Encyclopaedia Britannica [10, 14 ed.]

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Initials of Contributors
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GEO
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GEO
GER
GER
GER
GER
GER
GEY
GIF
GIO
GLA
GLA
GLA
GLO
GOC
GOL
GOL
GOO
GOT
GOU
GOW
GRA
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THE

FOURTEENTH

EDITION

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA FIRST

EDITION

SECOND THIRD

EDITION EDITION

FOURTH

EDITION

SIXTH

EDITION

1823

EDITION EDITION

EDITION

TENTH

EDITION

ELEVENTH TWELFTH

EDITION EDITION

THIRTEENTH

FOURTEENTH

ù

ae 2

Ae CAS

0

ESS

TINY STA

1801 1815

NINTH

t

1788

EDITION

EIGHTH

SRNIA

1777

FIFTH

SEVENTH

ThS PNS

1768

EDITION

EDITION

1830 1853 1875 1902 1910 1922

1926

1929.1932

ANU1) 2

| eB

ENCYCLOPEDIA | BRITANNICA

:

We in

FOURTEENTH EDITION

ie

A NEW SURVEY OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE

e R

VOLUME 10 GAME

TO

GUN-METAL

THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY, LTD. LONDON

ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA, INC. NEW YORK

COPYRIGHT IN ALL TO

COUNTRIES

THE

BERNE

SUBSCRIBING CONVENTION

BY THE

ENCYCLOPZZEDIA

BRITANNICA

COMPANY,

LTD.

COPYRIGHT IN THE

UNITED

STATES

OF AMERICA, BY

ENCYCLOPAEDIA

1929,

THE BRITANNICA,

INC.

1930,

1932

INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS IN VOLUME WITH THE ARTICLES WRITTEN BY THEM. A. B.

Garrett, Jodo Baptista (in

AUBREY FITZGERALD BELL. Author of Portugal for the Portuguese; Studies in Portuguese Literature; etc.

A. C. B.

Rev. ALAN Coates Bovovet, D.D.

A. D. B. S.

Vicar of All Saints, Cambridge. A. D. Bucaanan Sutra, M.A., M.S.A., B.Sc.

A. D. I.

A. D. Imus, M.A., D.Sc. Grasshopper.

Master Gilder, Foreman of the Vose Art Galleries, Boston, Mass.

Gilding (in part).

A. E. A.E.J.R

Society of Arts and Crafts, Master Craftsmen. Rev. A. E. J. Rawutwson, D.D. `

Author of A General Textbook of Entomology.

Archdeacon of Auckland and Canon of Durham Cathedral.

in Biblical Studies, Oxford. ANNA FOEHRINGER.

Member of the

University Lecturer

Senior Physicist of the Central Geophysical Observatory, Leningrad. Formerly one in physics at the University of Leningrad and Professor of the history of physics.

À. H. A.

A. J.B. W.

Goat.

Chief Entomologist, Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, Hertfordshire. Formerly Forest Zoologist to the Government of India and Professor of Biology,

University of Allahabad. ADRIAN ECKBERG.

A. For.

part);

Gibraltar (in part); Goes, Damião de (in part).

Grace.

Research Lecturer, Animal Breeding Research Department, University of Edinburgh.

A. Foe.

X

ALEXANDER FORWARD. i , Managing Director, American Gas Association, New York. A. HILLIARD ATTERIDGE. Journalist. Author of several works, historical and technical, on Military matters— also of studies of the 16th century, published in various reviews and newspapers at home and abroad. ALAN JoHN Bayarp Wace, M.A. Deputy Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Formerly Director of the British School of Archaeology, Athens. Norton Lecturer, American Archaeological Institute, 1923-4. Author of A Catalogue of the Sparta Museum; Prehistoric Thessaly;

Gospel.

Golitzin, Boris Borisovich.

Gas Manufacture (in pari). Germany (in part).

Greek Archaeology.

etc.

A, KI.

ALEXANDER KiEmIn, B.Sc.,5S.M. Professor of Aeronautical Engineering, Daniel Guggenheim School of Aeronautics, New York. Author of Text-book of Aeronautical Engineering.

A. L. Du T.

ALEXANDER L. pv Tort, D.Sc., F.G.S. Geologist to the Union Irrigation Department. Leader of the Government Expedition to Kalahari, 1925. Author of Physical Geography for South African Schools; Geology of South Africa.

À. L. S.

ANDRÉ L. SIMON. Of Messrs. Pommery and Greno, Ltd. Author of The Blood of the Grape; Wine and the Wine Trade.

A.L. W.

Rev. A. Lukyn Writrams, D.D.

A. M. W.

Honorary Canon of Ely Cathedral. A. M. War, B.Sc., PH.D.

A. N. C. S.

A. N. C. Suetrey, M.A., B.C.L.

Graves, Wines of. Golgotha. i A, ye SY Joey -\—-,,— ccd east Ye ND LL IN + n~

Professor of Chemistry, Sir John Cass Technical Institute, London.

Grignard Reagents.

Private

ALFRED P. SLOAN, B.Sc.

President of General Motors Corporation, New York.

A. Sh.

Gondwanaland.

Gentile;

Barrister-at-Law. Legal Department, Local Government Board 1910-9, Secretary to Lord Long, Lord Rhondda; etc.

A. P. SI.

Gliding (in part).

Government Departments (in part).

General Motors Corporation.

ARTHUR SHERWELL. Member of Parliament for Huddersfield, 1906-18. Thirty years research work and study of social and industrial questions. Director of inquiry into conditions of child life in Edinburgh. Author of British Gothenburg Experiments; Taxation of the Liquor Trade; Public Control of the Liquor Trade. Joint-author of The Temperance Problem

“Gothenburg” Licensing System.

and Social Reform; etc.

A. Sy.

ARTHUR SYMONS.

n

English Poet and Critic. Author of Studies in Seven Arts; London Nights; etc. See p Goncourt, de. the biographical article: SYMONS, ARTHUR. y

INITIALS SIR ee,

AND

NAMES

ween RENTON; cous

OF CONTRIBUTORS

M.A., IER

7

i

uisne Justice, Supreme Court, and Procureur an vocate-General Mauritius, 1901-5; Ceylon, 1905-14. Chief Justice, 1914; etc. Author of Law and Practice of Lunacy. Editor of Encyclopaedia of English Law; etc.

BERNARD DARWIN. Played Golf for Great Britain and America and on various occasions for England and Scotland.

Writer on Golf in The Times, London; Country Life; etc.

Author of

Present Day Golf (with George Duncan); Green Memories; Tee Shots and Others; etc.

B. E. E. B. Wi. C.

B. ELDRED ELLIS.

1927-29.

George III.

Parliamentary Under-Secretary of

State for Foreign Affairs, 1922-4 and 1924-5. Financial Secretary to the Treasury, 1925-7. Assistant editor of the 11th Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica,

C. A. M.

Passport Control Officer for Austria, 1922-5. Intelligence Officer, League of Nations

Union, 1926. Author of The Social Revolution in Austria Affairs for 1925, part II (in part).

C. B. P.

Goluchowski.

Survey of International

CHARLES Botton, C.B.E., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.C.P., F.R.S.

Physician to University College Hospital, and Lecturer in Clinical Medicine, University College Hospital Medical School. Author of several papers on mediçal and scientific subjects in Proceedings of the Royal Society, and in medical and scientific journals. CHARLES BENJAMIN PURDOM. Finance Director, Welwyn Garden City, Ltd. Hon. Secretary, International Housing and Town Planning Federation. Author of The Garden City; etc. |

C. E. M.

SIR CHARLES ee

C. E. T.

Crcit Epcar Trtrey, B.Sc., Pu.D., F.G.S.

E”

se

ae

Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Financial Secretary to War ce, I9IO-I. Secretary for Indian Students at the India Office, 1912-6. Author of A History of the University of Oxford; The French Revolution; etc.

CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON.

Major, late East Surrey Regiment. The Wilderness and Cold Harbour.

Gastric and Duodenal Ulcer.

Garden Cities (in part). aq: Gladstone, William Ewart.

}Gneiss,

Lecturer in Petrology, University of Cambridge.

C. F. A.

Grattan, Henry.

CARLILE AYLMER MACARTNEY. Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. H.B.M. Acting Vice-Consul for Austria, 1921-6.

C. Bo.

Golf (in part). ——_

Glove Manufacture.

Author of Gloves and the Glove Trade. Basır WiLirams, O.B.E. Professor of History at Edinburgh University. Roxarp Joen MCNEILL, 1st BARON CusHENDUN, P.C. Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster

. Ground Rent (in part).

ir Á

Scholar of Queen’s College, Oxford.

Author of

Grand Alliance, War of the (in part); Grant, Ulysses Simpson (ix part);

Great Rebellion.

CLEMENT GATLEY, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. Barrister-at-Law of the Inner Temple and South Eastern Circuit. Author of The Law }Guarantee (in part). and Practice of Libel and Slander in a Civil Action; etc.

CHARLES Gross, A.M., P.D., LL.D. Professor of History at Harvard University, 1888-1909. chant; Sources and Literature of English History; etc.

CARLTON HuntLEY Hayes, A.M., PH.D.

Author of The Gild Mer- + Guilds.

.

Professor of History in Columbia University, New York. Historical Association. l

C. Mac.

C. M. M.

C. M. W.

Member of the American

}Gelasius (in part); Guibert.

COMPTON MACKENZIE, O.B.E., B.A. Author of The Passionate Elopement; Sinister Street; etc. Joint-Author of Gramophone }Gramophone (in part). Nights; etc. Editor of The Gramophone. C. M. Martin, A.B. l }Gaming and Wagering (in Journalist of the Morning Telegraph, New York. part). Sır CHARLES Moorr Warson, K.C.M.G., C.B. Late Colonel, Royal Engineers. Deputy-Inspector General of Fortifications, 1896- }Gordon, Charles George. 1902. Served under General Gordon in the Sudan, 1874-5.

C. Pf.

CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D-Ès-L.

C. Sto.

_ Etudes sur le régne de Robert le Pieux. CHRISTOPHER STONE, M.C., D.S.O London Editor of The Gramophone.

Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris; Chevalier of the Legion of Honour.

Author of

\Germanic Laws, Early (in part); Gregory, St., of Tours.

Author of Scars; Valley of Indecision; etc. > Gramophone (in part).

Edited several books for the Clarendon Press.

C. Te. es

CHARLES Tennyson, C.M.G.

Deputy Director of the Federation of British Industries.

to the Colonial Office, London, 1911-9.

