviet Union to, defeat the Axis powers in World War II and establish a new international order after that defeat. Soviet action inside the United Nations had forced the west to the conclusion that the international organization could not in and of itself maintain peace and security. The swiftness with which the Soviet Union converted eastern European countries from German satellites into Communist puppets indicated that Russia was bent on external expansion. Above all, the Communist coup d'etat in Czechoslovakia in 1948 and the breakdown of the four-power control commission in Germany posed for western statesmen a threat to their national security and independence. Preliminary Steps. Preservation of free institutions in Europe after World War II required three types of action: First was the elimination of Communists from the ministries of cer-

—

tain European countries and the isolation if not the reduction to impotence of the various national Communist parties, avowedly instruments of Soviet design and tools of Soviet policy. In 1947 this step had been taken in France and Italy, the two countries with the largest Communist parties in the rest of western Europe by that time Communist organizations could not undertake sue;

NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION

6o6

programs of subversion or insurrection. The second requiwas co-operation among European nations, since individually each was patently incapable of defending itself against the Communist colossus. A beginning in this direction was made with the establishment in 1948, as the European co-ordinating agency for the European Recovery program (E.R.P.), of the Organization More signififor European Economic Cooperation (O.E.E.C). cant as forerunner of the North Atlantic treaty was the Brussels signed in March 194S by pact (a 50-year mutual defense alliance), Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg (the so-called Benelux countries), France and the United Kingdom just one month after cessful site

Communists seized control of Czechoslovakia. In the third place, however, western European countries, even united and determined to remain outside the enlarging Soviet orbit, the

could attain their objective only if North America threw its weight into the balance. Under the Marshall (E.R.P.) plan, the United States in 1948 had undertaken a multibillion-dollar program of economic assistance, but military aid and political commitments were also needed if the Soviet Union was to be convinced of the folly of further European aggrandizement. For Canada as a

member

of the British

Commonwealth such

a

commitment

fol-

upon the close involvement of the mother country in continental affairs after World War II, beginning with the Dunkerque treaty with France in 1946. Canada was therefore

lowed most

logically

a leader in arguing for a broadening of the Brussels pact to include

North America. United States membership in a military alliance in peacetime represented a sharp break with the nation's former policies of neutrality and isolation. The United States had joined with the other American republics of the western hemisphere in the Inter-

American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (Rio treaty), which became a prototype of the North Atlantic treaty in its self-defense Bipartisan leaderaspects. (5ee Pan-American Conferences.) ship proceeded to use the Rio treaty as the precedent for United States membership in "such regional and other collective arrangements as are based on continuous and effective self-help and mutual aid." These words from the Arthur S. Vandenburg resolution adopted by the U.S. senate in June 1948 clearly indicated the increasingly favourable disposition of the United States toward a North Atlantic treaty soon to be negotiated.

From

Pact to Organization.

— Some

time passed after the

North Atlantic treaty became was accelerated by North Korea's attack on South Korea in June 1950, which was interpreted to mean that international Communism would not shrink from overt military aggression anywhere in the world, including Europe, where weakness and indecision seemed to provide favourable signing of the 1949 treaty before the

an organization.

The

transition

opportunities.

The key to the organization that developed was the relationship between two complexes of committees, one civihan and one mihPeriodic meetings of foreign and defense ministers of the tary. signatory powers attracted the major share of public attention, but the cardinal element

in the political control of

the organiza-

on which representatives of permanent session. Individual meetings of the council could be informal, with no agenda and no record of decisions, or could entail the presence of selected tion

the

was the North Atlantic

member

states

sat in

council,

theoretically

advisers to the delegates for the discussion of particular problems. The size of the organization and the increasing range of subjects .considered by the council made the work of the secretary-general and his staff very important. To balance the prominent role played by U.S. representatives on the various military committees the secretary-general was chosen from among the other countries. Lord Ismay of the United Kingdom was succeeded by Paul Henri Spaak of Belgium, followed in turn by Dirk U. Stikker of the Netherlands. Working under the direction of the secretary-general was an international staff secretariat that gradually increased

A

highly important factor in the long-term viability of the organization was the growing consciousness of the members of the secretariat that they were to function as international civil

in size.

servants; they were to reflect the views of the organization, not primarily the views of their own governments. The North Atlantic

council had several civilian committees, perhaps the most sigwhich were those concerned with infrastructure (the

nificant of

network of installations supporting the military capability of the organization) and the annual review committee, whose function it was to survey the military programs of the member governments to determine the adequacy of their contributions to the organization and the forces which they might justly be called commanders. upon to maintain at the disposal of the Responsible within the organization to the North Atlantic coun-

NATO

was the complex of military committees, at the head of which was the military committee itself. A noteworthy subsidiary was the standing group, meeting in Washington and composed of British, French and United States representatives whose task it was cil

among

to provide advice co-ordinated

the three senior nations

of the alliance.

Also beneath the military committee were the various regional

commands into which the area covered by the treaty was divided. Of these commands the supreme allied commander in Europe

(SACEUR) was so important, by reason of the central continental area for whose defense he was responsible, as to overshadow, at least in the popular view, the other commands which were administratively on the same level. It was to this critical zone that most

SACEUR

of the U.S. ground and air forces were assigned. to emerge with the appointment late in 1950 of Gen.

began

Dwight D.

head; he was followed by three other U.S. generals, Alfred M. Gruenther, Lauris Norstad and Lyman L. Lemnitzer. As in the case of other commands, including most prominently the supreme allied commander Atlantic (SACLANT), with headquarters in Norfolk, Va., SACEUR was in turn divided regionally into subordinate forces for northern, central and southern Europe and for the Mediterranean. On the European continent another division was by the type of forces

Eisenhower of the United States as

involved

—land,

sea

and

air.

its

—

Problems of Co-ordination.

Not without difficulty were arrangements for defense actually made. While recognizing the necessity for co-operation, nations were understandably reluctant to accept subordinate positions in areas which for centuries they had individually fought to defend often against nations that were

—

now

their partners in

NATO. Where

overlapping interests threat-

ened to conflict, as in the Mediterranean, compromise arrangements were hammered out in lengthy political sessions. Once established, distributions of command positions were difficult to change in recognition of shifting national responsibilities. In the Mediterranean, for example, both France and Italy felt that their developing requirements for national defense should be reflected It was, furthermore, easier to in organizational arrangements. advance the principle of national concentration on particular weapons and forces than it was in practice to induce nations to abandon portions of their military estabhshment. The hmited standardization of materiel that developed resulted less from explicit decision on the part of the organization than from the burden of national defense expenditures and the co-operation among private manufacturers in western Europe and North AmerEquality of sacrifice was another principle that was accepted ica.

by all members of the organization in theory but could not be reduced to concrete mathematical formulas for sharing defense Increasing prosperity did not make most member states costs. any less loath to increase the mihtary proportion of their budgets, even to meet specific threats such as that posed by the crisis over Berlin. Disruptive disputes on these questions could be avoided because the United States shouldered the largest burden At the same time there was a rapid of military responsibility. increase in West German military might, and there were recurrent

West

Union that reminded all members that some compromise of national independence was necessary to meet the

actions of the Soviet

continuing threat. Problems of Implementation.

—

Of even greater seriousness were three other political-military problems: (1) the number and and should raise, (2) the nature type of forces that the allies could and size of contribution that the Federal Repubhc of Germany should make and (3) the degree of involvement of U.S. forces and weapons

in the organization.

NORTH BAY—NORTH BERWICK 1. After the outbreak of the Korean War military estimates placed at more than 90 the number of conventionally armed divisions needed in western Europe to deter and defeat a Soviet It immediately became apparent that NATO nations attack. could not and would not come close to this level. The large gap between what ought to be done and what would be done forced the acceptance of an increased element of risk; force goals were adopted that were only slightly more than half as large as orig-

inally established.

In 1954 a step of long-lasting significance was taken with the announcement that NATO forces would not hesitate to use nuclear weapons to defend western Europe even if the Soviet attack at One purpose of NATO's first employed only conventional arms. conventional forces thus came to be the deterrence of attack by confronting the Soviet Union with the necessity of mobihzing conAnother purpose would be to siderable power for any advance. give the western allies time to reflect on whether the use of nuclear weapons, with all the dangers entailed, was indispensable to their

Although about 30 divisions was the stated minimum required for the concept of deterrence and defense, European nations displayed continued reluctance to raise their alStill subject to debate lotted number in strength and readiness. was the feasibility of avoiding thermonuclear holocaust once even small-yield atomic weapons had been employed by either side. 2. Into this problem of the number and type of forces needed to defend western Europe the question of the German Federal RepubHc intruded. From the very outset the logic of defense dictated a "forward strategy" or concentration of forces in West Germany. Economic and political decisions made by western European nations, when measured against the units available to the Soviet Union for any attack, pointed increasingly to the necessity of a German military contribution. However, for some countries, particularly France, which had welcomed German cooperation in European political and economic institutions, the reconstruction of a German army symbolized in an obvious, grievous way the decline of their power and prestige before the historical European malefactor. Four years passed after Sept. 1950, when the United States first pressed for a German military contribution, before France, under the arrangement known as the Western European Union, accepted German membership in NATO and self-protection.

the right of

Germany

In the interim, destroyed the formula for subordination units to a supranational military and political control

French opposition of

German

to a military establishment.

finally

embodied in the European Defense and European Political Communities (E.D.C. and E.P.C.) respectively. Restraints on Germany still existed in the agreement within the Western European Union that Germany should produce some weapons, notably naval vessels and missiles only in limited size and quantity and should manufacture no atomic, biological or chemical weapons at all. The growing dependence of the organization on German forces for defense against Soviet threats, especially to West Berlin, added to NATO's decision to use weapons of mass destruction if necessary, and the inexorable, if slow, spread of nuclear technology

as

loosened these unilateral restrictions to such an extent that the remaining ones seemed more illusory than irksome. 3. The United States was the key element in both these problems. It obviously was not disposed, even if it were able, to bridge the gap alone between available and needed western forces. Moreover, domestic legislation prevented the United States from transferring nuclear weapons to custody of another country or of providing information on their manufacture to allies who had not demonstrated their ability to produce such weapons without assistance. This position, in addition to making a German contribution more urgent, also profoundly influenced the operating principles of NATO. Nuclear weapons "assigned to NATO" would be guarded by United States forces and would pass into foreign hands only after a Soviet attack had taken place. Protracted French efforts to develop some form of independent nuclear power only emphasized the fact that the deterrent to Soviet aggression remained in Anglo-American hands exclusively, with neither the British bomber command nor the United States strategic air command subject to orders from the organization in times of peace.

When,

after 1958, the Soviet

ability to threaten

607

Union demonstrated an increasing

the territory of the United States directly,

European countries professed uneasiness over whether the leader of the alliance would, if worse came to worst, throw its forces into the defense of the continent at the almost certain cost of millions Suggestions for increasing allied confidence

of casualties at home.

binding nature of the treaty included creation of national nuclear forces or the pooling of substantial atomic power under Of direct relatedness were direct control of the organization. proposals to shift the source of political and military leadership, in the

with the United States providing the secretary-general and Europe the supreme allied commander in Europe. Significance. NATO was designed primarily as an instrument of military defense in the immediate postwar era, which was characterized by a Soviet military threat to western Europe and by a U.S. preponderance of nuclear military power. With the passage of time the balance of east-west military power shifted and Euro-

—

pean economic dependence on the United States greatly declined. In the structure of western co-operation, which included such institutions as the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the European Economic Community (better known as the Common Market) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), NATO might remain as crucial as ever, but it no longer dominated the interallied scene. Affected by nonmilitary relations, NATO nonetheless did not venture far beyond the strict confines of European defense. Habits and machinery for political consultation were broadened and improved under the shock of the abortive invasion of the Suez area in 1956 by British and French troops. But in this function NATO was clearly assisting the ways of traditional diplomacy rather than adding organizational devices for formal conciliation or settlement.

The enduring strength

of

the organizations also depended in large part on solutions to prob-

NATO

in which countries were involved outside the geographical area formally covered by the treaty, as in the case of France in Africa, Portugal in Africa and Asia and perhaps the

lems

United States

in relation to

Communist China. Clearly the semuch more than the military forces

curity of the 15 allies rested on

was able

it

Atlantic.

Europe, the Mediterranean and the freedom to international Communism by

to mobilize in

The

loss of

nations of Africa and of the near, middle and far east would enable a Soviet Union possessing acknowledged superiority both in

manpower and a

nuclear armament to pose western Europe and to North America which

in certain categories of

renewed threat

to

members of NATO would find immeasurably more difficult meet than was the Communist challenge in 1949. For a discussion of the opposing eastern European Communist military command, see Warsaw Treaty Organization. See also Alliance; Pan-European Movement. For other regional agreements for mutual defense and consultation, see Southeast Asia Treaty Organization Baghdad PaCt. See also references under "North Atlantic Treaty Organization". in the Index. Bibliography. Lord Ismay, NATO: the First Five Years, 19491954 (1954); Alastair Buchan, NATO in the 1960's (I960); Ben T. Moore, NATO and the Future of Europe (1958) Gardner Patterson and Edgar S. Furniss, Jr., NATO: a Critical Appraisal (1957). the 15 to

;

—

;

(E. S. F.)

NORTH BAY, a

and the seat of NipisLake Nipissing. It serves as a dividing point between northern and southern OnFor tario, hence its popular description "gateway of the north." many years it was best known as a railway centre and distributing point. In 1934, when the famous Dionne quintuplets were born 10 mi. away, there began an influx of tourists that brought millions of dollars of revenue into the area each year. North Bay is the site of a large all-weather jet air base and associated facilities. Pop. (1961) 23,781; Greater North Bay, including the adjacent townships of Widdifield and West Ferris, 40,892. (C. M. Fe.) BERWICK, a royal and small burgh of East Lothian, Scot., lies on the southern shore of the entrance to the Firth of Forth, 23i mi. E.N.E. of Edinburgh by road. Pop. 1961) 4,161. Created a royal burgh by Robert III in the 14th century, It was once a port of some importance it was chartered in 1568. but is now a resort town. It has a dry climate, sandy beaches, golf sing district,

is

city of Ontario, Can.,

situated on the northeast shore of

NORTH

(

NORTH BORNEO— NORTH CAROLINA

6o8

courses and a small fishing harbour, close to which are exposed the foundations of the 12th-century parish church of St. Andrew. North Berwick Law (613 ft.) with a ruined watch tower on its summit rises just south of the town, .\bout 3 mi, E. the ruins of the 14lh-cenlurv dikeil Tantallon castle stand on the cliffs.

Samah NORTH BORNEO: NORTHBROOK, THOMAS GEORGE BARING, nisjonen av 1945, 6 vol. (1946-47), Regjeringen og Hjemmejronten under Krigen (1948) and Norges Forhold til Sverige under Krigen 1940-45, 3 vol. (1947-50). See also B. Arneson, The Democratic Monarchies oj Scandinavia (1949); W. N. Warbey el al., Modern Norway (1950); G. M. Gathorne-Hardy et al.. The Scandinavian Stales and Finland (1951) S. Jones, The Scandinavian Stales and the League oj Nations (1939) R. Kenney, The Northern Tangle (1946). Administration and Economy: The Central Statistical Office, Oslo, Statistisk Arbok jor Norge (annual; subject headings in English as well as Norwegian) The Norway Year Book; the bulletins of the Bank of Norway and the Norwegian joint stock banks (several times yearly in English). The annual national budget is available in English summary from the Ministry of Trade. The Norwegian Export Council, quarterly magazine in English on Norwegian industries; the Norwegian Joint Committee on International Social Policy, Social Insurance in Norway (1960), Health Service in Norway (1950), Housing in Norway (1951), Labour Relations in Norway (1958); the National Nutrition Council, annual reports to FAO; Royal Agricultural Society, Norwegian Agriculture (1951) Norges Industriforbund, Industry in Norway (1951) W. Galenson, Labour in Norway (1949) Norwegian Federation of Labour, The Trade Union Movement in Norway, 2nd ed. (1955) 0. B. Grimley, Co-operatives in Norway (1950) W. Warbey el al.. Modern Norway (1950); W. Werenskkiold, Norge Vart Land, 2 vol., new ed. (1950) A. S0mme, J ordbrukels geograft i Norge (Geography of Norwegian Agriculture, 1954), (ed.) A Geography oj Norden (1960) 0. Vorren (ed.), Norway North oj 65° (1960); H. Myklebost et al. (eds.), Norge, 4 vol. (1963) Johann J. Ruud (ed.), Norge 1814-1964, 3 vol. (1963-64). Current history and statistics are summarized annually in Britannica

World

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

Book

of the Year.

NORWEGIAN LANGUAGE

is one of the Scandinavian Written Norwegian exists in two distinct and rival norms, known since 1917 respectively as bokmal, "book language," and nynorsk, "New Norwegian," but also referred to by their older names of riksmal, "national language" and landsmdl, "country-wide language." The former, which may be called DanoNorwegian since it stems from the written Danish introduced during the union of Denmark and Norway (1380-1814), has been modified in the direction of Norwegian speech by three spelling reforms (1907, 1917, 1938); the latter, which may be called New Norse since it was intended by its creator Ivar Aasen (1813-96) to carry on the tradition of Old Norse, was interrupted in the 15th

languages (g.v.).

Dano-Norwegian and New Norse are legally equal and all schools in forms regulated by the ministry of church and education under mandate from parliament. A permanent advisory language commission (Sprdknemnda) was appointed in 1952, with an equal number of representatives for each language nominated by various interested institutions. Governmental planning and natural diffusion have gradually reduced the differences between the two norms; and their eventual, amalgamation in samnorsk, "common Norwegian," was envisaged a plan which met with vigorous opposition. century.

are taught in

—

Spoken Norwegian is divided into urban and rural dialects; the former has spread at the expense of the latter. Urban speech falls into standard and substandard social dialects. Standard urban

—

NORWEGIAN LITERATURE

658 speech

is

reasonably unit'orni throughout the country and serves some educated people prefer to speak a nor-

as a model, although

malized New Norse or retain their rural dialects. The standard urban dialect is a compromise between traditional Norwegian speech habits and written Dano-Norwegian. as developed by the old official and professional class. Substandard urban dialects are closer to the surrounding rural dialects of each city, being historically the speech of rural-urban migrants. differ

from parish

to parish, but

The

rural dialects

into broad regional types

fall

paths of communication in medieval and early modern times: western (the fjord country from Romsdal to Setesdal), eastern (from Telemark to the Swedish border and north to

which

reflect the

the Dovre mountains), Tronder (in the trading area of TrondNew heim), and northern (the three northernmost counties). Norse has its strongholds in the western dialects, on which Aasen drew most heavily for his grammatical and lexical framework. In general, Norwegian is a language with a complex, musical phonology, a greatly simplified grammar and an internationalized vocabulary. While the vocabulary is basically native, it contains a great number of originally Low German words for features of urban culture; in addition it has adopted the usual international words for modern technology and borrows new terms freely, most recently from English. New Norse is somewhat more puristic than Dano-Norwegian and attempts to eliminate especially the German and Danish elements from its vocabulary. Great variety and flexibility are tolerated and even encouraged Writers often resort to local in the written language in Norway. urban or rural dialects. The most widespread and firmly entrenched is Dano-Norwegian, in which are written all daily newspapers, most translations from foreign languages, and from SC^ to go'c of original writing. In the schools about 75% of the children learn it as their primary medium of writing.

—

Bibliography. Gustav Indreb0, Norsk Mdlsoga (1951) D. A. Seip, Norsk Sprakhistorie til omkring 1370, 2nd ed. (1955) Einar Haugen, The Sorvjegian Language in America, 2 vol. (1953) Trygve Knudsen and Alf Sommerfelt, Norsk Riksmdlsordbok (1937 ff.) Alf Hellevik, Norsk Ordbok (1950 ff.) Th, Gleditsch, English-Norwegian Dictionary Theodore Jorgenson and Peder Galdal, Norwegian(1948, 1950) English School Dictionary (1955); Einar Haugen, Beginning Norwegian, 3rd rev. ed. (1957), Spoken Norwegian (1947), Reading Norwegian (1940). (E. I. H.) ;

;

;

;

;

;

NORWEGIAN LITERATURE.

Among

the literatures of

modern Europe, Norwegian

literature is remarkable for being so comparatively late-flowering and yet at the same time so impres-

sively deep-rooted.

Denmark cal

in 1S14,

independence,

Not

until after the separation of

which brought with is it

it

a large

Norway from

measure of

politi-

possible to point to a corpus of hterature

unambiguously Norwegian yet so vigorous and so luxuriant development that by the end of the 19th century Norwegian particularly by virtue of the massive achievement in drama of Henrik Ibsen iq.v.) occupied an influential position. Early Literature The roots of Norwegian literature reach back over 1.000 years, beyond the early Christian era and into a pagan past; there it becomes inextricably intertwined with early Icelandic literature. Although a large part of this early literature was composed either in Iceland or elsewhere in Scandinavia by Icelanders, the Norwegian element in it is considerable and indisputable, even though this cannot always be isolated and defined; that

is

was

its

literature

;

—

—

—

many instances, it is obvious that some of the literature derives a time before the Scandinavian settlement of Iceland in the 9th century; and in other cases it must have happened that the

in

from

composers of the works had resided for long periods in the mother country of Norway. At all events, Norwegian literature as it eventually took shape in modern times would have been unthinkable but for the impetus and the specific direction given to it by this ancient literary tradition above all, by the mythological and heroic lays of the Poetic Edda (see Edda), by the scaldic poetry and by the myths of the sagas (see Icelandic Literature; Ger-

—

manic Mythology and Heroic Legends j. Three Latin works from the

late

1

2th century have perhaps

philological than strictly hterary interest,

more

Historia de antiquitate 1180), a history of the Norwegian kings from Harald I Haarfager to Sigurd I Jorsalafar, was written by

regiim Norvagiensium

(c.

Theodricus, a Benedictine monk from near Nidaros; Projectio Danorum in Terrain Sanctam (c. 1200) describes a crusade from the years 1191-92 in which Norwegians and Danes took part; and Historia Norvegiae (discovered by P, A. Munch in 1849 in Scotland offers an interesting but historically unreliable account of Norway, in not very good Latin, giving brief details of Norw-ay's geography and fauna and including some interesting remarks about the Lapps. The seminal influence of Snorri Sturluson's Heimskringla, a history of the kings of Norway to 1177 written in Iceland in the first half of the 13th century, is also )

Of great interest to the historian is Konungs skuggsjd ("The King's Mirror"), written in Norway c. 1250; this is a didactic work in verse which discusses the manners, customs and

clear.

practices of the day.

In the 13th century, the ballad also flour-

ished as an oral tradition, of which the Draumkvcede ("Dream Ballad"), a great visionary poem, is the most impressive surviving

example. It describes the dream of Olav Aasteson, who slept from Christmas Eve to Twelfth Day, and, awaking in time to ride to church, recounted there the substance of his dream of purgatory, hell and heaven. Translation was much encouraged by King Haakon V Magnusson during his reign (1299-1319); and a translation, with commentary, of the Bible was begun, but progressed only as far as

Exodus

18.

Danish Domination: 14th

—

to 18th Centuries. From the I4th century onward, the destiny and culture of Norway became increasingly closely linked with and subservient to those of Denmark. Political union between the two countries came in 1380; more and more the Danish language began to impose itself throughout the territory, especially in the towns, until it eventually became both the official and the literary medium; and Copenhagen, with its university, established itself as the cultural capital of the "twin

kingdom." Not until after the Reformation are there faint signs of renewed literary activity in Norway itself, after centuries of \artual silence; Absalon Pederssfln Beyer (1528-75) and Peder Clauss0n Friis (1545-1514), two clergymen, left their marks, the former by his description of and rather nostalgic apologia for Norway, Oin Norgis Rige (written 1567; published 1781), and the The most original latter by his translation of Snorri Sturluson. and most conspicuously Norwegian writer of this age was, however, Petter Dass ig.v.), whose Nordlands Trompet (The Trumpet of Nordland) gives a lively picture in verse of the life of a clergyman in northernmost Norway; although almost certainly completed before the turn of the century, this work was not printed until 1739. His verses still live; the religious poems of his contemporary, Dorothe Engelbretsdatter (1634-1716), on the other hand, possess only historical significance. Distinguished above all others in this Dano-Norwegian tradiis Ludvig Holberg (q.v.). the "Moliere of the North"; Nor-

tion

wegian by birth, he lived for the greater part of his life in Copenhagen where he held a series of academic appointments at the university. From his first succks de scandale, the publication of his mock-heroic poem Peder Paars in 1719, until his death, he Scandinavian literature; by his comedies of the 1720s dominated the best know-n of which are Jeppe paa Bjerget (Jeppe of the Hill) and Erasmus Montaniis by his volumes of essays Moralske Tanker (1744) and £/)W//er'( 1748-54), by his novel Niels Klim (1741, originally written in Latin) and by his scholarly and historical publications, he has rightly come to be regarded both as the founder of modern Scandinavian literature and as the creator of the modern Dano-Norwegian literary language {see also Danish Literature"), In the second half of the 18th century, there was little native literary talent in evidence within Norway, apart perhaps from Christian Tullin (1728-65), a Christiania businessman, whose nature poems have some merit. But there were other signs that Norway was beginning to assert its cultural aspirations: a Royal Norwegian Society of Learning was established in 1760 in Trondheim; and the so-called Norwegian society (Det norske Selskab), rather less official but no less vigorous for that, was formed in 1772 by some young Norwegians resident in Copenhagen after one of their number, Johan Nordahl Brun (1745-1816), had won

—

NORWEGIAN LITERATURE a literary competition with his tragedy Zarine (1772). ciety, which lasted until 1812, set out to resist what its

This so-

members

felt to be the excessive German influence on Scandinavian hterature; in addition to acting as the focus for a number of minor literary talents— Claus Fasting (1746-91), Glaus Frimann (1746-

1829) and Jens Zetlitz (1761-1821), for example— it provided the stimulus for the one deathless work associated with it: the uproarious tragicomedy Kierlighed ttden Strfimper ("Love Without Stockings"), written in 1772 by the gifted but wayward Johan Herman Wessel {q.v.). But when seen in historical perspective, the society's achievements were probably rather more nationalistic than strictly literary. The Age of Wergeland After 1814 a new, exciting and difficult age began for Norway difficult, because the problems— political, economic, social were formidable; exciting, because an opportunity seemed to be offered for developing an independent and genuinely Norwegian culture and way of life. But there were deep differences of opinion as to how this could best be

—

—

:

There were those, of whom J. S. C. Welhaven (q.v.) chief representative, who insisted that the existing Danish element in the country's culture should not, and indeed could not, achieved.

was the

be neglected; on the other hand there were those, for whom Henrik Wergeland (q.v.) was the acknowledged leader and spokesman, whose nationalistic pride led them to demand that the break with Denmark be as abrupt and complete as possible. In literature, as well as life, Welhaven stood for a coolly intellectual approach! for restraint and control, for a conscious sense of artistry, of which his own sonnet-cycle Norges Damring ("Dawn of Norway," 1834) is a characteristic product. Wergeland's was a more passionate and revolutionary spirit, impatient for action, politically engaged, aggressive and spontaneous, of which his enormous epic poem Skabelsen, Mennesket og Messias ("Greation, Humanity and Messiah," 1830) is a youthful but not untypical example, although is generally held that his best poetry is to be found in the maturer works, like Jan van Huysums Blomsterstykke ("Jan van Huysum's Flowerpiece," 1840), for example, and Den engelske Lods ("The English Pilot," 1844). It was Wergeland who, by it

the sheer force of his personality, dominated the age: as a poet, as an orator, as a social reformer, even; and the clash between him and Welhaven, between the two factions associated with them —the "Patriots" and the "Intelligentsia," as they were called,

respectively— and between the two viewpoints they represented,' the beginning of an ideological conflict that persisted throughout the century and which still persists, in various modified

marked forms.

National Romanticis)tn.— The

literature of the mid- 19th cenNorway's "national romanticism," continued to reflect the country's larger aspirations. A hvely interest in its own native past underlay the compilation and publication, between 1841 and 1844, of the Norske Folkeeventyr (Norwegian Folk Tales) by Peter Christen Asbj0rnsen and J0rgen Engebretsen Moe (see Asbj0rnsen P. C. and Moe, in 1853 M. J. E.) B. Landstad (1802-80) performed a similar service for the country's folk songs by bringing out his Norske Folkeviser ("Norwegian Folk Ballads"); P. A. Munch (1810-63) by his eight-volume history of the Norwegian people (18S1-63) encouraged popular pride in the nation's great historical traditions; while Ivar

tury, often referred to as

;

Aasen (1813-96) was the creative spirit behind the ment, the establishment of a hterary language dialects that were fairiy intimately linked with language (see Norwegian Language). Many publications of these

years—and not

landsmdl movebased on rural the Old Norse of

the

least the eariier

literary

works

of

Ibsen and Bj0rnson in the ISSOs and 1860s— turned consciously, both for inspiration and for their thematic material, to Norway's heroic past, and to what seemed to be its most direct modern descendants and natural heirs— the peasants. To these years belongs also the lyric poetry of Aasmund Olafsson Vinje (181870), the

most

striking characteristic of

which is what the author himself called its "twin-sighted" ambivalence (tvisyn). Realism.- In 1855 Gamilla Gollett (q.v.), Wergeland's sister, pubhshed Amtmandens d0ttre ("The Governor's Daughters"); this novel,

by virtue

of its discussion of the place of

women

in

659

society and in marriage, might well be taken as marking the beginning of that trend in Norwegian literature which, with encouragement and stimulus from the immensely influential Danish critic

Georg Brandes

(q.v.), culminated in the 1870s and the 1880s "problem" literature of Ibsen and Bj0rnson and their contemporaries. Samfundets stutter (Pillars oj Society), in 1877, was the first of a succession of problem dramas by Ibsen which soon created for their author a worldwide reputation although it should not be overlooked that by this date he already had

in the realistic

—

more than

a quarter of a century of

dramatic authorship behind him, including his two important verse dramas. Brand (1866) and Peer Gynt (1867), and his long and ponderous "double-drama" in ten acts, Kejser og GalilcBer (Emperor and Galilean, 1873). En (A Bankruptcy), the first substantial drama of this type by Bj0rnstjerne Bj0rnson (q.v.), appeared in 1875, following his highly successful debut in 1857 with Synnpve Solbakken, the first of a series of "peasant tales." Although never the worid figure that fallit

Ibsen became, Bj0rnson was the leading personality of his age within Norway, not only in literature as a noveUst, dramatist and but also in many aspects of public affairs. Traditionally associated with Ibsen and Bj0rnson to form the "Big Four" of Norway's literature are the novelists Jonas' Lie (q.v.) and Alexander Kielland; among them they made of the years 1879 to 1884 something of a minor miracle of productivity: lyric poet

Et Diikkehjem {A Doll's House), Gengangere (Ghosts), Folkefiende (An Enemy of the People) and Vildanden (The Wild Duck); Bj0rnson's dramas Leonardo, Det ny system (The New System), En Handske (A Gauntlet), Over Mvne I (Beyond Our Power) and his novel Det flager i by en og pa havnen (The Ibsen's

En

Heritage of the Kurts); Lie's novels Rutland, Gaa Paa ("Go Ahead"), Livsslaven (One of Life's Slaves) and Familjen paa Gilje

(The Family

at Lilje)

;

and Kielland's Garman

&

Worse,

Arbeidsfolk ("Workers"), Skipper Worse, Gift ("Poison") and Fortima. Lie's first novel. Den Fremsynte (The Visionary, 1870), did not appear until its author was 37; his sense of telling detail^ so typical of his art,

is however seen more clearly in some of the Tremasteren 'Fremtiden' (The Barque "Future," 1872) and Lodsen og hans Hustru (The Pilot and His Wife, 1874), for example, and later still in Kommandorens d0ttre (The Commodore's Daughters, 1886); while the works of the final section of his career, such as Onde Magter ("Evil Powers," 1890) and Trold (1891-92), tell of the secret and uncontrollable forces that lurk deep in the personality. Kielland was the foremost stylist of his age, an elegant and witty novelist, though possessed of a strong social conscience and an active reforming zeal that owed much to his admiration for John Stuart Mill; after a prolific decade of authorship in the 18_80s, during which he wrote eight

later works,

novels, three plays and a numljer of shorter pieces, he virtually gave up writing and produced little during the rest of his life.

In the literature of the 1870s, with vidual's right to free

its emphasis on the indidevelopment and free expression in defiance

—

of the allegedly stultifying influence of organized authority the and of outmoded convention, there belief in the possibility of social improvement that can

state, the church, the press

—

was a

only be called optimistic; in the following decade, a growing skepticism and even disillusionment made these literary attacks more bitter and more audacious, and they were directed against many of the social institutions widely regarded as essential to "respectabihty"- the family, marriage, religion. The publication

Fra Kristiania-Bohemen ("From the Christiania Boheme") in 1885 by Hans Jaeger (1854-1910) created, by its seeming advocacy of sexual hcence, a great public scandal. The most extreme exponent of Naturalism in these years was however probably Amalie Skram (1846-1905), especially in her four-volume novel Hellemyrsfolket ("The People of Hellemyr," 1887-98). of

Much more difficult to classify, but also a much greater writer, was Arne Garborg (q.v.), in whose works the successive movements of romanticism, realism, naturahsm and neo-romanticism can be seen stratified. His wider reputation was first established with the novel Bondestudentar ("Peasant Students") in 1883, in which the details of student fife in the Norwegian capital in the 1880s are movingly described; and he continued in the naturalist style in a

NORWICH

66o He was

and critic; but many would claim that his greatest achievement was the poemcycle Haugtussa (1895), some poems from which were set to music by Edvard Grieg. The New Irrationalism. A deliberate break with the older and more socially orientated literature came with the 1890s, when the established great ones of Norwegian literature came under fire from the new generation of writers. The real manifesto of the new ideas was the essay published in 1890 in the periodical Samtiden by Knut Hamsun (q.v.), "Fra det ubevidste Sja;!eliv" ("From the Unconscious Life of the Mind"), which exhorted writers to give their attention rather to what was individual and idiosyncratic than to what was typical and everyday. Hamsun's

number

of later novels.

also a dramatist

—

own

early novels splendidly exemplify these ideas: Suit

(1890;

Hunger), Mysterier (1892; Mysteries) and Pan (1894); his later novels, of which his Marketts Gr0de (1917; Growth of the Soil) is the best known, are in this respect less extreme, as well as being more moralist, more conservative, though still shot through with Hamsun won the Nobel a strong and sometimes savage irony. prize for literature in 1920.

More than 20

—have been

tically his entire output-

of his novels

—prac-

translated into English.

new vigour

Lyric poetry also flourished with

the most remarkable figure being Sigbj0rn

this

decade,

Obstf elder

(1866-

in

1900). whose lyrics and prose poems show a close affinity with the prevailing Symbolist movement in Europe; Nils Collett Vogt (1864-1937) also produced some of his best lyrics in the '90s. In drama, the new spirit found clearest expression in the works of Gunnar Heiberg (1857-1929), who combined a sharply satirical wit with a lyric deftness, whereby sometimes the one predominates as in Kong Midas (1890), and sometimes the other, as in

Gerts Have ("Gert's Garden." 1894); both his Balkonen {The Balcony, 1894) and his Kjarlighetens Tragedie {Tragedy of Love, 1904) are impressive in their erotic force. Of the same generation as Hamsun, and in large measure sharing his preoccupation with the irrational side of human conduct, was Hans Kinck (1865-1926), a writer of tremendous power and penetration; Kinck however was a much more reflective and intellectual writer than Hamsun, and his work was more analytical, especially his verse-drama Driftekaren {The Drover, 1908) and his three-volume novel Sneskavlen brast {The Avalanche Broke, 1918-19).

The 20th Century.

— Surprisingly

for a country in which, in

the persons of Ibsen and Bj0rnson, the tradition of drama had been so strong, the real achievements in Norwegian literature in the first

half of the 20th century were

—especially

made

drama than in Hamsun, of Kinck,

less in

works of the later Duun and in lyric poetry; drama, with the exception of the later works of Gunnar Heiberg and the plays of Nordahl Grieg, produced by comparison little of conspicuous merit. Throughout the early decades of the century, a strong tendency toward regionalism showed itself in a number of ways, particularly but not exclusively in the novel, whereby an author became identified with some particular region or even valley; to emphasize this local connection, many authors deliberately adopted a form of language either of landsmal (later called nynorsk) or of riksmdl (later called boknial) that was strongly coloured by dialect. The west country was. for example, represented by Jens Tvedt (1857-1935): the east by Hans Aanrud (1863-1953); the south by what was almost a "school," including the brothers Thomas and Vilhelm Krag (1867-1913 and 1871-1933) and Gabriel Scott (1874-1958); and the "middle north" region of TrOndelag by Olav Duun, Johan Bojer {q.v.), Peter Egge (18691959) and Kristofer Uppdal (1878-1961)— the latter's ten-volume novel-cycle Dansen gjenom skuggeheimen ("The Dance Through the Shadow World," 1911-24) being one of the most remarkable products of this age. Pervasive, too, was the tendency, again most the novel

in the

—

of Sigrid Undset and of Olav

—

—

marked in the novel, to treat the conflicts that arose in Norwegian society from the spread of industrialism a process to which Norway w-as subjected rather later than most other European countries, and also rather differently. The most expressly proletarian writer, both by upbringing and by the themes in his works, was the novelist Oskar Braaten (1881-1939); but alto-

strongly

—

gether superior as an artist

is

Johan Falkberget (1879-

),

who

writes in his novels with understanding, affection and historical insight about the miners of

R0ros

in central eastern

Sextus (1927-35) ("Bread of Night," 1940 et seq.).

cially

in

Two

Christianus

and

Norway, espeNattens

in

brpd

novel in the first half of the century were Sigrid Undset iq.v.), who won the Nobel prize for literature in 1928, and Olav Duun {q.v.). Though the setting of Miss Undset's novels ranges in time from the late middle ages to the 20th century, their general concern is to examine the whole problematic range of women's loyalties within the frameotjier great figures in the history of the

work

of their role in society and at various times in history. Of her historical novels, the three-volume Kristin Lavransdatter (1920-22) is one of the undisputed masterpieces of Norwegian

the later Olav Audunsspn (trans, as The Master of Hestviken, 1925-27), in four volumes, is generally thought to be Of her modern novels, the early Jenny (1911) is less successful.

literature;

Gymnadenia {The Wild Orchid, 1929) and Den brandende brisk {The Burning Bush, 1930), were written after her conversion to Roman Catholicism, and bear the clear imprint of this conversion. Duun's masterpiece is his Juvikfolke {The People of Juvik, 1918-23), a novel cycle in six volumes in which he follows the fortunes of a Tr0ndelag family through the century beginning with Norway's independence from Denmark and ending with World War I; his strength as a novelist lies chiefly in his profound understanding of the deeper sources of human conduct, and in his penetrating inforcefully realistic; the later ones, including

sight into life as an endless conflict.

In the years immediately before World War I, several lyric poets of merit made their debut the easily spontaneous Herman Wildenvey (1886-1959), the disciplined and reflective Olaf Bull :

Tore 0rjasaeter (1886) and Between and II, however, it was more particularly the socially committed writers who impressed their personaUties on the age, particularly the trio composed of the poet Arnulf 0verland {q.v.), whose poems sho^n'ed a steady drift toward the polemical, of the novelist and critic Sigurd Hoel (1890-1961 ) and the dramatist and critic Helge Krog (1889-1962); yet another distinguished "engaged" author of these years (though of a slightly later generation) was Nordahl Grieg {q.v.), who was killed in World {q.v.), the dramatically intense

the mystical latids?ndl-poet. Olav Aukrust (1883-1929).

World Wars

I

War

II in a bomber over Berlin. After the war, a number of writers

who had

already created

something of a reputation for themselves before 1940 were able Tarjei still further to consolidate and enhance their position. Vesaas (1897), a nynorsk novelist and poet widely regarded as the heir to Olav Duun. wrote a remarkable series of novels in the years immediately following the war. beginning with the highly symbolic Huset i m^rkret ("House in Darkness") in 1945; Cora Sandel (pseudonym of Sara Fabricius, 1880), who had made her first major contribution to literature with her Alberte trilogy (1926-39; Eng. trans. 1962), continued to write after the war; Aksel Sandemose (1899), Danish by birth but Norwegian by adoption, is an experimental writer whose novels of the 1930s many people found shocking; and Johan Borgen (1902), whose most accomplished work in his early days was probably his short stories, made a new reputation for himself with his Lillelord trilogy (1955-57).

—

Bibliography. J. B. Halvorsen, Norsk Forfatterlexikon 1814ISSO, 6 vol. (1S85-1908) Reidar 0ksnevad, Norsk litteraturhistorisk bibliografi 1900-1945 (1951) and Norsk Hiteraturhistorisk bibliographi 1946-1955 (1958) I. GrOndahl and 0. Raknes, Chapters in Norwegian Literature (1923) Francis Bull el al., Norsk Litteratur ffistorie, 6 ;

;

;

vol. (1924-SS; new ed. 1958); Theodore Jorgenson, History of Norwegian Literature (1933) and Norwegian Literature in Medieval and Early Modern Times (1952) Halvdan Koht and Sigmund Skard, The Voice of Norway (1944) E. L. Bredsdorff, B. Mortensen and R. ;

;

An

Introduction to Scandinavian Literature (1951) Jean Harald Beyer, Lescoffier, Histoire de la litthature Norvegienne (1952) A History of Norwegian Literature, trans, and ed. by Einar Haugen (1956) J. W. McFarlane, Ibsen and the Temper of Norwegian Literature (1960). (J. W. McF.)

Popperwell,

;

;

;

NORWICH, ALFRED DUFF COOPER,

1st

(1890-1954), British author and poUtician who, as

Viscount

first

lord of

NORWICH the admiralty (1937-38), ordered the mobilization of the British The agreement the fleet during the Czech crisis of Sept. 1938. British and French governments made with Hitler and Mussolini

Munich a few days later met with his strong disapproval and he resigned from Neville Chamberlain's government on Oct. 1, 1938.

at

When Winston Churchill formed his in May 1940, Duff Cooper returned

wartime coalition government His knowledge and to office. love of France secured him the appointments as British envoy to in north Africa French Committee National Liberation the of (Nov. 1943-Sept. 1944) and as ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary to France (Sept. 1944-Oct. 1947). He was knighted in 1948, and was created a viscount in 1952. Duff Cooper was born in London on Feb. 22, 1890, and educated at Eton and at New college, Oxford, before entering the foreign office. During World War I he was commissioned into the Grenadier guards (1917), served with them in France and was decorated (1918). In 1919 he married Lady Diana Manners, daughter of the 8th duke of Rutland (whose beauty became famous through her appearance in the leading role in Max Reinhardt's spectacle, The Miracle). The measure of the Duff Coopers' devotion was given most movingly by Duff Cooper in his autobiography. Old Men Forget (1953). Having entered politics, he was Conservative member for Oldham from 1924 to 1929, when he lost the seat. He reentered parhament in March 1931, as the victor in a stormy by-election in the old St. George's division of Westminster, a seat he held until 1945. He fought the by-election in 1931 as champion of Stanley Baldwin, who was then the object of a violent newspaper attack. While in parliament Duff Cooper held various ministerial offices. He was respected but failed to endear himself to the house. Indeed, he probably never tried to do so. He wrote several books of which the best is Talleyrand (1932), a biography of the French statesman. The Rainbow Comes and Goes (1958), The Light of Common Day (1959) and Trumpets From the Steep (1960) are the three volumes of his wife's autobiography. He died at sea near Vigo, Spain, on Jan. 1, 1954. (J. F. B.) NORWICH, GORING, Earl of (1585-1663), English royalist who played a prominent part in the second phase of the English Civil War, was the son of George Goring of Hurstpierpoint and Ovingdean, Sussex. Knighted in 1608, he became a favourite with James I and his court. He accompanied Prince Charles to Spain in 1623 and later helped to negotiate his marriage with Henrietta Maria. He was made Baron Goring in 1628 and a privy councilor in 1639. He benefited from monopolies granted by Charles I, including those for gold and silver thread, for tobacco, and for the licensing of taverns. As the rift widened between Charles and parliament, Goring devoted himself and his fortune freely to the royal cause. He went with the queen to the Netherlands to raise money for the king in 1642 and, as ambassador to France, he negotiated with Mazarin for money and arms in 1643. These proceedings were revealed to parliament in Jan. 1644 by an intercepted letter to Henrietta, and Goring prudently remained abroad until 1647, when he received a pass from the parliament under the pretext of seeking reconciliation. In Nov. 1644 the king had renewed for him the title of earl of Norwich previously held by his uncle. Goring had little success as a mihtary commander. The Kentish levies, which he led, were dispersed by Fairfax at Maidstone in June 1648. Then, having failed to raise royalist support in London, he moved into Essex but was besieged in Colchester until compelled by starvation to surrender unconditionally (Aug. 1648). He was condemned to death on March 6, 1649, but, partly because of petitions for mercy, the house of commons reconsidered Norwich's case, and his life was spared by the speaker's casting vote. He next joined the exiled court of Charles II, who employed him to negotiate with the duke of Lorraine for a marriage between the duke's daughter and the duke of York, and for help toward an expedition to Ireland. Norwich had, however, no more success as

GEORGE

a diplomatist than as a general.

He became

66i

NORWICH,

and university city, county and parliamentary borough, and county town of Norfolk, Eng., on the a cathedral

Wensum, 20 mi. W. of the east-coast seaport of Great Yarmouth and 111 mi. N.E. of London by road. Pop. (1961) 119,904. In the middle of the city lies the market place (markets held twice a week), overlooked by the red-brick City hall (1938), centre of administration and housing the civic regalia; the flint Guildhall (1407-13) with its Tudor council chamber; and the magnificent 15th-century parish church of St. Peter Mancroft, where Sir Thomas Browne (1605-82), author of Religio Medici, is buried. Prominent on a mound to the east is the castle (12th century, refaced 1833-39) and since 1894 the principal museum and art gallery. It is particularly rich in archaeology and paintings of the Norwich school; outstanding are the Colman family's gift collections of John Crome (1768-1821) and John Sell Cotman (1782-1842). On low ground near the Wensum stand the cathedral and remains of the Benedictine monastery founded (1096) by Bishop Herbert de Losinga two years after the ancient see, founded by St. Felix, had been moved from Thetford. The cathedral church of the Holy Trinity is largely 12th century, with a distinctive Norman apse and nave, enhanced by Perpendicular and other additions; it is 461 ft. long. The roof of the nave was built by Bishop Walter Lyhart (1449-72) to replace a wooden roof, and that of the chancel by Bishop James (Joldwell (147299) who also built the lofty stone spire, 315 ft. high. The many navigable river

treasures of the cathedral include the pre-Norman bishop's throne, the only example north of the Alps of a throne in the ancient basilican position and still used by Herbert's successors, numerous painted bosses, 14th-century examples of local painting and well-preserved 14th-15th-century cloisters, the largest in England.

The extensive precincts are entered from the ancient fairground of Tombland by the richly sculptured Erpingham gate 1420) and (

St.

Ethelbert's gate (1316).

Life's green in the precincts contains

the grave of Nurse Edith Cavell {q.v.). South of the City hall stands the Central Public library (1963), a rectilinear building of flint, glass and concrete containing an American library, and a courtyard fountain, given by the 2nd Air division, 8th U.S.A.A.F., in

memory

members who lost Colman and Rye libraries

of the 6,032

there also are the

their lives

000 volumes), the City library (1608) and the Norfolk and Norwich Record office. Adjacent are the Assembly rooms, the finest example of Georgian architecture in Norwich, built by Thomas Ivory (1754), now a municipal cultural centre. Among the city's 30 medieval churches are St. John Maddermarket, rich in memorials to great Norwich citizens including Nugent Monck (1878-

captain of the king's

guard at the Restoration, and in consideration of the fortune he had expended in the king's service a pension of £2,000 a year was granted to him. He died at Brentford on Jan. 6, 1663, and was buried in Westminster abbey. (S. R. Bt.)

1941-45;

of local history (40,-

ELM HILL, A SIDE STREET

IN

NORWICH

NORWICH— NORWOOD

662

I05SV founder of the nearby Maddermarket theatre; St. Andrew's church in which parish Anthony Solen established the first Norwich print inc press 1567) and where, about 1602. John Robinson, pastor to the Pilcrim Fathers, troubled the church by his radical Puritanism: and the rebuilt Saxon church of St. Julian, with a modern chapel dedicated in memory of Julian of Norwich, the 14th-century anchoress and mystic who wrote the Revelations of Divine Love there. St. Andrew's hall, which takes its name from the neichbourinE church, is the nave of the former church of St. (

John the Baptist, built by the Dominicans in the 5th century. Later it housed the Dutch consreRation and is now an exhibition and concert hall. Nearby are three municipal museums, the mainly 1

mediewal Strangers'

hall

(domestic

Bridewell (local industries') and clesiastical

museum).

St.

14th-century flint Peter Hungate church (ec-

life),

Significant in the history of

nonconformity

croft (1600, rebuilt).

Fast railway passenger and freight services link Norwich with the east coast and the midlands. The river port, taking ships up to 600 tons, with 400 ft, of public quay

London (two hours),

a yachting station for pleasure craft, imports coal, timber grain. A new 3S-ac. livestock market was opened in 1960; with the city's corn, vegetable and provision market, and 1,500 Norwich retail shops, it serves a large agricultural hinterland, ranks high among English cities in the making of footwear, which employs 9,000 workers and exports to western Europe and the Commonwealth. Other main industries with an export trade are the manufacture of wire netting, packing machinery, heating-plant and electric motors, and the production of mustard, soft drinks

and and

and confectionery; insurance, banking and printing are also important. Norwich was subjected to a series of heavy air attacks during World War II and since then extensive rebuilding and town planning have taken place. Schools include the Grammar school, founded by Edward VI although there was previously a monastic school on that site. George Borrow and Horatio Nelson were pupils. Establishments for advanced education include a teachers' training college, an art school, and the City college which attracts students from all parts

Commonwealth;

1963 the L'niversity of East Anglia was opened in the pastoral setting of Earlham park, long associated with the Gurneys, a Quaker family of bankers and social reformers, among whom was Elizabeth Fry. Prominent features of the city's cultural life are the Archaeological society. Philharmonic society, Art circle and the Maddermarket theatre. The Norwich festival of choral music and the arts is held triennially. There are two television broadcasting stations. Increasingly Norwich attracts tourists both for its own interest and as the approach to the Norfolk coast and the system of lakes known as the Broads. The first permanent settlements on the site were Saxon villages on the gravel terraces above the Wensum, three miles north of the site of the

mund").

One

in

Roman town

of

Robert Ket (Kett) (1549). The first charter dates from 1158, and a second charter was given by Richard I in 1194. Henry IV's charter of 1404 made Norwich a county, with a mayor and two sheriffs. It became a county borough in 1888 and the title and dignity of Lord Mayor was bestowed upon the chief magistrate in Since 1298 it has returned two members to parliament. 1910. BiDi.ioGRAPHV. B. Green and R. M. R. Younp:, Norwich: the Growth oj a City (1964) British .Association for the Advancement of Science, Norwich and lis Region (1, the town was partly destroyed, .\fter World War I. it was incorporated ydih the pro\-ince into Yugoslaxia and during World War II it was occupied by Hungarian troops. It was for long the i

focus of Serbian culture, especially after the foundation in 1826 of the Matica Srbska 'Serbian Literary society 1. and has a university (established 1960). a pedagogical college, an opera house, an art galler>- and several museums and archives. It has excellent communications with central Europe \-ia the Danube canal sj-stem and by road and railway. The city developed as the

economic centre for agricultural pi-oducts of the fertile Backa plain, but there Las also been considerable industrial growth, e.g.. the manufacture of porcelain, textiles, electrochemical equipment and agricultural machinerii-. (V. De.) NOVOCAIN: see Proouxe Hydr(x:hloride. oblast town in the Rostov of the NOVOCHERKASSK, a Russian So\-iet Federated Socialist Repubhc. U.S.S.R.. stands at the confluence of the Tuzlov river with the Aksai. a distributary of the Don. ii mi. X_E. of Rostov-on-Don. It is on the RostovShakhty-\"oronezh railway and the main highway between Rostov and the Donets basin (,g.t\). Pop. (1959) 95.453. ITie original town. Starocherkasski. stood on the Don. but it was frequently inundated and moved to its present site in 1805. becoming the capital of the Don Cossack region. It was a centre of the antiBolshe\ik movement (191 7-20 and during World War II was occupied by the Germans (,1942—13). Its industries produce electric locomotives for main-line and factory use. machine tools, iron castings, butter and fats, flour and alcohol. There are pohtechnic and agricultural teaching institutes and research institutes of hvdrochemistrs". hvdrotechnology. reclamation and Nine growing. 1

(R. A. F.)

NOVOKUZNETSK Kemercvo

public. U.S.S.R.. stands

below

its

(formerly

Stalinsk).

a

town

oblast of the Russian So\-iet Federated Socialist

on both banks of the

confluence vrixh the

Kondoma.

in the

Tom

river,

in

Reiust

Kuznetsk basin

Pop. 1959 376.730. Originally the small village of Kuznetsk, founded in 161 7. stood on the right bank, with about 4.000 inhabitants in 1926. In 1929. under the first five-year plan, an iron and steel works was founded on the opposite bank. Round the works a new town. Xovo (Xew -Kuznetsk grew up. which was renamed Stalinsk in 1932. Development was extremely rapid and the fully integrated plant became one of the largest in (9.f.

I

industrial area.

(

(

1

the U.S.S.R.

The

to^-a

is

now

the largest in the Kuznetsk basin;

name reverted to Xovokuznetsk. As well as iron and produces aluminum, using bauxite from the nearby Salair

in 1961 its steel

it

deposit.

Large-scale coal mining is carried on round the town and supphes coking coal for the blast furnaces. There is a chemical industp.'. using by-products, while slag is used in making cement. The main hea\y -engineering manufactures are minin g- machinery

and bridge institutes.

girders.

Xovokuznetsk has metallurgical and pedagogic (R. A. F.)

685

NOVOMOSKOVSK

(formerly Stalixogorsk), a town of Tula oblast of the Russian So%'iet Federated Socialist Republic, U.S.S.R.. lies 40 km. (25 mi.) S.E. of Tula, on the shores of Lake) Ivan-Ozero on the upper Don. Pop. (1959) 106.738. Originally the small settlement of Bobriki. the town was founded in 1930 and developed rapidly as a major centre of the chemical industr>'. In 1934 it was renamed Stahnogorsk. In 1961 the name was changed again to X'ovomoskovsk. It lies in the Podmosko\Tiy coal basin, and lignite is mined there, which is used in a large thermal power station. Xatural gas. brought by pipeline from the north Caucasus mountains, is used in the chetnicad industry, which produces fertilizers. There is a mining-machiner>- facton.-. R. A. F.) NOVOROSSISK, a town in Krasnodar krai of the Russian So\-iet Federated Socialist Republic, U.S.S.R.. stands on the Black 1

(

sea coast, at the

head of Tsemes bay

1

Tsemesskaya Bukhta and Caucasus mountains, 1

at the foot of the western extremity of the

60 mi. W.S.W. of Krasnodar town. Pop. 1959 93.461. In 1S38 the Russians foimded a fortress there, but its importance as a port grew steadily, especially after the coming of the railway in ISSS. Before the Revolution. Xovorossisk was the largest grainexporting port of Russia after Odessa. It is still a major port with a naval base, shipbuilding yards, refrigeration plant and grain elevators. Cementmaking is important, with four large factories producing 12^ of the So\-iet output. Other industries (

1

are flour milling, fish processing and light engineering.

It

was

occupied by the (Germans (1942—13) during World War 11 and sufiered severe damage. (R. A. F.)

NOVOSHAKHTINSK, a town in Rostov

oblast of the Rus-

sian So\-iet Federated Socialist Republic. U.S.S.R.. stands on the

Maly Xesvetai river. 57 km. (38 mi.) X.X.W. of Rostovon-Don on the Rostov-Donets basin highway, and is also connected by a branch line to the main Rostov-Donets basin railway. Its population (105.566 in 1959) had more than doubled since 1939. It is one of the chief mining centres of the eastern end of small

Donbass coalfield which is particularly rich in anthracite. Xovoshakhtinsk has also an important chemical industn.-. and there are producdon of sewn goods, brewing, flour milling and the the

processing of dain.- products.

R. A. F.) an oblast of the Russian So\iet Federated Socialist Republic. U.S.S.R.. was formed in 1937. It lies in westem Siberia and until 1943— included large areas that now comprise Kemerovo and Tomsk oblasts. Present area 68.803 sq.mi. Pop. (^19591 2.29S.4S1. The eastern part of the oblast lies in the basin of the Ob. which crosses it from south to north, but the greater jjart is drained toward the west by the Om and Tara to the (

NOVOSIBIRSK,

W

Irtysh.

The

Lake Chany

large

is

a basin of inland drainage, re-

two rivers of some size, the Kargat and Chuh-m. Almost is an extremely level plain, known in the north as the Baraba steppe Barabinskaya Step and in the south as the Kulunda steppe Kulundinskaya StepL It is exceptionally swampy and there are iimumerable lakes. Only on the Ob plateau, east of the Ob. does the land rise slightly. The cUmate is severely continental, with summer temperatures averaging about 21° C. (70° F.I and rising to maxima of 35°-41° C. (95°-105° F.); winter averages are about — 1S° to —20° C. (0° to —4° P.). Vegetation and soils range from taiga on podsol soils in the north, through forest steppe, with groves of birch on gray forest soils, to true steppe on chernozem. ceix-ing

the whole oblast

t

(

(

Fifty-five percent

in 12 towns

of

the population

and 10 urban

(

1,275.539")

are urban,

Xearly three-quarters of these live in the administrative centre of Xovosibirsk. where all the impwrtant industry is concentrated. Other towns are small, local agricultural centres, mostly concerned with food processing. The main agricultural area is the Kulunda steppe, of which a high proportion is under cultivation. Spring wheat is by far the most important crop, occup>-ing half the arable land. Other crops are oats, barley and simflowers. In the Baraba steppe, with its extensive natural pasture, dairying is dominant. Some of the swamp was reclaimed between 1S95 and 1917. and part of this work has been reconditioned. In the north, arable farming is again significant, with wheat. r>-e and flax the most important crops. Fishing is important in the Lake Chany region. (R. A. F.) li\-ing

districts.

NOVOSIBIRSK—NSAW

686 NOVOSIBIRSK,

town and oblast administrative centre

a

Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, U.S.S.R., stands on the right bank of the Ob. at the confluence of the Inya. With a population (1959) of 886.470, it is the largest town in Siberia. It developed after the village of Krivoshchekovo on the left bank was chosen as the crossing point of the Ob for the In 189S the new settlement, Trans-Siberian railway in 1893. Aleksandrovski, was renamed Novonikolayevsk, which it was called until 192S. In 1897. when the rail bridge was completed, the population was 7,832. In 1904 it was made a town. By 1911 the population was 63.000 and by 1939 it had increased to 405.Industry has grown with the town and was especially 000. stimulated in World War II. when many factories were evacuated Engineering takes first place, producing hea\'y mato this area. chinery, hydraulic presses, mining equipment, instruments, agriturbines and electrothermal equipment. There machinery, cultural are ship and locomotive repair works. Metal for these factories the

of

by a rolled-steel mill and large tin works in There is an important chemical industry, producing

partly supplied

is

Novosibirsk.

and pharmaceutical goods. Consumer products include cotton cloth, knitwear, footwear, leather goods and furniture, as plastics

well as a range of foodstuffs. There are two thermal power stations and. just above the town, the great Novosibirsk barrage

and hydroelectric station, with a capacity of 400.000 kw. Novosibirsk is a major communications centre, with railways to the Kuznetsk basin and Barnaul, as well as the Trans-Siberian. The Ob is navigable and there is a large airport. The town is rapidly developing as the cultural focus of Siberia, especially since the founding of its university in 1959 and of the Siberian branch of There are institutes of railway engithe Academy of Sciences. neers, water transport, electrotechnology and communications. (R. A. F.) (c. 1507-1602), dean of St. Paul's cathedral. London, who incurred the royal disfavour for his tactless preaching, was educated at Brasenose college, Oxford, where he may have shared rooms with John Foxe. the martyrologist. He became master of Westminster school (1543) and prebendary of Westminster (1551). In Mary's reign he was deprived of his prebend and sought refuge at Strasbourg and FrankHe accepted furt, where he developed extreme puritan views.

NOWELL, ALEXANDER

the Elizabethan religious settlement, however, and was rewarded

1560 with the deanery of on Feb. 13. 1602.

in

where he remained

St. Paul's,

until

with Elizabeth I were on several occasions unfortunate. Once 1562) she took objection to a prayer book which he had put for her use, because it contained pictures of saints. Another time (1564). when he preached against the crucifix with obvious allusion to the one she kept in the royal chapel, the queen interrupted his sermon. He is generally regarded as the author of the catechism inserted before the order his "small" cateof confirmation in the Prayer Book of 1549 chism which, supplemented in 1604. is still the official catechism Early in Elizabeth's reign he wrote of the Church of England. a "larger" catechism which was printed in 1570, and in the same year appeared his "middle" catechism, designed for use in schools. his death

ffis relations (

—

—

—

BIBLIOGR.APHY. R. Churton, Life of Alexander Nowell (1809) R. DLxon, History of the Church of England (1878-1902) J. E. Neale, Elizabeth I and Her Parliaments, 1559-81 (1953). (G. Hu.) ;

W.

;

NOWGONG,

a town and district of Assam, India. The town, headquarters of the district, is on the Kalang river, 74 mi. E.N.E. of Gauhati by rail. Pop. 1961 38.600. There are two colleges affiliated to Gauhati university, a technical school and a nursing and midwifery training centre. Nowgong is a large producer of jute. )

(

NowGoxG District is

(area 2.167 sq.mi.; pop, [1961] 1.210.761) by thick forest with the Brahmaputra

largely a plain, encircled

on the north. It is intersected by the Kalang river and its and is much affected by floods. Numerous marshes and small lakes occur, some notable for fisheries. Teak, sal and river

tributaries,

lac are valuable forest products. is

Shifting cultivation in the hills

practised by the Mikir and Kachari tribes (qq.v.).

some

silk are

Bordowa

mustard seeds. CVaishnavites)

The

produced.

,

is

being the

Jute and

chief crops include rice, tea

a holy place for

birthplace

of

and

Assamese Vishnuites Sri Shankardeva;

Sri

on the Brahmaputra is a river port and the rail terminus of branch line. Raha village is well known for brassware. Lumding in the south is an important junction of the North East Frontier Silghat a

railway.

NOWY

SACZ,

town

a

in

(M. Ba.) Cracow wojewodztwo (province),

southern Poland, lies on the Dunajec, a tributary of the Vistula, about lis km. (71 mi.) S.E. of Cracow by road. Pop. (1960) It is in a Carpathian valley (KotUna Sadecka) famed 34,000. Nowy Sacz was founded in 1292, as a result of a for its apples. privilege granted by Waclaw II, who moved the town of Sacz to

new and more defensible site at the crossing of two old routes, along the Carpathians, and from the north to Hungary (now used by the railway Hnes), and this helped its development. It developed as an administrative and regional cultural centre and has It is also a tourist centre because of its fine a metal industry. old buildings and the attractive surrounding district. a

(T. K. W.) (1880-1958), English poet, a traditionalist in his literary tastes and remembered chiefly for his lyrical verse, was born at Wolverhampton, Staffordshire, on Sept. 16, While still an 1880. and educated at Exeter college. Oxford. undergraduate he pubhshed his first book of poems, The Loom of Years, in 1902. Encouraged by George Meredith and others he produced further volumes such as Forty Singing Seamen (1907) and Drake (1908), which showed patriotic fervour and a love In 1913 he went to the United States on a lecture for the sea. tour and in the following year was elected to a professorship of modern English literature at Princeton university, which he re-

NO YES, ALFRED

signed in 1923.

Noyes's most considerable achievement was the epic trilogy. The Torch-Bearers (three volumes, 1922-30), which took as its theme the progress of science through the ages. In addition to several volumes of poetry his Collected Poems appeared in 1910, he wrote critical essays, biographies and 1920, 1927 and 1950

—

—

novels.

After his conversion to Roman Catholicism in 1927 his tended to colour his work, in particular The Un-

religious beliefs

known God (1934) and

Voltaire (1936).

Among

his later publica-

were Two Worlds for Memory (1953), an autobiography, and The Accusing Ghost (1957), a defense of Roger Casement. Noyes died at Ryde, Isle of Wight, on June 28, 1958. a city of northern France, in the departement of Oise, is built at the foot and on the slopes of a hill 67 mi. (109 km.) N.N.E. of Paris by rail. Pop. (1962) 9.019. Its beautiful 12th-13th century) transitional Romanesque-Gothic cathedral and the old hotel de ville were burned during World War I and tions

NOYON,

(

later

restored.

The

cathedral

treasures

include

a

Carolingian

manuscript and a rare musical incunabulum. The town has good trade in livestock and grain and contains chemical and artificial manure works and iron foundries.

Noyon. the ancient Noviomagus Veromanduorum, was Chrisby St. Quentin at the end of the 3rd century, and about 530 the seat of the bishop was transferred there from St. Quentin. Charlemagne was St. Eligius was bishop in the 7th century. crowned there in 768 and Hugh Capet crowned in 987. Till the French Revolution the bishopric was one of the ecclesiastical peerages of the kingdom. At the beginning of the 12th century tianized

Noyon

obtained a communal charter through the favour of its It was ravaged by the English and the Burgundians durHundred Years' War. It was captured by the Spaniards in 1552, and then by the Leaguers, who were expelled in 1594 by Henry IV. John Calvin was born there in 1509 and the house in which he lived as a boy is now a museum. Noyon was occupied bishops. ing the

the German army in 1914 and was abandoned, bombarded and reduced to ruins, 1917-18. In World War II the town was again occupied by the Germans (June 1940) and was severely damaged. a West African people known also as Banso, numbering about 52,000 1960s), the largest of the Tikar groups in Bamenda district of Cameroon RepubUc. Their kingdom, with its

by

NSAW,

(

capital at

Kimbaw

(or

Afon), whose position patrilineal lineages.

is ruled by the Fon ("king," pi, hereditary within one of their exogamous

Kumbo),

is

The queen mother {Ya,

pi.

the government and in the hearing of court cases.

Aya)

assists in

NUBA—NUBIA The Nsaw

Maize

practise sedentary farming with fallowing.

the principal crop, supplemented by tare, yams, a white carrot (Coleus), white and sweet potatoes, cassava, Guinea corn {Sorghum), finger millet {Eleiisine), plantains, beans, peas and other fruits and vegetables. Farming is done largely by women, with a Men clear the high bush, short-handled hoe as the main tool.

is

help in harvesting grain crops, hunt, gather honey, raise plan-

chickens and goats, provide fire wood and are rebuilding and thatching. Women trade in and men make long trading journeys. Some men do wood carving, make baskets or raffia hats, tap palm wine and engage in new crafts such as carpentry, tailoring and brickmaking. Pottery and iron tools are obtained in trade from neighbouring peoples, and cotton cloth from the Hausa of northern Nigeria. European clothing has been adopted by a few, but men generally wear loincloths woven by the Hausa, and women wear string fringes. Islam has been introduced through the Hausa and Fulani tains, tobacco,

sponsible

for house

local produce,

(qq.v.), but

it

is

estimated that over

80%

of the

Nsaw

follow

supreme god who created human beings and is associated with the earth and its fertility. Ancestors are worshiped as intermediaries between god and the living. Diviners consult the black spider (ngam), as their traditional religion.

the Bamum. See P. M, Kaberry,

They

believe in a

687

Born at Smyrna (Izmir), Turk., in Jan. 1825 of an Armenian Orthodox family originally from Shikakhokh in the southeast of Russian Armenia, he was educated at Geneva, Switz., and Soreze, France. In 1842 he went to Egypt as secretary to his uncle, Boghos Bey Yusufian, Mohammed Ali Pasha's director of foreign affairs. On Boghos Bey's death in 1844 Nubar became secretary-translator to Mohammed Ali and later joined the staff of Ibrahim Pasha whom he accompanied to Paris in 1846 and 1847. Abbas I who succeeded as viceroy in 1848, made Nubar his first secretary. In 1853 he was appointed viceroy's agent in Europe, returning to Egypt after the accession of Said Pasha with whom he traveled to the Sudan in the winter of 1856-57. Nubar's promotion was now rapid. A member of the railway board, and from 1858 director of railways, he took a leading part in the arrangements between Said and Ferdinand de Lesseps for the construction of the Suez canal, and when Ismail Pasha became viceroy, he went to Paris in 1863-64 to negotiate with the French government and the Suez Canal company a revision of the original contract. In 1865 he was minister of public works and from 1866 tury.

minister of foreign affairs. Nubar's ability as a negotiator is nowhere better shown than in his eight years of bargaining with the powers and the Porte which ended in 1876 in the reform of the consular courts and the institution of mixed tribunals.

among

Women

(See

habitants of the

Nuba hills in the southern half of Kordofan {q.v.) province. Republic of the Sudan. This region (approximately 30,000 sq.mi.) is studded with rugged granite hills which rise

Capitulations.) Ismail's debts were bringing him to the verge of bankruptcy and in Aug. 1878, under pressure from Britain and France acting on behalf of Ismail's creditors, the khedive reluctantly appointed a mixed Egyptian and European ministry led by Nubar, who also retained the portfolios of foreign affairs and jus-

sharply from a wide clay plain and vary considerably in size and

tice.

extent.

Nubar vainly tried to induce Ismail to adopt the role of constitutional ruler and was criticized in Egypt for his apparent sympathy with the bondholders. In defiance of the powers, Ismail dismissed his ministry in April 1879 and within three months was

NUBA,

the

(Wi. B.)

of the Grassfields (1952).

name commonly used

to describe the

The Nuba peoples (numbering more than 500,000

Negroid

in the

in-

1960s)

on or near the hills (the plains being mainly occupied by Baggara Arabs) in many tribal groups that differ in physical type, language and culture. They are vigorous, independent hill folk of good physique, strong in traditions and fighting quahties. The number of language groups (ten) is fewer than formerly supposed: Tegali-Tagoi; Koalib-Moro; Talodi-Masakin; Lafofa; KadughKrongo; Katla; Temein: Nyimang; Daju; "Hill" Nubian (Billing, Ghulfan, etc.). Researches indicate possibilities of reducing these. The first four have sometimes been termed Bantoid, as they share a noun-class system reminiscent of Bantu. The speakers of Daju and "Hill" Nubian are incomers from the west and north respeclive

tively.

Nadel gives a fourfold cultural grouping based on kinship and the presence or absence of a spirit-possession cult practised by mediums (kujurs). KinS. F.

structure, type of clan organization

is, broadly speaking, matriUneal in the south, patrihneal elsewhere. The Nuba are agriculturahsts (using spade-type hoes), with hill terraces and, now, larger cultivations on the plains. The main crops are millet, sesame, maize, peanuts, beans, onions,

ship descent

cotton and tobacco. They also keep cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, fowl and (except in Islamized areas) pigs. Rehgious practices are much linked with agricultural rituals, animal sacrifices are made to ancestral spirits and priestly experts and rainmakers have an important position. Tribal units are under government-appointed meks or chiefs and patterns of homestead vary. Marriage payments are in livestock,

weapons and other objects, and by agricultural service. In the remoter hills, men still go naked and women wear beads and lipplugs, but clothes are increasingly worn. In some parts the lower incisors are removed in both sexes; male circumcision is now more widely practised. Wrestling and stick fighting are the principal sports. Varying degrees of Islamization may be observed and Arabic is used as the lingua franca. Bibliography.-— S. F. Nadel, The Nuba (1947)

C. G. Seligman and Pagan Tribes oj the Nilotic Sudan (1932) articles passim in Sudan Notes and Records (1918A. N. Tucker and ) M. A. Bryan, The Non-Bantu Languages of orth-Eastern Africa, with bibliography (19S6) W. MacGaffey, "History of Negro Migrations in the Northern Sudan," Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, vol. 17 (1961). (R. C. St.) ;

B. Z. Seligman,

;

;

N

His successor, Mohammed Tewfik Pasha, rehimself deposed. called Nubar to the presidency of the council of ministers in 1884 on the resignation of the ministry of Mohammed Sharif Pasha. Nubar remained in office until 1888 when he resigned after a clash with Sir Evelyn Baring, the future earl of Cromer, British repreIn 1894 Nubar became prime minister for sentative in Egypt. the third and last time, but ill health coupled with impatience under British tutelage soon caused his resignation (1895). He retired to Paris where he died on Jan. 14, 1899. Two of his relatives achieved distinction in the khedivial service; his brother, Arakel Bey al-Armani, governor of Khartoum (d. 1858), and his nephew, Arakel Bey Abro, governor of Massawa, killed in 1875 in the Egyptian-Ethiopian war.

Nubar's brilliant, if somewhat doctrinaire, mind fitted him preeminently for international negotiation rather than for practical Combining Ottoman with European culture and administration. sharing the Turkish-speaking Egyptian ruling families' contemptuous ignorance of Arabic, he had little in common with Egyptian nationaUsts whom he regarded as provincials, while they, notwithstanding his great services for Egypt, regarded him as a foreigner. See also Egypt: History. Bdjliocraphy.— A. Fanton, Nubar Pacha (1870); A. Holynski, Nubar-Parka devant I'histoire (1886) Earl of Cromer, Modern Egypt, ;

2 vol. (1908); V. G. Zardarian, Hishadagaran (lives of eminent Armenians, 1512-1912), vol. ii (1911), in Armenian; J. Tagher, "Portrait psvchologique de Nubar Pacha," Cahiers d'histoire egyplienne, vol. 1 (R. L. Hl.) (1949).

NUBIA, an ancient region of northeastern Africa, extending approximately from the Nile valley at Aswan, near the First cataract in upper Egypt, eastward to the Red sea, westward to the Libyan desert and southward to about Khartoum, in the Republic of the Sudan. Its north-south extent is about 560 mi. between latitudes 16° and 24° N., and most of it lies in the Sudan. It has no strictly defined limits, however, and is little more than a geographical expression. It was originally called Cush (Kush) under the Pharaohs and the Greeks called it Ethiopia (see Ethiopia, Ancient); the

;

NUBAR

PASHA (Nubar Pasha Nubarun) (1825-1899) was one of the outstanding Egyptian statesmen of the 19th cen-

present name is derived from nob (slave) in the Mahass dialect of the Nubian language, of which four different dialects are spoken between Aswan in Egypt and Dongola in the Sudan. The country consists mainly of sandy desert and rugged plateaus

NUBIA

688

Nubian sandstone through which the Nile flows in a gorge. is narrow with little or no flood plain, but and rapids occurs, coincident with outcrops of harder crystalline rock. Between Khartoum and Philae, Egypt, the Nile makes a great S-shaped bend; the region west and south of the Nile within the first bend is the Bayuda desert (Sahra' Bayyudah and that east of the Nile the Nubian of the

rated with squares alternately plain or hatched

The

made by catfi.sh spines show connections with both Early Khartoum and the Gerzcan periods of Egypt. Egyptian Influence.— Rock pictures are frequent along the

river in this section

a continuous series of slight falls

)

desert, corresponding roughly with the conventional division of

upper and lower Nubia.

Most

of

Nubia

is

within the almost rain-

less zone.

The construction of the Aswan high dam in Egypt, and the consequent ponding back of the Nile creates a narrow lake extending about 350 mi. south, submerging not only Wadi Haifa, the only settlement of any size in the region, but also a number of discontinuous patches of cultivated land. This necessitated the resettlement of about 60,000 peasant cultivators. For the measures taken to preserve ancient monuments see section below. Excavation and Preservation of Nubia's Sites and Monuments. The com-

munications between Egypt and the Sudan also needed replanning; they were formerly maintained by steamer service between Ash Shallal (near Aswan"), the terminus of the Egyptian railway, and Wadi Haifa, the northern terminus of the Sudanese railways. (A. B.

M.)

ARCHAEOLOGY AND EARLY HISTORY In Nubia the early Stone Age ran its usual course. Pre-Abbevillian tools occur at Wadi Haifa and at Nuri below the Fourth cataract. Abbevillian tools were found at Wadi Haifa, between the Second and Third cataracts at Sai Island (Jazirat Say) and Wavva, in Wadi al Hudi near the mouth of the Atbara river and

near

Omdurman. Acheulean tools occur near Wadi Haifa, at in the Wadi al Qa'b and at Omdurman. Early Levallois

Laqiyah

occurs near Tangasi between the Third and Fourth cataracts; and Acheulean-Levallois hybrid cultures near Wadi Haifa, at Salimah oasis, north of 'Abri and, in the Sangoan (Tumbian) form, at

Omdurman. The Levalloisian technique culture from

lasted long.

Kom Ombo (Kawm Umbu)

over Nubia; and

it still

Nile between the First and Third cataracts, and while no doubt a few representing wild animals date from the prehistoric period, all historic periods are represented. Sites of the earlier Egyptian predynastic have not been found south of Ad Dakkah. There is

on a rock near the Second cataract a reference to the conquest of lower Nubia by Zer, third king of the 1st dynasty, and Egyptian imports dating from his and the succeeding reign were found in the neighbouring A-group cemetery of Faras. Lack of sites in Nubia associated with the Old Kingdom may be because of the activities of those Pharaohs the earliest historic reference to Nubia is to a raid by Sneferu (c. 2613 B.C.) who built ships and "hacked up" the land of the Nehesi or Nehsui (cj. modern Al Mahas) and brought back many prisoners and cattle; it is probable that such raids devastated a land in which civilization had flourished during the Neolithic and predynastic periods. Under the 5th and 6th dynasties (c. 2494-c. 2181 B.C.) Egypt's contact with the south became rather more peaceful. Although under Pepi I military expeditions had been led by Uni to the Nehesi lands of Irthet (Irtjel), Medju (Medjai, cj. modern Beja), Yam, :

Wawat, Kau and the land of Temeh, nevertheless Harkhuf of Elephantine made four trading expeditions during the reigns of Merenre and Pepi II, as far as Yam (Darfur?), returning with donkeys laden with incense, ebony, leopard skins and ivory. After the fall of the Old Kingdom a cattle-owning people (the C-group) came into the area between the First and Second cataracts and survived until the beginning of the 18th dynasty. They lived on the riverbank in settlements of round huts of wood and grass and buried their dead beneath mounds of earth protected by circular walls of dry stone. They wore leather clothing; and bowls of black or brown ware, decorated with elaborate incised patterns often filled with white and later with coloured pigments, are characteristic of their pottery. Under the 11th dynasty Egypt

It is

seen in the Sebilian

turned

and

in surface finds all

records the dispatch of ships to

affected cultures at the beginning of the

historic period.

have been found associated with the Sebilian at Wadi Haifa. In the Upper Sebilian, microliths become dominant, suggesting the Capsian culture from north Africa with its backedblade technique. Similar microliths are widely found on the surface; and at Khartoum a culture with Capsian connections and indistinguishable from the Wilton of southern Africa occurs with bone harpoons with four or more barbs, barbed bone arrowheads and redware pottery bowls decorated with wavy-line impressions made by a catfish spine. The makers were Negroes who lived by hunting and fishing. They had no domestic animals and did not cultivate. This culture has been found as far north as the Fourth cataract and between Wadi Howar in the west and Kassala in Fossils

the east.

was followed between Jabal al Awliya and the Second cataby one in which gouges, celts and amazon stone beads, all Fayyum Neolithic, occur with pottery, most of which is burnished and the most typical of which is a hard redIt

ract

typical of the

ware decorated with triangular impressions in a pattern imitating basketwork. This pattern developed out of the wavy-line pottery of Early Khartoum. Early forms of black and black-topped redware occur; and shards burnished after combing or incision show how easily rippled ware could have developed. With this Khartoum Neolithic culture occur zeolite lip plugs, notched fishhooks of shell and bone harpoons, most of which have four or more barbs and a perforated butt. The next culture so far known is one with ripples made by pebble-burnishing over combing. One such pot found at Omdurman is identical in all but size with one from the A-group cemetery at Faras near Wadi Haifa, which has been dated to the reigns of Zer and Zet (about 3000 B.C.) by pottery and copper tools imported from Egypt. At Omdurman about 18 pots were buried in each grave. Gourd shapes and small deep bowls were common. Large deep bowls of coarse redware deco-

by impressions

its

attention to the south again.

An

inscription near

Aswan

Wawat.

Pharaohs of the 12th dynasty, Amenemhet I and I, occupied Nubia as far as Semna, about Second cataract. Communications with Egypt were protected by massive mud-brick forts, a fine example of which at Buhen opposite Wadi Haifa was excavated by W. B. Emery in the 1960s. A trading post was built probably in the reign of Amenemhet II (1929-1S9S B.C.) at Karmah (Kerma) at the downstream end of the Dongola reach and 150 mi. S. of Semna. Karmah was probably the home of the chief of Cush: in graves excavated locally the principal occupant was laid in native fashion on a bed in a large low tumulus, while women and retainers, sometimes numbering hundreds, were buried alive with him. It is in any case most unlikely that G. A. Reisner, the Egyptologist, was correct in thinking that it was the headquarters of successive Egyptian governors. The Egyptian statues found in these graves were presumably traded to the princes of Cush by Egyptian merchants during the Second Intermediate period (c. 1720-1567 B.C.). At Karmah Egyptian craftsmen developed local industries. They made exquisitely fine burnished black-topped red pottery never again equaled, objects in faience and quartz decorated with blue glaze and short copper swords with ivory hilts. The southern group of Egyptian forts (Mirgissah, Shalfak, Uronarti and Semna) were probably built by Sesostris III (187843 B.C.) after a local rising. Until the 13th dynasty the level of the Nile flood was recorded at the Semna forts. These levels show that the Nile was 26 ft. higher in flood than it now is, and the rainfall must have been correspondingly greater to provide grazing for the C-group cattle and to allow tribes to live on the west bank in what is now desert. At some period subsequent to this, and probably connected with the expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt, these forts were all destroyed by fire. Shards of C-group and Pan-grave pottery and stone axes copying bronze axes typical of the 17th dynasty have been found as far east as Agordat in Eritrea.

The

first

Sesostris

50 mi.

(Senusret)

S. of the

'

—

NUBIA Ahmose

I,

the founder of the 18th dynasty, began the reoccupa-

tion of Nubia and built a temple at Buhen; and his successor Thutmose (Tuthmosis) I occupied the whole of Cush at least as far as 50 mi, S. of Abu Hamad, where he set up a boundary inscription. Cush was then incorporated in Egypt under a viceroy, whose first duty was to dispatch the tribute of Nubia to Egypt. Informative representations of the arrival of this tribute in Egypt may be seen in tomb and temple at Luxor. Almost every Pharaoh founded a town or built one or more temples in Nubia from the local sandstone. The most splendid was that at Sulb (Soleb) dedicated to Amon and himself by Amenhotep III, who also built a

smaller one at Seddenga for the worship of his queen Tiy. Other temples include those built by Queen Hatshepsut at Buhen,

Thutmose IV at Barkal, Amenhotep IV (Ikhnaton) at Sesibi and Tutankhamen at Faras and Kawa. The construction of temples was continued under the 19th dynasty. Ramses II (1304-1237 B.C.) built two great rock-hewn

Abu Simbel, and Gerf Husein (Jurf Husayn), Bayt al WaH, Wadi Sabu'a, Dirr (Dayr al Bahri), Ibrim, Faras and 'Akasha in lower Nubia; and his name occurs at Amarah West, Sais, Kawa and Jabal Barkal in upper Nubia. In places, as at Kawa, he was not above erasing the name of the original builder and substituting his own. Seti I built the town wall at Amarah West and probably built the original temple, to which various kings temples to himself and his queen, Nefertari, at

also temples or shrines at

up

to

Ramses IX made additions. The known antiquities of Nubia New Kingdom or Empire are entirely Egyptian. They

under the

include at Anibah tombs built with pyramidal roofs like those at Dayr al Madinah; and farther south inscriptions at Tangur

(Shuqayq), Dosha, Nauri,

Napata and Meroe.

Tumbus and Kurgus.

— From the period between

1100 and 750 nothing is known. Napata (q.v.) seems to have been still Egyptianized when in 750 B.C. Kashta set himself up there as king of Cush and conquered upper Egypt, founding the 2Sth dynasty, known as the Cushite dynasty. Piankhi (c. 730 B.C.) included the rest of Egypt in his empire, and Shabaka, his successor, transferred the capital to Thebes and was known as king of Cush and Egypt. Piankhi built the great temple of Amon at Napata. The only monuments of Shabaka and Shebitku (Shabataka) in Nubia were their pyramids at Kurru. All the pyramids in this cemetery are now ruined, but the painted chambers of Tanutamon and his sister Kalhata are preserved. The burial chamber was excavated in rock below ground level, approached from the east by a stairway cut in the rock. The pyramid was built on ground level above the chamber and had a small mortuary chapel on its eastern face. (These chapels have all disappeared at Kurru and Nuri, but some of those at Meroe remain, and the designs with which they are decorated are of considerable interest and importance.) Taharqa built more than one temple at Napata, carved four colossal figures out of the face of Jabal Barkal and built the largest pyramid of a new cemetery at Nuri. A disastrous clash with the Assyrians, who were armed with iron weapons and had recently included Palestine in their empire, led to the evacuation of Egypt by Taharqa. His successor, Tanutamon, temporarily reoccupied upper Egypt, but was soon forced to abandon it (661 B.C.). The dynasty, however, continued to reign, first at Napata and subsequently at Meroe (q.v.), for about 1,000 years. The immediate successors of Tanutamon (Atlanersa, Senkamanisken, Anlaman, B.C.

Amtalka and Malenakan, c. 653-538 b.c.) were able to construct pyramids and temples in the pure Egyptian style. A temple at Jabal Barkal was begun by Atlanersa and finished by Aspelta,

The sun temple at Meroe (mentioned by Herodby Aspelta; and the temple of Amon at Meroe was apparently built by Aspelta, Amtalka and Malenakan. The kingdom no doubt stretched as far as Sennar, where a scarab of Shabaka has been found, and Jabal Mayyah, where objects dating from Taharqa to Aspelta and later periods were discovered; and it is reasonable to suppose that from Sennar it extended to the gold country of Beni Shangul (Ethiopia), and from Jabal Mayyah to the Shilluk country on the upper White Nile. Napata was sacked c. 590 B.C. by an expedition sent by the Senkamanisken. otus)

Saite

was

built

Psamtik II to

forestall a Cushite threat to reestablish their

689

dominion over Egypt.

Greek and Carian mercenaries, who took part, left graffiti at Abu Simbel and Buhen. This sack of Napata led to the transfer of the political capital to Meroe, although kings were buried at Napata as the old religious capital up to the time of Nastasen (c. 315 b.c). The Persians are said to have invaded Nubia under Cambyses in 522 b.c, but of this there is no evidence, although Nubians with carnelian-tipped arrows served in the qrmy of Xerxes.

From his study of the royal cemeteries of Napata and Meroe, Reisner constructed a king list covering this period. Twenty kings and some of their queens were buried at Nuri, and all their names have been recovered. Forty-one rulers, who succeeded them, of whom 2i have been identified (4 or 5 were queens), were buried from c. 300 B.C. in pyramids at Meroe. Reisner thought that during this later period there were two occasions when Napata was for a time independent of Meroe and its rulers buried in the two groups of pyramids at Jabal Barkal. But there is some doubt about this, although the names of four kings did turn up at Kawa that were not found at Meroe. Ergamenes (248-220 B.C.) built the temple of Dakkah and imported an Egyptian scribe to decorate tomb chapel. He and his successors (who built six large pyramids) represent the most prosperous period of Meroe, when relations with Ptolemaic Egypt were friendly. But, cut off from Egypt, the Egyptian culture of the kingdom naturally degenerated. The Meroitic cursive script was invented before 200 b.c When it was in general use, the knowledge of Egyptian and Egyptian scripts was quickly lost. Soon after 150 B.C. the Meroitic hieroglyphic script was invented for decorative inscriptions. The traditional offering scenes, which occur on the older pyramids, were then varied, giving them a distinctive Meroitic tinge. Degeneration was continuous until 45 B.C., when Queen Amanishakhete came to the throne. In 23 B.C. Gains Petronius had invaded Napata with a Roman army as a result of frontier trouble in lower Nubia, when the statue of Augustus had been looted from Syene (modern Aswan). He destroyed Napata and, retiring, left a his

garrison at Ibrim.

Queen Amanishakhete

is buried in the second which Giuseppe Ferlini found a hoard of treasure. Her successors. King Natakamani and Queen Amanitere (15 B.c-A.D. 15), repaired the temple of Amon at Meroe, built two temples at Naqah, a temple at Wad Ban Naqah and one at 'Amara East the last two disappeared during the 19th century and restored the great temple of Amon at Napata. The colossal royal statues on the temple site on Argo Island probably belong to this period. From that date degeneration was unchecked. The pyramids gradually became smaller and red brick eventually replaced stone in their construction. Red brick was much used for building in the latter centuries at Meroe, and in the last palace it was used in a crude imitation of a Roman bath. Nubia entered the Iron Age during the Meroitic period. A few manufactured iron objects were imported in the 6th century B.C., but by 480 b.c Nubia was still practically without iron. Pyramid foundation deposits first include iron about 360 b.c, when it probably began to be smelted at Meroe, although remaining a royal monopoly for several centuries. Meroitic pottery at Faras was predominantly wheel-made with some elaborate painted designs in the 2nd century a.d. To the same date belong fine ware, with repeated impressions of small stamps with designs such as the ankh, and imported barbotine cups. Handmade pottery including black ware with impressed designs filled with red or yellow pigment also occurred and was probably more frequent in the south. Artificial reservoirs in the island of Meroe, some of them associated with small temples (as at Al Musawwarat, as Safra, Naqah, Hardan, Awateib, Basa, Duanib and Umm Usuda), and in the Gezira were a feature of the Meroitic period and suggest decreas-

largest pyramid, in

—

ing rainfall.

rhe last record of the kings of Meroe is a demotic inscription from Philae recording an embassy of King Tekerideamani in a.d. 253. The knowledge of writing died out. There are no inscriptions on the walled group of temples at Al Musawwarat. The Blemmyes of the Eastern or Arabian desert (Beja) destroyed the Meroitic culture in lower Nubia; and Meroe itself was destroyed between a.d. 320 and 350 by an expedition dispatched by Aeizanes,

NUBIA

690

king of Aksum. to crush a trade rival or by one of his predecessors. The Nobatae The Meroitic culture is followed in Nubia by one attributed by Reisner to the X-group. These may have been

—

the Nobatae, a name possibly derived from confusion between Nuba and Napata (the "Red Nuba" of Aeizanes). They replace the northern kingdom of Napata, which had twice made itself independent of Meroe. The X-group tumulus is a direct descendant

X-group pottery is in the Meroitic X-group cemeteries occur at Napata (Az Zumah and at Wawa, Sai Island, Firqah, Attiri, Gemai, Adindan, Ballanah, Kustul, Ibrim and Kalabsha (Kalabisheh). The royal cemeteries at Ballanah and Kustul covered two centuries. The kings were buried with Meroitic insignia, and human beings and animals were sacrificed to accompany them. Grave goods included imported Byzantine objects; but no evidence of a written language was found. In the Meroe area, graves contemporary with the X-group contain many large handmade mat-impressed pots and smaller bowls burnished and decorated with incisions near of the Meroitic pyramid, and tradition.

Tangasi) and

the rim. Large mound graves of this period are common as far south as Khartoum. The X-group have also been identified with the Blemmyes, who from the 3rd century had continually troubled Egypt and by the 5th century were established at Talmis (Kalabsha), combining with the Nobatae to raid upper Egypt. They were compelled by Florus in a.d. 452 to keep the peace but were allowed to visit the temple of Philae and to borrow the

statue of

About

Isis.

540 the Nobatae were converted to Christianity, and shortly after that, at Kalabsha, their king Silko, then a Christian, records his defeat of the Blemmyes and of the upper Nobatae (of A.D.

Napata?). After this the capital of the Nobatae seems to have been at Pachoras (Faras), until they were amalgamated with

Mukurra (Muqarra) (q.v.).

with

its

in the single Christian kingdom of Dongola South of that was the kingdom of Aiwa or Alodia (Aloa) capital at Soba (Sawba) near Khartoum. Aiwa had be-

come Christian in a.d. 580. Muslim Conquest. In

—

a.d. 652 a Muslim army from Egypt captured Dongola and compelled the kingdom to pay tribute to Egypt. Arab historians often mention relations between Egypt

and Nubia; but the kingdom of Dongola remained Christian until the 14th century, when it was overrun by Mameluke armies from Egypt. The stone castles of Nubia (Sai, Khandaq, Bakhit, etc.), which show crusader inliuence, date from the unsettled period before the final fall of Dongola. Soba survived for another two centuries, and then gave place to the Muslim Fung (Funj) king-

dom

of Sennar.

Christian Influence.— The churches of Nubia were small when not adaptations of heathen temples. Some were built of stone masonry, but brickwork was commoner. In the north there were two principal types, basilican and domed, and mud brick was usual; whereas in Dongola a typical church had red brick walls with a roof supported by four granite monolith columns with separate granite capitals. Mural paintings covered the walls. Little now remains of any of these churches except one or two small mudbrick buildings in out-of-the-way places (e.g., the church of Abdelgadir near Wadi Haifa), and the ugly atypical fortified church at Old Dongola. which owes its preservation to its conversion to a mosque in the 14th century. In Dongola during the Christian period, graves frequently had a rectangular stone superstructure with tombstones inscribed with Greek letters and either Greek or Coptic inscriptions; and circular stone cairn graves of

the

same period

Khartoum and west Rare inscriptions of Old Nubian in

also occur as far south as

across northern Kordofan.

Greek characters have also been found. Pottery in the Meroitic tradition continued in the Chrisrian period, the best being a thin ware coated with a white slip and decorated with designs in sepia. For the later history of Nubia see the history sections of Egypt and Sudan, Republic of the. (A. J. Al.) Excavation and Preservation of Nubia's Sites and Monuments. At the beginning of 1960 the governments of the United Arab Republic (U.A.R.) and the Sudan turned to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization for help in salvaging the ancient sites and monuments of Nubia threatened

—

with destruction by the great lake which would build up behind Egypt's new dam at Aswan. UNESCO responded by launching what subsequently grew into the biggest archaeological rescue operation of all time. Field Expeditions. About 300 mi. of Nubia along the banks of the Nile in Egypt and the Sudan became the scene of intense activity of some 24 expeditions from as many countries. Before 1960 that part of Nubia inside the Sudan was virtually terra in-

—

cognita and its archaeological richness may be measured by the of hitherto unknown sites later revealed more than 200 along a 2 5-mi. -stretch of the river's banks. They ranged from prehistoric, through A-group and C-group to Pharaonic, Meroitic, X-group and Christian, apart from rock inscriptions. Necessary preliminaries to_ operations were the aerial archaeo-

—

number

logical surveys carried out by UNESCO in collaboration with the governments of the U.A.R. and the Sudan in 1960. The UNESCO mission in Sudanese Nubia continued to assist the national expeditions by making available survey data and a well-equipped photo-

graphic laboratory at Wadi Haifa. The mission in addition made a ground survey of the west bank and the many islands of the Second cataract and dug a large number of sites. An important discovery by one of the national expeditions was that of an Egyptian Old Kingdom town devoted to copper smelting, at Buhen, evidence of much earlier Egyptian penetration of Cush than was previously believed. The 1 2th-dynasty fortresses of the Second cataract received wellmerited attention. Built of mud brick, they could not be salvaged.

Buhen, including the town of the same period, was comand much valuable data on early Egyptian military architecture was gathered. Mirgissah fortress was also the scene of remarkable finds. In the sandy plain below the fortress was found a large complex of fortifications enclosing buildings, well preserved; all dated from the 12th dynasty. Nearby was uncovered a necropolis of the Kerma (Karmah) culture and an important cache of Middle Kingdom execration texts. Several expeditions uncovered rich remains of the C-group people, in the shape of many cemeteries and even houses, and much was added to the somewhat scanty knowledge of this historically significant culture. Cemeteries of the A-group were located and prehistorians found ample evidence that Nubia was well populated in Paleolithic times. Other teams recorded the many rock drawings and inscriptions discovered in Nubia. X-group cemeteries were dug by most of the expeditions, the outstanding find being at Kasr Ibrim. There two large tomb magazines, unrobbed, yielded a splendid array of bronze vessels, glassware, ornaments and iron weapons. Evidence of the early Christian occupation of Nubia was found in profusion. Settlements, each with its church, were uncovered on 13 islands of the Second cataract alone. On the surrounding mainland, every slope and promontory bore signs of once thriving communities. A spectacular find was made in the great basilica hidden beneath the mound at Faras West (Pachoras) where the excavators removed over 100 magnificent frescoes in a remarkable state of preservation. The walls of the church bore not only religious paintings but inscriptions in Greek and Coptic, including a valuable list of the bishops of Pachoras, some of whose tombs and funerary stelae were found. Temples. To save the temples of Nubia was a financial problem and the raising of funds was the main concern of UNESCO's International Campaign Executive committee. Several states cooperated fully by undertaking to defray the cost of transferring

That

at

pletely cleared

—

certain temples out of reach of the rising waters.

As examples, the

Federal Republic of Germany completed the removal of the large Egypto-Roman temple of Kalabsha to a point about 30 mi. away; the U.S. government undertook to conserve the group of PtolemaicRoman temples on the island of Philae, which, being located below

new dam. fortunately did not have to be removed; the French government undertook the transfer of the temple of 'Amada, while several other temples of Egj^jtian Nubia, namely Qertassi (.Kertassi), Taffeh, Dakkah, Muharraqah and Debod (Debot), were dismantled by the U.A.R. for later re-erection. In all, about 20 temples and shrines were to be preserved. the

NUBIAN DESERT—NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

691

In Sudanese Nubia, Hatshepsut's temple at Buhen was dismantled by the Egypt Exploration society of the United Kingdom. The removal of this temple exposed for the first time in 3,500 years the original Middle Kingdom temple beneath. The two New Kingdom temples at Semna were also to be removed. Much more difficult problems were posed in the salvaging of the two rock-cut temples of Ramses II and Queen Nefertari at Abu Simbel (q.v.). The plan (evolved by Swedish experts) was to remove the top of the sandstone cliff above them, dissect the temples in the interior and reassemble them on prepared sites on the plateau above. A temporary coffer-dam would hold back the rising waters while the work was in progress. It was a stupendous task and the estimated cost was high. Nevertheless there did seem to be a good prospect that these two superb reminders of a great

and central Africa. (See African Languages.) The speakers of Nile Nubian are at present Muslims and their language is penetrated with Arabic borrowings. During the medieval period, however, they were Christians and the Nubian Church was affiliated with the Coptic Church of Egypt with its patriarch in Alexandria. These Nubians adapted the alphabet of the Egyptian Copts, in turn derived from the Greek alphabet, to their own language. The documents, which are generally of a religious character and translated from the Greek, are of great linguistic interest as representing the only language at present spoken by Negroes from which indigenous records antedating the modern period are

would be saved for posterity. Meanwhile, not only Abu Simbel but all the temples and shrines in Egyptian Nubia were recorded by epigraphists and by photogrammetric photography undertaken by teams from the Documentation and Study Centre for the History of the Art and Civilization of Ancient Egypt, established at Cairo by UNESCO and (Re. K.) the government of the United Arab Republic.

Bibliography. F, L. Griffith, The Nubian Texts of the Christian Period (1913) H. Junker and W. Czermak, Kordofan Texte im Dialekt von Gebel Dair (1913) E. Zyhlarz, Grundzuege der Nubischen Grammatik im Christlichen Friihmittelalter (1928). (J. G.)

civilization

—

Bibliography. K. S. Sandford and W. J. Arkell, Paleolithic Man and the Nile Valley in Nubia and Upper Egypt (1933) A. J. Arkell, The Old Stone Age in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1949), Early Khartoum (1949), "Varia Sudanica," Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, vol. xxxvi (1950), A History of the Sudan (1955) J. H. Dunbar, Rock Pictures of Lower Nubia (1941); H. A. Winkler, Rock-Drawings of Southern Upper Egypt, 2 vol. (1938-39) J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt (1906) G. A, Reisner and C. M. Firth, Archaeological Survey of Nubia, Reports (1910-27); L. Borchhardt, Altdgyptische Festungen an der Zweiten Nilschnelle (1923) G. A. Reisner, Excavations at Kerma, Harvard African Studies, vol. v, vi (1923), "The Meroitic Kingdom of Ethiopia" and many other articles in the Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, vol. ix, etc. (1923); Dows Dunham, Royal Cemeteries of Kush, vol. i, El Kurru (1950), vol. ii, Nuri (1955), vol. iv, Royal Tombs at Meroe and Barkal (1957); D. Randall-Maclver and C. L. WooUey (eds.). Reports of the Eckley B. Coxe Junior Expe;

spoken

in east

The language appears to be directly ancestral to the The writings date from the end

to be found.

modern

dialect of Mahass-Fadija.

of the 8th century to the beginning of the 14th century.

—

;

;

NUBLE,

a province of central Chile, includes segments of

coastal range, central valley

and

cordillera.

Area 5,387

sq.mi.,

pop. (1960) 284,516. 5Juble, formed in 1848, was altered significantly in area in 192 7 when Itata department was transferred from Maule province (q.v.). Chilian, founded in 1580, is the provincial capital; pop. (1960) 66,771. Together with San Carlos (13,598), Bulnes (5,831), Yungay (2,116) and Quirihue (10,203),

;

;

;

;

dition, vol.

(1935-37)

i,

;

iii,

M.

iv, v, vii

F.

(1909

et seq.)

;

G. Steindorff, Aniba,

Laming Macadam, The Temples

Kawa,

of

2

vol.

vol.

i

(1949), vol. ii (1955) J. Garstang, Meroe (1911), "Interim Reports on the Excavations at Meroe," Ann. Archaeol. Anthrop., vol. iii-vii (1910G. A. Wainwright, "Iron in the Napatan and Meroitic Ages," 14) Sudan Notes, vol. xxvi (1945) O. Bates and D. Dunham, Excavations at Gammai, Harvard African Studies, vol. viii (1927) W. B. Emery and L. P. Kirwan, The Royal Tombs of Ballana and Qustul (1938) F. L. L. P. Kirwan, Oxford University Excavations at Firka (1939) Griffith, "Oxford Excavations in Nubia," Ann. Archaeol. Anthrop., vol. viii-xv (1921-28); G. Roeder, Die christliche Zeit Nubiens und des Sudans, Sonderabdruck aus Zeitschrift fiir Kirchengeschichte, vol. xxxiii (1912); G. S. Mileham, Churches in Lower Nubia (1910); Somers Clarke, Christian Antiquities in the Nile Valley (1912) U. Monneret de Villard, La Nubia medioevale (1935) L. Greener, High Dam Over Nubia (1952); W. A. Fairservis, The Ancient Kingdoms of the Nile and the Doomed Monuments of Nubia (1962); R. Keating, Nubian Twilight (1963). ;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

NUBIAN DESERT,

covering about 90,000 sq.mi. in north-

Western or Baiyuda desert (Sahra' Bayyudah) and Libyan desert (q.v.) beyond the Nile valley and the southern extension of the Arabian desert (g.v.). It occupies the area west of the Red sea between the Itbay ('Atbay) mountains and the Nile in its course from the Sixth cataract (above Atbara) to the Second cataract (near Wadi eastern Sudan,

is

the eastern extension of the

Generally the desert is without water, vegetation or peothough limited settlement occurs along some of the eastern

Haifa). ple,

wadis, notably the Ibib.

NUBIAN LANGUAGE AND WRITING. name given

(R.

W.

is

a departmental seat.

The

Sl.)

Nubian

is

the

provincial

economy

is

stimulated by the Chilian plan, a

comprehensive rural improvement program operated by Chilean and U.S. agronomists. The vine, wheat, edible legumes, fruit and hvestock are important. Industry, chiefly in Chilian, is concerned with food processing, milling (grain and lumber), tanning and shoe manufacturing. The city's recovery from the catastrophic 1939 earthquake is advanced; new public buildings and the catheChilian's open-air market is perhaps the most dral are striking. colourful in Chile. The state railway, which traverses the centre of the province, has branches that lead to Tome and Concepcion and into the cordillera. Minor beach resorts, the cordilleran spa of Termas de Chilian and ski lodges near Chilian volcano are recreation areas. Chilian Viejo (6,058) is the birthplace of Bernardo O'Higgins and Ninhue is the birthplace of Arturo Prat, Chile's

most celebrated naval hero.

NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

(J. is

T.)

concerned primarily with

the design, construction and operation of nuclear reactors. It became clear during the 1950s that substantial numbers of specially

trained engineers are needed for the development of nuclear power The working methods of nuclear its associated industries.

and

engineering are derived from physics and the older engineering fields, but special techniques have had to be developed to solve the unique problems encountered in dealing with nuclear fission,

and many of these are surveyed in this article. Nuclear reactors based on the fusion of light elements are envisaged, but they are not considered here because many problems in the field of physics must be solved before such reactors can become practical power producers.

The physical principles of nuclear fission are discussed in the Atom; Atomic Energy; and Nucleus. This article con-

articles

sists of the I.

Barabra or Nubians in the Nile valley, between Merawi, a few miles below the ancient Napata, and the First cataract at Aswan. It has two principal dialects: the Mahass-Fadija being spoken in the central portion, from a little south of the Third cataract, and the Dongola-Kenuzi at both ends of the region. Languages related rather closely to Nubian of the Nile valley are spoken in the hills of Kordofan and as far westward as eastern Darfur. This entire area is considerably south and west of the portion of the Nile valley in which Nubian is spoken and probably represents the point of origin of Nile Nubian. The entire Nubian group belongs to the Macro-Sudanic family of languages to the language of the

it

II.

following sections:

Introduction Nuclear Reactor Principles 1. Multiplication Factor 2.

Slowing of Neutrons

Neutron Spatial Distribution Reactor Transient Behaviour Reactor Control and Instrumentation 6. Heat Production III. Reactor Materials and Construction IV. Radiation Hazards and Shielding V. Radioactive Wastes and Disposal Problems VI. Nuclear Reactor Types 1. Heterogeneous Natural-Uranium Reactors 2. Heterogeneous Enriched-Uranium Reactors 3. Boiling Water Reactors 3. 4. 5.

4. 5.

6.

Fast Breeder Reactor Homogeneous Reactors Research, Test and Training Reactors

—

NUCLEAR ENGINEERING

692

constant from one generation of fissions to the next, the reactor If, on the average, neutrons are being is said to be "critical." lost, the system is "subcritical," and the chain reaction will not sustain itself. If the density of neutrons is increasing, the system is "supercritical," and the rate of energy release will increase.

VII. Fuels and Fuel Recovery VIII. Economics of Nuclear Power Produclion IX. Other Industrial Applications

I.

INTRODUCTION

Nuclear reactors are devices which yield large amounts of heat and radiation and whose existence depends upon the availability of isotopes of heavy elements which undergo fission when struck by a neutron. The only isotope occurring in nature which is fissionable by slow neutrons is one particular isotope of uranium known as L'-''"'. This is a rare isotope, since in natural uranium it is outnumbered approximately 140 to 1 by another isotope, U"-'**. When a single slow-moving neutron collides with an atom of U-'*''. the atom becomes suddenly so unstable that it may split violently into two major fragments accompanied on the average by two or three extra neutrons. There is a large release of energy, contained mostly in the kinetic energy of the fragments, which The energy release is so large by is quickly dissipated as heat. ordinary standards that the heat from the fissioning of all of the much as from burning 1,500 tons of of is as of 1 lb. U-^'' atoms coal.

Since neutrons are expelled in the fissioning process, it is posone fission to initiate another, and this another, and so on, thus creating a chain reaction. Basically, therefore, a nuclear sible for

reactor is designed to permit a self-sustaining and controlled nuclear chain reaction and to remove safely the heat which is generated. Of the two to three neutrons that are released in each fission, at least one must be successful in producing another fission if the chain reaction is to persist. There are two main reasons why is difiicult to accomplish with natural or with only slightly enriched uranium. Instead of colliding with another of the widely spaced U-^^ atoms, the neutrons may escape from the uranium altogether, or they may strike and be absorbed by one of the U238 atoms. Although a fast neutron will occasionally cause fis-

this

sion of U-^*, a chain reaction in natural uranium is This may be overcome either by increasing the proportion of

impossible. U-''''

by slowing down the neutrons. Uranium containing higher proportions of U-'*^ is artificially produced in large gaseous diffusion plants. A gaseous compound of uranium is pumped through barriers containing very small openings, and since the lighter atoms of U-^'' have, on the average, slightly higher velocities than those or

of U-^'*. they slip through the barrier a bit

more

thus

easily,

Repeated often enough, the process yields uranium with almost any desired degree of enrichment in U^^^. A reactor using such fuel and little other material is said to be a fast reactor because most neutrons are absorbed before they slow down. If the neutrons are slowed to a tiny fraction increasing their concentration.

of their initial speed, they are much more likely to cause fissions of L'-'*^, and it is then possible to sustain a chain reaction in natural uranium. The device for slowing the neutrons is called a moderator. The reactor in this instance is called a thermal reactor

because most neutrons are slowed down to near thermal equilibrium with the moderator before absorption. The moderator is either mixed with the uranium or, if the ura-

nium is in the form of a latticework of solid fuel elements, the moderator occupies most of the intervening space. It must meet two primary requirements: first, it must be a very poor absorber of neutrons so that, are not lost; second,

when neutrons its

almost

all

—

in

of their speed.

The neutrons

moving with small energies nearly in equilibrium with the average kinetic energy of the molecules of the moderator, and

are then

they are referred to as thermal neutrons. A chain reaction, therefore, occurs if the neutrons released from single fission bounce around often enough among the moderator atoms, without escaping or without being absorbed, and are slowed enough so that eventually at least one collides with another atom of U"^^ and causes it to undergo fission. When the number of neutrons moving in this manner in the reactor remains

any

ciently for the reactor to

The in

become

"critical."

products (the fragments which result from fission) a reactor are a nuisance. There are about 40 different ways in fission

which

may

U*^'''

split,

so that as the chain reaction proceeds, a

variety of elements accumulate in the remaining uranium, most of

—many

them intensely radioactive

To

of neutrons. thick,

heavy

them strong absorbers

of

protect against this radiation and the radiation

from

arising directly

shields.

fission, the reactor

The gradual

must be surrounded by

increase within the reactor in

the amount of this neutron-absorbing material must be taken into account in the design of the control system. Although U-^^ is the only easily fissionable material found in If nuclear nature, it is fortunately possible to produce others. energy depended solely on U-^^ fissions, it would be far less interesting as a new source of fuel for power generation. The more abundant atoms of U"^* may become easily fissionable by converting them to isotopes of plutonium, Pu-^". This conversion may take place over a period of several days through a series of A nunuclear transformations when U-^^ absorbs a neutron. clear reactor in which a chain reaction is being sustained may, therefore, at the same time be producing new fissionable mateIn fact, when it is possible for a second neutron from each rial. fission to find its way into an atom of U^^* and convert it to plutonium, thus renewing the supply of fissionable material at the same rate that it is being consumed, the energy available from is multiplied theoretically by a factor of approximately 140. A reactor which accomplishes this is called a breeder; in this instance is referred to as fertile material. the U^^* The production of plutonium, w^ithout attempting to utilize the energ>' release, was the specific purpose of the first big reactors ever built, located at Hanford Works, Wash. When these reactors were first put into operation their success seemed doubtful because the chain reaction tended to cease when the power level was increased. This was determined to result from the buildup of one particular fission product, an isotope of xenon, having an The solution to this problem and the subseaffinity for neutrons. quent successful operation of the reactors was one of the exciting accomplishments of World War II, Th-32_ ttie predominant isotope of thorium found in nature, is also a fertile material, since a neutron absorbed in Th^^^ gives rise to a conversion to still another isotope of uranium, U-^^, also easily fissionable. Thus, a reactor containing enough U-^' to support a chain reaction and Th^^^ as a fertile material may also be-

natural uranium

come

a breeder.

In summary, therefore, a reactor will ordinarily consist of

fis-

sionable material, a moderator, control rods, shielding and fertile material. In addition, there must be structural materials and

mechanisms

for

U.

collide with its atoms, they

atoms must be as small as possible

other words, as near to the weight of the neutron as possible so that the rapidly moving neutrons, through a series of "billiard ball'' collisions, will lose

Control of the reactor is accomplished by introducing materials which readily absorb neutrons, such as cadmium or boron. These may be in the form of control rods which can be withdrawn suflS-

1.

removing the heat which

Multiplication Factor.

factor

is

is

produced.

NUCLEAR REACTOR PRINCIPLES

—The

"effective"

multiplication

a useful concept for studying reactor behaviour.

sometimes called the

and

It is

may

be defined as the ratio of the number of neutrons present following any one generation of fissions to the number present following the immediately criticality factor

preceding generation. If the effective multiplication factor, represented by k^ij, is unity, the reactor is critical, and the chain reaction is self-sustaining. If k^/f is greater than 1, the neutron density will increase; and if k^u is less than 1, the neutron density will decrease.

Since neutrons are always lost at the boundaries of a reactor, is convenient to study first a reactor of infinite dimensions, thus making it possible to ignore temporarily the leakages of neutrons through the boundaries. In this case the multiplication

it

NUCLEAR ENGINEERING factor

is

called k^,

and the determination of

its

value

is

a

major

part of nuclear reactor design. As shown by the equation k^ = rjepf, its value may be expressed as the product of four factors: t) is the number of neutrons produced per thermal neutron absorption in fuel (this number is smaller than the neutrons released per fission because some of the neutrons are absorbed in fuel without causing fission) e is the

100 original

Capture

in

U"'

factor, defined as the ratio of the total

number

103 fast neutrons

Fast leakage Lf

Absorption

of thermal neutrons that are absorbed in fuel.

in

If*

while slowing

J

Thermal leakage

—

approximate solutions.

down

thermal neutrons

The

digital

reactor designers as a useful tool by

computer is utilized by means of which designs

can be tried without the expense of building critical experiments. The calculations are complex, some data are uncertain and small

Lit,

=

4 thermal neutrons lost

0,96

84 thermal neutrons

Absorption in fuel /

=

8 thermal neutrons lost through absorption in moderator and structure

0.90

76 thermal neutrons

Neutron multiplication by thermal 1

—

tain

neutrons lost

It is

do not escape before becoming thermal and Z,,^ is the fraction of thermal neutrons that do not escape before being absorbed. The combination of effects in the formula for k„ and due to the leakages are shown for a typical case in the accompanying diagram. The chain is applied to 100 neutrons to make the calculation come out in whole numbers. 2. Slowing of Neutrons. In the slowing or moderation procSince the ess, neutrons generally lose energy at each collision. neutrons slow down in a discontinuous manner, considerable effort has been devoted to finding some smooth mathematical step functions which will describe their over-all behaviour accurately. One such method is the "continuous-slowing-down model" which assumes that the neutrons slow down continuously until they reach thermal energy, at which time they diffuse until they are absorbed or leak from the reactor. This model gives good calculated results for a large range of reactors. 3. Neutron Spatial Distribution. The neutron density (the number of neutrons found in a unit volume) and the neutron flux density multiplied by the typical velocity) are not uniform ( amino acyl adenosine monophosphate

The adenosine monophosphate

is

-j-

inorganic pyrophosphate

then replaced by

(b)

sRNA;

+

amino acyl adenosine monophosphate sRNA —> amino acyl sRNA 4- adenosine monophosphate

These reactions are catalyzed by the same enzyme. There appears to be a separate activating enzyme and a separate species of RNA for each of the 20 amino acids involved in protein synthesis. The sRNA molecules, each with its attached amino acid, are then taken up by the ribosomes and it is there that the actual process of protein synthesis takes place. It is thought that the amino acids are aligned in the correct order because of some correspondence between the small sRNA molecules (transfer RNA) to which they are attached and the RNA (messenger

RNA)

of the

ribosome

particle.

individual

sRNA

much

(c)

larger

Possibly the molecules may

be complementary in their sequence of bases to particular sites in the ribosomal RNA and may be capable of specific combination with these sites, perhaps by the same sort of hydrogen bonding as holds the two strands of the molecule together. A mechanism of this sort implies that the type of protein synthesized depends on the nature of the RNA of the ribosomes; i.e.. on its base sequence. It fol-

A....T T.

,.A I

G....C

(d)

I

A

DNA

.

.C

I

I

T

A.

,

.T 1

I

T.,

.A

I

G.,

..C

FIG.

7.

—SKETCH

SHOWING POSSIBLE DUPLICATION METHOD

lows, therefore, that the control

of

protein

synthesis

must be exerted by the

DNA DNA de-

by

termining the base sequence at

leart

part

of

the

the product of the synthesis has a nucleotide composition corresponding to that of the primer (the uracil of the RNA being taken as equivalent to the thymine of the DNA). Again there is evidence that when a bacterial cell is infected by a virus one of the first consequences is the synthesis of a new mesof senger RNA corresponding in base composition to the the virus and that this new messenger RNA is taken up by the ribosomes and it determines the nature of the proteins that are to be synthesized. It seems reasonable to assume that in the

DNA

in

DNA

ribosome.

There is evidence that this may be brought about by the so-called messenger RNA. This is a relatively small fraction of the

of the cell that

thesized

is

DNA

RNA

rapidly syn-

and equally rapidly de-

stroyed.

DNA

so that the nucleotide se-

quence of the newly synthesized RNA corresponds to that of the DNA primer. Using purified enzymes it can be shown in the test tube that RNA synthesis can be "primed" by DNA and that

normal cell the DNA controls protein synthesis by a similar sort of mechanism. Proteins and the Genetic Code. If protein synthesis is accomphshed by a mechanism of this sort, there must be some sort of relationship between the sequence of bases in the DNA (and messenger RNA) and the sequence of amino acids in the protein produced. Since DNA and RNA are built up from only four different types of nucleotide whereas proteins are built up from about 20 different types of amino acid, it follows that each amino acid in the protein chain must be represented in the nucleic acid chain not by a single nucleotide but by a group of nucleotides. The nature of this code by which amino acids are represented is still the subject of speculation. It seems likely, however, that if each amino acid is represented by a specific group of nucleotides

—

DNA

In the synthesis of RNA, (in single stranded form) is thought to act as primer and the mechanism of synthesis is believed to be analogous to that of

„,. s.-diagram indicating double helical structure of nucleic acids

NUCLEUS

712

there must be three nucleotides or a small multiple of three in each such group. Some information about the code has been obtained by making Severo Ochoa) as messenger use of synthetic polynucleotides RNA. Such synthetic polynucleotides can be added in the test tube to a system containing ribosomes, sRNA and the enzymes and

XII. Energy Production in Stars XIII. Utilization of Nuclear Energy XIV. High-Energy Experiments on Nuclei

(

By comparing the necessary for protein synthesis. composition of the synthetic polynucleotides with the relative proportions of the different amino acids taken up by the ribosomes it is possible to deduce a tentative relationship between the nucofactors

cleotides of the messenger

example,

if

RNA

and the protein synthesized.

For

a synthetic polynucleotide consisting solely of uridine

nucleotides is tested in this way it is found that the ribosomes take up an exceptionally large amount of the amino acid phenylalanine Marshall W. Xirenberg and J. Heinrich Matthaei). P'rom this it is concluded that phenylalanine must be represented in the code by a group of uridine nucleotides (presumably three). By similar arguments groups of nucleotides have been provisionally assigned to ail 20 amino acids. These details were speculative and controversial in the early 1960s but the general correctness of the scheme seemed to be well established. See also references under "Nucleic Acids" in the Index. BiBLiocR.\PHY. E. Chargaff and J. N. Davidson (eds.). The Nucleic Acids: Chemistry and Biology, vol. 3 (1960) J. N. Davidson, The Biochemistry of the Nucleic Acids, 4th ed. (1960) J. N. Davidson and W. (

—

;

;

E. Cohn (eds.), Progress in Nucleic Acid Research (1963); M. F. Perutz, Proteins and Nucleic Acids (1962); F. H. C. Crick, "The Genetic Code," Sci. Amer., vol. 207, no. 10 (Oct. 1962), "On the Genetic Code," Science, vol. 139, no. 3554 (Feb. 8, 1963); Marshall W. Nirenberg, "The Genetic Code: II," 5c/. Amer., vol. 208, no. 3 (March 1963). (J. N. D.; R. Y. T.)

NUCLEUS.

In animals and higher plants a nucleus is that portion of the cell containing the hereditary materials (chromosomes, genes) and a nucleolus. It is discussed in the article Cytology. This article deals with the nucleus of the atom, a particle of very small radius

and exceedingly great density located

atom. All but a negligible fraction of the atomic mass is concentrated in the nucleus. At the same time the size of the nucleus is more than 100,000 times smaller than the size of the atom. The approximate size of the atom, in turn, is a few l.OOO.OOO.OOOths of an inch (i.e., one, two or three times 10~^ cm.). The nucleus carries a positive electric charge that is an integral multiple of the elementary charge (whose magnitude is 4.8 X 10"i" electrostatic units). By the mid-1960s understanding of the nature of atomic nuclei had reached the point where radical changes were being felt in the personal, social, economic and poUtical lives of people throughout the world. In medicine, diagnostic and therapeutic methods employing particles derived from atomic nuclei increasingly were being used; improved new varieties of food plants and animals were being produced with nuclear techniques [see Radiation: Biological Effects). Ancient aims of alchemy (g.v.) to achieve transmutation of chemical elements finally were being realized as methods for manipulating the constituents of atomic nuclei developed. Enormous energies that bind these constituents together were being released to revolutionize methods of warfare, and were being controlled to fuel ships and illuminate cities. The dominance of any nation in international politics was beginning to hinge on the skill of its scientists and technicians in dealing with the atomic nucleus. The discussion that follows summarizes the principles and discoveries of nuclear physics that underhe these world-wide changes. The discussion of the atomic nucleus to follow is organized at the centre of the

as follows: I.

II.

III.

Description and History Detection of Nuclear Processes Constituents of the Nucleus

Nuclear Energy Further Properties of Nuclei Beta Decay Alpha Decay and Spontaneous Fission Metastable Nuclei IX. Nuclear Reactions X. Summary of Nuclear Properties XI. Nuclear Structure and Nuclear Forces

IV. V. VI. VII. VIII.

I.

DESCRIPTION

AND HISTORY

atom was obtained by E. Rutherford in 191 1. He was led by his experiments to assume that atoms consist of a nucleus, as described above, and a number of electrons. These electrons carry a negative elementary charge (of magnitude 4.8 X lo"'" electrostatic units) and they have a mass which is a small fraction of the atomic mass. (The fraction representing the total weight of the electrons in the atom to the atomic weight is ^g^ in the case of

The

first

clear evidence about the internal structure of the

hydrogen, the lightest element, or -^ for uranium, a typical heavy element.) The number of electrons in the atom is equal to the number of positive charges the nucleus carries so that the atom as a whole is neutral. The atomic number and the designation Z are used for either of these quantities. All chemical and most physical properties of atoms are determined, apart from exceedingly small variations, by the atomic number Z. Atoms having a given Z value form an atomic species. For example, if the nucleus has one unit of charge and one electron is present, we have a hydrogen atom. As further examples, nuclei with 2, 6, 26, 79 and 92 charges may be mentioned; the corresponding atoms have 2, 6, 26, 79 and 92 electrons and the atomic species are helium, carbon, iron, gold and uranium, respectively. The chemical transformations, the appearance and common behaviour of materials built from the atoms depend only on the configuration of the electrons. This is influenced, in turn, only by the nuclear charge and is practically independent of other properties of the nucleus. The atomic properties are discussed in detail in Atom. In the following the interest is in the central particle; i.e., the nucleus.

Formerly

it

was believed

that

atoms were immutable

entities.

This statement did not imply that the configuration of the electrons in the atoms could not change. It was. indeed, soon recognized that chemical changes are caused by the rearrangement of the electrons. As long as the charge of the nucleus has remained the same, however, the atom is considered unchanged. No matter what deformation occurs in the electron arrangement, it will always return to the normal configuration as soon as the disturbing force is removed. In 1896 A. H. Becquerel noticed that uranium emits unusual In the next few years radiations, designated as radioactivity. the work of Marie and Pierre Curie, E. Rutherford, F. Soddy and the phenomenon had to be exothers led to the recognition that, plained by a spontaneous, permanent and intrinsic change of In uranium this is the atomic species (see Radioactu'ITy). brought about by the emission of a particle from the nucleus which carries away two units of positive charge and which is called an a-particle (alpha particle). Thus the uranium nucleus, originunits of charge, disintegrates into a nucleus containing 90 units of charge. This nuclear charge characterizes These phenomena will be a different atomic species, thorium. discussed later in the section on a-decay. The emitted particle

ally containing 92

much as the 20th part of the greatest Thus a much larger kinetic energy concentrated on the a-particle than was ever before found on a body of comparable mass. Actually the ci-particle is the nucleus of the helium atom (see Alpha Particles). In the hands of Rutherford these a-partides became powerful tools in exploring the interior of the atoms. In experiments published in 1911 Rutherford showed that the majority of particles in.) but solid foils withpass through thin (of the order of out being deflected. A few a-particles were scattered through quite large angles. These observations could be explained by assuming that the a-particles had collided with heavy, charged has a very high velocity, as

possible velocity, that of light.

is

j^

particles, the

atomic nuclei.

The

greater

number

ations were the result of distant collisions;

i.e.,

of small devi-

of forces acting

between two particles which did not approach closely. The large deflections were caused by the larger force of two charged particles

more nearlv

in contact.

In order to account for the large

number

NUCLEUS had to be given a radius small compared with that of the atom. Rutherford assumed thai the charge of the nucleus is positive and that the remainder of the of undeviated particles, the nucleus

consists of the light negatively charged electrons.

atom

Collisions between the a-particles

and the electrons are much

the noticeable collisions between a-particles and nuclei, but because of the small mass of the electron these collisions do not result in an observable deflection of the a-parti-

more frequent than

Rather they cause

cles.

a

gradual loss of energy of the a-particles. the particle travels before it loses all

The distance through which of

its

available energy

called the range of the particle.

is

The

on the initial energy of the particle, on its charge, its mass and on the density of the electrons with which it can collide. The hypotheses which Rutherford made to explain his experiments have been fully verified by the experimental and theoretical studies of atomic and nuclear physics. In 1 919 Rutherford observed that nitrogen bombarded by a-particles emitted a new product. This turned out to be a nucleus of the hydrogen atom, which is called a proton, carries a single unit of positive charge and is the simplest of all atomic nuclei. The reaction was produced by a close collision of the a-particle and the nucleus of the nitrogen atom, which carries seven positive The a-particle attached itself to the nitrogen charge units. nucleus, producing a so-called compound nucleus of high internal energy. From this structure the fast proton is subsequently emitted. The actual time for the emission is an exceedingly small range depends,

in general,

fraction of a second (see

The

Proton).

result of this nuclear reaction

is

that the nitrogen nucleus,

having absorbed the Of-particle with two positive charges and having emitted a proton carrying only one positive charge, has now turned into an oxygen nucleus. In this way Rutherford's experiments accomplished the transmutation of nitrogen atoms into oxygen atoms. At the same time the bombarding helium nuclei were transformed into hydrogen nuclei. In the process the kinetic energy of the system had also changed. The final particles contained less energy than the original helium nuclei. Rutherford's experiments also explained why the transmutation of elements could not be accomplished by the previously Artificial change of used methods of chemistrj' and physics. nuclear charge requires a nuclear reaction induced by the close contact of two atomic nuclei. Because of the strong electrostatic repulsion of the positively charged nuclei, sufficiently close contacts can occur only if the nuclei approach each other with a high initial velocity. The required high velocities do not occur in chemical processes and thus the endeavour of the alchemists to transmute elements by chemical means was doomed to failure. As soon as methods and techniques speciaHzed in the production and observation of high-velocity particles were developed, transmutation of atoms could be observed. The study of atomic nuclei remained a field sharply separated from the investigation of atoms and from other branches of chemistry and physics. The reason for this is twofold. First, the details of nuclear structure influence the properties of the

as a

whole and the properties of matter

in bulk to

atom

an exceedingly

small extent.

Thus the study of the structure of matter could proceed without detailed knowledge of the atomic nucleus. Second, the internal behaviour of nuclei can be influenced only when energy is present in very high concentrations. The required high energies are carried by a-particles such as were used in Rutherford's experiments. In chemical and most physical processes, however, the concentration of energy is not high enough to influence the behaviour of nuclei to a noticeable extent.

Thus, nuclear processes occur, so

to speak, in a world of their own and unusual special methods must be devised to penetrate into this world. For several years following the publication of these first experiments on nuclear transmutations, radioactive materials occurring in nature remained the only source of high-energy particles. The study of nuclear processes was handicapped by the relatively

number

made available to the Observations had to be made over quite long periods of time and results had to be based on the observations small

experimenter.

of particles these sources

713 Nuclear

of relatively few processes.

scientists

therefore

made

every effort to produce similarly fast particles by artificial means. The first machine to do this was the cascade transformer of C. C. Lauritsen, H. Crane and others which was completed in 1928. This was followed by the machine of J. D. Cockcroft and E. T. S. Walton in 1929 and the electrostatic generator of R. J. Van de Graaff in 1931. These machines are called linear accelerators, a term derived from their common fundamental principle. The charged particles, such as protons or a-particles, are introduced at one end of a cylinder containing a very strong and extended electric field. As the particles move through the field they are continuously accelerated. In order that no energy should be lost by collisions w^ith atoms, the cylinder is evacuated. The

fundamental principle of these machines

is

the

method by which

the necessary electric fields are obtained. Another principle was used in the cyclotron (E. O. LawTence,

In this machine particles 1932, see Accelerators, Particle). are confined by a magnetic field to a spiral-shaped orbit and accelerating electric fields are repeatedly applied while the particles are

moving along

this orbit.

The betatron (D. W.

Kerst, 1940)

in that the particles are confined

The

is

by

similar to the cyclotron

a variable magnetic field.

is accomplished by the principle of According to this principle, increase of current in one In the betatron a coil induces an opposite current in a coaxial coil. change of current in a coil causes an acceleration of electrons which do not move in a second coil but rather in free space. An important practical difference between the cyclotron and the betatron is that the former is used to accelerate atomic nuclei while

acceleration, however,

induction.

the latter accelerates electrons.

After 1945 improvements in all these machines became possible through closer control of the electromagnetic fields which are used to confine and accelerate the particles. In some of these, electrons or nuclei are accelerated in straight lines CL.

W.

Alvarez,

acceleration of protons. 1946; H. H. Hansen, acceleration of electrons, 1948).

Acceleration

is

of an accelerating field which

achieved by the continuous action moves along with the accelerated

A

machine of the cyclotron type is the synchrotron (E. M. McMillan and V. I. Veksler, 1945) for the acceleration of electrons. In this machine electrons are kept in a circular orbit by a changing magnetic field and the acceleration is accompHshed by

particle.

repeated appHcation of an electric orbit of the electrons.

By

field

near a certain point in the between the changing

a close correlation

field and the period in which repeated accelerations are applied (synchrocyclotron), it became possible to accelerate nuclei to very high energies; the highest energy reached in the early 1960s was in the proton accelerator at Brookhaven National laboratory.

magnetic

Upton, N.V.

The energy obtained was approximately 8,000 times

higher than the energy of the a-particles of uranium. These high-voltage machines were capable of producing a considerable number of nuclear reactions which were, in principle, analogous to the reaction studied by Rutherford in 1919. In some of these reactions energ>' was released, in others energy was absorbed, but in all cases the energy changes were great compared with the energy changes involved in chemical reactions. In 1932 Irene Curie and F. Joliot discovered that by nuclear reactions radioactive nuclei can be produced. In their e.xperiments they used, like Rutherford, a-particles. With these they bombarded boron atoms, whose nuclei carry five elementar>' charges. The resultant nucleus contained tw'o more charges and was thereThis fore a sevenfold charged nucleus, or a nitrogen nucleus. nitrogen nucleus differed from all nitrogen nuclei found in nature This particle is in that it emitted a particle called the positron. similar in

all

respects to the electron discussed above except that In the follow-

carries a positive rather than a negative charge. ing years a great number of radioactive nuclei it

were produced.

Many

of these emit positive electrons Uke the nitrogen nucleus just described, others emit the more common negative electrons. Radioactivities of this type are called j3-activities, and the positive or negative particles emitted

by

the nuclei are called (3-rays.

(See Radioactivity.) Actually /3-radioacti\'ity was discovered practically simultaneously with a-activity, but up to 1932 only

NUCLEUS

7^4 a few naturally occurring /3-activitics were

known.

All elements

can be oblaintil in a radioactive form. Considering the great energy relea.se which was frequently encountered in nuclear reactions, the question arose whether it would be possible to utiliite this energy. This was not possible for the following reason; in order to release nuclear energy one had

The process

break apart.

is

called the fission of the nucleus.

The

electrostatic repulsion of the product nuclei at the instant of fission

and

fly apart with great velocity and an amount of energy, unusually large even in the scale of nuclear energies. This splitting of the uranium nucleus can occur in a number of ways, giving a variety of pairs of disintegration products. These nuclei, which are unstable and disintegrate by /3-particle emission, add to the The above conclusion was energy liberated by the reaction. reached and verified experimentally by several scientists. The first

In these rare instances the nuclear energy may be greater, sometimes even lo or too times greater, than the energy of the impinging particle but since these

and L. Meitner in Copenhagen, Den. was further guessed that neutrons are liberated in fission making possible a chain reaction. If, for instance, 2 neutrons were emitted, these could react with uranium nuclei producing 4 neutrons. The.se would multiply to 8, then to 16 and so on. In a few steps the number of neutrons will become extremely large, the reaction is accelerated and energy is Uberated at an

Most of these particles, to start with highly energetic particles. they impinge on a piece of matter, will not get close to nuclei

if

will not produce reactions but will instead squander their energy by making collisions with light electrons. In this way the originally concentrated energy of the particles will ultimately be of i%, transformed into heat. Only a small fraction, less than of the originally fast particles get close enough to an atomic

^

nucleus to produce a nuclear reaction.

occur only rarely, the net gain in energy is small. of a piece of material by a stream of energetic, charged particles will thus produce a heating of the bombarded sample which is only slightly increased by the reactions occurring Considering the exceedingly high cost of the in the sample. original source of energy, the actual slight energy production could processes

The bombardment

not be considered as a practical source of power. A great number of additional nuclear transformations became possible in 1932 w^hen J. Chadwick discovered the neutron (g.v.).

This particle has a mass which is very slightly in excess of the mass of the hydrogen nucleus, or proton. In contrast to the proton, however, it carries no charge and is the only known nuConsequently the neutron does not clear particle that is neutral. attract any electrons and does not have the property of other nuclei of surrounding itself with an extended electron configuration. Thus one of the striking properties of the neutron is that it

may

penetrate almost freely through several inches of solid materials, being influenced in its path only whenever it touches an atomic nucleus. The fact that neutrons are not charged gives rise to a second important consequence. This is that neutrons can approach any nucleus without being repelled by the charge on the nucleus. Therefore a neutron need not have a high velocity, or a high energy, in order to cause a nuclear reaction. Unlike the charged approach with equal ease such nuclei of small charge as those of nitrogen or such nuclei of high charge as those of gold or uranium. This fact was utilized by many investigators following 1932 to explore a great number of nuclear reactions. E. Fermi and his collaborators in Rome, Italy, were by far the most active and successful workers in the field. The fact that a neutron need not have high energy for it to particles the neutrons can

whether nuclear reacUnfortunately neutrons could be produced only in reactions in which fast particles were involved. A typical example is the reaction described above in which a fast a-particle impinges on a boron nucleus and forms a In this reaction a neutron is also radioactive nitrogen nucleus. ejected. In the final analysis this neutron represents as costly an investment of energy as the fast particle itself and practical power production by this means seems to remain unattainable. Actual utilization of nuclear energy on a large scale became a concrete possibility at the end of 1938 when 0. Hahn and F. Strassmann in Berlin, Ger., discovered uranium fission. These

approach

a nucleus reopens the question of

makes them

of these were O. Frisch It

Later in 1939 L. Szilard, F. Joliot ultimately e.\plosive rate. and others experimentally verified the liberation of a sufficient of neutrons. This was the necessary proof of the feasi-

number

chain reaction and work was begun on producing such To control the chain reaction means, first, to allow neutrons to multiply and, subsequently, to strike a balance of neutron production and neutron absorption so that the number of neutrons just maintains itself and does not grow to explosive This was first achieved under the guidance of proportions. bility of a

a reaction.

E. Fermi on Dec. 2, 1942, at The University of Chicago. Subsequently, many additional nuclear reactors were built, aU based on Some of these reactors liberate the principle explained above. considerable amounts of energy and progress has been made toward transforming this energy into useful power. In 1942 the development of the explosive aspects of the nuclear chain reaction was undertaken by a group headed by J. R. Oppenheimer. On July 16, 1945, the first so-called atomic bomb was exploded in the desert near Alamogordo, N.M. Afterward, two atomic bombs were exploded over Japan. In the following years numerous tests of atomic bombs were carried out by U.S. scientists in the Pacific and Nevada; by Soviet workers; and by In later tests (in particular the a British group in Australia. U.S.S.R. test of 1953 and the U.S. tests of 1951 and 1952), the explosion was based in part on the building up of light nuclei.

reaction involved in that case is the fusion of small nuclei into larger units rather than the fission of the heaviest

The nuclear nuclei into

two

made a careful study of the artificial radioactive substances that were obtained when neutrons impinged on the uranium nucleus. Fermi and his collaborators had noticed several years earlier that when a uranium nucleus is hit by a neutron, At that time a variety of radioactive substances are produced.

Hahn and Strassmann spethe reaction was not understood. cifically identified barium in the bombarded uranium target they were studying. To explain the presence of this much hghter element a very violent reaction must have occurred in the uranium nucleus. It was concluded that the nucleus of uranium, because of its large size and the repulsion of its many positive charges, The additional energy brought is on the verge of disintegration. into the nucleus

by the neutron

is sufficient

to

make

the nucleus

The

fusion reaction

which carry only a

is

most easy

if

hydrogen and if

single unit of charge

is extremely high so that charged approach each other. The designations hydrogen refer to the facts just mentioned. thermonuclear bomb and

the temperature in the reaction particles can

bomb See Atomic Energy.

tions can be used to produce useful power.

investigators

parts.

nuclei are involved

II.

When

DETECTION OF NUCLEAR PROCESSES

a nuclear reactor

produces energy, and particularly when

an atomic bomb explodes, the effects of nuclear processes are very noticeable, even without elaborate detecting devices. The energy released appears in the form of heat or, in the case of the atomic bomb, partly in the form of motion of air masses, Hght and other radiations. Some of these radiations are capable of ionizing and rearranging individual molecules. If that happens extensively in living tissue, radioactive burns result and the tissue may suffer serious damage (see Radiation; Biological

Effects). In the development of nuclear science, both past and future, observations of an individual process are more important than the observation of the impressive phenomena that accompany the large-scale release of nuclear energy. Individual nuclear processes One is that particles are observable, in fact, for two reasons.

high participating in nuclear reactions as a rule have exceptionally energy and are, for that reason alone, noticeable among the

myriads of atoms of comparable size but much lower energy through which these nuclear fragments move. Another reason is Thus, that the effects of these fast particles can be amplified. {see they can easily be detected by the use of suitable apparatus

Nuclear Instruments).

NUCLEUS Any

of the charged particles or electromagnetic radiations con-

nected with nuclear reactions can produce an effect in a photographic plate similar to that of light. This effect essentially consists of producing disturbed grains in the photographic plate.

These disturbed grains then are developed

in

subsequent chemical

processes so that a deposition of metal big enough to be visible to the naked eye or under the microscope is formed at the position of the disturbed grain. The process of developing plays in

amplifying the original effect of property of nuclear fragments is their high energy by which they can activate a number of grains lying along a straight line. Use of photographic plates of various sensitivities and detailed study of the density of the excited grain and of the length of the track make it possible to recognize the kind and energy of the particles that cause the track. It is interesting to note that the blackening of a photographic plate by the faintly radioactive pitchblende started A. H. Becquerel in 1896 on the first investigation of a nuclear Half a century later the finer methods of observation process. described above made photographic plates most valuable tools of research in nuclear physics. The Wilson cloud chamber, devised by C. T. R. Wilson in 1912. is a piece of apparatus especially designed for the detection of charged nuclear fragments (see Cloud Chambers). In its general principle of action it is similar to the photographic plate. In the latter nuclear radiations give rise to disturbed centres in the photographic emulsion. In the cloud chamber, a-rays or other fast charged particles form ions (i.e., charged atoms or molecules) along their paths. The process of developing is replaced in the cloud chamber by a process of condensation. The cloud chamber contains a vapour, usually water vapour, which is maintained at a temperature just above the condensation temperature. Following the passage of nuclear particles, the cloud chamber is expanded and by this process the vapour contained in it is cooled so that condensation sets in. The water molecules are attracted to the this special instance the role of

the

nuclear radiation.

ions which

mark

The

characteristic

the trail of the fast particle.

Thus

a set of

formed making the path of the particle visible. The process of amplitication in this case is the growth of the droplets around the ions. droplets

is

There is one method of observing nuclear particles without the use of an amplifying mechanism. This is the method of observAlong the path of the fast paratoms and molecules are not only ionized but also disturbed to various degrees. These atoms and molecules return to their normal states and in doing so emit hght. The light effects produced in a suitable fluorescing material- by a single a-particle are actually visible to the naked eye. These individual processes are called scintillations. It is remarkable that in a scintillation the ing fluorescence or scintillations. ticles

effects of a single nuclear process can

be seen directly without the

use of intervening equipment.

possible because of the great

amount

This

is

of energy of the a-particle

and the extremely great sen-

of the human eye. As a practical means of studying nuclear reactions the observations of scintillations were of great

sitivity

importance about 1920.

The

method, combined with and amplification of light,

scintillation

sensitive apparatus for the detection

again proved of great usefulness.

may also be used to detect nuclear partiIn these detecting devices the ions produced by the nuclear particles are set in motion by electric fields. This can be done in a variety of ways. The field may be chosen relatively small Electrical apparatus

cles.

and

may

be merely to collect the ions on an electrode. In this case the resulting current is always so small that in order to observe it one has to amplify the current. This is done by equipment similar to the common radio recei\ang sets. If stronger fields are used to move the original ions, these ions may acquire enough energy to knock electrons out of other atoms or molecule's, thereby producing more ions. In this way some amplification takes place immediately. This initial amplification might become so considerable as to develop into an actual discharge, as happens in the Geiger-Muller counter. its effect

Elsctric

detecting devices are particularly useful because of

their great flexibility.

They can be

set in a

way

to

become

se-

715 When

arranged and coupled in an appropriate manner these elecjtric devices can count particles of a specified energy. They can be used to study the coincidence in time of two processes. Therefore they can furnish the important information that two nuclear particles have been released in the same process. Finally, by automatic recording the number of various kinds of particles that have passed through a counter may be found. While electric fields are most frequently used in collecting the ionized atoms along the path of a nuclear fragment, magnetic fields are frequently used to determine the exact speed and energy of the fragments. Simultaneous use of electric and magnetic fields gives important information to indicate the mass of the particle under study, This latter piece of equipment, the mass spectrolectively

sensitive

graph,

not, properly speaking, an instrument of detection, but

is

to

a

specific

a precision instrument designed to erties of nuclei f.vpf

particle.

measure one of the basic prop-

Mass Spectroscopy).

Among the nuclear fragments there is one which cannot be observed directly by any of the methods described above. This is the neutron. The detection of neutrons proceeds as a rule in an indirect way. The collisions of the neutron with atomic nuclei of various kinds produce fast, charged particles or electromagnetic radiation and either of these may be detected by one of the many methods that have been described.

particle

III.

CONSTITUENTS OF THE NUCLEUS

in the 1960s the nuclei are built from two simpler particles, the neutrons and the protons. These two particles, which are considered the building blocks of nuclei, are also called nucleons. As has been mentioned above the protons carry

According to ideas

the elementary charge

(4.8X10"'°

electrostatic units),

the neutrons do not carry a charge.

whereas

Physicists introduce a spe-

atomic mass unit (amu) that has

y'j '^e mass of carbon-12; Atomic weight tables based on carbon-12 show the following weights in amu: hydrogen 1,00797, the proton 1.00728, and the neutron 1.00867. These values can be expressed in grams if multiplied by the amu mass above. In general a nucleus contains Z protons and iV neutrons, where Z and N are integer numbers. The charge of the nucleus is Z times the elementary charge. It was pointed out in the first section that the atomic species is determined by Z alone. Nuclei of the same atomic species may, however, contain various numbers of neutrons. It is found, for instance, that hydrogen with Z equal to one may have A'^ equal to zero, one or two. Such members of the same atomic species with different N values are called isoIt is customary to differentiate isotopes by a superscript topes. equal to Z -f- A' following the chemical symbol of an atomic species. Thus the isotopes of hydrogen are H', H- and H'*. Frequently the Z value is indicated by a leading subscript (e.g., jH-) but this subscript may be omitted since the chemical symbol also indicates the Z value. As further examples, the isotopes of oxygen may be mentioned, where Z equals 8 and A'' may be 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 or 11, and isotopes of uranium, in which Z is equal to 92 and TV may have any value from 135 to 148. Because isotopes have the same Z value and hence the same

cial 1

amu =

1.6604

X

10"^''

g.

chemical behaviour, it is extremely difficult to separate them. Methods depending on the difference in mass, or Ai' value, have been developed (see Isotope) but these are much more expensive and less efficient than chemical processes. total number (Z -)- A'') of particles in the nucleus is called mass number and is designated by A. The actual mass of a nucleus differs by a small amount from the sum of the masses of its protons and neutrons. It should be noticed that while the

The

the

charge of the nucleus is exactly Z times the elementary charge, the mass of the nucleus is not obtainable in a similarly simple manner, A more detailed discussion of this remarkable fact will be given in the next section. Among nuclei which contain few particles it is often found that the values of Z and A' are nearly the same. Some of the most abundant isotopes found in nature such as 2He\ eC'^, tN" and sO"* exhibit this phenomenon. As one goes to heavier nuclei the number of neutrons increases faster than the number of protons

;

NUCLEUS

7i6

nudous. In uranium, for instance, the most abundant isotope has 54 more neutrons than protons. In the 1960s there was no consistent theory to account for the forces which hold neutrons and protons together in the nucleus. To assure stability it must bo assumed that these forces are in the main attractive. In the following there will be occasion to discuss in the

some properties

of these forces.

Here

it

is

sutlicient to

that these forces have extremely short range.

The

mention

forces between

neutrons and protons become negligible if the distance exceeds the order of magnitude of the nuclear diameter. In addition to nucleons, that is, protons or neutrons, other particles are known to be emitted in nuclear transformations. Among these the a-particles and j3-particles should be mentioned. These occur in the great majority of spontaneous nuclear disintegrations (spontaneous radioactivity) and historically they were Nevertheless they are not considered to be primary constituents. In fact the a-particle may be considered to consist in turn of two protons and two neutrons, having a charge of two and a mass of appro.ximately four units. The fact that a-particles so often occur as the product of nuclear disintegrations arises from the extraordinary stability of this particular arrangement of protons and neutrons. The reason j3-particles, which are either negative or positive electrons, are not considered regular constituents of the nucleus is more involved. According to the basic theory of atomic physics one cannot confine a particle of small mass, such as the electron, in a region as small as the nuclear radius without giving it an energy greater than the nuclear energy. In other words, the paradox occurs that the electron, if thus confined, must have an energy great enough to permit the particle to escape {see Electron). Nuclear theory describes the emission of negative or positive electrons as a process in which the negative or positive electron is created at the moment of emission. This concept becomes plausible when it is added that both the creation and annihilation of pairs of positive and negative electrons have been observed outside of nuclei. Thus these electrons cannot be considered immutable. Any attempt to assume the presence of these electron pairs in the nucleus leads to a compUcated picture where any number of positive and negative pairs may be assumed to be present. In the accepted theory and for the following discussion, the presence of positive and negative electrons is ignored. Attention is confined to a model composed of neutrons and protons. the

first to

be observed.

IV.

NUCLEAR ENERGY

Observations of natural and artificial nuclear transmutations verify that the energies involved in nuclear reactions are of great magnitude. In fact, these energies are larger by a factor of 1,000,000 than the energies involved in chemical reactions. The neutrons and protons are bound together in nuclei about 1,000,000 times more strongly than atoms are bound together in chemical compounds or in the most stable crystals known. This great energy is closely associated with a general law of atomic physics according to which the binding or localization of a particle in a smaller region necessarily requires a greater binding energy. The most direct way to measure nuclear binding energies is the study of nuclear reactions. Thus if one nucleus of the lithium isotope Li'' is bombarded by a deuteron (the nucleus of heavy hydrogen H-) two nuclei of helium are obtained. The reaction may be written similarly to an equation in chemistry; Li6

To produce

+ H2 -^ 2He-»

the reaction the bombarding deuterons

must have enough kinetic energy to approach the Uthium nucleus in spite of the electrostatic or coulomb repulsion of the two particles. The required energy is a few hundred thousand electron volts. (The electron volt, abbreviated ev, is the usual unit of energy in atomic and nuclear physics. It is the energy an elementary charge gains

when

:

it

equals

falls

1.6

work done

X

through a potential of one volt. One electron volt 10"i2 gjgg qj- approximately 1.5 X lO'^* of the

pound weight to a height of one inch.) The energy of the two resulting a-particles is equal to the energy of the deuteron plus an additional 22.17 million electron volts (Mev) in lifting a

22,170,000 ev. This difference in energy arises from the stronger binding of the neutrons and protons when combined in two helium nuclei, rather than in a lithium nucleus and a deuteron.

i.e.,

The

energy of the helium nucleus compared with 28 Mev or 7 Mev per particle. This is close energy per particle in any nucleus. The binding energy is a negative energy in the sense that one has to add energy to decompose a helium nucleus into neutrons and total binding

four free particles

is

to the largest binding

protons.

A determination of nuclear binding energies is often complicated because the reaction products have an excess internal energy, or excitation. The energy of excitation is retained by the nucleus for a very short time and then is emitted as 7-rays. These 7-rays are electromagnetic waves and are similar to light. There are, however, significant differences: 7-rays are emitted by nuclei, light is emitted by atoms; 7-rays carry away in a single process about 1,000,000 times more energy than light does; considered as a wave process, 7-rays have approximately 1,000,000 times shorter wave light. The most striking difference is that 7-rays are though they produce physiological changes throughout the body, including the eye. These 7-rays can enter actively into nuclear reactions. The absorption of 7-rays may excite a nucleus and furnish enough energy to disintegrate the nucleus. The most common result of such a disintegration is the splitting off of a neutron. If a nucleus of deuterium is bombarded by 7-rays with an energy of 2.2 Mev or more, the nucleus may distintegrate into a neutron and a proton, HH^. Since the energy of the 7-rays can be 7 —> n^ measured independently, this type of reaction furnishes an additional method for measuring binding energies. The reaction just described indicates a binding energy of 2.2 Mev for the deu-

length than invisible

+

+

teron.

The

amount of energy method

makes measurement for nuclei which in other cases is impractical. The method of energy determination is based on a law obtained from theoretical arguments by Albert Einstein in 1905: whenever the energy of a system is changed, the mass is changed by a corresponding amount. Energy changes in familiar objects are accompanied by exceedingly small changes in mass and. thus, the mass change postulated by Einstein was beyond observation. As an example consider a large spring weighing, say, 5 lb. and suppose a force of 3,000 lb. compresses the spring 6 in. The change of mass is 10"^^% of the mass of the spring. In chemical reactions the change in mass is a few orders of magnitude larger, but still too small for observation. Let us suppose a gram molecular weight (S7.9 g.) of pyrite (FeS) is formed from iron and sulfur. The change in mass, calculated from the heat energy released in the reaction, is 10.7 X it

great

possible to use a

liberated in nuclear reactions

of energy

10~"'g. This corresponds to i.ooo.o'oo.oon °^ 1% change in mass. If now a neutron and a proton are considered as combining to form a deuteron, the energ)' liberated is 2.18 Mev per deuteron. This represents a difference in mass between the two particles when free and when combined in a deuteron of about a tenth of 1%. This difference is large enough to be measured accurately. Therefore, by reversing this procedure and measuring the difference in mass of separated and combined particles, the binding energy of the particles can be calculated. Thus the statement of the previous section, that the mass of a nucleus is not equal to the mass of the constituent particles, is explained by the mass change accompanying the energy change. The relationship between mass and energy changes stated by

Einstein

may

be written

AE = Amc^ where AE is the energy change expressed in ergs. Am is the accompanying change of mass given in grams and c is light velocity, equal to 3 X 10'" cm. per second. If the energy is measured in million electron volts (Mev) and the mass is measured in the usual nuclear mass units (-^ of the mass of the carbon atom) then the above relation gives a change of 1/931 nuclear mass units for every Mev change in energy. As an example, consider the mass of deuterium or heaNfy hy-

NUCLEUS H- which

drogen

is

composed

H^ and

of a proton

a neutron n.

In nuclear mass units

mass of H2 = 2,01412 mass of Ri = 1.00797 mass of « = 1.00867 = mass of H' Aw + mass of n — mass of H^ = 0.00237. To convert this mass difference into a binding energy, multiply by 931 to give 2.2 Mev. The choice of the unit of mass as -^-^ of C^- can now be clarified. On this basis, the masses of other atoms are nearly whole numbers because in C^- the binding energy of the nucleons is similar to Thus the mass of the the binding energy in most other nuclei.

nucleons in C*^ nuclei

and

similar to the

is

the total mass of C^-

if

mass of the nucleons is

set equal to the total

of nucleons contained in that nucleus, that

is

in other

number

to 12, masses of other

nuclei will be close to whole numbers.

FURTHER PROPERTIES OF NUCLEI

V.

The

particles that

compose the

nuclei

(i.e.,

trons) have a property which in a subtle

These

the protons and neu-

way

influences nuclear

behave as though they were rotating around their own axes. There is no reason to believe that the statement just made can be taken in a literal sense. A picture as

structure.

particles

detailed as a definite axis localized in the particle is misleading. Nevertheless, neutrons and protons behave in many respects like

The protons and neutrons carry an angular mois half the unit of angular momentum in atomic (The magnitude of unit angular momentum is 1.0544X10-2^ erg-seconds and is usually called h. This

rotating tops.

mentum which physics.

quantity

is

—

times h, the

quantum of

action.

See

Quantum

27r

Mechanics.)

The angular momentum

or spin of neutrons

and

protons behaves according to a certain set of rules. If the spinning motion around a given direction in space is investigated, it will always be found that the magnitude of the proton and neutron spin is one half of a spin unit, but that the sign of the spinning motion may have one of two opposite values. In other words the rotation may be clockwise or counterclockwise. The spin of nuclei may be considered as composed of the spins of the neutrons and protons in the nucleus. In the deuteron, which consists of a neutron and a proton, the spins of the neutron and proton seem simply to add, giving a total spin of one unit of angular momentum. The spin of the a-particle, which contains two protons and two neutrons, is equal to zero. In this case the spins of the constituent particles may be considered as partly clockwise and partly counterclockwise, so that the effects of the individual

Indeed the spin was found equal to zero in all nuclei containing an even number of neutrons and an even number of

spins cancel.

protons (see

Nuclear Moments).

To the angular momentum caused by the spins of neutrons and protons there must be added the effect of the motion of these particles along their orbits within the nucleus. Consider the nucleus of the lead isotope containing 208 particles. The spin of this lead isotope has been found equal to zero. Now if a proton, which carries one half unit of spin, is added to the nucleus, the result is a nucleus of bismuth (Bi^"') and it might be expected that this nucleus had a spin of one half (zero, caused by Pb'"* plus one half, caused by the proton). Actually the nuclear spin of Bi^"^ is nine halves. Therefore an additional spin or angular momentum is present which is caused by the motion of the proton in its orbit.

Spin values of nuclei show a few simple regularities. If the system contains an even number of particles of spin one half, the total spin is zero or an integral multiple of the atomic unit of angular momentum. If the system contains an odd number of particles of spin one half, then the system has a spin which is 7i+\ atomic units, where n is any positive integer or zero. This rule follows from the basic facts of atomic physics and from this rule was derived a strong argument against the presence of electrons in nuclei. According to earlier ideas the deuteron- was considered as composed of two protons and an electron. Now the electron, like the proton, possesses a spin which is one half unit of angular momen-

717

tum. This would give the deuteron an odd number of particles, each with one half unit of spin and, according to the statement made above, the deuteron would be expected to have n+^ spin units. Actually it has a spin of one unit. If, on the other hand, the deuteron is assumed to consist of a proton and a neutron, the observed spin value agrees with the rule given above. The spin of neutrons and protons suggests the idea of an internal rotation. Whenever a charged particle like the proton rotates, one expects to find that the particle behaves like a magnet. Furthermore, from the charge and the spin may be predicted the strength of the magnet associated with the proton. The proton, indeed, behaves like a magnet, but the strength of the magnet is 2.79 times the predicted value. This has been considered as an indication that the proton is not quite a simple particle but can undergo some internal change. According to the simplest ideas the neutron, not carrying a charge, should have no magnetic effects. This again turns out to be incorrect. The neutron carries a magnetic moment whose strength is 1.935 times the predicted strength for the proton and whose sign is opposite to that of the proton. This means that the

magnetic properties of the neutron are those of a rotating negative charge. The discrepancies just mentioned do not contradict any rigorous predictions of atomic theory but only those conclusions based on the idea that neutrons and protons are particles of a very simple kind. The magnetic moment of the deuteron is almost but not quite the sum of the magnetic moments of the proton and neutron. The fact that there is a slight deviation does not constitute a real difficulty if one considers the effect of the orbits of these two particles within the deuteron. In general all nuclei which have a spin have a magnetic moment. Detailed predictions are not possible because knowledge of the internal structure of nuclei is meagre. Neutrons and protons have a further pecuharity in that two particles of the same kind are never found to occupy the same state. This rule bears the name of the Pauli exclusion principle. Within a nucleus orbits may be assigned to the nucleons neutrons or protons). This assignment has to be made in such a manner that no more than two neutrons (or protons) shall be found in one orbit. Further, if there are two neutrons (or protons) in one orbit then these two particles must differ in spin; i.e., one spin must be clockwise and one must be counterclockwise. It is possible for these two particles to be in the same orbit only because they differ in another one of their properties. The rule that two particles cannot be in the same state is thus satisfied. We see that (

the spin

is

sibility Of

significant for the details of nuclear structure.

The pos-

two spin orientations allows the presence of two neutrons

(or protons) in the

same

orbit of the nucleus.

The

configuration of two neutrons or two protons in the same seems to be stable so that, in general, a somewhat greater binding energy is found if the number of neutrons and the number of protons in the nucleus are both even; less if one or the other number is odd. The smallest binding energies are found for odd numbers of both neutrons and protons. In fact, only four stable isotopes are known with odd Z values and odd A^ values: H^, Li^, B'" and N'^. All others in this category are radinnrtive, indicating that the nucleus possesses sufficient energy to cause a transformation. Atomic species with even mass numbers are more abundant in the earth's crust and atmosphere than atomic species with odd mass numbers. The most abundant elements, Fe^', Si^' and O'^, for instance, have even charges as well as even mass numbers. This is further evidence for the stability of the nuclei orbit

in question.

The simplest example of a very stable nucleus is helium He''. As many particles as possible are put into the lowest orbit which can hold two protons and two neutrons. As mentioned before, the packing fraction of hehum is large. Any additional particles, either protons or neutrons, must go into new orbits in which the binding energy per particle is less. Atomic nuclei behave differently according to whether A is even or odd. If the mass number is odd, then two identical nuclei cannot occupy the same state. If the mass number is even, two identical nuclei can be placed in the same state. In the former

NUCLEUS

7i8

we say that the nuclei obey Fermi-Dirac statistics; in the we say that Einstein-Bose statistics apply. The two kinds of behaviour may be more exactly described by a statement concerning a function, the wave function (see Quantum Mechanics), which describes the behaviour of particles, in particIn the case of ular the behaviour of pairs of identical particles. Einstein-Bose statistics this wave function remains unchanged if interchanged. In the particles are the positions of the identical case

served.

This transformation could be written:

Hi^M-|-e +

latter case

case of Fermi-Dirac statistics a similar change leads to a change Which of the two rules applies can be found e.xperinientally by studying the rotation of a diatomic mole-

in sign of the function.

where n stands

for a neutron

The neutron

known

the free proton

The application of these rules gives further evidence that neutrons and protons, rather than protons and electrons, are the

and an electron

proper constituents of nuclei. For example, take a nucleus of nitrogen 7N''' which experimentally has been shown to obey Hose statistics. Assuming electrons and protons in the nucleus there would be present a total of 14 protons and 7 electrons. According to knowledge concerning protons and electrons, the interchange of two electrons or of two protons changes the sign of the function characteristic of the system. Thus the interchange of 14 protons and 7 electrons will invert the sign 21 times which amounts to a simple reversal of sign. This contradicts EinsteinBose statistics which imply that interchange does not change the wave function. If on the other hand, 7N''' is considered an assembly of 7 protons and 7 neutrons the interchange of the nuclei inverts the sign 14 times, which is equivalent to saying that the interchange leaves the sign unchanged. It is seen, therefore, that a detailed consideration of finer nuclear properties like spins and wave functions gives the same final results as were obtained by more crude arguments; nuclei are built from neutrons and protons. To assume electrons in the

The proton and

would lead VI.

A

great

number

to a

whole

series of difficulties.

BETA DECAY

of nuclei are

known

i.e.,

The emission of such a particle is accompanied by the transmutation of the nucleus. The resultant nucleus has the same mass number as the original one. If an electron has been emitted the nucleus in the final state will have one more positive charge than the original nucleus. If a positron is emitted the nuclear charge decreases by one unit. C^' is an example of a positron emitter, transforming into B^i, a boron isotope. C^*, another isotope of carbon, emits an electron and decays into nitrogen, Ni*. An isotope of potassium K*" is capable of emitting either an electron or a positron and of transforming into calcium or argon, respectively.

The radioactive decay may be considered as a single act which takes an exceedingly short time, about 10~^- seconds. This is not, however, the time in which radioactive substances disappear. These elements have lifetimes which have been observed to vary from less than one-tenth of a second to more than 1,000,000,000 years. If there is an assembly of radioactive nuclei of a certain kind, then one half of these nuclei will have undergone radioactive decay in this lifetime, which is more specifically called the half Ufa.

Each radioactive nucleus has a probability of undergoing the radioactive process per unit time and this probability is independent of the previous history. In particular, this probability does not depend on the length of time the radioactive nucleus has

Thus is obtained the law for a radioactive population according to which the radioactive population is halved in each

existed.

lifetime.

One may assume

that each /3-decay is caused by one of two basic These are the transformation of a neutron into a proton accompanied by the emission of an electron and the trans-

processes.

formation of a proton into a neutron with the simultaneous emission of a positron. These processes are intrinsically slow but the reasons causing the transition or determining its rate are not yet

known. transition of a free proton into a neutron cannot

the symbol for a positron.

On

is

the other

stable.

hand

a neutron can decay giving rise to a proton

w->H'+eelectron together are 0.00081

mass

units lighter

than the neutron. According to the equivalence of mass change and energy change 0.754 Mev of energy are set free. The reaction described here is the simplest of all possible /3-decays. It has been actually observed and its lifetime is approximately a quarter of an hour. Neutrons usually disappear much more quickly by reacting with other nuclei. A |3-decay process in a complex nucleus is described as one of the neutrons in the nucleus turning into a proton or one of the protons changing into a neutron, emitting an electron or positron,

This picture correctly describes the fact that the unchanged while the charge of the nucleus changes by plus or minus one in the two cases menIn complex nuclei it often does pay to convert a proton tioned. respectively.

mass number

of the nucleus remains

into a neutron plus a positron.

One may

consider, for instance,

the decay

C"^B"+e+ While the sum of the masses of the neutron and positron is greater than the mass of the proton, the sum of the masses of B" and e+ is actually less than C". In the

C"-»B"+e +

to emit /3-particles;

electrons or positrons.

The

is

to be heavier than the

units

cule containing the two identical nuclei. In this case the rotation actually brings about the interchange of the nuclei.

interior of the nuclei

and e^

proton by 0.00136 and the total reaction products are heavier than the proton by 0.0019 mass units. The mass difference corresponds to an increase of energy during the reaction amounting to 1.77 Mev. If the neutron and positron gained kinetic energy during the reaction, the energy needed would be greater still. Thus at least 1.77 Mev must be supplied if the proton is to disintegrate into a neutron and a positron. Thus the reaction does not occur and

mass

is

be ob-

process a proton is turned into a neutron and a positron. The necessary energy is supplied by the greater binding energy of the resultant neutron. Thus the question of whether or not a nucleus can emit an electron or a positron depends on whether or not the transformation of a proton into a neutron or the transformation of a neutron into a proton can lower the energy of the system. In the energy balance must be included: the mass difference between the neutron and proton, the binding energy of these particles in the nucleus and the mass of the positron or electron which is to

be ejected. It may occur that there is not enough energy available to transform a proton within a nucleus into a neutron and to eject a positron at the same time. A nuclear transformation may nevertheInstead of the emission of a positron the nucleus less proceed. may absorb one of the electrons which are always to be found in the vicinity of the nucleus. In this way instead of having to supply an energy equal to the mass of the positron, one gains the energy corresponding to the similar mass of the electron. For

manganese containing 54 mass units in its nucleus decays by capturing an electron and one obtains an isotope of chromium. neutrons and Z proConsider two nuclei: one shall contain neutrons and Z+i protons. Add to the tons, the other latter an electron. Of the two systems now considered, one or the other will have a higher energy and whichever one this is will not be stable but will transform into the other system. Nuclei of the

instance, the isotope of

N

N—i

Two isobars, differing by called isobars. one charge unit, are called neighbouring isobars. The argument shows that of neighbouring pairs of isobars, one must be unstable. There are a few known cases of neighbouring isobars where both The reason for this apparent stanuclei seem to be stable. It will bility is the small energy difference between the isobars. be seen later that /3-transformations in which little energy is released may have long lifetimes. In these cases ^-processes may be so rare as to escape observation. Now consider two isobars which differ by two charge units. same mass number are

NUCLEUS There are many examples of such isobars. If have higher energies than these two, then both

may

719 energy.

other isobars of these isobars

all

has been mentioned above that the is very long compared with the time an electron needs to cross the nucleus. This fact can be exA pressed by saying that the j3-process is an improbable one. process in which two electrons or two positrons undergo this improbable transition simultaneously is unlikely, and no direct measurement had detected it by the 1960s. In the previous section it was stated that nuclei containing an even number of neutrons or an even number of protons have lower energies and are more stable than nuclei containing an odd number of neutrons or an odd number of protons. If a nucleus contains an odd number of neutrons and an odd number of protons then one may suspect that it can assume a more stable configuration in two ways: by emitting an electron and transforming a neutron into a proton or else by emitting a positron and transforming a proton into a neutron. In either case an even number It is. frequently obof protons and neutrons will be obtained. served that a nucleus of even mass number and odd Z value emits

some other form

It

The

lifetime of radioactive nuclei

both electrons and positrons.

One example

is

K'"'

mentioned

above. In a stable nucleus a certain balance exists between the number of neutrons and the number of protons. For a given number of protons the neutron number may vary between narrow limits. If an excess of neutrons is present an electron will be emitted and one of the neutrons turns into a proton. The product will

be a stable nucleus or at least one which has a smaller neutron excess. In a like manner, if the nucleus has a proton excess, the nucleus will emit a positron, transforming a proton into a neutron. These facts can best be summarized in two curves, as shown For isobaric nuclei with odd mass number it does in figs. I and 2. not make much difference whether Z is even or odd. In the first case we have an even number of protons but an odd number of neutrons. In the latter case the number of neutrons is even; that of the protons is odd. The result is a smooth dependence of the energy on Z as shown in fig. i. The arrows indicate possible

For isobaric nuclei with even mass number nuclei with even Z values have a lower energy than nuclei with odd Z values. The former contain an even number of protons and an even number of neutrons, the latter an odd number of protons and an odd number of neutrons. transitions.

The

shown by the curves in fig. 2. The transitions are again indicated by arrows. The figures illustrate that for even mass number one may SCHEMATIC REPRESENTA- expect more than one stable isoFig. 1. TION OF THE ENERGY OF ISOBARS bar, while for odd mass number resulting energies are

—

AS A FUNCTION OF ATOMIC NUMBER:

ODD MASS NUMBER

only one isobar

is

likely to

be

stable.

It would be expected that when a /3-ray is emitted from a nucleus it should carry away with itself in the form of kinetic energy the difference in energy between the original and the re-

The /3 -particles emitted from one so. have various energies: some carry very little energy, most of them about one-half or one-third of the expected energy and a few nearly all of that energy. None are found to carry an energy in excess of the expected amount. The fact that /3-rays of a definite decay process have varying energies is surprising. It has not been possible to explain the varying energies of j3-rays by the assumption that /3-rays come from nuclei differing to a certain extent in their properties. Neither did it prove possible to assume that /3-rays of varying sulting nuclei.

This

is

not

definite nuclear species

energy leave the nucleus with correspondingly varying residual

the other hand, the

law of conservation of energy requires that the energy difference between the expected and the actual amount should appear in

In fact, a single transition will lead to a system of higher energy. A lowering of the energy could occur only if two i8-transitions {i.e., the ejection of two electrons or two positrons)

be stable.

occurred simultaneously.

On

simplest

(see

Energy).

explanation

the facts described above

is

of

the

following: in the decay process not one but two particles are emitted from the nucleus. One of them, thej3-ray, is an electron carrying a positive or negative charge. The other one is called

thencutrlno. It carrles no chargc and has no intrinsic mass, but it Carries away the missing amount of energy from the nucleus in the form of kinetic energy {see Particles, Elementary). The assumption that a neutrino is emitted together with the /3-ray has helped to explain a number of peculiarities of the First, the neutrino hypothesis does not merely explain i8-process. that (3-rays from the same decay process have various energies, but it is also capable of accounting for the frequencies with which FROM

ADAPTED

^'alTo

°2

A

BY H, BETHE iH ''"""^^'" """"• '"'•

FIGURE

"'""''"'

— SCHEMATIC

REPRESENTATioN OF THE ENERGY OF ISOBARS AS A FUNCTION OF ATOMIC NUM BER: EVEN MASS NUMBER Fig.

2.

various /3-energies occur. On the basis of the neutrino theory it was also possible to predict that the probability of (3-decay increases with the fifth power of the energy released in the decay. In other words, the lifetime of the radioactive nucleus is inversely proportional to the fifth power of the maximum energy of the (3-particle. This law is an ap-

proximate one and holds only for the simplest type of |S-decay, for The more comsufficiently high energies and for similar nuclei. plex (3-disintegrations seem to have a decay probability which differs from the probability predicted by the simple theory. These anomalous /3-decay processes have smaller decay probabilities and considerably longer half lives than the normal processes. There is a further group of phenomena which can be explained with the help of the neutrino hypothesis. These are the changes It has of nuclear spin and nuclear statistics during a /3-decay. been stated previously that a nucleus or, more generally, an association of particles will have a spin which is an even or odd multiple of one-half the elementary unit of spin according to whether the system contains an even or odd number of particles, each carrying one-half unit of spin. Now a (3-ray carries one-half of a spin unit and so do the neutrons and protons of which the nucleus is built. If it is assumed that in, a /3-process the ;3-ray is

itself, then the number of particles carrying onewould have increased by one during the process. would be necessary to assume that the total spin of the system

emitted by

half unit of spin It

changes.

system

It

however, a very general rule that the spin of a nucleus undergoing a /3-decay, must The rule of conservation of spin is indeed almost as is,

left to itself, like a

not change. strongly supported by experience as the rule of conservation of energy. The emission of a single electron would violate spin conIf it is assumed that servation as well as energy conservation. together with the electron a second particle, the neutrino, is emitted and, if it is also assumed that the neutrino carries a half unit of spin, the difficulty disappears.

An

analogous argument can be put forward for nuclear statishas been mentioned that a nucleus or system of particles has Einstein-Bose statistics or Fermi-Dirac statistics, respectively, if it contains an even or odd number of particles which themProtons, neutrons and elecselves obey Fermi-Dirac statistics. If the trons do behave according to Fermi-Dirac statistics. of an electron only, the total emission -process consisted of the /3 number of particles would change by one and during the process the system would change from Einstein-Bose statistics to Fermitics.

It

Dirac statistics or vice versa. Such a change in statistics is completely alien to our notions about the composition of matter, For instance, two systems obeying Fermi-Dirac statistics cannot be in the same state, but two

NUCLEUS

720

systems obeying Einstein-Buse statistics tend to be in the same state. The transformation of a system from one statistics to another would imply a changed behaviour of similar systems. This change would be so peculiar that we find ourselves unable to incorporate it in the mathematical laws which describe physics in the atom. If it is assumed, however, that together with an electron a neutrino is emitted and that the neutrino obeys Fermi-Dirac statisTwo particles obeying Fermi-Dirac tics, the ditficulty is resolved. statistics are emitted in the process and therefore a change in statistics is not exiiected.

In addition to carrying energy a neutrino also carries away a can be calculated from the energy which it pos-

momentum which

nucleus which was originally at rest suffers a /3-decay, carried by the decay products must add up to zero. Since the neutrino is invisible, the momenta of the observable particles do not cancel. By measuring these momenta, one can If a

sesses.

the

momenta

momentum which the neutrino must have carried. This experiment has been performed and indicates that the neutrino carries the expected momentum. Finally, since neutrinos are emitted in |3-decays. one can show that they in turn stimulate /^-disintegration when they impinge on otherwise stable nuclei. Since the /^-disintegration is an exceedingly improbable process, this stimulating effect of the neutrinos is ver>' weak. By using the large neutrino fluxes which are emitted by big nuclear reactors, it has been possible to obobtain the difficult

tain some indication of this stimulating influence of the neutrino. The evidence for the existence of neutrinos is thus partly indirect

and partly based on extraordinarily

difficult experiments. Nevercan hardly be questioned.

theless, the existence of neutrinos

VII.

ALPHA DECAY AND SPONTANEOUS

FISSION

In the ^-decay a nucleus emits particles which, according to our model, the nucleus does not actually contain. The electron and neutrino emitted in the process may be considered as born at the moment of emission. In other radioactive processes, which are discussed now. particles are ejected from the nucleus which were present in a different configuration before the decay took place. In another respect all radioactivities are similar: the half-life of a radioactive nucleus is always exceedingly long as compared with times in which nuclear rearrangements could be expected to take place. The ratio of these times is in most cases larger than 10-" and sometimes even much greater than that. The reason for such long Hfetimes is unknown in the case of /3-processes. The reason must, it is thought, lie in the nature of the birth process of electron-neutrino pairs. In the case of other radioactive processes, such as a-decays and spontaneous fission, G. Gamow, E. U. Condon and R. W. Gurney have satisfactorily explained the long

when

it is far away. This is, indeed, not surprising. In order to bring the a-particle from the initial state to the intermediate state it is necessary to do work against the short-range forces holding the a-particle in the nucleus. Again, if it is desired to bring the

nucleus from the final state into the intermediate state it is necessary to do work against the coulomb repulsion. It is seen that the a-particle has to overcome a potential barrier in order to get

from the initial state to the final state. Since there is not enough energy available to do this the process should be impossible from the point of view of classical mechanics. In the mechanics which is valid for particles of atomic and subatomic size it is not possible to localize sharply any particle without giving it a high amount of energy at the same time. Applying this kind of mechanics to the motion of the a-particle it is found that the a-particle, instead of staying in the nucleus, will leak through the potential barrier. While this statement is in contlict with our intuition concerning the behaviour of particles, it must be accepted on the basis of extensive experience of atomic and subatomic physics. The penetration of the potential barrier by these particles is closely related to the fact that these small particles, as long as they have a well-defined energy, cannot be sharply located on one side of the barrier. The necessity of penetrating a potential barrier in the process of disintegration explains the long life and small disintegration probability of the a-active substances. This surprising penetration of a potential barrier becomes extremely improbable as the height or the breadth of the barrier or else the mass of the particle in question becomes bigger. The result is that an a-particle may approach the surface of the nucleus lo'" times or more often before it actually succeeds in leaving the nucleus. A further consequence is that relatively small differences between a-active substances cause great changes in the decay probability. The most important factor influencing the decay probability is the energy released in the a-process. If the decay energy is high, that energy will approach more closely the top of the barrier. The result is a greatly increased penetration probability and a greatly increased rate of decay. In fig. 3 the half-lives of the a-active nuclei are plotted against the energy released in the a-decay. While the range of energies for which observations exist extends only from 3.5 to 9 Mev, the corresponding lifetimes are of quite different orders of magnitude. They range from io~' seconds to 10'" years, a time longer than the age of the earth. In order to plot all of these different times in a single graph a logarithmic scale is used. This means that each unit on the vertical scale stands for a factor ten in the lifetime. Next to the ordinate the half-life values are entered in units of seconds and also in units of years.