Tity

C. T. O.

C. T. Ontons, M.A. Lecturer in English, Magdalen College, Oxford.

C. W, E: aya

CHARLES WILLIAM ELIOT.

i

Formerly Legal Adviser p Great Britain (in part).

erican Educationalist. President of Harvard University, 1869-1909. graphical article: Error, C. W.

Davo BAXANDALL, A.R.C.S., F.R.A.S. t ao

Deputy Keeper of the Science Division, Science Museum, South Kensington. -of numerous papers on the history of scientific instruments.

Rev. Duncan Crooxes Tovey, M.A.

Editor of The Letters of Thomas Gray; etc.

}

Gloss and Glossary (in part? See bioAuthor

Gray, Asa.

} Graduation.

Gray, Thomas (in part)

INITIALS D. E. H. D. E. S.

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

Rev. Do{. E. Horne, F.S.A. Downside Abbey, Bath. Davip EUGENE SmitH, Pu.D.

vil

tGlastonbury.

Professor Emeritus of Mathematics, Teachers College, Columbia University, New

York. Author of History of Mathematics; Progress of Arithmetic in Twenty-Five Years. Editor of the Mathematics section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

D. F. D.

Dwicnut Firtey Davis, A.B., LL.B.

D. F.T.

Donatp Francis Tovey, M.A., Mus.Doc. Reid Professor of Music in Edinburgh University.

Government Departments

Secretary of War in the Coolidge Administration, Washington.

(in part).

Author of Essays in Musical

Analysis, and analyses of many other classical works. section, 14th Edition, Encylopedia Britannica.

}

Editorial Adviser, Music

D. M.

Rev. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A., F.R.Hısrt.S.

D. S. M.

PRINCE MIRSKY. Lecturer in Russian Literature, King’s College, London

D. W. K.

REV. DANIEL WEBSTER Kurtz, M.A., D.D.

E. A.

CAPTAIN EDWARD ALTHAM,

E. A. F.

since 1927. Editor of the Naval section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. EDWARD AUGUSTUS FREEMAN, LL.D.

:

Gluck, Christoph.

Glasites

Formerly Director of the London Missionary Society.

, , Author of } Gorki, Maxim.

University.

Modern Russian Literature; Pushkin; Russian Ltierature, 1875-1925.

E. A. J.

E. Bra.

President of General Education Board, Church of the Brethren.

Secretary,

C.B., R.N.

Editor and Chief Executive Officer, Royal United

English Historian. E. A. JONES.

Author, Lecturer. Service

See the biographical article: FREEMAN, E. A.

ERICH BRANDENBURG.

E. B. S. E. C. B.

Rr. Rev. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., D.Litt.

E. E. L.

EpwarD ErNEST Long, C.B.E.

Professor of Mathematics, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

Formerly Director of Eastern Propaganda. Foreign Office, as Officer-in-Charge, Eastern Section, News Department, 1918-21. Correspondent in Northern India of The Times (London). Editor, Indian Daily Telegraph; etc.

Sir Epmunp Gosse, M.A., C.B., LL.D., Hon.Lrtr.D.

Librarian, House of Lords, 1904-14. Sometime Assistant Librarian, British Museum. Clark Lecturer in English Literature, Trinity College, Cambridge, 1884-90. Author 3 rey of Eighteenth Century Literature; etc. See the biographical article: GOSSE, IR EDMUND.

E. J. P.

E. J. Passant, M.A.

E. K. W. E. M. Wa.

E. P.

Golden Rose (in part).

Germany (in part). Groups. Groot, Gerhard.

Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath, 1906--22.

EDGAR JADWIN, Hon.D.E.

i

(im $ art);

reece (in part). }Goths (in part).

Author of Old English Gold Plate; Old Church Plate of the Isle of Man; Old Silver Sacramental Vessels of Foreign Protestant Churches in England; Illustrated Catalogue of Leopold de Rothschild’s Collection of Old Plate; A Private Catalogue of the Royal Plate ai Windsor Castle; etc.

E. Ja.

.

Institution }ERE

Lecturer in Philosophy and History, Prussian Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin. ERNEST BROWN SKINNER.

E.G.

iGerman Baptist Brethren.

} Garut.

|

Gnome.

George, Lake; Great Lakes.

Major General, Chief of Engineers, United States Army, Washington.

|

University Lecturer in History and Fellow of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. Mrs. E. K. WADE.

Author of The Piper of Pax. Rev. Epwarp M. WatkKer, M.A., Hon.LL.D. Pro-Provost of Queen’s College, Oxford. EpcGAR PresTAaGE, M.A., D.Lirt. Professor of Portuguese Language, Literature and History in the University of London. Commendador, Portuguese Order of S, Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon

Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, etc. Editor of The Leiters of a Portuguese Nun; Agurara’s Chronicle of Guinea; etc.

Government. Girl Guides. Greece (in part).

Garrett, Joao Baptista (in part); Goes, Damião de (in part). Gath; Gaza; Gerasa; Gerizim; Gethsemane; Gezer; Gibeon; Gilead; Gilgal.

E. Ro.

EDWARD ROBERTSON, M.A. Professor of Semitic Languages, University College of North Wales.

E. S. E.

E. S. EVANS. President, Evans Glide Clubs of America and The Evans Auto Loading Company, }Gliding (i part).

E. T. Ba.

ExLwoop T. BAKER.

E. W.

EDWARD ALEXANDER WESTERMARCK, PH.D., Hon.LL.D. Professor of Philosophy at the Academy of Åbo, Finland; Professor of Sociology at

F. A. E. C.

F. A. E. Crew, M.D., Pu.D., D.Sc. Professor of Animal Genetics since 1928 and Director of the Animal

Inc., Detroit, Michigan.

t

Formerly Whist Editor of Brooklyn Eagle, Brooklyn, New York. of Knickerbocker Whist Club of New York.

Honorary Member

.

Gin.

5 Group Marriage.

the University of London since 1907.

search Department since 1921 in the University of Edinburgh.

Breeding Re- > Genetics. ms

@@a

Vill F. Buc.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

FRANCIS BUCKLEY, B.C.L., M.A., F.S.A. Barrister-at-Law. Author of History of Old English Glass; Old London

Se : Drinking p Glass (in part).

Glasses; Old London Glasshouses.

F. Ca.

History or of Math: Mathematics, California, Berkeley, Berkeley, Calif California. aorofessoreeof ton rae U University of fCalif Late President, Mathematical Association of America. Mathematics; History of Mathematical Notations; etc.

F. De C.

FRANCIS DE CRUE, D-Es-L.

Rector of the Université de Genéve, 1916-8.

. (im part).

Geometry

Author of A History of

Chevalier of the Légion d’honneur -}+ Geneva (4 part).

Author of La guerre féodale de Genève et l'établissement de la Commune (1285-1320)

2

etc.

F. E. MatrHews, Pu.D., F.I.C. a Former Professor of Chemistry at the Royal India Engineering College, Cooper’s | Gold. Hill.

Consultant to Messrs. Johnson and Matthey, Research

Chemists, Hatton

Garden, London.

FRANK F. DOLE.

Sporting Department, Herald Tribune, New York.

Greyhound Racing (êz part).

Game : Laws (in part); Be

FRANK GAHAN. Barrister-at-Law.

F. G. H.

oa and Wagering (in

}T

Srr FREDERICK GowLAND Hopkins, M.A., M.B., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.C.P., F.R.S.

Professor of Biochemistry in the University of Cambridge since 1914, Sir William

.

Dunn Professor since 1921. Fellow and late Praelector in Biochemistry at Trinity > Glutathione. College.

Herter Lecturer,

New York and Baltimore, 1921.

Formerly one of the

official analysts to the Home Office.

F. G. H. T.

Francis G. H. Tate, F.C.S.

tGin

F. G. M. B.

FREDERICK GEORGE Megson Beck, M.A.

}

F. H.

FRED HORNER.

F. H. M.

F. H. MARSHALL, M.A.

F. I. W.

F. I. WATSON.

F. J. C. P.

?Great Western Railway SIR FELIX JOHN CLEWETT POLE. Company. General Manager, Great Western Railway, London. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A., F.B.A. l Late Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford; Fellow Gaul (in part). of Brasenose College. Author of monographs on Roman History, especially Roman ritain, Francis Lyaty Brace, M.A., O.B.E, }Great Britain (in part). Lecturer in History in the University of Cambridge. FRANK L. EARNSHAW. , Game Reserves (in part). Bureau of Biological Survey, Department of Agriculture, Washington. Francis P. DUFFY. Gibbons, James (Cardinal). Professor of Logic and Metaphysics, St. Joseph’s Seminary, New York.

First Class Chemist, Government Laboratory, London.

Formerly Fellow and Lecturer in ‘Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. Consulting Engineer.

ing; Machinery.

F. J. H. F. L. B.

F. P. D. F. R. C,

.

Goths (in part).

Gas Meter;

Contributor to The Times Engineering Supplement; Engineer- e Governor;

Grinding-Machines.

FRANK RıcmARDsoN CANA, F.R.G.S.

Editorial Staff, Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903-11 and 1914-5. Staff of The Times, London, since 1916. Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union; The Great War in Europe; The Peace Settlement.

FRANCIS STORR.

G.A. R.C.

GEOFFREY A. R. CALLENDER,

oe

ea

‘

!

Pae pari).

i

Greyhound Racing (% part).

Sports Editor of The Field.

F. S.

'

;

Koraes Professor of Modern Greek and Byzantine History, Language and Literature, King’s College, University of London.

`

F. L. Ea,

i

Late Editor of the Journal of Education, London.

M.A.,

Officier d’Académie, Paris.

F.S.A.

Secretary to the Society for Nautical Research and Professor at the Royal Naval

College, Greenwich.

f j

} German East Africa; German South-West Africa; Gold Coast,

}Games, ee

Classical. Alli

iO

ın pari).

War of the

GEORGE BEARDOE GRUNDY, M.A., D.Litt. Fellow and Tutor of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, since 1903. Formerly University | Graeco-Persian Wars; Lecturer in Classical Geography and Lecturer at Brasenose College. Great Persian War; The Batile of Plataea; etc.

Author of The { Greece (in pari).

G. C. M.

GEORGE CAMPBELL MACAULAY, M.A. Lecturer in English, Cambridge University. Formerly Professor of English Language}Gower, Jobn.

G.C. R.

Guy Corwın Rosson, M.A.

G. D. H.C.

GEORGE Doucras HowARD COLE. University Reader in Economics, Oxford.

and Literature, University of Wales.

Edited the Works of John Gower.

Assistant Keeper in the Department of Zoology, British Museum.

lGastropoda.

Author of Self-Government in Industry; Guild Socialism.

Guild Socialism Restated; The World of Labour; etc.

G. E.

REV. GEORGE Epmunnson, M.A., F.R.Hist.S. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford.

G. E. B.

GEORGE EARLE BUCKLE, M.A., LL.D. Editor of Letters of Queen Victoria, Author of The Life of Disraeli. G. F. Hersert Suits, D.Sc.

G. F. H. S.

Assistant Secretary, British Museum of Natural History, South Kensington.

, Gelderland (in part). : . }Grey of Fallodon (71 part). Gem.

INITIALS

AND

GEORGE FREDERICK ZIMMER,

NAMES

1X

OF CONTRIBUTORS

Fortification at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich.

:

.

A.M.Inst.C.E.

Granaries and Grain Elevators.

Consulting Engineer and Joint Editor of Engineering and Engineering and Industrial Management. MAJOR GENERAL SIR GEORGE G. Aston, K.C.B. Lecturer on Naval History, University College, London. Formerly Professor of

: . ); ee oe Britain (on part), teat

Author of Sea, Land and Air

Greece (in part).

Strategy; Memories of a Marine; The Navy of To-day. Editor of The Study of War.

GEORGE J. S. BROOMHALL, F.S.S. Statistician to the Liverpool Grain Trade. Editor of Corn Trade News, Milling and | Grain Production and Trade. National Baker. Managing Director, Northern Publishing Co., Ltd. Macponatp, K.C.B., M.A., Hon.LL.D., Hon.D.Lirr., F.B.A. GEorGE Srr Permanent Secretary, Scottish Education Department, 1922-8.

of Hunterian Coin Cabinet.

Honorary Curator

Honorary Curator of Coins to the Society of Antiquaries

Medallist of Royal Numismatic Society, 1913, and of American Numis- ¢ Gaul (in part).

of Scotland.

matic Society, 1926, etc. Member of the Royal Commission on Museums and Galleries, 1927. Member of the Royal Fine Art Commission for Scotland, 1927. Author of numerous works on coinage and on Roman Britain.

G. M. A. R.

GISELA M. A. RICHTER, Lirr.D.

G. McL. Wo.

GEORGE McLane Woon. Failon ae Seas Geological Survey, Washington. soe

Curator of Classical Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Author of Greek, Roman and Etruscan Bronzes; Catalogue of Engraved Gems of the Classical Style in the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

otomac

Telephone

Company.

Author of

Texts for

United

States

and press notices.

G. R.

Gems in Art.

Geolo ical

Surve

=

‘ y ThR 5

S

C hesipeale and

” »| Great Salt Lake.

GRANTLAND RIcE.

;

}Golf (in part).

G. R. de B.

Editor of The American Golfer. On Staff of Herald Tribune, New York. GAVIN RYLANDS DE BEER, M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S., F.R.G.S.

G. Sa.

GEORGE EDWARD BATEMAN SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D-Litt., F.B.A.

} Gautier, Théophile.

G. S.C.

SIR GEORGE SYDENHAM CLARKE, G.C.M.G., G.C.L.E., F.R.S.

Graeco-Turkish War.

G. Sw.

GERARD Swopg, D.Sc., LL.D.

General Electric Company: United States.

G. T. M.

GILBERT T. Morcan, O.B.E., F.R.S.

Author.

Fellow of Wadham College. L Growth Corresponding Member of the Zoological Society. : Jenkinson Lecturer in Embryology and Senior Demonstrator in Zoology in the University of Oxford. Professor of Rhetoric and English Literature, Edinburgh University, 1895-1915. Author of A Short History of English Literature; etc. See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE EDWARD BATEMAN.

Author of Imperial Defence; Russia's Great Sea Power; The Last Great Naval War; etc.

President and Director, General Electric Company, New York. Director, Chemical Research Laboratory, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, London. Formerly Mason Professor of Chemistry, University of Bir-

mingham.

#

Professor in the Faculty of Applied Chemistry, Royal College of Science | Germanium;

for Ireland. Professor of Applied Chemistry, Technical College, Finsbury. Author | Glyoxalines. of Organic Compounds of Arsenic and Antimony. Contributor to Thorpe’s Dictionary of Applied Chemistry. Editor, Chemical section, 14th Edition, Encyclopaedia Britannica. Hucum CmsHoLM, M.A. G eorge IV. (in ; part); ( o. : ; a Editor of the 11th and 12th Editions of The Encyclopedia Britannica. See the bio }George V. (in part).

graphical article: CHISHOLM, HUGE.

H. C. Lone, B.Sc. Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, London, Editor of Journal of Ministry of | Great Britain (in part) Agriculture and Fisheries. Author of Common Weeds of the Farm and Garden; Plants Poisonous to Livestock; Poisonous Plants on the Farm.

H. Da.

H. Das. Graduate Member of New College, Oxford. Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature History. Editor of and contributor to The Calcutta Review and The Journal of Indian The Life and Letters of Tora Dutt.

H.E. VanGe.

H. G. H.

Ghose, Lalmohun.

H. E. VAN GELDER.

Glass (in part). Director of the Service for Art and Science (incl. the Town Museums) of The Hague,} rs. Pottenbakke of Author Holland. Oud. of Editor Holland. Horarro Gorpon HurtcuHinson, B.A. pari). Holder of the Amateur Golf Championship, 1886-7. Author of The Book of Golf and Golf (in Golfers; A Fellowship of Anglers; etc.

H. J.F.

H. J. R.

ales, Ab Aberyst- | College o of Wales, Anthropology, U University College eeand Anthropology, Geography wyth. Hon. Secretary, Geographical Association, and Hon. Editor of Geography. RRT Author of Human Geography in Western Europe; etc. Editor of Geographical section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

Joe of pate Professor

x -> inoe. k i

Hersert Jennincs Rose, M.A.

of Exeter of me arneta poe oe a ao Professor of Greek, Der University, 1911-5. McGill assics, Associate Professoro College, Oxford, 1907-11. of Profesor of Latin, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, 1919-27. Author in ee of Pluiarch; Primitive Culture in Greece; Primitive Culture The Roman

Italy; A Handbook of Greek Mythology and several articles in Hastings’ Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics and various periodicals.

cee $

P e an 81

.

y. 2D.t); part).

INITIALS H. M. C.

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

Hector Munro Cuapwick, M.A., Hon.D.Litt., F.B.A. Elrington and Bosworth Professor of Anglo-Saxon, Cambridge. College. Formerly University Lecturer in Scandinavian. Saxon Institutions; The Heroic Age; etc.

H. M.T.

Fellow of Clare Author of Studies in Anglo-

Goths (in part)

Horace M. Towner, LL.B.

Guayama.

H. N.

Governor of Porto Rico. H. Nispet, F.T.I. Textile Technologist and Consultant.

H. N. V.

H. N. VINALL, M.S. Senior Agronomist, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agricul-

Georgette.

Author of Grammar of Textile Design.

Grass and Grass Land (in part).

'ture, Washington. Author of numerous publications concerning foreign crops, issued by the Department of Agriculture.

H. O’C, H. P. H. R.

H. R. Mi.

HARVEY O’CONNOR.

General Strike (in part).

Manager, Eastern Bureau Federated Press, New York. Hans PRZIBRAM. ee aaa n a Grafting in Animals. Professor of Experimental Zoology, University of Vienna. Str Humpury Davy Rotieston, K.C.B., M.A., M.D., Hon.D.Sc., LL.D. Physician-in-Ordinary to the King. Regius Professor of Physic, University of Cambridge. Consulting Physician to the Royal Navy. Examiner in the Universities of Goitre. Oxford, Cambridge, London; etc. Formerly President of the Royal College of Phy- ay sicians. Author of Clinical Lectures; etc., and joint editor (with Sir Clifford Allbutt) of 2nd edition of A System of Medicine. Hvucs Rosert Mrr1, D.Sc., LL.D. President, Royal Meteorological Society, 1907-8. Rainfall Expert to Metropolitan Water Board, 1906-19. Vice-President, Royal Geographical Society, 1927. Author of The Life of Str Ernest Shackleton.

H. Sh.

H. Saaw, M.Sc.

H. S.-K.

Sir Henry SEtTON-Karr, C.M.G.

H. S. N.

HARRY STEWART NEW, LL.D.

H. Sw.

Journal. Henry SwEet, M.A., PH.D., LL.D.

H. W. Ca.

°

Assistant-Keeper, Science Museum, South Kensington.

Geography.

Captain, Late R.A.F.

Gravitation.

Gun

M.P. for St. Helens, 1885-1906. Author of My Sporting Holidays; etc.

ey wy Sy” i

Postmaster General, 1923-9, Washington. Former Editor and Publisher, J:ndionapais} Government Departments

Late Corresponding Royal Academies of Period; A Handbook Henry W. CARLISLE. Manager, Publicity

(in part).

Member of the Munich, Berlin, Copenhagen and Helsingfors Science. Author of A History of English Sounds since the Earliest of Phonetics; etc.

Department, Guaranty Trust Company of New York,

Gri J.L. C TLOM, Je time

l

}Guaranty Trust Company.

H. W. C. D.

HENRY WILLIAM Caress Davis, M.A.

Geoffrey of Monmouth;

and Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Husert Worx, M.D., Sc.D., LL.D.

Gilbert Foliot.

H. Wk. H. W. P.

Late Director, Dictionary of National Biography, Regius Professor of Modern History, > Gerard, Bishop;

Chairman of Republican National Committee. Ex-Secretary of the Interior, Wash-}Government-Departments ington. (im part).

LA.

H. W. PARKER, B.A. Ani t, Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington,}Gecko. ondon. TsRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A.

LA. R.

Irma A. RICHTER.

Formerly Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. Author of A Short History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; etc.

G

id SPS VEIner:

Gauguin, Paul; Ghirlandajo, Domenico;

Artist and Writer.

Gogh Van, Vincent;

Goya y Lucientes, Francisco. I. Bn.

INNES Brown, B.A.

I. H. L.

Isaac H. LEVIN.

I. S.

ISRAEL SCHAPERA.

J. A. Fa.

James A. FARRELL. President of the United States Steel Corporation, New York. Bridge Company. J. A. HARTFORD.

J. A.Ha. J. A. Si.

Managing Editor, American Golfer, New York.

Co-Author of Guide to Good Golf.

Technical Director, Gas Industries Company, Pittsburgh, Pa. Honorary Member, Gas Products Association. Member, American Chemical Society and American Electrochemical Society.

Golf (in part).

}

| Gems, Artificial. Gerontocracy.

Lecturer in Anthropology, London School of Economics.