The

clei. The curve was obtained by applying the theory of barrier penetration to the a-decay process. While this theory disregards all finer details of nuclear struc-

lifetimes.

In an a-disintegration a itself a very stable nucleus tons, a-active nuclei are carry the highest charges. the a-particle and the rest lease

which

nucleus emits an a-particle, which is containing two neutrons and two proencountered among the nuclei which In these nuclei the repulsion between

of the nucleus results in an energy renot only sufficient to overcome the short-range

is

attraction between the a-particle

and the

rest of the nucleus,

also gives the a-particle a kinetic energy of a

part of

the

disintegration,

instead

of

releasing

energy,

actually would require

some added energy which is not available in the cases considered. Thus an a-particle at a large distance from the nucleus has a lower potential energy than when it is inside the nucleus. However, an a-particle outside the nucleus but close to it i.e., when it is in an intermediate state of the disintegration process) has a higher potential energy than when (

either in the initial state inside the nucleus or in the final state

it

is

still

ment with

in excellent agree-

the general trend of

the observed points.

An

few million electron

The spontaneous fission process is also observed in the most heavily charged nuclei. In this process a nucleus divides into two approximately equal fragments which, under their mutual coulomb repulsion, fly apart with a kinetic energy close to 200 Mev. Both in the a-decay process and in the spontaneous fission process there is an important obstacle to the- disintegration. The initial

ture

but

volts.

dots in the figure represent observations for various a-active nu-

YEARS

entirely similar situation

is

encountered in the theory of spontaneous fission. Here the nuclear division must be considered as the end result of a process in which an originally spherical ENERGY^ Me» nucleus first takes on the form of FFG. 3. HALF-LIFE FOR a. DECAY an ellipsoid, then that of a dumbAS A FUNCTION OF a-RAY ENERGY, bell, then that of two smaller and (SOLID CURVE IS THEORETICAL) ngarly spherical pieces close to

—

each other which

form the fission fragments. process requires an energ>' which, as in the case of a-decay. is actually not available. A potential barrier must be overcome if the fission is to proceed. This potential barrier is probably less high than the one encountered in a-decay. The particles to be moved through this barrier, however, are the

The

finally fly apart to

initial distortion in this

7

NUCLEUS fission fragments, containing

about 100 neutrons and protons

in-

stead of the 4 nuclear units contained in an a-particle. The fact that a much bigger mass must be moved through a potential barrier The uranium isotope decreases the disintegration probability. U-^* is among the a-active nuclei of longest life with a half-life of 10^ years. Yet this nucleus will have more than 1,000,000 4.5

X

times greater probability to decay by an a-process than to undergo

spontaneous

fission.

Vm. METASTABLE NUCLEI If a nucleus

is

not

least one of these particles must have considerable kinetic energy. Otherwise the electric repulsion prevents the nuclei from approaching close enough to react. According to classical mechanics one would expect that the approaching particles must possess a minimum kinetic energy if they are to get in contact with each other and if they are to react. Actually this simple argument is incorrect. The approach of two charged particles is more involved and is similar to the process of a-decay in which two charged particles are moving apart. Even if sufficient energy is

lowest state of energy, it is said to be Lifetimes of such excited states, as a rule,

in its

721

not available for the two particles to

come

into contact accord-

ing to the classical picture there remains a small probability for

an excited state. short and the nucleus falls into the lowest energy state, emitting the excess energy as radiation, The time required for The this process in many cases is of the order of 10"''* seconds. energy emitted leaves the nucleus in the form of 7-radiation.

the collision partners to penetrate through the barrier separating them. This probability rapidly becomes smaller as the energy of approaching particles decreases. At small energies the resulting nuclear reactions occur so rarely that they become practically un-

of the order of

It follows that reactions between nuclei are more easily observed when the nuclei contain relatively low charge. The reactions which can be studied at lowest energies are those between

in

are

If the excitation energy

is

relatively small

(i.e.,

100,000 v.) the lifetime of the excited state is relatively longer, These transitions are similar in some cases exceptionally long. to the anomalous ^-decay processes which, as has been pointed out, have longer half lives than the normal )3-decay processes. The exceptional nuclei are called metastable. Their lifetimes are often of the order of a few seconds, some much longer. An isotope of krypton, Kr*^, for instance, has a lifetime of 113 minutes. Two 7-ray energies have been observed: 0.029 Mev and 0.046 Mev. A long lifetime, 13.8 hours, is also shown for Zn^^. The 7-ray 0.45 Mev. Often such nuclei apparently emit electrons rather than 7-rays.

energ)' for this metastable state

The reason transmits

is

for this behaviour

its

is that the electromagnetic radiation energy to an electron before the radiation leaves the

immediate vicinity of the nucleus. While this electron originally has been a part of the same atom to which the nucleus belongs, it should be emphasized that the electron never was a part of the nucleus. That is, the electron is not actually emitted by the nucleus.

The electromagnetic energy has been converted to kinetic energy was formerly bound to the atom. These elec-

of an electron which

These conversion electrons can easily be distinguished from /3-rays because their energy is well defined, while the electrons emitted from nuclei always have Conversion electrons very frea continuous range of energies. quently accompany 7-rays, but they are found with particularly high probability in the 7-processes of long lifetime which were described above. trons are called conversion electrons.

IX.

Up esses

to in

NUCLEAR REACTIONS

now, this discussion has considered in some detail procwhich a nucleus undergoes a spontaneous transition.

There exists a much more varied class of nuclear transformations, namely the transformations which occur when a nucleus collides with another nucleus or some other particle. Every nucleus is, of course, in practically continuous contact with the electrons which together with the nucleus make up an atom. Stable nuclei are not capable of reacting with these electrons.

/3-active nuclei

may

ab-

observable.

two singly charged deuterium nuclei H^ -f- H^ —» H^ -|- H* and H2 -|- H^ —> He^ n. These reactions have actually been followed down to 10,000 ev bombarding energy; i.e., to the energy of a "soft" X-ray tube (see Deuterium and Tritium). Reactions between fight nuclei and protons are of particular :

+

interest because according to present ideas such reactions are re-

sponsible for energy production in the sun.

In some of these reac-

tions the proton attaches itself to a nucleus

An example

emitted.

He^.

A

of such a reaction

is

and an a-particle Li'

-f-

H^

—» He*

is -j-

When more N'^ H^ — C^^ bombarded by protons, the emission of The reason for this is similar to long fife of a-emitters. The a-particle to be

second example

is

-|-

>•

_j_ jje'*.

heavily charged nuclei are a-particles

becomes

less likely.

the reason for the emitted must surmount a high barrier. This process, therefore, becomes improbable and the nuclear reaction is likely to take another course (see Star: Stellar Structure). One of these other possibilities is that the proton attaches itself to the nucleus and a neutron is emitted instead. This has been observed in colHsions between lithium and protons. The reaction proceeds according to the relation: Li'-|-H'—>Be'-|-«. One notices that the colliding partners are the same as those which lead to two a-particles according to: Li'-fH'^He*-|-He^. It actually is frequently true that a collision between two nuclei gives rise to several competing processes. Depending on the energy of the colUding particles one or the other of these reactions will occur either preferentially or exclusively. For instance, if the energy of the bombarding proton is less than 1.6 Mev, neutron emission does not occur because the sum of energies of Be' and a neutron is higher than the energy of the Li' and H' by just 1.6 Mev. On the other hand, the formation of two a-particles releases energy and can, therefore, proceed at any energy of the bombarding protons providing the proton gets close enough to the lithium to react with it. Since the neutrons are unaffected by electrostatic repulsion the ejection of a neutron by a proton may proceed without difiiculty in more heavily charged nuclei. An example is:

This process is has been treated above,

sorb an external electron, as described above.

and it under Beta Decay. This section will consider the collisions of a nucleus with a fast electron, with a 7-ray, with another nuclear particle, such as a neutron, proton, deuteron, a heavier nucleus or with one of the unstable particles called mesons, which themselves

closely related to ordinary |3-activity

are ge.nerated in nuclear colHsions.

Bombardment excited states

of nuclei by fast electrons throws the nuclei into whose characteristic 7-radiations have been studied.

with a 7-ray may also result in the energy of the 7-ray is sufficiently high, absorption of the 7-ray will be followed by a nuclear disintegration, most frequently the emission of one or more neutrons. It has been observed that 7-rays of a characteristic resonance energy are particularly absorbable by nuclei. This resonance energy is in the neighbourhood of 20 Mev. It is somewhat higher for light nuclei and somewhat lower for heavy nuclei. If a reaction between two charged nuclei is to be studied at

The

collision of a nucleus

excitation of that nucleus.

If the

A proton may also it

collides.

simply attach itself to the nucleus with which This happens in the reaction

C'HH'-»N'3-f7 In reactions of this type the binding energy of the proton in the nucleus is released in the form of 7-rays. This energy release is a relatively slow process. It takes, as a rule, only io~" seconds, but the time in which a neutron or an a-particle could be released by the reacting partners is very much shorter still, namely lo"^" seconds or less. Thus, the reaction between N"^ and protons could, in principle, lead to the formation of O'* according to the scheme

The reaction mentioned above N"*-fH'^. C'-j-He'' seems, however, to occur almost exclusively because this type of rearrangement between the reaction partners happens to take a much shorter time. On the other hand, C'^-fH'—»N''-|-

N'5+H'^.0'H7-

can occur more readily because in this case no competing process exists as long as the proton does not have too high an energy. Actually both the ejection of an a-particle or of a neutron from

:

NUCLEUS

722

the carbon nucleus would require a very high proton energy. When a nucleus is bombarded by a deuteron, reactions similar

neutrons and

In those discussed above occur. are found among the reaction products. The reaction which deuteron bombardment most often leads is the ejection of a proton. This reaction occurs with relative ease even if the bombarded nucleus has a high charge. The deuteron does not pcu-ticular,

to

a -particles to

need actually to penetrate to the surface of

its target.

When

the

coulomb repulsion becomes too strong the deuteron decomposes The neutron suffers no repulsion into a neutron and a proton. and reaches the surface of the nucleus while the energy of the reaction is carried away by the proton. Among reactions with heavier nuclei mention shall be made only of the reactions with a-particles. Because of the availability of natural a-rays these were the first to be observed; they were of further historical importance in that they led to the discovery of the neutron. One of the easiest and earliest methods of producing neutrons is by the reaction Be'+a—»C'^ + n. In reactions with more heavily charged nuclei a-particles can participate only Even more kinetic if they carry a rather high kinetic energy. energy would be required if the bombarding nucleus had more than two charge units. When a nucleus is bombarded with neutrons whose energy is in excess of i Mev, the result is not very different from the reactions that occur when fast deuterons or protons are the bombarding particles. Of course the neutrons, not being repelled by the nuclear charge, can penetrate into heax'y and light nuclei with equal ease. The result again may be the attachment of a neutron An to the nucleus accompanied by the emission of a 7-ray. example is Au'"+n-^Au'^*. The resulting isotope of gold is ungold resulting The fact that the mercury. stable and decays to isotope is radioactive makes it easy to establish that the reaction has actually occurred in a bombarded gold sample. A second type of reaction with neutrons is the re-emission of The the original neutron plus the emission of another neutron. first neutron serves to knock the second neutron out of the bombarded nucleus. Since the second neutron is strongly bound only bombarding neutrons carrying high energy produce this reaction. result of this reaction is an isotope of the original bombarded nucleus having a mass number diminished by one. The

The

0'6-fn-*0'Hn+w

nucleus and a proton the reaction

is

emitted instead.

This

is

in this reaction the

neutron

is

free to penetrate into the

way is

out.

higher

Thus this reaction will occur for more heavily charged nuclei. with considerable probability only in light nuclei or else in those proton receives cases where the outgoing a rather high energy, sufficient to overcome the potential barrier just mentioned. The same situation is encountered if an a-particle is emitted after the neutron has attached itself to the bombarded nucleus. As an example we may mention the reaction:

N"+n-^C" + a reaction products have, in this case, a greater total mass than The mass difference corre-

the original neutron and nitrogen.

sponds to 2.25 Mev and therefore only neutrons having an energy greater than 2.25 Mev will be able to produce this reaction. It might be noted that in this case neutron bombardalso gives rise to the reaction

This reaction releases energy, and therefore proceeds at low as well as high neutron energies.

are competing processes.

bombarding

The two

reactions just discussed

This situation is quite typical. If the have much energy few types of re-

particle does not

actions can take place.

become

Among

is no reason why nuclear fission could not be produced by proton and deuteron bombardment as well as neutron bombardment. The protons and deuterons are, however, strongly repelled by the electrostatic field of the heavily charged uranium nucleus. Thus only highly energetic protons and deuterons are capable of producing fission. Neutrons with an energy of 20 Mev or more are capable of producing fission in bismuth, lead and even hghter nuclei. In these cases fission probably results after a few preliminary processes have occurred. First the neutron communicates to the nucleus a high excitation energy. Thereafter the nucleus emits several par-

There

ticles,

mostly neutrons.

At higher bombarding energies more

re-

possible.

the nuclear reactions induced

by neutron bombardment

This process

is

Neuovercome any

called spallation.

trons escape preferentially because they need not

with an unusually great

Thus the nucleus is left The charge of these protons facihtates fission of the bombarded nuclei actually divide into

and a certain fraction two similar particles.

The neutron

reactions discussed thus far are usually referred

In contrast to these, slow neuneutron reactions. tron reactions signify events in which nuclei are hit by neutrons carrying a fraction of an electron volt. The neutrons in a typical slow neutron reaction possess about 100,000,000 times less energy than the neutrons in a fast neutron reaction. These slow neuto

Zn««+n-^Cu«H/>

actions

In the former case the neutron reverts to the original bombarded nucleus; in the second case, the reaction product is an isotope of the bombarded nucleus which contains an additional neutron.

illustrated in

nucleus, the proton encounters a potential barrier on its This barrier again results from coulomb repulsion and

ment

that the excited nucleus will get rid of its energy either by reemission of the original neutron or by the emission of a 7-ray.

excess of protons.

serve as an example. In another tj^pe of reaction the neutron attaches itself to the

The

hft the nucleus to the top of the potential barrier, the fission process becomes quite improbable. In this case it is more likely

potential barrier.

reaction

may

While

the fission of uranium and thorium are of greatest practical imAs stated above, uranium may disintegrate into two roughly equal fragments even of its own accord. The rearrangement of nuclear matter, however, which leads to this fission procThus the spontaess requires an initial investment of energy. neous fission can take place only if the resultant particles penetrate a potential barrier, which is an exceedingly improbable process. If a uranium or thorium nucleus is hit by a neutron, the neutron attaches itself to the nucleus and delivers to the nucleus the binding energy of the neutron, amounting to several Mev. This energy sets the particles of which the nucleus is composed into motion. This motion may lead to the rearrangement necessary to initiate the fission process. It is interesting to note that the common isotopes of thorium and uranium, Th^'- and U'^'^", require neutrons of relatively high initial energy if fission is to be produced. The reason is that fission is a quite improbable process unless the neutron furnishes enough energy to deform the nuclear matter to a point from where the further process is a "downhill" motion; i.e., a motion which is connected with a diminution of potential energy. If a neutron fails to deliver sufficient energy to

portance.

as

fast

tron reactions are in in

which only

in

some

many

respects quite different

from reactions

These w-ill be discussed an important part in the release of

fast particles participate.

detail since they play

atomic energy for useful purposes. All the neutrons observed are products of nuclear reactions. Slow neutrons are obtained Originally these neutrons are fast. by allowing the fast ones to make a considerable number of colnuclei with which neumany Usions with other nuclei. There are trons can collide repeatedly without causing nuclear reactions and without being captured by these nuclei. Frequently the only possible process is an elastic collision in which the neutron gives some If, for instance, a neutron of its energy to the collision partner. colUdes with a proton it loses roughly one-half of its energy in each collision. In collisions with carbon nuclei the neutron is apt to lose one-sixth of its energy. As a result 20 collisions with protons will suffice to deprive a

nal energy

neutron of

all

but one-millionth of

its origi-

and roughly 100 colhsions with carbon nuclei produce

the same result.

however, will not proceed indefinitely. All and around us participate in a disorderly motion that is produced by the heat energy shared by all bodies. The average energy of the particles at room temperature is about

The energy

loss,

nuclei of the atoms in

:

NUCLEUS Jjj.

ev.

When

the neutrons are slowed

down

to this

cease, on the average, to lose energy in collisions.

723

energy they will

time.

They

easily possible to concentrate the energy on a single

will rather

If the nucleus consists of few particles then

particles.

On

particles.

tron, then

it

called

its

participate from then on in the general thermal agitation of

all

Neutrons of about jV"^'^ energy are therefore often thermal neutrons. The term slow neutrons is not restricted to the thermal neutrons but includes those of somewhat higher and lower energies. Thermal neutrons, however, are typical representatives of the class of slow neutrons. It is of interest to note that thermal neutrons move with an average velocity of 1.3 mi. per second. It seems peculiar to call such neutrons slow but they are slow compared with neutrons of i Mev energy whose velocity is little less than 10,000 mi. per second. Reactions of slow neutrons differ from other nuclear reactions in several important respects. Slow neutrons may be absorbed very effectively by certain appropriate materials. Thus —f, in. of cadmium is sufficient to absorb most of a beam of slow neutrons. A beam of fast neutrons, on the other hand, penetrates approximately two inches of any condensed material before the beam is Slow strongly absorbed or otherwise altered in its properties. neutrons are not absorbed so strongly by all kinds of nuclei. In collisions with nuclei such as carbon or lead, for instance, slow neutrons are hardly ever absorbed. Furthermore a reaction between a slow neutron and a nucleus depends on the energy of the neutron in a very selective manner. The reaction of neutrons with indium nuclei are very characteristic in this respect. A thermal neutron beam is effectively absorbed by an indium foil, while neutrons of one volt energy are considerably less affected. Neutrons of a sharply defined energy of 1.44 ev are more strongly absorbed in indium foils than neutrons of any other energy. The peculiar behaviour of neutrons described above is the reOne is that slow neutrons spend a longer time sult of two facts. in the neighbourhood of each nucleus and are more likely to be captured in a single collision. The second fact is the existence of

compound

which are formed by the initial fusion of the and which possess well-defined energy levels. As an example let us continue to consider the reaction of indium with slow neutrons. If a neutron is bound to an indium nucleus an energy of approximately 8 Mev is released. At the time that nuclei

reaction partners

a slow neutron enters the binding energy appears as agitation of the compound nucleus. The designation of compound nucleus refers to this original agitated nucleus

which

is

formed as a

first

step in the nuclear reaction.

The energy of agitation is not arbitrary but can be one of a certain number of rather sharply defined values. If the small kinetic energy of the incident neutron added to its big binding energy is just sufficient to form a compound nucleus in one of these sharply defined energy states then the neutron will enter the nucleus with a high probability. The energy at which the neutron enters with the greatest probability is called the resonance energy. The more the energy of the neutron differs from this resonance energy, the smaller will be its chance to enter the nucleus. A change in neutron energy of only one-tenth of an electron volt is sufficient to alter considerably the chance of the neutron to participate in the reaction.

These sharply defined levels of compound nuclei do not occur atomic nuclei. This fact has been explained a typical law of atomic physics according to which sharply defined energy levels occur only if these energy states have comin the case of light

by

If a state has a hfetime of 10^^' seconds (which is a typical period for nuclear rearrangements) then energy levels cannot be defined with a precision less than 1,000,000 V. The sharply defined energy of compound nuclei indicates a lifetime more than 1,000,000 times longer than the time for a simple rearrangement. Why such long lives should occur when a slow neutron enters a nucleus of high weight, such as indium, may be understood in the following manner. When a neutron of small energy enters a nucleus its considerable binding energy is promptly shared as energy of agitation by the many particles of the nucleus. If the original neutron is to leave the nucleus again all of this energy must once more be concentrated on a single neutron. This process is unlikely and, on the average, takes a long

paratively long lifetimes.

the other hand,

it

be more one of these

will

we have

started with a fast neuwill not be necessary to return to this neutron all of if

energy to enable the original neutron to escape again. Once a slow neutron has entered a nucleus and has found a

compound

state several reactions are

still

possible.

The most

probable of these is the emission of the binding energy of the added neutron in the form of 7-radiation. In this way an isotope of the original bombarded nucleus is formed. Thus we have the reactions:

0'6-|-«-^0"-|-7

The

last reaction will

be referred to again

in discussing the utiliza-

tion of nuclear energy.

Among

the lightest

and the heaviest nuclei there are a few

more important

reactions following neutron capture. Protons are emitted in the reaction of slow neutrons and

nitrogen

N'H?^-^C"-|-/'

The

resulting )3-active isotope of carbon is most useful in the study of reactions in organic chemistry and biochemistry. This isotope of carbon is formed in small amounts by cosmic rays and Its half-life is 5,568 occurs, therefore, as a "natural" activity. years. By measuring the carbon activity in an archaeological sample one may determine the age of that sample (see Radio-

carbon Dating; Geochronology). In reactions with Li^ and B'" the absorption results in the emission of

of a slow neutron

an a-particle, according to

Lis-hn-^KHHe-*

B'H^-^Li'+He' These reactions are important because these B'", are

nuclei,

especially

In contrast to indium,

very strong neutron absorbers.

which preferentially absorbs neutrons of 1.44 ev energy, all neutrons are absorbed by Li^ and B'", but slow neutrons, which spend more time in the neighbourhood, are absorbed with greater probability.

The

fact that slow neutrons are strongly

materials permits the regulation of the

absorbed by particular of slow neutrons

number

and allows or denies them access to certain parts of materials.

The

control of the energy release in chain-reacting materials is based on this property of slow neutrons. The energy released by slow neutron capture is insufficient to cause fission in any isotope which occurs with great abundance

In some materials, particularly in U"' slow neutrons do give rise to fission. The consequence of this fact will be discussed later. New high-energy accelerators have produced protons carrying Bombardment of nuclei by such protons several hundred Mev. often gives rise to disintegration into several fragments. It is remarkable, however, that more gentle interactions are not unusual. Thus a proton may collide with a nucleus without changing its energy or momentum to a great extent. In the collision, however, the proton turns into a neutron, leaving its charge behind in the nucleus with which it collided. It also happens quite often that the impinging proton picks up a neutron during its contact with a The bombarding particle changes, therefore, into a nucleus. deuteron but continues on its path without any great deflection or loss of energy. in a natural substance.

and

Pu^^',

The most important result of experiments in the severalhundred-Mev range has been the production of mesons. These are unstable particles, some of which are neutral while some carry a unit of positive or negative charge.

these particles has been discovered.

A

considerable variety of

They

differ not only in their charge but also in their masses, spins, lifetimes and modes of deAt least one class of these mesons, the tt mesons (pi mesons), is closely connected with the forces that bind the nucleons into stable nuclei. This connection will be discussed below-. It has become customary to designate mesons as well as nuWith cleons, electrons and neutrinos as "elementary particles."

cay.

the increase in the

number

of these particles

it

becomes

likely

NUCLEUS

724 that at least

some

indivisible.

It is

them are no more elementary than atoms are expected that some simple and general laws of of

physics will eventually be found to explain the properties of these particles.

X.

all

SUMMARY OF NUCLEAR PROPERTIES

The nuclear reactions described in the last section led to the discovery of a very great number of previously unknown radioactive nuclei. These, together with the nuclei that occur in nature, are collected in the accompanying chart of properties of the nuFor clides. In this chart each nucleus is represented by a square. instance, in the tirst section of the chart (second row from the bottom) the isotopes of hydrogen appear. The charge number 1 and the atomic symbol H (for hydrogen) appear at the left of the

The first square corresponds to a proton. In the square is found the mass number for the proton, which is 1, and below it the abundance of protons in ordinary hydrogen is indicated. The figure 99.9S5 means 99.985% of ordinary hydrogen consists The square to the right of the of light hydrogen or protons. proton corresponds to heavy hydrogen or deuterium with a mass number 2. Its abundance in ordinary hydrogen is 0.015%, which is also entered. The third square in the row corresponds to tritium, the radioactive isotope of hydrogen. This isotope does not occur in nature and so the second line in the square contains a zero. Instead the half-life. 12.26 years, has been entered in the third line. The arrow attached to this isotope shows that the nucleus decays row.

to He'', the light isotope of helium, occurring in the next row.

the

bottom of each column

the

is

number

At

of neutrons in the nuclei.

found zero, indicating that this neutrons. Below deuterium and indicate that these isotopes contain one

Therefore, below the proton lightest isotope contains no

is

tritium, the figures 1 and 2 and two neutrons, respectively. The next row represents the helium nuclei, of which again two stable and one radioactive nuclei are known. It is significant that the square corresponding to He^ is empty. The reason for this will be discussed in the next section. The following rows correspond to lithium, beryllium, boron The chart is presented in five sections. and heavier nuclei. Throughout the chart the three numbers occurring in the squares the correspond to mass number, the abundance and the lifetime. In the second line zero appears for all nuclei that are not found In all but a few of the in the elements as they occur in nature. heaxdest elements natural terrestrial sources always have the same isotopic abundances. This abundance is indicated by the figure in the second line. It should not be taken for granted that the isotopic abundance outside the earth is the same as on the earth. This, however, seems to be the general rule. The figures on abundance are omitted in some of the hea\'y nuclei in which all isotopes are radioactive and in which the isotopic abundances are dependent upon the method by which the element is obtained.

nucleus

is

the result of the exclusion principle.

The

first

neutrons

and protons that build up a nucleus will occupy the lowest energy states. Each additional neutron and proton will be forced into an orbit of higher energy. If the number of neutrons greatly exceeds the number of protons, the last neutron will find itself in a state of rather high energy, while states of lower energy are still available for protons. Thus energy may be released by the transformation of a neutron into a proton. A similar argument holds for an excess of protons. As the number of protons and neutrons becomes greater the stable nuclei tend \o have a greater number of neutrons than protons. The reason for this is the electrostatic repulsion between protons. Because of this repulsion the presence of many protons in the nucleus causes an increase of the energy of the nucleus and transforming a proton into a neutron will correspondingly lower the energy. Too great a neutron excess will be prevented for the reasons discussed in the preceding paragraph. It has been mentioned that the electrostatic repulsion in heavThe frequent occurily charged nuclei gives rise to a-activity. rence of a-activity in the last elements of the chart can be readily Instability of nuclei caused by the excess charge is observed. probably the reason why fewer isotopes of heavy nuclei are known and why nuclei having more than 92 charge units do not occur in nature.

While two neutrons and two protons can never occupy exactly same state within a nucleus, a pair of such particles may be found in the same orbit. These two particles must differ in the orientation of their spins. It seems that two particles in the same orbit possess similar energies. The result is that two successive particles can be bound in a low-energy state, while the addition the

of a third particle will release considerably less binding energy.

This circumstance is illustrated by two facts in the chart of nuclei. First, few stable nuclei exist in which both the number of neutrons and the number of protons is odd. Such nuclei are usually radioactive, emitting a positive electron, a negative electron or both. The decay product is a nucleus in which both neutron and proton numbers are even and all orbits may be considered as doubly occupied.

The

is that nuclei with odd charge number fewer isotopes than nuclei of even charge number. The other fact appearing from the chart is that in nuclei of even charge number the even isotopes, in which the number of neutrons is even, have a greater abundance than the odd isotopes, in which the number of neutrons is odd. It seems that the latter nuclei, containing particles in less stable orbits, originally have been formed in smaller numbers than the isotopes having an even number of neutrons and greater binding energies.

Z

result of this rule

possess

Among served.

many

may also be obwhich are located close to Nuclei which are have shorter decay periods. The

the /3-active nuclei two general rules First,

that

/3-active nuclei

stable nuclei usually decay with a long lifetime.

The radioactive nuclei are distinguished in the chart, not only by the fact that in their squares a lifetime appears, but also by

located farther from stability other regularity is that radioactive nuclei containing even

the arrows which indicate their process of decay.

bers of protons and neutrons have longer lives than nuclei containing an even number of neutrons and an odd number of protons

/3-active nuclei

by arrows which point toward the upper left if negative electrons are emitted or by arrows in the opposite direction if positive electrons are emitted. Nuclei which do not have enough energy to emit an electron but capture an atomic electron are indicated in the same way as an ordinary positive electron are distinguished

emitter.

Some

nuclei

electron emission.

may decay

This

is

both by positive and negative

indicated by two arrows attached to

is shown by an arrow lower left-hand direction and extending to the second diagonal neighbour. Thus in every case the arrow ends on the product of the radioactive decay.

the squares.

Alpha-activity of the nuclei

in the

The

chart shows several interesting facts.

Among

the light

numbers of neutrons Those nuclei which have a great neutron

nuclei only those with approximately equal

and protons are

stable.

excess are /3-active and emit negative electrons, thus transform-

supernumerary neutron into

Nuclei having too a proton. protons emit a positive electron and transform a proton The fact that among light nuclei an equal number of neutrons and protons seems to give greatest stability to the ing a

many

into a neutron.

num-

even number of protons and an odd number of neuThese nuclei in turn live longer than nuclei in which both the proton and neutron numbers are odd. These regularities may be understood in terms of the energies of nuclei. In terms of /3-decay it has been mentioned that the lifetime will be short if a great amount of energy is liberated in the |3-decay. The lifetime will be long if the transformation energy is small. The transformation energy is apt to be less if the decaying nucleus has relatively low energy. This will be the case if the nucleus is near the region of stability and if the nucleus contains an even number of neutrons and protons. Closer inspection of the chart will show that the rules just mentioned are not universally valid and that there are quite a few exceptions. These exceptions occur whenever a /3-decay of the anomalous type is encountered, in which case, as has been mentioned, /3-active substances have a or an trons.

relatively long lifetime.

of isotopes show a further marked regularity. the light elements the "heaviest isotopes are frequently

The abundances

Among

NUCLEUS

725

—

NUCLEUS

726

1::

1^: !^

15

I

-^

'"^T^^

'•^^ i

I

:s

I

-^-^;53

I

si;

I

7"^^'-

-T^ S5

I

r,^—^.'-

s;8

I

J*-

-3'-

!§

I

^' per nucleon shows a marked decrease. This, however, is caused by the coulomb repulsions between the protons within the nucleus rather than by any intrinsic change in the characteristic behaviour of nuclear matter itself. The fact that the volume and binding energy per nucleon is roughly a constant for all nuclei beyond helium has been ascribed to a "saturation'' of nuclear forces. Apparently in the helium nucleus the nucleons have achieved a nearly optimal density and binding energy. of the detailed properties of the nuclei were e.xplained

by the nuclear

shell

model (M. G. Mayer.

According to

1949),

this

J. H. D. Jensen et al., model, indi\idual nucleons are found in

well-defined orbits within each nucleus.

Each

of these orbits

is

characterized by an orbital angular momentum, i.e., a momentum around the centre of the nucleus; by a radial momentum, i.e., a momentum away from and toward the centre of the nucleus and a total angular momentum which is composed of the orbital angular momentum and the one-half imit spin momentum of the nucleon. Increasing angular momenta and radial momenta correspond to increasing energies. According to the Pauli exclusion principle, each orbit characterized by the appropriate momenta and by the spin may contain not more than one neutron and one proton. The orbits are filled in successively, those with lowest energy being filled first. The energies of these orbits can be calculated and one can therefore predict in which order the orbits of various characteristics will be filled up. One finds that a surprisingly low energj' is encountered whenever an orbit has practically no radial momentum, that is. whenever the path of the nucleon can be considered as circular, provided that the angular momentum of the orbit and the angular momentum corresponding to the spin are lined up parallel to each other. There are several orbits of the kind just described which differ from each other by their orienta;

tion in the spherical field of the nucleus. When all these relatively low-lying orbits are filled up, one obtains a closed shell configura-

and one arrives

at a particularly stable nucleus.

The procedure mentioned above agrees with experiments particularly weU for heavier nuclei. Application of these ideas shows that nuclei with unusual stability will result if the neutron number or the proton number happens to be either 50, 82 or 126. Stability of such nuclei

The

given.

was noticed before the explanation was

peculiar properties of the corresponding nuclei led

"magic numbers" for the numbers 50, 82 and is of interest particularly to mention the nucleus Pb-"', "doubly magic" since it contains 82 protons and 126

to the designation of

126.

It

which

is

neutrons.

The nuclear

model has been most useful in predicting anguvalues for a great number of nuclear isotopes both in their lower state and in their excited state. The possibilities of ^-decay and also the possibilities of emission of 7 -rays are closely connected with these angular momenta. Therefore the shell model lar

shell

momentum

made

a consistent connection between and detailed nuclear structure. by the shell model is similar to the e.xplanation of the periodic system with the help of the shell model of the electrons within atoms. A quantitative it

possible

to

obtain

/3-decays, 7-ray emissions

The explanation

of nuclear structure

difference exists, however, in that in atomic physics the difference

between incomplete than

model suggests that nucleons can move across nuclei in a relatively undisturbed manner. Indeed, if that were not so, it would be hard to imderstand why well-defined orbits may be ascribed to individual nucleons. This conclusion is somewhat surprising since all nucleons undergo strong forces when shell

entering or leaving a nucleus. ing model of nuclear forces. nucleus,

it is

We

are therefore led to the follow-

When

a

nucleon approaches a

attracted into the interior of the nucleus and

is

there-

fore strongly accelerated.

Inside the nucleus, the nucleon does not encounter any strong systematic change of the potential and is not exposed to any appreciable average force, Jt moves in

almost as though the inside of the nucleus were free leaving the nucleus, the nucleon will experience a strong retarding force, and will lose the kinetic energy which it acquired upon 'entering. The above discussion ignores the possibility of an energy loss the nucleon may suffer while traversing the nucleus but it gives a qualitative idea of the forces found inside this region

space.

When

a nucleus.

Further development of the nuclear shell model took place

in

the 19SOs. It received a strong impetus from the discovery that nuclei with particles that are far from forming a closed shell configuration are strongly deformed, being ellipsoidal rather than

These ellipsoidal nuclei have a number of properties that are quite analogous to those of diatomic molecules. In par-

spherical.

Many

tion

731

The nuclear

it is

shells

in nuclear physics.

and closed

shells

is

more marked

ticular,

they have energy levels, arising from their rotational mo-

spaced proportionally to the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, .... It is found that these rotational states can easily be excited by permitting charged particles to collide with the nucleus, a process called Coulomb excitation. Attempts to improve the shell tion, that are

model

to include a description of these phenomena (unified model of A. Bohr and B, R, Mottelson) had a considerable success and the resulting predictions inspired a number of fruitful experiments.

The nature of nuclear forces cannot be understood unless one considers both the field in a quiescent nucleus and that in a nuclear structure whose components undergo violent motion and The situation may be clarified by a comparison with the electric forces that confine the electrons to their orbits within the atoms. These forces actually have two manifestations. On acceleration.

the one hand, they influence the orbits of the electrons. On the other hand, they give rise to electromagnetic radiation. The latter phenomenon occurs when the electric configuration within an atom suff'ers a sudden change and part of the bourhood of the atom is shaken loose.

The

situation

is

electric field in the neigh-

similar in the case of nuclear forces.

On

the

one hand, they confine nucleons to their orbits. On the other hand, one has to e.xpect that if a nucleus is subject to sudden and violent change, a pecuUar nuclear radiation will be emitted. This nuclear radiation has been identified with at least some of the mesons which have been described above. The nuclear radiations (that is. the mesons) differ in two basic respects from electromagnetic radiation.

electromagnetic

may

The

first

difference

is

an arbitrarily small amount of energy. A meson, on the other hand, cannot carry an energy less than a certain given minimum amount, A mass corresponds to this minimum energy according to Einstein's relation of equivalence of mass and energy. For the tv mesons, which have been most closely identified with nuclear radiation, this mass is approximately 270 times greater than the mass of the electron and is roughly one-seventh of the mass of a nucleon. The fact that the nuclear radiation has a minimum energy is connected with that

radiation

carrj'

As a result of this short range nuclear radiation will necessarily be shorter than a certain minimum time. According to the mechanics of atomic systems, short times are necessarily connected with high energies. The existence of the mesons as a form of nuclear radiation was first postulated by H. Yukawa. These mesons were then found in cosmic radiation (see Cosmic Rays) and later in nuclear reactions they possessed the qualitative features that had been predicted. the short range of nuclear forces. the time

of \ibration

of

;

The second important

difference

between electromagnetic radiby mesons is cormected

ation and nuclear radiation as represented

with the electric charge carried by the radiation.

Electric radi-

NUCLEUS

732

many mesons do. The 5r mesons which are known to be connected with nuclear forces appear in three forms: the neutral ir mesons, the positive tt mesons which carry one positive unit of electricity and the negative tt mesons ation does not carry a charge;

which carry a negative unit. In their interaction with nuclear matter these three kinds of tt mesons behave quite .similarly. This fact is connected with the rule mentioned above that nuclear The spin of the forces act similarly on protons and neutrons. 7r mesons is known to be zero, that is. they do not carry an intrinsic however, description, mathematical Their angular momentum. exhibits a peculiar behaviour with respect to mirror reflections. It is a consequence of this peculiar property that emission of a TT meson does not in itself cause a change in the angular momentum of the emitting nucleon but it is likely to cause an exchange of angular momentum between the spin and the orbit of the nu-

reactions supply the energy of the sun.

While there are numerous

reactions which might, in principle, be considered, practically all Some reactions of them were eliminated as the actual source.

would proceed too rapidly and result in burning up the nuclear fuel too quickly. Other reactions, in which heavily charged nuclei participate, proceed so slowly that they could not produce sufficient energy. In 1937 H. Bethe and others discussed this question and arrived at the conclusion that there are two series of reactions which jointly or separately may explain the behaviour of the sun and the stars. One of these series is the following: a proton collides with a C" nucleus and is captured; the capture process is accompanied by the emission of 7-rays; the resulting N'' nucleus is /3-active and transforms into C'^; a second proton collides with the C'^ nucleus and is captured, again emitting 7-rays; by this process a stable N'^ nucleus is formed; the latter captures a proton, emitting the capture energy as 7-rays; an O"" nucleus results;

cleon.

kinds of mesons have been observed and some of be connected with nuclear forces in a manner simiIt lar to the connection existing in the case of the ir mesons. will be, however, clear even to the most superficial observer that present hypotheses concerning nuclear forces have been introduced

Many other these may well

piecemeal, seem to consist of several independent statements and do not proceed by a cogent reasoning from a number of simple hypotheses. These are the marks of an unfinished theory. A more nearly complete explanation will probably contain unexpected elements and will probably form a more closed and simple pattern than the present disconnected set of assumptions.

XII.

ENERGY PRODUCTION IN STARS

responsible for the radiation of the sun and was the subject of speculation for many years. It was recogno known chemical reaction could keep the sun long ago that nized supplied with energy for more than approximately 100,000 years. Yet there is geological evidence that the sun must have been

The energy source

this

nucleus

is

/3-active

and transforms

to N'''; finally a collision

of a proton and N'^ gives rise to C'^ and an a-particle. This series of reactions can be summarized in the following formulas:

C'HH'-»N'3-i-7

N'*+H'-^0'H7 N'HHWC'^-t-o; noted that as a result of the series four hydrogen and one helium nucleus (a) has been formed. The original C^- nucleus has been reproduced at the end Apart from the energy released in 7-rays and of the reactions. kinetic energy, the net reaction can be written: It

will be

nuclei have disappeared

4H'^He-'+2e +

stars

radiating at

Indeed, hydrogen and helium seem to be the most abundant constituents of the sun. We have seen in earlier discussions that the building up of the helium nucleus releases more energy per unit mass than any other type of nuclear reaction. Thus the proposed

stars did not lead to

mechanism employs the most abundant materials the most effective manner. The other series of reactions is the following:

its present rate for 500,000,000 years; i.e., during the period in which living beings seem certain to have inhabited More recent detailed theories of the interior of the the earth.

any suggestions as

to

some novel kind of

chemical reaction (some kind of rearrangement of atoms or extranuclear electrons) which could account for the extremely great amounts of energy that the sun has emitted during its long history. Somewhat more energy could be obtained from a slow gravitational contraction of the sun. It is not easy to construct a model of the sun (or stars), however, which would permit the sun to radiate at its present rate for more than a few million years without considerable change if gravitational energy were the main source of the energy radiated. Actually, a great concentration of mass near tht centre of the sun could give rise to sufficiently high gravitational energies and a slow growth of this very dense core could account for the energy emission of the sun. In order to obtain the necessary energies one would have to assume near the centre of the sun densities of matter which are approximately lo'^ Such high densities times greater than the densities of water. had been encountered only in the interior of nuclei.

most likely that the energy of the sun and from nucfear transformations. The theory of the structure of the sun and stars has led to the conclusions that the It seems, therefore,

stars results

central regions of these bodies are at temperatures approximately

20,000,000° to 50,000,000° F. At these exceedingly high temperatures atomic nuclei move with sutficiently high velocities so that occasionally they come in close contact and give rise to a nuclear reaction. Actually the average energy of atomic nuclei inside the sun is only 2,000 or 3,000 ev. This energy is rather low compared with the energies usually encountered in nuclear reactions. If the kinetic energy in the sun were as high as the kinetic energy of

protons or a-particles which are used in the laboratory to produce reactions, then nuclear reactions on the sun would probably go to completion in a very short time and the sun would explode, rather than produce energy at a steady rate. The small kinetic energy of nuclei in the sun has the consequence that nuclear reactions take many times 1,000,000,000 years to go to completion {see Sun). It is, of course, of interest to find out which specific nuclear

in the sun in

H'+HWH2-|-e+ HeHHe^-^He^-l-H'-fH' result is the same as in the previous series, namely the transformation of four protons and two electrons into a helium

The net nucleus.

XIII.

UTILIZATION OF NUCLEAR ENERGY

release of nuclear energy for practical purposes may be clasBoth historically and technically sified as controlled or explosive. the two aspects are closely connected. Nuclear explosives were a

The

key factor in the great armaments race among the major powers which began at the end of World War II. Consequently, a full account of all important developments was often available to the general public only a considerable time after they occurred. Quantitative information was in general withheld if it had any bearing on the design of weapons. However, by the time of the Geneva Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy in 1955, all essential information then available on the nonexplosive release of energy by fission had been published. The processes involved may be described as follows. If a uranium or thorium nucleus is hit by a neutron of appropriate energy nuclear fission results with considerable probability (see section on nuclear reactions). The two approximately equal fragments into which the nucleus separates carry a total energy

Some of the in the form of kinetic energy. present as internal energy of the fragments and a part of this internal energy splits neutrons off these fragments. As a result of each fission process a few neutrons are obtained These neutrons can enter in addition to the fission fragments. of almost 200

Mev

energy released

is

other heavy nuclei they cause fission and give rise to more neutrons. In each one of the steps the neutrons are multiplied. This results in a rapid increase in the total number of fissions and leads. ;

NUCLEUS number of neutrons and comparable with the number of nuclei in

number

of

within a short time, to a

a

fissions

the available

material.

The

multiplication of neutrons and the corresponding multiplication of fission processes is called a chain reaction. This repeatedly branching chain of reactions makes it possible that starting

with a few neutrons one

may end

with so great a number that a is eventually involved

substantial fraction of the myriads of nuclei in

the process.

The simple type of chain reaction described here explains the functioning of the atomic bomb. When this reaction is initiated in an appropriate piece of material, energy is released so rapidly In explosions carried out so far equivalent to that produced by many thousands of tons of T.N,T. Fortunately none of the materials occurring in nature is capable of supporting a simple chain reacthat a violent explosion results.

the energy

tion that

released

would give

is

rise to

an "atom bomb" type of explosion.

In both thorium and ordinary uranium an additional reaction exists which competes with the fission process and renders the

This competing process is the absorption of a neutron in thorium or U''^'* according to the reactions: process harmless.

Th^^^

+ n^Th-'^+y

In order to produce atomic bombs materials are needed in which competing processes do not occur. Such a material is U^'^, an isotope which occurs in the natural mixture of uranium with an abundance of 0.7%. Separation of this isotope from naturally occurring uranium was carried out on a large scale in the United States during

World War

II.

Another material which can support a simple chain reaction and which can be used in atomic bombs is Pu"'. Plutonium is an element which carries two more charges than uranium and is the first element that has been artificially made and handled in considerable quantity. Plutonium is obtained from the abundant isotope of uranium, U^'*. As mentioned above, neutron bombardment transforms this element to U^^^. This material by two successive j3-decay processes becomes Pu^^'. The latter material was also produced in the United States during World War II. Energy of the fissionable materials may also be released in a steady manner without any explosion. In order to accomphsh this, the energy released in the fission processes must be removed by heat conduction. The energy which has been conducted can then be utilized as a source of power. The excess neutrons created in the fission process must also be absorbed so that instead of a multiplying chain reaction there is a chain reaction in a steady, selfsustaining state. In the process of neutron absorption artificial radioactive products frequently are generated which can be used in research and for medical purposes. Up to the mid-1960s the use of nuclear reactors in producing materials for research had been perhaps of greatest importance. This usefulness is due to the fact that a radioactive atom has precisely the same chemical behaviour as its known radioactive counterparts or isotopes. Thus a radioactive carbon or sulfur atom will behave precisely in the same way as a normal carbon or sulfur atom. Because of its activity, however, it can be easily discovered in the most minute quantities. Thus, one can trace the path of substances introduced into a living system or into a piece of machinery throughout its passage and incorporation in the system. There is no difficulty in constructing a reactor in which the neutron population remains steady. In order to accomplish this, the neutrons produced in fission must be disposed of either by absorbing them in other nuclei or by allowmg them to escape through the surface of the system. In every case one will construct the chainreacting system in such a way that the ratio between neutron loss and neutron gain can be regulated. The regulation can be achieved by lowering into the reactor a neutron-absorbing substance such as a rod containing boron. Neutrons are then consumed in the reaction

BIO

When

+ „ ^ Li? ^ He*

the system starts to operate there are only a few neu-

trons around, produced by the cosmic rays or other sources.

neutron-absorbing substance

is

The

then withdrawn so that the neu-

733

tron loss becomes less than the gain of neutrons caused by fissions. The neutrons start to multiply and soon the neutron density and the rate of fission reaches the level at which the system is to be

At this time the neutron-absorbing rod is reinserted to an extent that neutron absorption and neutron production are just equal. When the operation of the system is to be shut off, the neutron-absorbing substance is pushed in farther so that the neutron loss exceeds neutron production. The number of neutrons then decreases to the small value that it had originally.

operated.

The

which such a system releases energy

proporbe regulated at will by choosing the instant at which the neutronabsorbing material is reinserted into the pile and the increase in neutron density is stopped. From a practical pyoint of view the rate of energy release is limited, however, because it is possible to carry out of the system a hmited amount of energy in the form of heat. If more energy is produced than can be carried away, this rate at

tional to the neutron density.

The

density, in turn,

is

may

an increased temperature of the entire system. As a consequence the system may shut itself off or, failing to do this, may blow up. The main problem to be solved is, therefore, not the production of energy but its control and utilization. The regulation of the level at which the neutron density is to be kept is greatly faciUtated by the fact that some of the neutrons are produced in the fission process with some delay. The delay results from the fact that some fragments of fission undergo a /3-decay before they emit a neutron. The lifetime of such a /3-decay process ranges from a second to a minute and neutrons are emitted with delays of corresponding duration. These delayed neutrons are utilized in operating the chain-reacting system. The system is operated under such conditions that the neutrons produced instantaneously in the process are slightly fewer than the neutrons absorbed or otherwise lost in the system. Under the circumstances the reacting system always has to wait for these delayed neutrons for effective neutron multiplication to take place. The multiplication of neutrons is thus slowed down and there is plenty of time to adjust the neutron-absorbing material when the neutron density and energy production approach the desired values, or when there is an excessive increase in power results in

production. It is possible to construct chain-reacting systems of rather small extension and small weight. Nevertheless, there are serious problems in the practical use of such energy sources, although their lightness and power are highly desirable in aircraft. The reason is

that the fission process and also later nuclear processes accom-

it emit considerable amounts of radiation in the form If these were allowed to escape everyone who approached the chain-reacting machine would be killed. The system must be surrounded with an absorbing shield that is thick enough to reduce these dangerous radiations to an

panying

of neutrons, /3-rays and 7-rays.

exceedingly small fraction of their original intensity. To achieve this purpose the shield must be heavy. This sets a severe limita-

on the use of nuclear energy in machines that are small and Despite these problems, nuclear aircraft were moved. under development in the U.S. during the 1960s. While the apparatus that produces energy is of necessity both heavy and tion

easily

bulky, once it is set up it can function for a long time without being supplied with additional nuclear fuel. In the long run

needed but the weight of the raw material is comcompared with the weight of coal or fuel oil needed for the same energy production. Thus nuclear power plants are independent of heavy fossil fuels. At the same time they can be more easily constructed than hydroelectric plants. Thus by the mid-1960s useful electric power was being produced by stationary nuclear reactors in the U.K., U.S.S.R. and U.S.; the latter two countries were operating nuclear-powered ships, including submarines and other vessels for commercial use. The nuclear materials that can be most easily used in constructing nuclear power plants are the same as those needed for the atomic bomb. They are the materials in which nuclear fission occurs with greatest ease without too many competing processes that absorb neutrons. It is also possible to build a nuclear power plant using only common uranium, a substance which cannot be

added

fuel is

pletely negligible

NUCLEUS

734

used in atomic bombs. The reason is that ordinary metallic uranium cannot sustain a nuclear chain reaction because more neutrons are absorbed in the isotope l'--'" than are produced by Neutron multiplication can be obtained fissions in both isotopes.

some appropriate material, such system. The neutrons produced in if

as

carbon,

fission are

is

added

to the

slowed down by

repeated collisions with carbon nuclei. Finally the neutrons are transformed into thermal neutrons and the slowing-down process ends. The U-'*-"* reacts preferentially with these slowed-down neutrons. In spite of the fact that U-^'' is present in the normal

0,7%, successful collisions between slow neutrons and U-^' become frequent enough to give rise to a sufticient number of fissions and an excess of neutron production. The processes described need only common materials like uranium and carbon, but the neutron excess obtained in this way is small and losses must be carefully avoided. Such neutron isotopic mixture to an extent of

losses always occur at the surface of the chain-reacting system.

These surface

losses can be

reduced by making the machine bulky

Nuclear Engineering),

(see

up from ordinary uranium abundant UL'38 xjjg resulting U-^'-' decays into Pu-^'-', a material which is in atomic bombs. It usable in more convenient plants and also If a chain-reacting

many

system

is

built

of the neutrons produced are absorbed in the

should be noticed that every process of useful atomic energy production is closely connected with the destructive use which can be made of this great energy source. In contrast with the situation for the release of energy by fission, information on the energy release by fusion was not fully availThe very existence of systematic attempts able in the 1960s, to make hydrogen bombs in the U.S, was not public knowledge In early 1950, Pres, Harry S. Truman ordered a until late 1949, The exceedingly high temperafull-scale attack on the problem. tures necessary for the thermonuclear reactions made laboratory

The most readily available method for experiments difficult. producing such temperatures was to explode an ordinary fission bomb. This was done in the tests in the spring of 1951. The resulting measurement of the rates of reaction together with intensive theoretical work and some imaginative innovations of design made possible actual tests of weapons in 1952 and later. A test of an apparently similar type of weapon was reported in the U.S.S.R, and a British hydrogen bomb test was performed in 1957, There are two features of these weapons which have received con-

in 1953,

The first is their great energy release: they are rated as megaton weapons; i.e., equivalent to several millions of tons of TNT on a scale such that the first atomic bombs exploded over Japan were 20,000-ton weapons. The second is the very large quantity of fission-product radioactivity they release. The existence of systematic attempts by the U,S, and Great Britain to produce controlled thermonuclear reactions on earth was first announced at the Geneva conference in 1955, The problem is difficult because the extraordinarily high temperatures siderable public attention.

make

hard to confine the reaction to a region of space. Efforts were being made in the 1960s to confine such fusion reactions in magnetic fields (see MagnEtohydrodynamics), required

XIV.

it

HIGH-ENERGY EXPERIMENTS ON NUCLEI

The

construction of a variety of high-energy particle accelerators and improvement in particle detection techniques in the decade after 1945 made possible a number of important experiments. The primary purpose of many of the experiments was the search for

new elementary particles and the systematic study of th^ir Once the characteristics of the new particles had been

properties.

experiments often could give information on The study of tt and ju mesons illustrates this situation. When a negative ir or fi meson is slowed down in solid matter, it usually will form a mesic atom. Such atoms have nuclei like those of ordinary atoms, but a negative meson moves on a Bohr established,

the

nuclear structure.

orbit

around the nucleus.

The

orbits of the

meson

are smaller in

than the corresponding electron orbits by the ratio of the electron to meson mass and their binding energy is larger by the inverse of that ratio. Just as in ordinary atoms, a transition from one Bohr orbit to another results in the emission of a photon. (In size

photon emission by in which the energy released by the transition is transferred not to a photon but Because of the higher to one of the electrons of the mesic atom. binding energy of mesons, the most energetic photons emitted light atoms such as carbon and beryllium by TV and yu mesons in are X-rays rather than visible light. In the case of the tt meson, these mesic X-rays can be measured accurately by comparing them with X-rays emitted in electron transition in medium heavy elements. Such measurements led to a precise determination of the TV meson energy level separations, and indirectly to a very accuIn fact, the measurerate measurement of the tt meson mass. ments were so precise that it was possible to detect small deviations from Coulomb's law for the electric force between nucleus and the These deviations had been predicted as early as iq34 IT meson. on the basis of the quantum theory of radiation, but had previously not been supported by such direct and clear-cut evidence. In the mesic atoms which were case of fi mesons, it was the heavier studied mostly at first, and the results, together with those from

heavy elements and the

meson

is

for the larger

Bohr

orbits

probable than the Auger

less

effect,

)

/ji

electron scattering

by

nuclei, led to a

of the distribution of charge in

much more

accurate picture

(V, Fitch and J. for heavy elements the

the nucleus

Rainwater, 1953). It turned out that radius (actually square root of the average value of the square of the radius) of the charge distribution was given hy r = r^^A'^'^ where r„ = 1,2 X lo-'^ cm. This result was in contrast with earlier estimates of the radius which had given r^ between 1.3 and 1,5

X

:o-^^ cm.

The "small" value

of fg

was confirmed by the study of electron

scattering by nuclei (R. Hofstadter and coworkers, 1953), in experiments which eventually led to a quantitative determination

The difference in the of the shape of the charge distribution. values of r^ just mentioned is not a discrepancy; the nucleus has depending on what method is used to from such methods which the finite range of interaction of nuclear forces makes the nucleus appear larger. Another discovery in elementary particle physics which made possible an entirely new kind of insight into nuclear structure was that of the so-called A hyperfragments or A hyperons (M. Danysz and J. Pniewski, 1953). These are nuclei in which a neutron or proton is replaced by a A" particle. The resulting system lasts about 10" 1" sec, which is the time it takes a free A** to decay into a different apparent radius

look at

as fast

it.

The

larger values are obtained

neutron scattering

in

proton and t meson. The great virtue of the A" from the point of view of the study of nuclear structure is that the Pauh principle does not restrict the states a single A" can occupy in a nucleus formed of neutrons and protons. Another discovery came out of experiments using proton beams of 100-400 Mev energy. It was found that those protons which are scattered without loss of energy are very strongly polarized; i.e., the scattered protons have spins almost all of which point to

one side of the plane determined by the line of flight of the incident and scattered proton. On the other hand, for incident proton Similar energies of 10 Mev the polarization effect is very small. This remarkable polarization of effects were found for neutrons. high-energy particles made possible a series of important investigations on the spin dependence of nuclear forces. The importance of high-energy investigations for nuclear physics

was emphasized with the discovery of the antiproton fO. Chamber1955). The existence of this particle as well as the confirmed (1956) existence of the antineutron was indispensable for the consistency of nearly all then existing attempts at a fundamenIt was comtal theoretical interpretation of nuclear properties. forting to the theoreticians, whose attempts at a quantitative theory of nuclear forces had been frustrated, to find that one of their lin et al.,

was correct. In any case, the interaction of antiprotons and antineutrons with nuclei provides an important piece of evidence about the nature of nuclear forces (see Antimatter). See also references under "Nucleus" in the Index. Bibliography. D. Halliday, Introductory Nuclear Physics (1955); M. A. Preston, Physics of the Nucleus (1962) M. G. Mayer and J. H. D. Jensen, Elementary Theory of Nuclear Shell Structure (1955); L. Eisenbud and E. P. Wigner, Nuclear Structure (1958). basic ideas

—

;

(E. Te.;

M.

L. A.; a. S. \Vn.)

NUDISM—NUER NUDISM,

735

This article deals with the conscious, intentional movement to practise nudity without separation of the sexes which commenced at about the beginning of the 20th century in the German Nacktkultur ("naked culture") groups. Prior to World War I they consisted largely of middle-class persons of rather Between the two world wars, strong nationalistic tendencies. the movement expanded considerably not only in membership but in its range of opinions, extending from the most conservative to Several books and magazines describing, and the most radical. some of them advocating, nudism were published. Mainly following the German example, nudist societies were formed in England, France, Scandinavia and a few other European countries. During the 1930s similar societies were formed The nudist movement was in the United States and Canada. hindered by World War II. It has not made much progress in most of the Roman Catholic and Latin countries. Nudist groups have been organized as membership societies or They have dreamed and talked of as proprietary enterprises.

and attacked from somewhat different points of view. On the one hand, it is alleged that the sexual areas, such as the pubic hair, the female breasts and the masculine reflex, namely, the penile erection, arouse sexual emotions (in public) and are therefore indecent and unfit to be seen.

and industrial colonies in a suitable environment which would adopt the simple manner of life and Such colonies as enclaves humanitarian democracy of nudism. For the in a predominantly clothed society are hardly feasible. immediate future only private terrains for leisure time and recre-

inherent.

self-sustaining agricultural

The next

ational use are practicable.

aside of

some

of the public baths

step

may

be the setting use, as has

and parks for nudist

been done in a few German cities. Prevailing moral conventions, legalized in many jurisdictions, render it difficult, especially for women, to join nudist organizations. While census enumeration of extra-legal groups is not possible, there are probably not more than several hundred thousand such members in the whole world. There is perhaps a somewhat larger number who practise nudism in small family and private groups.

The Rationale

of

Nudism.

mal, perhaps covered with fur.

— Man The

originated as a nude ani-

habit of clothing the

body

has varied greatly in time and place. The need for protection from cold climate and from harmful animals and plants, and decoration of the body produced various types of garments. Cultural evolution gave rise to secondary reasons for clothing.

Wealth and property rights attached a symbolic meaning to dress. The garb and ornamentation became indicative of rank and wealth. The apparel has often had a ceremonial and ritual significance. Property rights in women emphasized the concealment of the female body. These factors led to powerful dress conventions, and often to ridicule and persecution of unconventional raiment, and especially of the nude body. There arose the belief that it is immodest and indecent to expose the human, and especially the female, body, and .the sexual organs of both sexes. Shame has usually been experienced at violations of these conventions as to clothing, and penalties have been imposed upon such violations.

The tions.

nudist

movement

is

a reaction against these dress

Nudists have argued that clothing cuts

from the

off

the

conven-

human body

and sunlight, and that the practice of nudity is beneand thereby improves human beauty. It aids and education of the young by acquainting and accustoming them to the sexual traits of both sexes, whereas concealment of the body from infancy creates many harmful mental

ficial

air

for health,

the rearing

complexes.

Under

society's conventions nudity is forcibly

associated with sex in the youthful mind.

and gratuitously

It is asserted that the

nudism aids sex education, is the best preparation for mating and marriage, and is a powerful eugenic factor by uniting practice of

the healthiest

human

beings.

Nudism has been

On much

criticized

the other hand,

it

is

asserted that the art of dress conceals

and enhances the variety and beauty of human existence. Furthermore, nudism, by complete exposure, is accused of decreasing visual sex stimulus, though tactile, olfactory, auditory and gustatory stimuli may be increased. Nudism is therefore alleged to be puritanical and ascetic. The argument against nudism that the human body, or any part of it, is indecent in the sense that it necessarily and almost inevitably arouses passionate feelings, especially in the male sex, is refuted by nearly every observer of nudist practices. Shame, or a painugliness,

ful consciousness of guilt at the sight of the body, disappears almost immediately. This demonstrates that it is due to artificial modesty caused by prevailing conventions of dress, and is not

movement has psychological and socioyoung and the relabetween the sexes, and that it may aid the spread of democracy by eliminating status symbols and artificial insignia of Nudists hold that the

logical significance for the education of the

tions

inequality.

—

Bibliography. Maurice Parmelee, The New Gymnosophy (1927), Nudism in Modern Life (1952) J. C. Fluegel, The Psychology of Nudism (1951) H. C. Warren, "Social Nudism and the Body Taboo," Psychological Review (March 1933); Knight Dunlap, "The Development and Function of Clothing," Jour, of General Psychology (Jan. ;

;

(M. Pe.)

1928).

a Nilotic people, some 300,000 in the 1960s, who live in the marshy and savanna country on both banks of the Nile in the southern Sudan. They are a cattle people, devoted to their herds, although milk and meat must be supplemented by the cul-

NUER,

tivation of millet

and the spearing of

fish,

in

which the

many

streams and lakes of their country abound. Since the land is flooded for part of the year and parched for the rest of it, the people lead a transhumant life, spending the rainy season in permanent villages built on the higher ground and the dry season in riverside camps where there are water and pasturage even at the rivers,

height of the drought. There is little Politically, the Nuer form a group of tribes. unity and much feuding within a tribe the frequent homicides are cattle effected payments of all, by settled,, if they are settled at through the mediation of a priest of the leopard skin. Such unity ;

as they display is

is

owned by one

partly due to the fact that each tribal territory The members of a or other patrilineal clan.

clan have in their territory a slightly privileged status, although they form a minority of its population. The majority belong to other clans or are descendants of the neighbouring Dinka people, large

numbers of

whom

have been subdued by the Nuer and

in-

corporated into their society. In each tribal area the men are divided into six age sets. A boy is initiated into his set at puberty with various rites, including the cutting of six deep cuts, running from ear to ear, across his forehead. All boys initiated during a period of about six years belong to the same set. Then there is a four-year interval during which no initiations take place, at the end of which a new age set is

formed. Marriage, which is polygynous, is marked by the giving of cattle by the bridegroom's people to the bride's kin, both paternal

and maternal, and by betrothal and wedding ceremonies. The levirate is practised; and since it is held that every man must have at least one male heir, it is the custom for a man's kin to marry a wife to his name and to beget children by her should

advocates hold that nudism creates a higher standard of and frankness between the sexes, by removing the last artificial barrier. It helps to destroy the notion that sex is peculiarly, and perhaps perilously, mysterious and harmful, especially in women. It weakens sex segregation and strengthens human solidarity. It encourages comradeship between the sexes in work and play, and emphasizes the disutility of clothing in

he die unmarried.

sincerity

The Nuer clans involve segmentary lineages to which the Nuer attach great importance, and everyone knows his exact genealogical relationship to every member of his lineage and clan. Apart from these agnatic relationships, they attach importance also to kinship ties through their mothers and to affinal ties, and a Nuer can estabhsh a kinsliip link of one sort or another with most

many

of the people he meets.

Its

respects.

—

NUEVA ECIJA— NUFFIELD

736

said to be a very religious people. They pray beasts of their flocks and herds to a spirit associated with the sky, but also thought to be ubiquitous, like the This spirit is conceived of as a single creative spirit in reair.

The Nuer may be

and

sacrifice

mankind

lation to

representations

as a whole, but

it

is

also figured in different

in relation to different social

groups, such as clans,

and age sets, and it may then be symbolized by material forms, often animals or plants. See also Nilotes.

lineages

—

BiBLiocR.\PHy. E. E. Evans-Pritchard, The Nuer (1940), Kinship and Marriage Among the Nuer (1951), Nuer Religion (1956); J. P. Crazzolara, Zur Ceselhchajt und Religion der Nueer (195J); P. P. Howell, Manual oj Nuer Law (1954); M. D. Sahlins, "The Sesmentary Lineage: an Organization of Predatory Expansion," American .-1

Anthropologist, vol. 6J (^1961).

NUEVA

(E. E. E.-P.)

ECIJA,

an agricultural province in central Luzon, Republic of the Philippines, drained by the Pampanga river. Area 2,120 sq.mi. Pop. (194S) 467.769; (1960) 608,362. The eastern part of the province is mountainous but the central and western portions are a part of the level central plain of Luzon. It is Other crops the leading rice producing province (in tonnage). are sugar cane, tobacco, corn (maize), onions and other vegetables. Cabanatuan, pop. (1960) 26.397, on the left bank of Pampanga river, is a chartered city, the provincial capital, and the centre of commercial activity. The western part of the city is primarily commercial (theatres, shops, rice mills, etc.); the eastern part is the site of the government buildings, provincial hospital and

schools, but has

The

some commercial

activity.

Cuyapo and San

principal towns are San Jose, Gapan,

After World

Antonio.

War H, Nueva

Ecija became the principal

centre of dissident activities by the Hukbalahaps until the rebellion

ended

(An. C.)

in the mid-1950s.

NUEVA ESPARTA, a

state in Venezuela, consists of about

70 islands and cays extending for a distance of some 320 mi. along Area 444 sq.mi. Pop. (1961) 89,492, most

the Caribbean coast.

of which live on Margarita Island (q.v.), the largest

and most im-

portant of the group. The capital of the state is La Asuncion. The state has important fisheries; 75% of Venezuela's commercial catch takes place in the northeastern area, of

segment.

There

Pearl fishing a small

is

hammocks, straw

is

amount

which Nueva Esparta forms a major

important but of agriculture

hats, pottery

and roof

less so

than in the past.

and a few handicrafts (L.

tiles.

We.)

NUEVA SAN SALVADOR: see Santa Tecla. NUEVA SEGOVIA, a small department of Nicaragua, the central highlands adjacent to Honduras.

in

Area 1,593 sq.mi.

Pop. (1959 est.) 36,351, primarily rural. The largest town and departmental capital is Ocotal, pop. (1959 est.) 3,723. Most of the population is in highland basins and valleys in the central part of the department; the remainder of the department is very sparsely settled, owing to rugged relief, poor soils and lack of transportation

The

facilities.

some with fertile volcanic soils, wheat, vegetables and subtropical fruits. A second-class road, 15 mi. long, connects Ocotal with the Inter-American highway. (C. F. J.) a province of the Republic of the Pop. Philippines, in north central Luzon. Area 2,627 sq.mi. (1948) 82,718; (1960) 138,090. At the junction of the Sierra Madres and the Central Cordillera, it is principally mountainous terrain and is drained by the headwaters of the Cagayan river settled basins

produce

and

valleys,

coffee, livestock, corn,

NUEVA VIZCAYA,

and

its

longest tributary, the Magat.

Agricultural

products are

rice,

corn,

tobacco,

coconuts and

The capital is Bayombong, pop. (1960) 17,499. Solano, Bambang and Bagabag are other principal towns; all four (An. C.) are in the Magat valley. NUEVO LAREDO, a border city in the Mexican state of livestock.

Pop. Tamaulipas, across the Rio Grande from Laredo, Tex. (1960) 92,627. The town has a bullring and some night life for the visiting tourist. Irrigation of the contiguous area by waters from the Rio Grande brought some growth and wealth to the city in the 1950s. At Nuevo Laredo begins the highway leading to Mexico City (757 mi.) via Monterrey, northern Mexico's industrial centre, Ciudad Victoria, and Ciudad de Valles.

The railway from San Antonio to Mexico City also passes through Nuevo Laredo. The city is a cattle and oil centre of growing importance.

(J. A.

,

NUEVO LEON,

a northern state of

Mexico.

Cw.)

Pop. (1960)

Area, 24,925 sq.mi., with its capital at Monterrey Crossed by paved trunk highways and railways between

1,078,848. {q.v.).

Laredo, Tex., the gulf port of Tampico, and Mexico City, the state is a major industrial section and an important agricultural region lying just north of the Tropic of Cancer. With an average altitude of about 5.500 ft., the Sierra Madre Oriental runs southeasterly through the state. The climate is arid and semiarid in the north, where sandy wastes are covered with cactus and scrub. The eastern slopes are endowed with vegetation, and the mountainous sections are covered with forests; subtropical valleys in the east permit sugarcane cultivation. There is considerable irrigation. Though there are a number of

and streams, none is navigable. Water for irrigation is in drawn from the international Falcon dam, jointly constructed by Mexico and the United States for hydroelectric power, flood control and agricultural purposes. Nuevo Leon produces few minerals, but quantities of cotton, citrus, sugar, cereals (especially maize and wheat) and vegetables. Its fibres have importance, notably ixtle from agaves (cactus), which also furnish distilled liquor, mescal. The main importance Its iron- and steelworks of Nuevo Leon lies in its industries. and smelting plants were the first heavy industry in Latin America, and in addition it supports numerous textile enterprises, a large beer factory and other industrial activities. Nuevo Leon became a state in 1824. It was occupied by U.S. forces in the Mexican War. The state has no Indian population and its standard of living is near the highest in Mexico. It has well-developed air connections and good schools, colleges and hospitals. (J. A. Cw.) rivers

part

NUFFIELD, WILLIAM RICHARD MORRIS,

1st

Viscount (1877-1963),

British automobile manufacturer and As William Richard Morris, he was born at Worcester on Oct. 10, 1877, the son of a farm labourer. The family moved to Oxford in 1880. When William was 15 years of age, his father's illness obliged him to give up his ambition of studying medicine and go out to work. The bicycle era was just beginning among undergraduates, and William set up a repair shop behind his home in James street, Cowley. He also built machines Later he sold and to order and raced his models with success. maintained motorcycles, building as many as his limited finances allowed, and naturally extended his interest to cars. In 1903 he took in a partner, but the garage went bankrupt. In 1904, with only his own tools left and a £50 debt, he started again. That same year he married Elizabeth Maud Anstey (d. 1959), whose parents There were lived in Oxford and who also was a keen bicyclist. no children. By dint of hard work and constant application, Morris' business began to prosper again. He set up works in Cowley, and the first Morris-Oxford, an 8.9-h.p. two-seater, appeared in 1913, to be followed by the equally famous Morris-Cowley (11.9 h.p.), after he had visited the United States with a designer and had contracted to buy an engine to fit into his English chassis. Then, as later, Morris aimed to produce small, reliable vehicles at the low prices made possible by standardization and mass production, and in doing so he revolutionized the British automobile industry much as Henry Ford had done in the U.S. Morris Motors Ltd., founded in 1919, survived the 1920-21 motor slump because

philanthropist.

Morris boldly slashed his prices (during 1921 the price of the Cowley four-seater dropped from £525 to £341). From then on expanded, and in 1923 the flouris.hing Morris Garages In the same year Morris founded Morris built the first MG. Commercial Cars Ltd.. and in 1927 he acquired Wolseley Motors Ltd. Morris Motors Ltd. was reorganized in 1935-36 to include these three companies, and it also absorbed Riley (Coventry) Ltd. in 1938. When the firm merged with the Austin Motor company in 1952, the resulting company, the British Motor corporation, was the third largest automobile company in the world. his business

NUISANCE—NULLIFICATION Morris was made a baronet in 1929 and a baron in 1934. In 1938 he became Viscount Nuffield. From about 1933 onward he began to relegate administrative control of his businesses to his senior executives he never had any close colleagues and to devote himself to charitable works, each of which he planned with great care and to which his donations exceeded £30,000,000 in

—

—

Among

all.

the principal beneficiaries are hospitals;

war

charities;

Morris employees; the Nuffield Institute for Medical Research, Oxford (founded 1935); the Nuffield trust (1936); Nuffield college, Oxford (1937); and the Nuffield foundation (1943), which care of the poor social wellbeing aims to further "health and education," A man of determination and an enlightened employer. Lord Nuffield was admired as an outstanding figure of British industry and revered as a great philanthropist. He died at his home near Huntercombe, Henley-on-Thames, on Aug. 22, 1963. See P. W. S. .Andrews and E. Brunner, Lije of Lord Nuffield (1955). (M. Th.) .

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

NUISANCE,

a legal term used to denote a

human

activity

harmful or offensive to others. A distinction must be drawn between a public nuisance and a private nuisance. A pubhc nuisance is an offense against the state, either 1 because the activity occurred or the condition was created in a public place or on public land, or (2) because or a physical condition on land that

(

is

)

to prevent within its borders the

ment and application

by way of criminal proceedings, injunction or physical However, the same activity or conduct that con-

stitutes a public nuisance to the

community may

also create a

private nuisance to the neighbouring landowners.

Thus, the conduct of a business in violation of a zoning ordinance creates a public nuisance, but it may also be actionable as a private nuisance by neighbouring residential landowners upon proof of decrease in

market value of their homes as a result of this business activity. Since a private nuisance is based upon interference with the use it is only actionable by persons who have

and enjoyment of land,

a property interest in such land.

Where

the interference inflicts

no physical damage to the land but merely makes its use and enjoyment less comfortable, the courts look at the character of the neighbourhood to determine whether the activity or condition is an unreasonable interference with the use and enjoyment of the neighbouring landowners. Thus, a factory in a predominantly residential area may be a private nuisance while the same business in a commercial area would not be. On the contrary, an activity

damage to the neighbouring land be held to be an actionable nuisance irrespective of the character of the neighbourhood. These are usually cases involving vibrations that cause walls to crack or noxious vapours that destroy vegetation. The judicial remedies available in case of a private nuisance are an action at law for money damages or a suit in equity to enjoin the operation or continuance of the activity or condition. Where the abatement of a nuisance by injunction will impose an excessive hardship on the community, the usual practice of the courts is to deny an injunction and award money damages for the injury suffered by the neighbouring landowners. Illustrations of this are cases involving factories employing many workers in the community, who would be deprived of their livelihood if the factory were closed or forced to move. (R. R. Re.) See also Tort; Noise and Its Control. or condition that causes physical will

NUKUS, Socialist

capital

of

the

Kara-Kalpak Autonomous Soviet

Republic (part of the Uzbek S.S.R.) in the U.S.S.R.,

is

The

best ex-

movement in his state. Calhoun and his who had produced in South Carolina an incipient form

of the doctrine, disclaimed originality for their basic ideas, arguing that they were derived from Jefferson's Kentucky resolutions of 1798, Madison's Virginia resolutions of 1798 and report of 1799,

and the Kentucky resolutions of 1799.

The

resolutions that Jefferson drafted for the

Kentucky

legis-

lature in 1798 asserted that the constitution of the United States

compact subscribed to by the states, which had delegated powers to the federal government and retained all others; "that the government created by the compact was not made the exclusive or final judge of the extent of the powers delegated to itself"; and that the states could declare null and void within their boundaries those acts that they deemed not authorized by specific

abatement.

1832 in South Carolina.

to forestall a secession

precursors,

was

either

in

planations of nullification are to be found in the writings of John C. Calhoun iq.v.), who may have promulgated the doctrine in order

the community.

former are obstructions of a public road and the pollution of streams, while the running of houses of prostitution and the keeping of explosives are examples of the latter. A private nuisance is an activity or condition that causes an interference with the use and enjoyment of the neighbouring privately owned lands, without, however, constituting an actual invasion of the possession of the neighbours. Thus, excessive noise, noxious vapours, disagreeable odours and vibrations may constitute a private nuisance to the neighbouring landowners, although there has been no physical invasion of their lands either above or below the surface. A public nuisance, as such, is only actionable by the state,

enforcement of an act of the

federal government not authorized by the U.S. constitution as interpreted by the highest legislative authority of the state. The doctrine reached its most advanced point of theoretical develop-

the activity or condition affects the morals, safety or health of Illustrations of the

737

bank of the Amu-Darya river at the head of its delta 18 km. (11 mi.) from the railway station of Khodzheili. Pop. (1959) 39,000. Founded in 1933 as a town, Nukus has a large alfalfa-processing plant and a number of small light industries mostly producing food and clothing. There are a teachers' training college, a medical training school, a museum and a theatre. (G. E. Wr.) NULLIFICATION (State Interposition) was a doctrine that asserted the right of a state in the American federal union situated on the right

a

the U.S. constitution.

Although the Kentucky resolutions of 1799 used the word nulliand referred to the states as sovereign and independent, they were not incompatible with the view of Madison and others among his contemporaries that sovereignty in the United States was divided between the federal and state governments. Neither Jefferson nor Madison repudiated the view generally held by the framers of the constitution that the federal judiciary possessed an fication

implied power to pass upon the constitutionality of federal and state legislation, but they denied that the states must accept its decisions as final in

all

cases.

Calhoun's view of the judiciary was the same as Madison's, but he rejected unequivocally and explicitly the theory of divided sovereignty. He based his interpretation of nullification on the premise that each of the states was completely sovereign, and as such, when acting through a special convention capable of ratifying the U.S. constitution or revising the state constitiition, could either nullify an unconstitutional federal act or

withdraw from

the union.

Calhoun's most distinctive contribution to the theory of nullification was his rationale of it as an integral part of the American

system of government, with aims that were positive, conservative, peaceful and national. For Calhoun, nullification was the means by which a minority in the nation, if it happened to be in the majority in a single state, could utilize a state government to force the national majority either to compromise with the minority by consenting to a revision of federal legislation or to obtain a constitutional amendment that would grant an undisputed authority to the federal government to overrule the constitutional He expressed confidence that the

opinion of the nullifying state.

outcome of nullification would be compromise or conamendment, for, he argued, the national majority would surely prefer peaceful and orderly procedures to the alternatives

practical

stitutional

of anarchy or civil war.

What happened in South Carolina and the national capital in 1832 and 1833, he could reasonably interpret as a vindication of his In Nov. 1832 a special state convention in South expectations. Carolina, taking the position that the delegated power of congress to levy imports was intended solely for the purpose of raising revenue

and

manufacand 1832 unconstitutional, and void in the state after

for no such purpose as encouraging

tures, declared the tariff laws of 1828

announced that they would become

null

NUMANTIA— NUMBER

738 Feb.

I,

1S33, and

warned that secession would be the consequence

development going back to prehistoric times and into the republican era and thus are not to be assigned to any single man. Numa's calendar reform involved the addition of two months to an original ten and the assignment of regular dates for the annual religious festivals, thus fixing the days of business and holiday. According to tradition he built the temple of Janus, whose doors were open in times of war and closed in times of peace; appointed the first flamens (priests) of Jupiter, Mars and of religious

continuing

of federal coercion.

On Dec. 10, 1832, Andrew Jackson issued a presidential proclamation denouncing and refuting the doctrine of nullification, and in Jan. 1833 a bill was introduced in congress authorizing the However, the president to use force to collect import duties. same congress that had passed the tariff bill of 1832 in June and that was to approve the Force bill adopted the compromise tariff of 1833 on March i. From Calhoun's standpoint. South Carolina's action had forced representatives of the national majority in congress to reconsider and to compromise with the minority. Never in U.S. history has nullification, as it was expounded by Calhoun, been tested in all of its ramifications, although, before 1865, one of its strands or another was present in numerous federal-state disputes.

down

Quirinus; organized the Vestal Virgins along the lines of the cult appointed the 12 Salii to supervise the worship of Mars Gradivus; established the Regia; and appointed the first pontifex maximiis.

at Alba;

Several corruptions in the legend are obvious a supposed relaPythagoras, which is chronologically impossible, and the clear forgery of 14 books in Latin and Greek relating to philosophy and pontifical law supposedly written by Numa and uncovered at the foot of the Janiculum in 181 B.C. They were ordered to be burned as tending to undermine the estabhshed :

tionship with

In South Carolina, the one state where an ordinance of nullification was approved by a special state convention, the controversy was settled before attempts were actually made to stop collection of import duties. Following the supreme court decision in the case of Brown v. Board of Education (1954), declaring racial segregation in the public schools to be unconstitutional, nullification was once again discussed in the south by defenders of segregation, but no state government chose to imitate what South Carolina did in 1832. Instead, the course generally followed was to adopt state-interposi-

religion. The story of his cormection with the nymph Egeria, who purportedly inspired him in much of his religious reform, is likewise a comparatively late interpolation. Bibliography. Llvy, i, 18-21; Plutarch, Numa; Dionysius of Halicarnassus, ii, 58-76; Cicero, De republica, ii, 13-15; J. B. Carter, The Religion of Numa (1906) H. Last in Cambridge Ancient History, K. Glaser in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopddie vii, pp. 374 £f. (1928) (R. B. Ld.) der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, 1242-52 (1936). means a positive integer such as 17, a real quantity such as ir or 2, or an element of any of various abstract mathematical generalizations of the system of positive integers and the system of real numbers. These generalizations include

—

;

;

tion resolutions similar to the Virginia resolutions of 1798

and

avoid compliance wherever and whenever litigation, evasive lation or an absence of federal-court decrees would permit. Bibliography.

— Herman V. Ames

(ed.), State

to

legis-

Documents on Federal

Frederic Bancroft, Calhoun and the South Carolina Movement (1928) Chauncey Samuel Boucher, The NulliControversy in South Carolina (1916); Charles Grove Haines, The Role of the Supreme Court in American Government and Politics, John R. Schmidhauser, The Supreme 17)10-1864, 2 vol. (1944, 1957) Court as Final Arbiter in Federal-State Relations, i^Sg-ig^y (1958). (H. S. S.)

Relations (1906)

;

Nullification

;

fication

NUMBER

—

complex numbers, quaternions and other hypercomplex nummodular numbers and transfinite cardinal and ordinal numall these types of numbers will be defined below.

bers,

bers

;

;

NUMANTIA,

a Celtiberian town near modern Soria on the upper Douro (Duero) river in Spain, lay on a hill at the junction of two rivers. It was founded on the site of earlier settlements (from 2000 B.C.?) by Iberians who penetrated the Celtic highlands about 300 B.C. Later it formed the centre of Celtiberian resistance to Rome, withstanding attacks by Cato (195), Q. Fulvius Nobilior (153), M. Claudius Marcellus (152), Q. Pompeius (141-140)

and

Popillius

with

60,000

Laenas

(139-138). Finally Scipio Aemilianus, 4,000 Numantines, blockaded it by establishing six miles of continuous lines of circumvallation, with two main and five subsidiary camps at intervals. After a siege of eight months Numantia was reduced by hunger and the troops

survivors capitulated resistance

in

against

(133).

Celtiberia

to

Its

Rome.

destruction ended

all

Numantia was

serious

rebuilt

by

Augustus, but it had little importance, except as a stage on the road between Caesaraugusta (Saragossa) and Asturica (Astorga). In the nth century a.d. a village named Garray was built at the

The

Numantia was excavated by Adolf Schulten (1905-12), who revealed the Celtiberian town and Scipio's siegeworks as well as other Roman camps in the neighfoot of the

hill.

site

of

bourhood.

—

BiBLioGR-'kPHY. A. Schulten, Numantia, 4 vol. and atlas (1914-31), and a small monograph, Geschichte von Numantia (1933) Cambridge Ancient History, vol. viii, ch. 10 (1930). (H. H. So.) ;

NUMA POMPILIUS, successor to Romulus as king of Rome He can be accepted as a historical personage, but many of the details of his reign must be regarded with skepticism. His name indicates a Sabine origin and indeed he is said to have come from the town of Cures in the Sabine district and to have been the son-in-law of Titus Tatius. In legend he is the peaceful counterpart of the more bellicose Romulus, whom he followed after an interregnum of a year during which the sovereignty had been exercised by the members of the senate in rotation. He is credited with the founding of nearly (traditionally 715-672 B.C.).

the early religious institutions, the formulation of the religious calendar and the organization of the priestly colleges at Rome. These reforms were, however, undoubtedly the result of centuries all

POSITIVE INTEGERS Definition of Cardinal Numbers. tive integer arose in prehistoric times

fact that the

number

—The

concept of a posi-

from recognition of the

of elements in any class (say the

number

ways (say by a pile of stones). The essential idea is that there must be a one-one correspondence between the sheep in the herd and the stones in the pile. By this we mean that it must be possible to pair off one of sheep in a herd) can be represented in various

sheep with each stone, in such a way that no sheep is counted twice, and no sheep and no stones are left over. In the same spirit, modern mathematicians define a cardinal number as a mark associated with a class, and with all other classes in one-one correspondence with this particular class. Thus, the integer 5 is the mark associated with the class of fingers on a hand and with all other classes whose elements can be paired off with the fingers on a hand.

A

large variety of

marks

tegers have been developed

discussed elsewhere

The

to represent the different positive in-

by

different civilizations.

These are

Numerals and Numeral Systems).

{see

positional notation developed

by the Hindus and Arabs,

in

which the position of a digit to the left of the decimal point indicates the power of the radix or base ten involved, is incomparably superior to earlier systems. However, it is not to be supposed that the base ten has any unique qualifications. Our interest here is not in systems of notation or effective computation (see Arithmetic; Computing Machines, Electronic; Office Machines and Appliances) but in the fundamental ideas which underlie the use of number. Two of these are addition and multiplication.

Addition and Multiplication.

—

and b are the integers having no elements in common, and if these classes be combined to form a new class 5, then the integer s representing the class 5 is called the sum of a and b, and we write s = a -\- b. From this definition we easily prove the commutative and as(cardinal numbers) for two classes

If a

A and B

sociative laws of addition,

a+b

b + a + c)=^{a + b)+c

=

a+{.b

(i) (2)

NUMBER Here and below, the equality sign means that the classes represented by the two sides of the equation can be placed in one-one correspondence. Thus, both a + (b + c) and {a -\- b) + c represent the combination of three classes A, B,

elements, having

C without common

elements, respectively. be a classes, each of which contains the same number b of elements, while no two of these classes have an element in common. If all these classes are combined to form a new class P, the integer p representing P is called the product a, b, c

may

Similarly, there

=

of a and b, written p

From

this definition,

a

X

b.

one can also prove the commutative and

associative laws of multiplication,

aXb = b Xa aX (bXc) = (aXb) Xc aX

+ c) = (aXb) +

{b

Brief further discussions of laws (i)-(s)

X

(b

c)

-\-

the

is

number

of elements in a rectangular array of

and b -\- c columns. This array is the sum of two rectangular arrays without common elements, having respectively This is a rows and b columns, and a rows and c columns.

we

+ (aX

c).

The laws (i)-(s)

are often called the five fundamental laws

X

1

=

a

(6)

Other laws also follow from a detailed logical analysis of the situation. For example, equality satisfies the reflexive law, that a = a; the symmetric law, that a = b implies b = a; and the transitive law, that a = b and b = c imply a = c. Moreover, addition and multiplication are single-valued operations, so that il a = b, then a -\- c = b -\- c and aX c = b X c. To explain the relation of such laws to our definitions, consider the statement that a = b implies a -{- c = b -\- c. This means that if there is a one-one correspondence between two classes A and B, and if C is any class having no elements in common with A or B, then there is a one-one correspondence between the combination (sum) of A and C and that of B and C. However, a good understanding of the laws of arithmetic is possible on the basis of (i)-(6) alone. Ordinal or Inductive Definition. In the last two sections the concept of a positive integer was based on the concept of a class and general principles of the logic of classes. But it is also possible to take a more formalistic view and to base arithmetic on laws (i)-(6) without referring to the idea that integers repreevident.

—

must

first

know

tive integer follows

that a

-|-

1

is

-\-

1

-|-

1

4-

= = 1 n+ = \

-\-

I

1

the order of the integers

1

=

\)

we

-M =

=

(i.e.,

6, S -I- 2

(a

+

b)

which posi-

+

(2')

l

readily get the addition table. 5

-t-

(1

-t-

1)

=

the multiplication

(5 -h 1)

-I-

1

=

1

+ n)+

special

1)

= (aX6) + (aX

1)

= (aX6)+a X

of the distributive laws (5) and (6). Thus, we get 5 S 2 5 (1 -f 1) = (S 1) -f- S = 10, etc.