Director ofAmerican} Gary, Elbert Henry. Great Atlantic and Pacific

Tea Company. JUDITH ANN SILBURN. Journalist and Domestic Science Consultant. Diplomée of Domestic Science, Mt. }Gravies. President, Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Company, New York.

Formerly Trade Investigator, Ministry of Labour.

J: B.B.

t Bury, D.Lirr., LL.D., D.CL. Bacyer © JonnLate Regius Professor of Modern History, University

of Cambridge. Editor of Gib- | m . boni Peciine and Fall of the Raman Empire, 1896-1900. See the biographical article: Gibbon, ; Edward (in pari). URY, J. B.

INITIALS J. B. Bi. J. D. B.

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

|

xi

JOSEPH BUCKLIN BISHOP.

Late Secretary to the Panama Canal Commission. Author of Our Political Drama; Goethals, George Washington. Issues of a New Epoch; The Panama Gateway. James Davip Bourcuter, M.A., E.R.G.S. iGreek Literature (tn part). Late Correspondent of The Times, London, in South-eastern Europe.

J. E. C.

JANET ELIZABETH COURTNEY, O.B.E., J.P. Author of Free Thinkers of the Nineteenth Century; Recollected in Tranquillity. Joint- > George V. (in part).

J. E. T. H.

JoHN Ernest TRoyTre Harper, M.V.O., C.B.

J. F.

J. F. C. F. J. G. D. J. G. R. J. H.

Author of Pillars of Empire.

Vice Admiral, R.N. Director of Navigation at the Admiralty, 1919-21. Commanded His Majesty’s yacht ‘Victoria and Albert,” 1911-4. Compiled Official Record of the Battle of Jutland.

JOHNAmerican FIsKE. Historical and Philosophical Writer. Sometime History Tutor at Harvard em Ulysses Simpson (in University. Author of The American Revolution; etc. See biographical article: FISKE, J. part). COLONEL JOHN FREDERICK CHARLES FULLER, O.B.E., D.S.O. Military Assistant to the Chief of the Imperial General Staff. Chief General Staff Gaugamela; Officer, Tank Corps, 1917-8. Formerly Chief Instructor, Camberley. Author of Granicus, Battle of the. Tanks in the Great War; The Reformation of War; Sir John Moore's System of Training. CAPTAIN J. G. DOLLMAN. Assistant Keeper, Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South Ken- > Game Reserves (in part). sıngton.

Jonn GrEorcE RoBERTSON, M.A., PH.D. Professor of German Language and Literature, University of London. Director of the Department of Scandinavian Studies. Author of History of German Literature; Schiller after a Century; etc. JoHN HILTON. Director of Statistics, Ministry of Labour, London.

J. H. D.

J. H. DRIBERG.

J. H. Hes.

Joanx Henry HesseELsS, M.A.

J. H. McG.

James Howarp McGrecor, M.A., Pu.D.

J. H. R.

Jonn Horace Roun, M.A., LL.D. Late Historical Adviser to the Crown.

Gentlemen’s

Agreements.

Gloss and Glossary (zn fart).

Author of Gutenberg: An Historical Investigation.

:

Professor of Zoology, Columbia University, New York. Author of various papers on > Gorilla. Reptilian and Primate Palaeontology.

President, Essex Archaeological Society, > Geoffrey de Montbray.

Author of Feudal England; Peerage and Pedigree.

J.I. P.

Joun Isaac Pratt, M.Sc., F.G.S.

J. J. D.

James Joun Davis, LL.D. United States Secretary of Labor, Washington. J. L. Myrzs, O.B.E., M.A., D.Sc., F.B.A.

J. L. W.

German Literature; Goethe, J. Wolfgang von; Grillparzer, Franz.

Ganda.

Author of The Lango, A Nilotic Tribe of Uganda.

1916-21.

J. L. My.

“Goeben” and “Breslau.”

i

Lecturer in Geology, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth.

Author of Selective Immigration.

iGlacier

i

}Government Departments (in part).

Wykeham Professor of Ancient History and Fellow and Librarian of New College, > Gortyna. Oxford. General Secretary, British Association for the Advancement of Science. Gawain; ESSIE L. WEsTON, Litt.D. oe ea . J Author of Arthurian Romances. b GrailThe Holy;

Guenevere.

J. No.

Josx Norex, Px.B., A.M., Sc.D. Landscape Architect, Cambridge, Mass. Drew also park systems of cities in the United States. in the Planning of Cities, Towns and Villages.

J: S. B.

J. S. F.

general plans for Babson Institute; Author of City Planning; New Ideals

Jonn SUTHERLAND Brack, M.A., LL.D. Assistant Editor, 9th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. cyclopedia Biblica.

Joint Editor of The En-

Sır Joun Smite Frett, K.B.E., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

Director, Geological Survey of Great Britain and Museum of Practical Geology. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edinburgh University.

Garden Cities (im pari). i Gibbon, Edward (in part). —

Grei reisen,

James THOMSON SHOTWELL, M.D. Director, Division of Economics and History, Carnegie Endowment for Intemational +Golden Rose (im part). Peace, New York.

J. Wa.

James WALKER.

J. W.C.

Joun WiLitam Coss, C.B.E., B.Sc., F.L.C.

J. W. H.

James WycLurrreE HEADLAM-MOoRLEY, C.B E., M.A.

J. W. Y.

Advocate of the Scottish Bar.

} Author of Intestate Succession in Scotland.

Livesey Professor of Coal, Gas and Fuel Industries in the University of Leeds.

Historical Adviser to the Foreign Office, London. Formerly Fellow of King’s College, Cambridge. Assistant Director, Political pole Se Department of the Foreign Office, 1918-20. Member of the Political section of the British Delegation to the Peace Conference at Paris, 1919. Author of The History of Twelve Days; The Issue; The German Chancellor and the Outbreak of War; etc. Jonn W. Younc, Pu.D. Professor of Mathematics, Dartmouth’ College, Hanover, N. H. President of Mathematical Association of America. Author of Projective Geometry; Fundamental Concepts of Algebra and Geometry.

K. A. Eck.

Kari Avcust ECKHARDT. Professor in the Faculty of Law, University of Göttingen.

:

Ground Rent (in part).

}Gas Manufacture (in part). Germany (in pari).

Geometry (in part). Germanic Laws, Early (in part).

Xil K. K. K. N. L. L. C. M.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

K. KRUMBACHER.

S

}Greek Literature

Late Professor of Greek Language and Literature in the University of Munich.

KARL N. LLEWELLYN.

(in part).

Guarantee (in part).

Associate Professor of Law, Columbia University, New York.

Sır Leo CmrozzAa Money, F.R.Stat.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S. Author and Journalist. Member of the War Trade Advisory Committee, 1915-8. Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Shipping, 1916-8. Chairman of the Tonnage Priority Committee, 1917-8. Editor of the Economics, Engineering and Industries section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

Gas Light and Coke Company.

Lovis MariEz OLIVIER DUCHESNE, D-£s-L. French Scholar and Ecclesiastic. Late Professor at the Catholic Institute in Paris. Lecturer at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes and Director of the French School of Archaeology at Rome. See biographical article: DUCHESNE, Lours MARIE OLIVIER.

LEANDER GASPARD Rovssin, C.M.G.

Gelasius (in part).

a

British Delegate on the International Financial Commission, Athens. Financial Secretary to the Ministry of Finance, Cairo.

Formerly } Greece (in part).

L. J. SPENCER, M.A., Sc.D., F.G.S., F.C.S., E.R.S.

L. M.

F.

L. R. D.

Keeper of ER S Department, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Goniometer; Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor Graphite (în part). of The Mineralogical Magazine. LEONARD M. FANNING. l Gasolene or Petrol. Director of Publicity, American Petroleum Institute, New York.

LAwRENCE R. DrcxsEE, M.Com., F.C.A. Head of Sellars, Dicksee & Co. Dean of the Faculty of Economics in the University of London, 1925-6. Sir Ernest Cassel Professor of Accountancy Organisation in the University of London, 1919-26.

L. R. F.

ae oe ellow and

M. Bo.

M. C. S.

FARNELL, Mo Senior Tutor of

m Exeter

ee College,

oard.

and

z

University

Goodwill.

Business

Ši Lecturer in

:

Classica

. e

.

Archaeology; and Wilde Lecturer in Comparative Religion. Author of Cults of Greek Greek Religion (im part). States; Evolution of Religion. THOMAS BABINGTON MacavuLay, 18ST BARON MACAULAY OF ROTHLEY. : English Statesman and Historian. Author of Lays of Ancient Rome; The History of > Goldsmith, Oliver. England; etc. See the biographical article: MacauLay, T. B. M., Ist BARON. Moritz Jutius Bonn. i

Professor of Economics at the School of Commerce, Berlin. Author of Die englische >Germany (in part).

Kolonisation in Irland; Amerika als Feind; etc. MaAtLcoLtm CHARLES SALAMAN. Formerly Dramatic and Art Critic of The Sunday Times, London. Author of ou)Glass Prints. English Colour-Prints; The Charm of the Etcher's Art; Modern Masters of Etching; etc.

_ Jawes Scorere Meston, st Baron Meston K.C.S.1., LL.D.

Chancellor of Aberdeen University, 1928. Secretary to Finance Department, Govern-

}

Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand.

ment of India, 1906-12. Lieut. Governor, United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, 1912~7. MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A. Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of Fine Arts Committee of International Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome and the Franco-British Exhibition, London. Author of History of “Punch”; British Portrait Painting to the Opening of the roth Century; Works of G. F. Watts, R.A.; British Sculpture and Sculptors of To-day; Henrietie Ronner; etc.

Gilbert. Alfred ’ .

M. IL N.

Marton I. Newsicin, D.Sc. Editor of The Scottish Geographical Magazine. Author of A Geographical Study of ne}Greece (in part).

M. Pa.

Rev. Marx Pattison, LL.D.

Peace Terms; Mediterranean Lands; etc.

M. W. W. N. A.C.

Lar Rector of Lincoln College, Oxford. ARK.

See the biographical article:

,

Pattison, } Grotius, Hugo (in part).

Maset WALKER WILLEBRANDT, LL.D. Assistant Attorney General of the United States, Washington. NELSON ANTRIM CRAWFORD, M.A.

}Government Departments (im part).

Editor-in-Chief of Household Magazine, Topeka, Kans. Formerly Director of In- Grange. The formation, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington. Co-Author of Be, : Agricultural Journalism. NORMAN E. CRUMP. | Statistical Correspondent to the Financial Times, London. Member of the Council of the Royal Statistical Society. Joint-Author of Clare's A.B.C. of the Foreign G ulden. Exchanges.

MICHOLAS G Cree OF A

J

Bate

S

z

i

o

onsulting Civil Engineer. Formerly Chief Engineer, Tyne Improvement Com* ‘ mission. Served B.E.F. Lt. Colonel (Late R.E.). Acting Director, Civil Engineer- ae Dock; in-Chief’s Department, Admiralty. Chief Civil Engineer for Docks, Harbours and | CToyne. Inland Waterways, Ministry of Transport.

NELSON T. JoHNSON. iGovernment Departments Assistant Secretary of State, Washington. Formerly American Consul at Shanghai. (in part). SYDNEY OLIVIER, 18ST BARON OLivrER oF RamspEN, P.C., K.C.M.G., C.B., LL.D. Secretary for India, 1924. Late Governor of Jamaica.

poured eee LIVIER, S.

Author of White Capital and

The Anatomy of African Misery; etc. See the biographical article:

OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A.

Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-5.

Guiana (in part).

}Genealogy (in part); Girdle,

r

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

O. B. KEELER. Atlanta Journal, Atlanta, Ga. Honorary Member of the General Stafi of the American Associated Press. Author of The Autobiography of an Average Golfer. Co-Author of Down the Fairway; Styles of Champions.

Xiii

Golf (in part).

Otro JESPERSEN, Pu.D., Hon.Litr.D., LL.D. Professor of English in the University of Copenhagen, 1893-1925.

Corresponding Fellow of British Academy. Member of Academies of Copenhagen, Oslo, Lund, Helsingfors and Ghent. Author of Growth and Siructure of the English Language; A Modern English Grammar; Language, Its Nature, Development and Origin; The Philosophy of Grammar; etc. i

O. L. Mi.

OGDEN L. MILts.

Grammar.

}Government Departments

Under-Secretary of the Treasury, Washington. P.

F. K.

P.G.

Percy F. Kenpatrt,

(in part).

M.Sc.

Formerly Professor of Geology, Leeds. Author of many geological articles. PERCY GARDNER, Litt.D., LL.D., F.S.A., F.B.A.

Professor of Classical Archaeology, University of Oxford, 1887-1925. Emeritus since 1925. See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY.

P. G. H. B.

P. G. H. Boswett, O.B.E., D.Sc.

P. G. R.

PAUL G. REDINGTON,

:

.

Glacial Period.

Professor >Greek Art, }Gravel or Pebble Beds;

George Herdman Professor of Geology in the University of Liverpool.

Greywacke.

,

Chief of the Biological Survey of the United States Department of Agriculture, >Game Laws (in part). `

Washington.

P. La.

}

Par Laxe, M.A., F.G.S.

;

Lecturer in Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph on British Cambrian Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Kayser’s Comparative Geology.

Germany (in part).

P. Leb.

PHILEAS LEBERGUE,

P. McC.

Greek correspondent of Le Mercure de France under the name of Demetrius Asteriotis. Greek Literature (in part). PRIMROSE, McConneE Lt, B.Sc., F.G.S. iGrass and Grassland (in Author of Diary of a Working Farmer; etc. part), PAUL REBOUX. i

P. Re.

:

R. Bu.

Directeur Littéraire, Les Editions de Laurier, Paris. Rarrs Bunn, B.S. E

R. C. J.

and transportation papers. SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, O.M., LL.D., D.C.L.

R. D. Ca.

k

ompany.

}

Public Orator, Cambridge University, 1869-75, and Professor of Greek, 1889-1905 Greek Literature (ix part). Author of Translations into Greek and Latin; etc. See the biographical article JEBB, SIR Ricwarp C, R. D. CARMICHAEL. }Geometries, Finite. Professor of Mathematics at University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.

RALPH GEORGE HAWTREY.

R. H. Ra.

RosBerRT HERON RASTALL, Sc.D., F.G.S.

Assistant Secretary to the Treasury, London.

Author of Currency and Credit; etc.

University Lecturer in Economic Geology and Fellow of Member of Council of the Geological Society, 1915, 1918. Attached to War Office, r9r5-9. Author of Depostis. Editor of the Geology section, 14th Edition,

R. McK.

Gastronomy.

President, Great Northern Railway; St. Paul, Minn. Author of various engineering} ee Northern Railway

R. G. H.

R. J. Mi.

;

Christ’s College, Cambridge. and Mineralogical Society, Geology of the Metalliferous Encyclopedia Britannica.

Great Britain (in part). Geol

eology.

R. J. Mizpourne, M.Iwst.C.E. Member of the Council and Chairman (1928-9) of the Society of British Gas Indus- > Gasholders. tries. Author of Gasholder Design and Construction, RODERICK MACKENZIE, M.A. Fereday Fellow of St. John’s College, Qxford, and Assistant Editor of the 9th Edition } Greek Language (in part). of Liddell and Scott’s Greek-English Lexicon. i i oa

R. M. Kn.

Rata M. KNITTLE. ae . . i Dealer, Collector, Writer and Lecturer on American Antique and Historical Subjects, > Glass (in pari. Ashland, O. Author of Early Ameérican.Glass.

ROBERT NISBET BAIN.

Gedymin (in part);

Late Assistant Librarian; British Museum. Author of Scandinavia: The Political |.Godunov, Boris F.; History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1533-1900; The First Romanovs, 1613 to( Golovin, Fedor; 1725; Slavonic Europe: The Political History of Poland and Russia from 1460 to 1706. Griffenfeldt, Peder (in part).

R. N. R. B.

R. N. RupMosE Brown, D.Sc.

Head of Department of Geography, University of Sheffield. Member of the Scottish Antarctic Expedition, 1902~4, andof the Scottish Arctic Expeditions, 1909-12, 1914-9. Author of Spitsbergen; The Polar Regions; etc.. 7

R. P.G. D. R. Pr. R. R.

RopERIcK PETER GEORGE DENMAN, M.A., A.M.LEE.

Gramophone (in pari). Assistant in the National Museum of Science, London. ROBERT PRIEBSCH, PH.D. Professor of German Language and Literature in the University of London. Author >German Language. of Deutsche Handschriften in England; ete... -` : Sır RICHARD A. STUDDERT REDMAYNE, K.C.B., M.Sc., M.InsT.C.E., M.L-M.E. | Past President, Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. Hon. Member, Surveyors’ Institute. .H.M. Chief Inspector-of Mines, 1908-20. Author of The British Coal Gob. | Industry.

R. Rs.

Greenland (in part).

R. Ross.

`

i

-

i

‘>

AME, a word which in its primary and widest significance means any amusement or sport, often combined in the early examples with “glee,” “play,” “joy,” or “solace.” It is a common Teutonic word, in O.E. gamen, in O.H.G. gaman. For “game,” from the legal aspect, and the laws

relating to its pursuit see Game Laws. The athletic contests

of the ancient

Greeks

(4-yGves) and the public shows (Judi) of the arena and amphi-

theatre of the ancient Romans are treated below (GAMES, CLASSICAL); the various forms of modern games, indoor and outdoor, whether of skill, strength or chance, are dealt with under their specific titles. A special use (“gaming” or “gambling”) restricts the term to the playing of games for money, or to betting and wagering on the results of events, as in horse-racing, etc. (see

GAMING AND WAGERING). See also CHILDREN’s GAMES. GAME LAWS, statutes which regulate the right to pursue and take or kill certain kinds of wild animals. For game laws in the U.S. see page 3- In Great Britain by common law wild animals

were only property when reduced into possession by being killed or captured. Hence statutes were required to protect sporting rights.

Royal rights were protected by special laws (see Forest Laws), but where royal rights do not exist the right to take or kill wild animals is incidental to the ownership or occupation of the land on which they are found. In England the chief statutes are the Night Poaching Acts, 1828 and 1841, Game Act, 1831, Poaching Prevention Act, 1862, Ground Game Acts, 1880 and 1906, and acts for the protection of wild birds, of which the latest is the Protection of Lapwings Act, 1928. Pursuit of game on another’s land without his consent is a tres-

pass for which the pursuer is civilly liable, although when deer or

hares are hunted with hounds or greyhounds there is no criminal liability. In other cases trespassers may be prosecuted, but the game taken by a trespasser belongs to him unless it was both started and killed on the land of the one owner, when it belongs

to such owner. Even so the killing and taking it away as part of one continuous act is not larceny (R. v. Townley, 1871, L.R.1C.

C.R. 315). The young of wild animals, before they can fly or run away, belong to the owner of the land on which they are,

Classification of Animals.—Wild animals are classified for purposes of sport in England as follows:—(1) Beasts of royal forest (hart and hind, boar, wolf.and all beasts of venery); (2)

beasts of chase (a forest in the hands of a subject) and park (a enclosed chase), viz., buck and doe, fox, marten and roe; (3 beasts of warren (roe, hare, rabbit, partridge, pheasant, woodcock quail, rail and heron); (4) game as defined by the Night Poach ing Act, 1828, and the Game Act, 1831, @.¢., pheasant, partridg: black game, grouse or red game, bustard and hare (in Franc game includes everything eatable that runs or flies); (5) wil

fowl not mentioned above; e.g., duck, snipe, plovers; (6) othe wild birds, protected by the Wild Birds Protection Acts. Rights of chase, park and free warren depend on Crown grar or prescription founded on lost grant. Free warren is quite differer from ordinary warrens, in which hares or rabbits are bred by th owner of the soil for sport or profit. Ground game in such wa! rens is protected under the Larceny Act, 1861, s. 17, aS well ¿ by the game laws. In manors, the lord by his franchise had tt sporting rights over the manor, but at the present time this rig! is restricted to the commons and wastes of the manor, the fre hold whereof is in him, and does not extend to enclosed freehol nor as a general rule to enclosed copyholds, unless at the time « enclosure the sporting rights were reserved to him by the Ei closure Act or award (Sowerby v. Smith, 1873, L.R. 8 C.P. 514 The Game Act 1831 gives lords of manors and privileged persot certain rights as to appointing gamekeepers with special powe to protect game within the district over which their rights exter (ss. 13, 14, 15, 16). The game laws in no way cut down the speci

privileges as to forest, park, chase or free warren (1831, 5. 9 and confirm the sporting right of lords of manors on the wast of the manor (1831, s. 10). On lands not affected by these right the right to kill or take game is presumably in the occupier. C letting land the owner may, subject to the qualifications herei after stated, reserve to himself the right to kill or take “gamı or rabbits or other wild animals concurrently with or in exclusi of the tenant. Where the exclusive right is in the landlord, tl tenant is not only liable to forfeiture or damages for breaches | covenants in the lease, but is also liable to penalties on summa’

conviction if without the lessor’s authority he pursues, kills

takes any “game” upon the land or gives permission to others to ı so (1831, s. 12). In effect he is made criminally liable for gan trespass on lands in his own occupation, so far as relates to gar but not if he takes rabbits, snipe, woodcock, quails or rails. The net effect of the common law and the game laws is to gi the occupier of lands and the owner of sporting rights over the

the following remedies against persons who infringe their rig

2

GAME

LAWS

to kill or take wild animals on the land. A stranger who enters on the land of another to take any wild animals is liable to the occupier for trespass on the land and for the animals started and killed on the land by the trespasser.