X

=

is

and

(n

by definition, (1 1)+ = («+)+

-(-

late (iv),

it

1,

and includes n+

X

«)+

-f-

= n+

=

(n

-f

1)+ by

-|-

by which m-t-l

the set of positive integers in for

true includes

=

includes n; hence,

if it

as-

definition.

1

l-l-wis by postu-

includes every positive integer.

The other proofs make

similar use of postulate (iv).

Using

it,

we can further prove the cancellation laws a a

m= Xm =

a

-{-

a

X

-\-

n implies n implies

m= m=

n n

(7) (0

y^O)

(8) of the laws of cancellation in terms of the concepts of

The proof

and one-one correspondence alone, and without the use of finite induction, is difficult for reasons which will appear later in the discussion of transfinite cardinal numbers.

—

^

Order Properties. We can easily define the relation a 6 in terms of classes, to mean that there is a one-one correspondence subset class of a between a class A containing a elements and a B containing b elements. In this definition, we include B as a subset of

From

itself.

this definition,

multiply inequalities.

a^b a^ 6 The

added

+ c^b + c X c^ 6 X c

implies a

implies a

restriction c

^

easy to prove that one can add and

it is

Thus,

conse-

imply a

=

5,

X

Hence, we can say that the identities (2), (5), (6) imply all tell us how to add and multiply any two positive integers. G. Peano put this principle in an even more striking form about 1900. He first characterized formally the sequence of positive integers by the following postulates: (i) each positive the arithmetic of positive integers, since they

(9) (10)

^ 0)

provide for later generalizations; it is automatically Again, a 6 and b

to

^

^c

^

fulfilled in the case of positive integers.

In addition,

c.

^

^

a,- if both hold, then a = b 6 or 6 (11) for any a, b, either However, the proof of this, like the proof of (7)-(8), is not easy without the use of finite induction; i.e., no simple proof based on the concepts of class and correspondence is known. Peano's definitions show that we can define addition and multiplication of positive integers in terms of the order relation. This is because m+ is defined by the properties that m+ > m, and w + It is curious that we can conversely that n > m implies n In fact, define order in terms of the operation of addition.

a

-\-

X

=

.

b has a solution in positive integers if

and only

if

a


— 1) The sign in the last case was investigated or by P. G. L. Dirichlet et al. Since —1 is a quadratic nonresidue of p, and since the product of an even (odd) number of quadratic nonresidues is a quadratic residue (nonresidue), the sign is

Hence

if

s +

mod

(—

1

+

is

/>

m

where

1)",

series 1,

.

.

number

the

is

\{p

.,

—

+

p.

—

of quadratic nonresidues in the

An interesting expression found for m h{— p)), where h{— p) denotes the num-

1).

1) — \{\ -\\{p ber of classes of positive, primitive binary quadratic forms of discriminant — Ap (see Binary Quadratic Forms, below). In particular, it follows that there are more quadratic residues in the first half of the interval from i to p — 1, than in the second

+

is

+

a prime 4» 3. Numerous generalizations of Fermat's and Wilson's theorems have been found. One due to Gauss (i8oi) is as follows: if P dehalf,

^

if

is

notes the product of the integers less than and prime to n, then P = — \ mod n if n is 4, /»', or 2/>*, where p denotes an odd prime;

P =

but

mod n

\

—A quadratic residue =

x'^

mod m

a

of

m

is

solvable for

is

sider the squares

—

1^,

an integer a prime to m such that Other integers a prime to m are Let m be an odd prime p, and con-

x.

called quadratic nonresidues.

—

•,{p

2'^,

—

Since p\x'

1)^.

y^irapliesthat

which can hold (if x, y are distinct numbers of the set 1, 2, , p — 1) only if y = /> — *, it is plain that there are exactly ^{p — 1) incongruent quadratic residues of p. Example: every square prime to p is of the form pn -\- R, where if = = = = = = if i? 1 or if /? i? /» 11, /> 3, 1; 5, 4; 1, 4, 9, ^ p\x

y or x

-|-

y,

5(= 42),or3(=

52).

By

extensive experiment Euler had found in 1783 a theorem of great simplicity, expressing a deep property of numbers. In 1785 A. M. Legendre rediscovered the same result, which he formulated as follows. Let p and q denote distinct odd primes. Then unless

and

y'^

p=

=

p

q

q

=

3

(mod

two congruences

4) the

x'^

=

p (mod

g)

= q (mod p) are both solvable or both unsolvable; but if = 3 (mod 4), one and only one of the two congruences

solvable.

is

Legendre introduced the useful symbol

+

1

0,

if

if

a

(a\p), defined to equal

a quadratic residue of ^; — 1, if a the above result takes the form

is

is

a nonresidue;

= (-

iP\q){q\P) for

any

ity

law; but his

He

same law, and

of 18, discovered the

^

=

l\p)

= ± The

In 1795, Gauss, at the age after a year of strenuous

a^b

{b\p)

a

= (-

1)»"^«;

mod

1

mod

p;

iab\p)

(2)

=-liip=±3

8, (2\p)

=

{a\p)ib\p);

and by another device,

usefulness of the Legendre symbol

mod

(3)

=

{2\p)

1

if

8.

was increased by K. G.

Jacobi, who, defining (a\pip2 (

^

2''

257,

13, 17, 19, 31, 67, 127, 257.

173, 179, 181, 191, 197, 211, 223, 229, 233, 239, 251;

been proved composite

for

p

=

has

it

101, 103, 109, 137, 139, 149,

157, 199, 193 and 227 (H. S. Uhler, 1948-49), 241 (R. E. Powers, 1934), 257 (M. Kraitchik and D. H. Lehmer, 1932). Several primes larger than 2'" — 1 (E. Lucas, 1876) were found in 1951. The national bureau of standards Western Automatic computer gave, in 1952, the five next Mersenne primes 2p — 1 (p = 521, 607, 1,279, 2,203, 2,281).

The

ancient Greeks

knew

that regular polygons of 2''m sides, be constructed by the Euclidean (straightGauss, at the age of 17, proved that these constructions are so performable if and only if w is a product of distinct Fermat primes, i.e., primes that are of the form F„ = 22"-f 1. If M = 0, 1, 2,3,4, we get the primes 3, 5, 17, 257, 65,537. But F„ is composite for n = S, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 18, 23,

where m edge and

=

3 or 5, can

circle) operations.

36, 38, 73.

1.

REPRESENTATION BY FORMS

Binary Quadratic Forms.

—Many

special quadratic forms,

+

y^ -\- z^, had been investigated by parsuch as x^ ± ay^ or x^ ticular methods, before Lagrange and (especially) Gauss systematized their theory, and established general methods of attack. The guiding general principle was the linear transformation. Consider for example a form in two variables and of the second A degree {i.e., a binary quadratic form) / = ax^ -\- bxy -{- cy'^. number m is said to be represented by the form / if there exists a pair of integers u, v not both zero (called a representation of m by /) satisfying au- -\- buv -\- cv^ = m. The representation is if the g.c.d. {u, ii) is 1. We shall give a version of Gauss's method of finding whether a number vi is represented

called primitive

by/.

The of

basic idea

is

that

forms equivalent, for

we

treat not / alone, but

this purpose, to

/.

If

an entire

we apply

class

to / a

linear transformation

32).

if ^ = — 1 12. (mod 4 and mod 3); Other reciprocity laws have occurred in various generalizations; e.g., one involving complex integers (see Algebraic Numbers, below) occurred in Gauss's researches on biquadratic

and

5.

=

II.

found a complete proof. Later he found 6 different proofs; and more than 50 proofs have appeared since. The result at the end of the preceding section can now be expressed by a*"^') = {a\p) mod p, true also if a = 0. Hence follow the following properties of the Legendre symbol: (i)

(-

6(

called this the reciproc-

effort

(a\p)

equal to the

example

number mysticism number is an integer than itself. The five least are:

A

of the Pythagoreans (500 B.C.).

l)i Q, a-i^ 0, and af is positive ^byY -\- dy^. Hence for any x and y not both zero; accordingly, / represents only numbers of one sign, that of a. But \i d < 0, / represents both

So

7,

8',

12,

11,

+

cifically, positive-definite if also

If

>

rf

>

a

0;

0,

we

call / definite, spe-




is

-

2y0 was completed

for

n

1940 by C. L. Siegel. speaking, genera have usually been characterof sets of (more or less) easily computable invariants; Gauss (1801. n = 2), F. G. Eisenstein ("1847, « = 3), H.J. S. Smith (1867, n^3). H. Minkowski (1884), B. W. Jones and G. Pall (1944). The most important of these are illustrated in the following section for n = 3. Equivalent forms are in the same genus. A genus consists of a finite number of classes. If n ^ 4, indefinite forms are in genera of one class; this is true also if n = 3, save in certain exceptional cases. It is probable that there are only finitely many classes of primitive, positive-definite forms in genera of one class; there are none in more than 35 variables (W. Magnus, 1938), and probably none in more than 10 variables. As an example, the three primitive forms of discriminant — 44, preceding (3) in the above section on Binary Quadratic Forms, constitute a genus of three classes. The form «5 «^ is in a genus of one class only if 1 ^ n g 8. Some writers prefer to define class by the use of transformations of determinant Perhaps the 1, instead of Gauss's -j- 1. main reason for preferring 1 is the following theorem formulated by Gauss: every genus of primitive, binary, quadratic forms of discriminant D contains the same number of classes. 3 only in

=

ra

remarkable formula for

this

by Eisenstein, and was proved and

3

m

fi of a

genus was shown to be equal to the weights of certain

re-

lated genera.

These results were generalized in 1935 by Siegel, to yield a formula for the numbers of representations (suitably weighted) of forms in k variables by a genus of forms in n variables; the case ^ = 1 is that of representation of following paragraph.

number

Let/i(i4) equal the

Wi

A

by/i.

in the

Then

7ri"ylJ"->5(^)

TO;,

(0

T{in}-di

+1

+

numbers stated

of representations of

"+"+MA)

/.(-4)

where d denotes the determinant of/, T(^n) is the well-known gamma-function (for which Tim) = 1 •2-3(m — 1) if w is a positive integer), S(A) denotes the product extended over all primes />, SiA) = X (2)-X (3)-X (5)-x(7)- -where •

•

•

=

X(^)

lim

r

—>

is

a-i

irrational,

oo -f

1

=

.

.

flo

H

;

then write

ai

+~ 02

obtained by stopping at a„, can be proved that \e

The

,(/.„,

+

a2

^^d so

>

1

--^ —,

ai+

Indeed, we

-r-

>

q„

+

positive.

.

1 a positive integer and 62 the process cannot terminate.

—=

az

1

=

9 oo is

+ ai +

ao

•

bi

9„)

on.

Since 8

= 1,?„>0

called the nth convergent to

is

is

rational fraction

6.

It

-— 1)f{- Og, - 04), an invariant of f^ under rational linear transformalatter is needed foj our present purpose only when of the form s'-k, where ^ is a quadratic residue mod p*"/

= (-

C//3)

The former tions. The

+ iz^ are represent-

ative of the two classes of a certain genus of determinant 10.

p>2, (a, b)„ = (- l\p)'^'(m\p)'''(m'\p)'' p = 2, {a, b). = (- 1)""-" '"''-'"*(2|m)°'(2|m')''

conditions are expressed in terms of the characters

4 (r

24

,

(r

— 7) 4

+.

(_3

24 ,

example, consider a = 40,

+ 7)

,

(r-7) ,

14

14

,, (r-9) --^-3+ -6-' *'-(,_ (r-t-9)

**- (7^9)

=

ie

9)

4

4

^= (r-7) z

62

Hereafter, the period 62, is recurs. The preceding discussion should help to explain Gauss's method of reduction of binary quadratic forms of a positive nonsquare discriminant D. Instead of a single reduced form (as in the case < 0), each class contains a chain of reduced forms. In the case oi f — iOx' — ASxy -\- 12y' this chain consists of the •

D

•

•

,

—

NUMBERS, THEORY OF = —

7xy -~ ly'', 3 = + + 3; x -> — y, y, y y -*- x -\- 3y, - — y, y->-« — 4y, giving 05 = 1.

Generally,

+ if

—

l)'

F

x'\
^^^^

,/^}i^5.

W^'^^C

V%^^-^

fevC::-

w

^^'^^A V '

BRITISH COINS 3. Carausius, 1. Ancient British, mid-lst century B.C., gold. 2. Cunobelinus, about A.D. 10-40, Colchester, gold. 286-293, London, bronze. 4. Early Saxon, 7th century, London, gold. 5. Mercia (Peada), 7th century, silver. 8. Northumbrian Vikings, about 903, 6. Offa, 759-796, Mercia, silver. 7. Alfred, 871-901, London, silver.

11. Henry III, silver. 9. Aelhelred II, 979-1016, Oxford, silver. 10. William I, 1066-87, Oxford, silver. gold. 12. Edward III, about 1355, London, silver. 13. Henry VIII, about 1509, London, silver. 16. Commonwealth, 1656, London, 14. Elizabeth I, 1561, London, silver. 15. Charles I, 1625, London, silver. (Ireland) about 1280, Waterford, silver. 19. Alexander silver. 17. Charles II, 1663, London, gold. 18. Edward 21. Edward III, 136020. James VI of Scotland, 1592, Edinburgh, gold. III of Scotland, about 1280, silver. 69, Calais, gold. 22. Henry VII, 1489, London, gold

Cnut.

1216-72, London,

I

,

/

NUMISMATICS

Plate

^4iai^'

,-^A

^^'

'-i0u'

J

21

ORIENTAL COINS 1-A PERSIAN. 1. Daric, 4lh century B.C., gold. 2. Arsacid, Phraates IV, 28-27 BC silver 3 Sa^nPan Shapur I, A.D. 241-272, silver. 4. Safavid, Sultan Husain, Isfahan mint, 1703, silver 5-10 ISLAMIC S Umayyad caliphate, dinar, 700, gold. 6. Umayyad caliphate, dirham, Wasit mint, 724 silver 7 Aimohad al' Murtada. double dinar, c. 1250, gold. g. Aimohad, square dirham, Fes mint, 13th century A Dsilv^ 9 khanid, Uljaitu, Erzurum mint, 1304, silver. 10. Ottoman, Mustafa III, Istanbul, 1760, gold. li-lS INDIAN 11. Punchmarked, c. 3rd-2nd century B.C., silver. 12. Indo-Greek, Menander, mid-2nd centu;y B sflVeT iV Kushan, Kanishka, early 2nd century A.D., gold. 14. Gupta, Kumaragupta, c. 414-^55, gold. 15. Oh'ind, Samanta Deva early 10th century A.D., silver. 16. Delhi, Ala-ud-Din Muhammad, 1313, silver. 17. Mogul, Jahang" z" diacal muhur (Pisces) Agra mint, 1618, gold. 18. Mysore, Tipu Sultan, rupee, 1787, silver. 19-21 FAR EAST. 1

*°- "'"""

llsi-ll^'/TJ 4.661-1722, brass. •o^ 21. Japan, '\^-^~^-^'".°r-X"'^ ichi-bu gin, 1837, silver ,

2°-

•^•'''"'

Sheng-Tsu, board

of

revenue mint.

-.^s^m

V

NUMISMATICS

Plate VI

I 18TH-

AND 19TH-CENTURY NORTH AMERICAN COINS

!xico City Minted reign of Philip V and bearing his stamp. I Spanish-American gold ingot issued under the ^'''^ 3. FiflyJesuits in 1707 at the.r Tubac and dated 1744. 2. Gold coin-ingot issued by the ^T3es. Anglo-Irish coinage proper began with silver pennies and halfpence of John (the only coins to bear his name, which did not appear on English coins), some with the triangle design, some with the AngeDublin. Waterford, Cork. Limerick and vin star and crescent. Trim were striking silver (increasingly base) from groat down to farthing from the 13th to the 15th centuries. The "three crowns" coinage with the saltire cross (the Fitzgerald arms) beside the shield came in with Edward IV and was continued by Richard III and Henry VII. "Harp" groats were struck at Dublin under Henry \TII (with initials of his queens), followed by his much baser issues. Gold was never coined, but copper was introduced quite early. In Ireland as in England the English Ci\il War produced a number of siege-pieces, notably the Inchiquin and Ormonde money. James II for his Irish campaign issued his vast "gunmoney" series (usually, in fact, of brass), including crowns and half-crowns, to be redeemed in silver when he should regain the throne. Irish coinage was discontinued in 1822: from then on Irish needs were ser\-ed by English coinage. In 1928 the coinage of the Irish Free State (later the Republic of Ireland) was introduced, with, obverse, harp on all denominations, and reverses bearing a range of animal, bird and fish designs, admirably conceived

—

and delicately executed. 9. Isle

of

Man and Channel

Islands.

—The

Isle of

Man

Jersey "liberation penny."

its

autonomy has produced

to

those of

still

—

10. Colonies and Commonwealth. British colonial issues, begun under EUzabeth I with silver for the East India company, were extended in the 1 7th centurj'. New England colonists struck the silver "pine tree" and "oak tree" money from 1652 Charles II :

coined silver rupees at Bombay for the East India company with the compan}'"s arms; at the same period silver and copper "hog money" (obverse, boar; reverse, ship) was issued for Bermuda;

and James II struck tin coins, with an equestrian portrait, for American plantations. The 18th centur>' saw few ofl&cial attempts to pro\ide colonial coinages; thus currency in the British West Indies was based on Spanish. Portuguese and Brazilian gold and especially on Spanish silver dollars, normally cut and counterstamped. Spanish dollars were similarly used in the early 19th century at Sierra Leone. In the 19th century, however, colonial issues proper multipUed. That of the Ionian Islands, from 1819, was among the earliest. In Malta one-third farthings were issued by William IX and Victoria. Gibraltar had copper from 1842. Farther afield token bronze had been coined for Nova Scotia and New Brunswick from 1823. giving way to official issues later; a general coinage for Canada appeared in 1858. Ceylon's coinage began with bronze half- and quarter- farthings and silver three-halfpence from 1838. The private raj of Sarawak had coinage from 1841, and from 1863 this showed the portraits of the Brooke rajas. Australian coinage of sovereigns started as early as 1855 (the result of the gold rush).

In Cape Colony httle coinage was produced until the Boer republic of South Africa (which produced Paul Kruger's portrait-coinage of gold, silver and bronze) had been incorporated in the Union. Silver and bronze for Hong Kong began in 1863, and closely succeeding years witnessed the start of colonial issues for Jamaica, Cyprus

a contrast

colonial character.

between

their coinages

and

Coins of the colonies have con-

tinued in general to show a crowned bust of the monarch; those of the self-governing commonwealth powers have exchanged a crowned for an uncrowned bust. New Zealand issues, with Maori designs prominent, began only in 1933.

Indian and Pakistani coin-

have grown out of the former imperial Indian coinage, the British sovereign's head being replaced in India by pictorial designs and in Pakistan by calligraphic and SNTnbolic devices. Regrouping of British possessions in western, central and eastern Africa has necessitated coinage changes, including autonomous issues for Ghana. The coins of the Central African Federation (the Rhodesias and Nyasaland) ages, each bilingual (with English retained),

showed the uncrowned bust of autonomous authority Nigeria and the east African territories show the crowned bust. Concerning later estabhshed coinages of the smaller colonies, mention may be made of that of the Fiji Islands from 1934, often showing a turtle, and of the Seychelles from 1939. In Sarawak the coinage of the Brooke rajas ended with the cession of the territory to the crown ;

in 1946.

Finally

it

may

be noted that the issue in 1929 of bronze

and halves in Lundy Island with the portrait of its owner, C. Harman, was held to be illegal. In general the coins of full commonwealth members and of

"puffins"

M.

colonies aUke have emphasized on their reverses either national symbols or national heraldic de\ices. while the inscription around the sovereign's portrait has shown a growing tendency to be rendered in English instead of Latin. (C. H. V. S.)

first

had its own coinage, in bronze, from 1709 to 1733 under the earls of Derby: this was continued, in 1758 only, for the earls of Athol. Regal coinage in bronze appeared intermittently from 1786 to 1839. The characteristic badge was the "three-legs" or triskelis. Since 1840, English issues have been current. Jersey and Guernsey have had their own bronze coinage for well over a centur>-, showing the shield of three leopards proper to the duchy of Normandy. Variation of types has occurred since World War II, the end of which prompted also the special issue of the

779

device of lions on a shield), Mauritius. Zanzibar (an arable series and thus without portraits in deference to Muslim feeling). North Borneo, Honduras and elsewhere. In the 20th century the progression of formerly colonial areas

(with

VUI. COINS OF LATIN A14ERICA 1.

The Colonial Period.

to the

new world

— Spanish

colonists brought with

them

the Castilian currency system, which had been

regulated as to standard, weight and size of the coins within a by the ordinances of Ferdinand and Isabella

bimetallic pattern

Medina del Campo in 1497. The double base of the system were the gold excelente (replaced in 1535 by the escudo) and the silver real. The coins of Spanish America were therefore of gold and sOver, that is. the escudo and the real and their multiples and dividers. The two series were specifically: in gold, the escudo issued in

(3.3& gms.j, t^o-escudos, iour-escudos, eight-escudos or onza (the

famous gold ounce) and the hali-esciido or escudito, coined in some mints at the end of the 18th century; in silver, the real (3.43 and 3.3S gms.), its dividers, the half-reo/ and the quarter-rea/ or cuartillo, and its multiples, two-reoies, ioMX-reales and tighi-reales During the (this last known also as the peso juerte or dicro). 16th century, for a brief period, a coin of three reales was minted in Mexico. Gold was not minted in a uniform manner until after 1 7th centur\' until then Hispanic-American currency had been almost exclusively silver coinage. Copper was Spanish America not minted in except in smaU quantities during the 16th centurj- in Santo Domingo and briefly in Mexico: during the wars of independence it reappeared in emergency coinages. There are two very characteristic kinds of Hispanic-American coinage, according to the minting technique used: the hammered coin and those of more improved conformation manufactured by means of a minting press or mill. The hammered-down coin of some periods presents a relatively tidy appearance, being very nearly round and containing all the lettering and required sjTnbols, but that of other mintages is frequently of ver\' poor appearance, and only the most essential elements of the design, such as value, identifying sign of the minting house and the mark of the assayer, are distinguishable. These coins of rude mintage are called macuqidnas (cob). In the 18th centurj', by ordinances of Philip V, the setting up of adequate machinery for the minting of a perfectly round coinage, with milled and corded edge, became manda-

the second half of the

;

tory.

The type

of the Hispanic-American coin was very characteristic most constant elements were Hercules' Columns and the motto "Plus Ultra," plus the monarchy's coat of arms, either in its en-

its

;

NUMISMATICS

ySo

some of its components, mainly the castles In edge-milled coinage the same elements were emwith the addition between Hercules' Columns of an image of the two crowned hemispheres; this was called the moneda columnaria (columnar coinage) and was minted until 1772. From that date on, by ordinances of Charles III, silver coinage carried on the face a bust of the reigning monarch and tirety or reduced to

and

lions.

ployed

in silver pieces,

on the reverse the coat of arms, a system already utilized in the gold pieces.

—

2. Hispanic-American Colonial Mints. In the beginnings of the colonial period currency was scarce, and very frequently

transactions were accomplished through the use of metal foundry stamp of a royal official, which guaranteed the standard and the fact that the crown's rights had been satisfied. In time several mints were established. Of these, two were of particular importance because of the very large quantities of precious metals, especially silver, minted there that of Me.xico, founded in 1535 and operating until 1821, and the one at Potosi, established c. 1574 and operating until 1825. Other minor ones, and their dates of operation, were those of Santo Domingo (1542 to the end of the 16th century and 1818 to 1821), Lima (1568 to 1570, 1575 to 1588, 1659 to 1660 and 1684 to 1824), Santa Fe de Bogota (1626 to 1821), Guatemala (1731 to 1822), Santiago de Chile (1749 to 1817), Popayan (1732 and 1749 to 1822) and Cuzco (1698 and 1824). Coinage of any of these mints had uniform currency through the entire Spanish empire, and the pieces had uniformity of type. They were distinguished by the symbol of the mint, carried on every coin. The following are some of pieces; these carried merely the

:

the symbols used: Mexico, coins,

PTSI and PTS

in

M;

P and, in the edge-milled fashion; Lima, P, L and, in the

Potosi,

monogram

LIMA and LIMAE in monogram fashion; Santiago de Chile, S; Guatemala, G and NG (for Nueva Guatemala) Santa Fe de Bogota, NR (for Nuevo Reino); Popayan, P, PN and PN; Santo Domingo, SD; Cuzco, C° and CUZ. 3. Dissemination of Hispanic-American Coinage. The larger silver and gold pieces, the eight-rea/w or pesos fuertes and edge-milled coins,

—

the ounces,

became

in

modern times

the international currency par Their dissemination throughout the world was brought about by the uniformity of their standard and milling characteristics. In many countries they were counterstamped in order to adapt them to a local monetary system or to authorize their currency. These counterstamped issues constitute interesting numismatic series. The removal of smaller coins to other parts of the world was generally prohibited in order to avoid a scarcity of this excellence.

currency. 4. Emergency Coinages in the Era of Independence During the wars of independence, between 1810 and 1826, emergency mints were established in different parts of the continent, by the royalists as well as by the patriots. The coinages were

almost always crudely designed, being in some instances merely foundry coinage. On other occasions the coins had merely fiduciary value, that is, no intrinsic value at all, as was the case with the numerous coinages of the Mexican patriot Morelos, who produced tight-reales pieces in copper. Only in Mexico were there mints of some importance, in ten different localities. The coinage situation became further complicated when the authorities of the opposing forces started counterstamping each other's coins in order to use them within their own camps. 5. The Independent Countries.—The independent states that arose in Latin America after the revolution of 1810 proceeded to mint new coins, but until the middle of the 19th century the bimetallic system established by Spain, with its different units in reales and escudos, remained intrinsically the same except for the addition of smaller copper fractionary units. After 1850, within a period of about IS years, all the states adopted the deci-

mal system

and the peso became the unit, though took a special name. Within the second half of the 19th century bimetallism became a thing of the past. It was generally replaced by the gold standard, which in the course of the 20th century was replaced in turn by fiduciary currency or paper money, coinages being limited to fractionary pieces or to "merchandise coins." for their coins,

in several cases

it

—

6. Brazil. Coins minted in Spanish America circulated abundantly in Brazil from the 17th to the 19th centuries. They were given their official value in terms of the Portuguese reis,

amount being indicated by counterstamping. Hispanic-American t\g\\i-reales pieces carried an overstamp that was at first of 480 reis and that increased until in edge-milled coins it amounted to 960 reis. By the end of the 1 7th century and the beginning of the 18th, mints were estabhshed in Rio de Janeiro, and Pernambuco, Bahia but joint circulation of both HispanicAmerican and Portuguese coinages continued. The practice of counterstamping disappeared during the first decades of the 19th century, although Hispanic-American eight-rea/w pieces and the equivalent coins of the independent Latin American countries continued to be reminted with the value of 960 reis for some time. the corresponding

The

Brazilian monetary unit that eventually became the milreis was subsequently transformed into the cruzeiro, which is divided into 100 cents.

(A. de A.-M.)

IX. 1.

Ancient Persia.

ASIATIC COINS

— Achaemenids. —The

ancient kingdoms of

the middle east, Egyptian, Sumerian, Babylonian, Assyrian and Hittite, had no coined money. The use of coins reached Persia

from the Lydian kingdom of Croesus and the Persian satrapies of Asia Minor. The first Achaemenid ruler to strike coins was probably Darius I (522^86 B.C.) as Herodotus suggests. The coins of the dynasty were the daric struck from gold of very pure qualand the siglos which weighed 8.4 ity

in

silver;

gr.

20

sigloi

The types

(shekels)

made

a

obverse, the Persian king in a kneehng position holding a

hand and a spear

daric,

of both coins were the same:

bow

in

rough irreguIn shape they were roughly lar incuse caused in the striking. oval, being struck from round or rather egg-shaped globules of metal. These pieces were uninscribed and remained in issue unThe issue of gold altered in type until the fall of the empire. was the royal prerogative, but the conquered Greek and other cities and states were allowed to issue silver and copper while a number of Persian satraps struck silver in their own names. To this latter class belong a number of the earliest and finest portraits on coins. On the fall of the empire, various satraps, such as Mazaeus, who ruled Babylon for his new master Alexander the Great, struck silver coins of their own. Parthians. Alexander's coinage and that of the Seleucids were purely Greek in character. In the middle of the 3rd century B.C. the Parthians became a great power in Persia. They had an extensive but monotonous coinage in silver (tetradrachms and drachms) and copper. The tetradrachms and drachms bear the bust of the king on the obverse, and Arsaces, the founder of the dynasty, seated holding the Parthian bow on the reverse of the drachms, while the usual reverse on the tetradrachms is the king seated receiving a wreath from Victory or a city goddess. The coins do not bear the name of the issuer but that of Arsaces, which was used as a dynastic title. Most of the coins are dated in the Seleucid era; on the later coins the Greek becomes corrupt and is often joined by an inscription in Persian. Some local dynasties (such as those of Persis and Characene), his left

in his right; reverse, only a

—

vassals of the Parthian kings, also struck coins.

—

Sasanians. The Sasanian coinage was very extensive in silver, and the early emperors also coined gold, although rarely. The copper coinage also seems to have been small. The coin types throughout the dynasty are the same on the obverse is a bust of the king with his name and titles, and on the reverse a fire altar, usually with two attendant priests. From the reign of Kobad the reverse legend gives the mint and the regnal year of issue. The standard of the gold coins is derived from that of the Roman sohdi; the silver coins are drachms following the Parthian standard and are remarkable for their broad thin form, which was copied by the Arabs for their silver coins. The execution of the portraits in the early coins is remarkably fine but is later debased. 2. Islamic Coins of the West and of Western and Central Asia. The conquering Muslims at first imitated the coinage of their predecessors. In the western provinces they issued gold and copper pieces imitated from contemporary Byzantine coins, modi:

—

—

NUMISMATICS somewhat to suit MusIn the eastern provinces the Arab governors

fying the cross on the reverse of the

lim susceptibilities.

issued silver dirhams which were copies of late Sasanian coins (mostly of those of Khosrau II) with the addition of short Arabic

and often the name of the Arab gover-

inscriptions on the margin

nor in Pahlavi; even the crude representation of the fire altar was Toward the end of the 7th century the fifth Umayyad caliph, "Abd-al-Malik, instituted a coinage more in keeping with the principles of Islam. This "reformed coinage" was of gold (first issued in a.d. 698-699), silver (first issued in 696-697) and retained.

copper.

The

old coin, called dinar (from the

Aramaic derivation

Roman

denarius aureus), derived its standard (4. 25 gr.) of the from the Byzantine solidus; the standard of the silver coin (dirham, from the name of the Sasanian coin, which in its turn was derived from Greek drachma) was reduced to 2.92 gr., but it retained in its thin material and style some features of its Sasanian predecessor; the name of the copper change, fals, comes from Latin follis (a small piece of money). The reformed gold and silver coinage has no pictorial type, only inscriptions, and with

This arrangement of high aesthetic value. Moreover,

rare exceptions this remained the rule in Islamic coinage.

may Hmit

its artistic

though the

interest,

skilful

the inscriptions often gives it the inscriptions, which from the earHest time usually contain the

name

of the

mint and date, and

in

time the ruler's name and

title,

give the Islamic coins a high historical value.

The reformed dinar and dirham bear on the obverse the Muslim is no god but God: he has no associate, and around it the marginal legend: In the name of God; this dinar in the year .... The reverse {or dirham) was struck at area has a quotation from Koran cxii, God is one; God is eternal; He begets not and is not begotten nor is there any one .like unto Him. Around is Koran ix, Zi Mohammed is the apostle of God sent with guidance and the religion of truth to make it prevail over profession of faith: There

.

.

.

:

other religions averse thcnigh the idolaters may be. This type of coin, issued from Spain and Morocco to central Asia, gave Mushm coinage the character that it held for centuries. In mid-8th century the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyad caliphate but at first made little change in the coinage beyond some alterations in the

all

inscriptions.

In time the caliph's

name was added

and, at the

provincial mints, that of the local governor, and in the 9th cen-

tury a second marginal inscription was added: the order before and after the help of

God (Koran

and that day

To God belongs

believers shall rejoice in

xxxi, 3-4).

The Abbasid caliphate broke up in the 9th and 10th centuries, and the succeeding independent rulers regularly put their own names on the coins, although they retained that of the caliph of Baghdad, whose nominal authority was still recognized. Thus in north Africa and Egypt the Idrisids, Aghlabids, Tulunids and Ikhshidids had their own coinage. From the eastern provinces there are the coins of the Tahirids, Saffarids (both in the 9th cenIn central Asia tury) and the Buyids (lOth-llth centuries). there was the extensive coinage of the Samanids, mainly in silver. In north Africa and Egypt the extensive Fatimid currency in gold introduced a new type of dinar with legends of the usual type but arranged in three concentric circles. In the west the Umayyads of Spain issued a copious coinage from the middle of the 8th to the beginning of the 11th centuries, first in silver only but during the 10th century also in gold; their tradition was continued during the 11th century by the small local rulers of Spain who succeeded them and by the Almoravids, who united Morocco and Spain in one empire. Islamic gold coinage became one of the great currencies of the medieval world, and the dinar enjoyed great popularity on the western shores of the Mediterranean. It was referred to in Europe in earlier times under the name of mancusus, while the Almoravid dinar was known as morabiti (whence Spanish maravedi). There are also imitations produced; e.g., in Catalonia. The quarter dinars (known as tari) of the Fatimids, who ruled also in Sicily, were imitated in southern Italy and Sicily and by their Norman successors. Enormous quantities of silver dirhams of the various dynasties also reached eastern and northern Europe and more especially Scandinavia, where they are often dug up in great hoards.

781

The Almohads, who succeeded

latter

the Almoravids in the 12th cen-

was new both in its standard and Their fine gold coins (dinar, 2.3 gr.; the more usual coin is the double dinar) count among the most beautiful coins produced in the Muslim world; the dirham (\.S gr.) is square. The coinage of the Almohads survived also among their successors, well to the end of the middle ages, and was also widely current, and imitated, on the European shores of the Mediterranean. tury, introduced a coinage that

its

form.

In the east the successors of the Seljuks (Artukids, Zangids,

who, owing to the scarcity of silver, issued large copper coins, introduced a striking innovation they adopted a number of different types borrowed from all sources, ancient Greek and Roman, Sasanian and Byzantine. The Seljuks of Asia Minor {'12th-13th centuries) had silver coins showing a horseman with a mace over etc.),

:

his shoulders, or a lion and sun. Farther east the Ghaznevids (10th-I2th centuries), on their conquest of India, struck coins with Sanskrit inscriptions for their Indian dominions. In the 13th century the Mongols swept through all Asia except India. The khans of the Golden Horde issued an extensive series of small silver coins (which influenced early Russian coinage).

The Il-khans of Persia struck large and handsome coins in all three metals (in addition to Arabic legends they bore the khan's title in Mongolian). In the 14th century Timur (Tamerlane) revived the power of the Mongols and struck silver and copper coins. His son Shahrukh introduced a new type of dirham, with, obverse, profession of the faith with the name of the first four caliphs on the margin and, on the reverse, his title. Meanwhile the new gold coinage of Europe, the Venetian ducat, rapidly spread in the east. It was used as currency up to the 18th century, and its standard 3.56 gr.) was adopted for Islamic coins. Ottoman Empire. The original coinage of the Ottomans consisted of small silver coins (akche, called asper by Europeans). Gold coins were not struck before the end of the 15th century; before and after that century, foreign gold, mainly the Venetian ducat, was used. Various European silver dollars also circulated extensively. From the 17th century onward various attempts at reform were made; a notable innovation was the introduction of

—

the tughra, an elaborate

and

titles,

Modern

(

monogram formed

which occupies one side of the

of the sultan's

name

coin.

Persia, Afghanistan, Turkestan.

—The

earlier coins of

the shahs of Persia were large thin silver pieces of central Asian

but in the 18th century the form changed, and the coins became smaller and thicker as in India. The legends were usually in the form of rhyming couplets; gold was not common till the style,

18th century.

Cities issued copper with local

emblems.

Some

of

the products of the Persian mints were of huge size and were pieces struck for presentation. of Afghanistan who became independent of Persia 18th century struck gold and silver on the standard of the whose poetical legends they also copied. Of the emperors, Mogul various smaller modern dynasties that ruled central Asia till the Russian conquest, the emirs of Bukhara and of Khokand were notable for their extensive issues of gold pieces. Since the 19th century gradual westernization resulted in the adoption of Euro-

The emirs

in the

pean styles in currency by the various Islamic countries. 3. India. Ancient and Early Medieval. There is no reason to doubt the independent origin of coinage in India although it was soon so much modified by Greek influence that the question was long disputed. The earliest coins are pieces of silver, very commonly square, and of copper, punched with various symbols on both sides. Of about the same date are the square and round cast copper pieces with similar but less varied symbols. These pieces circulated all over India and belong to at least the 4th century B.C. From the 3rd century onward there are the copper coinages of numerous states and dynasties, which show increasing Greek influence. Their few silver coins were directly influenced by the hemidrachms of the Greek rulers of northwest India of the 2nd

—

century

B.C.

The types

of these are of considerable mythological

Technically they are interesting as showing the evolution of a type from a series of separate punches to the grouping of the punches on a die. Early in the 2nd century B.C. the Greeks of Bactria began to

and

religious interest.

—

NUMISMATICS

782 invade India, and their coinage

is

remarkable for

its

fine series

and for the number of names it records of rulers Prakrit legends begin to appear alongside otherwise unknown. corrupt Greek; the Greek in time becomes more and more corrupt as the Greek rulers were replaced by foreign invaders who copied their tj'pes. (The coins of the Saka rulers are conventionally of portraits

who

called "Indo-Scythian"; those of the Parthian princes

ruled in

The Greek deiis modern Afghanistan, "Indo-Parthian.") gradually give place to Indian ones on the coins. In the middle of the 1st century a.d. the Kushans founded a great empire in northwest India; they have left a wealth of gold and copper coins with legends in an Iranian language in a corrupt Greek character. The Kushan coins bear on the obverse the king sacriticing and, on the reverse, deities of all the religions of the what ties

Roman, Zoroastrian, Hindu and Buddhist, These types of king on obverse and deity on reverse became the general style of north Indian coinage for the next 1 ,000 years the Kushan coinage continued rapidly degenerating till the 4th or 5th century, over a much more limited area; the type was continued by the time, Greek,

;

kings of Kashmir

down

to the 10th century

and adopted and modi-

The latter fied by the great Gupta emperors in the 4th century. struck an extensive gold coinage with long legends in poetical Sanskrit and many interesting types, often medallic in nature, but, on their coins for general currency at least, always betraying the

Kushan prototype. Among the more notable Gupta commemorate Chandragupta's horse-sacrifice

coins are

those that

that record his skill as a lyrist, to

which he also

or those

testifies in his

inscriptions.

In western India a dynasty of satraps of Persian origin had been Their extensive coinage of silver is dated and therefore of a historical value unusual in India or any early coinage. This kingdom was overthrown by the Guptas at the end of the 4th century, and they at once began to imitate this silver coinage not only locally but also in their own territory, which seems previously to have had no silver Coins. The EphthaUtes, who destroyed the Gupta and other civilizations in the 6th century, have left numerous coins, imitated from Sasanian, Gupta or Kushan prototypes. Degenerate copies of these seem to have been the coinages of northern India until the revival of various Hindu dynasties from the 10th century onward. A notable innovation was the neat silver coinage of the Shahis of Gandhara of the "bull and horseman" type in the 9th and 10th centuries, extensively imitated by the Muslim conquerors of India and the contemporary minor Hindu dynasties. The other type favoured by the medieval Hindu dynasties for their gold coinage was that of a seated goddess going back to a Gupta reverse and an inscription with the king's name on the other side. The coinages of southern India form a class by themselves. In the later centuries b.c. and early a.d. the Andhras ruled a great kingdom in central south India; their coinage is mainly of lead and has types of the usual indigenous character. The later medieval dynasties of south India struck coinages mainly of gold, the type of which is usually the badge, of the dynasty; the Cheras of Malabar, for example, had an elephant, ruling since the 1st century B.C.

only

—

the Chalukyas of the

Deccan

a boar, the

Pandyas a

and the The Chola

fish,

cup-shaped pieces of the Kadambas bear a lotus. dynasty introduced under northern influence the type of a king standing on obverse, and on the reverse the king seated, which spread through south India and was taken to Ceylon by the Chola conquest and adopted by the local rajahs there. The great Hindu of Vijayanagar (Mysore) left a large series of small gold and copper coins with the types of various deities, which had considerable influence on the modern coinages of southern India, including those of the various foreign companies. The earliest Arab invaders had reached India in the Islamic. 8th century and founded a dynasty in Sind, which has left numerous very small silver coins of the Umayyad type. The coinage of the Ghorid dynasty and its successors from the 12th century onward is varied and extensive, mainly gold and silver tankas (or rupees) of 10.76 gr. They are large thick pieces with the profession of faith on one side and the name of the king, mint and date on the other. A feature of this coinage is the unsuccessful attempt

kingdom

—

made by Mohammed Tughluq

(a.d. 1325-51) to replace gold by brass tokens. Gold was hardly issued at all 15th and 16th centuries and for a time the coinage was mainly billon. Sher Shah Sur (1539-45), one of the ablest of his line, issued a large silver currency of a type, carrying the profession of the faith and names of the four caliphs, that was

and

silver coinage

in the

imitated by the Mogul successor of the Surs. The coinages of Babur and Humayun, the first two of the

Mogul

conquerors of India, are not extensive and are of central Asian character. With the next two, the Great Moguls Akbar and Jahangir, is found a series unrivaled for variety and, within limitations, beauty the gold coins of Jahangir are noble examples of MusHm calligraphy. In the 16th century the type that goes back to Sher Shah prevails, the profession of the faith with the names of the first four caliphs and the emperor's titles on the other side;

—

Aurangzeb replaced the confession of faith by the mint and date, and this remained the usual type till the end of the dynasty. The emperor's name is usually enshrined in a Persian couplet to the effect that the metal of the coins acquires added lustre from bearing the emperor's name. Nearly 50 such verses are found on The latter's reign is also remarkable for the Jahangir's coins. series of coins bearing the sign of the zodiac, and for the set of portrait mohurs, one of which represents him holding a wine cup. From the beginning of the 18th century the coins become stereotyped and the epigraphy loses its beauty. The English and French East India companies for years copied the native types from the coinages and did not strike on European lines till the 19th century. A uniform coinage for territories under British administration was introduced in 1835. The right of native states to mint their own coinage was gradually curtailed by the British government until there were very few independent coinages. The most important native state mint was Hyderabad. Since 1950 and 1948, respectively, India and Pakistan have had their own coinages. Miscellaneous. Mention should also be made of the extensive coinage in gold and silver with Sanskrit legends of Nepal; the coinage of Tibet,. related to that of Nepal; the long series of octagonal gold and silver coins of Assam struck until the British conquest; and the brief coinage of Burma in the 19th century. 4. China. The earliest Chinese coins are small bronze spades and knives, copies of the spades and billhooks and other small The knives articles of husbandry that had been used for barter. (tao) are about six inches long and bear the value and name of authority issuing it; pu money, a modified form of the spades, Small change circulated widely in the 5th and 4th centuries B.C. was supplied by cowrie shells in this period, as it had been long before the invention of a coinage there was also an issue of bronze imitation cowries. Round money with a hole in the centre was issued about the middle of the 3rd century, but it was not till 221 B.C. that the reforming Shah Huang Ti (221-210 B.C.) superseded all other currencies by the issue of round coins of half an ounce (pan-liang), which were continued by the Han dynasty. This coin became gradually reduced and debased and was replaced in 118

—

—

;

B.C.

by the emperor

Wu

Ti's five-chu piece,

coin of China for the next eight centuries of the regular coinage of the usurper

;

was formed by the

Wang Mang

(a.d.

9-23),

which remained the

a break in the

monotony

archaistic innovations

who

issued a modified

form of the pu and tao currency and a new round coin (ho

The

history of Chinese coins

is

tsien).

the history of the gradual de-

basement of the government currency until it was overwhelmed by the increasing activity of forgers and a new coin was instituted. The five-chu piece lasted till the rise of the T'ang dynasty, when the emperor Kao-tsu in 618 issued the Kai-yuan coin, which gave the coinage of all the far east its form till the end of the 19th century a round coin with a square hole and a four-character legend of the form "current money of (regnal period)." The Southern Sung dynasty (a.d. 1127-1279) dated their coins on the reverse with regnal years, and the Ming dynasty (a.d. 1368-1644) put the mint name on the reverse, as did the Ch'ing dynasty (a.d. Paper 1644-1912), the latter giving it in Manchu characters. money has been in use in China since the 9th century and was current almost to the exclusion of regular coins under certain Mongol emperors, for example, Kublai Khan, whose paper money is

—

NUMISMATICS described by Marco Polo. For over 2,000 years the copper cash with occasional multiples of it was the only coinage of China gold and silver were current by weight only, the latter in the form of ;

boat-shaped ingots (sycee). The monotony of the series was only rarely broken. With the increasing popularity of Spanish colonial and Mexican dollars as a silver currency in China, several attempts were made to institute a silver coinage in the 19th century; not till the very end of the 19th century were mints established to strike silver and copper coins of European style in all the provOne of the last of these, a rupee of Szechwan, was the inces. only coin of the Chinese empire to bear the head of an emperor. This was because it was intended to compete for Tibetan trade with the Indian rupee. Under the repubhc, coins were at once struck with the portraits of Sun Yat-sen and Yijan Shih-kai, and the various generals who fought for control of China issued their own coins, some in gold, the first in Chinese history. The currency, both of the Chinese people's republic and of Formosa (Taiwan) is the yuan (dollar). The very extensive series of talismans, coinhke in shape but usually larger, should be noted. Many are Taoist and Buddhist in their legends and types; others are simply lucky pieces. 5. Japan.' The art of coinage was borrowed from China by Japan, whose first bronze coins were issued in a.d. 708. Down to the middle of the 10th century 12 different issues were made, each For the next 600 years, however, no govof a different reign. ernment coins were issued, and the currency was supplied by imitations of contemporary Chinese coins made by the great nobles. In the 17th century the copper kwan-ei was first issued, in 1624, and remained in vast variety the usual issue for over two centuries. The ei-raku and bun-kyu sen of the 19th century were the only other regular copper coins. Unlike China, Japan has had a gold and silver currency since the 16th century. The gold coins are large flat pieces in the shape of rectangles with circular corners, the largest size being obans and the smaller kobans; these bear

X.

stamps and a large signature in ink of a mint in length from 6 in. to ^ in. Other gold and two bu issued from time to time; round gold is rare and usually of provincial mints. There have not been many issues of silver, usually in small rectangular pieces; the so-called bean money with the figure of Daikoku, god of wealth, is not a currency but was made to add official.

official

They range

pieces are the small rectangular pieces of one

to the large, long silver presentation pieces to bring

them up

to

a certain weight.

In 1869 a mint on European lines was established in Tokyo, and and copper have since been regularly issued from it. After World War II the yen was retained as the unit of currency. The e sen of Japan are not coins but amulets and bear figures of Daikoku, Itsibu fishing and others. 6. Korea. Korea had a bronze coinage of the Chinese style after the 12th century, but it was only with the institution of Shang Ping cash at numerous mints, with an elaborate system of dating or, rather, numbering the issues between 1790 and 1881, that its coinage became common. Attempts were made to establish a silver currency during the years preceding Japanese rule. 7. Vietnam, Caml>odia, Laos. Annam, since the mid-20th century absorbed into the state of Vietnam, began by imitating Chinese coins and had a regular bronze coinage of its own on the Chinese model from the 10th to the 19th centuries. Silver became common in the 19th century in the form of narrow oblong bars. Amulets or, rather, presentation pieces in gold, silver and copper were created in a variety of designs bearing auspicious inscriptions, quotations from the Chinese classics, etc., in addition to the king's name. The native coinage ceased when Annam became a French possession. After independence from France, Vietnam substantially retained the western alphabet on its often very attractive coinage. Separate coinages were in circulation in Camgold, silver (yen or dollars)

—

—

Laos and North Vietnam. Siam, as Thailand was previously known, down middle of the 19th century struck gold and silver in the form of balls formed by doubling in the ends of a short thick bar of silver, and bearing the stamp of the reigning monarch ("bullet" coins). Since c. 1860 it has had a coinage on European lines bodia, 8.

Thailand

to the

—

later, nickel, S.

M. Sn.)

AFRICA Arab models modern times has long enjoyed

Ethiopia, which developed a coinage influenced by in the early

Byzantine period,

in

the currency of the silver Maria Theresa thalers; but from MeneUk II (1889-1913) onward handsome portrait-coins of its emperors

have been produced

in gold, silver and bronze, with reverses showing the lion of Judah. Eritrea, federated with Ethiopia in 1952, had a fine thaler-size coinage in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

of Idris

Libyan coinage after 1949 bore a singularly I.

The currency

fine portrait

of Liberia for over a century has con-

mainly of copper or bronze the elephant has displaced the head of Liberty. France's widespread dependencies have since World War II showed the French cock, or the head of "Marianne," and often the cross of Lorraine on the reverse. Of Portuguese dependencies Angola has had copper coins since 1814. Coinage for the Congo began with copper in 1887; later issues, some hexagonal, have shown fine elephant designs. sisted

;

XL MEDALS AND MEDALLIC ART

—

various small

783

with portraits and issues in gold, silver, copper and, though "bullet" coins circulated until 1909. (J. Al.;

commemorative medals (as distinct from war medals) have a history going back to the classical period. Under the earlier Roman empire, various bronze pieces were struck with special care, bearing specially elaborate types, and not related by weight to the coinage; these (now conventionally termed medallions) were in fact medals, wholly official and imperial in their emphasis. They tended to die out as the habit of precious-metal Aesthetic and

multiples increased.

In the late 14th century, commemorative pieces appeared, struck for the Carrara family, lords of Padua, in a classicizing style to

celebrate the independence of their city. About the same time medals, this time of richest late medieval style, were made, probably as repousse shells of gold and silver, for the due de Berry, representing famous Christian rulers of the past.

The Renaissance.

—

Renaissance medals began with the Antonio Pisano, known as Pisanello, born at Verona in the 1390s. First famous as a painter of portraits and animals, he made a portrait medal of the Byzantine emperor John VIII Palaeologus in 1438, followed by a brilliant series for princely and noble persons. All were cast and not struck they showed a technical perfection allied to a pure naturalism and a genius in compo1.

Italian

;

sition that gained

them universal fame.

The

fashion of privately

commissioned portrait-medals rapidly spread, and among the more famous ISth-century artists were Matteo de' Pasti, Sperandio Savelli, Giovanni Boldii (with a curious leaning to the antique), Francesco Francia, Caradosso Foppa and, a little later, Niccolo Fiorentino and Leone Leoni. This last was in some sense a rival of Benvenuto Cellini, whose medallic work, so far as can be judged, was disappointing, perhaps because together with Caradosso) he was thinking increasingly of the substitution of mechanically contrived striking for the casting process, which hitherto had given Renaissance medals their superbly sensitive treatment and finish. The Italian medals of the 15th and 16th centuries reveal a common formula obverse, a portrait; reverse, a device (sometimes pictorial and naturalistic, more often an impresa, or badge of (

—

devious, riddlehke significance) referring to the person represented

on the obverse. In France the

medals were in the medieval late Gothic Renaissance took place at the end of the 15th century: the Lyons medal welcoming Anne of Brittany and Charles VIII, her first husband, in 1494 was fully Gothic, but that for Anne and Louis XII in 1500 was well advanced toward the new naturalism. The principal influences on French medallic art in the 16th century continued to be exerted by Italian artists, including Cellini, who worked for Francis I; but Henry II favoured native talent, employing among others fitienne de Laune, and under Charles IX the emergence of a new, robustly dramatic style may be attributed to Germain Pilon. MedaHic art in the Netherlands had its origin with Italians in the 15th century, but from the 16th century native masters apearliest

style; the transition to Italian

NUMISMATICS

784

whom the painter Quentin Massys (c. 1466-1530) was The most first with his fine medal of Erasmus, 1519. and technically skilled artist, if not by any means the greatest, was Jacob Jonphelinck (1531-1606), sculptor, engraver, mint-master and goldsmith: Steven van Herwyck was much superior, showing some real affinity with the dominant Italian school. German Renaissance medals from the first followed an independent tradition. Their emphasis was upon realism in portraiture; the portrait image was very large in relation to the field it occupied, and often strongly featured. heaNfy. harsh or formidable. The reverses concentrated on complex and sometimes overloaded heraldic designs. In the technique of casting, these works showed high perfection from 1514 onward. The chief centres of activity were Augsburg and Nijrnberg, each the home of metalcorking and goldsmithery. Among the best-known artists of the 16th century were Hans Schwarz, Friedrich Hagenauer, Christoph Weiditz and Matthes Gebel. Renaissance medallists had thus shown the brilliant possibilities of profile portraiture on a small scale, not as an imitation of the

but

stiff medieval on coinage was of course dramatic, particularly when machinery first began to increase the facilities for the mass production of fine portrait-coins from well-designed, well-cut dies. But the subsequent reverse reaction upon medallic art of the mechanical production of coins was less happy. Although the best

beside the native talent of

peared, of

among

the

prolific

antique, but as an up-to-date idiom transcending

forms.

The

effect

medallists throughout the 16th century continued to use the cast-

when they were by profession, official patronage, requiring number rather than quality, tended to favour the struck medal. 2. The 17th and 18th Centuries.— In the first half of the 17th ing process for their most important medals, even also die-engravers

emerged as the finest centre of medaliic art, with Guillaume Dupre and Jean and Claude Warin as the supreme exponents of the baroque medal-portrait. Dupre (1574-1647) was both sculptor and metalworker, and his preference was for the cast medal, in which he memorably combined elegance, decorative instinct and technical splendour. Jean Warin (1604-72), no less elegant or accomplished, was perhaps more robust; his output, moreover, was great, and in an age when machinery was centur>- France

taking

place in France he did not hesitate to strike as

its

weO

as

to cast. Claude Warin (d. 1654), less brilliant and less sure, was nevertheless outstanding in the succession of artists who mirrored

admirably an age of combined luxury and academic taste. Their influence abroad was strong. In England it was a Frenchman, Nicolas Briot (1580-1646), who infused the coins and medals of Charles I with refinement and delicacy (also, incidentally, pressing on with the introduction of machinery) and the summit of English medallic art, w'hen the skill of the metalworker was still taking the fullest legitimate advantage of the facility given by machinery, was reached by the brothers Abraham and Thomas Simon (c. 1622-92, c. 1623-65), whose baroque portraits are unsurpassed for brilliance and \artuosity. These developments are the last full flowering of medallic art before it passed into the clever, mechanical mediocrity of the 18th century, exhibiting a taste that was at once international and increasingly routine. Only perhaps in the great papal series of 18th-century medals did some ;

real life survive. 3.

The 19th and 20th Centuries.

—The academic

tradition en-

couraged in France by the empire and consolidated in England (after the classical Italianate brilliance of Benedetto Pistrucci) by the long reign of Victoria only began to break down after 1870. The French revival took its rise in Francois Ponscarme (18271903). By the extraordinarily sensitive study of character in

by the search

reahsm and for a harbackground and by the freeing of his portraits from the raised border that had for so long enclosed

portraiture,

monious

for a dignified

relation of type to

them, he inaugurated a return to the true principles of the art that Pisanello had estabhshed. The movement was continued under Jules Chaplain (1839-1909). and its fruits were to be seen even later in the splendid cast medals of the French-trained English artist

Theodore Spicer-Simson n871-1959).

sional artist of real talent emerged, such as

1903) in

Germany

Elsewhere the occa-

Anton Scharff (1845-

or Alphonse Legros (1837-1911) in England;

tie

in

general the use of the reducing machine has continued to make him too careless of its trans-

the artist to his model and

lation into metal.

In the

first

quarter of the 20th century the level

medaUic art was everywhere very low, being characterized either by harsh treatment or insipid feeling. In the second quarof

ter the standard rose sharply: not only did portraits increase in

number and

quality, but the medal borrowed from the plaquette including purely genre, symbolic and also poetical subjects. More important still, the casting technique began to recover its

in

lost popularity, especially in Italy, where the talent for portraiture and design was strong. In the United States outstanding sculptors have created cast medals, notably David Smith's polemic symbols and Jacques Lipchitz' commemorative roundels. In France casting has been less favoured, but modem French medals exhibit a high degree of poetically complex design and symbolism, as well as a combination of very sensitive portraiture: Josette Coeffin, Raymond Corbin, Henri Dropsy, Andre Galtie and Georges Lay have all made medals of memorable beauty. Holland has produced I. J. Pieters, and Finland the late Gerda Qvist; in England,

Mary

Gillick could be set the con-

Loewenthal (an expert in preparing models for casting) and P. Vincze. There was no lack of fine and accomplished portraiture, and this, combined with reconsideration of technique and willingness to allow medals to express some poetic or sjTnbolical content, made the mid-20th century a period of experiment in which promise was higher than it had been for a long time past and which required only intelligent patronage to make the fashion for medals thrive again. trasting qualities of A.

XII.

The

PAPER MONEY

paper currency recorded is apparently that of the T'ang dynasty in China in the 8th century a.d., consisting of receipts for deposits of cash, and Marco Polo's residence in China in the 13th century familiarized him with the monetary notes (printed on mulberry bark paper and sealed in red) of Kublai Khan. Thereafter no paper currency was devised or produced earliest

Bank of Sweden briefly issued printed notes in 1661, doubtless to ease difiiculties caused by coinage based on a cumbrous copper standard. In London a system had already just begun whereby merchants wishing to deposit money with the golduntil the

smiths received a receipt promising to repay; such promissory notes could pass among merchants as currency, though, being wholly in manuscript, they were limited in number and thus in circulation. The Bank of England, founded in 1694, at once began to issue promissory notes for "running cash," i.e., such sums as depositors wished to withdraw; the first notes were handwritten, but plans were swiftly made for plate-printed notes (with blank spaces for the payee's name and for the date) for £S upward. The fact that these notes could be drawn in favour either of a named person or of "bearer" carried the corollary that they were no longer promissory certificates but, being capable of transference, a form of monetary exchange. Concurrently it became more necessary for an issuing bank to define the prudent balance of "running cash" to be held available for cash demands on presentation of notes, and private banks in the 18th and early 19th centuries that over-issued notes in relation to their cash reserves not infrequently failed, as was the case with John Law's bank in France in 1720. Subsequent practice tended to place the issue of paper money under state scrutiny: in the United Kingdom, for example, the only notes issued are those of the Bank of England, the Royal Bank of Scotland and the Ulster bank, and, although the number of notes issued need not bear an absolutely fixed

always an adequate in contrast to 1793 and 1797 when there was a rush to draw out gold, and cash payments had to be suspended in favour of notes.) To this extent notes, although purely token pieces of paper, are based on the strength of the country's economy as a whole. Sharply distinct from bank-notes are those notes issued in times relationship to British gold reserves, there

is

reserve of other cash behind them.

is

of necessity.

Thus

(This

the bills of credit printed

by the government

of Massachusetts in 1690 originally stood in lieu of hard cash for

the colonial troops engaged against the French in

Canada the ;

col-

—

;

NUMISMATICS lapse of the French forth the assignats

economy during ((/.i;.;

the French Revolution called

printed certificates of monetary value to

and Baden-Powell during the Slightly different was the siege of Maf eking (1899-1900). "Bradbury" issue of notes (5s., lOs. and £\) undertaken by the British treasury (over the signature of Sir John Bradbury, its permanent secretary) to stabilize the British currency system in and after 1914 when gold was withdrawn from circulation: in this emergency measure, the treasury assumed a responsibility that the Bank of England could not at immediate notice discharge. The economic dangers arising from the temptation to print too many notes in relation to genuine monetary reserves, i.e., to reduce paper money to a wholly token status, are well shown by the unhappy history of Confederate currency in the United States (in 1864 its value was estimated at only 10% of its face-value in fill

the gap caused by the flight and loss of metallic currency)

emergency notes were issued by R.

gold) or

by the

inflation of the

;

S.

German mark

after

World War

I,

when, with each successive decline in value, notes were printed of ever growing face-value, until total collapse was reached with the issue of notes individually to the value of milUons of marks. Because notes are generally large enough to bear on their face a

considerable

amount of information,

e.g.,

issuing

authority,

value and date, they can also declare the territorial limits of their vahdity. Paper money has thus often been used for "closedeconomy" groups or communities, such as an army-group in a particular theatre of war or an internment camp. Such ofiicial vouchers were the notes issued by the British economist Robert

Owen in the early 19th century on behalf of the National Equitable labour exchange: these directed the store-keeper of the exchange to deliver goods worth from 10 minutes' to 80 or more hours' work, on the assumption that all men work equally hard and that value can thus be measured evenly in terms of time-output. With the greatly increased use of paper money its physical design radically changed, not least as a guard against forgery. Paper, originally suitable for manuscript insertions, was specially made and became both tougher and smoother. Printing, originally in black upon plain white from an engraved plate, later called for the fullest skill of engravers and polychrome printers. With the disappearance of gold from the world's currencies paper money was assured of a long future, and, although many countries were disinclined to produce notes of less than the equivalent of about a dollar, the use of paper for higher sums (particularly after the inflation caused by World War II) became usual. (C. H. V. S.) The continental congress and the indiU.S. Paper Currency. vidual states fared poorly with their paper emissions before, during and after the Revolution, and the federal government issued no paper money (except a few promissory notes, all long since redeemed) until the Civil War. Nevertheless, most states authorized banks to utter paper money to the amount of their gold reserves. With inadequate supervision, abuses developed; most banks inflated their notes, that is, they issued more than their gold assets could cover, in the hope that not too many people would demand redemption in specie. Many banks failed in 1860-62 when their creditors demanded gold in quantity for their paper money and when their debtors in turn defaulted on payments to the banks. Despite the resulting financial hardship, even larger issues of inflated paper currency followed; it is reliably estimated that, exclusive of the Confederate treasury and Southern state notes, over 3,500 varieties were in circulation up to 1862. To help finance the Civil War, congress suspended specie payments and uttered some $60,000,000 in paper money in 1861, and larger amounts thereafter, proclaiming them legal tender although they were unredeemable in anything until 1879. From 1863 to 1876, as a substitute for jealously hoarded coins, the government printed nearly $369,000,000 in fractional currency, each bill being less than a dollar in value. The shortage of coins was so acute that postage stamps were being used as a medium of exchange, and the earliest regular fractional notes depicted stamps, the 25cent note bearing five reproductions of the five-cent stamp, for example. After 1875, fractional notes were redeemed in silver. Beginning in 1878 the government issued silver certificates backed by, and redeemable in, the silver dollars that were starting

—

785

Congress from 1863 to 1933 authorized many banks to issue notes backed by funds deposited in Washington, D.C., for the purpose, but the majority of these notes have been recalled. At irregular intervals from 1865 to 1922 the Treasury emitted gold certificates, but these were recalled in 1934. After 1914 the federal reserve banks issued fully secured notes. The cost of the special paper used for currency occasioned the reduction in note size in 1929. After 1933 U.S. paper money thus mostly comprised uniform silver certificates and federal reserve notes. Silver certificates are no longer being issued. (W. H. Br.) to

accumulate

in treasury vaults.

BrBLiOGRAPHY. General Works: W. Ridgeway, Origin of Metallic Currency (1892); G. Macdonald, Coin-Types (1905), Evolution of Coinage (1916); V. Tourneur, Initiation a la numismatique (194S); G. F. Hill, Coins and Medals (1920) L. Forrer, Biographical Dictionary of Medallists, etc. (1904-16), Supplement (1923); P. Grierson, Coins and Medals: a Select Bibliography (1954) "Literaturiiberblicke der griech. nura" in Jahrbuch fiir Numismatik und Geldgeschichte (1956Numismatic Literature, published by the American Nu) mismatic Society. Coin Collections: E, Babelon, Traite des monnaies grecques et romaines, i (1) (1901) C. H. V. Sutherland, Ancient Numismatics: a Brief Introduction (1958) L. S. Forrer, The Art of Collecting Coins ;

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(1955). On the technique of making coins and medals see G. F. Hill, P. Grierson and P. Balog in Numismatic Chronicle (1922, 1952 and 1955) ; N. Diirr in Jahresbericht {1953) des Historisches Museums Basel; D. Rouviere in Schuieizerische numismatische Rundschau (1957) C. H. V. Sutherland in Museum Notes (1948) also G, F. Hill, Medals of the Renaissance (1920). On the place of coins and medals in art, see P. Gardner, Types of Greek Coins (1882) K. RegUng, Die Antike Miinze als Kunstwerk (1924); G. F. Hill, Select Creek Coins (1927); C. H. V. Sutherland, Art in Coinage (1955) and (on modern medals) in Journal of the Royal Society of Arts (1955). Greek Coins: General: R. S. Poole et al., British Museum Catalogue of Greek Coins (1873); P. Gardner, History of Ancient Coinage (1918) L. Lacroix, Reproductions de statues sur les monnaies grecques (1949); B. V. Head, Historia numorum, 2nd ed. (1911); G. F. Hill, A Guide to the Principal Coins of the Greeks (1932), Select Greek Coins (1927) Handbook of Greek and Roman Coins (1899) ; E. Babelon, Traite des monnaies grecques et rom. (1901-27) K. Regling, Die Antike Miinze al Kunstwerk (1924) R. Miinsterberg, Beamtennamen auf griechischen Miinzen (1914) C. T. Seltman, Greek Coins (1955) S. P. Noe, Bibliography of Greek Coin Hoards (1937); Sylloge Num;

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moriim Graecorum (1931). Greek Metrology: F. Hultsch, Griechische und romische Metrologie (1882) Metr. Script. Rel. (1864-66) Gewichte des Altertums (1898) O. Viedebantt, Forschungen zur Metrologie des Altertums (1917). Greek Coinage in Special Districts (see also British Museum Catalogue): Spain: A. Heiss, Monnaies antiques de I'Espagne (1870); A. Vives, La Moneda hispdnica (1924-26). Gaul: H. de la Tour, Atlas des monnaies gauloises (1892) J. A. Blanchet, Traite des monnaies gauloises (1905); L. Lengyel, L'art gaulois dans les medailles (1954). Italy: A. J. Evans, The "Horsemen" of Tarentum (1889) 0. Ravel, Vlasto Collection of Tarentine Coins (1947); M. P. Vlasto, Taras Oikistes (1922); S. P. Noe, Coinage of Metapontum (1927-31); H. Herzfelder, Les monnaies d'argent de Rhegium (1959) E. S. G. Robinson in Journal of Hellenic Studies (1948) K. Regling, Terina (1906) W. Giesecke, Italia Numismatica (1928) A. Sambon, Monnaies antiques de I'ltalie (1903-04). Sicily: B. V. Head, Coinage of Syracuse ;

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(1874); G. F.

Monetazione

Hill,

delle

Monete greche

Coins of Ancient Sicily (1903); E. Gabrici, La nella Sicilia antica (1927); G. E. Rizzo, Sicilia (1946); H. A. Cahn, Die Miinzen der

Bronze

delta

Stadt Naxos (1944) W. Giesecke, Sicilia Numismatica (1923); E. Boehringer, Die Miinzen von Syrakus (1929); O. Tudeer, Tetradrachmenprdgung von Syrakus (1913). Northern Greece: L. Miiller, Alexandre le Grand (1855), Lysimackus (1858) P. Burachkov, Greek Colonies in South Russia (1884) Berlin Academy, Die antiken Miinzen Nordgriechenlands (1898) J. M. F. May, Coinage of Damastion (1939), Ainos (1950); J. N. Svoronos, L'Hellenisme primitif de la Macedoine (1919) E. T. Newell, Coinages of Demetrius Poliorcetes (1927); D. M. Robinson and P. A. Clement, Olynthus: the Chalcidic Mint (1938) D. Raymond, Macedonian Regal Coinage Central Greece, to 413 B.C. (1933); J. Desneux, Akanthos (1949). Peloponnesus and Islands: F. Imhoof-Blumer, Miinzen Akarnaniens (1878) J. N. Svoronos, Crete ancienne (1890) and Monnaies d' Athenes (1923-26); C. T. Seltman, The Temple Coins of Olympia (1913-14), Athens: Its History and Coinage (1924) C. M. Kraay in Numismatic sizilischen

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Chronicle (1956); O. Ravel, Les "Poulains" de Corinthe (1935-48); L. Brown in Numismatic Chronicle (1950); W. P. Wallace, The Euboian League (1956); K. M. Edwards, Corinth VI: Coins (1933). Asia Minor: M. Pinder, tjber die Cistophoren (1856); F. ImhoofBlumer, Lydische Stadtmiinzen (1897) W. H. Waddington, T. Reinach and E. Babelon, Recueil general des monnaies grecques d'Asie Mineure (1904-12) H. von Fritze, Elektronprdgung von Kyzikos (1912), Silberprdgung von Kyzikos (1914) E. S. G. Robinson in Journal of Hellenic

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NUMISMATICS

786

A. Baldwin in AmeriJ. Mavrogordato, Chios (1918) can Journal of Numismatics (1915 and 1024); E. A. Sydenham, Caesarea in Cappadocia (1933) J. G. Milne in Numismatic Chronicle {\9U-2S), Kolophon and Its Coinage (1941); K. Rcgling, Mtinzen t;OM Priene (1927); C. Bosch, Kleinasiatischcii Munzen der romischen Syria, Phoenicia and the Greek East (see also Kaiserzeit (1935). Oriental): F. de Saulcy, Numismatique de la terre sainte (1874); E. (1890); Corpus nummorum PalaestinenBabclon, Rots de Syrie sium (1956); A. ReifenberR, Ancient Jewish Coins (1947); D. Schlumberger in Mimoires de la deUgation archaeologique franfaise en Afghanistan XIV (1953) A. K. Narain, The Indo-Greeks (1957) A. R. Bellinger, Dura-Europos VI: Coins (1949); E, T. Newell, Coinage of the Eastern Seleucid Mints (1938), Coinage of the Western Seleucid Mints (1941) S. P. Noe, Tivo Hoards of Persian Sigloi (1956). Egypt and Africa: L. Miiller, Monnaies de I'ancienne Afrique (1860-74); G. Dattari, Numi Augg. Alexandrini (1901) J. G. Milne, Catalogue of Alexandrian Coins (1933) L. Naville, Les monnaies d'or de la Cyrin-

Studies (1951)

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aique (1951) J. Mazard, Corpus nummorum Numidiae Maureianiaeque (19SS). Celtic: R. Ferrer, Keltische Numismalik (1908); K. Pink, Die Miinzpragung der Ostkelten (1939), Einfiihrung in die Keltische Miinzkunde (1950). Roman and Byzantine Coins: T. Mommsen, Histoire de la monnaie romaine, trans, by Due de Blacas and J. de Witte (1865-75) H. Cohen, Monnaies jrappics sous V empire romain (1880-92) E. Babelon, MonE. J. Haeberlin, Syslemaiik naies de la republique romaine (1885-86) des dllesten romischen Miinzwesens (1905), Acs Grave (1910); H. Willers, Geschichte der romischen Kupferpragiing (1909); H. A. Grueber, Coins of the Roman Republic in the British Museum (1910) ); H. MatH. Mattingly ct al., Roman Imperial Coinage (1923tingly, Roman Coins (1960), British Museum Catalogue of Coins of the Roman Empire (1923) J. Maurice, Numismatique Constantinienne (1908-12) F. Gnecchi, Medaglioni Romani (1912) E. A. Sydenham, Coinage of the Roman Republic (1952) H. Mattingly and R. E. S. G. Robinson in Proceedings of the British Academy (1933) Thomsen, Early Roman Coinage (1957-61) M. Bernhart, Miinzkunde to From Imperium Grant, M. romische Kaiserzeit (1922-26); der Auctoritas (1946), Roman Anniversary Issues (1950) C. H. V. Sutherin RoCoinage Britain in Roman (1937), and Coinage Currency land, man Imperial Policy (1951); J. M. C. Toynbee, Roman Medallions (1944). Byzantine: J. Sabatier, Monnaies hyzantines (1862); Warwick Wroth, Catalogue of the Imperial Byzantine Coins in the British Museum, 2 vol. (1908), Catalogue of Coins of the Vandals, Ostrogoths cmd Lombards (1911). Western, Medieval and Modern Coins: General: K. Neumann, Beschreibung der bekanntesten Kupfermiinzen (1858-72); J. A. BlanA. Engel and R. chet, Numism. du moyen age et moderne (1890) Serrure, Numism. du moyen age (1891-1905), Numism. moderate (1897-99) A. Luschin von Ebengreuth, Allgemeine Miinzkunde und Geldgeschichte, 2nd ed. (1926) E. Martinori, La Moneta (1915) Wavte Raymond (ed.). Coins of the World: 19th Century Issues (1953), Comi of the World: 20th Cenljtry Issues (1951) F. P. Barnard, The Casting-Counter and the Counting-Board (1916). Transitional Period: F. F. Kraus, Die Miinzen Odovacars und des Ostgotenreiches in Italien (1928) G. C. Miles, Coinage of the Visigoths to Achila II (1952) P. Le Gentilhomme, Melanges de of Spain dans les numismatique merovingienne (1940), Le monnayage royaumes barbares en Occident {V'-VIII' siecle) (1946) C. F. Keary, Coinages of Western Europe (1879); M. Prou, Les Monnaies mirovingiennes (1892); A. de Belfort, Description ginirale des monnaies merovingiennes (1892-95). Countries: Portugal: A. C. Teixeira de Aragao, Description das moedas de Portugal (1874-80) J. Ferraro Vaz, Catalogo das moedas portuguesas, 1640-1948 (1948). Spain: A. Heiss, Monedas hispanocristianas (1865-69) J. de Yriate, Catalogo de los reales de a ocho espaholas (1955). France: F. Poey d'Avant, Monnaies fiodales de France (1858-62) supplement by E. Caron (1882-84) Gariel, Monnaies royales de France sous la race carolingienne (1883-84) M. Prou, Les Monnaies carolingiennes (1896) A. Dieudonne, Les Monnaies Capetiennes (1923) J. Lafaurie, Les Monnaies des rois de France: Hugues Capet a Louis XII (1951) J. Lafaurie and P. Prieur, Les Monnaies des rois de France: Francois I a Henri IV (1956) F. C. Spooner, L'Economie mondiale et les frappes monetaires en France, 1493-1680 (1956) J. A. Blanche! and A. Dieudonne, Manuel de numismatique fran^aise (1912-16), Tresor de numismatique (1834-40) L. Ciani, Les Monnaies royales fran^aises de Hugues Capet a Louis XVI (1926), Les Monnaies frangaises de la Revolution a la fin du premier empire, 17891815 (1931) F. Mazerolle, Les Midailleurs frangais (1902-04). Low Countries: P. O. van der Chijs, Munten der Hertogdommen Braband en Limburg (1851) A. de Witte, Histoire monitaire des comtes de Louvain, dues de Brabant (1894-99) G. van Loon, Histoire mitallique des Pays-Bas (French ed. 1732-37), with supplement (1861-71); V. J. Chautard, Imitations des monnaies au type esterlin (1871) Gaillard, Recherches sur les monnaies des comtes de Flandre (1857) de E. Bernays and J. Vannerus, Histoire monitaire du comte Luxembourg (1910), Supplement (1934) C. Dupriez, Monnaies du royaume de Belgique (1848) (1949) P. Verkade, Muntboek J. Schulman, Handboek van de nederlandsche munten, 1795-1945 (1946). Switzerland: R. S. Poole, Catalogue of Swiss Coins in South ;

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L. Coraggioni, Miinzgeschichte der Kensington Museum (1878) Schweiz (1896). Italy: F. and E. Gnecchi, Bibliografta numismatica delle zecche italiane (1889), Monete dei Reali di Savoia (1841), Monete di Milano (1884); C. Seraiini, Le monete e le bolle pontificie (1910C. Dcsimoni, Monete 28) N. Papadopoli, Monete di Venezia (1893) delta Zecca di Geneva (1891); M. Cagiali, Le monete del reame aV. Emmanuele I (1911-37) J. Frieddelle Due Sicilie da Carlo I lander, Italienische Schaumiinzen (1880-82); A. Armand, Midailleurs italiens (1883-87); C. von Fabriczy, Italian Medals, trans, by G. W. Hamilton (1904); G. F. Hill, Renaissance Medals (1920). Germany: A. Suhle, Deutsche Miinz- und Geldgeschichte von den Anfdngen bis zum 15 Jahrhundert (1955); H. P. Cappe, Miinzen der deutschen Kaiser und Konige (1848-50); G. Schlumberger, Bractiates d'Allemagne (1873) H. Dannenberg, Deutschen Miinzen der s'dchsischen und E. Fiala, Sammlung bohmischer frdnkischen Kaiserzeit (1876-1905) Miinzen und Medaillen des Max Donebauer (1899); E. Bahrfeldt, Miinzwcsen der Mark Brandenburgs (1889-95), Sammlung in der Marienburg (1901-06) F. von Schrbtter, Das preussicke Miinzwesen im 18ten Jahrhunderls (1902-04); C. von Miller zu Aichholz et al., L. Rethy and G. Oesterreichische Miinzprdgungen, 1519-1938 (1948) Probzt, Corpus nummorum Hungariae (1958); K. Domanig, PortrdlF. von Schrbtter, Das medaillen des Erzhauses Osterreich (1896) preussiche Miinzwesen (1902-13) K. Domanig, Die deutsche Medaille (1907). Poland: E. Hutton-Czapski, Catalogue de la collection des Russia and Scandinavia: medailles et monnaies polonaises (1957). Baron de Chaudoir, Monnaies russes (1836-37) J. Tolstoi, Coins of Kieff (1882), Coins of Great Novgorod (1884), Coins of Pskog (1886) A. Oreshnikov, Russian Coins up to the Year 1547 (1896) L Spassky, Mansfeld-Bullner, Danske The Rtissian Monetary System (1957) Mynler (1887) P. Hauberg, Danmarks Mynywaesen og Mynter, 12411377 (1885-86), Myntforhold og Udmyntinger i Danmark indtil 1146 (1900). Latin East, etc.: G. Schlumberger, Numismatique de I'orient latin (1878) E. H. Furse, L'Ordre souverain de St. Jean de Jerusalem (1885). America: D. K. Watson, History of American Coinage (1899) A. Weyl, Fonrobertsche Sammlung (1878) A. Rosa, Monetario ameriMeio circulante no Brazil (1897-1905) S. S. cano (1892) J. Meih, Crosby, Early Coins of America (1875) N. Carothers, Fractional Money (1930) J. J. Ford and W. H. Breen, The Standard Catalogue R. Friedberg, Paper Money of the United States of U.S. Coins (1958) (1955) G. and C. Criswell, Confederate and Southern States Currency ;

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Money of Necessity: P. Mailliet, Monnaies obsidionales et de (1870-73); A. Brause-Mansfeld, Feld-Notund Belagerungsmiinzen (1897-1903). Great Britain and Ireland: R. Ruding, Annals of the Coinage (1840) A. E. Feavearyear, Pound Sterling (1931) J. Craig, The Mint (1953) J. D. A. Thompson, Inventory of British Coin Hoards, A.D. 600-1500 (1956); B. E. Hildebrand, Anglosachsiska Mynt (1881); J. Evans, Ancient British Coins (1864-90) D. F. Allen in Archaeologia (1944) G. C. Brooke in Numismatic Chronicle (1933) and in Antiquity (1933) R. P. Mack, Coinage of Ancient Britain (1953) C. H. V. Sutherland, Anglo-Saxon Gold Coinage (1948) C. F. Keary and H. A. Grueber, Catalogue of English Coins, Anglo-Saxon Series, i, ii (1887, 1893); G. C. Brooke, Catalogue of English Coins in the British Museum: the Norman Kings (1916) and English Coins (1950), Sylloge of the Coins E. Hawkins, A. W. Franks and H. A. of the British Isles (1958) Grueber, Medallic Illustrations of the History of Great Britain and Ireland (1885; with plates, 1904-12); L. W. Hewlett, Anglo-Gallic Coinage (1920) E. Burns, Coinage of Scotland (1887) L H. Stewart, Scottish Coinage (1955); R. W. Cochran-Patrick, Catalogue of the Medals of Scotland (1884) J. Lindsey, A View of the Coinage of Ireland (1839) Aquilla Smith, various papers on Irish coinage; H. Montagu, Copper, Tin and Bronze Coinage (1893) W. Boyne, Trade Tokens Issued in the 17th Century, ed. by G. C. Williamson (1889) R. Dalton and S. H. Hamer, Provincial Token Coinage of the XVIII Century (1910-17) W. J. Davis, The 19th Century Token Coinage (1904) J. Atkins, Coins and Tokens of the British Empire (1889) W. W. Woodside, Communion Tokens: a Bibliography (1958). Latin America: J. T. Medina, Las monedas coloniales hispanoamericanas (1919), Las monedas obsidionales hispano-americanas (1919), Las monedas chilenas (1902) Humberto F. Burzio, Diccionario de la moneda hispano-americana, 3 vol. (1956-58), La ceca de la Villa Imperial de Potosi y la moneda colonial (1945), La ceca de Lima (1958) Adolfo Herrera, El duro, 2 vol. (1914) Tomas Dasi, Estudio de los reales de a ocho, 5 vol. (1950) Alberto F. Pradeau, Numismatic History of Mexico (1938) Wayte Raymond, Spanish-American Gold Coins (1936), The Silver Dollars of North and South America (1939). Asiatic: Persia: Achaemenid: E. Babelon, Les Perses Achiminides G. F. Hill, Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Arabia, Mesopo(1893) tamia and Persia (1922); R. Curiel and D. Schlumberger, Trisors monStaires de I' Afghanistan (1953). Parlhians: W. Wroth, Catalogue R. H. McDowell, Coins From Seleucia of the Coins of Parthia (1903) on the Tigris (1935) E. T. Newell, "The Coinage of the Parthians" in A Survey of Persian Art, i, 475^92 (1938). Sasanian: F. D. J. Paruck, Sassanian Coins (1924) R. Gobi, pp. 51-128 in Ein asiatischer Staat, Modern: R. S. Poole, The ed. by F. Altheim and R. Stiehl (1954). H. L. Coins of the Shahs of Persia in the British Museum (1887) Rabino di Borgomale, Coins, Medals and Seals of the Shahs of Iran, 1500-1941 (1941-51). Islamic Coins: L. A. Mayer, Bibliography of Moslem Numismatics, (1957).

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NUMMULITE—NUNEZ CABEZA DE VACA Lane-Poole, Catalogue of Oriental Coins in the British Museum, 10 vol. (1875-91); J. Walker, A Catalogue of the Muhammadan Coins in the British Museum, vol. i, Arab-Sassanian Coins, vol. ii, Arab-Byzantine and Post-Reform Vmaiyad Coins (1956) G. C. MUes, Fatimid Coins in the Collections of the University Museum (1951), The Coinage of the Umayyads of Spain (1950); A. Prieto y Vives, Los reyes de taifas (1926); W. H. Hazard, The Numismatic History of Late Medieval North Africa (1952). Ottoman Empire: H. A. R. Gibb and H. Bowen, Islamic Society and the West, vol. 1, pt. 2, pp. 49-59 (1957). India: C. R. Singhal, Bibliography of Indian Coins, i, "Non-Muhammadan Series," ii, "Muhammadan and Later Series" (1950-52); C. J. Brown, The Coins of India (1922). Ancient and Early Medieval: E. .J. Rapson, "Indian Coins" in J. G. Buhler's Grundriss (1898), Catalogue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasty, the Western Ksatrapas (1908); J. Allan, Coins of the Gupta Dynasties (1914), Catalogue of the Coins of Ancient India (1936), Catalogue of Coins in the Indian Museum, Calcutta, iv. Native States (1927) R. B. Whitehead, Catalogue of Coins in the Panjab Museum, Lahore, i, Indo-Greek Coins (1914) V. A. Smith, Catalogue of Coins in the Indian Museum, Calcutta, i (1908) A. S. Altekar, Corpus of Indian Coins, iv. The Coinage of the Gupta Empire (1957). Islamic Period: H. N. Wright, The Coinage and the Metrology of the Sultans R. B. Whitehead, Catalogue of Coins in the Panjab of Delhi (1936) Museum, iii, Coins of the Mogkul Emperors (1914) S. H. Hodivala, Historical Studies in Mughal Numismatics (1923) E. Thurston, History of the Coinage of the Territories of the East India Company (1890) J. Atkins, The Coins and Tokens of the Possessions and Colonies of the British Empire (1889); W. Elliott, Coins of Southern India (1886) H. W. Codrington, Ceylon Coins and Currency (1924) E. H. Walsh, "Coinage of Nepal" in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, pp. 669-759, 1132-36 (1908), "The Coinage of Tibet" in Memoirs A. P. Phayre, of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, pp. 11-23 (1907) Coins of.Arakan, of Pegu, and of Burma (1882). The Far East: H. F. Bowker, A Numismatic Bibliography of the Far East (1943); W. Vissering, Chinese Currency (1877) A. Terrien de Lacouperie, Catalogue of Chinese Coins From the 7th Century B.C. to 621 A.D., Including the Series in the British Museum (1892) J. H. S. Lockhart, Currency of the Farther East (1805-98), Catalogue of Mry Collection (1915) Wang Yii-ch'Uan, Early Chinese Coinage (1951) P. O. Sigler, Sycee Silver (1943) H. B. Morse, The Trade and Administration of China, 3rd rev. ed., ch. 5 (1921) E. Kann, Illustrated Catalog of Chinese Coins (1954) N. G. Munro, Coins of Japan (1904) N. Jacobs and C. C. Vermeule, Japanese Coinage (1953) D. M. Brown, Money Economy in Medieval Japan (1951) C. T. Gardner, "The Coinage of Corea" in Journal of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, pp. 71-130 (1892-93); M. Courant, "Note historique sur les divers especes de monnaie qui ont ete usites en Coree" in Journal asiatique, pp. 270-289 (1893); D. Lacroix, Numismatique annamile (1900); A. Schroeder, Annam, etudes numismatiques (1905); R. le May, The Coinage of Siam (1932) H. C. Millies, Recherckes sur les monnaies des indigenes de I'Archipel Indien et de la peninsule Malaie

2nd

(19S4)

ed.

;

S.

;

.

.

.

.

.

.

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

(1872).

Medals and Medallic Art: G. F. Hill, Pisanello (1905), Medals of the Renaissance (1920) J. Babelon, La Medaille et les medailleurs (1927) K. Domanig, Die deutsche Medaille (1907) E. Hawkins, A. W. Franks and H. A. Grueber, Medallic Illustrations of the History of Great Britain and Ireland (1885-1911); L. Forrer, Biographical Dictionary of Medallists, etc. (1904-16), Supplement (1923) C. H. V. Sutherland in Journal of the Roval Society of Arts, 1955. Periodicals: Arithuse (1923-31), Medailles (1938). H. (C. V. S.; S. M. Sn.) ;

;

;

;

has formed part of the church's evening worship; it contains a reference to Christ's salvation as the light of the gentiles, which makes it appropriate for use when the church relies on the divine light through the hours of darkness. It is part~of vespers in the Orthodox Euchologion, of compline in the Roman breviary and of evensong in Anglican prayerbooks.

of St.

NUN,

a

member

of an order or congregation of

women,

living

vows of poverty, chastity and Catholic canon law only women living under solemn vows are nuns (moniales) those under simple vows are properly called sisters isorores'). Widows and penitents, by dispensation, are received into all orders except the Carthusian, which a life of religious observance under

obedience.

In

Roman

;

requires complete bodily integrity.

See Monasticism;

Women's

Religious Orders.

NUNATAK,

mountain peak appearing above the Greenland is for the most part covered by

a hill or

surface of a glacier.

an icecap which moves slowly downward to the sea. It will rise upward and pass over a barrier if there is no outlet, but will flow between and around mountain peaks leaving them standing as hills (nunataks) above the general surface of the icecap. There are also nunataks in Antarctica but they are less numerous and more widely scattered. The term is an Eskimo loanword.

NUNC

the canticle in the Bible also known as the Song of Simeon, beginning "Lord, now lettest thou thy servant ." (Lat. Nunc dimittis servum tuum, domine. depart It .). .

.

DIMITTIS,

.

was uttered by the aged Simeon when the Virgin Mary brought the

John Chrysostom

it is

At the end of the

liturgy

repeated by the priest as he takes

off his stole.