He is also criminally liable

for game trespass if he has entered on the land to search for or in pursuit of “game” or woodcock, snipe, quail, landrails or rabbits. If the trespass is in the daytime the penalty may not exceed 4os., unless five or more persons go together, in which case the maximum penalty is £5. If a single offender refuses his name or address or gives a false address to the occupier or to the owner of the sporting rights or his representatives or refuses to leave the land, he may be arrested by them, and is liable to a penalty not exceeding £5, and if five or more concerned together in game trespass have a gun with them and use violence, intimidation or menace, to prevent the approach of persons entitled to take their names or order them off the land, they incur a further penalty up to £5. If the trespass is in search or pursuit of game or rabbits in night-time, the maximum penalty on a first conviction is prisonment with hard labour for three months; on a second, prisonment, etc., for six months, and the offender may be

the imimput under sureties not to offend again for a year after a first conviction or for two years after a second conviction. For a first or second offence the conviction is summary, subject to appeal to quarter sessipns, but for a third offence the offender is tried on indictment and is liable to penal servitude (three-seven years) or imprisonment with hard labour (two years). The offenders may be arrested by the owner or occupier of the land or their servants, and if the offenders assault or offer violence by firearms or

Close Time.—Within periods known as “close time,” and in England and Ireland on Sundays or Christmas Day, it is illegal to kill game. The present close times are in table in col. r. Licences.—The right to kill game is conditional on the possession of a game licence, subject to certain exceptions (Hares Acts, 1848, Game Licences Act, 1860). A licence is not required for beaters and assistants who go out with holders of a game licence. The licence is granted by the Inland Revenue Department. The issue is regulated by the Game Licences Act, 1860, as amended by the Customs and Inland Revenue Act, 1883. The licences now in use are of four kinds:— Those taken out after July 31— To expire on the next July 31 . 2 we & «dee. Or 36 To expire on the next Oct. 31 . 200 Those taken out after Nov. 1— To expire on the next July 31 2 00 Those taken out for any continuous period of I4 ‘days specified in the licence... . I O O

In the case of gamekeepers in Great Britain for whom the employer pays the duty on male servants, the annual licence fee is £2, but the licence extends only to lands on which the employer has a right to kill game. A licence granted either in Great Britain or in Northern Ireland is effective throughout the United Kingdom; but not in the Irish Free State. The sale of game when killed is also subject to statutory regulation. Gamekeepers may not sell game except under the authority of their employer (1831, ss. 17, 25). Persons who hold a full game licence may sell game, but only to persons who holda licence to deal in game. These licences are annual (expiring on July 1), and are granted in London by justices of the peace, and in the rest of England by the council of the borough or; urban or rural

offensive weapons they are liable to be indicted and on conviction punished to the same extent as in the last offence. In 1844 the district in which the dealer seeks to carry on business (1831, s above penalties were extended to persons found by night on 18; 1893, c. 73, S. 27), and a notice of the existence of the licence highways in search or pursuit of game. If three or more trespass must be posted on the licensed premises. A licence must be taken together on Iand by night to take or destroy game or rabbits, and out for each shop. Certain persons are disqualified for holding the any of them is armed with firearms, bludgeon or other offensive licence (1831, s. 18). The licensed dealer may buy British game weapon, they are liable to be indicted and on conviction sentenced only from persons who are lawfully entitled to sell game. Conto penal servitude (3-14 years) or imprisonment with hard labour viction of an offence under the Game Act, 1831, avoids the licence (two years). By “day” time is meant from the beginning of the (s. 22). The local licence must also be supplemented by an excise first.hour before sunrise to the end of the first hour after sunset. licence for which a fee of £2 (£3 in the Irish Free State) is Tt is illegal’ and severely punishable, however, to set traps or charged. leaded spring guns for poachers, whereby any grievous bodily harm Deer are not within the definition of game but to hunt or kill is intended -or may be caused even to a trespasser, so that poachdeer in enclosures in forests, chases or purlieus, or in enclosed land ers can be prevented only by personal attendance on the scene where deer is usually kept, or after a previous conviction to of their activities; and the provisions of the game laws above hunt or kill deer in the open parts of a forest, is a felony, and stated are, so far as concerns private land, left to be enforced by certain minor provisions are made as to arrest by foresters, forprivate’ enterprise without the interference of the police, with feiture of venison unlawfully possessed and for unlawfully setting the result that in some districts there are scenes of private noctraps for deer. These enactments do not prevent a man from turnal war. Even in the Night Poaching Act, 1844, which applies killing on his own land deer which have strayed there (Threlkeld to ‘highways, the arrest of offenders is made by owners, occuv. Smith, 1901, 2 K.B. 531). In Scotland the unlawful killing of piers or their game-keepers. The police were not given any direct deer is punished as theft. authority as to’ poachers until the Poaching Prevention Act, 1862. Damage to Crops by Ganesh common law the owner of Inall;cases of ‘summary conviction for poaching an appeal! lies land with sporting rights, and his sporting tenants, must use the to: quarter ‘sessions. .In'all cases of poaching the game, etc., taken reserved rights, reasonably. They are liable for any damage iid forferted by the court which tries the poacher, wilfully or unnecessarily done to the crops, etc., of the occupier, . | England and Scotland! © ‘Treland | such as trampling down standing crops or breaking hedges or fences, but not for damage done by game bred on the land ‘or Hare .. March 1 to July 31 | March 1 to July 3r frequenting it in the ordinary course of nature. Modern legislation Red deer (male) None Jan. xto June o has greatly increased the rights of the occupiers. As regards hares Fallow deer , None Sept. 29 to June ro Pheasant Feb. zx to Sept. 30 | Feb. 1 to Sept. 30 and rabbits the occupier’s rights are regulated by the Ground Partridge . Feb. xto Aug. 3r | Feb. 1 to Aug. 31 Game Act, 1880. The occupier has the right to kill and take hares Black game Dec. 10 to Aug. 20*| Dec. 10 to Aug. 20 and rabbits on the land. The right cannot be divested by contract, - Grouse‘or red game .~ | Dec. ro to Aug. 12 | Dec. 10 to Aug. 12 but where, apart from the act the right to kill game on the land Quai and landrail . | March rto Aug. ı | Jam. xo to Sept. rọ is. vested in a person other than the occupier, such person has a , Ptarmigan . Dec. roto Aug..12ł| Dec. xro to Aug. 20 w

Bustard (wild turkey) “Snipe? teal; widgeon, “ Sild * tick, - wood-

March

r to Sept. 1{| Jan.

xro to Sept. I

i, cock. and all other;

ees 5, +.

.

| March

ae x§

March

rı to Aug.

1

*Sept. rin Devon, Somerset ai New Forest. w Sootland anly: e

5 im. certain. districts under. Wild Birds Protection Orders. Lapwitgs are also protected by the Protection of Lapwings Act, 1928.

right concurrent with the. statutory right of the occupier to take

hares and rabbits on the land. The act does not extend to common lands nor to lands over which rights of grazing or pasturage for not more than nine months in the year exist. The mode of

exercise of the occupier ’s right is subject to certain. limitations, On moorland and unenclosed lands (which are not. arable, and do not consist.of detached portions of less than.25 ac+) the «occu-

pier may between Sept, 1,and. March y kill and take ground game: but between Sept. i and Dec. io firearms may not be used (1880,

GAME s. 1 [3]; 1906, s. 2). In the case of such lands the occupiers and the owners of the sporting rights may between Sept. r and Dec. 10 make and enforce for their joint benefit agreements for taking the ground game. The Agricultural Holdings Act, 1906 (operating from 1909) deals, inter alia, with damage to crops by deer and winged game, but does not apply to damage by hares or rabbits. The tenant of agricultural land without the right to killis entitled to compensation for damage to his crops exceeding Is. per acre

over the area affected if caused by game (s. 2). The right of the tenant is indefeasible. Scotiand and Ireland.—By the law of Scotland all men have right and privilege of game on their own estates as a real right incident thereto, which does not pass by an agricultural lease except by express words, or in the case of ground game by the act of 1880. The landlord is liable to the tenant for damage done to the surface of the lands in exercise of his right to the game and also for extraordinary damage by oOver-preserving or over-stocking. Night poaching is punished by the same act as in England, and day poaching by an act of 1832 and the act of 1882. The provisions of the act of 1832 as to game trespass by day apply also to deer, roe, rabbits, woodcock, snipe, rails and wild duck; but in other respects closely resemble those of the English act of 1831. The common law as to game is the same for Ireland as for England. The game laws of Ireland are contained partly in acts passed prior to the union (1698, 1707, 1787 and 1797), partly in acts limited to Ireland, and as to the rest in acts common to the whole United Kingdom which continue in force both in Northern Ireland and in the Irish Free State. Night poaching iin Ireland is dealt with by an act of 1826. Trespass on lands in pursuit of game to which the landlord or lessor has by reservation exclusive right is summarily punishable under an act of 1864, which includes in the definition of game, woodcock, snipe, quails, landrails, wild duck, widgeon and teal. Under the Land Act, 1881, the landlord of a statutory holding may at the commencement of the term subject to the Ground Game Acts retain and exercise the exclusive right of taking “game” as above defined. A game licence is not required for taking or killing rabbits. But in other respects the law as to game licences and licences to deal in game is the same as in Great Britain. See Oke’s Game (1914).

Laws

UNITED

(sth ed., 1912);

Nolan, ape ets Rights (W. F. C.; E. G.)

STATES AND CANADA

The United States established game laws for the protection of game rather than the granting of exclusive hunting or fishing rights to any persons. As early as 1623 the Plymouth Colony passed a law declaring all hunting and fishing to be free, except on private property. No class legislation exists. Possession of game by killing belongs, subject to limitations of the State law, to him who kills or catches, not, as in England, to the landowner on whose property such game may be caught or bagged. During the season of reproduction, wild game and fish may not be molested. - The U.S. Department of Agriculture has as one of its functions the conservation and protection of wild game and migratory birds. Among the most important enactments are the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, passed in 1918, and the Lacey Act, passed in rgoo. The treaty act protects species that pass between ‘the United States and Canada, and the Lacey Act regulates interstate commerce in game and controls the importation of foreign animals and birds, preventing illicit interstate trafic in game, and excluding injurious species of foreign birds and animals. The Federal migratory bird law may be further restricted by State legislation. Each State has intricate.and detailed laws of its own, often conflicting with those of another State. ‘The Migratory Bird Treaty Act, growing out of ‘a convention between the :‘United States and Great Britain signed in 1916, has resulted in greatly co-ordinated State laws relating to migratory game ‘birds; and. has given ‘to. the Department of Agriculture power ‘'to: regulate. within’ certain limits ‘the capture, 'possession

LAWS

3

and disposition of migratory birds. Fundamental items found in such enactments include the abolition of spring shooting, suspension of sale and the prescription of definite, reasonable, daily bag limits, while, by the terms of the treaty, open seasons are restricted to a period not exceeding three and one-half months in any one year between Aug. 15 and March ro. Particularly important for the protection of game is the establishment of adequate breeding and resting grounds. Increasing commercial developments have made serious inroads upon the natural breeding and resting grounds of all wild life; drainage of marshes and lakes has been one means of destroying large water areas suitable for the production of game. To offset this destruction of natural reproduction areas, the Government has set aside reservations, which either directly or indirectly protect wild life. (See Game Reserves.) There are administering agencies in national parks and other reservations to protect, incidentally, wild life. These include: the National Park Service, the Forest Service, the Bureau of Fisheries, the Bureau of Lighthouses and the War and Navy Departments. Under the Bureau of Biological Survey are 80 game and bird reservations, all of which are bird refuges and five of them are stocked with big game. Additions to the number are made from year to year. Federal and State laws alike allow the capture of game for propagation purposes under permit. Various restrictions govern the sale of game raised in captivity, additional licences and fees being required. In some States traffic in such game is legal, and the game may be sold for food or scientific purposes. The Federal regulations allow shooting of such game only in the open season of the State in which it is killed, provided migratory fowl raised in captivity shall have had removed, before attaining a certain age, a portion of the web of one foot. The first general game law in Alaska was enacted in 1902 and revised in 1908, though adequate provision for conservation in Alaska, particularly of game and land fur-bearing animals, came only in 1925, when the Alaska game law was passed. This created a commission of five resident members, one of whom is the chief representative of the Bureau of Biological Survey in Alaska, and provides for fuller protection of wild life. Eskimos and Indians are at liberty to hunt game at any time for the use of themselves and their immediate families for food and clothing. Common to nearly all States are the following provisions: hunting licences are required, with the fee for residents much lower than for non-residents; in many States licences on private property are not required by owners, while trespassing on another’s property without permit is forbidden; no fishing licences. are needed in some States by minors under 16 to 18 years of age; and in others minors under 17 may hunt without a licence if accompanied by a holder of a general licence. There are strict regulations for selling protected game. Possession of game taken out of the State is usually subject to local laws, but possession of migratory birds is restricted to the open season and the first ro or 15 days of the closed season. In a few States reports must be made within a limited time to the State commissioner of game, stating the number and kind of game killed, and in several States the commissioner may close or open a season either because of depleted stocks or of depredations by game on crops. In a few States aliens are not permitted to hunt or to own firearms, but special cases are excepted by the commissidners’ upen the payment »‘of a large fee. Special privileges are accorded soldiers; veterans of the Indian, Civil and World Wars in ‘six States and in the Territory of Alaska to native-born Indians: and Eskimos. In New York State none but ii ene may hunt on ‘Indian reservations. ‘Canada—The Dominion of Canada ‘has a zekere law pro+ hibiting the export of deer carcasses, wild turkey,’ quail; “par-

tridge, prairie fowl and woodcock. The Migratory ‘Birds Conven-

tion Act.is supplemented byregulations similar to’ those governing the Migratory Bird ‘Treaty Act inthe United States. Full text of

the regulations will be found im an annual’ publication by’ the

commissioner of ‘national parks ‘of: Canada, Ottawa. § °°? “Each province makes its own-laws and ‘regulations for hunting ganie.' All non-residents must. have licences, the ‘cost of such

GAME

4

licences varying in amount according to the kind of game; residents’ fees are lower, and in Manitoba no licence is required of a resident hunting on his own property. There are special regulations for guides, and, in the case of hunting big game, in Manitoba and Saskatchewan the costume worn by the hunter must be white. The licencee is required to report the number of big game and game-birds killed. The laws governing the sale of game vary in all the provinces; in Ontario, some native game may be sold; in Nova Scotia, little game except rabbits in a certain season; in Prince Edward island all game lawfully killed (except migratory birds) may be sold; the same is true of Quebec, birch or spruce partridge being excepted also; New Brunswick forbids the sale of all game except that a licensed hunter may sell moose or deer lawfully killed by him; in Alberta, only heads of big game may be sold under special sale fees. The export of all protected game is prohibited except in Yukon and Quebec; geese and brant in Prince Edward island; special permits, however, may be obtained from the commissioner. Deer raised on private lands may be exported; all birds so raised must be killed by other means than shooting, and so tagged before they can be sold. Most of the provinces allow game raised in captivity to be bought, sold and exported for propagation purposes. For open seasons on game for the United States, Canada, Newfoundland and Mexico, for bag limits and possession, and regulations regarding sale and interstate transportation of game, see bulletins issued annually by State and Provincial game commissioners and Farmers’ Bulletins on game laws, compiled by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Minor exceptions in individual States and Provinces may be found by consulting the game laws

published by each.

(X.)

Game Protection in the U.S.—The game of the United States is in danger of extinction, This is due to the American system of “free shooting” for every citizen, the dictation of killing laws and regulations by the killers themselves, the reluctance of the killing majority to give up its killing “rights” so long as any game re-

mains. For 50 years the laws of the United States have permitted wasteful killing of game. Even in 1928 many open seasons were 50% too long, and many bag limits 40% too high. All States save Pennsylvania and New Jersey tolerate the extra-deadly automatic and pump shotguns, the use of live decoys and the baiting of

ducking waters. Along with these blunders are to be reckoned the loss of natural cover and food, exposure to natural enemies, the severity of extra hard winters and now the scourge of the hunting automobile. The net loss of marshes and lakes by drainage as a factor in waterfowl decrease has been much exaggerated, and so has the disappearance uf heavy timber. Much harm was wrought during the six years from 1921 to 1927 by the policy of the eastern promoters of a certain public-shooting-grounds bill in opposing constructive Federal legislation while failing to enact their own measure. Unfortunately the American machinery for the destruction of American game is now so vast, so varied and so uncontrollable, its momentum is so great, that it is a question whether it will be possible to curb its power, or reverse it before the end of the game supply is reached. All the game of the United States is divisible into two groups— killable and protected. The former includes the shreds and patches of about 25 species of birds, deer and black bear in quite a num-

ber of States, elk in three States, mountain sheep in Wyoming, -white goats only in Idaho and Washington, and occasionally moose in Maine and Wyoming. Fugitive grizzly bear exist in five or six States, and black bear in probably 20 States. Of the original stock of big game in the United States not more:than 2% remains: In a few States cotton-tail rabbits are abundant; but

squirrels are scarce nearly everywhere, arid the raccoon is to be found. a few places only. i . „The killable upland game birds are down to, the diseased and vanishing ruffed grouse, the pinnated, sharp-tailed and sage grouse, all. weakly, and hopelessly hanging on in less than one-half of their former States. The wild turkey’s area of extermination is large, and soon. the guns will destroy the remainders of that gorgeous bird. The bob-white quail has disappeared from 14 of the 35

LAWS States it once inhabited and is rapidly being exterminated in the others. In California the steadily growing scarcity of native quail is causing much alarm. It needs real protection rather than “more water.” The efforts made to breed the bob-white in captivity have served only to prove the futility of such efforts. Prairie-chicken hunting is dead in nine States, sage grouse in seven, wild-turkey hunting is banned in 14 States, and from Maine to Minnesota the ruffed grouse seems to be disappearing. The woodcock and snipe still are killable; but they are so rare that their pursuit is ethically quite wrong and generally fruitless. All other shore birds have become so scarce that now all of them are

protected at all times. The ducks, brant and Canada goose, to a total of about ten species, are more or less abundant in a few spots in nine States, but are absent from about five-sixths of the great area they once inhabited in good numbers. The areas of practical extinction seem to be steadily widening. Twenty-six States have felt compelled by waterfowl scarcity to reduce their bag limits on waterfowl about 40% below the Federal Government’s regulations, For official information regarding the extinction of game hunting in each of the 48 States and Canada, see Game Laws of 1927-28, published by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The class of “protected” species includes all the “game” mammals and birds that are living in sanctuaries where they can never be hunted or killed. Any game “preserve” that permits the hunting and killing of any of its wild inhabitants for “sport” is distinctly not a sanctuary, and for it the term “game preserve” is a misnomer that never should be employed. The numerous and costly efforts that have been made by many States in importing tender foreign quail to restock their lifeless game “areas” usually have been disappointing. In another ten or I5 years, unless drastic action is taken, the killable game of the United States will be so completely gone that the sport of game hunting will be as dead as buffalo hunting. The sizes of the 48 State armies of game destroyers stagger the imagination. The story is told by the annual hunting licences. For example, Pennsylvania and New York each turn out annually over 600,000 hunters. The small State of New Jersey has 155,567 hunters; the large State of California has 252,017. In the autumn of 1926 the grand total of licensed hunters taking the field in the United States was 5,183,353. They were carried to their greatly expanded huntinggrounds, in quick time, by perhaps 2,000,000 automobiles. All their guns are breech-loading and rapid-fire. Of their shotguns, about 85% are of the super-deadly choke-bore, automatic and “pump” pattern, spraying out either five or six charges of shot without removal from the shoulder. The gunpowder used is of extra strength and super-deadliness. These hunters are assisted by guides, dogs, boats, blinds, decoys, baited waters and other devices to take unfair advantage of the helpless game. Game birds are constantly harassed in flight and while trying to feed or rest, by the booming guns, plus the warfare of the predatory birds and

mammals that sportsmen call “vermin,” For the disappearance of game during the 30 years ending in 1928 the hunter himself is fully 90% to blame. See also NaTionaL Parks. (W. T. H.) Measures for Game Protection.—The protection of wild life involves several elements, outstanding among which are the insurance of adequate habitat (see Game Reserves); the enactment and enforcement of wise conservation laws (see above);

the control of both predatory animals and birds of prey; the remedying of conditions productive of diseases and parasites in breeding and feeding areas of wild life; the proper disposal of surpluses from the annual increase; and the cultivation of a proper attitude of mind on the part of sportsmen and the public generally toward game protection. Of first importance in measures for game protection is provision for refuge areas, where wild birds and other species can feed, breed and rest undisturbed by man. In the United States, the rapid development of the once wild portions of the country has taken from many of the birds and mammals large areas of their former haunts. Because of this, a great responsibility devolves upon the public agencies of the State and Federal Governments charged with the protection and maintenance of the wild