NUNCIO,

the resident representative of the pope in major government Csince the

countries, diplomatically accredited to the

congress of Vienna, dean in some countries of the diplomatic endowed with certain papal rights of jurisdiction over the Catholic faithful. The office is historically related to that of the apocrisiary at the Byzantine and Prankish courts (5th and 6th centuries') and to that of later papal fiscal officials. Angelo Leonini, sent to Venice in 1500, is usually regarded as the first official nuncio. A nuncio differs from a legate, whose office is temporary. Internuncio is the title used in some countries of nonambassadorial status. Apostolic delegate (equivalent to mincorps), and also

ister plenipotentiary)

is

the

title

used

in

some

countries.

An

from a nuncio in that he lacks diplomatic Legate; Vatican, The: External Relations.

apostolic delegate differs status.

See also

NUNEATON,

(J. C.

My.)

borough (1907) in the Nuneaton parliamentary division of Warwickshire, Eng., on the Anker'river and the Coventry canal, 19 mi. N.N.E. of Warwick. Pop. (1961) 56,598. The prefix "Nun" was added to its name when a Benedictine nunnery was founded there between 1155 and 1159. Situated near a coalfield and granite quarries, Nuneaton has large engineering and brick works and a flourishing textile industry. Other trades are leather dressing, boxmaking, fellmongering and the manufacture of needles. In 1819 Mary Ann Evans, who wrote under the name of George Eliot, was born at South farm, Arbury, now within the borough. (Petrus Nonius) (1492-1577), PortuNUNES, guese mathematician and geographer, the peak figure in Portuguese He was nautical science, was born at Alcacer do Sal in 1492. professor of mathematics at Lisbon and Coimbra, and was made position royal cosmographer in 1529 when Spain was disputing the of the Spice Islands and maps did not agree in their longitude. He devoted himself to such problems, to maps and map projecHe was the first to show that a loxodrome course gives a tions. spiral route, and published studies of the sphere and of the oceans. In 1538 he went to Spain, but returned to Portugal in 1544, when he was the best informed man in the world on the new discoveries of Spain and Portugal. He died at Coimbra in 1577. a municipal

PEDRO

See A. Cortesao, Cartografia

e

Cartografos Portugueses,

2

vol. (1935).

(A. Ds.)

NUMMULITE,

any of the thousands of extinct species of foraminiferan protozoa whose shells are often indicators of oilbearing rock. See Foraminifera.

787

infant Jesus to the Temple to be presented to God (Luke ii, 29i2). Since at least as early as the 4th century the Song of Simeon

NUNEZ, RAFAEL

(1825-1894), leading Colombian political figure of the late 19th century, was born Sept. 28, 1825, in Cartagena. He entered politics in the Liberal party while in law

and moved to the national political scene in 1853. Holder high government offices, pre-eminent political figure from 1880, three times president of Colombia (1880-82, 1884-86, 188692), he was leader of the independent faction of Liberals. A Radischool,

of

many

1884 forced Nuiiez into alliance with the Conservatives and enabled him to institute a series of reforms called the Regeneration, including the concordat of 18S8 ending cal Liberal rebellion in

religious conflict

(1850-85) and the existing centralized constitu-

tion of 1S86 terminating federalist anarchy (1858-86). Regarded as the leading intellect of his time, an active publicist and journal-

and economic policy and composed Domineering, able, opportunistic, he was during his public career on both sides of every national controversy. (R. L. Ge.) He died in El Cabrero, on Sept. 12, 1894. ist, Nunez wrote on volumes of poetry.

politics

NUNEZ CABEZA DE VACA, ALVAR

(c.

l490-c.

1560), Spanish explorer, was treasurer of the ill-fated expedition of Panfilo de Narvaez to Florida in 1527-28. Of 300 men who disembarked, only four, including Cabeza de Vaca, ever returned to civilization. For eight years they wandered among the Indians

NUNEZ DE ARCE—NURI

788

AS-SAID

Nupe kingdom, their kings owing fealty to the Etsu Nupe. The population is divided commoners and chents. The office of Etsu Nupe

of the Gulf coast

ganized as kingdoms within the greater

has long been debated.

also

related

into nobility,

and northern Mexico thouph their exact route Cabeza de Vaca's adventures (which he upon his return) probably led to the De Soto expedition of 153S, and without question inspired the Coronado enterprise of 1540, both of which probed deeply into areas which later formed

part of the United States.

Returning to Spain to seek recompense for his services, he was appointed governor of the province of Rio de la Plata. He reached Brazil in March 1541, and from November of that year to March 1542. he traveled 1,000 mi. to Asuncion, the provincial capital. Intrigue and rebellion led by Domingo Martinez de Irala resulted in his seizure, continement and (in 1545) deportation to Spain. The council of the Indies, finding him guilty of malfeasance in office, sentenced him to banishment from the Indies and to military service in Africa. Upon his appeal, the council reduced the sentence but never reversed the judgment, Cabeza de Vaca died in obscurity

and poverty.

See Morris Bishop, The Odyssey of Cabeza de Vaca (1933); for Cabeza de Vaca, "The Narrative" in Spanish Explorers in the Southern United States (1907). (K. M, S.) sources,

NUNEZ DE

CASPAR

(1832-1903), Spanish poet ARCE, and statesman, once regarded as the great poet of doubt and disillusionment, though his rhetoric is no longer found moving. He was born in Valladolid on Aug. 4, 1832, became a journalist and Liberal deputy, took part in the 1868 revolution and was colonial minister for a time after the Restoration. He died in Madrid on June 9, 1903, As a dramatist he had some success, his best play being the historical El haz de leiia (1872), but he attained celebrity with Gritos del combate (1875). This volume of verse sought to give poetic utterance to religious questionings and the current political problems of freedom and order. His longer poems include Ultima lamentacion de Lord Byron (1879); the allegorical La selva oscura (1879); a study of Luther, La vision de Fray Martin (1880); and the sentimental narratives La pesca (1884) and Morwirt (1886). (H. B. Hl.) NUORO, a province of central Sardinia, created in 1927 out of parts of Cagliari and Sassari provinces; it had been a province under Piedmontese rule from 1848 to 1860. Pop. (1961) 265,750; area 2,808 sq.mi. The headquarters town is Nuoro, lying on an east-west road linked with the east coast road and the western north-south highway. It was first recorded (as Nugorus) in the 12th century; the site was inhabited from remote antiquity. The province consists essentially of the highland backbone of Sardinia, including the massifs of Gennargentu, Albo, Monte Ferru and Catena del Marghine. It is the poorest region of the island, occupied largely by pastoralists, but after 1950 developments included 30 mi. of new road, improvement of more than 17,500 ha. of mountain pastures (Argosolo, Mamoiada, Fonni) and the grafting of 2,000,000 wild olive trees (Siniscola, Posada, Torpe). (J. M. Ho.) NUPE. This Islamized kingdom in the heart of Nigeria iq.v.) lies at the confluence of the Niger and Kaduna rivers. About 360,000 people in the 1960s, they speak five main dialects of the Nupe language, which belongs to the Kwa language group (see African Languages). They are organized into a number of closely related subtribes, of which the Beni, the Zam, the Bataci (Batache) and the Kyedye (Kede) are the most important, although a dozen others can be named. The Kyedye and Bataci are river people, subsisting primarily by fishing and trading, while the other Nupe are primarily farmers, the staple crops being millet, sorghum and yams. There is a highly developed guild organization for crafts-

men who

specialize as blacksmiths, brass-smiths, weavers, beadworkers, glassmakers. tailors, matmakers, barbers and drummers. Either men or women may be specialist traders. Nupe live in grass-thatched huts of mud brick built in villages or towns varying in size from a few families to towns such as Bida, Kutigi and Mokwa with populations of several thousand

among three noble families. Nupe are polygynous, and bridewealth {q.v.) changes hands at most marriages. The majority are now Muslim, but many pagan rituals are still performed. They are noted throughout Nigeria for rotates

glass beads, fine leather

and matwork, as well as brass trays and

fine cloth.

—

Bibliography. S. F. Nadel, A Black Byzantium (1942), Nupe Religion (1954); D. Forde, The Nupe, International Institute of African Languages and Cultures: Peoples of the Niger-Benue Confluence S. Ottenberg and P. Ottenberg (eds.). Cultures and Societies (1956) (P. J. B.) of Africa (1960). al-Din, "Light of the Faith"; (Arab. ;

NUREDDIN

Nur

Abu'l Qasim Mahmud) (1118-1174), a Muslim leader in Syria, who by liis achievements against the crusaders laid the foundations for the later triumph of Saladin (q.v.), was born in Feb. 1118. Succeeding his father, Zangi, as ruler (atabeg) of Halab (Aleppo) in 1146, he speedily recaptured Edessa, which had been temporarily lost to the crusaders after his father's death. Apart from waging direct military campaigns against the crusaders Nureddin pursued a policy of the unification of the Muslim forces under his After annexing Damascus mitting Egypt to his control (1168). authority.

ment

Saladin,

who

( 1 1

54) he succeeded in suba result of this achieve,

As

participated in the conquest of Egypt, emerged

as a powerful military

commander.

Nureddin's authority was recognized of Iraq and Asia Minor.

At the time of his death Egypt and in parts

in Syria,

strict MusUm whose whole life was dedicated to Thus, while organizing the military effort of kingdom, he also supported the religious and cultural activities of his subjects. He built many new mosques, schools, hospitals and caravanseries. But the greatest services were rendered by him in the struggle against the "infidels." His successes con-

Nureddin was a

the cause of Islam.

his

war against the crusaders and resulted in many defeats of the Christian enemy. His accomplishment in the field of the unification of Muslim forces proved to be fundamental for the subsequent victory of Saladin. Nureddin died at Damascus on May 15, 1174. For a discussion of Arabic and western sources see C. Cahen, La Syrie du nord a I'epoque des Croisades (1940). For a modern account of Nureddin's career see S, Runciman, History of the Crusades, vol. i (19S1) H. A. R. Gibb, "The Career of Nurad-Din," in A History of tributed to the popularity of the holy

;

the Crusades, vol.

who

organized an

(A. S. Eh.) pp. 513-527 (1958). tribal chieftain in Manchuria

i,

NURHACHI

(1559-1626), a

army

of

mounted archers during

established military and political control over

all

the 1590s

and

of Manchuria.

In the year 1616 he proclaimed himself emperor of China and was thus a forerunner of the Manchu or Ch'ing dynasty (1644-1912). He defeated a large Chinese army and captured several border cities but died before he was able to invade China. See Ch'ing; Manchus; China: History. AS-SAID (NuRi al-Sa'id Pasha) (1888-1958), outstanding Iraqi statesman, was born in Baghdad in 1888, educated there and in Istanbul, and was commissioned in the Turkish army in 1909. He married, in 1910, the sister of Ja'far Pasha al 'Askari (q.v.). He saw service during 1912-13 against the Bulgarians. Thereafter, in Istanbul and later, during 1913-14, in Cairo and Basra, he became increasingly involved in Arab secret societies, which envisaged home rule. In 1916, after a year's residence forcee in India, he was helped by the British to join the (antiTurkish) Arab revolt in the Hejaz, and reached Jidda in July. Thereafter for 26 months Nuri was a vigorous, competent, gallant

NURI

and dynamic

came

figure in the

Arab army

of

Amir

Faisal, to

to stand in the closest personal relationship.

whom

he

He

walls are seldom encountered.

acted as staff officer, ad\aser and devoted supporter throughout the amir's rule in Syria (1920), and accompanied him to Versailles and on many journeys. When the Syrian kingship was, lost, Nuri followed Faisal to his elected throne in Iraq (Aug. 1921). With integrity, ready accessibility and the highest contacts in neigh-

ranked officials who owed a feudallike allegiance to the king, called Etsu Nupe. The Beni and the Kyedye both are or-

bouring countries and in Europe, for the following 37 years he played a unique part in Iraqi constitutional, political and administrative life and was 14 times prime minister between 1930 and

Villages were formerly surrounded

by a wall, but today Indigenously the Nupe kingdom was divided into four zones for purposes of government, with a people.

series of

NURISTAN—NURNBERG Standing for the monarchy and for a cordial relationship with Great Britain (not least in the critical mid-war period, 194041), the pasha suppressed extremism. Communism and the more effervescent forms of pohtics at home, opposed Zionism, and improved relations with Turkey and Iran. In wider Arab circles, in which by 193S he had achieved a unique status, he urged all practicable forms of Arab unity and was an inspirer or founder of the Arab league (1945). Later, as pro-western creator of the Baghdad pact (1955), he lost popularity, and his somewhat autocratic regime at home offended the underemployed Iraqi intelligentsia. He was murdered in Baghdad during the miUtary revolutionary coup, on July 16, 1958. See also Iraq: History. 1958.

to

See Lord Birdwood, Nuri as-Said (1959) 1950 (1953).

;

S.

H. Longrigg, Iraq 1900 (S. H. Lo.)

NURISTAN

(Kapiristan), a region of eastern Afghanistan forming the northern part of the province of Nangrahar. Its area is approximately 5,000 sq.mi. and the population about 50,000. It comprises the upper parts of the three large north-south valleys of the Alinghar, Peech (Parun) and Bashgal. Its northern border follows the main range of the Hindu Kush, and on the east it is bounded by West Pakistan, west by the mountain ranges above the Nejrab and Panjshir valleys and southeast by the Kunar valley. Kafiristan ("land of the Kafirs," i.e., infidels) came under Afghan rule in 1895 and after the forcible conversion of its people to Islam it was renamed Nuristan ("land of light or the enlightened"). The region is mountainous, forested and relatively rainy. The highest lying forests are dominated by conifers (deodar, pines) which grow from below 7,000 ft. to above 10,000 ft. Below 7,000 ft., mixed deciduous forest is prevalent with oak, maple, hawthorn and walnut. Below 5,000 ft. the deciduous forest becomes almost universal. The Asmar forest to the east produces a large part of Afghanistan's timber.

The people speak various Kafir languages

{see

Dardic Lan-

guages) which are of unknown but very old Indo-European origin. They are light-skinned, of medium height, hardy and brave. Their record was one of pagan superstition, brigandage and plundering; they were, and still are, intensely loyal to their own people and strongly cherish their independence. They have a clan organization with village government, and are now settled agriculturists. The region as a whole has a most distinctive culture, and although it is possible to estabUsh certain cultural differences between the three main valleys, yet they share a culture which gives them a unique position within Afghanistan. The houses in the highest northern regions are built of stone or clay, but in the forested regions mainly of wood, and often (to save space) in several stories, stepwise above each other. They often have verandas and are richly carved. The small enclosed fields (often no bigger than an ordinary floor space), mostly lying in steep, narrow

women, while be

fertilized

the

and

is

mountain

men hunt

valleys, are cultivated

or tend livestock.

The

soil

by the has to

sometimes irrigated by water brought for miles

wooden conduits along the mountainsides. Water mills for common. The usual Afghan wooden plow is used wherever possible, but is drawn by only one ox. The main

in

grinding grain are

crop is wheat, with barley, maize (corn), millet and peas. Grapes and mulberries are grown in the lower parts, and fruits are gathered pomegranates, Zizyphus berries, blackberries and the fruits of conifers. Livestock consists mainly of goats, with some cattle, and a few sheep in the upper, wider valleys. There are no horses. The whole of this recessive, very characteristic civilization is still partly preserved and marked by the strong geographical isolation and the paganism which prevailed until the 1890s, according to the descriptions of Sir George Scott Robertson, who visited Kafiristan at that time, and the Russian, Danish (1947-64) and German travelers who described it up to the mid-20th century. See also Nangrahar; Afghanistan: The People.

—

See Sir G. S. Robertson, Kafirs of the Hindu-Kush (1896). (J. P. C.

NURNBERG

N. H.)

(Nuremberg), the second largest town (pop. [1961] 454,520) in the Land (state) of Bavaria, which following the partition of the nation after World War II became part of the

789

Federal Republic of Germany, and also administrative centre of the province of Mittelfranken (Middle Francoma), is situated on a sandy plain at the foot of the Franconian Jura, on both banks

km. (92 Pegnitz flows into the Regnitz at northwest, and the Regnitz joins necting Niirnberg with the Rhine of the Pegnitz river 147

the

N.N.W. of Munich. The town of Furth, 6 mi. to the

the

Main

mi.)

at

Bamberg (so conmakes possible

valley) and also

communication eastward with Czechoslovakia. Niirnberg's wealth and 13th centuries was devoted to building and to patronage of the arts. Its industrialization in the 19th century and its use as a war-production centre by the Nazis led to severe bombing during World War II. It was, however, reconstructed according to the original ground plan, and many of its damaged buildings were carefully restored. Its importance as a commercial and industrial centre has not destroyed its medieval as a trading centre in the 12th

character.

The

older, central part of the city, the Altstadt, is

still

enclosed

by the medieval walls (completed 1452), with their 128 towers and four main gates. It is divided by the Pegnitz river into the Lorenzer Seite (named after the Gothic St. Lorenzkirche) on the south and the older Sebalder Seite (named after the RomanesqueGothic St. Sebalduskirche) on the north. The Sebalder Seite slopes up to the red sandstone castle rock on the northwest from which the gray-walled castle, with its five-cornered 11th-century tower and 12th-16th-century Kaiserburg (imperial castle), dominates the town. Just below is a perfectly preserved medieval square, near which is Albrecht Dijrer's house (c. 1450, where he lived and died [1509-28]). St. Sebalduskirche (1225-73; east choir 1361-79) contains a magnificent brass shrine by Peter Vischer and his sons Peter and Hermann (1508-19). Also on the Sebalder Seite are the Marktplatz, where stands the 14th-century Schoner Brunnen and the Gothic Frauenkirche (Church of Our Lady, 1352-61) on the west front of which is the Mannleinlaufen, a mechanical clock made about 1 509 to commemorate the Golden Bull of 1356, showing the seven electors moving round Charles IV; the gabled Fembohaus (1591-1600), the only surviving example of a burgher's house, which is now the old town's historical museum (founded 1953); and the Heiliggeistspital or Hospital of the Holy Ghost (founded 1331, expanded 1487-1527). The two halves of the town are connected by the Konigstrasse, a busy street containing modern shops as well as old buildings. It leads up to the St. Lorenzkirche (c. 1260-1360; choir 1439-77), containing the famous "Engelsgruss" (Annunciation) carved out of Unden wood by Veit Stoss (1517-18), the stone sanctuary by Adam Kraft (1493-96) and an ornate rose window over the west door (1350-60). Also in the Konigstrasse are the gabled market hall (built as the city granary, c. 1500) and the small churches of St. Klara (Gothic; choir 1273) and St. Martha (1360). Among modern buildings worthy of mention (many built or rebuilt after World War II) are the school of economics and sociology, the school of music and the academy of art. The Germanic National museum (founded 1852) contains exhibits illustrating German art and culture from prehistoric times to the early 19th century. There are an industrial institute, a transport museum and an excellent municipal library, containing 3,000 manuscripts and 2,000 incunabula, in a modern building on the city's outskirts. To the southeast of the city is Dutzendteich, which was used by the Nazis for their annual September ralhes (1933-38). Some of There is also a sports stadium its buildings have been dismantled. (1923-28), and a national park on the slopes of the Schmausenbuck (1,276 ft.). Niirnberg is an important south German railway junction, although the division of Germany after World War II severed many of its connections; e.g., Halle-Leipzig-BerHn, Hof-DresdenWarsaw, Eger-Prague. Nurnberg is on the Munich-Berlin Autobahn and the Autobahn to Frankfurt am Main, constructed in the 1960s, connects it to the Rhinel^nd. The construction of the planned Rhine-Main-Danube canal' would greatly aid its economy. An airport was opened to the north of the town in 1955. Niirnberg is the centre of the great north Bavarian economic region. Its chief industries, in order of importance, are iron and metal production and manufacture, manufacture of business ma-

NURSERY— NURSERY AND COUNTING-OUT RHYMES

790

chines, cables, electrodes, telecommunications equipment, machin-

ery and motor vefficles. Also characteristic are the toy industry (International Toy fair); the manufacture of gingerbread, chocolate, margarine and pharmaceutical goods; and brewing. Niirnberg is also important as a market for the export of Bavarian hops. History. Founded about 1040 as a stronghold by Henry III, duke of Bavaria and emperor of Germany, Niirnberg developed

—

community of traders and artisans clustered around Destroyed in 1127, it was rapidly rebuilt, and in 114050 spread from the north to the south bank of the river. Its popu-

when they were first recorded, as is shown by the existence of parallel formulas on the continent of Europe. For instance, the old

German "Windle, wandle,

in welchem Handle, oben oder unt?" "Kinnewippchen, Rotlippchcn, Nuppelnaschen, Augenbriiunchen, Zupp-Zupp-Harichen." In a few cases for example the verse addressed to the lady-

and

—

bird

Ladybird, ladybird, fly away home. Your house is on fire and your children

rapidly as a the castle.

because of miracles attributed to the tomb of on the important trade route linking Germany with the Mediterranean and the patronage of the emperors caused it to flourish in the 12th and 13th centuries. In 1219 it received its great charter from Frederick II and after the middle of the century became a free imperial city, owning larity with pilgrims

St. Sebald. its position as a trading centre

considerable land and ruled by a council of 42, most of whom belonged to wealthy patrician families. Alongside the development of wealth and influence went the development of learning and of crafts of

all

kinds.

and Albrecht

The names

of the artists Michael

Diirer, the sculptors

Adam

Wohlgemuth

Kraft and Veit Stoss, the

brass founder Peter \'ischer and his sons, and the scholars Martin

Behaim. Johann Mijlier (Regiomontanus) heimer testify to the quality of the city's

and Willibald Pirkartistic and academic life in the Ibth century. The Gymnasium Aegidianum, founded in 1526 by Philipp Melanchthoii, was among the first in Germany. The city also achieved fame as the nursery of German Meistergesang and home of Hans Sachs {see Meistersinger). It was in Niirnberg that Peter Henlein invented (1500) the mainspring and first pocket watch, the "Niirnberg egg"; J. C. Denner invented the clarinet there in the early 18th century. In 1525 it was the first imperial city to adhere to the Reformation.

"London Bridge is rhyme popularized by Lewis Carroll, the singing-game

(1872),

"Humpty Dumpty

found half across Europe. The likelihood of direct translation can be discounted, and it is possible that these rhymes have come down from very early times. The ancient practice of incarcerating a human being in the foundations of a new bridge to serve as a guardian spirit may lie behind the stanza of "London Bridge is broken down" which begins "Set a man to watch all night." The watchman was thought necessary to overcome the supernatural opposition which kept destroying the bridge. Counting-Out Rhymes. Another type of rhyme which has European equivalents is the gibberish counting-out formula employed by children in their games to determine which one of them shall take some special role. The similarity of the sound of formulas repeated by children in different countries is sometimes remarkable. In Great Britain children may say:

—

Eena, meena, mona, my, Barcelona, bona, stry, Air, ware, frum, dy,

Araca, baraca, wee, wo, wack.

And

in northern

Germany: Ene, tene, mone, mei. Pastor, lone, bone, strei, Ene, fune, herke, berke,

As a result of the change of direction of the great European trade routes after the discovery of the Americas and of the sea route to India, of the devastation of the Thirty Years' War during

Wer? Wie? Wo? Was?

which Gustavus II Adolphus was besieged there, and of the customs policy of the great powers in the 1 7th century, Niirnberg gradually declined in importance. In 1806 the town and its lands were absorbed into the kingdom of Bavaria. The first German railway, the Ludwigs-Eisenbahn (1835-1922), ran from Niirnberg, and the city's industrialization in the 19th century gradually re-

The

its position. In the 1930s it became a centre of the National Socialist party; in 1935 it gave its name to the antiSemitic Niirnberg decrees. It was severely damaged in air raids in Jan.-Feb. 1945; 6,716 people lost their lives. It was captured by U.S. troops and was the scene of the Allied trials of German

cothra, hothra, die."

War Crimes). See also references under ''Niirnberg"

war criminals (see Bibliography.

(19S0)

;

W. Kreigbaum and W. Schwemmer, Niirnberg: historische Bilderfolge einer deutschen Sladl (1955); W. Schwemmer, Niirnberg: a Guide Through

the Old

NURSERY:

Town see

(1960).

(0. H.

We.;

J, S.

Ge.; Wi. S.)

Arboriculture.

NURSERY AND COUNTING-OUT RHYMES.

A

nursery rhyme may be understood to be any verse that is customarily said or sung to small children. From the point of view of definition, the source and age of the rhyme is immaterial, and it need not originally have been intended for children. It becomes a nursery rhyme through usage. It happens, however, that when a child has to be entertained, the rhymes and songs most readily recalled are those from an adult's own childhood, and this is the reason why the nursery repertoire remains moderately stable. Nevertheless a rhyme or song which was new when the adult was

may occasionally come to mind along with the old verses, and thus enter the stream of tradition. It follows that the ages of nursery rhymes vary considerably, and the origin and history of each rhyme must be examined individually. Some of the oldest rhymes are probably those which accompany simple babies' games, such as "Handy dandy prickly prandy, which hand will you have?" (recorded 1598), and the face-tapping formula "Brow bender, eye peeper, nose dropper, mouth eater, chin chopper" (recorded 1788). These formulas were almost certainly a child

meena, mina, mo" can also be compared (as can the refrain "Hickory, dickory, dock") with certain sets of numerals, reaching to 20, which have long been used in England by country folk in their work, for instance By shepherds counting their sheep and fishermen assessing their catch. An example from Yarmouth begins "Ina, mina, tethera, methera, pin, sithera, lithera, refrain "Eena,

:

The

origin of

these scores

is

uncertain;

they may be Celtic or Danish survivals, but there can be little doubt that when schoolchildren indulge in "Chinese counting," as they call it in England, or "Indian counting," as they call it in the United States, they are preserving, even if in a corrupted form, the sounds of very ancient numerals. Sources. Such relics of the far past are exceptional. The majority of nursery rhymes date back only to the 16th, 17th or, most frequently, to the 18th century. Almost all of them appear to have been deliberate compositions rather than to have evolved over a course of years, and to have been primarily intended for adult entertainment. A number of them seem to have been popu-

—

in the Index.

— E. Kusch. Niirnberg: Lebensbild einer Stadt

gone;

to be

possibly the

established

sat

all

down"; and the riddle in Through the Looking-Glass on a wall"— numerous parallels are falling

lar ballads or songs.

The

original version of

"The frog who would

a-wooing go" was entered in the Stationers' Register as A moste Strange weddinge oj the ffrogge and the mowse in 1580. "Nose, nose, jolly red nose," which still flaunts its bacchanalian associations, was featured in The Knight oj the Burning Pestle by Beaumont and Fletcher in 1607. A version of "Three bhnd mice" was printed, with tune, in Thomas Ravenscroft's Deuteromelia (1609). A verse of "There were three jovial Welshmen" appeared as "There were three men of Gotam" on a broadside of 1632, and may earlier have been known to Shakespeare (The Two Noble Kinsmen [1613], Act III, sc. v). "Lavender's green, diddle, diddle, lavender's blue" appeared on a broadside printed between 1672 and 1685. More recently, "If I had a donkey wot wouldn't go" was written by Jacob Beuler about 1822. "Oh where, or where ish mine Uttle dog gone?" was written in 1864 by Septimus Winner, and another song of his is still repeated in American nurseries:

Ten little Injuns standin' in One toddled home and then

From

this

came

the diminishing

a line.

there were nine.

"Ten

little

.

.

nigger boys" of the

NURSERY SCHOOL— NURSING English nursery, written by Frank Green in 1869 for performance by the Christy minstrels. There is no reason to think that many of these songs have a hidden significance, any more than have the popular songs of the present day. Some, naturally enough, were inspired by personalities of the time, and occasionally these can be identified. The original Elsie Marley who "is grown so fine, She won't get up to feed the swine" was almost certainly an attractive alewife living in county Durham in the 18th century; and "The brave old Duke of York' probably slanders Frederick, son of George III. Many political lampoons were brief doggerel verses, such as "Hector Protector was dressed all in green," "Little General Monk sat upon a trunk" and "William and Mary, George and Anne" (the daughters and sons-in-law of James II). "Jack Sprat could eat no fat" appears (at latest in 1659") to have been used to ridicule an Arch-

deacon Pratt, and local tradition in Somerset associates "Little Jack Horner" (recorded 1725) with a Thomas Horner of Mells

who

did well for himself during the dissolution of the monasteries.

Collections

— The

earliest

known

collection of nursery rhymes.

Tommy

Thumb's (Pretty) Song Book, was published in London in two small volumes in 1744. Only a single copy of the second volume has survived, but it contains 39 rhymes including "Little Tom Tucker." "Bah, Bah. a black Sheep," "There was a little Man, and he had a httle Gun," "Sing a Song of Sixpence," and "Who did kill Cock Robin?" The most influential collection in the 18th century was Mother Goose's Melody: or, Sonnets for the Cradle, printed in

1 780. but probably compiled earlier. This collection of rhymes, including "Jack and Jill," "Ding dong bell," and "Hush-a-by baby on the tree top," was reprinted by Isaiah Thomas of Worcester, Mass., in 1786. and it seems to be through this collection that the rhymes are frequently thought of as belonging to "Mother Goose." The name "Mother Goose" had been taken from Mother Goose's Tales, the familiar title of Charles Perrault's collection of fairy tales which had been translated into English in 1729. There is no verifiable evidence and little likelihood that a book called Songs for the Nursery; or Mother Goose's Melodies for Children was printed in Boston, Mass., in 1719; and the association of this legendary collection with one Ehzabeth Goose (1665-1757) is merely delightful hey-diddle-diddle.

51

Bibliography.— J. O. HalUwell, The Nursery Rhymes of England (1842), and Popular Rhymes and Nursery Tales (1849); Robert Chambers, The Popular Rhymes of Scotland (1869); H. C. Bolton, The Counting-Oul Rhymes of Children (1888) Lina Eckenstein, Comparative Studies in Nursery Rhymes (1906) Zona and Peter Opie, The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes (19S1), which contains details of the early collections The Oxford Nursery Rhyme Book (1955), and The Lore and Language of Schoolchildren (1959). (P. M. 0.) ;

;

;

NURSERY SCHOOL

:

see

Day Nursery Pre-elementary ;

Education.

NURSING

as a profession

is

of comparatively recent origin,

but the art of nursing in the form of nurturing the young, protecting the helpless and tending the sick and injured is at least as old as recorded history. The evolution of nursing in different countries has been extremely uneven. Historically, its development falls into four loosely defined periods: pre-Florence Nightingale, up to 1860; the pioneer Nightingale period, 1860 to about 1900; the period of expansion and professional organization, c. 1900-19; and the period of improved methods of nursing education, govern-

ment recognition and growing international

relationships,

from

about 1919 onward. Before the Christian era, nurses, or attendants, are mentioned in the early medical records of China, India, Greece and Rome, but no reliable data about them exist. From the earliest Christian times nursing was regarded as a paramount duty of the church and with the rise of monasticism the care of the sick became the function of many religious orders of men and women. Among the earliest nursing records are those of the hotel Dieu in Paris (early 7th century) and of the hotel Dieu in Lyons (6th century). The military nursing orders, notably the Knights Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem (c. 1100), estabhshed well-equipped hospitals under rigorous quasi-military disciphne. Many later nursing orders were important, e.g., the Brothers of St. John of God in the 16th century and the world-famous Sisters of Charity, founded by

791

Vincent de Paul, whose work began in 1633 under Mile Le Gras (St. Louise de Marillac) and whose rule was confirmed in St.

1645.

The Reformation, with the suppression of monastic hospitals, England without a system of hospital nursing and conse-

left

quently nursing had no distinctive part in the colonial development of the United States. Hospitals built by the Spaniards in Latin America antedated those in the U.S. by about 300 years.

The

Jesuit missionaries in> "New France" sent "relations," i.e., which aroused interest in France as to the needs of Canada's colonists. The first hursing sisters to cross the Atlantic ocean, in 1639, were Augustinians from Dieppe; they were established at the Quebec hStel Dieu in 1658. Jeanne Mance (160673), the first white Woman to arrive in Montreal, founded the hotel Dieu there in 1644, assisted by nursing sisters of the order of St. Joseph de la Fleche, while herself remaining a lay woman. During the 18th century there was little development in Canada or elsewhere although Mme Marguerite d'Youville organized the Soeurs Crises at Montreal in 1755, and the Charity hospital, New Orleans, was staffed by Ursuline sisters from 1737 until Louisiana was purchased by the U.S. in 1803. The early 19th century heralded the beginning of several nursing reforms. In Ireland, Catherine McAuley (1787-1841) started the Sisters of Mercy in 1831 and Mary Aikenhead (1787-1858) began the work of the Irish Sisters of Charity in 1834. In England two nursing sisterhoods of the Church of England, the Devonport sisters and St. John's House, began work in 1848; St. John's House undertook the nursing in King's College hospital in 1856 and later in several other London hospitals. In 1836 Pastor Theodor Fliedner and his wife established at Kaiserswerth, Ger., an institute for deaconesses in whose training nursing was included. At Lausanne, Switz., an independent school of nursing was opened, reports,

in 1859, in

women theoretical and practical This school, La Source, was still active

order to give young

instruction in nursing. in the 1960s.

tfl^ITED

The Birth

of Modei-h

KINGDOM

Nursing.— Florence

Nightingale {q.v.,

1820-1910) made outstanding contributions to the development of sanitation, medical statistics, military medicine and hospital administration, but she is best known as the founder of modern nursing. Although born to luxury and wealth, she was from her youth dissatisfied with a hfe of leisure. The administration of hospitals and the provision of proper nursing became her main interest. She visited several hospitals in Europe and in 1851 spent three months at the Deaconess institute at Kaiserswerth. In 1853 Miss Nightingale took charge of a small London hospital for gentlewomen, but a year later she undertook, at the request of the secretary at war, Sidney Herbert, the organizing and leading of a band of nurses for the British army hospitals in the Crimean This most difficult task was brilliantly accomplished and she returned to England a national heroine. With a fund raised in her honour by public subscription, she estabhshed and financed the Nightingale training school at St.

War.

Thomas's hospital, London. The fiist 15 probationers entered the school on July 9, 1860, the date regarded as the birth of modern nursing. The basic principles of what came to be known as the Nightingale system of training, although subsequently often modified, included the following: (1) a trained matron (or superintendent) with undisputed authority over all members of the nursing staff, including those in training; (2) a planned course of theoretical and practical training, the latter to be given in the hospital with which the school was connected; (3) a home attached to the hospital in which tarefuUy selected probationers were placed

under a special

sister responsible

for their moral

and

spiritual

character training.

The financial independence power to arrange for the

the

of the Nightingale school gave it practical training in the hospital,

which should follow the course laid down by the school. The aims of the school were (1) t:o train the ordinary, or nurse, probationers as nurses for hospitals and for attending the sick poor at home, and (2) to qualify the pupils of superior education, i.e., the lady,

NURSING

792

or special, probationers, to become heads of new schools to train others. The Nightingale training was rooted in Christian ideals, based on strict discipline and imbued with a crusading spirit. It a new profession for women. Florence Nightingale's work and writings also emphasized the need for health teaching. In 1859 William Rathbone, in Liverpool, had introduced district nursing by employing a trained nurse In 1861 he wrote to care for the sick poor in their own homes. to Miss Nightingale for advice on how to establish a body of nurses trained for such work. In 1875 the Metropolitan and NaIn tional Nursing association was established with her support. 1887. to commemorate Queen Victoria's jubilee, a nationwide organization known later as the Queen's Institute of District Nursing was founded with the aim of preparing and maintaining nurses

opened the door to

own homes.

to care for the sick in their

By

the end of the 19th century the Nightingale principles

had

been adopted by nurses' training schools connected with both voluntary and tax-supported hospitals in the EngUsh-speaking countries and had exerted some influence in continental Europe. The value to hospitals of nursing service by probationers, plus lack of endowments for independent schools, led to a type of apprenticeship training.

—

Professional Development. Owing to the increasing demand and elsewhere in the community, the need for a professional organization was apparent to some of the leading nurses in England before the end of the 19th cenThe first such association was the British (later Royal) tury. Nurses' association, founded in 1887 by Mrs. Bedford Fenwick, who before her marriage was matron of St. Bartholomew's hospital. London. One of the main objectives of the association was to obtain government registration for nurses and statutory control over standards of training. Several efforts were made without success to get a nurses' registration bill through parliament. The profession itself was divided on this issue Mrs. Fenwick and her supporters believed that such a step was necessary in the interests of patients as well as of nurses; Miss Nightingale, on the other hand, was bitterly opposed to registration. She held that such action was premature and that examinations, which could never test the qualities of a nurse, would merely "standardize mediocrity." From 1887 to the end of World War I, the arguments for and against registration continued. In 1916 the College of Nursing, now the Royal college, was founded; one of its aims for trained nurses in hospitals

:

was

to press for statutory recognition of the trained nurse.

nally, a nurses' bill

Fi-

was sponsored by the minister of health and

Nurses act received the royal assent in Dec. 1919. The Nurses act, 1919, established the General Nursing council for England and Wales as the statutory body responsible for forming and maintaining a register of

the

first

The State and Nursing

nurses.

—

Similar acts established statutory bodies for Scotland

(1919) and Northern Ireland (1922).

The

councils have

the

duties of approving hospitals as nurses' training schools, formu-

and conducting the examinations Although the original intention was

including general medical practice, became part of the national service. The majority of nurses working in the United Kingdom are employed within the national health service, either in hospital, public health or midwifery. Salaries and conditions of service for all these nurses and training allowances for students and pupil nurses are nationally negotiated by the Nurses and Midwives

Whitley council, composed jointly of a management and a staff side, this being one of the nine functional councils of the Whitley Councils for the Health Services. In 1949 a further act enlarged the membership of the General Nursing council and gave it power to approve experimental programs of nurses' training and to allocate funds to hospital authorities for nurses' training. Regional committees were set up under the National Health Service act under the name of Area Nurse-Training committees to advise and assist nurses' training schools in their respective areas. The 1949 act also gave the council power to register nurses who had trained abroad. In 1957 a new act consolidated the previous 1919, 1943 and 1949 Nurses' acts. The treatment and care of persons suffering from mental disorders was formerly largely limited to custodial care, which had as its main aim preventing the patient from harming himself or other people. The admission of patients and the administration of institutions for the mentally sick or the mentally subnormal were governed by the various acts relating to lunacy and mental treatment passed between 1890 and 1930 and the Mental Deficiency acts of 1913 to 1938. As knowledge of and interest in mental illnesses increased, the old idea of providing primarily custodial care gave way to the conception of the hospital as a therapeutic community. The Mental Health act, 1959, repealed the previous acts and hospitals for the mentally disordered are no longer differentiated by any legal or statutory requirements from hospitals admitting other types of patients. The act also envisaged considerable changes and progress in the treatment of

mental

illness in the hospital

The extension and development of the medical and health services, resulting from an increased knowledge and understanding of the causes and processes of disease and from the changed social pattern of modern life, have not only extended the scope of the nurse's work but also have made her responsibilities increasingly more complex and exacting. Furthermore, she is now expected to take part in the regular life of the community; no longer is she set apart by compulsory residence within the nurses' isolated

participate in normal social

teaching and administration.

The

that this should be a register of general trained nurses, supple-

the General Nursing council to

form and maintain a

roll of assistant nurses, to lay down the conditions for their training and to conduct the assessment for admission to the roll. This act also limited the right to use the title "nurse" to registered

nurses, enrolled assistant nurses and those in training for admis-

sion to the register or the

The National Health

roll.

Service act, 1946, which was implemented

in July 1948, brought all hospitals, with a state ownership

few exceptions, under

and in addition the community health

services.

made

it

is

she

a low level

difficult for

and cultural pursuits.

community

a special field, or for

empowered

of the hospital, nor

The

her to basic

preparation for nursing underwent many adjustments until it came to be considered a form of adult education as well as training for skilled professional service. Postcertificate education became increasingly necessary in order to prepare the nurse for work in

for admission to the register.

the female nurse, except that his study tends to specialize in genitourinary conditions in place of gynecology and midwifery. The next legislation initiated was the Nurses act, 1943, which

home

by long and inconvenient hours of work and

of remuneration, conditions that had

lating the syllabus to be covered

mentary parts of the register were established, as a result of representation from special fields of nursing, for sick children's, fever (infectious disease) and mental nurses. There was a separate part for male general nurses, but this was later amalgamated with the general part of the register. The male nurse undergoes the same kind of training and largely performs the same duties as

and in the community.

Nursing Education and Training

service, or to qualify her for

basic training course for the general part of the register is undertaken in a group of hospitals, approved by the General Nursing

(state-registered nurse, abbreviated S.R.N.) hospital, or

council for this purpose and, with the exception of certain experi-

mental programs of training, covers a period of three years. Qualified nurse-teachers and medical lecturers are responsible for the theoretical side of the training; practical experience must include general medicine and training in surgical, sick children's and (except for men students) gynecological nursing. A variety

gained under general medicine and surgical nursing and throat, eye and orthopedic conditions. Many training schools include in addition one or more periods of specialized experience within the three-year training, for example, geriatric or psychiatric nursing, and obstetrical nursing for women students. A few training schools have included some practical experience of experience

is

in

most

training schools, such as ear, nose

in

home

nursing and health teaching outside the hospital in their and some interesting experimental projects aim at

basic training,

preparing the nurse both for general nursing and for work in the

NURSING public health field and

home

nursing in a combined course of

approximately four years' duration. Training in psychiatric nursing for the qualification of registered mental nurse (R.M.N.) or registered nurse for the mentally subnormal (R.N. M.S.) also takes three years, but a nurse who is already admitted to one part of the register can qualify for admission to a second part in a shorter period. This is normally two years, but a number of training schools have been allowed, under the provision for experimental programs of training, to give

an 18-month postregistration training to general trained nurses. Similarly the quaUfying course for registration on the part of the register for sick children's nurses (R.S.C.N.) is of three years' A number of training schools combine this course with preparation in general nursing; the dual qualification (i.e., as S.R.N, and R.S.C.N.) can be obtained in four years' training.

duration.

The

training for admission to the part of the register for fever nurses (R.F.N.) is of two years' duration and again the training

can be combined with general training to give the dual quaUfication. However, the diminution of the incidence of infectious diseases has reduced the number of hospitals required for this purpose, although there is a continuing need for isolation units. The majority of training schools for the register set their own standards for admission in terms of general education. In July 1962 it became compulsory in England and Wales for all candidates who did not hold a recognized educational certificate to pass the General Nursing council's entrance test. The minimum age of entry to training under the council's rules is 18. Training for the roU (see The State and Nursing above) is of two years' duration. In 1960 the term "assistant" was withdrawn

from the

title

"state enrolled assistant nurse,"

tion "state enrolled nurse"

was authorized

and the

qualifica-

in parliament.

The

assessment (the type of exaniination used in this training) may be taken at the end of one year, although many training schools prefer to enter their pupils at the end of 18 months' preparation. This type of training is mainly practical, but a certain amount of

work is necessary and each approved training school must appoint a nurse to give this teaching. Any type of hospital that can meet the General Nursing council's requirements relevant theoretical

may

be approved for this training, but the pupil nurse is required have experience in the nursing of men, women and children (except in the case of male pupils) and to work in both long-stay

to

wards and wards for acutely ill patients. The many and varied courses available to nurses after registration are for the most part not the responsibility of the General Nursing council, with the exception of the training of nurses as teachers. The General Nursing council (for England and Wales) and the councils for Scotland and Northern Ireland have the duty, however, of registering qualified teachers for schools of nursing.

The

regulations for such registrations are laid down in consultation with the university under whose aegis the course is conducted: in the case of the General Nursing council for England and Wales this is the University of London; in Scotland the

course for nurse-teachers is conducted by the nursing studies unit in the University of Edinburgh. Courses are offered by professional nursing groups and other bodies and some courses, in addition to the teachers' course mentioned above, are associated

with a university.

Apart from the combined experimental programs of training, additional qualification

is required for pubUc health nurses after they qualify for registration. District nurses' training under the Queen's Institute of District Nursing, Ranyard nurses or a local health authority is a four or six months' course, followed by

examination for the national certificate of the ministry of health. Local health authorities have a statutory duty (under the National Health Service act, 1946) "to make provision for the visiting of persons in their homes by visitors to be called "health visitors" for the purpose of giving advice as to the care of young children, persons suffering from illness and expectant or nursing mothers,

and as

to the

measures necessary to prevent the spread of infec-

tion."

The present function

of the health visitor is primarily health

education and the care of mothers and their young children.

She

793

also has responsibility for the prevention of illness both mental and physical, the care of the mentally subnormal, also the phys-

handicapped, the aged and infirm. She may be employed on general duties, or as a school nurse or in special projects or conditions such as tuberculosis. The examining body for the health visitor's certificate was the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health until the Council for the Training of Health Visitors was appointed in 1962 by the government. The course lasts one academic year, following registration as a general or sick children's nurse and successful completion of the first part of the midwifery course (six months). Although the majority of midwives in England are also trained nurses, the training and control of midwives is conducted by a ically

separate authority, the Central Midwives board. Statutory control of the practice of midwifery antedated similar control of nursing by 17 years, the Midwives act having been passed in 1902. For registered nurses midwifery training is a one-year course that may be taken in two parts. Part I is required for many nursing positions, part II for those intending to practise as midwives.

The

is for two years for those without registraand the minimum age of entry is 20. (See also

training

tion as a nurse,

Midwifery.)

—

Nursing Service. The quaUfied nurse has a great range of opportunities from which to select the type of work best suited to her. As a staff nurse or ward sister in a hospital she may care for patients of any age from premature babies to the aged sick; she may work in medical or surgical units or in research wards where radioactive substances are used in diagnosis or treatment; in operating theatres she will be one of the surgical team carrying out operations of all kinds; she will assist in the treatment and investigation of

all the varied conditions seen in the casualty (emergency) and outpatient departments. If specially suited to teaching or administration she may qualify as a tutor or matron after adequate nursing experience.

All local authority health services employ midwives, district nurses, school nurses and health visitors; many appoint specially prepared nurses with experience as supervisors and pubhc health nurse tutors. Outside the health service nurses specially concerned with welfare and the prevention of illnesses or injury are

employed

in

major

and commercial concerns as occupaPrivate nurses, maternity nurses and private

industrial

tional health nurses.

work independently or through a co-operation (e.g., an employment register conducted by a nurses' association) or a private employment agency. Hospitals in prisons are staffed by nurses appointed to the nursing service of the government prisons; these nurses also provide the maternal and infant welfare services required and nursing visiting

nurses

care in preventive detention institutes. State-registered nurses serve as ofiicers with the

armed forces Queen Alexandra's royal naval nursing service, Queen Alexandra's royal army nursing corps and Princess Mary's royal air force nursing service, each of which has a matron in chief. Nurse training is also offered in all three services to noncommissioned ranks, who thus qualify for registration by the General Nursing

in

council.

Nursing appointments abroad are available, Elizabeth's overseas nursing service, in colonial

through Queen and former co-

where rapid development increased the number of nursing schools with curricula and standards comparable with those in Britain. As the numbers quahfying from these schools lonial countries

increased, the new nurses were expected to staff the hospital and health services of the country, but there continued to be a great need for nursing administrators and teachers to help develop these services.

In the local, regional and national administration of the hospital and health services of the United Kingdom, nurses were being

appointed in the 1960s as nursing ofiicers or as members of advisory councils or boards of management. They also were appointed as members of special teams, research groups and planning commissions. Nurses are elected to the council responsible for nurses' training and registration; nurses appointed as chief nursing officers in government departments {e.g., the ministry of

NURSING

794

take part in the planninR and administration of nursing and allied services at the national level. The number of nurses practising in Britain cannot be stated with complete accuracy because of fluctuating conditions and the varied bases for making personnel returns. In the British national health")

health services in Sept. 1062 there were the following: in ho.spitals, 54.1502 full-time nurses and 18,470 part-time nurses (not including in local health ser\ices, 10,.'>88 domiciliary nurses (including 3^2 male nursesV 7,884 midwives, 4,6.57 general health visitors. 367 health visitors who specialized in tuberculosis and

midwives"!

;

.544 clinic nurses. Health visitors are also employed as school nurses (under the ministry of education) and occupational health nurses may be health \'isitors but neither they nor private nurses come under the health service, so that figures for them were not

available.

OTHER COUNTRIES In Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, the early development of the nursing service and of nurses' training followed, as might be expected, the British pattern as established by Florence Nightingale. Geographical and other factors influenced their later developments, as, for example, in Canada, where the close relationship between that country and the United States considerably influenced nurses' training and led to the increasing adoption of graduate courses leading to a degree in nursing. Also in Canada, especially in the French-speaking regions, there existed hospitals and nurses' training schools that had been under the direction of French religious orders from early days. In Australia and New Zealand nursing continued to develop along lines very similar to those in the United Kingdom. In several European countries, notably in those of Scandinavia and of Finland and the Netherlands, professional nursing had achieved a high standard by the end of the 19th century. The schools were frequently attached to hospitals, following the English custom, but many were modeled on the motherhouse pattern, whether run by deaconesses or by the Red Cross. Other schools were organized by Roman Catholic orders, which in many countries (e.g., France, Italy, Belgium and Germany) are actively con-cerned with hospital and public health nursing. In the modern age of quick and easy transport, and with the increasing desire of professional people everywhere to have worldwide contacts with their colleagues, nurses from the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa are finding many opportunities of visiting and working in each other's countries. Registered nurses from one country may be accepted as fully qualified professional nurses in other countries, although registration is not automatic, Possibly nowhere has the development of the profession made more rapid strides than in such present or former British Commonwealth countries as those of east and west Africa, the Carib-

bean territories, the far east, India, Burma and Malaya. The government medical and nursing services formerly depended on the United Kingdom for their senior medical and nursing staff and the only nurses' training given locally was at first often necessarily of a simple type, partly on account of language difficulties, partly because of the lack of opportunities for general education. In a number of countries tradition or religious customs did not favour women's taking part in any kind of public activities and they particularly were against any form of nursing that required women to work in male wards. When such countries became independent, nurses and midwives boards or councils were established and were made responsible for registration and for the standards of training. Also established were schools of nursing that met or would soon meet the requirements for full professional training. Nursing progress in these countries was also greatly helped by the hospitals and schools established by religious bodies of many denominations and from many countries. It may be truly said that the missionary societies were, in

many

cases, the

and through their schools they materially aided the advances in both medical and nursing training, since progress in establishing such training depended on

first

authorities to provide education,

the attainment of a satisfactory level of general education.

FuU

university education

persons

in

many

became

available to an increasing

number of med-

of these countries, and where a faculty of

is included in the university program an undergraduate medical teaching hospital provides the spearhead for progress in both medicine and nursing. An increasing number of nurses who receive their basic training in their own country in Asia, Africa and the Caribbean now travel abroad to Europe and elsewhere to take advanced nursing courses that prepare them for posts of the highest level in their own nursing .service. At the same time, some of these countries need help from outside and a number of posts are open to nurses from the countries with established nursing services. In many countries, including most European countries, the nursing .service and the training of nurses is undertaken both by rehgious bodies and by the state or the national Red Cross society. In general, the duration and scope of the training is broadly comparable to the training of the registered nurses in the United Kingdom, although in some countries, such as Finland and France, considerably more emphasis is placed on the dual aim of the basic training of the student, i.e., preparing her for work in the However, the need for public health field and in the hospital. closer contact between community and hospital nursing services Again, apart from language difis everywhere now recognized. ficulties, very few barriers prevent nurses from profiting by conIn some intact with their colleagues in any part of the world. stances, regulation regarding work permits will not allow the paid employment of foreigners, but the exchange of nurses, particularly for study and visits of observation, is in most cases arranged without difficulty by the national nurses' associations through the exchange program of the International Council of Nurses.

icine

INTERNATIONAL NURSING As countries develop their health and hospital services the need The for more and better qualified nurses becomes apparent. World Health organization, after the First World Health council 1948, adopted three gradually defined objectives concerning nursing in each country: enough nurses to assure the nursing service required for preventive and curative work; nurses capable of leadership in teaching and administration; and nurses able to in

The

participate in the planning of health services.

first

teams

sent to countries to tackle such problems as malaria, tuberculosis

and venereal diseases, or to develop maternal and child health services, included a nurse member. Later, international teams included a senior nurse educator, a midwifery tutor and a public health nurse, all three of whom worked with the national staff in selected schools in order to form the quahfied staff the country would continue to need for providing the necessary services. Differences in nurse training in the rapidly developing countries combining the preventive with the curative aspects

include:

throughout training; including maternity nursing in the basic program; and introducing some preparation in teaching and administration.

The International Council of Nurses (I.C.N.) a federation of independent self-governing nurses' associations, was founded by Mrs. Bedford Fenwick of England in 1899. The first three member groups were the associations of the United Kingdom, the United States and Germany. By 1961 national nurses' associations in 59 countries had joined the council and a nurse representative had been appointed in 12 other countries. The first international congress was held in Buffalo, N.Y., in 1901. The I.C.N, maintains contact with the World Health organization and other UN agencies such as the Economic and Social council, the International Labour organization and the United Nations Children's funch; in addition, it belongs to the International Hospital federation and the World Federation for Mental Health. The objectives of the I.C.N, are the promotion of self-governing national nurses' associations in order to provide and maintain the highest standards of nursing service and nursing education, to promote the economic and social welfare of nurses and to encourage the interchange of knowledge and ideas on all matters relating to nursing as a professional See also Hospital; Red Cross. service. (L. R. Se.; M. L. W.; Ma. H.) ,

NURSING —

UNITED STATES

History. The beginning of professional nursing in the United States dates from the early 1870s, when the first schools of nursing were estabhshed.

Prior to that time the sick in hospitals were cared for by members of religious orders, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, or by untrained employees.

The first secular hospital was established on Manhattan Island by the Dutch West India company in 1658 as a pesthouse for soldiers and sailors. It later became a combination of city poorhouse, house of correction and penitentiary, orphan asylum and hospital for the pauper sick and insane. Much later, it became Bellevue hospital. Old Blockley, founded in 1713 in Philadelphia, had a similar history and characteristics squalor, filth, high death rate, indifferent medical staff and ignorant, rough attendants. It was to become the Philadelphia General hospital many years later. The Pennsylvania hospital, founded in Philadelphia in 1751, was the first secular hospital without workhouse qualities. The New York hospital was founded in 1771. Each of these employed a staff of nurses who were paid though they were still classed as domestics and had no training. Valentine Seaman, a

—

physician at the New York hospital, developed in 1798 a course of 24 lectures for nurses, the first organized training for nurses in the U.S.

Nursing services for mothers and infants at home were first provided by the Ladies' Benevolent society of Charleston, S.C, in 1813 and by the Philadelphia Laying-in charity in 1828. Later, the "nurses" in these services were given small amounts of instruction.

When

War began, no trained nurses were Volunteer women in New York city organized the Women's Central Association of Relief, which later became the U.S. Sanitary commission. The commission organized volunteer the American Civil

ivailable.

groups, initiated intensive short training programs and disseminated literature on care of the sick and injured to government and other agencies and to some groups in the south. Its work could

be considered similar to that of the modern American Red Cross. About 2,000 women volunteered in the south and the north. Most of the Civil War nursing for both armies was done by untrained volunteers and by orderlies drawn from enlisted men. Dorothea Dix, who had organized the Western Sanitary commission, was designated by the U.S. government in June 1861 as superintendent of nurses. Clara Barton {q.v.), who in 1881 was to persuade the government to ratify the Geneva treaty of the Red Cross, served as a nursing volunteer during the Civil 'War. After the war the reform movement in all health fields, including nursing, moved ahead rapidly. Louisa Lee Schuyler, who had served on the U.S. Sanitary commission and later in the State Charities Aid association to study conditions in

(New York),

organized hospital visits

At Bellevue the reformers found that patients were neglected and that nurses were vagrants or workhouse prisoners who terrorized the sick, accepted fees and could not be trusted with medicines or food. Action was taken at once to establish a school of nursing based on the Nightingale pattern. The school at Bellevue was estabhshed in 1873 along with two others in New Haven, Conn., and Boston. Opponents of this plan, among them physicians who did not approve of the school's independence and its direction by a nurse, were soon won over by the excellent nursing care given by the students and young graduates of the school. that state.

The number of schools of nursing increased rapidly in the next SO years, reaching more than 2,500 by 1925. The independence from hospitals weakened markedly as the years passed, as did the idea that students were to receive selected educational experiences rather than to staff the hospital. Graduates found employment primarily with private patients at home, or sometimes in hospitals; only after 1930 did hospitals begin to employ graduate nurses to care for their patients and at the same time they began to decrease their dependence on student nurses to provide the major portion of their nursing services. of schools

The

law setting forth requirements for state examination and registration of nurses was passed in 1903 by North Carolina. All states had such laws within 20 years. first

state

795

In 1886 visiting nurse societies began to expand. A new approach, a nurses' settlement on Henry street in New York city, was established by Lillian Wald in 1893. She coined the phrase "public health nurse." Miss Wald played a leading role in starting school nursing (in New York, 1902), helped establish home visiting by nurses to industrial holders of hfe insurance policies (1909), participated in the institution of a rural public health nursing service by the American Red Cross in 1912 and promoted the establishment of the Children's bureau in 1912. Visiting nurse societies were established in large cities, often with financial support from community chests and philanthropic

Many public health nursing methods received their trial in these societies, spreading later to official public health nursing agencies. When tuberculosis was found to be a preventable disease, city health departments began about 1900 to employ nurses to visit agencies. initial

patients in their homes, often at the insistence of and with help from tuberculosis associations. As public health movements expanded and government health agencies in states, cities and counties increased in number and scope, nurses were employed in greater numbers and for a wider variety of activities, first for spe-

programs, later as generalists. unusual agency in a rural area was the Frontier nursing by Mrs. Mary Breckinridge to carry out a nursing program among mountain families in southeastern Kentucky. The service began in a county without roads passable to motor traffic, and the nurses rode horseback. By the mid1960s the service had been extended over a four-county area with a population of more than 9,000 and its facilities had been expanded to include a hospital directed by a physician, outpost chnics staffed by nurse-midwives and a school of midwifery. The first national organization in nursing was founded after a conference on hospitals, dispensaries and nursing at the Chicago World's fair of 1893. At first it was called the American Society of Superintendents of Training Schools for Nurses, and in 1912 it became the National League of Nursing Education. Improvement of nursing education throughout the United States was its cial

An

service, organized in 1925

aim.

A

second organization, called the Nurses Associated Alumnae

of the United States and Canada, was founded in 1896. All nurses were eligible for membership. The organization, which

became the American Nurses' association in 1911, focused its attention on problems of practice and legislation and the legal status of nurses. State and district associations were established throughout the nation. In 1912 the National Organization for PubUc Health Nurses (later Nursing) was founded for the purpose of improving services in both government agencies and the growing number of voluntary visiting nurse services. It also carried on a program of improve-

ment and standardization in the education of public health nurses. The National Association of Colored Graduate Nurses was formed in 1908. It worked for higher standards of education and development of leaders among the group and against discrimination. While none of the other national organizations in nursing had excluded members on the basis of race, some state branches did so. The aggressive and successful efforts of the National Association of Colored Graduate Nurses, with support of the other

organizations, culminated in the dissolution of this association in 1951 and the merging of memberships.

Just as the Civil War called national attention to the importance of nursing to the nation, so did subsequent wars. The Associated alumnae had pressed for use of quahfied nurses in the Spanish-American War and the organization of a nurse corps in the military estabhshment. The army nurse corps was authorized in 1901 and the navy nurse corps in 1908. In 1909 the Associated alumnae volunteered to organize a Red Cross nursing reserve to act as a group of trained nurses to serve in disasters as well as in war. Jane Delano of the Red Cross led the combined planning

World War I this plan was in operation. After the provided both military and civilian nurses for work in former Spanish colonies and initiated the interests of American so that by

war

it

nursing in international health.

During World

War

II, recruit-

—

NURSING

796 ment

to the military nurse corps

port of the

Red

became

direct,

with strong sup-

Cross.

five nursing education programs in colleges or unicombining general and professional education and leading The first unito the bachelor's degree were founded in 1916. versity course for graduate nurses was given in 1899 and this expanded into programs at Teachers college, New York, in which nurses could qualify for the bachelor's degree and later for the master's and doctoral degrees. Other universities also developed both basic and advanced programs. From the end of World War I through 19S0, nursing experienced many studies and self-analyses. Among these was the Goldmark report in 1923, financed by the Rockefeller foundation, which revealed needs for an improved educational system. The Grading Committee study (1927-34) resulted in information needed for improvement and in many recommendations for improvement. The national organizations, with support from many sources, implemented many of these recommendations. World War 11 greatly increased the demands for both civilian and military nurses. Congress auihorized the Cadet Nurse corps program, in which nearly 170,000 students were recruited for Nurses volunteered in large numbers for schools of nursing. military service and at the peak period in 1945 there were more than 70,000 nurses in the U.S. armed forces. Nursing and related organizations and government nursing services worked together through the National Nursing Council for War Service. Following the war, the national nursing associations were rethe American Nurses' association, organized. Five associations the National Organization for Public Health Nursing, the NaEducation, the Association of Collegiate Nursing tional League of Schools of Nursing (founded 1933) and the National Association of Colored Graduate Nurses— became two groups in 1952, namely, the reconstituted American Nurses' association and the National League for Nursing. The former is composed solely of nurse practitioners and the latter is composed of nurses, practical nurses and aides, physicians, general educators, hospital and public health administrators and private citizens, as well as of institutional members e.g., schools of nursing and public health nursing

The

first

versities

—

more people were demanding the new benefits. Insurance plans for prepayment of hospital and medical expenses and widespread information about health and sickness bring more people to health facilities. New plans for care of the chronically ill and aged in Development of better their own homes require more nurses. community and institutional services for the mentally ill and to increase the demands for mentally retarded was expected nursing services

The demands

still

more.

for nursing services increase qualitatively as well

and bring changes in education for nursing. Deeper background in biological and physical sciences is required to understand and use the new diagnostic and therapeutic measures; greater knowledge of behavioural and social sciences is required to understand community relationships and health-related as quantitatively

services as well as to gain insight into patients' feelings about For these reasons, collegiate illness and motives for recovery.

education for nurses came to be emphasized. The educational system for nursing is comprised of three major types of programs: (1) the collegiate program, four years in length, combining professional and general education and leading to the bachelor's degree; (2) the hospital school program, three years in length, leading to a diploma; and (3) the junior college program, two years in length, leading to an associate degree.

Graduates of all these programs are eligible to take the state examination; after passing it, they are authorized to use the title registered nurse (R.N.). There were approximately 175 collegiate programs, 850 hospital schools and 100 junior college programs in the U.S. in the mid-1960s, graduating about 32,000 nurses each year. For advanced and special education, nurses undertake graduate study in universities. Thirty-four universities offered a variety of graduate programs in the mid-1960s. More than 1.000 nurses receive master's degrees annually and a small but growing number receive doctoral degrees. These nurses are qualified for administrative, teaching, supervisory, research, clinical specialist or con-

sultative positions.

Practical nurses are prepared in one-year educational programs, of which are operated by hospitals although most are con-

some

The rapid expansion World War II was in large part

ducted by vocational schools.

in practical

Current Situation. More than 500,000 professional nurses were at work in the U.S. in the mid-1960s. They provided nursing services in more than 7,000 hospitals, 3,500 public health agencies,

nurses' schools after

attributable

Some in health programs in 4,000 public school systems. served in physicians' offices, nursing homes and in industrial plants. Nurses provided direct services in all these situations and also They taught in supervised and administered nursing services. schools of nursing and served as directors and deans of these schools. Some served as consultants with government and volun-

United States in the mid-1960s. After completing a state-approved program, graduates are eligible to take the state examina-

agencies.

—

and

Some assisted in the conduct of research or carried on their own researches. Some wrote the literature of nursing. More than 60% of the 500,000 nurses worked in hospitals. About 1% of the nurses were men. Another nearly 500,000 professional nurses in the U.S. are inactive in nursing. Most are married and in younger age groups. Beginning in 1950 an increasing number of these nurses returned Nurses can usually to active status, many on a part-time basis. resume active practice without additional training other than a refresher course, which usually is provided by the employing in-

tary agencies.

stitution.

About 250,000 practical nurses work in hospitals, physicians' and nursing homes. In hospitals approximately 400,000

offices

nursing aides, trained only on the job, assist nurses in caring for patients. The high ratio of untrained workers in hospitals underscores the shortage of professional and practical nurses. The number of professional nurses was increasing more rapidly But the in the 1960s than the population of the United States. demand for services was increasing more rapidly than the supply Factors creating the demand for nurses were: rapid of nurses. scientific advance in medicine; expansion of hospitals and other health facilities and agencies and an increase both in the popula;

tion

and

in the proportion of

it

that seeks health care.

medical discovery adds new ways in which nurses can serve

Each and

;

federal financial aid under a vocational education program. There were more than 700 schools of practical nursing in the to

it, to use the title licensed practical nurse (L.P.N.) or, in a few states, licensed vocational nurse (L.'V.N.). A considerable number of practical nurses who achieved their skills through experience, not training, are licensed under a waiver of regulations. This number decreases each year. The definitions of the practice of professional nursing and of

tion and, after passing

and the legal control of practice, are established by the nurse practice acts of each state. The American Nurses' association has formulated items that it recommends for inclusion

practical nursing,

in

such legislation;

it

seeks revisions of state laws so that standards

and practice attain a uniformly high level. The American Nurses' association formulates and promotes a

of education

code of ethics for members of the nursing profession, as does the National Federation of Licensed Practical Nurses for practical nurses. The American Nurses' association operates a program at economic security for nurses. It also works to increase the clinical competence of its members. Through the association, nurses of the United States are members of the International

aimed

Council of Nurses. The National League for Nursing operates a voluntary ac-

program for schools of nursing. About 60% of the U.S. nursing schools are so accredited. The league provides inforstudents to the schools and also maintains a recruiting mation for creditation

of school improvement; similarly, it works to improve public health nursing services through its member agencies. The official organ of the American Nurses' association is the

program

American Journal of Nursing (founded look

is

the

official

in

1900); Nursing Out-

publication of the National League for Nursing.

—

NUSAYBIN—NUT A

quarterly journal, Nursing Research,

sponsored by both. The nursing councils of two regional organizations the Southern Regional Education board and the Western Interstate Council on Higher Education carry on programs aimed at improving nursing education in their regions. Government Role in Nursing. Several departments of the federal government carry on activities in nursing. The department of labour compiles and distributes manpower and salary data on nursing. The department of defense maintains three corps of nurses army, navy and air force totaling about 8,500 nurses who staff military hospitals and plan the nursing role in national defense. The Veterans administration is the largest single employer of nurses in the United States; about 15,000 nurses work is

—

—

—

—

—

in its hospitals.

The children's bureau of the department of health, education and welfare provides leadership to nursing in the care of mothers and babies; the office of vocational rehabiHtation plays a similar

The

role in restorative nursing.

the

program of federal

office of

education administers

aid for practical nurse education.

The

797

Nestorian and a Jacobite bishop. Under the caliphs it was a frontier stronghold and the scene of continuous fighting. It finally declined because of internal troubles and, according to the

Arab

chroniclers, the

compulsory substitution of wheat for

crops. Nusaybin remains of some significance, however, because of its position on the upper trade route from Mosul to the west and its location on the Aleppo-Baghdad railway. (N. Tu.; S, Er.; E. Tu.) a light and fire god in the Sum'ero-Akkadian pantheon. Shulgi, second king of the 3rd dynasty of Ur, c. 1900 B.C., gives the god the title "exalted vizier of Enlil" i.e., of the second member of the cosmic triad of deities. On tablets of the same period from Drehem, near Nippur, Nusku is named together with Nergal, the god of the underworld, in fists of offerings. His fruit

NUSKU,

father was Sin, the moon-god, whose cult centre was at Ur in Sumerian times and at Harran in Neo-Babylonian times. But while Sumerian tablets from Ur do not mention Nusku, a historical text relates how Nabonidus, the last Babylonian king, brought him from Babylon to Sin's temple at Harran (6th century B.C.).

public health service of the department of health, education and welfare employs 2,500 nurses. In addition to operating

Semitic texts describe Nusku as the king of the night, illumines the darkness and repels the demons of the dark.

which include those for American Indians, this service conducts research in nursing and administers a research grant program. It also administers scholarship programs under which, by the mid-1960s, 11,000 nurses had completed graduate preparation for teaching and administration and 2,500 nurses had completed graduate study in mental health nursing. It also provides nursing consultation service to voluntary and official health agencies and institutions in a wide variety of public health fields. Most states employ nurses in state hospitals, the state health department and other governmental agencies. County and local governments employ nurses in similar capacities. (L. P. Le.) Bibliography. History. M. A. Nutting and L. L. Dock, A History

Babylonian boundary stones he is identified by a lamp. He is visible at the new moon, hence is called its son. The last day of the month is sacred to him, so that he is a lunar deity. He figures much in incantations and rituals as the fire. Without his firelight there would be no banquets for the gods, no sweet smell of incense, nor could Shamash, the sun-god, exercise judgment. In an Assyrian prayer Nusku is described as "counselor of the heart of the god Marduk." A temple rubric of Seleucid date from Uruk (biblical Erech) in southern Babylonia directs that Nusku, "with the torch," shall proceed with other deities to the sanctuary of the goddess Antu, wife of Anu, god of heaven. On stele of the 7th century B.C. from Nerab near Aleppo, Nusku,

its

hospitals,

—

—

of Nursing, 4 vol. (1907-12); L. R. Seymer, A General History oj Nursing, 4th ed. reprint (1961), Florence Nightingale's Nurses: the Nightingale Training School 1S60-1960 {I960) C. Frank, The Historical Development of Nursing (1953) L. L. Dock and I. M. Stewart, A History of Nursing, Sth ed. (1962) Sir E. Cook, Life of Florence Nightingale, 2 vol. (1913); C. Woodham-Smith, Florence Nightingale, 1820-1910 (1950) Z. Cope, Six Disciples of Florence Nightingale (1961) A Bio-Bibliography of Florence Nightingale, compiled by W. J. Bishop and completed by Sue Goldie, vol. i (1962); I. H. Charley, The Birth of Industrial Nursing (1954) M. Stocks, A Hundred Years of District Nursing (1960); R. C. Williams, The U.S. Public Health Service, 1798-1950 (1951); M. M. Roberts, American Nursing: History and Interpretation (1954) E. C. Hughes et al., Twenty Thousand Nurses Tell Their Story (1958) J. M. Gibbon and M. S. Mathewson, Three Centuries of Canadian Nursing (1947). Modern. International Labour Office, Conditions of Work and Employment of Nurses (1960) M. E. Chayer, Nursing in Modern Society World Health Organization, First, Second, Third Reports of (1947) Expert Committee on Nursing, Technical Report series no. 24, 49, 91 (1950-54), and Technical Report: Working Conference on Nursing Education, series no. 60 (1953) M. S. Gardner, Public Health Nursing, 3rd ed. (1937) E. L. Brown, Nursing for the Future (1948) Ministry of Health, Ministry of Labour and National Service, Department of Health for Scotland, Report of the Working Party on the Recruitment and Training of Nurses (1947); F. Beck and Florence Nightingale International Foundation, Basic Nursing Education: Principles and Practice (1958) M. Bridgman, Collegiate Education for Nursing (1953) F. Emory, Public Health Nursing in Canada, 2nd. ed. (1946) G. M. Weir, Survey of Nursing Education in Canada (1932) Britannica Book of the Year (annually). (L. R. Se.; M. L. W.; Ma. H.) (Nisibin; ancient Nisibis), a small frontier trading town of Mardin il (province), Turk., situated near the

written Nushku,

is

named

alongside

the

who

On

Aramaean moon-god

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

—

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

NUSAYBIN

Syrian border about 130 mi. N.W. of Mosul, Iraq. Administratively, it is the centre of a kaza (district) of the same name. Pop. (1960) town 5,011, district 29,685. It lies at the point where the Gorgarbonizra river (Cagcaga, Jaghjagha; ancient Mygdonius) passes through a narrow canyon and enters the plain, and strategically, like Edessa, it commanded the entrance of the valley country from the mountains. During the Assyrian empire it formed a frontier fort against aggressions from the north and occupied a similar position in Seleucid times. From the middle of the 2nd century B.C. until the early years of the Christian era, it was the residence of the kings of Armenia. The fortress was of considerable importance during the struggle between Rome and Parthia, and it became an early Christian centre with a

Shahar. For bibliography,

see

Adad.

NUT, generally any seed

(T. Fh.)

or fruit consisting of a kernel, usually

surrounded by a hard or brittle shell. Most edible nuts, almond, walnut, Brazil nut, peanut, etc., are well known as dessert nuts. Not all nuts, however, are edible; some are used as sources of oil or fat and may be regarded as oil seeds (see Oil Plants) others are used for ornament. The botanical definition of a nut, based on morphological features, is more restrictive: a hard, dry, one-celled, one-seeded fruit that does not split open at maturity. Among the nuts that fit both the botanical and popular conception are the acorn, chestnut and filbert; other socalled nuts may be botanically seeds (Brazil nuts), legumes (peanuts) or drupes (almond, coconut, pecan and walnut). In this article the term nut will be used in its broadest sense unless otheroily, e.g.,

;

wise indicated.

IMPORTANCE AND USES Dietetic Value and Use as Food From the earliest times nuts have been food for man and are still of great importance in many parts of the world; e.g., the coconut in the eastern tropics and the groundnut in China, India and Africa. In most western countries nuts do not constitute part of the staple diet, exceptperhaps of vegetarians, but they are popular for between-meal snacks and as dessert. Large quantities of nut kernels are also used in candies and in processed foods of various kinds. The dietetic or food value of nuts is high; most dessert nuts are rich in protein and oil or fat, and also in mineral matter. Many nut kernels consist of more than 50% fat and average in excess of 20% protein, while vitamins may be present in appre-

Nuts are therefore a concentrated food. some nuts, such as the almond and the macadamia, are equally palatable raw or cooked and others, such as the peanut and chestnut, have a better flavour when cooked and salted. The flavour of nuts is largely dependent on the oils they contain and these may be modified in cooking. Modern methods of processing, packing and storing nut kernels, ciable quantities.

Most nuts

are eaten raw, though

.

.

NUT

798 Common names Almond Almond

Scientific

(sweet) (bi(ter)

Almond, Indian Almondette

..

Araucarian pine nut (piiion. pinyonic) Arnut (yer-nut, earth chestnut, hawk nut, lousy-nut). .

Australian nut, see Babassu nut

.

name

Principal use of nut

Original source

Prunus amygdalus Mediterranean basin P. amygdalus, var. omara Mediterranean basin

Food Food Food Food Food

Terminalia calappa

East Indies

Buchanania lanzan Araucaria araucana

India,

Chile

Bunium

W. Europe

species

Burma Caucasus

to

Flavouring extract

;

oil

Macadamia Orbignya olei/era Voandzeia subterranea Jatropha curcas

Bambarra groundnut Barbados nut (physic nut) Baroba

Dispoldiscus paniculalus

Food Food

Brazil

Tropical Africa Tropical America Philippines

;

fuel oil

Medicine Starchy seeds boiled and eaten

Betel nut (areca nut, pinang)

Fagus grandijolia Fagus sylvatica Moringa olei/era Areca catechu

Cent. Europe, S.W. Asia India, West Indies E. tropics

Bladder nut

Staphylea species

Temperate North Amer-

Bomah

Pycnocoma macrophylla

Africa

Caesalpinia bonduc BerlhoUelia excelsa Treculia africana Brosimum alicaslrum

Tropics

Juglans cinerea

E. United States, S.E.

Beech nut, American Beech nut, European

,

...

Ben nut

E. United States

ica, S.

nut

Bonduc nut Brazil nut (castanca, creamnut, para nut) Breadfruit, African

Bread nut Butternut (long or white walnut)

.

Europe,

S.

Salad

oil

Artists' oil; lubricant

Masticatory Necklaces

Asia

Tanning; poison Medicine; beads Food (see Brazil Nut) Seeds ground for meal

N. South America Tropical Africa Tropical America

Food Food

(see

Butternut)

Canada Butter pit, see Naras nut Candle nut

Cashew

Aleurites moluccana occidentale

(acajou, caja, cajou)

Castanopsis nut (golden chinquapin, wild chestnut)

Chestnut Chile hazel Chile pine nut, see Araucarian pine nut

Chinquapin Chufa (rush nut, earthnut, ground almond) Cobnut, see Filbert Cobnut, Jamaican

.

Malaysia

Anacardium

West Indies, America

Castanopsis species Castanea species

S.E. Asia, California E. United States, S. Europe, N. Africa, Asia

Gevuina

Chile

aiiellana

Castanea species Cyperus esctdentus

S.

tropical

S.E. United States,

Europe

Drying (see Aleurites) Food (see Cashew)

Food Food

China Food Food

(see

Chestnut)

(see

Chestnut)

Omphalea diandra

West

Food;

oil

Coconut

Cocas nucijera

Tropics

Food;

oil (see

Cohune nut (cahoun nut)

Attalea cohune

Honduras

Oil

Cola nut, see Kola nut Coquilla nut Coquita nut (coker nut)

A ttalea funifera

Brazil Chile

Turnery

Jubaea

Irvingia gabonensis Hyphaene thebaica

W.

Africa N. and central Africa

Food; oil Turnery; vegetable

Filbert (hazelnut)

Corylus species

Galo nut Gasso nut

A nacolosa

E. North America Philippines W. Africa, Congo

Food Food Food

Indies, tropical

America

Coconut

Palm)

Coumara

nut, see

Dika nut

Doum

spectabilis

Oil; food

Tonka bean

nut (dom nut)

ivory luzoniensis

Manniophyton

(see

Filbert)

ajrtcanum

Gevuina nut, Ginkgo nut

see Chile hazel

Gnetum gnemon

China, Japan Tropical Asia

Food Food

Goat nut, see Jojoba nut Groundnut (wild bean) Grugru nut (corozo nut)

Apios tuber osa Acrocomia aculeala

North America

Tubers eaten

Tropical South America

Beads;

Hazelnut, see Filbert Heartnut, see Japanese walnut Helicia nut Hickory nut

Helicia diversifolia Carya species

Hodgsonia seed

Hodgsonia macrocarpa

Queensland, Austr. North America, China Tropical Asia

Food Food Food

Gnetum

Gingko biloba

seed

nut, see Doum nut Indian nut, see Pine nut Inoi nut Ivory nut, see Tagua nut Jack nut Japanese walnut (heartnut, cordate walnut)

oil

Hyphaene

Poga

W.

oleosa

Artocarpus heterophyllus Juglans cordiformis

Food

Africa

Japan

Food Food

Pacific tropics

Food

India

(see

Walnut)

ailanthifolia

Java almond (Luzon or Philippine nut) Jojoba nut (goat nut, sheep nut) Karaka nut Kola nut

Canarium commune Simmondsia californica

Kubili nut

Cubilia blancoi

Philippines

Trapa bicornis Litchi chinensis

China S. China

Nelumbium nelumbo

Asia

Otophora fruticosa

Pacific region Australia, Hawaii S. Africa

Corynocarpus laevigatus Cola acuminata, C.

California,

New W.

Mexico

Zealand

tropical Africa

Food; hair

oil

Food Masticatory; stimulant

nilida

....

Ling (caltrop, lingko) Litchi (lychee, Chinese nut) Lotus seed Lunan nut Macadamia (Queensland nut, Australian nut) Manketti nut

Macadamia

species

Ricinodendron rautanenii

Food Food Food Food Food Food Food

(see

Macadamla)

NUT

Plate I

VARIOUS KINDS OF COMMERCIAL AND EDIBLE NUTS Eastern black walnut Uuglans nigra), variety Thomas Pistachio (Pistacia vera); top, half of shell removed from nut exposing *•'/" "'^"^ ""'^ , % R^,fl'n^"?p 3. Brazil nut (Ber,AoHet;a exce/sa) 4. Persian (English) walnut (/ug/ans re^.a) variety Placentia 1.

i..

,

7.

Shagbark hickory (Carya ovata) 'ariety Lingenfelter Macadamia or Queensland nut {Mac adamia ternilolia) top, whole nut; middle, kernel with half of shell ren lOved; bottom, empty half-shell Heartnut (JugUns ccdiiormis) .^ ariety Lancaster

8.

Almond (Piunus amygdalus) ,Sixv !ty

5. 6.

:

Peerless

NUT

Plate II

VARIOUS KINDS OF COMMERCIAL AND EDIBLE NUTS Pecan (Carya /;/inoensis), variety Schley (Sly) 2. Peanut or groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) 3. Cashew (Anacardium occidentale) 4. European Filbert (Cory/us ave7/ana) variety Barcelona 1.

,

European Filbert,

NUT Common names

Scientific

Marking nut Moreton Bay chestnut (black bean) Naras nut (butter pit) Nicuri Palm nut Nitta nut (nete)

Nutmeg Nut pine,

see

Pine nut

Olive nut

Owusa nut Oyster nut Palm chestnut Palm nut Paradise nut (sapucaia nut) Pascualito nut (pinonchillo) .' Peanut (groundnut) Peanut, hog .

Pecan (Illinois nut) Pekea nut, see Swarri nut nut Pine nut Pili

(piflon, pignolia)

Pistachio (pistache, green almond)

Poison nut Quandong nut Queensland nut, see Macadamia Ravensara nut (clove nutmeg) Rose nut (red nut)

Sapucaia nut, see Paradise nut Sassafras nut Shea butter nut Singhara nut (water nut) Snake nut Soap nut

Soap nut, Indian Sterculia nut Swarri nut (souari nut, sawarri nut, pekea nut, butter nut, piki)

Taccy nut Tagua nut (ivory nut, vegetable ivory) Tahiti chestnut (South Sea chestnut)

Tallow nut (false sandalwood) Tallow nut, Chinese Tiger nut, see Chufa Tonka bean (tonqua or tonquin bean, coumara nut) Torreya nut (kaya nut) Tropical almond (myrobalan, tavola nut, Demerara almond) Tung nut (wood-oil tree) .

.

Walnut, African Walnut, other

Water chestnut (water caltrop) Water chestnut, Chinese (matai) Yeheb nut

799 name

;

NUT

8oo pared from fresh, selected nuts, mainly

in

Ceylon (see Coconut

Palm; Copra ^.

— Hazelnuts

of the babassu nut of Brazil, which grows on a palm, is also a source of oil. The Indian ben nut, the product of a small tree, oil at one time used for lubricating watches. {See Oil

such

yields an

nuts as filberts, cobnuts, Barcelona and Turkish nuts (these are the small nuts of the nut trade). Their convenient size may account in part for their extensive use in nut foods and nut chocolate

Plants.)

Filbert.

in the broad, botanical sense include

{see Filbert; Hazel). Hickory. There are several kinds of hickory nuts and all are American. Although some are difficult to crack, the better kinds have large plump kernels with a good flavour. These nuts keep well. They formed an important item in the diet of American

—

Indians {see Hickory). Macadamia. The Macadamia or Queensland nut is native to AustraUa, as the latter name indicates, but is grown commercially in Hawaii. There are several different recognized varieties. The nuts are spherical in shape, 1^2 cm. in diameter, with a white, pleasantly crisp kernel with an appetizing, slightly sweet flavour. Oyster Nut. It is mainly since World War II that this nut has been marketed as a dessert nut, although it has long been popular

—

—

Nuts as Sources of Starch or Carbohydrate. A few nuts have kernels of a starchy nature, without the high oil and protein content of most edible nuts. The best-known of these are the chestnuts, notably the common European chestnut. In southern European countries it was an important food for man and his domestic animals for centuries, taking the place of bread or wheat flour in some areas. The closely related North American chestnut has been largely destroyed by disease. The Chinese chestnut, now cultivated in other countries, is somewhat similar to the European, although the nut is larger. The so-called water chestnut of the orient and the chufa or

in east Africa,

nut are not true nuts but the edible tubers of grasslike sedges they are cultivated as a source of starchy food, especially in China. The so-called Bambarra groundnut, a common legume crop in many parts of tropical Africa, may be cooked in various ways. Nuts as Masticatories. The betel or areca nut, produced by

large gourd,

a palm,

—

where it is indigenous. The nut, the seed of a from 3-5 cm. in diameter, and covered with a fibrous layer that unfortunately prevents the use of mechanical is fiat,

crackers.

—

South American nut, also called sapucaia which it is closely allied botanically, although it has a softer shell and softer kernel than the Brazil nut. The nuts are produced in a large woody fruit or Paradise Nut.

^This

nut, resembles the Brazil nut, to

"monkey

pot."

Peanut.

—The peanuts used

as dessert nuts are usually specially

selected or hand-picked nuts with large pods

A

and large

kernels.

light-coloured shell that does not darken unduly on roasting

is

These nuts are produced in various countries, notably in the United States, Spain and certain Asian and African countries (see Peanut). Pecan. This American nut, a member of the hickory family, is widespread in North America in the wild state. The nut somewhat resembles the walnut; there are many varieties. Pi7ie Nut. Pine nuts, or pignolias, usually from the European stone pine (Pinus pinea), are relished by many people and much used in vegetarian cookery as a substitute for animal fat. As desirable.

—

—

may

dessert they

The

be eaten raw, roasted, salted or

many

made

into sweet-

In North America pine nuts are obtained from the so-called nut pines or meats.

pirions.

Pistachio.

kernels of

other pines are also eaten.

—This well-known nut,

of the Mediterranean region.

also called pistache,

It differs

from

all

is

—

PIST.ACHIO).

—

Swarri. This little-known South American nut, also caUed the from the Guianas, is sometimes imported into Europe and America. It is about four times the size of a Brazil

souari or butternut,

nut with a thick (over 1 cm.) hard shell enclosing a soft white kernel with a good flavour {see Butternut). Walnut. The common walnut has been used in Europe from

—

very early times as an article of food and in everyday cookery {see below). The green or immature nuts are often pickled. There are about half a dozen different species of walnut, the American black walnut and Japanese walnut being among them. Nuts as Sources of Oil. Oil for a variety of purposes can be obtained from nuts. At one time walnut oil was a much-used vegetable oil in France, although it is now little used. For centuries walnut oil has also been used for artists' colours, especially for mixing whites and delicate shades. Another nut oil, much used in Europe in the past for edible purposes and also for lamps, is beech nut oil. It is said to be a good frying oil that does not readily go rancid. The tung nut, from a Chinese tree, yields a nonedible drying oil; it resembles linseed oil and is used for paints and varnishes {see Tung Oil). In west Africa the shea butter nut yields a fatty oil much used locally and suitable for soap making. The kernel

is

chewed

in the eastern tropics

by

all

classes.

It

im-

parts a characteristic red colour to the spittle {see Betel Nut). The kola nut is a well-known masticatory with stimulating properties and

widely chewed in west Africa and is also exported. The finely-ground shells of various nuts may be added as bulk fillers in the manufacture of plastics. Some palms have very hard seeds, nuts or hard kernels that may be used in turnery and for making ornaments. The tagua or vegetable ivory nut, from Central America, which has also been used for making buttons, is the best-known of these. The African doum palm nut is somewhat similar although inferior, as it has a cavity in the centre. The thick, hard shell of the South American coquilla nut was used in the carving and turnery popular in the 19th century. Marking ink for linen is prepared from the marking nut of India. The clearing nut is another unusual Indian nut. The seeds or nuts are cut open and rubbed round the inside of the rough earthenware vessels used for drinking water: the juice they contain thus impregnates the water and causes sediment to sink. The Chinese litchi nut is really a fruit, not a nut, but has a is

Other Uses for Nuts.

—

though thin, nutlike shell. The bonduc or nicker nut of the tropics is a hard marblelike seed, not edible but sometimes used as beads or as marbles by boys.

brittle,

PRODUCTION

a native

other nuts in

the characteristic green colour of the kernel. It is popular, in grated form, for ornamenting dishes. Other features of the nut are its pleasant mild flavour and good keeping qualities {see

—

tiger

The

world's trade in nuts varies a great deal from year to year as crops are often very dependent upon seasonal climatic condi-

For example, annual exports of the Brazil nut from the forests during the decade 1950-60 varied from 16,000 tons to 31,000 tons. (There is an increasing tendency to extract and pack the kernels in Brazil to save freight.) The related South American paradise nut is produced only in small quantities;, exports go mainly to the United States. The cashew is produced to some extent in the American tropics and West Indies but commercial production is mainly in India, annual production there extions.

Amazon

ceeding 60,000 tons in the early 1960s. More than 100,000 tons (in the shell) of East African cashews may eventually go to Indian factories for kernel extraction and processing. The United States

consumes more than 70% of India's cashew kernel production. The macadamia nut is produced commercially in Hawaii, where 100-200 tons of kernels annually (early 1960s) are exported in containers, chiefly to the United States. Southern European countries, especially Spain and Majorca, are the main producers of almonds, but there is also considerable production in the southwestern United States and to some extent in AustraKa and South Africa. Walnuts are grown in the same regions as almonds, France being a notable producer. France, Spain and Italy are important producers of chestnuts. Among small nuts of the filbert type, Spain is an important producer of Barcelona nuts, and Turkey of Turkish nuts. In Britain the county of Kent is noted for its filberts or cobnuts. Pistachio nuts are produced by various Mediterranean countries and in Asia

vacuum

NUT—NUTRIA Minor, and also to a small extent in California. The United States Italy is the chief commercial is the main producer of pecans. (F. N. H.) source of pine nuts. (Engineering) see Bolt, the name for species of the genus Nucijraga, foot-long birds of the crow family (Corvidae). They are found chiefly in evergreen woods of the northern hemisphere, and are known for their habit of storing nuts and other food for the winter. The common European nutcracker iN. caryocatactes), of which many races exist, is black-brown, brightly speckled with white, with conspicuous white under tail coverts and white-tipped tail The nutcracker feathers. The beak is blackish, long and thick. feeds mainly on conifer seeds but also takes fruits, insects and young birds. The nest, built about 20 ft. up in a tree, is a large The eggs are pale bluishstructure of sticks lined with grass. green, freckled with pale olive or ash. Clark's nutcracker (TV. Columbiana) found in America, has a light gray body with white patches on black wings and tail.

NUT

:

NUTCRACKER,

,

NUTHATCH, so called fix,

from

the

name

for stubby, little tree-climbing birds,

their occasional habit of hacking nuts,

which they

as though in a vise, in a chink or crevice in the bark of a and then hammer with the bill till the shell is broken. Nut-

tree,

hatches, which constitute the subfamily Sittinae of the family Sittidae, are

most numerous

in the

northern hemisphere; aberrant forms, however, are found in AfSmaller than rica and Australia. sparrows, they have long dark oills,

short

tails,

8oi

species of Sitta occur in various parts of Asia.

No nuthatches are found in South America, Africa from the Sahara southward or New Zealand. A peculiar genus with a single species, Hypositta coraUirostris, is confined to Madagascar. The Malay velvet-fronted nuthatch, pink and black, and the deepblue nuthatch, with a beautiful blue belly, belong to an allied genus, Dendrophila, living in India and the Malay countries and islands. The genus Neositta, Australian tree runners, is also found in New Guinea, where also the single species of Daphoenositta is confined. (Ht. Fn.) a town of New Jersey, U.S., S mi. N. of Newark on the Passaic river, 13 mi. W. of New York city, adjoining Bloomfield and Belleville. Founded in 1680 by the Dutch as part of Newark, it was detached in 1812 to become part of Bloomfield. In 1874 it was separated as an independent township and renamed Franklin in honour of William, son of Benjamin Franklin, last royal governor of New Jersey. In 1902 it was renamed Nutley and incorporated as a town. Primarily residential, with many old colonial style homes, it has various industries: textiles, insulators, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, paints, machine tools, radar, telephone and electrical equipment and paper. In the late 19th century it was an authors' and artists' settlement; living there were Frank R. Stockton, author of "The Lady or the Tiger?" and Rudder Grange, and Henry C. Brunner. For comparative population figures see table in New Jersey: Population. See E. S. Brown, History of Nutley (1907). (D. N. A.; M. P. M.) the commercial name of a spice representing the kernel of the seed of Myristica fragrans, a dioecious evergreen tree that may reach 70 ft. high, found wild in the Moluccas or Spice Islands and extending to New Guinea. True Nutmeg and Mace Nutmeg and mace are mostly obtained from the Moluccas and the West Indies, although cultivation has been attempted with varying success elsewhere. The trees yield fruit in 8 years after sowing, reach their prime in 25 years and bear for 60 years or longer. The stands on the Moluccas thrive in the shade under groves of lofty trees. The fully ripe fruit is about two inches in diameter, of a rounded pear shape, and when mature splits into two, exposing a crimson aril surrounding a single shiny brown seed. When the fruit is collected the pericarp is first removed; then the aril is carefully stripped off and dried, in which state it forms the mace of commerce. The seed consists of a thin, hard shell, enclosing a wrinkled kernel, which, when dried, is the nutmeg. To prepare the nutmegs for use, the seeds are dried in the sun, gradually and with frequent turning, until

NUTLEY,

NUTMEG,

short legs and

—

powerfully taloned feet, features associated with the nuthatches' remarkable adeptness at creeping

on Nuthatches are the only tree chmbers that habitually descend trees headfirst. Four species occur in North America. The best known is the white-breasted nuthatch (Sitta carolinensis) with gray or slate back and wings, a black cap, black eyes on a white face and chestnut under tail coverts. Its """'^'"' "°" "'tional audubon nasal song and familiar call of "o""/' "yank, yank" may be heard at all white-breasted nuthatch (sitta seasons m woodlands and towns carolinensis) descending tree from southern Quebec and north- trunk em Minnesota to Florida and Mexico. (The treeless parts of the Great Plains and the deserts are devoid of nuthatches.) During most of the year it feeds on insects, which it seeks on the boles and larger limbs of old trees, but in autumn and winter it feeds on acorns and other nuts and on hard seeds. It makes its nest in a hole in a branch or stump of a tree, often in an empty nesting hole of a woodpecker. The interior contains a bed of dry leaves or the filmy flakes of the inner bark of a fir or cedar, on which the 5-8 whitish, brownspeckled eggs are laid. The red-breasted nuthatch (5. canadensis) shghtly smaller and with rusty underparts and a black line through the eye, prefers conifer forests of both east and west coasts. The brown-headed nuthatch (5. pusilla) occurs in the southeastern U.S., and the pygmy nuthatch (S. pygmaea) is found along the middle California coast. The common nuthatch of the old world (5. europaea) is widely distributed, with many local races from England to as far as Siberia and Japan. It has a blue-gray crown and back, buff underparts and chestnut flanks; the cheeks and throat are white and a black line passes through the eye. Like its American counterparts, it is a common visitor in gardens, orchards and parks. The rock nuthatches, 5. neumayeri and its races and close relatives, nest and hunt among rocks rather than trees; they range from southeast Europe to Israel, Iran and Turkistan. Other less known jerkily about in all directions

the bark of trees.

,

,

the kernels will rattle in their shells

when shaken.

When

thor-

broken and the nutmegs picked out and sorted, the smaller and inferior ones being reserved for the expression of the fixed "oil of mace" that they contain. Oil of mace, or nutmeg butter, is a solid fatty substance of reddishoughly dried the

shells are

brown

colour, obtained by grinding the refuse nutmegs to a fine powder, which is steamed and compressed while still warm, the brownish fluid that flows out being afterward allowed to solidify. Nutmegs yield about one-fourth of their weight of this substance. It is partly dissolved by cold alcohol, the remainder being soluble in ether. The latter portion, about 10% of the weight of the nutmegs, consists chiefly of myristin, which is a compound of myristic Nutmegs, maces and their oils are used as acid with glycerin. condiments and carminatives. A liniment or ointment made of nutmeg butter has been used as a counterirritant and in treatment of rheumatism. The oils are used to scent soaps and perfumes.

Other "Nutmegs."

—The name nutmeg

fruits or seeds in different countries.

nutmeg

is

derived from

Monodora

Crytocarya moschata, the

is

also

apphed

The Jamaica

to other

or calabash

myristica, the Brazilian from

Peruvian from Laurelia aromatica, Madagascar or clove nutmeg from Ravensara aromatica and the California or stinking nutmeg from Torreya calijornica. (CoYPu), Myocastor coy pus, a large aquatic rodent native to South America. Features that distinguish it from other members of the family Capromyidae are: size (up to 25 lb.); reddish-brown fur; long, round-tipped tail; partially webbed hind toes; short, round ears; and smooth, broad, orange-coloured incisor teeth. These traits have given it the misnomer "South Amer-

NUTRIA

NUTRITION

502

ican beaver," but it more closely resembles a guinea pig or an agouti. The mammary glands are peculiarly placed along the sides of the back, an arrangement

thought to be an advantage in permitting the young to suckle while the mother is surface swimming. The nutria lives in shallow burrows along the banks of rivers and edges of ponds; it subsists largely on aquatic plants, comirig NUTRIA FEEDING (MYOCASTOR COY- ashore to feed, especially in the PUS) evening. It is prolific, producing from two to eight young at a birth, and having as many as three litters a year.

Prime nutria pelts are of some commercial value but require expensive processing. In the' late 19th century a high demand for pelts led to the near extermination of the species in Argentina. Raising nutrias in captivity in South America began in 1922 and spread to many other countries. High prices were paid for breeding stock, but the pelts from ranch-raised stock were generally inferior, and these ventures were disappointing. Some nutrias were turned loose, others escaped, and populations became established in the wild. In many countries to which they were imported. France, for example, nutrias became a distinct liability, feeding on cultivated crops, damaging dikes and irrigation ditches, destroying habitats of and competing with other wildlife. They are established in several other European countries and in Canada, and are a problem in parts of the southern U.S. (R. H. Ma.)

NUTRITION. All forms of life, plant and animal alike, from simple single-cell organisms to complex mammals, require certain food materials in certain minimum amounts and proportions to ensure an active life and successful reproduction. Nutrition is concerned with what these materials are, how they function, what effects they have when absent or in too plentiful supply, what happens to them when ingested and other related problems. Nutrition might be defined as the science of food and the nutrients in food and their relation to health. Because of this wide scope there has been increasing overlapping with such sciences as biochemistr>', enzymologj' and physiology. In spite of the enormous diversity of living things, each can be said to have two major nutritional requirements: (i) compounds which are sources of energy; and (2> substances whose primary purpose is to fill a structural or functional need. Some of course fulfill both needs. Often what is an absolute dietary essential for one species is without effect in another, for the latter may be able to synthesize it from other materials. In many instances knowledge of the nutrition of one species aids immeasurably in gaining nutritional information about another. For example, the requirement of a microorganism for a given nutrient

may make

possible the analysis of this

compound

in

foods which are to be consumed by other living organisms.

General Requirements.

—

All living cells,

whether existing as

separate entities or as part of a complex tissue, require one or more inorganic substances and some form of carbon and nitrogen. On the other hand, the need for complex exogenous organic

compounds

life. Whereas vitamins animal species, plants are without this requirement for they are able to make these out of simpler chemicals such as carbon dioxide, water and ammonia. This difference between forms of life has a tremendous importance, for continuous cycles exist in nature whereby simple compounds of the elements such as carbon and nitrogen are converted into complex molecules by some species; these in turn are used by higher forms where they are again eventually converted to simple compounds. Thus, in the long run, only energy has been expended. Were these cycles to be interrupted for long, life on earth as we is

quite different for the various forms of

and proteins are

know

it

would

Plants.

essential for

many

cease.

— Much

is known of the requirements of plants for mincarbon and nitrogen. As is the case with animals, certain of the elements are required in extremely minute amounts for normal growth and reproduction. These are known as trace elements, a

erals,

term not

to be

confused with the word tracers, which refers to

isotopes incorporated into

compounds

to facilitate the tracing of

Boron and silicon are examples of trace elements which are needed by some plants but have not been shown to be required by animals. The nutrition of plants has a very important bearing upon nutrition of animals because the latter consume the plants and thereby gain proportionately to the nutritional status of the plants. The importance of this is shown by the fact that the analysis of plants for important nutrients is a biochemical pathway.

Furthermore, agriculengaged in improving the food value of crops through plant breeding and nutrition. Microorganisms. A fascinating phase of nutritional investigation has been that dealing with the requirements of microorganisms: bacteria, molds and yeasts. As might be expected, the diversity of microorganisms makes for a diversity of nutritional requirements which is reflected among species and also among strains within a given species. Some, like the plants, require no complex organic material whatsoever. Nitrogen (usually as an ammonium salt), carbon (as a simple salt such as carbonate and minerals are sufficient to provide optimum growth and reproduction in such organisms. Others, however, have almost as complex requirements as human beings do. In these cases amino acids, vitamins, carbohydrates and minerals must be made available in chemical forms readily utilized by the organism. So exacting are the requirements of many organisms for certain nutrients that in the absence of any particular one there will be no growth. If inadequate amounts are provided, the growth will often be proportional to the amount present. This forms the basis of several important tools for biochemical and nutritional research. One of these is the microbiological assay developed by E. Snell and F. Strong. In this procedure all but one of the nutrients necessary for rapid growth are furnished to an organism such as J^actobacillus casei, found in cheese. When the missing factor is furnished in some suitably prepared extract of a natural product, the increased growth that results is a measure a constant facet of nutritional research. tural research

is

—

)

amount of the compound present in a readily available Comparison of this response with that obtained when known amounts of the factor are present give a fairly exact estimate of the amount of the substance in the natural product. Such assays came to have widespread use because of their simplicity, of the

form.

accuracy and rapidity.

Microorganisms also aid in the understanding of the nutrition and biochemistry of higher animals in another way. They readily lend themselves to investigations which deal with the actual pathways of synthesis and degradation of important nutrients and biologically important compounds. Extensive studies, notably by E. L. Tatum and co-workers, have been made on organisms which have been damaged by X-rays. Such organisms have lost the ability to carry out one step in a series of biochemical reactions. By proper techniques it is possible to isolate the affected ones and determine where such a metabolic lesion occurs and what its exact nature is. Such damage is usually reflected in the need for an additional nutrient not ordinarily required. In a sense an almost unlimited number of mutants of a given organism can be produced which differ only in that each has a special "dietary" requirement. Although it is usual to think of higher animals in terms of the individual, such is not strictly possible from a nutritional standpoint. The reason is that the intestinal tract supports a flourishing population of microorganisms which have their own nutritional requirements, produce various important nutrients themselves and It is difficult to assess the imporalso degrade other nutrients. tance of these uninvited guests on the nutritional status of the host, however, except in certain instances. For example, the use of antibiotics and sulfa drugs is known to have definite effects on the intestinal flora which may influence the amount of certain vitamins available to the patient. In studies with animals born and raised under germ-free conditions. J. A. Reyniers and co-workers showed that good growth and reproduction are not dependent upon the

intestinal flora.

Human and Animal

Nutrition.

—The nutrition of the more

NUTRITION Recommended Daily Dietary Allowances, 1964 Revision* (for persons

Person

normally active in a temperate climate)

803

8o4

NUTRITION

is known, the heat lost by radiation and conduction by the subject in a given time can be determined. As part of the heat lost, amounting to about one-fourth of the whole, is eliminated by

also

the subject in the form of water vapour, this loss is determined by absorbing the lost water in sulfuric acid and weighing the acid to

measure its gain in weight. This method of direct calorimetry is very accurate and rebut the method is difficult and the apparatus is very liable to get out of order. In addition to this direct measurement of the heat output, the metabolic activity of the subject can be calculated from a determination of the amount of carbon dioxide given off and the amount of oxygen utilized by the subject in a given period. This method of indirect calorimetry can be carried out simultaneously with the direct method and serve as a check upon it. The calorimeter chamber in which the subject is enclosed is gastight and the air is circulated through a gastight absorbing system by means of a rotary blower. The carbon dioxide given off is absorbed by means of soda lime, the amount absorbed being determined by weighing the soda lime at the beginning and the end of the experiment. The carbon dioxide-free air is returned to the chamber after the deficiency in oxygen, which is approximately determined by reduction in volume, has been corrected by adding oxygen from a cylinder. The amount of oxygen used during the experiment is determined either by metering the amount of oxygen passed in or by weighing the cylinder before and after the experiment. The heat lost by the subject can be determined from the amount of oxygen used. The caloric value of a litre of oxygen used in tissue combustion has been determined. This value varies with the carbon dioxide-oxygen ratio, called also the respiratory quotient (R.Q.), from 4.795 cal. with an R.Q. of ,713, which is held to represent the combustion of fat alone, to 5.058 cal. with an R.Q. of 1.00, which is accepted as representing the combustion of pure carbohydrate by the tissues. The two methods of direct and indirect calorimetry have been found to give almost identical liable,

results.

A

portable apparatus that measures the energy expenditure of work was designed by N. Zuntz and later much simplified by C. Douglas. When using the simplified apparatus, subjects engaged in

mask or special mouthpiece (with nose clip) fitted with two one-way valves, breathes into a gastight bag carried on his back. At the end of the experiment the air collected in the bag is measured by passage through a meter, a sample of the expired air is analyzed in the Haldane gas analysis apparatus, and the amount of carbon dioxide and oxygen present is determined. As the composition of the atmospheric air is known, it is easy to calculate how much carbon dioxide the subject excreted and how much oxygen he utilized in a given time; the caloric values can be determined as above. In order to relate the carbon dioxide output and oxygen utilization to the nonprotein moiety of the food the protein metabolized during the period of the experiment is determined from the nitrogen output in the urine. For every gram of urinary nitrogen derived from protein 8.45 g. of oxygen are required and 9.35 g. of carbon dioxide are given off. Hence, to determine the nonprotein utilization the appropriate amounts of carbon dioxide and oxygen are deducted from the total amounts. As the amount of nitrogen excreted during the period of examination is minute, it is usually ignored in practice. (See also Calorimetry.) When the alterations of the gaseous metabolism are considered they are commonly referred to variations from the so-called basal the subject, wearing either a

The basal metabolism may be defined as that of a subject lying comfortably at rest in a warm bed and in the postabsorptive condition; i.e., about 12 to 15 hours after the last meal. With the subject in such a condition the metabolism reaches its metaboUsm.

lowest level. It has been estimated that functional activities of the various organs may account for about 25% of the resting

metabohsm (thus the activity of the heart for about 3.6%, respiratory movements for about 10% and the kidneys for about 5%). This basal metabolism is shown to be high in childhood; as adolescence is reached it falls to a level which is more or less uniformly maintained until about the age of 50. Thereafter the decline is steady although small. The basal metabolism is also in-

fluenced by the sex of the subject, sumed and environmental conditions

the nature of the food conlike temperature, climate, etc. weight, height and sex also complicate calculations of energy assessments. As a means of overcoming this difficulty, E. F. and D. Du Bois proposed the extensively used

human

Differences in

X

formula (height

weight

X

a constant) to obtain basal metabo-

lism values in terms of caloric output per square metre of

body

In the early 1960s the caloric allowance for differences in size given by the Food and Nutrition board for persons neither over- nor underweight was calculated on the basis of weight. surface area.

The assumption was made

25% of the energy expenditure was 75% was directly proportional to

that

independent of body weight and

body weight.

Components

of Nutrition

—

Carbohydrates, fats and proteins while minerals and vitamins are present in smaller quantities. All are important and many have special functions as will be seen below. (See Carbohydrates;

form the major portion of the

Oils, Fats

diet,

and Waxes; Proteins; Vitamins).

Until R. Schoenheimer and D. Rittenberg demonstrated otherwise, most of the body constituents such as proteins and fats were

considered to be stable in the sense that they were not in equilibrium with ingested food components. The latter were thought if incorporated in body constit-

either to undergo degradation or,

There was no adequate way to problem before the advent of isotopes, because there was no way of distinguishing an ingested compound or its parts from like ones already present in the body. By synthesizing compounds which contained an isotope of one of the atoms in the molecule, it was possible to follow the exact fate of the compound by making suitable isotope measurements. Such experiments have shown beyond doubt that there is a constant equilibrium between ingested substances and identical ones which have been incorporated into the body. This concept of a "dynamic state of body constituents" had profound effects on the understanding of biochemistry and nutrition. Enzymes. Many enzymes are involved in biochemical reactions that are concerned with the removal or addition of water between molecules while others are concerned with joining or splitting the bonds between atoms within a molecule. (See Enzymes.) uents, to remain there indefinitely.

study

this

—

The process

of digestion, for example, involves the addition of water (hydrolysis) to complex molecules with the formation of their simple integral parts. On the other hand, the metabolism of these simpler molecules may involve either their reincorporation into other complex compounds or their conversion to other simple molecules. It is believed that almost every reaction in the body is mediated by an enzyme which is specific for that particular reaction. Many of the enzymes had been isolated by the 1960s and in many cases had also been crystallized. One of the most interesting properties of enzymes is their high degree of activity under very mild conditions. Similar reactions carried out by chemical means alone would require in many instances drastic conditions and long reaction times. All enzymes discovered had been found to contain mainly protein, and it was also shown that they are not immune from the "dynamic status" referred to previously. Many toxic materials are known to inactivate enzymes, and this action is believed to be the basis of their toxicity. Numerous modern drugs also function by virtue of some effect on one or more enzyme systems. Indeed, such sought-for activity forms the basis of research in many fields such as cancer where the arrest of specific processes

Carbohydrates.

is

essential.

—These compounds are present

the form of sugars

known

most foods in and ingested, they must be conin

as disaccharides, such as cane sugar,

polysaccharides, such as starch.

When

verted into monosaccharides, or simple sugars, before they can be absorbed. Ptyalin, an enzyme found in saliva, is able to effect some hydrolysis of starches, but the main agents which cause the hydrolytic breakdown of the carbohydrates are amylase, maltase, sucrase and lactase, which attack starches, maltose, sucrose and lactose

(milk sugar), respectively.

—

The

nutritionally important

—

and galactose

which are thereby formed are absorbed and are made available via the blood stream Here the first step in their

simple sugars

fructose, glucose

to the cells of the various tissues.

NUTRITION enzymatic reactions which result in the formation of phosphorylated sugar. The sugar phosphates then either are converted to glycogen or undergo a series of reactions which lead eventually to the formation of carbon dioxide and water. The elucidation of these reactions by such workers as A. Harden and W. Young, C. F. and G. T. Cori, G. Embden, 0. Meyerhof, H. Krebs and A. Szent-Gyorgyi was of tremendous importance (See also Krebs to the fields of biochemistry and nutrition. Cycle.) It was absolutely established through isotope studies that some of the carbon present in the sugars can be recovered in the fat, protein and other important compounds in the body. The proper utilization of carbohydrate is essential for health. Insulin (g.v.) is necessary to carry out the initial phosphorylation utilization involves

When

of glucose.

insulin

is

deficient, as in diabetes mellitus, the

glucose concentration in the blood rises and some of the sugar is Another hormone, adrenaline (epinephrine), lost in the urine. which is produced by the adrenals, causes the breakdown of carbo-

hydrate stored in the Uver and muscles as glycogen. It is this source of energy which is called upon for immediate needs. About 100 g. of carbohydrate per day are necessary for the prevention of ketosis in

human

—When

adults.

fats are eaten, relatively little

occurs within the cells. Since the early studies fatty acids are degraded moval of two carbons at not obtained until much

of F. Knoop the mechanism by which had been postulated to proceed by rea time, but definitive proof of this was later. Through the research of A. L. Lehninger, F. A. Lipmann, F. Lynen, D. Green and others it became known that the fatty acids react to form phosphate esters which in turn react with coenzyme A (a derivative of the vitamin pantothenic acid) to form coenzyme A derivatives. In this form they undergo a series of enzymatic transformations to yield at intervals the coenzyme A derivatives of the next lower fatty acid and of acetic acid. This continues until the acid is degraded. The acetic acid-coenzyme

A

derivative, oxaloacetate,

molecules may react with a carbohydrate and be converted to carbon dioxide and

water, or form "ketone bodies." The latter are greatly increased in diabetes. By means of fats labeled with radioactive carbon it

was definitely shown that fats can be converted to carbohydrates and proteins. Aside from serving as a source of energy, fats act as ir^sulating material against cold and mechanical shock. They also serve as carriers for fat-soluble vitamins. The normal adult human male consumes about 150 g. of fat per day. As far as is this amount is not necessary; however, it is easy to obtain part of the daily caloric requirement in the form of fat because

known of

its

higher caloric value per gram.

Essential Fatty Acids.

comprised of

—

Historically, this group of nutrients is

and arachidonic acids, all of which George O. Burr and M. M. Burr first dem-

linoleic, linolenic

are polyunsaturated.

onstrated that without at least one of these acids in the diet the rat failed to grow, developed scaly skin and necrosis of the tail, Considerable study has shown that these died. acids may be of importance in atherosclerosis because they are effective in lowering the cholesterol concentration in the serum of man and animals. Such an effect often can be achieved by the

and eventually

inclusion in the diet of Uberal quantities of maize, safiSower or similar vegetable oils that are rich in essential fatty acids, mainly linoleic.

An

appreciable portion of the cholesterol of blood serum

occurs as the ester of this acid.

In the early 1960s linoleic and

arachidonic acids were shown to be necessary in animals and infants.

human

(See also Carboxylic Acids; Cholesterol.)

Proteins.

—Although

not absorbed as such but is first converted to peptides and then acids. This conversion begins in the stomach through the action of the enzyme pepsin (g.v.), which is effective in the acidic condition found there. The rest of this degradation is carried out in the intestine by the enzyme trypsin. Both of these enzymes is

amino

form or zymogen and are converted to when the need arises. Once the amino acids are formed they are absorbed and transported via the blood stream to the various tissues. Here they may be incorporated into tissue proteins or undergo various metabolic degradations. Since the structures of the amino acids are on the whole dissimilar, these reactions are multifold and usually quite specific. The amino group of the acid may be transferred to a nonamino acid by means of an enzyme of the class known as transaminases. One of the B-complex vitamins, pyridoxine, plays a role in this type of transformation. The ultimate fate of the amino acids is metaboHsm to water, carbon dioxide, ammonia, urea, uric acid and related compounds. In species which have access to an abundant water supalso occur in an inactive

the active form

ply, urea

happens until they reach the intestine. There they are emulsified and undergo extensive enzymatic hydrolysis by Hpase to form mono- and diglycerides and fatty acids. The precise manner in which these products are absorbed was still undetermined in the 1960s. Ordinarily most of the fat upon being absorbed enters the lymphatic system and is present as an extremely fine emulsion known as chyle, which The small enters the blood stream through the thoracic duct. droplets of fat (chylomicrons) then appear to undergo a process of partial dissolution brought about by the action of an enzyme, Upoprotein Upase, found in blood and tissues. Further metabolism Fats.

available as a source of calories, dietary

805

protein functions chiefly by supplying amino acids for the maintenance and synthesis of body proteins. When ingested, protein

the chief urinary nitrogenous excretory product, while

is

more important. and other excretory products such as perspiration equals the amount of nitrogen ingested, the subject is in nitrogen equilibrium. Dur-

in those with limited

When

the

amount

water supphes, uric acid

is

of nitrogen excreted in the urine, feces

ing growth, the output of nitrogen

smaller than the input; the of protein ingested has an important bearing on the nitrogen balance. Not all proteins are adequate for normal nutrition. This stems from the fact, as found notably by W. C. Rose, that of the approximately 20 naturally occurring amino acids, only eight are necessary in the human diet since the others can be synthesized by the body. This means that if a protein contains the essential amino acids in adequate amounts it is a complete protein and reverse

is

true in starvation.

is

The amount

can satisfy the needs of the body when consumed in normal quanIncomplete proteins may be used to fortify one another in tities. such proportions that they supply sufficient quantities of the amino

H. Borsook found that for optimum

acids.

acids should be ingested simultaneously.

utilization the

An

amino

interesting interre-

amino acids, and nicotinic acid, the pellagra-preventing vitamin, was uncovered. Many of the details were known by the mid-1960s, and it was definitely established that an interconversion between these compounds can take place in the body and as a result the intake of lationship between tryptophan, one of the essential

one can latter

is

affect the

apparent effectiveness of the other when the Thus, in the normal adult human 60 mg.

in short supply.

of tryptophan furnishes the equivalent of

—

1

mg. of niacin.

Inorganic Materials. The body requires a constant replenishing of the minerals and electrolytes that are excreted from the body in various forms. Among those that are needed by most species are calcium, magnesium, iron, iodine, phosphorus, sodium, potassium and chlorine. Whereas it is recommended that the adult male take in 0.8 g. of calcium per day, 10 mg. of iron are sufficient. In many instances with animals the need for trace elements has been shown. These include zinc, copper, cobalt and manganese, and the amounts required per day when calculated on the basis of humans is far below that of iron. Of interest is the fact that less than 0.0001 mg. of cobalt in the form of vitamin B12 is necessary This vitamin is the to keep pernicious anemia patients normal. only one known to have a metal as part of its molecule. On the in many enzyme reacmetals are known to play a role hand, other Copper, for example, is necessary for the oxidation of tions. ascorbic acid (vitamin C) by the enzyme ascorbic acid oxidase, while magnesium is essential for several enzymatic steps in the metabolism of carbohydrate. Phosphorus plays an important role in the metabolism of many compounds. In addition it is a major constituent of bone and teeth. As a result of the different metabolic processes that take place in the tissues there is a constant production of acid, chiefly from sulfur

and phosphorus, which must be neutralized by basic ions

containing sodium and potassium and probably also calcium and

magnesium.

The kidney

for the

most part regulates

in

a very

NUTTALL— NUX VOMICA

8o6

selective fashion the output of these various inorganic constituents.

bacteriology and preventive medicine at Cambridge university in

must not be imagined, however, that the body can completely protect itself from excessive salt loss, a loss so great that it may give rise to symptoms of a serious character. Thus it has been shown that men who. in the course of their work, are exposed to

ship of biology, holding this until 1931. He founded the Journal of Hygiene in iqoi and remained editor until his death; in 1908

It

high environmental temperatures with consequently much sweating Further the cramp is freare very liable to a form of cramp. quently exacerbated where the men drink freely of water to allay It has been found that the condition is due to an their thirst. excessive loss of sodium chloride from the body carried away in the sweat and that the condition may be cured or prevented by

taking salt tablets.

Although five-sixths of the total mineral matter of the body is found in bone, and in spite of the fact that bone has all the appearance of being firm and resistant, the evidence available shows that the bony structures must be regarded as active storehouses of mineral matter. When the need arises the body as a whole can draw upon the bones for constituents such as lime and phosphates. Under certain conditions the bones may give up so much of their mineral matter that they become soft and can no longer function as an effective framework. The other one-sixth of the mineral constituents found in the body are not distributed uniformly throughout the remainder of

As regards this varying distribution of salts in the and the blood. A. B. Macallum, in his study of paleochemisproduced some interesting evidence in favour of his view that

the tissues. tissues try.

the present composition of the blood plasma, organic constituents are concerned, is probably identical with that of the sea water just before the Cambriati period and that the salt concentration in protoplasm represents conceivably the salt insofar as its in-

concentration of the primeval ocean in which life first appeared. At any rate the curious ratio of potassium and calcium to sodium that

is

characteristic of protoplasm

reflected in the salt rela-

is

drawn from Pre-Cambrian formations. Because water forms about 60% of the body weight of Water. man, it obviously plays an important part in metabolism. The tionship in water

—

whole series of chemical actions that are intimately related to the life of the living organism, animal or vegetable, are ultimately reIt has been conferable to changes that take place in solution. clusively shown that the younger the animal the richer it is in It has also been found that the fatter the animal the water. smaller the percentage amount of water present. Studies with heavy and radioactive water have shown that exchange occurs between ingested water and metabolically derived water in the cells; much information concerning the extent and rate of exchange has been derived from these studies. Some water in cells is tightly associated

stituents

and

is

of life require

Vitamins.

with proteins and other cellular con-

bound water. Although some forms water, none can exist without any.

referred to as

little

—These organic compounds are important components

For detailed information about vitamins, see the under that title. Daily food allowances See also Biochemistry; Digestion. and diet planning are discussed in Diet and Dietetics. Deficiency diseases and other problems are discussed in Malnutrition. See also references under "Nutrition" in the Index. of nutrition.

article

—

iQoo, and elected in 1906 to the newly founded (>uick professor-

he founded Parasilotoi;y and was chief editor until 1933. In 1919 he raised funds for the erection of an institute of parasitological the Molteno institute. Nuttall's work research in Cambridge covered a very wide field; he wrote almost 300 papers, on bacteriology, serology, hygiene, tropical medicine and parasitology. He made pioneer experiments on life under aseptic conditions, founded the study of humoral immunity and work on precipitin reactions. He acquired British nationality on going to Cambridge.

—

His classical monograph. Blood Immunity and Blood Relationappeared in 1904. Later he studied diseases transmitted by ticks and with W. R. Hadwen discovered the curative properties Ticks, a Monograph of the of trypan blue for piroplasmosis. Ixodoidea (with C. Warburton and L. Robinson) appeared in parts (Ed. He.) from igoS. He died in London Dec. 16, 1937. (1786-1S591. British-U.S. naturalist, was an expert on North .'\merican flora and described many new genera and species of plants. He was born on Jan. 5, 1786, After serving seven years as an at Long Preston, Yorkshire. apprentice printer, he emigrated to the United States in 1808. Benjamin S. Barton {q.v.) encouraged and assisted him in his ship,

NUTTALL, THOMAS

career. Nuttall's expeditions included those to the Missouri river (iSio-ii), Arkansas territory (i8iS-:oi. and the Columbia river and Hawaii (1834-36). He was lecturer on natural history and curator of the botanic garden at Har\-ard university

scientific

from 1825 to 1834. His publications include Genera of North American Plants, and a Catalogue of the Species, to the Year 18 zy (1818), describing genera and enumerating species; and The North American Sylva (1842-49'). Nuttall's .4 Manual of the Ornithology of the United States and of Canada (1832-34; further editions in 1840, 1891, 1896 and 1903) was the first work of moderate size and price on American birds. In 1842 Nuttall returned to England. On Sept. 10, 1859, he died at Nut Grove hall,

Lancashire.

See biography and pp. 32-42 (1959).

list

of

works

in Leaflets of

Western Botany,

NUWARA

ELIYA, a town and district of Central province, Ceylon. The town, administrative centre of the district, is situated about 6,200 ft. above sea level in the heart of the picturesque central highlands, 48 mi. S.S.E. of Kandy and 110 mi. E. of Colombo by road. Pop. 1953) 14,405. It lies in a pleasant hollow only 2 mi. S. of Ceylon's highest mountain, Pidurutalagala (8,281 ft.). Nuwara Eliya is a hill station with a refreshing climate. It is the headquarters of the Ceylon Fishing club and has a beautiful setting. The mean monthly temperature varies from 13° C. (56° F.) in February to 16° C. (61° F.) in May; (

these figures, however, conceal a considerable daily range, and frost

is

not

unknown

at night.

NuwARA Eliya District (area 474 sq.mi.) had a population (1953) of 325,254. Much of it is under tea plantations. Indian (B. H. F.) Tamils form the main population group. VOMICA, a poisonous drug, consisting of the dried ripe family Loganiaceae inseed of Strychnos nux-vomica, a tree digenous to most parts of India and found also in Burma, Thailand, Indochina and north Australia. The drug was once used as a

NUX

1

1

BIBLIOGR.4PHY. National Research Council, Recommended Dietary Allowances, publ. 1146, 6th ed. (1964) E. F. Du Bois, Basal MetaboR. Schoenheimer, Dynamic lism in Health and Disease, 2nd ed. (1927) State of Body Constituents (1942) J. S. McLester and W. J. Darby E. J. (eds.), Sutrition and Diet in Health and Disease, 6th ed. (1952) Underwood, Trace Elements in Human and Animal Nutrition, 2nd ed. rev. (1962); R. S. Harris and W. H. Sebrell (eds.). The Vitamins: Chemistry, Physiology, Pathology (1954); L. S. P. Davidson and R Passmore, Human Nutrition and Dietetics, 2nd ed. (1963). (E. P. C; F. J. Se.; R. P. G.) ;

vol. Lx,

(J.W. Tt.)

;

;

;

NUTTALL, GEORGE HENRY FALKINER

(1862-

1937), biologist and founder of the Molteno institute for research in parasitology at Cambridge, Eng., was born in San Francisco, Calif., on July 5, 1862. Graduating M.D. at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1884, he joined Johns Hopkins university, Baltimore, Md., in 1885. During 1886-99 he studied

zoology, botany and hygiene, mostly in Germany, developing his eventual interest in parasitology. He was appointed lecturer in

bitter tonic

and stimulant

way in animals. The tree is of moderate

in

humans and

is still

employed

in this

size, with a short, thick, often crooked stem and ovate entire leaves, marked with three to five veins The flowers are small, radiating from the base of the leaf. The greenish-white, tubular and arranged in terminal clusters. fruit is the size of a small orange and has a thin hard shell, enclosing a bitter, gelatinous white pulp in which from one to five The seed is disk shaped, about seeds are vertically embedded. one inch in diameter, and one-fourth inch thick, slightly depressed toward the centre, and in some varieties furnished with an acute Externally, it is gr3>'ish-green and keellike ridge at the margin. satiny from a coating of appressed silky hairs. Internally it consists chiefly of horny albumen, which is easily divided along its

:

NUYTSIA—NYANZA REGION outer edge into halves by a fissure, in which lies the embryo. The latter is about three-tenths inch long and has a pair of heart-shaped membranous cotyledons. The chief constituents of the seeds are the alkaloids strychnine (q.v.) and brucine, each of which constitutes from 1% to 2% of the dried seeds. though brucine is

The two have similar pharmacological much less active.

actions,

NUYTSIA, named

species, A^. It

a genus of the mistletoe family (Loranthaceae) Dutch voyager, Peter Nuyts. Its single fioribunda, is the Western Australian Christmas tree.

after an early

grows to a height of about 30

ft.

and

in

December (summer in make it a conspicuous

Australia) the massed golden-orange flowers

feature of the sand heaths and eucalyptus forests of southwestern

from the Murchison river to King George's sound. Nuytsia is a semiparasite on the roots of native trees and shrubs, depending on its host only for mineral elements; containing chlorophyll, it is able to manufacture its organic food by photosynthesis. Around Perth many trees have been spared and are to be found in suburban parks and gardens. Cultivation is difficult, but some gardeners have grown seedlings successfully by allowing the roots to parasitize those of a grass such as Bermuda grass {Cynodon dactylon; in Australia called couch grass) in the early stages of growth. (J. W. Gr.) NUZI. The city of Nuzi was located at present-day Yorgan Tepe, 13 km. S.W. of Kirkuk in the Kirkuk liwa of Iraq. It lies in the plain between the mountains of Kurdistan and the Little Zab and Khassa Shai rivers. Twelve levels of habitation were found at Yorgan Tepe during the excavations undertaken by the American Schools for Oriental Research, Harvard University museum and the University of Pennsylvania museum in the years 1925-31. Levels xii-vii contained material of the "protohistoric" and "protoliterate" periods; level ii, the Isin-Larsa period; and level i, the Nuzi period proper. The remains on the surface of the mound were of the Roman, Parthian and Sasanian periods. During the Akkadian period the site was known as Gasur. During the 1 5th and 16th centuries B.C., Nuzi was an important administrative cenAustralia

tre.

The site has produced many specimens of great value for the study of Hurrian ceramics and glyptic art. The palace, rebuilt over the centuries, and private homes contained over 4,000 cuneiform tablets. The tablets are written mostly in Akkadian, the lingua franca of the period, but most of the personal names are Hurrian and the Akkadian used often contains Hurrian loanwords and shows strong Hurrian influence. From these tablets and those of nearby Kirkuk, an insight into specific Hurrian family law and societal institutions has been possible. Among these may be noted fratriarchy; the adoption of a son-in-law when the only child is a daughter; inheritance by possession of the testator's house gods; inalienabiUty of property and consequent fictive adoption; providing of a concubine to the husband by the childless wife without sacrifice of her position, etc. This Nuzi material has clarified many difficult passages in the contemporary patriarchal narratives of Genesis. The Hapiru (identified by many with the Hebrews) are mentioned in Nuzi texts in a servile role. After the Nuzi period, the site remained essentially uninhabited for over a millennium. See also Hlirrians. Bibliography. Richard F. S. Starr, Nuzi: Report on the Excavations at Yorgan Tepa Near Kirkuk, Iraq, 1927-31, 2 vol. (1939) R. T. O'Callaghan, Aram Naharaim (1948); E. A. Speiser, "The Hurrian Participation in the Civilizations of Mesopotamia, Syria and Palestine," Journal of World History, vol. i, 2, pp. 311-327 (1953). (J. C. Gr.)

—

;

NYACK, a village of Rockland County, New York, U.S., on bank of the Hudson River (which there expands into Tappan Zee, 3 mi. [5 km.] wide), 14 mi. (23 km.) above New York City. There is a ferry to Tarrytown, nearly opposite. With the adjacent villages of Upper Nyack, South Nyack, Central Nyack, and West Nyack, the population exceeded 11,000 in 1960. The industries include shipyards, machine shops, and factories. Permanent settlement dates from around 1700. Nyack was incorporated in 1833 and named after a tribe of Algonkin Indians. For comthe west

parative population figures see table in

NYAKYUSA,

New York

:

Population.

a Bantu-speaking people of Rungwe district, Tanganyika, immediately north of Lake Nyasa. Their country

807

comprises alluvial flats near the lake and the mountainous country beyond for about 40 mi. In the 1960s their growing population was more than 230,000. Formerly consisting of six groups of chiefdoms of basically similar culture, they are now invariably

known

Nyakyusa (the name of the group inhabiting the lake modern administrative unification. Bananas are the traditional staple food, augmented with corn, millet, beans and some milk. Rice and coffee have become the principal market crops and, combined with the earnings of labour migrants, are the basis of the modern economy. Traditionally the Nyakyusa lived in age-villages that may be unique human phenomena. Each village comprised men of about the same age with their wives and children. Boys left home at about the age of ten and lived in a new hamlet apart from their fathers and elder brothers. In due course, the new hamlet became an autonomous village with its own headman, and area of arable as

plains) as a result of

A village died as its founders died in old age. of villages comprised an independent chiefdom of a few thousand people. The chief had two senior wives and the eldest son of each succeeded to a half of the chiefdom. Succession occurred when the sons were about 30 years old and before their father reached old age. At that time their commoner contemporaries established their hamlets as new villages and chose their headmen. The old chief retired, his old headmen became mainly ritual leaders and the old villages might even shift off

land and pasture.

A number

their land to

make room

for the villages of their sons.

ern land shortage the older

new

age-villages seldom

men

With mod-

are no longer willing to shift and

become established now.

— G.

Wilson, The Nyakyusa of South-Western Tanganyika, Bantu Studies, x (1936); M. H. Wilson, Good Company: a Study of Nyakyusa Age-Villages (1951) P. H. Gulliver, Land Tenure (P. H. Gu.) and Social Change Among the Nyakyusa (1958).

Bibliography.

;

NYAMWEZI,

the Bantu-speaking inhabitants of a wide area

of the western region of Tanganyika;

their growing population 500,000 in the 1960s. They form (together with the Sukuma people, who numbered about 1,000,000) the SukumaNyamwezi language group. Several other peoples, although differing somewhat from the Nyamwezi in language, customs and way of life, have sufficient in common to be included in this group of tribes. The Nyamwezi live mainly in the Tabora, Nzega and

was estimated

Kahama

at

districts.

Other tribes

in the

group include the

Sumbwa

(about 70,000, mainly in Kahama), the Kimbu (about 16,000) and the Bende (about 10,000). In some regions animal husbandry is limited by tsetse fly infestation, but these peoples have more than 700,000 cattle; there are also about 425,000 smaller livestock. In addition, the Nyamwezi grow rice, peanuts and sunflower seeds as their main cash crops. These mixed farmers also raise cotton for trade, but not in important quantities. Tabora, capital town of the Nyamwezi, was the most impor-

pre-European centre in this part of Africa. Arab traders and explorers passed through; as porters, the Nyamwezi became the best-known tribe of east Africa. Although most tant

settled there tribes in the

Nyamwezi

cluster are matrilineal, the

Sukuma

follow

and practise leviratic marriage (see MatriLiNv; Levirate); their clan system has lost much in importance and the rules of exogamy are based on blood relationships rather than on clan tabus. The people of this tribal group have an extensive folklore and patrilineal succession

are enthusiastic and versatile musicians, singers and dancers. They are famous as practitioners of these arts and have formed a (e.g.,

of secret societies, many of them relatively harmless snake charmers, porcupine hunters) and a few not so harm-

less.

Ceremonies are performed

great

number

to initiate novices into these so-

but puberty initiations and circumcision are not performed. See also Tanganyika; Bantu (Interlacustrine).

cieties,

—

Bibliography. W. Bbhrenz, Beitrdge zur materiellen Kultur der (1940) H. Cory, Sukuma Law and Custom (1953) J. P. Moffett (ed.). Handbook of Tanganyika (1958). (Hs. C.)

Nyamwezi

;

NYANZA REGION, KENYA,

;

established

reorganization of administrative units in

Kenya

following (q.v.)

at

a the

beginning of 1963, comprises South Nyanza and Kisii districts, and parts of Central Nyanza, North Nyanza and Kericho districts, all

NYASA—NYE

8o8 of which previously formed part of the larger

Nyanza province.

It

bounded north by Western region and Rift \'alley region, east by Rift N'alley region, south by Tanganyika and west by Lake is

Area 6,419 sq.mi. Pop. (.1962) 1,634,100. NYASA, LAKE, the southernmost and third largest of the Great Rift Valley lakes of east Africa, lies in a deep trough entirely within Nyasaland, its northern and eastern shores forming much of the boundary with Tanganyika and Portuguese East Africa (Mozambique). With a length, in a general north-south direction, of 360 mi., and a width varying from 10 to SO mi., its area is 1 1.600 sq.mi. The surface is 1,550 ft, above sea level, and the depth increases to 2,220 ft. toward the northern end, where the forested Livingstone mountains to the east and the Nyika plateau and Vipya mountains to the west (all between 6,000 and 8,000 ft.) fall steeply down to the lakeshore. Away from the influence of coastal features, which continue beneath the surface, the bottom of the lake is regular and conVictoria.

A

wind (the mwera) prevails and the coastline In 1946 a 370-ton vessel, the "Vipya," was offers httle shelter. overwhelmed in a storm with heavy loss of life. There are few settlements on the eastern shore but near it, halfway up the lake, is Likoma Island, a mission headquarters and site of an imposing Anglican cathedral (completed 1911). On the heavily populated Nyasaland shore there are government stations at Fort Johnston, Kota Kota. Nkata Bay and Karonga. The water, fresh and potable, is derived largely from the area of high rainfall in the north. There are 14 perennial rivers feeding the lake, the largest being the Ruhuhu, but the sole outlet is the Shire river (g.v.) in the south, a tributary of the Zambesi. The lake has a seasonal rise and fall of about 3 ft,, and also a longperiod variation. Between 1915 and 1935 outflow was neghgible and the lake rose 18 ft. A degree of stabilization of the lake, as well as hydroelectric power and irrigation, was envisaged in the Shire Valley scheme (1955 j, but this fell into abeyance. A feature of Lake Nyasa is the lake fly, which hatches in clouds large enough to obscure the horizon. A passenger and cargo vessel "Ilala II," operated by the Nyasaland Railway company, makes three round voyages a month, leaving from Monkey bay, headquarters of the lake services. Cargo is also carried by two other vessels and by tugs with barges. Cotton, rice, rubber, tung oil and peanuts (groundnuts) are shipped to the only railhead at Chipoka, in the south, whence the railway connects through Limbe to Beira, Mozambique. Passenger and cargo traffic increased after World War II, and the former federal government of Rhodesia and Nyasaland improved navigation and harbour facilities. Commercial fisheries exist at the southern end of the lake, thriving chiefly on Tilapia, which is sun dried for African consumption, African fishing is on a subsistence basis. The total annual yield is estimated at 7,000 tons. Of about 200 species of fish recorded by the Fisheries Research laboratory at Nkata Bay, about four-fifths are endemic, being isolated from the Zambesi fauna by the Murchison falls. The existence of Lake Nyasa was first reported by a Portuguese, Caspar Boccaro, in 1616, David Livingstone {q.v.), with John Kirk, reached it from the south in 1859 and was told by the Yao people that its name was "Nyasa" (Nyanja), which describes any mass of water. The first steamer on the lake was the "Ilala I," carried in pieces and reassembled on the shore in 1875 by Scottish missionaries. Until the end of the 19th century the lake was infested with Arab slave traders, whose influences are seen in the fleet of Arab-type dhows. Three small gunboats, brought to the sists of

from

mud.

May

fresh southeasterly

to .August, causing steep, short seas,

lake in 1893, helped to establish order.

War

The

first

shot of

World

between British and German forces was fired on Lake the S,S. "Guendolen" disabled beyond repair the German gunboat "Hermann von Wissmann" on her sUpway at Sphinxhaven (Liuli) on the Tanganyika side, (R, T. Ba.) I

Nyasa when

NYASALAND

was the name of a British protectorate in which on becoming an independent member of the Commonwealth of Nations in 1964 was renamed Malawi

east-central Africa,

(q.v.).

up

The present

to independence.

article deals

with the history of this country

The first foreigners known to have discovered Lake Nyasa (Malawi) and to make firm contact with the Bantu peoples on its shores were Arab slave traders who established a base on the lake in the early 19th century and carried the slave trade westward into central Africa, When David Livingstone reached Nyasaland in 1859 he was horrified by the barbarities of the trade, stirred the conscience of his fellow countrymen with his descriptions, and urged the churches to send out missionaries to heal what he called the "open sore of the world." The first of these arrived in 1861 but it was not until 1875 that missionaries of Scottish Churches were able to establish themselves in the country. At their request the African Lakes Company was formed, supplying the missions and providing "legitimate commerce" as an alternaBoth the missionaries and the company tive to the slave trade. came into conflict with the slave traders. The British government was reluctant to take on more responsibilities, though in 1883 a British consul was sent out to the area, accredited to "the kings and chiefs of central Africa." In 1891, following an attempt by the Portuguese to extend their power inland, the area was proclaimed a protectorate. In 1904 responsibility for its administration was transferred from the Foreign Office to the Colonial Office. In 1907 the protectorate (known as the British Central Africa ProHenceforth, for 1893) was named Nyasaland. more than 50 years, its problems were mainly economic. With a crowded and growing African population and no exploitable mineral resources, Nyasaland remained poor and its chief export was manpower. In the 1930s it was realized that it would be difficult for the country to solve its economic problems in isolation and after World War II the idea of closer association with Southern Rhodesia was pursued. In 1953 the protectorate was included in the new Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. There were some disturbances in Nyasaland the same year, instigated by African opponents of federation. Political advancement continued and in 1955 the Legislative Council was reconstituted to include five tectorate after

In 1959 large-scale disorders broke out, a state of emergency was declared, Hastings Banda and other members of the Nyasaland African Congress were arrested, and a number of Africans were killed in clashes with security forces. In 1960 the Africans.

report of the Monckton Commission indicated the strength of African opposition to the idea of federation. When, in 1961, elec-

under a new constitution, Banda 's Malawi Congress Party gained control of the Legislative Council. In February 1963 Nyasaland achieved internal self-government and Banda took office The federation was dissolved at the end of as prime minister. 1963 and in July 1964 Nyasaland achieved independence under (K. G. B.; X.) the name of Malawi. tions were held

NYAYA,

one of the six systems of thought into which ancient Indian philosophy divided itself in the centuries following the Epic period (see Indian Philosophy). For its outstanding achievement see Logic, History of. in Greek legend, father of Antiope, whose sons Zethus and Amphion were to build the walls of Thebes brother of Orion, the giant hunter. Nycteus' father, Hyrieus, the founder and eponymous hero of the Boeotian town of Hyria, had been long until Poseidon and Hermes on a visit remedied childless Zeus, this. Nycteus and his brother Lycus, in what may be a later tradition, intrude into the Cadmeian dynasty of Thebes by acting in turn as guardians of the infant Laius, who was to be the father (H. W. Pa.) of Oedipus.

NYCTEUS,

;

NYE,

EDGAR WILSON

(Bill Nye) (1850-1896), U.S. humorist and lecturer, was born in Shirley, Me., on Aug. 25, 1850. In 1852 the family moved to Wisconsin, where Nye attended River Falls academy, taught school and read law. Settling in Laramie, Wyo., in 1876, he served as postmaster and justice of the peace, and contributed to the Denver Tribune and Cheyenne Sun. His humorous squibs and tales in the Laramie Boomerang, which he helped found in 1881, were widely read and reprinted. Collected, they form the substance of several published volumes. Later Nye returned to Wisconsin, and for several years wrote for the New York World. In 1886 he lectured with James Whitcomb Riley, the combination of Nye's wit and Riley's sentiment proving extremely popular. He continued writing, but journalist,

NYIKA— NYORO he suffered from poor health, and spent his N.C., where he died on Feb. 21, 1896.

Nye

last

days

Arden,

in

associated with Charles F. Browne ("Artemus Ward" David R. Locke ("Petroleum V. Nasby" [9.D.]), Henry {q.v^,) and other professional'humorthe Civil War. But he avoids their satire and their tricks of faulty speUing, grammar and

is

Vq.v.'\),

Writing

diction.

in his

own

person, rather than in the guise of a own kindly but droll nature. Possibly for these reasons he has worn better than some of his humorous contemporaries. See F. W. Nye, Bill Nye: His Own Life Story (1926) (L. T. D.)

Nye

foolish character,

reveals his

.

NYIKA,

the Northeast Coastal Bantu tribes, including the

who hve along the Kenya and Tanganyika coast south from Mombasa to Pangani; the Giryama, who live north of Mombasa; and the Duruma, Jibana, Rabai, Ribe, Chonyi, Kauma and Kambe', who live in the arid bush steppe (nyika in Swahili) west of the Digo,

Digo and Giryama. In the 1960s they were estimated to number Most Nyika are of medium height, muscular, broadheaded and dark brown in complexion. Some, because of intermarriage with Arabs and Cushites, are slender, lighter brown and have narrow faces. Modern Nyika wear loincloths and pleated kilts or SwahiH and western garments. They build rectangular mud, wattle and thatch houses or loaf-shaped grass huts and live in dispersed homesteads or compact villages. Before European rule ended tribal war they lived in fortified villages known as kaya. Many Nyika are Muslims, some are Christians, and perhaps a quarter retain the traditional native faith. There is widespread belief in Islamic, pagan and ancestral spirits thought to require ritual placation. Nyika are governed by officials appointed by the Kenya and Tanganyika governments. Tradidonally they were ruled by elders deriving authority from age grade (see Age Set) and rank in secret societies. Digo social organization is bilateral, 300,000.

Duruma

is double unilineal and the others are patrilineal. Nyika cultivate maize, cassava, bananas, beans, rice, sweet potatoes, coco-

nuts and cashews.

They raise cattle, goats, sheep and chickens. urban centres and on sisal and sugar plantations. are traders, many hunt, and fishing is significant in the economy. See Africa: Ethnography (Anthropology): East

Some work

in

Many

Africa.

Bibliography.— G. P. Murdock, Africa: Its Peoples and Their Culture History (1959) A. H. J. Pnns, The Coastal Tribes of the NorthEastern Bantu (1952); A. Werner, "The Bantu Coast Tribes of the East African Protectorate," Journal of the Roval Anthropological Institute, vol. 45 (1915); A. Gordon-Brown (ed.), Year Book and Guide to East Africa (1961); L. P. Gerlach, "Economy and Protein Malnutrition Among the Digo," Proceedings, Minnesota Academy of Sciences, vol. 29, pp. 1-13 (1961), "Traders on Bicycle: a Study of Entrepreneurship and Culture Among the Digo and Duruma " Soctologus, vol. 13, no^l, pp. 32-49 (1963). (L. P. Ge.) ;

NYIREGYHAZA, a town

of northeast

Hungary

in Szabolcs-

Szatmar megye (county), 272 km. (169 mi.) E.N.E. of Budapest by rail, is the main urban settlement of the Nyirseg region. Pop. (1960) 56,875 (mun.). Nyirseg was for centuries a spectacular wilderness of dune and fen, but it has been gradually reclaimed for farming, and its sandy soils are well cultivated. The countryside is noted for its tanya settlements (small isolated farms or groups of farmsteads). There are 73 identifiable separate hamlets round the town, originating from family colonies, each of which once had its own small school. The town is now an important road and rail intersection point.

Since

World War

II light industry (hosiery) has developed, but Nyiregyhaza remains chiefly an estabhshed market for farm products, especially tobacco, potatoes and vegetables.

cially in 1938, the first

history of Nyiregyhaza as a town really begins with the effort of Count Ferenc Karolyi in the mid-18th century to colonize the region. The settlement of Slovak immigrants was conspicuous; they were known as Tirpaken ("without possessions")

brush

and

their

descendants, although more prosperous,

often bear the nickname. the name of a group of related

NYLON,

produced

in

many forms and

used for

still

(H. G. S.)

man-made polymers

many

purposes.

Their based

chemical structure resembles that of a protein since it is on recurring amide (-CONH-) groups. The first nylon was ob-

Pont started to produce nylon commernylon items offered for sale being tooth-

Women's

bristles.

May

general sale in

hosiery

1940.

Nylon

made of nylon was placed on as made in most processes is

a clear or opaque white plastic that is strong, flexible, washable and resistant to abrasion, chemicals, moisture, heat, mildew and insects. It can be produced in a variety of forms: monofilaments; multiple filaments staple and tow for spinning into yarns molding powders; rods; laminates; sheets. Most forms of nylon can be coloured by dyeing. The first type made was nylon 6-6, so-called because the acid and amide portions of the basic polymer unit each contain six carbon atoms. It is still the most widely used form in the U.S., Great Britain and Canada. Other forms are nylon 6, developed in Germany and known as Perlon in Europe, and nylon 1 1 known as Rilsan. See also Fibre, Man-Made Synthetic Polymers; see also references under "Nylon" in the Index. in Greek mythology the generic name of a large class of inferior female divinities. The word nymph is of uncertain etymology and means simply a marriageable woman; this is appropriate, for the nymphs are mostly associated with fertile, growing things, such as trees, or with water. Superior deities especially associated with them are Artemis, Apollo, Dionysus, Pan and Hermes. The nymphs were not immortal but were extremely long-lived; they were on the whole kindly disposed toward men. They were distinguished according to the sphere of nature with which they were connected. The Oceanids, for example, were sea nymphs, daughters of Oceanus and Tethys; the Nereids (g.v.), daughters of Nereus and Doris, inhabited both salt and fresh water; the Naiads (g.v.) presided over springs, rivers and lakes. The Oreads (oros, "mountain") were nymphs of mountains and grottoes; one of the most famous of these was Echo (g.v.), who either was vainly loved by Pan or herself vainly loved the fair youth Narcissus. The Napaeae (nape, "dell") and the Alseids (alsos, "grove") were nymphs of glens and groves; the Dryads (g.v.) or Hamadryads presided over forests and trees. Italy had native divinities of springs and streams (Juturna, Egeria [gq.v.], Carmentis, Fons) and water-goddesses called Lymphae (originally Lumpae) with whom the Greek nymphs ;

;

,

:

NYMPH,

tended to become identified.

NYMPHAEUM,

a

monument

consecrated to the

nymphs

(g.v.), especially those of springs.

These monuments were origwhich were traditionally considered the habitations of the nymphs. They were arranged to furnish a inally natural grottoes,

supply of water.

Subsequently,

artificial

grottoes took the place

The nymphaea of the Roman period were borrowed from the Hellenistic east (e.g., the Great Nymphaeum of Ephesus). The majority were rotundas, adorned with statues and paintings. of natural.

They served

the threefold purpose of sanctuaries, reservoirs and A special feature was their use for the celebration of marriages.

assembly rooms.

Such nymphaea existed

at Corinth,

Antioch and Constantinople;

the remains of about 20 have been found at Rome and of many Asia Minor, Syria and Africa. The term nymphaeum was also

in

applied to the fountain in the atrium of the Christian basilica.

See

Fountain.

NYORO

(Banyoro, Wanyoro, Kitara, Bakitara), a Bantuspeaking people of Uganda (g.v.) inhabiting the area east of Lake Albert between the Victoria Nile and the Kafu (see Bantu [In-

terlacustrine]

The

determined

Du

Wilmington, Del.

at

W. Shaw ("Josh Billings" ists who flourished after political

809

tained by Wallace H. Carothers (1896-1937) in 1935 while working in the research laboratory of E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co.

century, the

)

.

Before the growth of Ganda power in the

1

9th

Nyoro kingdom was

the political focus of the region, controlHng the now-independent Toro and the present Mubende

Ganda kingdom. The Haya, Nkole and northern Soga states also have traditional links with the Nyoro kingship, have some of the Nilotic Lango and Acholi. Including district of the

as also

those living in areas presently controlled by the Ganda, but not including Toro, the Nyoro numbered about 200 000 in the 1960s.

Nyoro society was traditionally divided into two main categories which, however, are no longer distinct: the Iru (Bairu),

NYX

8io

who grew millet and sweet potatoes; and the Huma (Bahuma), who were mainly transhumant cattle-keepers. settled agriculturalists

A third category, the Bito (Babito), were of Nilotic origin and provided the ruler of the state, the Miikama. Chiefs of districts were appointed by the Miikiwui from all sections of the population. Nyoro religion was centred upon communication through mediums with the spirits of ancestors, natural phenomena and a pantheon of god-kings (bacu ^MlL

pletion.)

In other countries the decay of patronage and the public enthusiasm for military band music resulted in radically different tra-

ble

staff.

mained

The instrument same

essentially the

re-

well

into the middle period of Beetho-

ven.

In the early years of the 19th century, however, the increasing complexity of music coincided with a number of improvements in the manufacture of keywork, particularly the introduction of metal pillars in place of the wooden ridges on which the keys had been mounted. This greatly reduced the threat to the airtightness of the instrument formerly associated with the introduction of additional keys, and in France, by 1839, the number of keys had been gradually increased to ten. Meanwhile, before 1800, French players had adopted the narrow modern type of reed, and Guillaume Triebert (d. 1848) had begun his experiments, which, continued by his son Frederic (d. 1 8 78 ), were to result by the 1 860s in an instrument almost identical with the modern oboe, both in bore and complexity of mechanism. This was essentially the expressive, flexible (LEFT) (R.GHT,

THE

ABOUT

MACGiLLivRAY

LONDON

specifically

French instrument of the 20th -r, ccntury The instrument in COLLECTION, which the fingerholes are covered by perforated metal plates, now

16TH-CENTURY OBOE.

and

SHAWMi

1775.

IN

,

.

.

and manu-

ditions in oboe playing

In

facture.

tria the rise

Germany and Ausof the many keyed

instrument occurred earlier than in France and was accompanied by a development of the bore and reed that produced an increased loudness clearly of military inspiration. This resulted, after Beethoven, in a long period of neg-

tant solo instrument of the time.

two octaves upward from middle C, was soon extended, and solo works of the period of Mozart include the F above the tre-

lives of

the Trieberts roughly correspond

the modern oboe, was probably first used in public in Lully's Before the end of the 17th Ballet de I'amour malade (1657). century it had become the principal wind instrument of the orchestra and military band and, next to the violin, the most impor-

first

(The working

possible.

—

The early instrument, which had only two keys, could produce a fairly even chromatic scale by the use of "cross fingering" somewhat similar to that used by recorder players. The compass, at

centralized institutions of

France probably helped to pre-

lect for the oboe. PHoio'ssAPH "y^'l^'s °aub"n'^"for ENc»cLop/£DiA BRrTANNicA. INC. iiATTs

It is strange

^^ considcr that the dramatic solo

in FldeUo \.\it high polnt of 19th(LEFT) -GILLET MODEL" OR "SYS- ccntury German writing for the TEME k PLATEAUX OBOE. USED IN oboe, was almost Certainly played FRANCE AND THE U.S (RIGHT) Qjj [jjg baroque type of instruMODERN AUSTRIAN OBOE ment with two keys. With the exception of the obbligato in Weber's Der Freischiitz (1821), there is little after this in Ger-

man

scores that calls either for

,

much

sensitiveness or

much

tech-

nique until the end of the 19th century, when Richard Strauss campaigned successfully against the prevailing standards of playing. After a period of experiment with an extremely small reed,

which was ill suited to the large German bore, the French oboe was fairly generally adopted by about 192S. Comparable conditions in Italy produced a somewhat similar history. In modern times the German instrument (with a very small reed) survives in the U.S.S.R., where it is often played with a certain refinement, though it lacks the piquancy an(l sparkle of the modern French oboe. In Vienna an oboe similar to the German instrument, but with a rather more antique and less military character, is used exclusively by the Philharmonic orchestra and the Akademie. Its rather reticent and blending quality, which sounds well in the older classics, is caused, perhaps, more by the highly specialized type of reed used than by the inherent qualities of the instrument.

Elsewhere, orchestras use the French oboe exclusively, though often with slight local variations in the mechanism. An adaptation of the Boehm fingering to an otherwise normal French oboe exported by Parisian makers to Spain and Latin America.

is

—

The Larger Oboes. The cor anglais (q.v.), also known as the English horn, is pitched in F a fifth below the oboe and is a normal component of the modern orchestra, to which it was restored largely by the example of Berlioz and Wagner. It had been used intermittently, however, as a special effect ever since

its earlier

Bach's time, when the straight alto or tenor oboe of the 17th century made way for a curved instrument covered with leather and fitted with a globular bell. The origin of the name is unknown but it was to this form that the term, cor anglais was specifically applied, and Bach's oboe de caccia was almost cer-

vogue in

J. S.

OBRECHT—OBREGON The dimensions

825

of reeds, thickness of gouging,

and length and

shape of the scraped vibrating surface vary in different countries according to ideals of tone and the physical aptitudes of players.

The Repertory.

—

The revival of the oboe as a solo instrument some extent, in the 1930s accelerated very rapidly World War II and by the early 1960s there were probably more concerto players than at any time since the 18th century. Though a number of modern concertos were written for that began, to

after the end of

the instrument, the rich repertory of the early 18th century

still

remains the stock in trade of the oboe soloist. See also Wind Instruments: Reed Instruments. BiBiiocRAPHY. E. Rothwell, Oboe Technique (1953); R, Sprenkel and D. Ledet, The Art of Oboe Playing (1961) P. Bate, The Oboe, 2nd ed. (1962) A. Baines, Woodwind Instruments and Their History (1956) J. Marx, "The Tone of the Baroque Oboe," Galpin Society

—

;

;

;

Journal, iv (1951).

OBRECHT lands composer,

Bergen op

(Hobrecht),

known

JAKOB

(J.

Zoom on Nov.

22, 1452.

A. MacG.)

(14S2-150S), Nether-

chiefly for his sacred music,

He was

was

bom

at

the son of Willem

Obrecht, a trumpeter in the service of the duke of Cleves. Willem Obrecht had journeyed to Sicily and Mantua, and his musical conIt has tacts in Italy were ultimately to prove useful for his son. been suggested that the young Obrecht was trained at Ferrara, a city which he later visited when at the height of his fame. But his first certain appointment dates from 1484, when he served as inIn the followstructor of the choirboys at Cambrai cathedral. ing year he became succentor of the cathedral of St. Donatien at Bruges, but he soon applied for leave of absence to visit Italy. This was granted, and late in November 1487 he met Ercole I, duke of Ferrara, at the town of Goito in Lombardy. The duke had heard much of Obrecht 's music and was one of his keenest admirers; once he had installed the composer in Ferrara he sought to prolong his stay by writing to Pope Innocent VIII and requesting that the next vacant benefice in Ferrara be given to Obrecht. The pope, however, did not grant this request; Obrecht returned

north and by June 12, 1488, was in Bergen op Zoom. He resumed Bruges and was also nominated chaplain of the altar of St. Jodocus at Antwerp cathedral in 1498. He journeyed to Ferrara again in 1504 and in 1505 he died of the plague that his duties in

(LEFT TO RFGHT) OBOE D AMORE, -GILLET MODEL.' WITH AUTOMATIC KEYS; COR ANGLAIS WITH THUMB PLATE; GERMAN HECKELPHONE; MODERN FRENCH BARYTON

tainly the

same instrument.

Germany and was used in The oboe d'amore in A,

The curved form survived

late in

Italy until about 1900. a

minor third below the oboe,

is

made

with a globular bell like that of the cor anglais. Introduced in Germany about 1720, it was much employed by J. S. Bach. It was revived by Charles Mahillon in 1878 for Bach performances. It is also used in a few 20th-century works. The instruments pitched an octave below the oboe are more rare. The baryton, both in its tonal quality and in its proportions, resembles a larger and therefore lower-voiced cor anglais. Despite several early examples, notably those by H. Brod and Triebert, its effective history dates from F. Loree's model of 1889. The heckelphone {q.v.), with a much larger bore and reed than the baryton, has a more distinctive tone but is rather heavy in the low register. It was first used by Richard Strauss in Elektra and Salome. The Reed The chief factor in playing the oboe is the making of the reed and its control by the lips and breath. Most serious players make their own reeds, though in modern times there is a considerable trade in the ready-made article. The raw material of the oboe reed is the plant Arundo donax, which resembles bamboo in appearance. It grows in warm temperate or subtropical regions, but only the crops of the departements of Var and Vaucluse in the south of France are satisfactory for reedmaking.

—

ravaged the city and killed thousands of its residents. Although Obrecht is best known for his liturgical music, he also wrote secular songs which include settings of Dutch, Italian and French texts. Twenty-five of these survive along with a number of motets, most of w^hich are in honour of the Virgin Mary ("Salve regina," "Alma redemptoris mater," "Ave regina coelorum").

Twenty-seven

settings of the

Mass

are extant,

most of them for

Obrecht's complete works were edited by Johannes Wolf (1912-211; other works were discovered later, and in the mid-1960s a new edition was being prepared by the Vereniging four voices.

voor Nederlandse Muziekgeschiedenis.

OBREGON, ALVARO

(D.

W.

St.)

(1880-1928), Mexican soldier and president, was born near Alamos, Sonora, on Feb. 19, 1880, He had httle formal education, and while a young man worked as a farmer and occasionally as a labourer in a small factory; in these two activities he developed a keen sense of reform. He did not take part in the revolution which overthrew the dictator Porfirio Diaz (1910-11), but in 1912 he led a group of volunteers in support of Pres, Francisco Madero against the rebels of Pascual Orozco, When Madero was overthrown and assassinated by the forces of Victoriano Huerta in Feb, 1913, Obregon joined with Venustiano Carranza against Huerta and consistently defeated the enemy armies, Huerta fled from Mexico in July 1914, and on Aug, 15 Obregon occupied Mexico City, By Dec. 1914 differences among the victors brought new fighting. Obregon remained aUied with Carranza against Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata; Obregon's military genius destroyed both opponents as serious threats within six months, although both remained as rebels for some years afterward. During the campaign against Villa, Obregon by decree instituted anticlerical pohcies and established maximum hours and minimum wages in the areas he conquered. At the convention which drafted the constitution of 1917, Obregon consistently gave strong support to the

OBRENOVICH— O'BRIEN

826 more

radical group,

and

to this extent

was responsible for the revo-

lutionary emphasis of that document. For a period in 1917 he served in Carranza's cabinet, but differences in ideology induced

lands,

following the marriage of Daniel O'Brien with Susanna

Jans, a

Dutch

and became known as O'Breen,

lady,

The O'Breens

him

of Holland have thus no connection with the Irish sept of O'Breen (O'Braoin) of Brawney, The destruction of the old Gaelic order

He was

in the early 17th century

to resign and for about two years he was politically inactive. a candidate for president in the election of 1920; in that year Carranza's attempt to retain power by having his own candidate elected brought about a rebellion in which Obregon played a leading role. Carranza was soon overthrown and on Dec. 1, 1920,

Obregon was elected president.

As president, Obregon effectuated several of the constitutional provisions that Carranza had not enforced, and generally instituted widespread social and economic reforms, [See Mexico: hidependent Mexico: Obregon and Calles.) Because of -his insistence on some of these reforms, the United States refused to recognize his government until 1923. Late that same year a rebellion began, led by Adoifo de la Huerta and supported by three-fifths of the army, but Obregon took the field and utterly defeated the rebels within four months; at no time in his career did he show more

and military brilliance. At the conclusion cf term he was succeeded as president by Plutarco Elias Calles. Again a candidate for the presidency in 1928, Obregon was elected fraudulently after a bitter campaign in which his supporters clearly his political

his

number of opponents. Shortly after his reelection, he returned from Sonora to Mexico City, where, on July 17, 1928, he attended a small victory celebration. While dining with his friends, he was shot and killed by Jose de Leon Toral, a fanatical assassinated a

Roman

who

held Obregon responsible for religious per(C. C. Cu.) (Obrenovic), the name of a dynasty which gave five rulers to Serbia in the 19th century. Whereas other European princes are generally numbered according to their Christian names, the Obrenovich princes are numbered according to their place in the dynastic succession. Milosh {g.v.) Obrenovich I was prince of Serbia from 1815 to 1839 and again from 1858 to Catholic

secutions.

OBRENOVICH

1860; his elder son Milan Obrenovich II (1819-39) was prince for 25 days in 1839; Milan's younger brother Michael (g.v.) Obrenovich III was prince from 1839 to 1842 and again from 1860 to 1868; Milan (g.v.) Obrenovich IV succeeded the childless Michael (his first cousin once removed) as prince in 1868 and was king of Serbia from 1882 until his abdication in 1889; and Alexander (g.v.) Obrenovich V was king in succession to his father Milan Obrenovich IV from 1889 until bis assassination in 1903, when the dynasty became extinct. O'BRIEN, one of the most common surnames in Ireland in the 20th century, is derived from Brian, the Christian name of the greatest medieval king of independent Ireland. He is usually known as Brian Boru (Boroimhe, "of the tribute"), who was killed at the

moment

in 1014.

of his great victory over the

He had

been king of

Thomond

Northmen

at Clontarf

(northern Munster, com-

what is now County Clare with some adjacent territory) his subsequent reign of 13 years as Ard-ri (high king of Ire-

prising

and

land) was

made

illustrious

by

his military prowess, administrative

developments and monastic foundations. It is incorrect to claim that the system of hereditary surnames was introduced by Brian Boru, but it is from his time that the general adoption of that form of nomenclature in Ireland dates. Since 6 (Ua) means grandson or descendant, he himself could not, of course, be styled O'Brien.

Before his time the Dalcassian clan known as Ui Toirdealbhaigh, which his family belonged, was of comparatively minor importance. In the two centuries following his death the great sept of O'Brien divided into several branches throughout Munster, of which several of Brian's descendants were kings. The most imto

portant of these branches were the O'Briens of Ara in northern Tipperary, whose chief was known as Mac Ui Bhriain Ara; another

branch settled by the Galtee mountains in the Aherlow district; a third moved farther east and acquired the fertile lands between the Comeragh mountains and Dungarvan in what is now County Waterford. These, and especially their original homeland. County Clare, are the counties in which the name is still most prevalent. In the mid- 18th century a branch of the family settled in France. A century earlier a branch had been established in the Nether-

officials

of

and the transfer of legal work to English unacquainted with the Irish language resulted in some

them becoming almost unrecognizable

in their

new

anglicized

Furthermore two surnames unconnected with O'Brien did to some extent assume that form. One of these was O'Breen (now seldom met with the prefix "0"), a natural mistake since O'Brien in Irish is pronounced as O'Breean. The infamous Jemmy O'Brien of 1798, for example, was an O'Breen, not an O'Brien. Similarly in some rare cases the Norman family of Bryan of County Kilkenny, when the period of Gaelic and Catholic submergence came to an end, assumed an "0" and became O'Brien. Conversely some O'Briens who had dropped the prefix wrote their name Bryan. Such cases, however, were never numerous. It may be added that the celebrated eight-feet-tall giant Patrick O'Brien, whose skeleton was acquired by the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in London, only assumed the surname of O'Brien. Sir Donough O'Brien, 16th Baron Inchiquin, chief of the name in 1962, is directly descended in the male line from Brian Boru. Until Tudor times Brian's successors remained virtually independent, though occasionally making minor concessions to the English as, for example, the cession by Brian Rua O'Brien of part of his territory between Limerick and Quin to Thomas de Clare who built the imposing castle of Bunratty, near the present Shannon airport. In that castle in 1272 De Clare murdered Brian Rua O'Brien in circumstances of great treachery and ferocity. Since the Anglo-Norman invasion the English kings had assumed the title of lord of Ireland, but in the 16th century, Hke the heads of the other great septs, the O'Brien of the time submitted to Henry VIII as king of Ireland. Murrough O'Brien (d. 1551), S7th prince of Thomond, had, hke most of the other leading chiefs, been created a peer of the realm in compensation for the surrender of his Gaelic dignities the titles conferred on him in 1 543 were earl of Thomond and Baron Inchiquin. He also accepted the Reformation as part of the bargain and with certain exceptions his descendants remained loyal to the English king and the Protestant forms.

:

religion.

A

notable feature of the original creation is that the succession earldom of Thomond was to pass to Murrough's nephew his son Dermod inheriting only the barony of Inchiquin. Other subsequent peerages given to the O'Briens became extinct and only the lesser of the original titles survives. This accounts for the present holder being Baron Inchiquin, not earl or marquess to the

Donough,

Thomond or earl of Inchiquin. Conor O'Brien (c. 1535-81), 3rd earl of Thomond, was at war with the English for a while, but after his defeat and flight to France in 1570 he was pardoned. His son Donough (d. 1624), 4th earl, was active on behalf of EUzabeth I and under James I became president of Munster. The earldom became extinct after the death of Henry (1688-1741), 8th earl, who was created Viscount Tadcaster. The Inchiquin line was also identified with the EngUsh interest, particularly in the 17th century, when the ruthless activities of Murrough O'Brien (c. 1614-74), 6th baron and 1st earl of Inchiquin, on behalf of Oliver Cromwell during the war of 1641-52 earned him the nickname of Murrough of the Burnings. He later espoused the royalist cause and did much to assist in bringing about the Restoration. His son William (c. 1640-92), 2nd earl, served under his father in France and Spain and spent some years as governor of Tangier. At the revolution in 1688 he took the side of William III, who made him governor of Jamaica, where he died in 1692. Murrough (1726-1808), 5th earl, was created of

marquess of Thomond in 1800, but on the death of his second son marquessate became extinct. A very different picture is presented by the hne descended from Daniel O'Brien (1577-1666), younger brother of Connor, 3rd earl of Thomond. Daniel was created Viscount Clare by Charles II, whom he joined before the Restoration; he had been prominent in the Irish parliament and subsequently a member of the supreme council of the Catholic confederation of Kilkenny. His grandson in 1855 the

O'BRIEN 1691), 3rd viscount, who had been lord lieutenant of County Clare under James II, was outlawed in 1691 and raised the

Daniel

(d,

regiment of James's Irish army, later to become famous as Clare's dragoons in the Irish brigade on the continent under the command of his son Charles O'Brien, nominally Sth viscount, who was mortally wounded at the battle of Ramillies (1706). His son Charles O'Brien (1699-1761), titular 6th viscount, commanded the Irish brigade at the battle of Fontenoy and was made a marshal of France in 1741. His claim to the earldom of Thomond, disallowed by the EngHsh authorities because of the attainder, was recognized by the French court. With the death of his son Charles in 1774 these titles became extinct. In addition to the 6 O'Briens who served as officers in Clare's dragoons, there were over 20 O'Briens commissioned in other regiments of James IPs Irish army; and 24 appear in the list of outlawries which followed the defeat of the Jacobite cause. Later they were equally prominent in the Irish brigade on the continent. Others of the name have also distinguished themselves in various spheres of activity. In politics, besides Sir Lucius O'Brien (d. 1795), member of parliament and advocate of Irish independence, and William Smith O'Brien (1803-64), member of parhament and Young Irelander, there were William O'Brien (1852-1928), Parnellite and later independent member of parliament, and another William O'Brien (1881), labour leader and comrade of James Connolly. Some politicians might better be included in the category of adventure and war, for example James Francis Xavier O'Brien (1828-1905), member of parliament, who took part in the Fenian rising of 1867 and the American Civil War, and Fitzjames O'Brien (1828-62), who was killed in that war. In the American Revolutionary War, Jeremiah O'Brien (17401818) and his two brothers John and William were renowned for their naval exploits on the American side; Adm, Donat Henchy O'Brien (1785-1857), on the other hand, served the British empire with distinction. A victim of war, though not an active participant, was Terence Albert O'Brien (1600-51), Dominican bishop of Emly, who was hanged by Gen. Henry Ireton after the siege of Limerick. Well-known names in literature and science are Matthew O'Brien (1814-55), mathematician and astronomer; Paul O'Brien (1763-1820) of Maynooth, and John O'Brien (d. 1767), bishop of Cloyne and Ross, who were Gaelic scholars; Richard Barry O'Brien (1809-85), historian, and Charlotte Grace O'Brien (1845-1909), poetess, novelist and philanthropist. The extent to which less known people of the name have contributed to the corpus of Irish hterature is indicated by the fact that there are about 100 O'Briens in the Royal Irish Academy catalogue of Gaehc manuscripts. There are approximately 300 O'Briens mentioned in the Annals of the Four Masters from the date of the adoption of the name in the 11th century down to 1616, when that chronicle ends. Similarly in the Annals of Innisfallen, which deals principally with the southern half of Ireland, the name O'Brien appears more frequently than any other. Another aspect is the connexion of place-names with families; thus in the case of O'Brien, there are Pubblebrien, one of the baronies of County Limerick, and O'Brien's Bridge, the village on the river

Shannon where the ancient bridge

joins the counties of

Clare and Limerick.

O'BRIEN, JAMES

and More

Irish Families

(E. A.

MacL.)

BRONTERRE

(1805-1864), British sometimes known as the "Chartist schoolmaster," was one of the few Chartists with a well-articulated theory of society and government and a realistic sense of tactics. Born at Granard, County Longford, in 1805, he was educated at Trinity college, Dublin, and moved to London in 1829, intending to practise at the English bar. He was quickly drawn into radical activities and later into working-class journalism. In 1831 he was acting editor of the Poor Man's Guardian, the unstamped organ of extreme radical radical,

views.

Reform

When

After a short time in Birmingham at the height of the bill crisis, he returned to London and his old newspaper.

the Guardian expired in 1835, he took

assignments.

He was

tives.

up other journalistic a keen and searching writer who took pains

to acquaint himself with the history

and organization of revolution-

In

his last years, spent in considerable hardship,

political poetry.

O'BRIEN,

He

died on Dec. 23, 1864.

WILLIAM

he wrote

(A. Bri.)

(1852-1928), Irish patriot, a founder

of the United Irish league, was born at Mallow, County Cork, on Oct. 2, 1852, the son of James O'Brien, a solicitor's clerk. He was

educated at the Cloyne diocesan college and at Queen's college, Cork, and took up journalism in 1869. In 1881 he became editor of United Ireland, which he conducted with such vigour from August to October that it was suppressed for the time being, and O'Brien was put in Kilmainham jail with Charles Parnell and others. There he drew up the famous "No Rent manifesto," which led to the Land league's being outlawed. Released in 1882, O'Brien resumed his campaign in United Ireland and was elected to parliament for Mallow in 1883. In 1886, O'Brien started the slogan of "no reduction, no rent." Parnell was out of Ireland at the time and eventually disavowed the plan, but O'Brien had stirred up a fierce agitation. To meet the situation the British government passed the Coercion act of 1887, under which O'Brien was sent to Tullamore jail. On his release he appeared in the house of commons to renew his obstructive tactics there.

After the O'Shea divorce case, in which Parnell was involved, O'Brien tried -to mediate between the ParneUites and the antiParnellites, siding with the majority who rejected Parnell's claim to retain leadership. In 1900, after years of bitter strife, both sections were reunited under the ParneUite John Redmond, largely as a result of O'Brien's formation of the United Irish league in 1888, Having given active support to the Land conference, which secured agreement between the landlords and tenants' representatives and resulted in the Wyndham Land Purchase act of 1903, O'Brien became convinced that nationalists and unionists could unite for common purposes. He founded the All-for-Ireland league, which obtained a large following in County Cork, in opposition to Redmond's control of the United Irish league. But O'Brien's personal following did not survive the rise of the Sinn Fein agitation, and after World War I (Irish participation in which he had supported) he withdrew from public life. He died in London on Feb. 25, 1928.

O'BRIEN, leader of the in

See E. MacLysaKht, Irish Families (1957), (1960), which include bibliographies.

827

ary movements in Europe as well as with working-class politics at home. Bitterly opposed to his compatriot Daniel O'Connell, he naturally threw in his lot with Feargus O'Connor in the early days of the Chartist movement and from 1838 to 1840 he worked on O'Connor's Northern Star. He was one of the most important and influential Chartists at the convention in 1839, where he advocated "ulterior measures" to secure the Charter should constitutional means fail. However, he was sentenced to 18 months' imprisonment in 1840, and while in jail he had the first of a number of quarrels with O'Connor which transformed his political prospects. The two men were bitter enemies by 1844. O'Connor's land plan had no more scathing critic, and at the Chartist convention of 1848 O'Brien took up a moderate position, ridiculing the possibility of being able to use force effectively. In 1850 he was a joint founder of the National Reform league, which advocated sociaUst objec-

County

WILLIAM SMITH

Young

(1803-1864), Irish patriot,

Ireland movement, was born at Dromoland,

and educated at Harrow and at He began to use his second name of

Clare, on Oct. 17, 1803,

Trinity college, Cambridge.

Smith on inheriting

his maternal grandfather's estates in Limerick. entered parliament in 1828 as member for Ennis and from 1835 county of Limerick. Although he actively supported Catholic emancipation he opposed Daniel O'Connell's

He

to 1848 represented the

County Clare in 1828 and continued to oppose repeal of the legislative union until O'Connell's imprisonment at the end of 1843. O'Brien then joined the Repeal association and was at election for

once appointed deputy leader while O'Connell was in prison. He became closely associated with Thomas Davis and Gavan Duffy and the brilhant group who later became the Young Ireland party; and in 1846 he led them in withdrawing from the Repeal association, when O'Connell demanded repudiation of any conceivable resort to arms. Early in 1847 they formed the Irish confederation to press for a more active policy during the years of famine. In May 1848, after a mission to Paris to congratulate the new French

O'BRYAN— OBSERVATORY republic, O'Brien

exercised

was

tried for sedition, but

restraining

a

influence

until

the

was acquitted. He government issued

O'Brien then warrants to arrest ail the most active leaders. assembled them to make a last stand and appealed for a general rising. It collapsed in a short collision with the police and military forces at Bailingarry. O'Brien was arrested at Thurles, tried for high treason and condemned to death. The sentence was. however, commuted to exile to Tasmania for life. O'Brien obtained a full pardon in May 1S.>6 and returned to Ireland. He died at Bangor, north W.ilcs. on lunc 18. 1S64. (1778-1868), was the founder of the O'BRYAN, Bible Christian Church, an offshoot of Wesleyan Methodism which was confined almost entirely to southwestern England. He was born at Gunwen. Cornwall, on Feb. 6, 1778. He was for a time a successful Wesleyan local preacher, but his independent behaviour led to his expulsion in 1815. In 1815 he formed the first By 1824 Bible Christian society at Shebbear in north Devon. there were 6.200 members. After increasing friction between him and his followers, O'Bryan in 1829 withdrew altogether from the Bible Christians; only a small party seceded with him and they returned in 1835. He left England in 1831 and worked extensively as an itinerant revivalist in the United States and Canada. Though he revisited England frequently, he did not become reconciled to the Bible Christians there. He died in New York on Jan. 8, 1868.

WILLIAM

The

Bible

Methodism,

Christians held doctrines

common

to

the

rest

of

by an annual conIn 1907 they joined the United Methodist

their organization being controlled

ference after 1819.

See Methodism.

Church.

Thome, William O'Bryan,

OBSCENITY,

the

;

conduct offensive to the From the point of view of the law, it is

in general, refers to

public sense of decency.

other points of importance have been clarified in decisions supreme court. First, obscenity no longer covers "thematic" obscenity in which immoral or unconventional ideas of sexual beIn 1959 the court held that New York haviour are sponsored. city could not ban a movie simply because it "a[)provingly displays an adulterous relationship." Second, the court has indicated it will be difficult to create new crimes on analogy to obscenity: in 1947 it struck down as unconstitutional the attempt of New York to make it a crime to publish "massed'' stories of crime and blood-

shed.

Among

troublesome issues that still remain are the constitutionand postal regulations of obscenity, which have been challenged as prior censorship schemes; the status of who frequently prosecuted although he may have is the bookseller, little knowledge of or interest in the particular item; and the special problems of portrayals of "obscene violence" aimed at the young in the form of comic books. Around the early 1920s the U.S. jurist Learned Hand spoke of obscenity as "the critical point" between candour and shame reached at any moment in a society. That remains an apt assessment both of the need for and the perplexity of the contemporary See also Censorship: Obscene Literature. law^ of obscenity. Norman St. John-Stevas, Obscenity and the Law Bibi,io(;r.\piiy. .Mpcrt, "Judicial Censorship of Obscene Literature," Harvard (1956) Law Review. 52:40 (19.?7); McClure and Lockhart, "Literature, the Law of Obscenity, and the Constitution," .Minnesota Law Review, i&:29i (1954) Symposium: "Obscenity and the .\rts," Law and Contemporary Problems, 20:531 (1955) Judge Jerome Frank, Concurring Opinion in United States v. Rolh, 237 F. 2nd 796 (1956) Judge John M. Woolscv, Opinion in United States v. One Book Called "Ulysses," 5 F. Supp. 'is: (1933) C. H. Rolph (ed.). Does Pornography Matter?

ality of motion-picture

—

;

;

;

;

Man and

His Work (1888) F. VV. Bourne, The Bible Christians, Their Origin and History (IQOS). (J.H. S. K.) Sec S. L.

Two

of the

essentially concerned with the publication of indecent matter.

In

;

(H. Kn.)

(1961).

OBSERVATORY (ASTRONOMICAL).

was regarded as a matter for the was a successful prosecution for this offense in a temporal court, and thereafter it became recognized as an indictable misdemeanour at common law. In 1857 it was dealt with for the first time by statute in the Obscene Publications act of that year, now repealed for England but not Northern Ireland) by the Obscene Publications act, 1959. (Nei-

Astronomy and Telescope, The erection of special buildings

ther statute has effect in Scotland.)

practical

England

until the ISth

century

it

ecclesiastical courts, but in 1727 there

(

In the United States, all of the states have laws regulating the dissemination of obscene materials, and more than 50 nations are parties to an international agreement for its control. The basic legal control has been through the criminal law, but the United States and most other countries also provide for administrative regulation by the customs, by the postal service and by state or local boards for the

This

article

For a general covers the important observatories of the world. discussion of the purpose and work of astronomical observatories and for the history and technical aspects of the telescope, see

practice of long standing.

temple of Belus

at

for astronomical research

It is said

Babylon was

by Diodorus

built for

is

a

that the great

astronomical purposes,

indication in the Chinese records that the gnomon was used for measuring the height of the sun in the reign of the emperor Yao 2300 B.C. ), it may be said that the beginning of

and, since there

is

I

astronomy was contemporaneous

in eastern

and western

Asia.

nography.

There is no evidence of the existence of an observatory of Greek or Alexandrine origin until the time of Ptolemy Soter, who, about 300 B.C., built one at Alexandria. The earliest records from an observatory known to be extant are those of Hipparchus (c. 140 B.C.), who has left a catalogue of stars from observations made at the island of Rhodes, repeating those made earlier at Alexandria. Three hundred years later, Ptolemy ia,d. 150) compiled a star catalogue, but it is doubtful whether this was from his own observation and, therefore, whether he had an observatory other than

trol of discussions

that at Alexandria.

movie or stage performances. Possession of obscene materials without intent to sell is not a crime. licensing of

The

principal target of the law has been commercialized por-

However, control of obscenity necessarily entails conand portrayals of sex, lust and love, and it is, therefore, no surprise that the law has frequently provided celebrated controversies over government censorship of art and letters. In 1957 the United States supreme court in United States v. Roth put to rest lingering doubts about any inconsistency between the law of obscenity and U.S. constitutional doctrines regarding freedom of speech and expression. The court also restated the basic U.S. definition of obscenity; "Whether to the average person, applying community standards, the dominant theme of the This material taken as a whole appeals to prurient interests." restatement, which seemed likely to become the formula for future U.S. cases, summarizes an important change in the law. The first great English precedent in Regina v. Hicklin in 1868 has been understood to mean that the test w'as the effect of isolated passages on the particularly susceptible. Not only does the Roth case make it

unquestionable that the relevant audience is the average reasonunlike the test formulated by the English Obscene

able adult

(

Publications act of 1959) and that the as a

whole (as

more

in English

restrictive test

law) but

would

it

work must be considered

strongly intimates that any

violate the U.S. constitution.

The art of astronomical observation was revived several hundred years later in western Asia when observatories were established at Damascus and Baghdad and one at Mokatta by Caliph Hakim about a.d. 1000. A splendid observatory was built at Maragheh in northwest Persia by Hulagu Khan about a.d. 1260, but the most productive was that of the Persian prince Ulugha Beigh, grandson of the great Timur, who, at Samarkand with his assistants, made a catalogue of stars from observations with a large quadrant in the first half of the 15th century. Later in that century, about 1471, Johann Miiller of Kbnigsberg, better known as Regiomontanus, set up an observatory at Niirnberg, with the help of Bernhard Walther of that city, furnished with instruments of his own design, and after his death in 1476, clocks, then a recent The first observatory, invention, were added to the equipment. however, that may be considered a prototype of modern national observatories was that of Tycho Brahe on the island of Hven (Yen), off the southwest coast of Sweden. To the building commenced on Aug. 8, 1576, he gave the appropriate name Uraniborg ("castle of the heavens").

OBSERVATORY (ASTRONOMICAL)

Plate

AMERICAN OBSERVATORIES 1.

The Lick obsi The dor

2.

The dome

tory on Mt. Hamilton, Calif., completed main buildings covering the 36-in. an

solar telescope with

of

the 200-in.

Hale reflecting

teles. 3pe,

at

Mt.

Palomar,

California 3.

The McMath-Hulbert observatory

vacuum spectrograph

4. Mt. Wilson observatory, near Pasadena. Calif.. Its largest reflecting telescope, completed ir

fractors

of the Unive sity of Michigan, located near Pontiac, Mich., and devoted to soli r work. The smallest dome houses a 24-in. reflecting telescope. The middle tower contains a coelostat and the tower-type solar telescope with a 30-fl. spectrograph. The highest tower also houses elostat and tower-type

in.

in

erkes Wis., he W. scope

1904-05. 100

mirror

diameter observatory

of

the

University

Chicago, at Williams Bav, in 1897. View from the southwest McDonald observatory. Dome of the 82-in. reflecting teleMt. Locke. Texas. Founded in 1939 jointly by the University of

completed J. of

of Texas and

The

ersity of

Chicago

I

Plate

II

OBSERVATORY

(ASl

RONOMICAL)

OBSERVATORIES OVER THE WORLD Dome

of the 4S-in. reflecting telescope of the Astrophysical observatory near St. Michel, 60 mi. northeast of Marseille. France Royal observatory, Edinburgh, Scotland, On Blackford hill. Established in 1896 in place of an observatory on Calton hill, Edinburgh Office building of the Astrophysical observatory near St. Michel, France

view of the historic building of the Pulkowa observatory in U.S.S.R., destroyed during the siege of Leningrad in World War The Russian government reconstructed the building on the orlgi-

eral le .

al

plans with instruments of modern type view of the La Pla.a observatory at La Plata, Argentina

eral

OBSERVATORY —This building was

Tycho Brahe's Observatory.

of

some magyoung men

house Tycho and several It was furnished with a large quadrant attached to a wall in the plane of the meridian, for to this astronomer is due the credit of appreciating the advantage of size in instruments of this type, and of the principle which is embodied in the mural circle. There Tycho Brahe with his assistants, one of whom was Longomontanus, a name well known in the science, obser\'ed the heavens and produced a catalogue of the positions of more than 1,000 stars. On the death of his patron, Frederick II, in 1588, Tycho was deprived of royal favour and income. In 1597 Tycho left Denmark, the observatory at Hven having been already dismantled. The invention of the telescope in 1608 opened a new chapter in the history of observatories, and the building at Padua in which Galileo discovered and made the first observations of Jupiter's satellites on Jan. 7, 1610, may be regarded as the first of a new Others were created as additions to universities or similar class. institutions during the 17th century. In 1637, King Christian IV of Denmark established a permanent observatory at Copenhagen, which was completed 20 years later. Johannes Hevelius, a member of a noble family of Danzig, built an obser\'atory in 1641 in his own house and furnished it with an azimuthal quadrant of five-foot radius and a sextant of six feet, with which he measured the meridian altitudes of stars, sun, moon and planets, and their distances from one another in that is, with plain sights, believing this to the manner of Tycho be superior to the newly adopted telescopic method. Paris, Greenwich and Others. HeveHus died early in 16S7 and his work was not carried on, but by that date there had come into existence the two national observatories at Paris and Greenwich. The former was built in the years 1667-71. according to the plans of Claude Perrault, as an architectural monument. Under The the Cassinis and others it has done much for astronomy. Royal observatory, Greenwich, was founded in 1675 for the definite purpose of the improvement of navigation. Architectural pride again entered into the design, for Sir Christopher Wren wrote of it to Bishop Fell of Christ Church, Oxford, as built "a nificence

who

and large enough

lived with

him

to

as students or observers.

—

—

little

for

pomp,"

referring to the

main

building.

The

essential

instruments were housed apart, and Wren's beautiful creation is merely a small item in its extensive domain. Few establishments of the kind were erected during the next half century. Mainly because of the occurrence of the transit of Venus in 1769, George III built and furnished the King's observatory at Kew. The improvement in reflecting telescopes by James Short and the invention of the achromatic object glass in the latter part of the i8th century marked the beginning of many observatories that have since become famous. The Radchffe observatory at Oxford was erected 1771-74 from funds bequeathed by John Radcliffe. a court physician, "for charitable purposes," the words being interpreted somewhat widely. Provost Andrews bequeathed a substantial sum for building and endowing an astronomical observatory for the University of Dublin, which was built at Dunsink in 1785, but not furnished with instruments until many years later. An observatory was established and endowed at Armagh in Ulster in 1793, in charge of Primate Richard Robinson, while the most productive British observatory of the period was that of William Herschel at Bath, Datchet and Slough, successively.

Early Continental Observatories. tories

—Continental

established during this period were those of

observa-

Mannheim

(1775)1 which was transferred to Karlsruhe in 1880, and again by J. H. Schroter in 1779, and furnished with a reflector made by Herschel; Leipzig, where a small observatory existed on the tower of the university in the years 1787-90; Breslau (1790); also one at Seeberg near Gotha, founded by Duke Ernest II in 1788, that was made famous by F. X. von Zach and J. F. Encke. The observatory at Palermo, Sic, where G. Piazzi made his famous catalogue of stars, was founded in 1790; and at about the same time J. Lalande and his assistants were observing transits of stars from an observatory in to Heidelberg in 1896; Lilienthal, founded

the 6cole Militaire, Paris.

829

19TH CENTURY Observatories. A full list of

—

British observatories, public and private, founded in Great Britain during the next 100 years would be large. An observatory on Calton hill, founded by a private association, the Edinburgh Astronomical institution, in i8i8, was taken over by the crown as a royal observatory in 1834 and transferred to its present site on Blackford hill in the years 188996. Cambridge university observatory was founded in 1820 and under its noted directors, George Biddell Airy, James Challis, John Couch Adams, Robert Stawell Ball and Arthur Stanley Eddington, has done valuable work; by the end of the century it was well equipped with instruments for solar and astrophysical observations. The Radcliffe observatory at Oxford was originally in the charge of the Savihan professor of astronomy, but this arrangement lapsed and the offices of professor and Radcliffe In 1875 the University observer became distinct about 1839. observatory came into existence, largely through the hberality of Warren de la Rue, for the use of the Savihan professor. The work of this observatory has been primarily photographic. An observatory was established at Liverpool mainly for the time ser\-ice of the port in 1838, and at Glasgow a small observatory attached to the university, of which Alexander W'ilson had been the first director about 1760, was enlarged and transferred to a

new

site in

Among

1836.

private obser\-atories the reflecting telescope, with a

made by Lord Rosse and

set up at his seat. Parsonsfamous, and scarcely less so are the smaller instruments of the same type made by WilHam Lassell, and used by him at Liverpool 1844-52. Observatories established in England in the second half of the 19th century were those of De la Rue, a pioneer in astronomical photography, at Cranford in Middlesex; of George Knott at Cuckfield, Sussex; and of William Huggins, the famous spectroscopist, at Tulse hill; the private observatory of Norman Lockyer, who afterward developed spectroscopic research at a state-supported estabhshment at South Kensington. Those of Edward Crossley at Halifax, Yorkshire, and Thomas Espin at Towlaw, Durham, have reputations based on double-star observations. Colonial Observatories. A feature of the 19th century was the establishment of British colonial observatories. Acting on the proposal of the board of longitude in 1820, the lord commissioners of the admiralty resolved to estabhsh an observatory at the Cape It of Good Hope for the improvement of practical astronomy. came into being in the year 1829, and fulfilled its purpose as a government observatory under the directorship of Thomas Mac-

six-foot mirror

town,

Ire., in

1845,

is

—

Edward James Stone, David Gill, George Washington Hough, Harold Spencer Jones, John Jackson and R. H. Stoy (from 1950). This observatory has a reversible transit of modern type and an equatorial twin telescope with a 24-in. photographic lens and lear,

18-in. \'isual lens,

known

as the Victoria telescope for photographic

and spectroscopic work. In 1834 Sir John Herschel estabhshed at the Cape a temporary observatory which is historically imporDuring four years he completed a surs-ey of the southern tant. heavens, extending the work his father had done many years on the northern sky. first observatory on Australian soil was one on Dawes point, on the headland of which stands the present Sydney observatory, established in 1786. In 1853 Robert L. EUery was appointed to superintend an astronomical observatory at Williamstown which was moved to Melbourne in 1861-63. With the observatories of Sydney and Perth, Melbourne has taken a share in the international work of charting the heavens by photography, and in addition meridian obsers'ing, magnetism, seismology, meteorology and time service form its acti\ities. The Adelaide observatory was not completed until 1861. The observatory of Western Australia at Perth was estabhshed 30 years later. The aim of a small observatory estabhshed at Wellington, N.Z., under Sir James Hector, in 1869 for time service was later enlarged and earlier

The

named the Dominion obser\'atory. Continental Observatories. During this period many ob-

the institution

—

two of which were made famous by the labours of Wilhelm Struve. The

servatories were established on the continent of Europe,

OBSERVATORY

830

University of Dorpat, Livonia, Russia, possessed in 1809 an observatory of small dimensions, scantily equipped, of which Struve, a student of astronomy in the university, was given charge in 1813. His successful work attracted the attention of the Russian government, and soon the observatory was furnished with such instru-

ments and pecuniary means as to raise it to the rank of a first-class establishment, where Struve, almost single-handed, produced reAttracted by Struve's work, the sults of a very high standard. emperor Nicholas in 1833 resolved to erect a central observatory for the empire of Russia, and, largely to Struve's design, an observatory was completed in 1839, at Pulkovo near St. Petersburg, which was considered to be the finest and best equipped of the time. Another observatory of the first half of the 19th century, though not on the magnificent scale of Pulkovo, but associated with the name of a distinguished astronomer, was that of Konigsberg, established by the king of Prussia in 1813 and put in the charge of F. VV. Bessel who had already made a reputation at the observatory at Lilienthal.

The observatory

at Altona near

Ham-

was made famous because of its associaSchumacher, to whom is ascribed the encouragement given to astronomy by the Danish government. In 1874, this observatory was transferred to Kiel, which had then become the chief German naval station, and formed the interburg, completed in 1823,

tion with Heinrich Christian

national central bureau for distribution of astronomical information until

World War

I,

when

this useful

work was transferred

to

Copenhagen. The Royal observatory at Berlin had its origin in the year 1705. It was with the nine-inch refractor of this observatory that the planet Neptune was first seen. The establishment of an observatory at the University of Bonn was decided on by the king of Prussia, in 1836, and Friedrich Wilhelm Argelander, who had been director of the

Abo

observatory, Finland, transferred to Helsing-

was chosen as director. Although the instruments of this observatory were not large, stupendous work in star cataloguing, its principal branch of activity, was carried out by Argelander and his successors. The University of Strasbourg has an observatory attached to it, completed by the German government in 1 88 1, consisting of three magnificent buildings placed in a large open garden. Its largest telescope, the great equatorial, a refractor with object glass of 20-in. aperture, is said to have been fors in 1837,

Germany at the time of its erection. The University observatory, Vienna, built on a new site in the years 1874-80 to replace one that dated from the middle of the i8th century, is a the largest in

large structure standing in grounds of 14 ac. in extent, with an

imposing fagade and surmounted by four domes designed on the

model of the Berlin observatory. Basel (1874), Bordeaux (1879), Breslau (1790), Budapest (1856), Cracow (1791), Kazan and Leipzig (1790, remodeled in 1861) are other universities of Europe that have observatories attached to them. At Heidelberg (Konigstuhl), a private observatory founded by Max Wolf in 1877 was merged with Grand-Ducal institute, established in 1898, which combined two sections one an astrometric observatory that had existed successively at Schoetzingen, Mannheim and Karlsruhe since 1762, and an astrophysical observatory under the direction

—

of Wolf.

Among the notable observatories in northern Europe established before 1800, but greatly expanded in later years, is the Stockholm observatory, founded in 1748. It is equipped with a large double equatorial telescope, a 40-in. reflecting telescope and

many modem

Also notable are the observatory of the University of Uppsala founded in 1730; the Royal observatory of Lund, first established in 1670; and the University observatory of Copenhagen originally built about 1650 on the summit of the famous "round tower." Before World War I there were ten French national observatories under the control of a consultative committee that reported annually to the government. The Paris observatory of the 17th century has been mentioned. Some that were resuscitated or created in the ten years after the war of 1870-71 have interesting histories. An observatory at Marseilles, founded by the order of Jesuits in 1702, was taken over in 1763, after the expulsion of the order, as the Royal Naval observatory and was made famous by auxiliary instruments.

Jean Louis Pons, Joseph Bernard, Adolphe Gambart, Jean Valz and Jean Chacornac. A new observatory was built in 1862 with which the older one was incorporated and the names of Jean Stephen, Jerome Coggia and Alphonse Louis Nicolas Borelly recall many discoveries of minor planets and comets made with its instruments. The observatory at Toulouse had a predecessor as early as 1718, but the existing establishment dates from about 1840 when it was erected and supplied with excellent instruments at the public expense, but with an inadequate staff, so that it was devoted for many years solely to meteors and meteorology. The observatory at Bordeaux, together with those at Paris, Toulouse and Algiers, has taken a share in the international work of charting the heavens by photography. The Algiers observatory is an imposing group of buildings set up on a hill at Boudzareah, near Algiers. The observatory at Nice was bequeathed by the founder to the University of Paris in 1899 ^fd '^ter ranked as a Other observatories were located at Montnational institution. souris, Besangon and Lyons. The list of ten is completed by the observatory at Meudon near Versailles. For many years it has been pre-eminent in solar physics. It also has the largest refracting telescope in Europe, of 33-in. aperture, which was used extensively for study of the planet Mars. U.S. Observatories. The first U.S. observatory is said to have been erected at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, in 1831-32. Projects for obIt was destroyed by fire in 1838. servatories were started at Williams college, Williamstown, Mass., in 1836; at Hudson, 0., 1836-37 and for the National observatory at Washington, D.C., which was actually established by Lieut.

—

;

J.

M.

navy in 1843-44. The movement was many cases observatories were created by colBy the efforts of O. M. Mitchel, money was

Gilliss of the U.S.

encouraged and

in

lective financial help.

company to build an observatory at meeting of stockholders was held on May 23, 1842, and an object glass 11 in. in diameter, which was quite large for that epoch, was procured during the summer. The Litchfield observatory of Hamilton college, Clinton, N.Y., was founded by public subscription in 1852. An observatory attached to the University of Missouri, Columbia, in 1853 was afterward improved by a gift from S. S. Laws. In 1856, the Dudley observatory. Union college, Albany, N.Y., was established by gifts from local citizens, and was named for the largest donor, Mrs. Blandina Dudley. The Allegheny observatory of the University of Pittsburgh, Pa., founded in i860, was completed in 1867 through the liberality of W. Shand. The Dearborn observatory of The University of Chicago was built in 1864, but was moved to NorthThe Halsted obwestern university, Evanston, 111., in 1887. servatory, attached to Princeton university, came into existence in 1866. The Leander McCormick observatory of the University of Virginia, Charlottesville (1883), the Washburn observatory of the University of Wisconsin, Madison (1878), the University of Michigan observatory, Ann Arbor (1855), and other university observatories are used both for purposes of education and for astronomical research. The U.S. Naval observatory at Washington, D.C., is somewhat akin to Greenwich, since it is a nationally supported institution for the purposes of the navy. Chronometers and compasses are tested, and the staple astronomical work has been the making of star catalogues and astronomical calculations. One of the most famous of the observatories of the 19th century was that of Harvard college; the origin is associated with William Cranch Bond, a member of a Cornish family that emigrated in 1786 and settled in Portland, Me., where he was born in 1789. Bond had great aptitude for scientific research, especially astronomy, and when, in 1837, it was decided to build an observatory for Harvard, he, though engaged in a profitable manufacturing No salary was business, accepted the invitation to take charge. raised for shares in a public

Cincinnati, O.

The

first

attached to the office until 1846. The original Harvard observatory (Dana house, 1839) and the new observatory (1843-47) ^'"e

by public subscription. Under the direction of E. C. work of this observatory was mainly photometric and spectroscopic. Harvard had no telescope of size until the new observatory was furnished with a is-in. equatorial telescope. established

Pickering, the

OBSERVATORY one of the two largest made up to then. Later a photographic telescope of 24-in. aperture was added, the gift of Miss Catherine Bruce. Harvard had a branch ot)servatory in Arequipa, Peru, at a high elevation in the Andes, built and largely supported by a sum of money bequeathed for the purpose by Uriah Boyden, but this branch was in igaS transferred to South Africa. Yale university has an observatory, founded in 1882, which is known for its work on the determination of stellar parallaxes and theoretical astronomy. The private observatory of Percival Lowell of Flagstaff, Ariz., has attracted attention because of the observations of the surfaces of the planets made there, for which The outermost planet, Pluto, was discovit was founded in 1894. ered there in 1930. In South America, there had been an observatory at Buenos Aires, Arg., in 1822, whose period of activity was short, so that the National observatory at Santiago, Chile,

the

first

may

be regarded as

permanently founded (1856) on the continent.

The Na-

tional observatory of the Argentine republic, established at Cor-

doba in 1870, did good service in cataloguing the stars of the southern hemisphere. It acquired a 60-in. reflecting telescope. The other major South American observatory, also in Argentina, at La Plata in 1882. quarter of the 19th century may be said to have seen the beginning of the era of the large telescope, though the large

was founded

The

last

specula of Parsonstown (6 ft.) and Melbourne (4 ft.) were earlier. The 26-in. refractor at Washington, D.C., dates from 1873, but a few years later a telescope was made on a considerably larger scale through the beneficence of James Lick. This telescope, with object glass 36 in. in diameter, is set up in an observatory on Mt. Hamilton, Calif. In 1895 a reflector with a silver-on-glass mirror of 36-in. diameter, that had been used by A. A. Common, was presented by Edward Crossley of Halifax, Eng., and with these two instruments and others, the Lick observatory, attached to the University of California, Berkeley, has done much photographic and spectroscopic observation. The size of the larger instrument was surpassed ten years later when, in Oct. 1897, through the efforts of George Ellery Hale, C. T. Yerkes presented a refracting telescope with object glass of 40-in. aperture, together with a large observatory building containing it on the shore of Lake Geneva, Wis., to The University of Chicago. From that date the Yerkes observatory has been pre-eminent in spectroscopy and astrophysics, and has contributed much to our knowledge of double stars, planets, satellites and comets.

—

Modern Observatories. The names and locations of active and inactive observatories are printed yearly in the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac. The progress of astronomy and the changes in the aim of celestial research have brought changes in the characteristics of observatories. At the beginning of the 19th century the equipment of an observatory may be said to have consisted of a meridian instrument with an equatorial as subsidiary; in the latter half of the 20th century the latter was generally the more important instrument, usually supplemented by photographic equipment, spectrographs and other instruments. The routine determination of the positions of sun, moon, the planets and stars, however, continues as standard work at Greenwich, Washington, D.C., and other national observatories, since such records are necessary for the maintenance of fundamental astronomy. Outstanding trends of the 20th century have been the making of some cases of novel design for special reand the establishment of branches to existing observa-

large telescopes, in

tories in places considered

more

suitable meteorologically than

One important example is the observatory 1904-05 on Mt. Wilson, 5,700 ft. above sea level, near Pasadena, Calif. This observatory was established by George Ellery Hale as a department of the Carnegie institution of Washington, D.C. The telescopes are on Mt. Wilson where the observations are made. The library, laboratory, administrative offices and machine shop are in the valley below. For solar observations two tower telescopes one 150 ft. high and one 60 ft. high are those of their parents. set

up

in

—

A revolving mirror, known as a coelostat, and a fixed mirror on the top of the tower reflect the sun's light through an object downward. In each of the towers the s|:)ectrograph is mounted in a well under the tower, the depth of the well being onehalf the height of the tower. With these instruments a continuous photographic record of the sun's surface is maintained day after day. This observatory has two large reflecting telescopes, one having a mirror 60 in. in diameter and one with a mirror 100 in. in diameter. The loo-in. telescope has been used with an interferometer for measuring the diameters of stars and has served for a great variety of researches. Optical arrangements for both telescopes provide for the use of different focal lengths in the Newtonian, Cassegrain or coude form, and include powerful spectrographs. Additional instruments are a horizontal solar telescope, a 50-ft. interferometer, and lo-in. and s-in. photographic refractors. Another large U.S. observatory is the McDonald observatory of the University of Texas, Austin. Established in 1939 on Mt. Locke, 6,828 ft. above sea level, in the Davis mountains of Texas, it was organized under a co-operative agreement between two universities, the University of Texas building the observatory and The the University of Chicago providing the scientific staff. mirror is 82 in. in diameter and is mounted in a telescope of the cross-axis type, with the tube situated on the side of the polar axis. There is a prime-focus camera used for direct photography at the focus of the 82-in. mirror, without other reflections such A second camera as are common in a Newtonian telescope. provides for direct photography at the Cassegrain focus. Spectrographic equipment includes a slitless spectrograph for lowdispersion spectra, a spectrograph for use at the Cassegrain focus and a coude focus spectrograph for high-dispersion spectra. The program at McDonald has been mainly spectrographic. The Perkins observatory was founded at Ohio Wesleyan university, Delaware, 0., in 1924. It was equipped with a 69-in. reflecting telescope and was operated jointly with Ohio State university. In 1960 the instrument was moved to Flagstaff, Ariz. used.

glass

Palomar Observatory.

—This

observatory was built by the

California Institute of Technology to which the General Education board of the Rockefeller foundation made a grant in 1928 for the Its operation is construction of a 200-in. reflecting telescope. under a joint co-operative plan between the Cahfornia institute institution. the Carnegie It Wilson observatory of and the Mt. is is

located at an elevation of 6,138 ft. on Palomar mountain, which about 100 mi. from Mt. Wilson. The combined institutions are

named Mt. Wilson and Palomar observatories. The dome and building for the great telescope were erected in 1938. The dome, which is 137 ft. high and of about the same diameter, is insulated throughout to protect the telescope from change of temperature when not in operation. The building which supports the dome has three floor levels on which are offices, photographic rooms, air-conditioning units, electrical switchboards and motors, and a large vacuum chamber for aluminizing the 200-in. mirror. officially

20TH CENTURY

searches,

831

—

In the centre of the building, rising to the height of the third is the heavy structural steel framework which supports the two pedestals carrying the telescope. The frame or yoke in which the tube rests is rectangular in shape with tubular side members 10 ft. in diameter. A unique feature is the horseor operating floor,

shoelike form of the north member of the yoke which permits the telescope to be turned northward as far as the north pole. The lower surface of this member is accurately faced and serves as the north-bearing surface of the telescope mounting. The tube and frame, weighing a total of about 500 tons, are carried on a system of bearings employing high-pressure oil pads which nearly

eliminate friction and provide remarkable ease of motion. The tube, 22 ft. in diameter, is designed to avoid angular deflections at its ends and thus to reduce injurious effects of flexure.

Uniform driving of the telescope is accomplished by a synchronous motor fed by current generated by a vibrating string standard and suitably amplified.

The disk for the 200-in. mirror is a single block of Pyrex glass by the Corning Glass works. It consists of a surface plate about 6 in. thick supported by a network of deep ribs. An opening 40 in. in diameter is cast in the centre of the disk. The fincast

OBSERVATORY

8:;2 ished

mirriir

weighs about

spherical form in ic)?8,

The slow and dilYKult rupted by World War

lO

tons.

In

the

first

grinding to

more than live tons of f;lass were removed. work of parabolizing the surface was inter-

II. The mirror was completed and installed This instrument, named the Hale telescope, is used in two forms: primary focus with focal length of 55 ft.; and coude combination, equivalent focal length 500 ft. In addition to the Hale telescope, the I'alomar observatory put in operation a 48-in. telescope of the Schmidt type, working at ratio F/2.S and utilizing a 7.'-in. concave spherical mirror. Smaller instruments include an

in

UJ4S.

Schmidt telescope and a 20-in. retiector. Other Observatories. Canada has a 72-in.

i8-in.

—

reflector at the

Dominion Aslrophysical observatory established in 1916 at Victoria, B.C., as a branch of the Dominion observatory at Ottawa, which itself had grown from a modest establishment used by the survey department. The telescope has been devoted chiefly to astrophysical work. In 1935 this size was surpassed by the 74-in. Pyrex mirror at the David Dunlap observatory of the University of Toronto.

In spite of a rigorous climate this reflector has per-

formed admirably. In the eastern hemisphere an observatory specially adapted for solar investigation was established in Canberra, Austr., by the federal government of Australia as a link in the chain of such institutions around the world, of which the Solar Physics observatory at Cambridge, Eng. (moved from South Kensington in 1911 ), and that at Kodaikanal, southern India (which was established as a government institution about 1900 and replaced, in part, the observatory of the government of Madras founded in 1792), are others. The D. 0. Mills expedition from Lick observatory established a 37-in. reflecting telescope at Santiago, Chile, in 1903 for

spectroscopic study of southern stars.

This station was discon-

The former Harvard southern station, located near Bloemfontein, S.Af., is known as the Boyden observatory and is operated jointly by six northern institutions: Armagh, It has a Dunsink, Hamburg, Harvard, Stockholm and Uccle. tinued in 1929.

Baker-Schmidt type and a 60-in. one of two in the southern hemisphere. The other is at Cordoba, Arg. Yale university set up a the National observatory, southern branch in 1925 at Johannesburg, S.Af., where a 26-in. photographic refractor was used for measuring stellar parallaxes. It was transferred in 1955 to Mt. Stromlo, Austr.. to be used 32-in. reflecting telescope of the reflector,

jointly with

Columbia university.

The University

of Michigan

established a branch at Bloemfontein in 1927, primarily for the

study of double stars. The principal instrument is a 27-in. refractor. From 1954 to 1958 it was used by the Lowell observatory for the study of Mars. The observatory of the Republic of South The largest inAfrica at Johannesburg has a 26-in. refractor. strument in the southern hemisphere is the 74-in. reflector of the Pretoria, S.Af.. in operation from 1948. Radcliffe observatory at A telescope of equal dimensions was placed in operation in 1955 at the Mt. Stromlo observatory, near Canberra, Austr. In 1942 the National Astrophysical observatory in Tonantzintla, Mex., was dedicated. Its principal instrument is a 22-in. reflecting telescope of the Schmidt type. Some notable additions were made to the observatories of Europe in the first quarter of the 20th century. Since the climate of Pulkovo, U.S.S.R., was considered to be unfavourable for observation, three branch establishments were founded through the influence of Oscar Backlund, its director: at Odessa (1898) and Nikolayev (1912), for astronomy of position, and at Simeis in the Crimea for astrophysical work. Backlund died in 1916, but in his last years the Russian government sanctioned the expenditure of large sums of money for equipment for the new observatories, and during 1926 a reflecting telescope with a mirror 1 m. in diameter and a photographic refractor with an objective of 41-in. aperture were supphed to the Simeis observatory by a British firm. The observatory of Geneva, Switz., which is of very early foundation 1772 ), possesses a reflector with mirror 1 m. in diameter, the (

gift of a

member

of the staff.

The Astrophysical observatory

at

Potsdam, Ger., which dates from 1878, was enriched by the addition of a 32-in. photographic refractor in 1899, and in 1921 a tower telescope was erected on its grounds as a tribute to Albert Einstein.

A tower telescope was set up at the Royal Astrophysical observatory at Arcetri (Florence) designed for solar observation. A new object glass was supplied to this institution in 1925 by the German government, by way

of war reparation.

observatory at Milan, with which the Schiaparelli

is

associated,

name

The

Italian

Royal

of Giovanni Virginio

was removed and improved by the help

of resources similarly supplied.

The observatory

at

Bergedorf,

Ger., 5 mi, S. of Hamburg, developed out of a local school of naviin the city of Hamburg. Contributions by the citizens for

gation

instruments enabled the school to grow into the Hamburg municipal observatory. In 1906 it was transferred to Bergedorf and the new establishment was completed in 1909. In addition to instruments used for time service, there is a reflector, i m. in aperture, and a large twin telescope for photography. This observatory has been especially successful in the discovery of comets. In Great Britain, transfer of the Royal Greenwich observatory to Herstmonceux castle in Sussex began after World War II and was completed in 1958. The original site at Greenwich, now surrounded by the city of London, is a park, but the main building designed by Wren has been preserved. The Norman Lockyer observatory, originally the Hill observatory, is on the top of Salcombe hill near Sidmouth, Devon. It contains instruments from the observatory of Frank McClean at Rusthall. near Tunbridge Wells, and others used at the government establishment formerly

South Kensington. The spectroscopic classification of stars and the determination of their parallaxes from examination of their

at

spectra were covered in its program. In 19 14 at the Allegheny observatory, Pittsburgh, a 30-in. This instrulong-focus photographic refractor was completed. ment, at mid- 20th century still the largest of its kind, has been

used almost wholly for measurement of stellar parallaxes. A 37-in. reflecting telescope was installed at the University of Michigan

At the Lick observatory, a 1 20-in. reflecting telescope in 191 1. was completed in 1959. Schmidt-type telescopes of 24-in. aperture were placed in operation at Warner and Swasey observatory, Case Institute of Technology, Cleveland, O. (1941), and at the University of Michigan (1950). The McMath-Hulbert observatory, also a part of the latter institution, has been devoted primarily to the study of the sun. It has two tower telescopes (40-ft. and 70-ft.), the larger equipped with a vacuum spectrograph. With funds granted by the National Science foundation, the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (A.U.R.A.) established the Kitt Peak National observatory in Arizona. The

principal instruments are an 84-in. reflector and a giant solar telescope, in which the sun's light is reflected down an inclined 300-ft.

In 1964 A.U.R.A. began construction on the tube and tunnel. Cerro Tololo Inter-American observatory in Chile. The Haute Provence observatory at St. Michel in southern France has a 77-in. reflector, completed in 1958. An observatory of an unusual type was established in France in 1930 by Bernard Ferdinand Lyot of Meudon, who set up his apparatus on the Pic du Midi in the Pyrenees mountains at an elevation of 9,300 ft. There,

with a special refracting telescope and optical system of his own design, he obtained remarkable results in the photography of the solar corona, prominences and spectrum of the corona in full sunlight. Using a cinematograph, he was able to record the moveof the prominences by means of motion pictures. A station of the Harvard observatory using equipment of a type similar to that of Lyot was established at Climax, Colo., in 1940. This be-

ments

came the high-altitude station of the University of Colorado. A more elaborate solar observatory of similar type was established by the U.S. air force in 1951 at Sacramento Peak, N.'M. At the Karl Schwarzschild observatory near Jena, East Germany, a 79-in, reflector was completed in 1960. In 1964 plans for two new major observatories were announced. The European Southern observatory is a co-operative undertaking by astronomers of Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Sweden and West Germany. A site was selected in Chile, and plans called for several large instruments, including a 140-in. reflector. The other observatory was to be estabhshed in Canada by the Canadian government, and a 150-in. reflector was planned. still

Several special observing stations for tracking

artificial satel-

—

OBSERVER CORPS—OBSIDIAN were established at widely separated locations by the Smithsonian Astrophysical observatory, with headquarters at Cambridge, Mass. Operation of these stations began during the International Geophysical Year {q.v.), 1957-58. lites

In World War II many observatories in continental Europe and in England were damaged. Two great Russian observatories, Pulkovo and Simeis, were almost totally destroyed. Restoration of the Pulkovo observatory was completed in 1954. New and modern equipment has been added to the larger observatories in the U.S.S.R. since World War II. The Crimean Astrophysical observatory has a 50-in, reflecting telescope at Simeis, and a 104-in. The reflector was completed in 1960 at Nauchny in the Crimea. Sternberg Astronomical institute at Moscow and the Byurakan obNoteservatory in Armenia are the other major institutions. worthy solar installations are operated at the universities of Leningrad, Lvov and Kharkov. Radio Observatories Radio waves from space were first recorded in 1931 by Karl Jansky of Bell Telephone laboratories, using a directional antenna. Additional pioneering work was done a few years later by Grote Reber, who employed a 30-ft. parabolic reflector of his own construction, at Wheaton, 111. These installations, though only temporary, deserve recognition as the first radio observatories. Immediately after World War II, great activity in astronomical radio observations began simultaneously in Australia and in England. Most of this early work was done with instruments adapted from the equipment of installations for radar experimentation. After the first successes, design and construction

some

—

of

new "radio

telescopes" specifically for astronomical research

were begun. This development has proceeded with extraordinary rapidity and recalls the burgeoning of astronomical spectroscopy in the later years of the 19th century.

A radio observatory departs considerably from the traditional plan of an astronomical institution. Instead of a main large building surmounted by domes housing the instruments, the radio observatory consists primarily of the bulky instruments themselves,

sometimes spread over many acres, in addition to a comparatively small building to house the recording equipment and a workshop. offices of the observatory may be located a number of miles from the observing station. Because a radio observatory is not hampered by cloudy weather, continuous automatic recording is possible. However, electrical disturbances can be a serious handicap, and the site for a radio observatory must be chosen at a sufiicient distance from industrial estabUshments.

The

The

largest radio observatories

were developed independently One of the foremost

of already existing astronomical institutions. is

the Radiophysics laboratory at Sydney, Austr., whose two "Mills

cross" antenna arrays have dimensions of 1,500 and 3,500 ft. A ft. in diameter was completed at Parkes,

steerable paraboloid 210

At the Jodrell Bank experiment station of the University of Manchester, the largest fully steerable paraboloidal radio telescope, with a diameter of 250 ft., began operation in Austr., in 1963.

1957. The Cavendish laboratory, Cambridge, Eng., operates an interferometer-type system of four large paraboloids. On the European continent, the most extensive installation is that of the

833

completed a fixed spherical reflector with movable receiver at the Arecibo Ionospheric observatory in Puerto Rico. See also Telescope, Radio. Observations from Balloons, Rockets and Space Probes. Observations with instruments carried in rockets above the atmosphere became commonplace during the decade following World War II. Beginning in 1957, the Princeton university observatory made observations from unmanned balloons at 80,000 ft. and above, commanded by radio from the ground.

The successful launchings of the first artificial satellites by the Soviet Union and the United States were quickly followed by astronomical observations from space vehicles. Among the most noteworthy were the photography of the moon's far side by the U.S.S.R.'s Lunik 3 (Oct. 1959), observation of Venus by the U.S. probe Mariner 2 (Dec. 1962), and close-in photography of the moon by the U.S. Ranger 7 (1964) and Rangers 8 and 9 In July 1965 the U.S. Mariner 4 photographed Mars (1965). from about 10,000 mi. out. See also Space Exploration. Bibliography. J. L. E. Dreyer, Tycho Brake (1890). See also A. G. Winterhalter, Washington Observations, appendix i (1885); E. S. Holder), The Lick Observatory (1888) M. Sterns, Directory oj Astro-

—

;

nomical Observatories in the V.S. (1947) F. Rigaux, Les observaloires astronomiques et les astronomes (1959) Annual notes in the Monthly Notices R. Astr. Soc, in the Observatory magazine and in the Astronomical Journal. (H. P. H.; W. S. As.; D. B. Mn.) ;

;

OBSERVER CORPS, who man

an organization of civiUan volunteers observation posts and report, usually by telephone, to

movement of aircraft that they observe. The Royal Observer corps played a major role in the defense of Britain during World War II. During the 1950s the corps took on

military authorities on the

the additional duty of measuring and reporting radioactivity in the event of a nuclear attack. The U.S. Ground Observer corps, organized during World War II, was discontinued in Jan. 1959 because of the rapid development of electronic means of detection. See Air Defense. OBSIDIAN, a natural glass of volcanic origin, usually black and of a chemical composition equivalent to granite. Obsidian, which has a vitreous lustre, was used by American Indians and many other primitive peoples for weapons, implements, tools and ornaments. Due to its fracture, hke glass, conchoidal, with smooth curved surfaces and sharp edges, the sharpest stone artifacts were fashioned from obsidian. Centuries ago the Mayas used obsidian for mirrors. Obsidian in attractive and variegated colours is used as a semiprecious stone. It forms by rapid cooling of viscous lava, has a vitreous lustre and is sUghtly harder than window glass, or about 5.5 on the Mohs' scale (q.v.). The typically jet black colour is due to abundant closely spaced crystalhtes (microscopic embryonic crystal growths). So numerous are these tiny inclusions that the glass is opaque except on thin edges. Red and brown obsidian receives its colour from included iron oxide dust; whereas light gray shades may be due to abundant tiny gas bubbles or finely crystaHized patches. Variegated types with banding or mottling in black and red or black and gray are common. Most obsidian is associated with volcanic rocks and forms the upper portion of rhyohtic lava flows. Less abundantly it occurs

Leiden university observatory, whose large paraboloids have been used to map the distribution of hydrogen in the structure of the Milky Way. Other large instruments are an 83-ft. paraboloid at Bonn university, West Germany, and one of 72-ft. diameter at

Moscow, U.S.S.R. In the United States, the Naval Research laboratory, Washingcompleted a SO-ft. precision paraboloid in 1952, and an one in 1958. The Harvard observatory has one of 60-ft. diameter. In 1959 an 85-ft. paraboloid was completed at the University of Michigan. In the Owens valley, the California Institute of Technology has two 90-ft. paraboloids that can operate as an interferometer. The National Radio observatory at Greenbank, W. Va., has fully steerable paraboloids 85 ft. and 140 ft. in diameter and a tiltable 300-ft. paraboloid that operates in the meridian. Fixed paraboloids have attained still larger dimensions. Ohio State university completed one measuring 360 ft. by 70 ft. in 1962, and one 400 ft. by 600 ft. began operation at the University of Illinois in 1963. In 1964 Cornell university ton, D.C., 84-ft.

MONOLITHIC AX CHIPPED FROM OBSIDIAN FOUND MAYAN, LATE CLASSIC (A.D. 600-900)

IN

BRITISH HONDURAS.

OBSTETRICS— OCARINA

834 as thin selvages of dikes

and

Well known are the obsidians off Italy; and Obsidian

sills.

of Mt.

Hekla

cliff in

Yellowstone National park, Wyo,

in

Iceland: the Lipari Islands,

Composition and Characters. rich in silica

—

Most obsidians are extremely and are roughly compositional equivalents of granite

and rhyolite (qg.v.). Others correspond to trachyte, dacite. andesite and latite. Glassy rocks equivalent to basalt are rare and go by the name tachylyte instead of obsidian. The composition of natural glass may be approximated from its index of refraction (Sff also Ml.NERALdC.Y').

— —

.\verage index values for volcanic glass are: rhyolitic 1.495; 1.515; and basaltic 1.57. 1.505: dacitic and andesitic

trachytic

—

—

Glassy rocks are roughly 6^'c lighter than their crystallized equivalents, and their densities increase with index of refraction. Average density values for volcanic glass are; rhyolitic 2.37; trachytic

—

:.45; dacitic

and andesitic

—

2.50;

— —

and basaltic

2.77.

In addition to the crystallites, w'hich are too small to show polarunder the microscope, obsidian may carry abundant

izing effects

(tiny polarizing crystals) many of which are large enough to be identified as feldspar. Both crystallices and microhowever, are more magnificently and abundantly displayed lites.

microlites

pitchstone (q.v.

in

Some

).

obsidians

carr>'

numerous

large,

well-formed

crystals

of quartz, alkali feldspar and plagioclase, many of which contain abundant inclusions of glass. Less common are With increase in phenocr>-sts of biotite, hornblende or augite. (phenocr>-sts")

number

of phenocrysts these porphyritic glasses pass into a glassy rock called vitrophyre. Many obsidians contain spherical aggregates (spherulites) up to several inches across but generally a small fraction of an inch in diameter and composed of radially arranged needlelike crystals (see Spherulite). Some of these spherulites consist of concentric shells

separated by annular (ring-shaped) interspaces. known as stone bubbles or lithophysae.

Such

structures are

Characteristic of many natural glasses is a streaked or swirly structure consisting of bands or trains of phenocrysts. microlites, crystallites or spherulites and believed to have formed by flowage of viscous lava.

Some

flow structures consist of alternating bands

In others layers of bubble-free glass alternate with highly visicular glass (pumice, q.v.). Obsidian is relatively poor in water, generally containing less than 1% by weight. This water represents only part of that conof different coloured obsidian.

If no glass remains, it may be diffidemonstrate that a particular rock was ever glassy. The presence of spherulites, lithophysae and perlitic cracks (see PerLiTE is generally considered good evidence for the former existence of glass. Closely related to obsidian are perlite, pitchstone and pumice. It is believed that under favourable conditions obsidian may be converted to perlite by adding water. Often in such cases the only remnants of the original obsidian are found in the cores of For chemical analyses of obsidian and the glassy perlite beads. related glassy rocks see Pitchstone. (C. A. Cn.) OBSTETRICS is the branch of medicine that deals with human reproduction. In its broadest sense it encompasses the entire

tridymite and alkali feldspar.

cult to

I

life cycle,

broken

new

for the creation of a

conception and line

life is

individual begins long before

a timeless process that continues in an un-

from parent

to child.

Ideally speaking, the obstetrician's interest in the future rtiother

should begin prior to puberty, continue through adolescence and maturity and culminate in pregnancy, delivery and the postpartum, or recovery, period. Modern medical practice, with its increasing emphasis on the prevention of illness, should include periodic examinations of the mother throughout her reproductive period and the postmenopausal years. The trend today, particularly among specialists, is to combine obstetrics with gynecology, which concerns itself with the prevention and treatment of diseases of the reproductive organs.

Maternity care

is

the

major

The phenomenal reduction

clinical activity of the obstetrician.

in the

hazards of birth for mothers and

babies has focused increasing attention on the emotional aspects

Thus, education for parenthood prior to and durassumed great importance. The usual prenatal medical supervision designed to keep the mother in good health, to prevent pregnancy complications and to safeguard the normal growth and development of the baby is now supplemented by discussions, lectures and exercise programs. Knowledge concerning the birth process will dispel fear; relaxation and emotional support of childbearing.

ing pregnancy has

during labour and delivery and favourable body postures will decrease tension and discomfort, thereby reducing the need for anesthetics and the likelihood of complications. Thus, the normalcy of human reproduction is emphasized. The modem education of ever>' young physician includes instruction in the biological sciences and human reproduction as well

tained in the original melt, most having escaped as steam when A small chip of obsidian the lava poured out on the surface.

as clinical experience in the

heated under a blowpipe will fuse readily and lose its water by A second heating, however, will show the material to be highly infusible. This experiment demonstrates the fluxing action of water in rock melts. Under high pressure at depth rhyolitic lavas may contain up to 10% water which helps to keep them fluid even at a low temperature. Eruption to the surface, where pressure is low, permits rapid escape of this volatile water and increases the viscosity of the melt. Increased viscosity impedes crystallization and the lava solidifies as a glass.

be able to institute corrective measures. In the U.S., the physician who wishes to prepare himself for the specialty of obstetrics must undertake formal postgraduate training in an approved institution for at least three years. The completion of this program is followed by oral and written examina-

volatilization.

Chemical composition controls in large part the formation of Natural glasses have compositions close to quartzQuartz; Feldspar; Silicon: The Silicates). They may reach very low temperatures without crystallizing, but Forced at these low temperatures their viscosity may be high. solidification at this stage by sudden cooling and loss of volatiles will favour the formation of glass, because high viscosity inhibits

glassy rocks.

alkali feldspar (see

crystallization.

Volcanic glass is unstable and tends to change spontaneously. This change (devitrification) involves the transformation from the glassy to the crystalline state and the material loses its vitreous character and takes on a stony appearance. Geologically ancient glasses are very rare and most glassy rocks are of Tertiary (early

Cenozoic) age or younger.

There

is

delivery.

He must

of

normal pregnancy and

tions and if he passes them he is certified by the Board of Obstetrics and Gynecology as a specialist. See also Childbirth; Maternal and Child Health; Midwifery; and'references under "Obstetrics" in the Index. (M. E, Ds.) OBWALDEN, a demicanton which, with Nidwalden, forms The the canton of Unterwalden (q.v.) in central Switzerland. population (1960) 23,135, is mostly German-speaking and Catholic. The capital is Sarnen (6,554). Unterwalden was one of the three cantons that founded the Swiss confederation in 1291. Obwalden includes the small lakes of Sarnen and Lungern and the ski At Engelberg are the resorts of Melchsee-Frutt and Engelberg. famous Benedictine monastery and church, founded about 1120. OCARINA, a wind instrument, originated in Italy toward the end of the 19th century as a musical development from the

traditional Italian carnival whis-

good reason to believe that

earthenware, often in the and sounding only one or two notes. The ocarina (meaning "little goose") is made of earthenware or metal and is tles of

form

glassy rocks were abundant in ancient geological time, but nearly of these have since become devitrified. Devitrification commonly begins along cracks in the glass or around phenocrysts. It may spread outward until eventually the entire mass has been converted to a finely crystalline aggregate composed mostly of quartz,

management

learn to recognize incipient complications and

all

MUSEUM

ITALIAN OCARINA

of a bird

sounded on the

flageolet principle.

O'CAROLAN— OCCASIONALISM has eight finger holes and two thumb holes and sometimes a tuning plunger at one end. The instrument won professional popularity in the 1930s, when ocarinas or "sweet potatoes" of different It is still sizes were played in harmony in U.S. popular music. It

manufactured as a toy instrument.

See also

Wind Instruments

:

(A. C. Ba.)

Flutes.

O'CAROLAN

(Carolan)

,

TURLOGH

(Terence) (1670-

1738), one of the last of the Irish harper-composers and the only one whose songs survive in both words and music in any significant number, was born near Nobber, Co. Meath. About 1684 the family moved to Ballyfarnon, Co. Roscommon, where O'Carolan's father was probably employed in the iron foundry of Henry MacDermott Roe. MacDermott Roe's wife was responsible for O'Carolan's early education. When, at the age of IS, he became blind from smallpox she apprenticed him to a harper and maintained him for three years. After he completed his apprenticeship, she provided him with money, a guide and a horse. As an itinerant harper he traveled widely in Ireland. He died at Alderford, Co. Roscommon, on March 25, 1738. O'Carolan enjoyed a considerable reputation as a song writer and composer of extemporary verse, though One of his as a performer he was never regarded as a master. melodies was used by Thomas Moore for his song "Oh the sight entrancing." A selection of O'Carolan's verse in the original Irish was published in Tomas 6 Maille's Amhrdin Chearbhallain. The Poems of Carolan (1916). See D. O'Sullivan, Carolan, 2 vol. (19S8). (1880-1964), Irish playwright, whose O'CASEY, dramas of the Dublin slums contributed to the later stages of the Irish Uterary renaissance, was born in DubHn on March 30, 1880. His early years were spent in great poverty and he worked as a casual labourer when not unemployed. The Dublin general strike In 1923 The Shadow of a of 1913 influenced his development. Gunman was produced at the Abbey theatre {q.v.), followed in 1924 by Juno and the Pay cock and in 1926 by The Plough and the Stars. These three are by common consent his finest plays. The last-named was bitterly attacked in Ireland and in the year it was staged he left the country for good. His exile (in England) was confirmed two years later by the Abbey's rejection of The Silver Tassie, produced in London in 1929. Subsequent plays include Within the Gates (1933), The Star !

SEAN

Turns Red (1940), Red Roses for Me (1942), Oak Leaves and Lavender (1946), all treating social themes in a more expressionist manner than his earlier work; the extravaganza Cockadoodle Dandy (1949); and two satirical comedies about clericalism in Ireland, The Bishop's Bonfire (1955) and The Drums of Father Ned (1958). He also wrote six tumultuous volumes of autobiography: / Knock at the Door (1939), Picttires in the Hallway (1942), Drums Under the Windows (1945), Inish fallen Fare Thee Well (1949), Rose and Crown (1952) and Sunset and Evening Star (1954). He died on Sept. 18, 1964, at Torquay, Eng.

835

matter as an essentially inert extensity or extension, in which movement is kept in being by God, its original and general cause (Principia, ii, 37-38; letter to the marquess of Newcastle, Oct. 1645). Yet Descartes maintains the notion of the "concourse" of secondary causes; and if he describes bodily stimuli as "giving occasion" to the soul to experience certain feelings (L' Homme), he still affirms that there is a "substantial union" with reciprocal acOnly a few Cartesians, however, tion between soul and body. namely those with a tendency to empiricism, Pierre Sylvain Regis and Robert Desgabets, claim that we have experience of this union, the body's instrumental causality not precluding a real dependence of the body on the soul. The other followers of Descartes go back to the principle of all activity in order to explain the nexus be-

tween the two heterogeneous terms. For Johann Clauberg (q.v.) the mutual and reciprocal conjunction between one component's activity and the other's passivity takes effect from God's will, which makes them succeed one another. Arnold Geulincx (q.v.) insists particularly on the argument Qjwd nescis quomodo fiat, non facis ("You cannot be said to do anything unless you know how it comes to be done") and criticizes the alleged consciousness of effort; my body, the "occasion" for me to perceive other bodies, is an instrument intermediary between Louis de La Forge the sole efficient Cause and my thought. (Traite de I' esprit de I'homme, 1666) is the first to use the term "occasional cause" for the impression of the body in the production of ideas by the soul, which is the principal and effective cause: he thus keeps the traditional notion of the soul's "power" after having extended the notion of inertia to the mind, but goes back to

God

to explain the transition from one idea to another (in his conposthumous Causarum primae et secundarum realis operatio, 1716). In 1666, making the point that the will to move the body does not act "directly or by itself," La Forge speaks of "reciprocal dependence" between soul and body. Geraud de Cordemoy carries occasionalism even further: God is the universal cause, and when one body seems to move another we can only register a succession of move-

versations of 1658 as recorded in Jacques Gousset's

ments, the meeting of the bodies being an occasion for the

which does

is

all

moving the that

is

first

real in

body

to

move

the second.

Mind

Thus "God

our actions, without depriving us of free-

Thenceforward occasionalism becomes the distinguishing mark of the Cartesians. One of their antagonists, the Jesuit Antoine Rochon (Lettre d'un philosophe a un Cartesien, 1672), protests that their argument about bodily motion could logically be

dom."

applied to It

make God

the author of

was Nicolas Malebranche

all

(q.v.)

the motions of our minds.

who, by systematizing

its

various elements, established occasionalism as a "Christian philosophy" in opposition to the pagan view of nature and secondary causes as so many minor divinities. Developing his precursors'

(q.v.), is the

themes (the absence of any intelligible relationship between soul and body; criticism of the illusory consciousness of direct action on bodies; and the reduction of the impact of two bodies to their successive positions), he points out that we have no clear idea of the soul and no common measure for will and ideas, but that we have clear knowledge of an extensity void of all internal dynamism. Furthermore, God's action on created things must obviously be both necessary (continuous creation) and sufficient, so that any other efficient cause is superfluous. Occasional causes, meanwhile, can be shown to determine the application of "general laws," those of nature and those of grace aUke. Under those of nature he includes not only the communication of movement, but also the rational union of the soul to God or the vision of ideas in God. with

things being merely "occasional" causes.

its

O'Casey's later plays are in general too partisan, too didactic to be entirely successful, though many

and too overtly "poetic"

contain scenes of great beauty and comic power. It is on his early plays, with their tragic-comic picture of Dublin tenement life during the "troubles," their wonderful range of comic characters and their impartial celebration of all the contradictory elements of the human spirit, that his reputation principally rests. See David Krause, Sean O'Casey: the

Man

and His Work (1960). (A. Cr.)

OCCASIONALISM,

in

the philosophy

of

the

Cartesians

argument that God is the sole efficient cause, created Beginning as an answer problem of the union between soul and body (see Body and Mind; Dualism), it expands this answer to cover the relationship between all finite substances. In the early polemics on occasionalism reference was made to passages in the works of Philo Judaeus, Pierre d'Ailly and Gabriel Biel which Francisco Suarez had criticized and to passages in certain Arabic writings which St. Thomas Aquinas had criticized: but these occur in contexts very different from that of the Cartesian problem. to the

Rene Descartes (q.v.) not only takes a radically duaUstic view of soul and body but also holds the mechanistic concept of

occasional cause in the act of attention (our attention also determines the general movement whereby God inclines us toward the good, so that our freewill is preserved). For general laws of grace, examples are the occasional causahty of angels in the miracles of the Old Testament and the particular manifestations of the will of

in the

Jesus Christ, occasional cause of the distribution of graces,

New.

Johann Christoph Sturm (1635-1703), professor of mathematics at Altdorf, upheld occasionalism in his works De naturae agentis idolo (1692) and De tiatura sibi incassum vindicata (1698) against criticism by the physician Giinther Christoph Schelham-

OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY

836

G. VV. Leibniz (q.v.) broadened this field of criticism by propounding a dynamism of his own: notwithstanding some ex-

mer.

ternal resemblances

(

for instance the denial of reciprocal influence

between created substances), his "pre-established harmony" is quite different from occasionalism, which, despite Malebranche's specification of general laws, he accuses of postulating a "perpetual

Likew-ise there is no way of reconciling occasionalism with the parallelism of the "attributes" according to Spinoza (q.v.y who. instead of making action in the body correspond to passion in the soul, or vice versa, holds that the same transition from passion to action comes about in thought and in extension singly, thanks to the internal dynamism of the conatus and to the immanent unity of Substance as a whole, which takes the place of a transcendent First Cause. Detached from their theological context, the Cartesians' arguments for reducing the causality of created things to a succession

miracle."

of "occasions" paved the

way

David

for the empiricist approach of

Hume. See Causality.

—

Bibliography. J. Prost, Essai sur I'atomisme et I'occasionalisme dans la philosophic carlisienne (1907) H. Gouhier, La Vocation de Malebranche (1926); G. Lewis. Le Problhne de I'inconscient et le cartisianisme (1950) M. Gueroult, Malebranche, vol. ii (1959) H. T. Vlceschauwer, "Occasionalisme et conditio humana chez A. Geulincx," Kantstudien (Oct. 1958). (G. R.-L.) ;

;

;

OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY has evolved from the recogwork helps to restore the mentally and physically ill. was observed that many patients at mental hospitals benefited from working in the establishments' utility services. In the latter part of the 19th and early years of the 20th centuries the first experiments were made in the use of crafts as a means of occupying This gave rise to the idea of the inmates of mental hospitals. workshops and in 1908 the first occupational therapy workshop was opened in Chicago. nition that It

General or diversional therapy

is

the prescribed use of activities,

for the treatment of both mental and physical conditions developed simultaneously, but with the advent of war and the resultant casualties, among both sevicemen and civilians, the demand in the U.K. for therapists trained in the physical field outran the training capacities oi the two schools. An emergency training scheme was inaugurated that continued until the end of the war. The Association of (Occupational Therapists in England and the Scottish Occupational Therapy association were formed as examining bodies and, with the advent of the National Health service, became offiAfter 1952 no occupational theracially recognized for the U.K. pist could work in the National Health service unless qualified with either of these associations or with certain overseas bodies, and after 1963 state registration was obligatory in the U.K. In the U.S. the American Association of Occupational Therapists sets an examination for registered therapists, but in some states a therapist before practising must pass a state registration examination as well. Similar developments occurred throughout the world, especially in the Scandinavian countries, the Netherlands, Belgium, Australia, New Zealand and Canada. In I9S2 the decision was made to form a World Federation of Occupational Therapists and in 1954 the first international congress of occupational therapists was held in Edinburgh. The second world congress was held in Copenhagen in 1958, when more than 30 countries were represented. The third world congress was held in Philadelphia in 1963. when 37 countries were represented. The World Federation of Occupational Therapists is an associate rnember of the Conference on World Organizations Interested in the Handicapped, a conference of nongovernmental organizations pertaining to the rehabilitation program of the United Nations and the World Health organization. It publishes documents as a guide to the setting up of new schools in countries where occupational therapy is being developed and lays down minimum standards

for training.

—

where boredom and depression are concomitant with a prolonged period in bed or confinement in hospital or at home. Often it can aid patients to realize and to discover latent abilities. Light crafts such as painting, needlework and weaving are the usual skills employed and the development of a high craft standard contributes to the satisfaction and well-being

Modern Activities. The occupational therapist, in order to carry out the treatment prescribed by the physician, must have adequate knowledge of anatomy, physiology, medicine, surgery,

of the patient.

learned in theory. The qualified occupational therapist is trained to treat either physical disabilities or mental illness; these two large

especially in the treatment of patients

by the physician or surgeon for a specific remedial purpose, the scope being wide and varied. Physically the prescription is usually aimed at the increase of Specific therapy

is

that prescribed

muscle or development of co-ordinative motor skills and work tolerance. These may also be required for the psychiatric patient, with the addition of reorientation and alleviation of stress, anxiety states and hysterical physical symptoms. Heavier crafts are used to obtain specific movements. History. World War I brought opportunity for development and introduced the need for work in the field of physical illness. Initially the prime consideration was to relieve the monotony of wounded men confined to bed for long periods, but it was soon observed that certain activities not only created a better morale but also increased the mobility of injured limbs, and it became the custom to order craft activities as part of the treatment. Until this time, supervision and instruction were given by craftsmen and craft teachers without any medical knowledge; but it was clear that in order to expand the work and meet the new need personnel would have to be specially trained. The first schools of occupational therapy were started in Philadelphia and Boston, although in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom staff members were being trained in hospitals and curative workshops. Elizabeth Casson set up a workshop in Bristol. Eng.. sent one of her staff members to the U.S. to train and then began training students at Dorset House in Bristol. In London the Occupational Therapy Centre and Training school was inaugurated and these two centres continued until World War II. when Dorset House was evacuated to Bromsgrove eventually moving to Oxford, where it remained. The London Occupational Therapy centre had to suspend its activities, because of bombing, for a period, after which time it resumed in new premises. Between the wars the scientific application of craft activities joint motion, strength of

—

psychiatry and psychology, as well as knowledge of the skills used as treatment measures. A period of supervised clinical experience is required in order to learn to apply in practice the subjects

divisions provide

many

specialized fields requiring further study

and experience. In both areas, however, the work is divided into the following two main classifications: (1) vocational evaluation and (2) rehabilitation for daily living. To rehabilitate and resettle the disVocational Evaluation. abled, either for return to work or for home employment, it is essential to assess their ability to work. Methods vary from simple activity tests to full-scale work tests and psychiatric assessment. In the U.S. particularly, objective methods of work sampling were evolved in several centres. These samples used tests related to industrial processes and to known working norms and provided a scientific basis on which the rehabihtation officer and employment agencies could evaluate the patient's work potential. After assessment some prevocational training or practice may be necessary and many occupational therapy departments have units where the patient may be taught, or gain experience in, the use of tools for trades (e.g., woodwork), light industrial work (e.g., light assembly work) and clerical duties (typing, etc.). After ini-

—

tial

training

many

are transferred to further training centres or

employment in sheltered workshops maintained by government or voluntary agencies, and some to work at home. These last require training to a standard sufficient to enable them to command fair wages as outworkers. The type of work selected depends on local employment conditions. Occupational therapy is vital for reorienting patients hospitalSuch patients must learn ized or unemployed for long periods. afresh to mix and work with other people, to work to time schedules, and to cope with the problems of traveling to work. The occupational therapist advises on how difficulties may be overcome and provides escort and encouragement until the patient regains direct to industry, others to

confidence.

OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY —

An equipped kitchen unit is Rehabilitation for Daily Living. a standard part of most modern occupational therapy departments, and many centres have a "flat" so that practice in home care can

V.

1.

2. 3.

be provided for the housewife before she resumes her duties after

Here the cardiac

Movement

4.

patient, for

5.

example, can be taught how to avoid undue exertion by the placement of working equipment at heights that avoid the need for lifting or reaching. Working heights can be checked to minimize back strain for those with spinal injuries. The arthritic and hemiplegic

6.

a serious accident or long illness.

7. 8. 9.

10.

When

home. is

minimized.

the patient

is

able to care for himself the difficulty

make

aids that

3. 4. 5.

eating, dressing

One

elderly or chronically sick. tional therapy in the

U.K.

is

and

toilet less

fatiguing for the

of the unique features of occupa-

6.

after hospital treatment,

and by centres for work evaluation.

Vocational.

—

Bibliography. W. R. Dunton, Jr., and S. Licht, Occupational Therapy, 2nd ed. (1957) H. Willard and C. Spackman (ed.). Principles of Occupational Therapy, 3rd ed. (1963) American Occupational Therapy Organization, Changing Concepts and Practices in Psychiatric Occupational Therapy (1956) S. Licht (ed.), Therapeutic Exercise, 2nd ed. (1961) C. B.'Wynn Parry et al., Rehabilitation of the Hand (1958) M. S. Jones, An Approach to Occupational Therapy, 2nd ed. (1964); E. M. Macdonald et al., Occupational Therapy in Rehabilitation Journals of the English and American Associations of Occu(1960) pational Therapists. (E. M. Bh.) The ocean (also ;

;

;

;

;

3.

Europe North America

4.

Other Countries I.

INTRODUCTION

Oceanography and

—

Its Scope. Oceanography is the scienstudy of the ocean in all its aspects. Although it may be regarded as a separate science, it actually is a common meeting ground of four sciences. It includes the physical study of the water and wave movements, the geological study of the form of the ocean basins and the characteristics of the sediments laid down in them, the chemical study of the water and dissolved substances and the biological study of the plant and animal life in the sea. Some writers have preferred the term oceanology to embrace all these fields, and thalassography has also been employed, but the weight of usage is behind the term oceanography. The similar study of lakes and other freshwater bodies is limnology. Together with lakes, rivers, underground water and atmospheric water vapour, the ocean makes up the major division of the earth's surface known as the hydrosphere. The other divisions are; the atmosphere, or gaseous portion; Hthosphere, or sohd portion; and biosphere, or living portion. Although the physical aspects of oceanography are commonly included as one of the subdivisions of geophysics, the chemical aspects more properly belong to geochemistry, the geological aspects to geology and the biological 1.

See also Physical Therapy; Rehabilitation, Medical and

Phosphorescence

2.

which provides many homebound patients with assistance in their problems of daily living, a social contact and in many cases a source of income through the provi-

—

Water Movements

Trace Elements Dissolved Gases Direct Production of Chemicals from Sea Water Gold from Sea Water

2.

ciliary occupational therapy,

Possible Future Development. The fields most likely to be developed are those that make people more active and employable: the provision of help and guidance for the elderly and chronically sick and their employment in such agencies as the Golden Age centres and workshops provided by voluntary organizations in the U.S. and the occupation centres and sheltered workshops of the U.K. The wider use of domiciliary occupational therapy is also Younger patients are helped by rehabilitation to be expected. centres that give a quick and vigorous program of re-education

Vertical

3. Mass Mortalities in the Sea VIII. Organizations for Study of the Ocean 1. International

the widely developed service of domi-

sion of work.

Currents Coriolis Force Tidal Streams and Estuaries Wind-Driven Currents Permanent Currents Measurement of Currents Subsurface Currents Density Currents Turbidity Currents

VII. Biological Oceanography 1. Organisms and the Physical Properties of Sea Water

Occupational therapy provides not only the sphere

for training in daily living activities but also help in provision of

837

Water

VI. Chemistry of Sea Water 1. Elements in the Sea Salts 2. The Plant Nutrients in the Sea

can try out variations of padded handles and be shown methods of moving pans and heavy articles, so that painful joints and weak muscles may be reheved of strain.

The difficulty of caring for an elderly chronically sick relative in the home is increased when there is insufficient help in the home, especially when the women of the family are employed outside the

of Sea

tific

;

OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY.

called the world ocean or the oceans)

of salt water which occupies

An

70.8%

is

the interconnecting

body

of the surface of the earth.

one of the major subdivisions of this sheet of water, Smaller partially enclosed subdivisions of the oceans are called seas. This article is divided into the following main sections: ocean

is

lying between the continents.

I.

Introduction 1.

2. 3.

II.

Oceanography and

Its

Scope

Significance of the Ocean Causes of the Ocean

The Ocean Basins 2.

Distribution of Land and Sea The Seven Oceans

3.

Ocean Depths

4.

Sea Level Continental Shelves

1.

5.

Submarine Canyons Sea Mounts, Islands and Atolls Island Arcs and Ocean Trenches Marine Sediments 6.

7. 8.

III.

Sediments of the Continental Shelves Sediments of the Continental Slopes Sediments of the Ocean Basins 4. Rates of Sedimentation and Past Climates IV. Physical Properties of Sea Water 1.

2. 3.

1. 2.

3. 4. 5. 6.

Salinity

and Chlorinity

Temperature, Freezing Point and Heat Capacity Density and Pressure Electrical Conductivity Colour and Transparency Sound in the Sea

aspects to the hfe sciences. into English from the French ocian, turn was derived from the Latin oceanus and Greek originally applied to the great river or okeanos. The term was outer sea that encompassed the ancient world of Eurasia and Africa, as distinguished from the Mediterranean and other inland

The word ocean came

which

in

seas. It was personified in classical mythology as the god Oceanus, son of Uranus (sky) and Gaia (earth) and husband of Tethys, a In 13th-century English the terms "sea of ocean" and titaness. "sea ocean" were often used, and later, down to 1650, the form "ocean sea" was common. The word oceanography was first used in Enghsh by W. Dittmar in 1883; the German Ozeanographie (now often replaced by Meereskiinde) is a few years older. The ocean serves and affects 2. Significance of the Ocean.

—

ways. So vast is it that often these ways are contradictory. The ocean stores heat and water that have a profound influence on weather and cHmate yet castaways at sea may

mankind

in

many

;

from cold or thirst. The sea is a barrier to invasion, so that island races have developed parliaments (Iceland in 930; Britain in 1275) and other democratic institutions when their continental kindred were still in feudalism. Likewise, the breadth of the Atlantic facihtated the winning of independence by the United States and the Spanish possessions in America, and the subsequent opdie

Monroe Doctrine. On the other hand, to those who The is a means of communication. the United States and Canada were pushed east from

eration of the

master

its

technology, the sea

frontiers of

the Pacific as well as west from the Atlantic because

it

was

easier

838 90'

OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY

OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY

of the

cutting deep cha

ig

sea

along the Dutch coast.

away land: low

The

tide reveals plains of

'""" ''' ^'"' Sa^'JuTs slt/rin^ty^n^ffl'ower'clmtni:""'" canyon ott Lower California

sea curls

mud

and sand

°' *'' ^="'=

inland

Plate I

An English beach

at low tide. The rise and fall of the tides related to the positions of the sun and moon

!" "' ''"'-^" "'""^ ''"-' ' """^ "-*'''" ' office not only responsi-

of an army, also

became a permanent rank, immediately below that of marshal. The next lower grade was that of the sergeant major general, later shortened to major general. The lowest grade of general officer, that of brigadier, was created by Louis XIV. 3. French Revolution to Mid-20th Century. During this period officer status was gradually opened to qualified soldiers in the ranks. Significantly, too, officer status was opened to a great number of technical positions unknown in warfare before the In-

officer

more

closely

bilities

but also certain profits.

paralleled that in the U.S. forces. In Germany, even before the unification of the country in 1871,

ber of

men

the influence of Prussia was pre-eminent in military

The officer was paid for the numand was furnished other funds for their arms and food. Besides the profit resulting from economical and sometimes parsimonious or fraudulent—discharge of his that he mustered

—

proprietary rights, the officer could

when he

sell

his proprietary interest

Commissions, therefore, were valuable, and as late as 1871 could be purchased in the British army, even though the proprietary system had long since vanished. The purchase of the commission of a lieutenant colonel in a first-class regiment might cost as much as $30,000 (£6,200). The general terminology for the grades of regimental officers having been established by Gustavus Adolphus, it remained largely for the French to develop the ranks above that of colonel. Usually the king or prince was the "general" of a field army. The second in command was the lieutenant general, a nobleman

who

retired.

customarily

commanded

—not

sional soldier

the aristocratic cavalry.

necessarily a

the infantry and was variously eral or

simply major general.

for battle

and

nobleman

known It

was

—usually

A

profes-

commanded

major genform the army

as the sergeant his

duty

to

to take care of other administrative matters for the

king or prince. (The title of sergeant major was carried through the regiments and battalions, where the sergeant major sometimes called major or adjutant major was the principal staff offi-

—

cer.)

When,

end of

a

—

as was usually the case, the army was disbanded at the campaign, the lieutenant general and major general had no thus lost their rank as well, reverting usually to their

command and

proprietary positions as colonels of permanent regiments. Gradually, however, the title of marshal or field marshal was developing into a recognized, permanent rank in the French army. This resulted from the establishment of a permanent list of officers

whose

and experience qualified them to serve as gengeneral or major general in a field army. This marks one of the most important points in the evolution of the distinction

eral, lieutenant

—

military officer his permanent classification by rank and not by the actual temporary command he happened to hold. Following the establishment of the rank of marshal in the French army, there

affairs.

This

which to a certain extent pervaded all Europe, conup to World War II. The Prussian landholding tinued aristocracy, the Junkers, were the most powerful element of an Most officers came from the aristocessentially military society. racy of Prussia or the other German states, and by the end of the igth century all were required to have a university degree or its Approximately 40% came from cadet schools; the equivalent. remainder had been reservists on active duty who had been recinfluence,

right

ommended by

their

commanders as possessing the The Junkers were

tary and social qualifications.

requisite mili-

able to assure

that members of their group rose to high command and staff posiThe arrogance of the Prussian officer was communicated to the rest of the German army and to the navy. There can be no question that this, as well as the Prussian emphasis on mechanical efficiency, detracted to some extent from the human qualities that have been found so essential to the making of good Nevertheless, German thoroughofficers in democratic countries. ness and attention to detail resulted in a high standard of efficiency throughout the entire army, and later in the German navy and air force. At the same time the German promotion system brought many brilliant and imaginative officers to positions of high command. In the development of the new German army of the Federal Republic of Germany after World War II, a conscious effort was made to eliminate the nondemocratic and mechanical tions in the army.

German

while retaining the In this period the Germans looked to the United States for guidance in the organization of armed forces consistent with democratic principles. The French nobility had largely been eliminated from influential military positions in the Napoleonic era. Men who might never have been more than sergeants in the armies of Louis XIV rose to be marshals under Napoleon. Against this background, the selection of officers in France during the 19th century was probably more democratic than that in any nation other than the U.S. characteristics of the old

officer corps,

traditionally high standards of efficiency.

OFFICERS remained strong in the top command positions of the French army up to World War I. Throughout the 19th century and until the mid-20th century, French officers were well-schooled and able men, though officer positions declined in standing mainly because of the low pay. In the far east the Japanese services were largely commanded by the nobility. Descendants of the traditional samurai class generally attained highest rank in both command and staff positions in the Japanese army and navy. A certain similarity developed between Germany and Japan in the rise of an essentially mihtary society. Japanese officers displayed much of the arrogance found in the German armed forces of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The parallel continued after the defeat of both in World War II. Like the West Germans, the Japanese, with U.S. assistance, endeavoured to eliminate the autocratic abuses that had existed in their prewar forces, while retaining traditional military efficiency. East Germany, on the other hand, patterned its armed forces on the older German model, modified by contact with Soviet organizaNevertheless, aristocratic influences

to select

879 and promote

command

the higher

in World War II more than 98%. of army navy officers were nonregulars. Some had been reserve officers before the war, but most were essentially civilians, selected from the greatly expanded enlisted ranks and trained at officer candidate schools. A few speciahsts lawyers, doctors, railroadmen, etc. had duties almost identical with those

But

regular officers.

and

officers

96%

of

War

During World

the proletariat, taking his leaders from

among

labourers and revo-

lutionists.

During the period between World Wars

I

and II the Red army

developed slowly but steadily, and many excellent officer schools were established. The growing efficiency and morale of the officer corps were seriously impaired, however, in the Stalinist purges of 1937. Glaring weaknesses were revealed in the Russo-Finnish War of 1939-40, but this experience enabled the Soviet leaders to make many last-minute improvements before Hitler attacked in 1941. At that time the top commanders were still the old Bolshevik leaders, but after the Red army suffered crushing defeats, these men were replaced by younger and better-trained officers. The vast area of the U.S.S.R. and the stubborn defensive qualities of the Soviet soldiers provided advantages that gave these new commanders a chance to gain experience in battle. Soviet social and political experiments in the army were not wholly successful. After the Revolution officers and men were given common social status, but this soon proved unworkable. The trend was reversed until by mid-20th century there was a greater distinction between officers and

than in those of the western nations. slower to acknowledge the failure of

men

The its

in the Soviet forces

Soviet leadership was

system of

political

com-

World War II there had been in each army unit commissars whose function was to indoctrinate the with troops Communist propaganda and to check on the political reliability of the officers. While there was a partial return to this system after World War II, these political officers no longer missars.

Until the early days of

wielded their former power. Officers in the U.S. services

have always represented a cross

section of the population and have been obtained

tems of

selection.

by various

In the early days of the republic,

men

sys-

ignorant

officers through political influence. The were great; history mentions companies electing captains in the American Revolution on the condition that they share their pay with the other men. There were similar experiences in the War of 1812 and again to a lesser degree in the Civil War, when governors of states appointed officers in the vol-

of military affairs

became

evils of this practice

Many unteer forces, often without regard to their experience. of the small nucleus of regular officers who had been trained at the U.S. Military academy got their chance in the war by obtaining volunteer appointments from state governors at ranks far higher than the permanent ones they held. The experience of Gen. Philip Sheridan, who fought as a captain in the regular army for a full year before he was elevated to a colonelcy of volunteers, was common among the regulars. After comparable experiences in the Spanish-American War, the United States made strong efforts in both World Wars I and II

I

the air officer, usually a pilot, played a

armed forces of all major belligerents. In Britain toward the end of World War I, and in Germany between World Wars I and II, a coequal service the air force was es-

significant role in the

—

tablished, but air units

—

remained elements of the armies and navies

of most other major nations until after the close of

World War

II.

In 1947 the U.S. air force became a separate entity, but in the U.S.S.R. the air force remained an integral part of the Soviet

army.

THE OFFICER AS A LEADER

II.

Russia, under the tsars, gave officer status almost entirely to the

Before World War I the standards of the Russian officer corps were lax; there were a few capable officers but many were unbelievably careless and incompetent. This resulted in disastrous defeats in the Russo-Japanese War and in World War I. Following the Bolshevik Revolution, Lenin created an army from

—

—

of their civilian occupations.

tion.

nobility.

on the basis of merit. In these wars, and staff positions were given most often to officers

In the 20th century the forces of social evolution and revolution have tended to reduce, but not to eliminate, the traditional distinctions between officers and enlisted men in pay, social status and privileges. Nations today draw their officers from a cross section of their people and make it possible for enlisted men to

become officers. The distinction between ranks,"

Many

officers and enlisted men, or "other one primarily of professional status and responsibility.

is

men of the regular services in most nations are highly skilled and trained technicians; senior noncommissioned officers are generally as dedicated to their military careers as any enlisted

Most enlisted men, however, lack the professional background, education and motivation that are considered to be the officer.

fundamental tions cannot officer

men under

assume the

this essential dif-

the military and civil law of

legal responsibilities of

most nathat an

command

cannot avoid.

Armed

forces exist to support and to carry out national policy

and particularly is

Because of

officer characteristics.

ference, enlisted

to

defend their nations from hostile attack.

It

the function of officers to provide leadership for these military

establishments.

This leadership

is

exercised in three major cate-

(1) the armed forces must be recruited, organized and equipped; (2) they must be trained; (3) they must be controlled and led in military operations. The objective of this exercise of leadership must be to assure success in battle, whether or not the individual officer and his men are ever actually gories of activity:

engaged in combat.. Leadership is a concept defying precise analysis in

Through

as well as its nonmilitary manifestations.

history, however,

it

is

its

military

a study of

possible to deduce certain qualities that

While the general nature of all military leaders should possess. military leadership is comparable with that in any field of human endeavour, it is nonetheless distinguished by the highly specialized characteristics that the officer 1.

Military Competence.

must

—This

tive of military leadership qualities.

possess.

and most distincprofound knowlunderstanding and skill in

is

the

first

It requires a

edge of military theory as well as applying this theory. Nothing is more

difficult in the

military pro-

prepare for the day of battle for many years, but the exercise of his leadership in war usually occupies a relatively brief period. Obviously, then, there is an aspect of unreality in his preparation. Furthermore, what he has learned by study and artificial peacetime experience can easily become outdated before he is called upon to exercise leadership in combat. Only through alertness in responding to technological developments and by repeated training exercises can the officer hope to obtain and preserve this essential skill. His success is demonstrated by his ability to take positive action in the flexible application of technical fession.

The

officer

may

knowledge and theoretical principles to a wide variety of

specific

situations.

The in war.

must know thoroughly the tools that will be available While this naturally includes weapons and all manner of

officer

OFFICERS complex equipment, the most important tools are the men he leads in battle. The officer must understand their general human and national qualities, and further must be aware of the characteristics and limitations of the specific individuals who will be under his command in battle. Knowledge of the military art, tlexibility and all the other requirements of leadership avail nothing if the does not understand huw to deal with the human beings he holds a position of power. An understanding of his men does not mean that an officer must fatalistically accept their limitations. On the contrary, he should endeavour to minimize in-

not possess officer status comparable with that of U.S. warrant officers, for instance. In the Royal Navy the commissioned warrant officer enjoys full officer privileges without the full status. Cadet. This term generally applies to young men attending special training schools in preparation for regular careers in the armed

—

U.S. and British naval cadets are called midshipmen. 2. Company Grade Officers. This is an army (and often air

forces.

officer

over

whom

herent w'eaknesses and to improve the quality of the human tools with which he must fight. This is done through training and the simultaneous achievement of high standards of discipline. 2. Training and Discipline. In the armies of modern demo-

—

cannot be achieved through the so-called Prussian system of unthinking obedience from mechanical soldiers. Such a system is not compatible with democratic concepts or the requirements of modern warfare. The increasing destructiveness and efficiency of weapons has compelled increasing dispersion of land, naval and air forces in battle. In the isolation of individuals cratic countries discipline

or small units there

is

an incessant demand for the exercise of

and the display of moral and physical courage that can be derived only from confidence fostered by an understanding system of discipline. This confidence is not merely the result of thorough, painstaking training of men in the use of weapons and equipment; it stems equally from the officer's diligence in care of his men, resolute justice, creative intelligence and respect for the dignity of the individual. The object of the relationship between officers and their men is so to strengthen the will and abilities of the latter initiative

that they will be able to take voluntary action in the heat of battle.

The officer-leader stands or moments when the decision is he has trained and

falls

on the results of those vital hands of the men with whom

in the

lived.

Character Traits.—The officer must be able to inspire in his men a desire to work together toward a common goal. This cannot be achieved either by routine performance of his duties or by trying to gain the friendship and liking of his subordinates. He must demonstrate his dedicated enthusiasm for national objectives and ideals and for the honour and glory of the organization he commands. This, combined with military competence and insistence upon high standards of discipline, will ensure the respect, 3.

confidence and loyalty of his men. Personal courage is an absoSince the officer will have normal, reactions to danger, he must exercise the strongest self-

lutely indispensable quality.

human

combat. This does not mean that he should recklessly expose himself to danger or pretend an absence of fear. He must, however, share the risks of his men, must never demand them to perform actions that he would not dare himself and must remain cool and self-possessed in combat. Finally the leader must be able to endure calamity without loss of equilibrium. He should be able to persevere in adversity and carry on with flexibility and determination to achieve assigned objectives, regardless of setbacks or even crushing defeat. discipline in

III.

RANKS OR GRADES OF OFFICERS

—

though not Royal Air Force) term applying to the lowest of three major groupings of commissioned officer grades. There is no comparable naval term, though members of the lower ranking group are sometimes referred to as "junior officers." The grades force,

are as follows:

—

;

and grades and major differences between services and nations

shown

should be noted that officer grades in the U.S. air force are practically identical with those of the U.S. army, and that there is comparable similarity in the grades of the are

in the table.

French army and

It

He may also be second in In the Royal Navy, which has no lower a sublieutenant, while in the Royal Air

indicative of his typical responsibility.

command

of a

company.

commissioned rank, he is Force he is a flying officer. The Soviet army has three grades of lieutenant rather than two as in most nations. In most armies this officer is a company commander, Captain. the title going back to the days of mercenary companies. In the British army he may sometimes be second in command of a company. This rank is equivalent to lieutenant in most navies and flight lieutenant in the Royal Air Force. 3. Field Grade Officers. This is the U.S. army and air force term for the second major grouping of officers. In the navy and British services these grades are sometimes called senior officers. Royal Air Force rank titles in this group indicate the position normally filled by men of each grade: squadron leader, wing commander and group captain. Field officer grades are as follows: Major. In most armies this officer, hneal descendant of the

—

—

—

is second in command of a battalion, French army he may command a battalion, while in In the British army junior majors often command companies. navies the lieutenant commander usually commands small combat

historical sergeant major,

though

in the

vessels, such as frigates or destroyer escorts.

—

Lieutenant Colonel. In most countries this officer commands an infantry battalion, or is second in command of a regiment of more than one battalion. In the British army he also commands a cavalry, artillery, engineer, etc., regiment. The equivalent naval rank is commander, an officer who usually commands intermediate size vessels, such as destroyers, or who may be executive officer of a larger vessel.

Colonel.

ment

— In most armies

the British

by

it

is

rank denotes

command is

of a regi-

captain.

In

often held by senior staff officers, but not The British regiment is an adminis-

active regimental officers.

trative unit

He

army

this

The equivalent naval rank

or similar group.

and has

a dignitary called the colonel of the regiment.

acts as the "father of the regiment"

and

distinguished serving or retired senior officers.

is

usually one of

Many

its

British regi-

is always a member of the A few units mostly in the "honorary colonels," who are usually distinguished persons selected because of some past con-

ments

also

have a colonel

in chief,

who

British, or a foreign, royal family.

territorial

A common pattern of officer ranks or grades has developed in the armed forces of the principal nations, despite differences in titles. The nature of the pattern, the commonest titles of ranks

—

Second Lieutenant. This officer is usually an assistant platoon in most armies. The equivalent Royal Air Force rank is pilot officer, while the U.S. navy equivalent is ensign. Lieutenant. In the U.S. army and air force this officer is a first lieutenant in Belgium he is known as the platoon chief, which is

commander

army

—have,

—

in addition,

nection with the unit.

—

Brigadier. This is a special rank found only in the British army and the armies of nations that have adopted British organization. This officer commands a brigade the combat organization comparable to the regiment in most other armies. Some staff positions are also held by brigadiers. In the British army the brigadier is

—

dividuals enjoy officer status but do not have full officer responsi-

not a general officer, but is a colonel who is given special appointment with the temporary rank of brigadier while holding his speThe position of commodore in cific command or staff position. the Royal Navy is comparable in that it is not a separate rank, but

bility.

is

air force.

—

1. Warrant Officers and Cadets Below the normal officer grades there are frequently two categories of ranks in which the in-

Warrant

Officer.

—Warrant

officers' duties are

generally adminis-

It should be noted that in the Britthe term warrant officer (like that of adjiidant in the French army) applies to senior noncommissioned officers, who do

trative or technical in nature.

ish

army

a special appointment of a captain. 4. General or Flag Officers. This third

—

and most exclusive

grouping of officers includes those in senior command and staff po"General officer" is the army term and "flag officer" the naval term. sitions.

OFFICERS Corresponding Ranks in the U.S., British, French and Soviet

Warrant officer Cadet 2Qd lieutenant

Warrant officer Midshipman

Warrant

Ensign

Pilot officer

Major

Lieutenant Lieutenant commander

Lieutenant colonel

Commander

Colonel

Captain

Brigadier general

Rear admiral

Major general

Rear admiral

Lieutenant general General General of the army

Ranks

Captain

Flight lieutenant

Captain

Captain

Major

Squadron leader

Commandant

Major

Wing commander Group captain

Lieutenant colonel Colonel

Lieutenant colonel Colonel

Brigadier general

Major general

Divisional general

Lieutenant general

for officers of the U.S. air force are the

—Traditionally

same

this

as for the U.S.

was the

Admiral Admiral of the

army

command

title

of the

com-

of divisions, or in

command

of divisional or corps artillery establishments, or of speorganized task forces of several combined arms, or may hold

The

comparable to In the U.S. navy the rank of commodore is rarely used (though certain officers, because of the positions they hold, are given the title of commodore), and officers in the lower half of the list of rear admirals are considered to rank with brigadier generals. Air commodore is the equivalent Royal Air Force rank. senior staff positions.

Soviet major general

is

brigadier general in other armies.

—

The commander of a division is given this title armies of the world; many high general staff positions are also given this rank. In the U.S. navy, officers in the upper half of the list of rear admirals rank with army and air force major generals. In the Soviet army lieutenant generals are ordinarily the equivalent of major generals in other countries. The comparable Royal Air Force rank is air vice-marshal. Lieutenant General. In most armies this officer commands a corps of two or more divisions. The comparable Soviet rank is general, In most navies the equivalent rank is vice-admiral and in the Royal Air Force it is air marshal. General. This grade is normally identified with the commander of a field army. Senior generals may command army groups of two Major General.

in practically all

—

—

or

more

field armies, or

command combat

theatres of opera'tions in

wartime. The equivalent naval rank is admiral while that of the Royal Air Force is air chief marshal. In the Soviet army the comparable rank is colonel general. In Britain this ancient rank is held by a few Field Marshal. senior army officers. If not already a field marshal, the chief of the imperial general staff is usually made one soon after being appointed. In the Royal Navy the comparable rank is admiral of the fleet, and the air equivalent is marshal of the Royal Air Force. In the Soviet army this rank is generally held by officers commanding army groups or higher command. In France the title of marechal de France (marshal of France) is purely honorary and is awarded by the French government only to especially distinguished,

—

victorious generals.

After World

War

I the

U.S. congress conferred the unique

of general of the armies of the United States on Gen.

Pershing. to

A comparable

Adm. George Dewey

(unused since 1891) and

World War

title

John

J.

rank, admiral of the navy, had been given

in 1899. fleet

The ranks

of general of the

army

admiral were authorized by congress

and concommanders: Generals George C. Marshall, Douglas MacArthur, Dwight D. Eisenhower and Henry H. Arnold (the title of whose rank was changed to general of the air force when that service was separated from the army in 1947) Admirals William D. Leahy, Ernest J. King and Chester W. Nimitz. Later Gen. Omar Bradley attained the rank of general of the army and Adm. William F. Halsey became a fleet admiral. Eisenhower, who resigned his rank to become president, was reinstated to it in 1961. (T. N. D.) 5. Brevet. This term, a diminutive of the French brej, origiduring

II as the equivalent of field marshal

ferred on selected

;

—

fleet

except that the highest rank

Brigadier generals, in armies without a briin

Air marshal Air chief marshal Marshal of the Royal Air Force

Vice-admiral

Lieutenant general General Field marshal

gade structure, are normally second cially

commodore

list)

Fleet admiral

of a brigade.

Oflirer cadet Junior lieutenant Lieutenant Senior lieutenant

list)

Admiral

Brigadier General.

mander

i

Air

(upper half of Vice-admiral

officer

.Sublieutenant

Lieutenant colonel (Colonel \Brigadier

(lower half of

Forces

Cadet

Lieutenant

Captain

Armed

is

Corps general

Army

General Colonel general

general

Marshal

of

Marshal

France

general of the air force.

more commonly it applies to a form of military commission used in the U.S. and British armies. Under the system wherein an officer was customarily promoted within his regiment or corps, a brevet conferred upon him a rank nally denoted a brief official note

;

in the army-at-large higher than that held in his corps. Frequently it carried with it the pay, right to command and uniform of the higher grade. In the United States especially, brevet rank was widely bestowed as a reward for outstanding service; it became the subject of extensive confusion and controversy during the

American

Civil

stripped of rations.

War.

its

benefits

{See

Medals

was declared obsolete

After 1865, U.S. brevet rank was gradually and officers were rewarded instead by decoand Decorations.) Commission by brevet in 1922.

Special commissions bearing

of the characteristics of the brevet

have been used

some

in other armies.

(F. P. T.)

IV.

SOURCE OF OFFICER MATERIAL

major nations the primary sources of regular officers are and air academies or colleges. These service academies, while differing among nations and services, have much in common. They are generally open to youths between 17 and 22 years of age, and all have strict physical and mental requirements for admission and require that candidates be unmarried. In addition, most nations offer opportunities to outstanding enlisted men and to graduates of universities and colleges to qualify In

all

special military, naval

for commissions as officers, either directly, or through the service academies or through intensive courses at officer candidate schools. 1. United States. Regular officers in the United States services are obtained from three principal sources from the three service academies; from civilian colleges and universities; and from

—

:

among

selected reserve officers.

tain their

Some

of the reserve officers ob-

commissions through Reserve Officer Training corps

courses in civilian colleges, others through attending officer candidate schools as enlisted men.

Many

army

graduates of the U.S. Military This academy, established in 1802, is one of the oldest service academies in the world. The naval equivalent is the U.S. Naval academy at Annapolis, Md., which was established in 184S. The U.S. Air Force academy was founded at Denver, Colo., in 1954, opened in 1955 and moved to permanent quarters near Colorado Springs, Colo., in 1958. The student bodies for these academies are filled mainly by congressional appointment. The president also has a number of appointments that are often used for the sons of deceased veterans, and the regular services and the national guard have appointments open to enlisted men on a competitive basis. All three academies offer a four-year college-type curriculum at government expense, leading to a bachelor of science degree. In

academy

regular at

West

addition there the schools

is

is

to

officers are

Point, N.Y.

intensive military instruction.

produce

officers

who have

The

objective of

the qualities and char-

acter essential to their continuing development as leaders.

The

academies generally seek to implant a high sense of duty and patriotism, while assuring mental and physical fitness. Upon successful completion of the four-year course the graduate is commissioned a second lieutenant in the army or air force, or an

OFFICERS ensign in the navy.

In the 1960s

West Point and Annapolis

not furnish even a majority of regular officers

in

did

the services, since

numbers were commissioned from civilian colleges or entered from the reserve officer group or the enlisted ranks. The Air Force academy, of course, was only beginning to supply officers for its service. Commissions in the air force and navy are also far larger

given to those

who

programs of these

successfully pass through the flight instruction

Although there are certain academic time spent in the

services.

prerequisites (normally two years of college)

programs themselves varies with the individual's flying proficiency. 2. Great Britain. Great Britain has obtained most of its reguMedical, legal and some lar officers from its military colleges. other technical officers, as in the U.S., have been obtained mostly from graduates of civilian universities. Prior to World War II, Britain had two cadet schools for its army: the Royal Military college at Sandhurst (1799) and the Royal Military academy at Woolwich (174n. Sandhurst was a school for officers of the infantry, tank corps and other line elements, while Woolwich trained artillery, engineer and signal officers. Up to 1914 entry into these colleges was confined almost solely to the sons of upper-class parents. Between World Wars I and II, however, various changes were made and the colleges were put on

—

a

more democratic

By 1938

footing.

as a prerequisite to officer candidacy,

a short period in the ranks,

had become the

rule rather

than the e.xception. The changes of 1938 also made it possible for a youth who could meet the entrance requirements to obtain Both Woolwich and militaPi' training at government expense. Sandhurst differed considerably from the U.S. Military academy in that emphasis was upon military training, no effort being made to obtain a university degree for the cadets in the shorter, twoSince the great majority of cadets had attended year course. public schools or universities, however, by the time they received their commissions they had the equivalent of a college education.

These schools furnished about three-fourths of the regular officer corps, the remainder coming from university graduates, directly from the army and from commonwealth nations. In the post-World War II period, Sandhurst and Woolwich were consolidated into a single Royal Military academy located at Sandhurst. Because the reform of 1938 had broadened the source of applicants, there was some lowering of the standards of prior education of cadets from pre-World War II days. Consequently, there has been increased emphasis on academic subjects. The Britannia Royal Naval college at Dartmouth (1729) and the Royal Air Force college, Cranwell (1920), the latter of which trains cadets for regular commissions as pilots and navigators, are the British naval and air counterparts of Sandhurst. Their courses are somewhat longer than at Sandhurst; otherwise they are comparable in scope and objectives. The Royal Air Force technical college at

Henlow

gives professional training for officers of the

technical branch of the service.

France.

3.

army

is

— The

principal

source of officers for the French

the £cole Speciale Militaire, formerly located at St. Cyr,

near Versailles, but moved to Brittany as the result of the destruction of its buildings in World War II. Like Sandhurst, St, Cyr (as it is still called has a two-year course, except that selected noncommissioned officers may obtain a commission in one year of in)

tensive study.

In past years most French artillery and engineer officers re£cole Polytechnique has become essentially a in Paris,

ceived their cadet training in a two-year course at the

Polytechnique

civilian engineering school,

and by the 1960s only

a

few members

of each class were electing to enter the military forces as a career. It is a

and

government school, however, including military

a certain

percentage of

its

training,

graduates become reserve officers

who must serve a period of active duty in The French navy obtains most of its

the army. officers

from the 6cole

Navale, near Brest in Brittany, while the air force school is the 6cole de I'Air, at Salon-de-Provence. Both schools feature threeyear courses. The navy and air force, like the army, also obtain

some 4.

from the £cole Polytechnique. II the U.S.S.R. had no those of the western nations. However,

of their technical officers

Soviet

Union.— Before Wodd War

cadet colleges similar to

many branch

there were

officer

the infantry and a smaller

men

candidate schools, including IS for

number

for the artillery.

Qualified en-

allowed to compete for admission to these schools, receiving commissions after a course of three years. Some technicians, particularly engineers, are given direct commissions after university graduation. During World War II the professionalization of the Soviet army was given impetus by the establishment of a number of Suvorov junior military academies. These schools accept boys frequently from military families at the age of nine or ten and subject them to seven years of training in military and secondary-school subjects, after which they are sent on to the three-year officer candidate schools. The Nakhimov schools for the navy are similar to the army's Suvorov schools. listed

are

still

—

—

See also Military, Naval and Air Academies. V.

OFFICER TRAINING

modem

armies lay great stress on the continuous training of officers after they have received their commissions. This is particularly important because peacetime experience can never duplicate that of war and rapidly becomes outdated. Officers are schooled in the theories of tactics and strategy, in the principles of war and in the latest weapons systems and techniques whereby these theories and principles are applied in modern combat. FlexiAll

mind is the goal in military education. The army officer recently graduated from a military academy

bility of

usually given two or three years in

command

is

of a platoon of sol-

him with the problems of leadership and to imupon him the necessity for knowing small-unit tactics as they

diers to acquaint

press

apply to the soldier in the ranks. Moreover, in such experience the young officer learns each soldier's job, so that he can show a rifleman or machine gunner how to handle his weapon. After a period of command, the officer may go to a school of his arm, such as infantry or artillery, to obtain a basic knowledge of its tactics and techniques. In some armies, this training of the early years is reversed on the theory that the junior officer is better qualified to command men if he has had the benefit of tactical schooling. In general, the training of army officers runs to the following pattern in most nations: (i) basic military and academic education in military academy; (2) command at platoon level or its equivalent;

company

(3) basic school of the arm; (4) command at the advanced school of the arm; (6) staff at bat-

level; (5)

talion or regimental level;

(7) staff college;

(8) staff assignment

headquarters; (9) command at the battalion level; (10) war college; and (11) the remainder of the career usually including both command and staff assignments. Into this pattern, from time to time, may come special assignments such as duty with reserve components or with a military mission in a foreign country. While the pattern of service for naval and air force officers naturally varies somewhat from that of army officers, these in a higher

follow a similar scheme of rotation of duties, including school,

command,

Much

staff

and special assignments.

is concentrated on learning tactics staff procedure by application so that these can be performed almost automatically. This is not to say that schooling is unthinking or adjusted to the mediocre. Rather it is based upon the requirements of service and the need for established, well-understood procedures, so that action will be prompt and efficient in the stress of combat, and to assure maximum co-ordination under any circumstances between officers who may never have had an opportunity to practise working together. E.xperience has proved that

of the officer's training

and

close adherence to a soundly formulated military doctrine

surest guarantee of obtaining the best-trained

men and

is

the

of assuring

uniformly high standards of training and achievement through the entire service.

—

1. United States. Officer training in the U.S. services at mid20th century followed very closely the pattern noted above. Only those officers showing the greatest potential for staff and command duties approximately 50% of the officer corps are selected These are usually captains or majors in their for staff college. colonels, about 10 or 15 years early 30s. A smaller percentage

—

—

older

—

—

are selected to attend the National

War

college, the In-

OFFICERS dustrial College of the

war

Many

colleges.

Armed Forces

or one of the three service

of these, as lieutenant

manders, have attended a joint

colonels or

com-

staff college for special training in

operations of the combined services.

During the first ten years of his career, an army officer who began his service in a line branch infantry, artillery or armour may receive specialist training in one of the technical branches, such as ordnance, signal communications or engineers. Some of these officers will transfer permanently to the service branches,

—

—

From these, for with further training in civilian universities. the most part, are eventually selected the students who attend the Industrial college, where they study the economic aspects of war and industrial mobilization. There are also speciaUst opportunities for

young navy and

air force officers,

many

of

whom

also complete their military schooling in the Industrial college.

Great Britain

2.

—The

British

army

officer at

mid-century,

becomes a platoon commander shortly after he is commissioned. He is expected after two years of service to have a knowledge of the interior management, economy and discipline of a company. Subsequently he is required to pass professional examinations in order to qualify for promotion and in like his U.S. counterpart,

order to qualify for attendance at the higher military schools. patterns for officers of the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force

The

are similar.

After about eight years' service, specially selected officers attend one of the service staff colleges. On graduating, these ofcan expect staff assignments, either in one of the service

ficers

London or in major commands in Great Britain or There is a special staff college for joint service operaand above that is the Imperial Defence college, equivalent

ministries in

overseas. tions,

War

to the U.S. National

and military policy by countries.

France.

college, for the

study of higher strategy

officers of all services of all

commonwealth

—The

French training system was the chief model for the U.S. and Great Britain. Great emphasis is placed upon qualification both in education and military training. After attending branch or specialist school, an army officer can expect to attend the £cole de Guerre some time between the ages of 28 and 38. This school, with its ten-month course, is designed to train officers At about the for staff duties and the command of larger units. age of 45, selected colonels attend the French war college the £cole Superieure de Guerre for a two-year course in the higher art of war. The higher schooling of French navy and air force 3.

—

—

officers is similar. 4. Soviet Union.— Officers of the Soviet forces are trained at branch service schools, much as in the western democracies. Also the more capable officers are sent to staff schools and eventually to a war college. A Soviet officer can count on spending almost twice as much time in schools as his western counterpart. The Soviet services place great emphasis on two items: political beliefs of the individual and ability to command troops. See also Training, Military.

VI.

THE OFFICERS' SERVICE

While training requirements are similar for forces of

all

officers in the

armed

nations, there are great differences in the sort of

and

duty they perform when not in school. The usual expectancy in most armies and air forces at mid-century was that officers would command troops or serve in combat units from one-fourth to one-half of their careers. A similar proportion of a naval officer's service would be at sea. This requirement, however, was constantly being lowered because of the growing complexity of war, which increased places in which they serve

in the kind of

demand for general staff officers and technical specialists. The high command in most armies is normally given to the line officer, with a background in infantry, artillery or tanks, who the

has alternated his

command

experience with general staff duties. time have taken very divergent paths from those of the technical experts, qualifying themselves in the later years of their service more as executives and administrators than

These

officers will in

as specialists in technical fields.

The

duties of officers in the

major countries require a certain

amount

883

of overseas service, either in military missions, strategic

Accordingly, the officer alternately moves from an army post to an overseas garrison, or to a civilian community while on duty with militia or reserve units. The duties are varied and frequently stimulating because of new interests and new places. outposts or colonies.

1.

General

Staff.

—An

officer in this field is

required to

know

the functions of personnel, intelligence, plans, operations, training or supply. The knowledge he brings with him of the men in the

ranks assists him in determining whether his policy on paper can be carried out by men in units. Many general staff problems are concerned with political-military affairs and grand strategy. The training and background of the ordinary officer are not sufficient to equip him adequately in these matters. Consequently such jobs are assigned to officers who have demonstrated that they possess

who have maintained a lively and who have attained a sense of propordealing with complex matters.

the necessary qualities of intellect, interest in world affairs

tion in 2.

may

Technical and Supply Services.

—

Officers in these services

possibly be graduates of engineering schools as well as of a

Their work in signal communications, ordnance or procurement of supplies brings them into frequent contact with business and industrial men. Mutual understanding by these groups is essential to the successful operation of industrial mobilization in the event of war. 3. Methods of Promotion.— In modern forces, officers are promoted through seniority in length of service, by selection on the basis of merit or, most frequently, by some combination of the two. For instance, most selection systems require a certain seniority before an officer can be pushed ahead of his contemporaries. In time of peace, when vacancies are few, the length of service requirements for selection may be increased. Promotion by seniority alone assures adequate reward for faithful service; it may, however, result in the promotion of less competent officers, at the same time failing to take full advantage of the military academy.

more capable, younger men. In peacetime, promotion is normally a permanent advancement, while in wartime the tremendous expansion of the armed forces requires temporary promotions. Postwar contraction of the serv-

potentialities of

drop back one or two grades from advanced temporary rank. In World War II, for instance, in the U.S. services there were many cases of permanent captains who held the rank of brigadier and even major general, and many of these, despite proved ability, had to return to the grade of ices often requires officers to

their

colonel after the war.

The armed

forces of

most nations use some

sort of qualification

report as an important basis for selecting officers for promotion.

In the U.S. services these reports are submitted periodically, usually once or twice a year, and are prepared by the immediate commander or supervisor of the officer. After the next higher commander adds his comments, these reports are sent to the service headquarters in Washington, D.C., for evaluation and file. Reports are evaluated by electronic means, and each report is given The average of these ratings over a period of years a rating. largely determines whether an officer qualifies for staff college or

war

college,

and influences

his

selection

for

promotion

in

the

higher grades.

The

British services use the qualification report system but

for promotion, and for attendance at staff college, by passing rigid examinations. The examination system is also used by the U.S. navy. also require a junior officer to qualify

VU. CONCLUSION An

modern army,

air force or navy has a responsible lives of many of the nation's citizens depend upon his judgment and knowledge. Probably in no other field of endeavour is a leader thrust so quickly into a position of great

task.

officer in a

The

integrity,

responsibility as

is

the officer in time of war.

ihe officer is the product of his own nation's social system. But his colleagues in the armed forces of other countries share the difficulties resulting from the increasing complexity of modem warfare, and those of controlling human organizations in battle.

;

OFFSET— OGDEN

884

See also Insignia. Military and individual articles on various military ranks and units, as General; Admiral; Brigade; Division, Military; etc. Bibliography. Ardant du Picq, Baltic Studies (1880); H. and M. Sprout, The Rise of American Naval Power, ij-^6-igi8 (1939), Toward a New Order of Sea Power (11)40); Archibald Wavell, Generals and Generalship (19411 William H. Baumcr, West Point, Moulder of Men •

—

formed exclusively by the women.

The

craft of

wood carving has

declined.

More than

140 different communities found asylum in Ogbomosho during the former wars with the north and this accounted for its high population, Ogbomosho was founded as a camp about the mid- 17th century and enjoyed peace until the early 19th

;

L. A. Marshall, Men Against Fire (1947) ; Michael A. Lewis, (1948); R. Ernest Dupuy, Men of West Point (1951) Louis B. Ely, The Red Army Today, 3rd cd. (1953) R. Ernest Dupuy, The Compact History of the United States Army (1956); R. Ernest Dupuy and T. N. Dupuy, Military Heritage of America (1956) The Officer's Guide, 24th rev. ed. (1963) The Air Officer's Guide, 8th ed. (1955); Arthur A. Ageton.rAeiVaua/O^cer'i Guide, 5th ed. (1960). (T. N. D.)

(1942)

The

;

S.

A'flfv of Britain ;

;

;

OFFSET,

forming a transition between a thin wall above and a thick wall below, or between varying depths of a buttress. An offset buttress is one deeper at the bottom than at the top, with the difference between the upper and lower faces taken up by one or more offsets. in architecture, is a slanting plane,

OFFSET PRINTING: see Lithography.

OGADAI

(

UcEDEi or Ogotai)

(

11

S5-1 241), son and successor

Mongol emperor Genghis Khan. He was chosen for the succession by his father because of the bad feeling between his two brothers, elder Jagatai and Jochi (who died in 1227). He was of the

first to call himself khagan (chief khan), his father having used only the title khan. Ogadai built a capital, Karakorum, in northern Mongolia, completed the conquest of north China (but not of China south of the Yangtze), and sent armies into Iran, Iraq,

the

Azerbaijan and Russia. The Mongols destroyed many cities in Russia between 1237 and 1241. In the latter year they also defeated an army of Poles and Germans, marched through Hungary and reached the Adriatic sea. After these events Russia remained tributary to the Mongols of the Golden Horde, ruled by the descendants of Jochi, for more than 200 years. Following Ogadai's death his widow, Toragana. ruled as regent until 1246 when she handed over the throne to Kuyuk, her eldest son by Ogadai. See also Mongol Empires. BiBLiocRAPHY. Erich Haenisch, Die Geheime Geschichte der Mongolen (Mongol source) (1948) Rene Grousset, L'Empire Mongol (1"" phase) (1941) Paul Pelliot et Louis Hambis, Histoire des Campagnes de Gengis Khan (Chinese source) (1951) ; George Vernadsky, The Mongols and Russia (1953). (O. L.)

—

;

;

OGASAWARA-GUNTO: see Bonin Islands. OGBOMOSHO, the most northerly of the principal

towns of Western Nigeria, lies in Oyo province. 55 mi. N.E. of Ibadan and about 15 mi. from the border between Western and Northern Nigeria in the Ondo hills at about 1,200 ft. above sea level in an area of savanna and farmland. It is the third largest town of Nigeria. Pop. (1961

est.)

163.483.

The town extends over

a large area astride the northward trunk main street. It is the headquarters of the American Baptist Church in Nigeria and has a notable theological seminary on "New England" architectural lines. The Ogbomosho mosque, with its great square tower, is a prominent landmark, and other churches and mosques rise among the walled compounds of private houses in traditional Yoruba and Nigerian "Brazilian" styles. Though there is no museum, fine wood carvings and Koso drums ("unique to Ogbomosho) are found, mostly in private houses. There are a grammar school, a girls' high school and a teachertraining college; also Baptist and government hospitals, a tuberculosis clinic, a leper settlement and a home for motherless

road, which forms

its

babies.

The town

is a road junction and stands on the main road from Lagos (154 mi.) and Ibadan (55 mi,) to Ilorin and the north. To it is linked with Oshogbo and thence to Benin and Eastern Nigeria. Farming and trading are the principal occupations and local traders travel widely. Foodstuffs exported to other parts of Nigeria include yams, cassava and guinea corn; beans, palm oil and cotton are grown for home consumption. Tobacco is grown to supply the cigarette factory at Ibadan, The town is also an important staging point and market for cattle. Locally grown cotton is used for weaving the traditional Yoruba cloth, aso oke, while Ogbomosho weavers also make sanyan, a cloth woven from silk brought from Ilorin. The indigo dyeing of cloth is per-

the southeast

century when the Fulani swept down from the north. Many of the surrounding Yoruba towns were destroyed, including old Oyo, the original Yoruba capital, but Ogbomosho resisted the invasion with the help of its walls, parts of which still remain, (W, H, I.) (1889-1957), British writer and linguist, was the originator of Basic English (q.v.) a minimum language sufficient for general needs selected from English. At Cambridge, after a first class in the classical tripos (1910), he founded a penny intellectual weekly, The Cambridge Magazine, to which Hardy. Wells, Shaw and others contributed. In 1919 he made it a quarterly to print The Meaning of Meaning, a study in theory of language. The chapter on definition contained the germ of Basic English, which took final form in 1928, It consists of 850 headwords, few enough to be printed on a single sheet of note paper (rules in The System of Basic English; usage limitations in The Basic Words). The system became widely known and many books were printed in it (e.g., The Basic Bible, 1944). In 1943 Winston Churchill appointed a committee of ministers to study extension of its use. Ogden gave evidence before this body but the attempt proved premature. His own entry in Who's Who reads "1944-6,

OGDEN, CHARLES KAY

.

Ogden died on March 22. 1957. in London. His work remains fruitful in improved conceptions of language learning. His great collection of books on Bentham and in language theory is in the library of University college, London, (I. A, Rs.) bedevilled by officials."

OGDEN, PETER SKENE

0794-1854), British fur trader America in the 1820s. was born of Loyalist American ancestry, probably in Quebec. About 1810 he entered the service of the North West company and was stationed at Isle-a-la-Crosse during the period of murderous rivalry with the Hudson's Bay company. Though excluded when the two concerns merged in 1821, Ogden was admitted as a chief trader in 1823, and for six years thereafter led the company's Snake country In 1825 he expedition in competition with American trappers. reached the river in LUah that now bears his name, explored southern Oregon and northeastern California in 1826-27, discovered the Humboldt river in 1828, and in 1829 made the first reconnaissance of the eastern face of the Sierra Nevada, discovering Carson, Walker and Owens lakes.

who

explored

From

much

of western

1831 to 1844 Ogden superintended trade in the British From 1845 to area, being made a chief factor in 1835,

Columbia

death at Oregon City, Sept. 27, 1854, he was a principal officer Hudson's Bay company's Columbia department, warmly remembered for having succoured the survivors of the Whitman massacre (see Whitman, Marcus). Ogden was twice married to Indian women, having children by each. He always remained a British subject. The anonymous Traits of American Indian Life and Character by a Fur Trader, published in London in 1853, is attributed to him. Abstracts of his journals, with a biography by T. C. Elliott, were published in the Oregon Historical Quarterly, 1909-10; the Hudson's Bay Record society began publishing the complete texts in 1950. See also Ogden (Utah). (D. L. M.) a city of north-central Utah, U.S., in the valley of the Great Salt lake, is located about 35 mi. N. of Salt Lake City; the seat of Weber county. A typical Utah garden city, green and tree-grown, Ogden sprawls near the foot of rough-hewn- Wasatch mountain peaks on an old delta of the Ogden and Weber rivers which formed under the waters of ancient Lake Bonneville and slopes toward low-lying Great Salt lake. The Ogden river, from which comes the city's name, memorializes Peter Skene Ogden (1794-1854), a British fur trader who trapped in the mountains east of the modern city in May 1825. In 1846 the mountain man Miles M. Goodyear established Ft. Buenaventura, a log stockade with adjacent irrigated garden, on the site of Ogden, which gives the city the distinction of being the oldest continuously settled community in Utah; the "Goodyear cabin" is still preserved. his

in the

OGDEN,

,

—

OGHAM WRITING— OGIER THE DANE Goodyear sold out

to the

Mormons when

they arrived in 1847, and

James Brown of the Mormon battalion was Goodyear property. Brownsville, as it was called for a while, was renamed Ogden after Brigham Young laid out the town in 1849, the name being selected by the legislature in 1850. The city was incorporated a year afterward, and in 1951 adopted a council-manager form of government. After the completion of the Union Pacific railroad in 1869, Ogden became the primary rail centre of the intermountain region and a major distribution point for manufacturing, milling, canning and agricultural products, its stockyards being particularly notable. Industries include the processing of food and dairy products and the manufacture of storage batteries, jet engines, clothing and building materials. State institutions located in Ogden include an industrial school for dehnquent children and a school for the deaf and blind. Weber college, founded by the Mormon church in 1889 as Weber Stake academy, and turned over to the state in 1933, was expanded from a junior to a senior college in the 1960s. Pop. (1960) 70,197; standard metropolitan statistical area (Weber early in 1848 Capt.

sent to take over the

county) 110,744. For comparative population figures see table in (D. L. M.) Utah': Population. WRITING. The Ogham alphabet (Old Irish ogam) was used for writing Irish and Pictish on stone monuments; according to Irish tradition it was also used for writing on pieces It consists of wood, but there is no material evidence for this. in its simplest form of four sets of strokes or notches, with five in each set, incised in the middle or on either side of the edge of an upright stone, thus giving 20 letters; a fifth set of five, called in Irish tradition "extra letters" iforfeda). seems a later development. The origin of this alphabet is in dispute, some scholars seeing a connection with the runic and, ultimately, with the north

OGHAM

The

885

French chronicles make no mention of Autcharius and that his existence is vouched for only by the Vita Hadriani in the Liber Pontificalis encourages the supposition that he was considered a rebel. All that is certain is that the Gesta Karoli Magni fact that the

(c. 883) already asserts that he took refuge in Lombardy after incurring Charlemagne's wrath; it is also known that the monks of

at Meaux compiled, c. 1080, the Conversio Othgerii an account of a great soldier who, with one of his companions, renounced the world to enter their monastery, and that before 1180 they had erected a tomb (still in existence in the 18th century) to their memory. Though the Chanson de Roland (q.v.) and the Nota Emilianense speak of Ogier the Dane (named Oggero Spatha Curta i.e., "short-sword" by the Nota) as one of the emperor's valiant warSt.

Faron

militis,

—

many texts describe him as a rebel. The oldest of these appears to be that in the Danish Karl Magnus Kr0nike (before 1480), which relates that the pope, having summoned Charlemagne to aid him against the Saracens, was sent troops commanded by his son, Karlot, and Olger. Karlot, at first rescued by Olger, later disobeyed him and was finally killed by him in combat. Olger, conriors,

demned to three years' imprisonment, was only released when the emperor again needed his services. Charles and Olger were reconciled and Olger returned to Denmark. This narrative was recast, in whole or in part, first by Raimbert de Paris in his La Chevalerie Ogier (c. 1200-20), which includes Ogier's adventures in Italy and those relative to his reconciliation with the emperor, and then by Adenet le Roi (q.v.) in Les Enfances Ogier (c. end of the 13th century).

According to the Chevalerie, Ogier,

who had

in revolt against the

emperor

refused him justice after his son Baudouinet had been

by Chariot, Charlemagne's son, swore an oath that he would Chariot in vengeance, and took refuge with the king of the Lombards, who appointed him his standard-bearer and gave him Charlemagne the strongholds of Montchevreuil and Castelfort, thereupon campaigned against Didier and Ogier, and defeated them; Ogier slew every F-renchman he encountered and fell back on Castelfort. There he was besieged for seven years. He escaped but was taken prisoner by Archbishop Turpin who handed him over to the emperor, who condemned him to death but left him in the archbishop's keeping. Turpin told Charlemagne that Ogier was dying of hunger, though he was secretly feeding him. News of Ogier's death was noised abroad; and the Saracens were emboldened to invade France, so that the harassed people bitterly deplored Ogier's disappearance, Turpin then revealed that Ogier was still alive, but Ogier refused to put himself at the head of the Christian troops unless Chariot was handed over to him. The emperor was forced to consent, but Ogier, as he unsheathed his sword to strike the young prince dead, was stopped by an angel who persuaded him that his oath would be fulfilled if he contented himself with slapping Chariot's face which he did. Ogier then led the French killed kill

SYMBOLS OF THE OGHAM ALPHABET, USED BY THE CELTS IRELAND

IN BRITAIN

AND

Etruscan alphabet, while others maintain that it is simply a transformation of the Latin alphabet evolved in Ireland; the fact that signs for h and z occur in it, but are not used in Irish inscriptions, speaks strongly against a purely Irish origin. The inscriptions are very short, normally consisting of a name and patronymic in the genitive case; they are of great linguistic interest because they show an older state of the Irish language than that attested by the earliest written sources. It is certain that many of them go back to the Sth and 6th centuries, but there are no epigraphic or linguistic criteria to prevent an earlier date being suggested for some of them. Their distribution is very uneven; of the 520 recorded by R. A. S. Macalister, 200 are found in the modern counties of Cork and Kerry, in southwest Ireland, and an exceptionally interesting group are the 37 from south Wales, nearly all of which are accompanied by Latin transliterations or equivalents. The key to the Ogham alphabet was never lost and it continued to be used as a kind of cryptographic writing (scholastic oghams) during the literary period. See also Celtic Languages; Irish Literature.

— Collection

Macalister, Corpus inscripliomim insularum celticarum (1945). Linguistic analysis by J. MacNeill, "The Irish Ogham Inscriptions," Proc. R. Irish Acad., vol. xxvii (1909). Discussions of dating and origin: C. Marstrander, "Om runene eg runenavnenes oprindelse," Norsk Tidsskrlft for Sprogvidenskap, vol. i (1928) J. Vendrycs, "L'ecriture ogamique et ses origines," Etudes Celtiqiirs, vol. iv (1948) K. Jackson, "Notes on the Ogam Inscriptions of Southern Britain" in C. Fox and B. Dickins (ed.). The Earlv Cultures of North-West Europe (1950). (D. Ge.) BiBLiOGR.'^PHY.

in

R. A.

S.

;

;

OGIER THE DANE

(Ogier le Danois). an important charHis hisprototype was Autcharius, vassal and liege of Pepin le Bref (Pepin III the Short) and subsequently of Pepin's son Carloman, the brother of the future Charlemagne. When Charlemagne, after Carloman's death (771), set out to annex his territories, Autcharius, in 771 or 772. accompanied Gerberga, Carloman's widow, and her two children to the court of Didier (Desiderius), king of the Lombards, and was with her when Charles captured Verona in 773. acter in the Carolingian cycle of French medieval epics. torical

—

into battle against the Saracens; he killed Brehier, their leader,

and was rewarded by Charlemagne with the gift, among other territories, of Hainaut and Brabant, and marriage to an English princess.

The development main

unclarified,

of these stories presents

many

points that re-

and Ogier's surname (the Dane),

in particular,

has not been satisfactorily explained (the chansojis de geste make him the son of Gauffrey, king of Denmark), Ogier's adventures,

however, became the subject of many medieval hterary works. The third branch of the Norse Karlamagnus saga, the Saga af Oddgeiri danska, closely follows the narrative of La Chevalerie Ogier, but with greater order and concision. Ogier. called Otger Catalon, appears in stories describing the conquest of Catalonia. Under the name of Danes Urgel or Urgero, brother of the king of Dacia, he appears in three Castilian romances which were so popular in Spain that they were used by Lope de Vega in El Marques de Mantua, written before 1604 a work of which Jeronimo de Cancer's La Miiertc de Baldovinos ( 1652 was a parody. In England, a later romance in alexandrines British Museum Manuscript Royal 15 E Vi) added supernatural elements derived from Celtic sources; the prose romance printed in Paris in 1495 was a version of this poem. In Italy this supernatural element was introduced

—

)

(

OGILBY— O'HIGGINS

886

into stories of the hero's youth as well as of his

manhood.

The

the Jacobites, but his slackness in pursuit of the retreating

enemy

English romance is the basis of a poem in 47 cantos, Uggieri il Danese, several times reprinted between 1498 and 1638, as well as of a prose version; the French version is developed in a transcription in Franco-Italian, as well as in a Tuscan version of which there

brought him into disfavour with the duke of Cumberland, and he tried by court-martial but acquitted. He then resumed his parliamentary career and saw no further active military service. He

both a prose text and a text in ottava rima. See also Chansons de Geste; Charlemagne Legends; Roland, Chanson de.

in

exist

— La

Chevalerie Ogier de Danemarche, ed. by J. B. Barrois, 2 vol. (1842): .\. Henry, Les Oeuvres d'Adenel le Roi, vol. 3, Les Enfances Ogier (1956) ; R. Lejeune, "Recherches sur le thime: Les Chansons de geste et I'histoire," in Bibliolkdque de la Faculty de pkilosophie el letlres de VUniversiU de Li^ge, vol. cviii (1948); G. Storm, Sagnkredsene om Karl den Store og Didrik af Bern (1874) H. L. Ward, Catalogue of Romances, in the Dept. of MSS. in the British Museum, vol. 1, pp. 604-610 (1883); P. Rajna, Le Origin! dell'epopea francese (1884). (P. Ae.)

Bibliography.

;

OGILBY, JOHN

(1600-1676), British poet, translator and making of road atlases, was born in or Nov. 1600. His early career, as dancing master, tutor to the children of the earl of Strafford, with whom he went to Ireland (163,?), deputy master of the Irish revels and successful proprietor of a Dublin theatre, ended when his finances were ruined by the outbreak of the English Civil War. Returning to England, destitute, he learned Greek and Latin and published translations of Virgil (1649), Homer His Iliads (1660) and Homer His Odysses (1665). At the Restoration, he won favour with Charles II and was entrusted with "the poetical part" of the printer, a pioneer in the

near Edinburgh

in

coronation.

He returned to Ireland, where he opened another theatre, but subsequently settled in London and after the Great Fire of 1666, lost his property, was employed in surveying disputed property in the City. He set up as a printer with the title of "king's cosmographer and geographic printer" and produced many His volumes notable for their typography and illustrations. Britannia a Geographical and Historical Description of the Principal Roads (1675), which formed part of a projected world atlas, was based on his own journeys on foot, and was a landmark in accurate description of the country's roads. The maps were printed on strips, the first time this method had been used for map production. As a translator and poet he wrote epic and heroic poems which have been lost, and a play which remains unprinted he is chiefly remembered by the ridicule of Dryden in MacFlecknoe and Pope in the Dunciad, but as a mapmaker his work had enduring value. He died in London, Sept. 4, 1676. (1696-1785), British general and philanthropist who took the leading part in founding the American colony of Georgia, was born in London on Dec. 22, 1696, and was educated at Eton and Corpus Christi college, Oxford. He entered the army in 1712, joined the Austrian army fighting the Turks in 1717, and was present at the siege and storming of Belgrade. On his return to England in 1722 he entered parliament. In 1729 he presided over a committee which brought about some much needed prison reforms. This experience gave him the idea of founding a new colony in America as a place where the poor and destitute could start life afresh. In 1732 he secured a charter for such a colony in Georgia and arranged for the organization and financing of the undertaking. In 1733 he accompanied the first settlers who arrived in Georgia and founded Savannah. On the outbreak of war between England and Spain in 1739, Oglethorpe conducted a vigorous defense of the territory. He was foiled in an attempt to capture the Spanish town of St. Augustine, but was able to repel a hostile attack on Frederica (1742 ), displaying great personal courage and leadership in the engagement. The attack was not repeated and the remaining years of the war passed with only minor activity. Oglethorpe's popularity, not only with his hurriedly raised and imperfectly trained troops but with all classes of the population, assured the safety of Georgia. The colony continued to grow and prosper after the war, though Oglethorpe showed surprising lack of judgment in some of his appointments to office. {See Georgia: History.) Oglethorpe finally returned to England in 1743. In 1745, on his promotion to major general, he took part in the campaign against when he

.

.

.

—

—

OGLETHORPE, JAMES EDWARD

was

was promoted general in 765 and became a prominent social figure London and one of the friends of Dr. Johnson. He died at 1

Cranham

hall,

Essex, in 178S.

See A. A. Ettinger, James

OGOOUE

(Ogowe),

Edward Oglethorpe

(

1936)

.

(E.

W.

Sh.)

a river of west central Africa, flowing for

almost its entire course through the Gabon Republic, rises in the Republic of Congo formerly Middle Congo) on the eastern slopes of the Chaillu range and enters the Atlantic south of Cap Lopez. It is about 970 km. (603 mi.) long and drains a basin of more than 85,000 sq.mi. At first it is a plateau river, but later it flows into a valley which, in some places, spreads out into plains where the river branches and, in others, narrows between escarpments where the Ogooue crosses the harder outcrops in a series of falls. In this way it flows from one basin to another, like that at Franceville, upstream from the confluence of the Mpassa, and that at Lastoursville through which the Lolo also flows, parallel with the Ogooue before joining it. Below its meeting with the Ivindo, the Ogooue turns westward and its course becomes more varied. After crossing the Fare falls it forms a series of great rapids downstream from its junction with the Ke and then divides into arms which are also broken by rapids as far as Ndjole. Between Booue and Ndjole it is joined by the Offooue and the Okano. Below Ndjole it soon leaves the massif and crosses the lower Gabon plain, being joined by its chief tributary, the Ngounie, which also comes (

From

from the Chaillu range, above Lambarene. despite sandbanks,

it is

always navigable,

its

this

point,

level being regulated

and lakes Onague and Anengue to the south. A delta, formed chiefly of deposits brought from the south by the cold Benguela current, spreads north of the river's main course. The Ogooue has two flood seasons: March-June and, more im-

by Lac (Lake) Azingo

portant,

to the north

November-December.

Its average flow is 185,000 cu.ft. has plenty of water even during the low period of August-September. It was formerly considered the principal means of penetrating the interior from the Gabon coast. The first person to explore the valley of the Ogooue was Paul du Chaillu

per second and

it

(1857-59).

(J. D.) (1846-1928), Irish man of letters, whose retelling of the Irish heroic sagas captured the imagination of W. B. Yeats, T. W. Rolleston, /E (George William Russell) and others, and earned him the title of "father of the Irish literary revival," was born at Castletown. County Cork, on Sept. He graduated from Trinity college, Dublin, in 1868. 18, 1846. S. O'Halloran's A Ge^ieral History of Ireland 1778) first aroused his interest in Irish antiquity; but it was Eugene O'Curry's On the Mamiers and Customs of the Ancient Irish (1873) and the same author's Lectures on the Matiuscript Materials of Ancient Irish History ( 1861) which gave him his first introduction to the ancient heroic and romantic literature of Ireland. In 1878 his History of Ireland: the Heroic Period appeared and in 1880 it was succeeded by History of Ireland: Cuculain and His Contemporaries. The enthusiasm of Yeats and other young Irish writers eventually found O'Grady a wider audience and a London publisher, and in 1892 he published Finn and His Companions, following it two years later with The Coming of Cuculain. He also wrote several works of historical fiction, of which The Bog of Stars (1893) and The Flight of the Eagle (1897) are probably the best, O'Grady's versions of Irish epic have great narrative vigour and imaginative power and had a profound influence on Yeats and other Irish writers of his time. He died at Shanklin, Isle of Wight, on

O'GRADY, STANDISH JAMES

(

May

18, 1928. Bibliography. Standish O'Grady, Selected Essays and Passages, with an introduction by E. A. Boyd (1918) H. A. O'Grady, Standish James O'Grady, the Man and the Writer (l929) P. S. O'Hegarty, A Bibliography of Books Written by Standish O'Grady (1930).

—

;

;

(A. Cr.)

O.

HENRY:

O'HIGGINS,

see

Henry, O,

BERNARDO,

(1776-1842), the father of Chilean independence and the head of its first national government,

O'HIGGINS— OHIO was born on Aug. 20, 1776, to an Irish father, Ambrosio O'Higgins, and a Chilean mother, Isabel Riquelme, at the village of Chilian. While his father advanced rapidly in the service of the Spanish crown, serving eventually as governor of Chile and viceroy of Peru, Bernardo headed a revolution against royal authority. Educated in England, he read eagerly the revolutionary literature of the time and met various proponents of Latin-American independence, including Francisco Miranda (q.v.) of Venezuela. When O'Higgins returned to Chile in 1802, he settled on his father's estates in the southern part of the country and became an active member of a liberal organization which favoured independence. Napoleon's invasion of Spain, which resulted in the dethronement of Ferdinand VII in 1808, encouraged a revolt in Chile, led by Juan Martinez de Rozas and enthusiastically supported by O'Higgins. Momentarily successful, this initial revolutionary effort failed because of dissension among the patriots themselves and O'Higeffective opposition from viceregal headquarters in Peru. gins, who had advanced to the command of the rebel forces, was thoroughly defeated at Rancagua in Oct. 1814. O'Higgins and other patriots then fled over the Andes mountains to

Mendoza

to join with the Argentine revolutionary leader Jose

de San Martin, who planned to establish a base in Chile and then to defeat the Spanish forces by striking at the centre of royal auThis plan, launched in 1817 after careful but thority in Peru. strenuous preparations, was successful. In the course of the operation, O'Higgins helped lead the revolutionary forces to victories in the battles of Chacabuco in Feb. 1817 and Maipu in April 1818. These victories terminated Spanish authority in Chile, and the nation's independence was proclaimed on Feb. 12, 1819. O'Higgins served as supreme director of Chile, a virtual dictator, from 1817 to 1823. Dedicated to the welfare of his country, he inaugurated reforms that aroused the opposition of the more conservative elements. The Roman Catholic Church objected to his concessions to Protestants and his efforts to restrict the number of saint days. The landed aristocracy objected to his effort to abolish entailed estates. The importation of foreign books and the emphasis on pubhc instead of parochial education likewise drew adverse criticism. Equally unpopular were his attempts to restrict bullfighting, gambling and other amusements. The opposition was able to force O'Higgins to resign in Jan. 1823. He lived the remainder of his life in Peru, where he died on Oct. 24, 1842. His remains were returned to his native land in Jan. 1869. (W. D. Be.) O'HIGGINS, (1892-1927), Irish statesman, prominent in the troubled years following the Anglo-Irish treaty of 1921, was born on June 7, 1892, at Stradbally. Queen's county, the youngest son of Thomas Higgins, Educated at University college, Dublin, he became articled to his uncle Maurice Healy, a soHcitor in Cork. After the Easter rising in 1916 he joined the Sinn Fein movement and was interned. While still in jail he was elected member of parliament for Queen's county in 1918. In the revolutionary ddit ministry set up in 1919 he acted as assistant minister for local government to W. T. Cosgrave. O'Higgins supported the 1921 treaty with England that brought the Irish Free State into being. He was appointed minister for economic

KEVIN CHRISTOPHER

government in Jan. 1922, and after the deaths of Arthur Griffith and Michael Collins he became (1923)

affairs in the provisional

vice-president of the executive council and minister for

and

O'Higgins was a

member

home

committee appointed to draft the constitution of the Irish Free State and he was the minister responsible for its passage through the ddil (lower affairs

justice.

of the

house of the legislature). He created a new unarmed police force known as Civic Guards, and took strong, even ruthless, measures to restore order: his share of responsibility for the execution of 77 republicans in 1922-23 was neither forgotten nor forgiven. In external policy O'Higgins aimed at a united Ireland within the British Commonwealth. He played a prominent part in redefining commonwealth relations at the imperial conference of 1926. During a period of acute controversy over the taking of the oath of allegiance by members of the ddil, O'Higgins was waylaid by armed men while on his way to Booterstown church, near Dublin, and shot to death (July 10, 1927). O'Higgins, a man of intellectual

887

power and "a soul incapable

won the admiragreat man in his pride

of remorse or rest"

tion of W. B. Yeats, who wrote of him as "a confronting murderous men." -See also Ireland, Republic of: History. (P. N. S. M.) See T. de V. White, Kevin O'Higgins (1949). O'HIGGINS, an inland province of central Chile. Its area is

2,743 sq.mi. and the population in 1960 was 259,700. Named after Bernardo O'Higgins, a general in the war of independence and first president of Chile, the province was formed in 1883, dissolved in

1927 and created again in 1934. Its departments are Rancagua, Caupolican, San Vicente and Cachapoal. Most of the western half of O'Higgins lies on the alluvial plains of the central valley, where, because of the long and warm dry seaWater is furnished by son of summer, irrigation is required. streams that have their sources in the snow-capped Andean Cordillera. The highlands and the non-irrigated lowland areas support cattle and some sheep. Irrigated pastures are widely used for dairy herds and to ready beef cattle for market. Grapes, wheat, barley, legumes and corn are the principal crops. Santiago and the

Rancagua (pop. [1960] 53,318), are the major marketing centres for O'Higgins producers. Rancagua is 51 mi. S. of Santiago on the railroad to Puerto Montt; it is the terminus for a branch line to the intensively farmed Donihue and Coltauco districts. A second branch line extends westward from near Rengo (10,989), a departmental capital, to serve the smaller administrative and agricultural towns of San Vicente de Tagua-Tagua and Peumo. The paved north-south highway and a number of all-year roads provide the province with good There are mineral spring resorts at transportation facihties. Termas de Cauquenes, southeast of Rancagua, and at Cachantiin, southwest of the city. Rancagua, founded in 1743, is the site of a famous battle (Oct. 1-2, 1814) in the war of independence. Among its industries are the shops and foundry of the copper company, grain mills and a glass factory. Rengo manufactures matches and hardware. El Teniente, the second largest copper mine in Chile, is

provincial capital,

also located in the province.

(J.

T.)

a north-central state of the United States, is bounded on the north by Michigan and Lake Erie, on the east by Pennsyland the Ohio river; the entire southern boundary is the vania

OHIO,

Ohio from West Virginia and Kentucky, while on Ohio's relatively square shape is reflected dimensions, the maximum length (north to south) being 220

river, separating

the west hes Indiana.

by

its

mi. and width 225 mi. Its area of 41,222 sq.mi. excludes 3,457 sq.mi. in Lake Erie and includes 250 sq.mi. of inland water surLake Erie washes 184 mi. of its northern edge. Although face. only 35th in size and smaller than every state west of it except

Indiana and Hawaii, Ohio ranked fifth in population in 1960. Admitted to the union in 1803 as the 17th state, Ohio was the first to be carved from the Northwest territory. The capital has been Columbus since 1816. Its popular name, the "Buckeye state," emanates from the prevalence of the buckeye chestnut (Aesculus glabra). cardinal,

The

state flower

is

the scarlet carnation, the bird

and the motto (adopted 1959)

is

"With God,

is

the

All Things

The state flag (adopted 1902) is the only one of burgee shape. Its triangular blue field bearing 1 7 white stars and the buckeye) in a white "0" is comple(symbolizing red circle a mented by five horizontal alternating red and white stripes. The great seal of the state of Ohio (adopted prematurely in 1802 and modified several times thereafter) depicts the sun rising over a mountain range (reputedly the Mt. Logan chain in Ross county) in the background and shocks of wheat in the foreground. Are Possible."

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Physical Features. Ohio's topography

is

—Like

its

population and

a composite. 41° 57' N. lat.,

The

its

economy,

state lies approximately between 80° 34' and 84°

and between 38° 27' and 49' W. long. The encroachment of the great glaciers of the Ice Age was largely responsible for Ohio's physical appearance for, as the ice sheets spread over the state, they leveled hilly terrain and created a flat or gently rolling surface noted for its fertihty.

The southeast, beyond the glaciers' penetration, is characterized by steep elevations, deep valleys and soil ill-suited to farming.

—

OHIO

888 Much

has been relatively unexploited.

ot this section

Its singular location endowed Ohio with the characteristics of the Lake plains, the Centhree different physiographic provinces The tral plains (or central Lowland), and the Allegheny plateau.

—

juncture of the three sections is near Cleveland, but the last two abut approximately through the centre of the stale, north to south. The Lake plains area, encompassing northwest Ohio and a strip It along the Lake Erie coast, was once entirely under water. emerged monotonously flat and swampy, and not until drainage projects were successfully undertaken in the late 19th century The Central could its fertile soil be used to good advantage. Having plains embrace the western and southwestern counties.

undergone much erosion prior to the coming of the glaciers, this area was consequently rather uniformly covered by the vast ice sheets, creating a comparatively level surface with soil of considerable depth. To the east, the Allegheny plateau includes both glaciated and unglaciated areas. The counties lying south of the terminal moraine (the limit of the glaciers' advance) lack the

arable soil and the extensive pasture lands of the counties of the north and west. On the other hand, the unglaciated regions offer

rugged and spectacularly beautiful terrain noted especially for caves, precipitous valleys and breath-taking rock formations. Ohio's average elevation above sea level is approximately 850 The extremes, both of which occur in the Central plains, are ft. 1,SS0 ft., near Bellefontaine, and 433 ft., on the Ohio river bank near Cincinnati. Most of the state rises to between 550 and 1,300

A

ft.

in elevation.

notable topographical feature of Ohio

is

the watershed which

boundary to the northeast corner. Above the watershed, rivers flow north into Lake Erie. They are short and their courses are not parallel. Below it. the rivers flowing south to the Ohio river are about three times as long as their counterparts to the north, and they traverses the state from the middle of the western

drain about

70%

of the state's surface.

Several gaps in the di-

vide facilitated the development of transportation and, with the aid of easy portages,

made

possible important north-south water

Maumee and Miami

Sandusky and Scioto rivers, and the Cuyahoga-Tuscarawas and Muskingum rivers. Of lesser significance are the Huron, Vermilion and Black rivers in the north, the Olentangy, Licking, Hocking and Little Miami in central and southern Ohio, and the Grand and Mahoning in the east. The Ohio river flows for about 435 mi. through a narrow valley along southeastern and southern Ohio but it is not legally within the boundaries of the state. At various times the Ohio and some of the interior rivers have overflowed their banks, routes employing the

rivers, the

So great a catastrophe occurred in 1913, especially at Dayton, that Ohio took steps to prevent a recurrence of the tragedy by establishing the Miami conservancy district (and later the Muskingum conservancy district). The 1914 law authorizing this action, which consisted basically of concausing disastrous floods.

dams to control streams in their upper reaches, was the first of its kind in the United States. The federal government built 19 dams on the Ohio river which have also substantially reduced the flood threat. A few serious floods have occurred since 1913 but their effects have been greatly mitigated by the structing a series of

existence of the dams.

Excellent natural harbours have helped to

make Toledo, San-

dusky, Lorain and Cleveland important lake ports. In the state are more than 100 lakes exceeding 40 ac. each in size. Twentyseven of these are natural while the rest were man-made, some of them constructed originally as canal reservoirs. The latter include 16,000-ac. Lake St. Marys (Grand Reservoir), Lake Loramie, Indian lake and Buckeye lake. Climate. The principal characteristics of Ohio's climate are its changeability and its extremes of temperature. The result is a seasonal variation which to some extent compensates for extremes of heat and cold, high humidity and the like. The average annual temperature is a moderate 51.2° F., with the northern section at 49° about 6° lower than the southern. In the summer, of which July is usually the hottest month, the temperature averages 71.6°, and in the winter 29.8° with January customarily coldest. The recorded extremes of —39° at Milligan in Feb. 1897, and of 113°

—

Thurman in July of that year and at Gallipolis in July 1934, it is not uncommon for the temperature to vary as much as 100° within a year. Precipitation, averaging about 38 in. per year, is slightly heavier in the summer. The 21 -in. average for the six months commencing April I exceeds that of the rest of the year by 4 in. The south receives 44 in. of rain, snow, etc. in an average year as compared with i2 in. in the north. The average annual snowfall presents a greater contrast; only 15 in. in the southern counties, it reaches 40-45 in. in the northern, producing a state-wide average of 27.8 in. Farmers usually can expect a growing season of 150-180 days, with those close to Lake Erie enjoying nearly 200 frost-free days. Soil. The nature and quality of the soil differs markedly between one section of the state and another. The southeast, which was deprived of the deep and fertile drift deposited by the glaciers and in which the soil is largely residual sandstone and shale, is the least arable and productive. The glacial sandstone soil of central and northeastern Ohio supports some general farming but is best suited to grazing and pasture lands for the important dairy industry. The soil of the lower two thirds of the western near

are seldom closely approached, but

—

half of the state,

composed principally of

To

glacial

limestone,

is

most prosperous agricultural area. There, after the vast swamps had been drained, the limestone soD was found to be highly productive. Vegetation. Dense forests formerly covered nine tenths of Ohio. Early explorers and woodsmen, as well as the first generation of settlers, literally disappeared from view after they crossed the Ohio river. So thick were the trees that for many years wisps of smoke rising here and there through the leafy overhead were the only visible signs of habitation. The most prevalent types were beech, oak, hickory, maple and chestnut, with others, especially pine, elm, ash and buckeye, occurring in smaller numbers. The forests which yielded the timber for buildings and furniture, fences and fuel, at the same time presented a serious obstacle to the richest of

all.

the north hes the second

—

Countless the settler's search for a livelihood through farming. Some of these have been retrees were burned to clear the land. placed by second-grow'th trees, of which the commonest are oak, hickory, white elm, ash, beech, maple, willow, sycamore and yellow poplar. is

Most

forests, of is

15%

of the approximately

of Ohio that

Twenty

set aside in protected preserves.

is

woodland

of these are state

which 35,000-ac. Shawnee State forest near Portsmouth In addition to trees, both wild and domesticated

the largest.

flowers thrive throughout the state. Animal Life. Although some animals and birds

—

common

to

Ohio as recently as the 19th century have since become extinct, at least 60 species of wild animals and about 175 species of songbirds still occur in significant numbers. Most of the animals are small e.g., rabbits, squirrels, foxes, raccoons, opossums and skunks but there have been increasing numbers of some larger animals, including deer. Represented among the songbirds and birds of prey are most of those normally found in the temperate zone. So abundant are the 170 kinds of fish, among them bass, trout, pike, perch and muskellunge, that Ohio became the first state to remove all restrictions on fishing as to season and number and size of fish

—

caught.

—

Parks Ohio has two national monuments: Perry's Victory monument at Put-in-Bay and the 68-ac. prehistoric Mound City group north of Chillicothe. State parks include historic, archaeological and natural history sites administered by the Ohio Historical society, as well as recreational facihties under the department of natural resources and the highway department. Historic Sites and Museums. Many historic sites are preserved and maintained by historical societies or other organiza-

—

tions.

Stressing variously exhibit

museums,

historic

buildings,

research libraries and publications, numerous counties support historical societies, of which the best-known are those of Ross, Allen,

Stark and Lucas counties. Of regional significance are the Western Reserve Historical society at Cleveland and the Historical and Philosophical Society of Ohio at Cincinnati. The state-supported Ohio Historical society has headquarters at the Ohio State mu-

seum

at Colimibus.

The museum

itself

houses exhibits and ex-

tensive collections related to Ohio history, archaeology and natural

OHIO

Plate

VIEWS OF OHIO Top

left: Business district of Cincinnati, Ohio'! second largest city, seen from the Kenlucliy side of the Ohio river Top right: My Jewels monument on the state house grounds at Co! Bronze figures of Ohio statesmen and soldiers surround the base of the monument; mounted on top is a statue of Cornelia, the Roman matron Centre eft: Harvesting celery on a truck farm near Cleveland, 0. Although the state s chief agricultural products are cereals and grains, it has a large fresh vegetable crop and ranks among the leaders in celery production

Centre: FPouring a lamp base at an Ohio netal company. Diversification has been an important factor in Ohio's idustrial development and there are many small manufacturing centres thr oughout the state Bottom left: Feeding shoals on an Ohio fi rm. A large percentage of the state's agricultural income is derived fron livestock and poultry products Bottom rigfit: Mingo Junction, a sfppl m II and coal mining city. Iron nd steel are Ohio's chief manufacturing indust ii

I

I

ri

\ii

IT

OHIO

SCENES Top left: Winter sunrise over the Maun Top nght: Schoenbrunn memorial state

park, an authentic restoration the first village in Ohio, settled in the late ISth century by David Zeish«rn.r a. a home for his Moravian mission Centre ngit A typical Sunday scene in Holmes county, centre of the of

IN

OHIO

second largest Amisli settlement in the United States family to the city of Taft tam, ft of the Tatt left: Taft House rrjuseum, a g,ft Cmcnnati, contains a collection of fine arts Bottom right: Epworth Euclid church in Wade park. Th ing the lagoon includes the Cleveland Fine Arts garden

Bouo:.

OHIO and a specialized research library of more than 1,000,000 manuscripts, books, periodicals, newspapers and maps. There also are published the Ohio Historical Quarterly and other periodicals, leaflets and books. The society administers 60 properties history,

throughout Ohio, including the birthplaces or residences of Thomas Worthington at Chillicothe, William T. Sherman at Lancaster, Rutherford B. Hayes at Fremont, Ulysses S. Grant at Point Pleasant, Benjamin R. Hanby at Westerville, and Paul Laurence Dunbar at Dayton. "Adena" at Chillicothe, "Glendower" at Lebanon, and the McCook house at CarroUton are interesting architectural examples. Reconstructed Schoenbrunn village and Gnadenhutten

889

considerable confusion because the Ft. Ancient earthworks, as mentioned above, were actually built by the Hopewell and not rise to

by the so-called Fort Ancient people. One well-supported theory is that the Shawnees were immediate descendants of the Fort Ancient group. until later occupied

The French and British, upon penetrating the Ohio valley, found Indians representing four major tribes and several lesser ones. Dominating the region were the Miamis, Shawnees, Wyandots and Delawares, but they shared the scene to some extent with the Fries, Ottawas, Tuscaroras and Mingoes, or Senecas. These tribes

natural history areas include Cedar

produced some of the most famous American Indian warriors and statesmen, among them Tecumseh, Blue Jacket and Cornstalk (all Shawnee); Tarhe the Crane (Wyandot); Little Turtle (Miami); Buckongahelas (Delaware); and Pontiac (believed by some to have been an Ohio-born Ottawa). The Indians, who numbered a probable maximum of 15,000 in Ohio in the mid-18th century, resisted white settlement. Their opposition decreased after their defeat in the battle of Fallen Timbers (1794). Most tribes had departed from Ohio well before the final exodus of the Wyandots

Ridge.

in 1842.

monument pay

reverent tribute to the Moravian missionaries and their Indian converts. The Indian wars are commemorated at forts St. Clair, Jefferson, Recovery,

Meigs and Miami and

at the

Timbers. Other historical state memorange from the Friends' Yearly meetinghouse at Mount Pleasant to the site of the battle of Buffington Island (July 19, 1863). In addition to the famous glacial grooves on Kelleys Island, the site of the battle of Fallen rials

Swamp, Fort Hill and Flint Prominent among the archaeological sites are Ft. Ancient, Great Serpent mound, Newark earthworks and Inscription rock on Kelleys Island.

The

unique in the diversity of museums devoted to transportation. Automobiles are featured at the Thompson Automotive museum at Cleveland (besides private collections), aircraft at the Air Force museum at Dayton, steamboats and other river craft at the River museum at Marietta, lake vessels at the Great Lakes Historical society's Wakefield museum at Vermilion, and locomotives, interurbans and streetcars (some operating over nearly a mile of track) at the Ohio Railway museum at Worthington. state

is

as well as for other prehistoric peoples the

Builders.

The Adena

The terminal date

contested by Great Britain through much of the following century. British assertions of ownership, as time went on, were predicated

upon the increasing activity of traders. By their royal charters, which were sometimes contradictory, several colonies were granted or part of this region. Virginia, for example, laid claim to a fan-shaped area stretching to the Pacific ocean and encompassing Pennsylvania's charter, on the other of the Ohio country. hand, conflicted with this and defined part of the Ohio country as being under that colony's jurisdiction. The French and British competed not only for control of the land but also for the favour In 1749 France took the initiative by sending of the Indians. Pierre Joseph de Celoron de Blainville down the Ohio river, along which he buried, at intervals, lead plates claiming French ownership. He returned to the St. Lawrence by way of the Great Miami and Maumee rivers and Lake Erie. His journey had little practical effect, however, and English traders continued their operations Moreover, a Virginia group known as the Ohio company there. in 1750 sent Christopher Gist, a veteran woodsman and trader, all

HISTORY

—

Prehistory. In Ohio have been found identifiable remains of Asiatic migrants who developed a culture known as the Archaic {see Archaeology; Anglo- America: Archaic). Dwelling primarily along rivers, these people appeared in the western hemisphere about 5,000 to 7,000 years ago. They led a sedentary life and produced artifacts fashioned from bone, shell, fiint and antler, but did not engage in agriculture and made little pottery. Archaic man was the first of a series of prehistoric peoples whose occupancy of the Ohio region has been conclusively established. The principal succeeding groups have been designated the Adena, Hopewell and Fort Ancient cultures. From 1901 when the Adena culture was first discovered near Chillicothe, many other examples have been located in the state. Intensive study of such evidence has enabled archaeologists and anthropologists to construct a revealing picture of the Adena people. They had flat heads, deliberately deformed in infancy, but they were more robust than their Archaic predecessors. That they possessed more artistic skill is apparent in the pottery and in the copper and mica ornaments they made. They cultivated certain vegetables, constructed circular dwellings and erected burial mounds which have inspired for

them

—

Exploration and Settlement. A young Frenchman, Rene Robert Cavelier, sieur de La Salle, is generally acknowledged to have been the first white man to explore the Ohio country. La Salle set out from his estate near Montreal in 1669 to journey into the country south of Lake Erie. This exploration provided the basis for a French claim to the Ohio valley which was hotly

name Mound

culture can be traced to as early as 800 B.C.

for the Adena culture is a.d. 800, while the extremes for the Hopewell culture which followed it range from 600 B.C. to A.D. 1500. The Hopewell Indians not only hunted, fished, farmed and traded with other peoples, but they made and deposited in their mounds exquisitely carved pipes and expertly executed ornaments of mica, copper, pearl and shell. The most visible evidence of their culture outside of museums is the number of remarkable effigy mounds and other earthworks they constructed. Among those still standing are Ft. Ancient in Warren county and the Newark earthworks in Licking county. {See also Hopewell; Mound Builders.) The Hopewell people represented the apex of prehistoric cultural attainment in the Ohio valley. When they disappeared, they were followed by Indians about whom surprisingly little is known and whose period is designated Late Woodland. For 300 years or more preceding the arrival of European explorers in the Ohio region and probably surviving into the historic period, a people called Fort Ancient occupied parts of Ohio. This name has given

all

and across Ohio to the Miami river town of Pickawillany. The diary Gist wrote, which has come to be regarded as one of the most important contributions to the literature on early Ohio, prointo

vided the information his employers sought relative to the nature of the country and the Indians. His mission also aroused the suspicions of the Pennsylvania traders and stimulated the hostility of the Indians who were apprehensive of white interest in their lands. The Anglo-French rivalry grew more intense during the 1750s. After an expedition dispatched from Virginia in 1753 and headed by George Washington failed to discourage French intentions to erect a string of forts through the Ohio valley, Governor Dinwiddle ordered construction of a fort on the site of present Before its completion, French forces Pittsburgh (Feb. 1754).

A deit and named the strategic installation Ft. Duquesne. tachment of French soldiers was surprised and captured at Great Meadows by Virginia troops under Washington's command, but shortly thereafter, on July 3, 1754, he and his men were obhged to surrender to a larger force, forfeiting to the French the control of the Ohio valley. This series of events triggered the French and Indian War {q.v.). The British successfully overcame the opposition of the French and their Indian allies by 1760. By the terms of the treaty of 1763, France surrendered to England its claims to Canada and the eastern half of the Mississippi valley. One of the decisive events of the war had been the capture of Ft. Duquesne which the British renamed Ft. Pitt, for William Pitt whose brilliant statesmanship was partly responsible for the ultimate victory. Although the French threat in eastern North America had beeh seized

OHIO

890

removed, the Indians in this territory continued to pose a serious problem. Uniting under the leadership of the Ottawa chieftain, Pontiac, they launched a campaign in 17o3 which resulted in the capture of several forts and which was broken finally by the successful defense of Detroit and Ft. Pitt. In the following year the appearance of Col. Henry Bouquet with 1,500 men at the site of present Coshocton so impressed the Indians that they agreed to terms and released more than 200 captives, some of whom had been prisoners since childhood. Anxious to prevent further trouble with the Indians and to deter the expansion of the American colonies. England issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 forbidding settlement west of the Alleghenies. This and other acts and policies during the next decade contributed to the resentment which culminated in the American Revolution. The victory of the colonies brought not only recognition of independence but also theoretical possession of the lands east of the Mississippi.

mained

It re-

Although not a major battleground during the American Revolution, the Ohio country was caught up in the maelstrom of Indian raids against Kentucky and Pennsylvania and retaliatory forays by Americans. It is a tragic footnote to history that the greatest atrocity of the war (and one of the most brutal massacres of all time) was perpetrated in Ohio by Americans. The Moravian Brethren, led by David Zeisberger, John Heckewelder and others, had been active in the 1770s in bringing Christianity to the Ohio Indians, primarily the Delawares. They established missions which became small Christian Indian villages, the original one in 1772 being Schoenbrunn, near present New Philadelphia (q.v.). Because of their pacifism and neutrality, these Indians were viewed with suspicion by both the Indians who sided with the British and the American frontiersmen. At length the converts were removed to the Sandusky region and made virtual prisoners of the Wyandots living there. Facing starvation, however, a group of them was permitted to return to the Tuscarawas river in northeastern Ohio to gather the com they had abandoned in their fields. They were so engaged on March 7, 1782, when Capt. David Williamson and about 90 volunteer militiamen, mostly from the Pittsburgh area, arrived on the scene. Seeking revenge for recent depredations committed by other Indians, the Pennsylvanians held a kangaroo court and decreed death for the innocent Indians. The next morning, at the settlement of Gnadenhutten, the prisoners were led from their cabins in pairs and slaughtered in cold blood. Only two boys escaped the fate that befell 62 adults and 34 children. As two leading authorities on Ohio history have expressed it, "the murder by a band of frontiersmen, supposedly Christians, of a group of noncombatant neutrals who had been taught to regard nonresistance as a Christian virtue is almost without parallel" in the annals of warfare. (E. H. Roseboom and F. P. Weisenburger, A History of Ohio, new ed. [1953], courtesy The Ohio Historical Society.) Although Cornwallis had surrendered at Yorktown six months earlier, this massacre touched off what became known as "the bloody year" in the Ohio country. Of the incidents that followed, perhaps the most memorable was the capture of Col. William Crawford who had been elected by popular vote to carry the fight into the interior of Ohio. His command included many of Williamson's men whose presence aroused the Indians. The latter not only repelled the invasion but also captured Crawford whom they tortured unmercifully and burned at the stake in June 1782. The end of hostilities, though not the end of Indiah resistance, came six

months

for physical control to be asserted.

later.

The Northwest Territory.

— Great

Britain's

cession of the

area south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi left the

U.S. government faced with the complicated problem of providing for systematic settlement and administration. The situation was

muddled by the conflicting claims laid by several of the upon the region (the Northwest territory, as it was to be designated, or, more formally, the Territory Northwest of the River Ohio). The other states demanded that title to these lands be transferred to the national government before they would agree to ratify the Articles of Confederation in 1777. New York was the first to comply, in 1780 (its claim was the most tenuous), followed by Virginia in 1784, Massachusetts in 178S and Confurther

individual states

Certain small areas were reserved, however, to 1 786. be granted to war veterans, principally the Virginia military tract in southern Ohio and Connecticut's Western Reserve in the northeast. Two legislative measures of fundamental importance completed the foundation for the development of Ohio. These were the Land ordinance of 1785, establishing a system of surveying the land into six-mile square townships, and the Ordinance of 1787 (the Northwest ordinance), providing that a territorial government would at first administer the region, which would ultimately enjoy representative government and finally be divided into at The pattern of settleleast three but not more than five states. ment that followed gave Ohio a rather conglomerate population. From New England came members of the second Ohio company (q.v.), recently formed, who disembarked at the confluence of the Ohio and Muskingum rivers in April 1788, and founded Marietta, the state's oldest permanent settlement. This became the seat of the territorial government with the arrival three months later of Gen. Arthur St. Clair, the first governor of the Northwest territory. New Englanders, largely from Connecticut, also settled the Western Reserve, beginnirig with Cleveland in 1796. Meanwhile, necticut in

Judge John Cleves Symmes of New Jersey headed a combine which secured a grant of approximately 250,000 ac. on the Ohio Cincinriver between the Great Miami and Little Miami rivers. nati (1789) was destined to become the most important settlement in the so-called

Symmes

purchase.

To the Virginia military tract, Miami rivers, came growing

lying between the Scioto and Little

numbers

of Virginians, founding first Massieville in 1790, then

Chillicothe in 1796 and ultimately other towns. This district would soon achieve great prominence in the development of Ohio. In addition to these relatively large groups of settlers, Ohio was peopled by Kentuckians from across the river, Pennsylvanians who moved westward, and even a sizable band of French citizens, who landed on the bank of the Ohio in 1790 and found a primitive wilderness instead of the promised civilized metropolis; they adapted to the rigorous conditions and carved out the town of Gallipolis (q.v.).

The treaty of Paris in 1783 removed neither of the menaces confronting Americans in the northwest. The British refused to withdraw their troops from the forts at Detroit, Sandusky, Michilimackinac and other posts on American soil. Their justification rested upon the nonpayment of private American debts to English merchants in accordance with the terms of the treaty. Continued occupancy of the forts was much to their advantage since it gave them control over the lucrative fur trade as well as the Indians who already were hostile toward the westward-moving Americans.

The

British finally evacuated these posts as a result of the treaty negotiated by John Jay in 1794, but by that date the Indian threat had been disposed of by the use of American arms.

Treaties made before 1790 with various more peaceful tribes were of little avail, for the bellicose Shawnees and others contended that no pact was binding unless acceptable to all the tribes. The increasing audacity of the Indians in their raids against the settlers

prompted congress in 1790 to authorize the president to send the militia from Virginia, Kentucky and part of Pennsylvania to Ft. Washington at Cincinnati to launch a punitive campaign. In that year Gen. Josiah Harmar led a poorly trained and ill-equipped army as far as the site of present Fort Wayne, Ind., burning several Indian villages, but a third of his force was routed in encounters with the enemy. Harmar was exonerated personally but he was superseded in command by Gov. St. Clair in 1791. St. Clair had partially executed his plan of erecting a series of forts between the Ohio river and Lake Erie when at dawn on Nov. 4, 1791, Indians led by Little Turtle attacked without warning and decimated St. Clair's garrison. The assignment went next to Maj. Gen. Anthony Wayne, a Revolutionary War hero who had later fought the Creeks in Georgia.

Wayne

arrived at Cincinnati in the

spring of 1793 with 2,500 men. Determined to instill discipline and to prepare his men for frontier fighting, he trained them for months before moving northward late in the year. While wintering at the newly erected Ft. Greene Ville, struction nearby of another stockade, which

Recovery, upon the

Wayne was

site of St. Clair's defeat.

to

ordered conbe called Ft.

When

the British

OHIO countered with a new fort, appropriately named Defiance, at the junction of the Auglaize and Maumee rivers. A decisive battle put an end to the Indian menace in Ohio and opened the land to settlement. At Fallen Timbers, a site above the present city of Maumee, where numerous trees, toppled by a hurricane two years earlier, afforded the Indians effective cover. Blue Jacket waited with more than 2,000 warriors. There in less than one hour on Aug. 20, 1794, the issue was resolved, for Wayne's thoroughly trained force charged through the brush, broke the Indians' left flank and left them demoralized and rebuilt Ft.

Miamis

in 1794,

Wayne

Further resistance was halfhearted and ineffectual, and on Aug. 3, 1795, more than 90 Indian leaders met with Wayne and other representatives of the United States and signed the treaty of Greene Ville. By its terms hostilities ceased and the Indians surrendered all of the territory east and south of a line extending from the Ohio river opposite the mouth of the Kentucky north to Ft. Recovery, east to a point above Ft. Laurens, and north to Lake Erie. This treaty, a milestone in the nation's early history, was honoured by the vanquished Indians until Tecumseh went on the warpath in the War of 1812. The Indian capitulation, coupled with the provisions of Jay's treaty, at long last gave the United States actual as well as nominal jurisdiction over land it had owned since 1783. In the next quarter of a century the Indians relinquished, either by cession or by sale, the remainder beaten.

of their lands in Ohio.

—

Statehood. Wayne's victory so expedited immigration into the Northwest territory that Ohio's population had reached 45,365 by 1800. Meanwhile, in accordance with the Ordinance of 1787, representative government had been achieved in 1799. The lower house of the legislature consisted of 22 elected members, IS from the counties which would ultimately become Ohio and the others from the rest of the territory. From the names submitted by the lower house, Pres. John Adams chose five to constitute the council, or upper house. St. Clair continued as governor with curtailed authority, and the first territorial delegate to congress was William

Henry Harrison.

Since the population requirement for state-

hood was only 60,000, attainment of this goal, although it was opposed by St. Clair, appeared imminent. St. Clair's determination to forestall Ohio statehood stemmed in part from his Federalist beliefs as opposed to the strong Republican tendencies prevailing

among

the people of the territory.

He

proposed a

891

a base of operations. Burr mustered a small expeditionary force

which aroused the suspicions of the state government. The militia was called out and boats and supplies were confiscated. The Virginia militia wrecked Harman Blennerhassett's island mansion but Burr had moved on to the southwest; he was eventually returned and tried for treason.

The War

of 1812.

— Ohio's geographical position gave

it a deIndignant over Gen. William Hull's ignominious surrender of Detroit to the British in 1812, forfeiting control of Lake Erie and the Michigan country, and over Gen. James Winchester's disastrous defeat at the Raisin river (Monroe, Mich.) in Jan. 1813, Ohioans turned to Gen. William Henry Harrison for a restoration of American prestige. Harrison had added to his public stature two years before by a foray at Tippecanoe creek (Indiana) against Indians united under Tecumseh who, however, was absent at the time. In 1813 Harrison suc-

gree of importance in the

War

of 1812.

cessfully endured a British siege of Ft.

Meigs

at the

mouth

of the

Maumee river and Maj. George Croghan with one cannon and 150 men withstood an enemy assault upon Ft. Stephenson on the Sanbut it was still impossible to mount an offensive until Lake Erie could be wrested from the British. This was in Sept. 1813, by the victory of Oliver Hazard Perry's small fleet at the battle of Lake Erie, off Put-in-Bay. Harrison pursued the advantage by invading Canada, where he registered a decisive conquest in the battle of the Thames a few weeks later. The death of Tecumseh in this battle signaled the end of the Indians' organized support of the British, and the United

dusky

river,

control of

accomplished

States controlled the west throughout the balance of the war. The fledgling state, suffering the effects of the postwar depres-

attempted to tax the Bank of the United States out of existence in Ohio in 1819. Despite the precariousness of its position because of the U.S. supreme court's affirmation of the bank's constitutionality in McCidloch v. Maryland, Ohio imposed an exorbiThe case was eventually argued before the supreme tant tax. court by some of the most brilliant lawyers of the day. The 1824 sion,

decision upholding the bank in Osborn v. Bank of the United States ended Ohio's venture into the field of nullification, but by that time the issue had lost much of its practical significance.

—

Internal Improvements. A more judicious remedy for the economic hardships of the time (although some questioned its wisdom also) was the launching of an extensive canal system

An

ardent leader in the

movement

for internal

division of the territory through the Scioto valley, the stronghold

within the state.

of Republicanism, with seats of government at Marietta and Cin-

improvements. Gov. Ethan Allen Brown (1818-22) crystallized favourable sentiment and badgered the general assembly into He served on this commission establishing a canal commission. and later on the canal fund commission which negotiated loans and disbursed money during the period of construction. Brown's role was so important that he became known as the "father of the Ohio canals," a title sometimes also bestowed upon Alfred Kelley who supervised much of the actual digging. Gov. DeWitt Clinton of New York helped to officiate at ground-breaking ceremonies near Newark on July 4, 1825. Two years later the first section of the Ohio canal was put into use and before long traffic on the entire 308-mi. waterway between Cleveland, on Lake Erie, and Portsmouth, on the Ohio river, was bringing prosperity to every locality along its route. In addition to feeders and several shorter canals, another major canal was built in the western part of the This, the Miami and Erie canal, joined Cincinnati and state. Toledo via the Miami and Maumee valleys. Ohio's canal building program was extremely costly and eventually the "ditches" were superseded by railroads, but they rescued the state from the financial doldrums of the 1820s and they were of primary importance at least until mid-19th century. Without them, the state's agricultural and commercial development would have been seriously impeded. The American Civil War The second quarter of the 19th century witnessed the passing of the frontier and a growth in the number and size of towns. It was marked also by an occasional flurry of excitement, such as the Toledo war, a dispute with Michigan over the boundary between the two states. A dominating influence during this period was the worsening conflict over slavery and abolition. Ohio's zealous antislavery sentiment resulted in

cinnati and a third probably at Vincennes. St. Clair's plan was doomed, for the pro-statehood faction, led by Thomas Worthington and Edward Tiffin of Chillicothe, former Virginians, enlisted the support of Pres. Thomas Jefferson, an'd congress passed an Enabling act, signed by him April 30, 1802. The 35 delegates to Ohio's first constitutional convention met at Chillicothe on Nov. 1 and after only 25 days emerged with an instrument of government for the new state. The legislature convened for its initial session on March 1, 1803, the year usually regarded as the one in which statehood was actually achieved. Because it had never been so designated officially, however, the U.S. congress by joint resolution in

1953 (Ohio's sesquicentennial year) declared March 1, 1803, to be the date of Ohio's admission as the 17th state of the union. The Jeffersonian Republicans dominated the new government, with Tiffin becoming the first governor and Worthington joining John Smith of Cincinnati as the first Ohioans to sit in the U.S. senate. Jeremiah Morrow of Warren county was Ohio's lone representative in the house fot five consecutive terms. The state government was established at Chillicothe, where the new state house was the first pubHc building constructed of stone in Ohio. Apparent political chicanery moved the capital to Zanesville from 1810 to 1812. It returned to Chillicothe in the latter year but was permanently located in 1816 in the centrally located, newly platted town of

Columbus. Ohio's early history is studded with noteworthy events, some to be recalled in later years with greater pride than others. The strange and seemingly nefarious scheme of Aaron Burr, the discredited former vice-president, inspired great excitement in 1806. Using Blennerhassett Island in the Ohio river below Marietta as

OHIO

892

from the Democratic party (the old Jeffersonian Republicans) at the end of the Jackson era, and the Whigs gained the upper hand for a time. In 1841 William Henry Harrison, a disaffection

native of \'irginia but long identified with Ohio, became the first president from the state. The 1850s found many constituents in

Ohio for the Free-Soil and then the new Republican parties, and Besides furthe state played a significant role in the Civil War. nishing such statesmen as Edwin M. Stanton and Salmon P. Chase and such military figures as Grant, Sherman and Sheridan, Ohio sent nearly 350,000 men into the Union army. Opposing the war effort were the ''Copperheads" (q.v.) of whom the most prominent was Clement L. Vallandigham of Dayton. Although in exile, he was nominated for governor by the Peace Democrats in the critical His overwhelming rejection by the voters inelection of 1863. spired President Lincoln's assertion that "Ohio has saved the Union." The only time the war actually crossed the Ohio border was in July 1863, when Confederate Gen. John H. Morgan and 2,500 men commandeered two steamboats to ferry them from Kentucky to Indiana, swept across the southeast section of the latter state and eastward through Ohio. From the time Morgan's cavalry passed through Cincinnati's suburbs, rumour ran rampant Fanciful assumptions to the contrary, his as to his objective. primary aim apparently was to create a diversion and to lessen the The column rode across southern military pressures elsewhere. Ohio, indulging in looting and some destruction along the way but refraining generally from the type of wanton depredation common to such invasions. Morgan's plan to recross the Ohio at Buffington Island was thwarted by the arrival of the pursuing Federal cavalry. From the battle that ensued, Morgan extricated 1,200 men. They staged another attempt to ford the river 20 mi. upstream but only one fourth of the force had negotiated the crossing when Federal gunboats intervened. With his remaining 900 men Morgan set out ort a zigzag course northward through eastern Ohio, seeking to Ohioans were terrorcross into West Virginia or Pennsylvania. stricken at rumours of his approach it was seldom known exactly where he was but the raid had become a rout and Morgan surrendered on July 26 near Salineville in Columbiana county; this was the northernmost penetration by a Confederate force during the war. In late November Morgan and six of his officers escaped from the Ohio penitentiary at Columbus and made their way

—

—

safely to the south.

Another dramatic incident of the war, one that occurred outside Ohio but with Ohioans in the feature roles, was the Andrews raid, or the so-called Great Locomotive Chase, in Georgia in April 1862. In this daring escapade, a score of men from Ohio units infiltrated Confederate territory to Marietta, Ga., stole a train at Big Shanty, and headed for Chattanooga, Tenn., bent upon destroying communication and transportation facilities along the way. Through the sheer determination and perseverance of the train's conductor and a series of remarkably adverse coincidences, the raiders were overtaken after 90 mi. and obliged to abandon the stolen "General." They were captured, imprisoned and subsequently convicted of espionage. The leader, James J. Andrews, and several others were hanged as spies. The survivors either escaped to freedom or were eventually exchanged. Their incredible exploit won for them promotions, an audience with President Lincoln and the first (congressional) medals of honor ever bestowed. Emerging Political and Industrial Power. In the postwar decades Ohio emerged as a political and industrial power, besides

—

retaining

its

standing as a leading agricultural state.

—

It sent to

White House three successive presidents Grant, Hayes and between 1869 and 1881. Hayes, who had been Ohio's first three-term governor, compiled the most creditable record of the three. The election of Benjamin Harrison and William McKinley in the waning years of the' 19th century, and of William Howard Taft and Warren G. Harding in 1908 and 1920, respectively, gave Ohio its claim to the title "mother of presidents." Although generally Republican, Ohio voters occasionally have warmly endorsed a Democrat. The most popular of the latter since the Civil War were governors Judson Harmon, James M. Cox, Vic Donahey, George White, Martin L. Davey and Frank J. Lausche. For many years Republicans Robert A. Taft and John the

Garfield

—

state and national prominence. Ohio has excelled in the 19th and 20th centuries in iron and steel, oil, ceramics, rubber, glass, machinery and a host of other products. Industrialization and the urban trend brought to the growing population centres immigrants from foreign lands as well as Ohioans from the farms. The number of farm families was steadily decreasing in the second half of the 20th century and a way of life was fast disappearing.

W. Bricker enjoyed both Industrially,

GOVERNMENT Administration. stitution

As a

mid-1 9th century Ohio's original conneeds of a rapidly expanding state. a constitutional convention met and drew up a new

no longer

result,

— By

fulfilled the

of government which became effective in 1851. Twenty-two years later another convention wrote a constitution which was subsequently rejected by the voters. A fourth conven-

instrument

tion in 1912 decided to retain the existing constitution but submitted 41 amendments for the approval of the electorate. The 33 adopted reflected the Progressive sentiment of that era. Thus, Ohio is still governed under the 1851 constitution modified by

numerous amendments. The executive branch of the

state

government consists of a gov-

ernor, lieutenant governor, secretary of state, treasurer, auditor

For many years the auditor was the only one of these officials elected to a four-year term, the others being two. This situation was changed, however, by the adoption of a constitutional amendment in 1954 providing for four-year terms for all of these officers starting with the election of 1958. Democrat Michael V. DiSalle of Toledo, the 60th governor, became the first elected for four years when he was inaugurated in Jan. 1959. The general assembly is composed of two houses, the senate and Members of the latter still are the house of representatives. chosen for only two years, but a constitutional amendment in 1956 extended the terms of senators from two to four years. The judicial system consists of a seven-man supreme court; nine courts of appeal with three judges each; courts of common pleas; probate, juvenile and municipal courts; and justices of the peace. Judges of the supreme court are chosen by direct popular vote, although until 1851 they were elected by the general assembly. The principal units of local government are the county, townThe minimum population required for a ship, city and village.

and attorney general.

municipality to become a city is 5,000. Official recognition as a city usually follows the decennial census but may be secured by holding a special census.

—

Finance. The costs of operating Ohio's government are paid from the general revenue fund which is derived largely from taxes on cigarettes and alcoholic beverages, a 3% retail sales tax and other forms of indirect taxation. Special undertakings, such as the construction of the multimillion-dollar Ohio turnpike, are financed by bond issues. During and after World War II a vast surplus had accumulated, hailed by some as evidence of wise fiscal management, assailed by others as a "penny-wise, pound-foolish" policy By the because of alleged negligence of needed improvements. close of the 19S0s this reserve had been dissipated and, partly bereluctance impose new increased the state cause of a to or taxes, government faced a $13,000,000 deficit. Primarily by levying higher taxes on cigarettes and gasoline and by restoring the first cent of the sales tax, this deficit was erased by Aug. 1959, and Ohio was once again out of the red. In addition to the expense of conducting the government's business and of maintaining and operating the numerous state institutions and