GAME

RESERVES

life to do everything possible to re-establish in part at least these lost homes. Refuges that have been established in the United States have been effective in saving from threatened extinction such noble game animals as the buffalo, elk, antelope and the mountain sheep. The Upper Mississippi River Wild Life and Fish Refuge, which comprises large areas of low lands extending approximately 300 m. down the Mississippi river from Wabasha, Minn., is beginning to serve well not only for the conservation of the waterfowl that come to this region in abundance but for the increase of such water-using animals as the beaver and muskrat. Several of the States have established refuges for waterfowl and also for upland birds, and a few of the Federal refuges set aside by executive order include marshland areas that serve various

species of wild fowl and valuable fur animals. Next in importance to the maintenance of refuge areas for

game-protection purposes is the existence of adequate game laws, and both State and Federal Governments have made long strides in this respect. These laws deal with the limitations on the number of birds or animals that may be taken in a given period, definitions of proper open seasons on game, prohibition of the sale of game and of the use of devices of great destructiveness heretofore employed in hunting, requirements of reports to public agencies on the number and kind of animals and birds taken under licences issued, and the institution of an appropriate method of tagging in connection with big game and important fur-bearers to ensure that the animals have been legally taken and may be lawfully transported. More and more noticeable is the tendency among public agencies to plan their enforcement programme to suit the needs of the birds or animals ‘that are to be protected rather than to agree to a setting of seasons and limits that might be classed as political expedients. Many of the State game commissions—and in the Federal Government, the Bureau of Biological Survey—by legislative act have been given broad authority to handle promptly and by regulation such restrictions as are deemed to be necessary for’ the welfare of the birds and animals involved.

Another important factor in game protection is that which has to do with the control of predatory animals and birds of prey. The Federal Government and many of the States are spending considerable sums to reduce the numbers of such predacious animals as the wolf, coyote, mountain lion and the bobcat. As a result of the campaign waged against the coyote by the Federal Government and its co-operators in the Western States the deer have increased rapidly, and the antelope, the very existence of which seemed to be threatened, is coming back because of the lessening of damage done to fawns by this predator. Attention is now being given in many quarters to the control of such birds of prey as the goshawk, the sharp-shinned and Cooper hawks, and the magpie and crow, which are locally injurious to beneficial birds. Control measures for the welfare of game animals and birds are necessary also in connection with the diseases and parasites to which they are subject when concentrated on natural feeding and breeding areas or on game preserves. Maladies such as that known as alkali poisoning develop among wild ducks and other species that are limited by the advancement of farming operations to waters that become in effect death-traps for the birds. Measures that have been undertaken to remedy these adverse conditions include the building of dikes for impounding fresh waters, a notable example of which is furnished in the Federal Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge, on the marshes at the north end of Great Salt Lake, Utah, a concentration area for the wild fowl of many surrounding States. Just as there may be over-enthusiasm in other welfare activities, So may measures for game protection reach a stage that threatens danger to the very species sought to be protected. Such a danger arises when either refuge or non-refuge areas of limited size become so overstocked that the available food supply is no longer adequate for their support. Game conservation in such cases has demanded the disposal of the surplus, when it cannot be cared for by an extension of needed facilities. In many cases the surplus has been disposed of by transplanting elsewhere, as in the case of buffalo and elk from fenced preserves and deer from open

5

areas, and in others it has been necessary for the welfare of the main stock to utilize part of the surplus as food or for other purposes. One other element in the game-protection programme may be briefly stated as that of 4 proper attitude of mind by the sportsmen of the country toward the wild life. There are too many poachers, market hunters and night shooters; but the true sportsmen obey the game laws and urge by precept and otherwise such observance on their fellows, and there are now in the United States many noted organizations of sportsmen, bird lovers and other conservationists who are zealously working to bring about better protection for the beneficial forms of the bird and animal

life of the country. GAME RESERVES.

(P. G. R.) The great forest areas of Sussex

and Hampshire, preserved by the early Norman kings, may be regarded as one of the forerunners of the modern game reserve. The game, however, was in this case preserved solely for hunting purposes, and not, as in the modern reserves, preserved for the sake of the game itself. Game preservation for the sake of sport has been carried on in Europe for many hundreds of years, but it is only comparatively recently that the idea of the modern game reserve has been evolved. These reserves are seen at their best in North America, Africa and the Far East. Canada and the United States are at present well ahead of the rest of the world in game preservation, bit the reserves of Africa, the Malay Peninsula, and Australia are not far behind those of the New World in importance and organization. In Canada there are 13 areas put apart as national parks, comprising a total area of 8,900 sq.m., and in the United States some 8,456 sq.m. are devoted to this purpose. In addition, some 45,500 sq.m. are set aside in Canada as reserves. These national parks are visited by large numbers of people and the financial support thus

obtained is very considerable. The game reserves of Africa and other parts of the Old World, where game still abounds, are not supported in a similar fashion, since the number of European visitors to the reserves is limited. The most popular of the African reserves is the new national park of the dominion of South Africa, known as the Kruger National park; this reserve is attracting a large number of visitors and its popularity is steadily increasing. The Kruger National park had its origin in a game sanctuary founded by President Kruger in 1898; it was then known as the Sabi reserve, occupying the country between the Crocodile and Sabi rivers near the boundaries of Portuguese East Africa. After the South African War this area was considerably enlarged, the reserve extending from the Croco-. dile river in the south, all along the Portuguese boundary to the Limpopo and the Rhodesian border in the north, and from the Portuguese boundary in the east nearly as far as the Drakensberg in the west, a total area of zoom. by 60 miles. In 1926 the Union Government decided to make this reserve into a national park where the fauna of the country may be preserved for all time. The extent of this park as it exists to-day is about 220m. by 4om., the park extending from Komatipoort io the south

along the Portuguese East African border to the junction of the territories of the Union, Rhodesia, and Portuguese East Africa on the Limpopo. Elephants are still to be found in this reserve, inhabiting the country around the Letaba and Tendi rivers, the animals wandering as far north as the Shingwedsi, and southwards to the Olifants rivers, In addition, considerable

numbers of migrants from Portuguese territory have latterly made their appearance between the Shingwedsi and Limpopo rivers, A few specimens of the black rhinoceros (Rhinoceros [Diceros] bicornis) remain, and giraffe are reported tọ be increasing in numbers, Zebra, eland, kudu, roan and sable antelope, waterbuck, impala, Reedbuck, bushbuck, duiker, steinbuck, klipspringer and blue wildebeest are also to be met with within the confines of the park. In addition warthogs and bushpigs are

found in, all suitable localities and the hippopotamus lives in all

the larger rivers. Buffaloes, which in 1902 were represented by only about a- -dozen individuals, are now fairly numerous in the ‘area between the Sabi and Crocodile rivers. The number of: lions is steadily decreasing and the leopard is getting, year

6

GAME

RESERVES

by year, a rarer animal. The reserve also serves as a sanctuary to a great variety of bird life. Similar reserves exist in Zululand, where in the Umfolozi

reserve the Southern white rhinoceros (Rhinoceros simus simus) has its last home. In the Mkuze reserve the Nyala (or Inyala) is found in fair numbers, together with impala, kudu, waterbuck, -and other large and medium-sized antelopes. In these Zululand reserves it has been suggested that the shortage of food supply, which has had a very serious effect on certain species, was due in part to the presence of vast numbers of zebra and blue wildebeest (or brindled gnu); possibly the shooting of the larger carnivora within the reserves has upset the balance of nature. In Northern Rhodesia there are three game reserves (1) Mweru Marsh reserve (2,500 sq.m.); (2) Kafue reserve (3,500 sq.m.); and the Victoria Falls reserve (80 sq. miles). The Mweru Marsh Reserve is situated between Lake Mweru and the southern end of Lake Tanganyika; it is especially designed for the protection of elephants. In addition, it contains hippopotamus, eland, kudu, situtunga, sable and roan antelopes, buffalo, and some of the smaller antelopes, such as duikers and oribis. Pelicans and flamingoes and many other types of bird life abound. The Kafue reserve is situated in the western half of the colony, the Kafue river running through the reserve from north to south. Elephants are occasionally found, and reports have been received of the occurrence of the black rhinoceros in this reserve. The majority of the large and medium-sized antelopes found in the colony are to be met with. The Victoria Falls reserve is a narrow strip of country, about 4om. long, bordering the north side of the Zambesi river; the function of this reserve is to protect such animals as still survive in the neighbourhood of the Victoria Falls. In Central Africa there is the newly-formed national park at Kivu, in the eastern Belgian Congo, and the Birunga volcanoes lying to the north-east of Lake Kivu have been proclaimed a

sanctuary for the eastern gorilla (Gorilla gorilla beringeri). Numerous other game reserves exist in Uganda, the Sudan, Kenya Colony, Tanganyika Territory and Nyasaland. In Tanganyika Territory there are 11 different reserves, varying in size from about 240 to 2,600 sq. miles. The'most important of these is the so-called Selous reserve on the Rufiji river; this is the main elephant refuge of Tanganyika Territory. The Kilimanjaro. and Meru reserves are also of importance as including much ‘dense forest country. In the Kilimanjaro forest area, in addition to numerous elephants, there occur such animals as Abbets Duiker'(Cephalophus spadix) and the black and white

Colobus monkey (Colobus caudatus). This reserve occupies the high ‘forest zones and alpine meadow areas of the mountain. “r ‘in ‘Kenya ‘Coloriy there are two large''reserves, the Northern gamë‘ reserve (25,000 sq.m.) extending from Nyiro, south-east

of Lake Rudolf, nearly as far as Lake Baringo in the south, with an approximate ‘width of about 60m., and the Southern game reserve occupying a large part of the ‘Masai reserve, stretching from: Nairobi in a south-easterly direction. for upwards of 160m., the Total aréa inchided in the reserve being about 15,000 sq. miles. En the Nottherm -reserve'a number of desert forms occur, such ast Waller's gazelle: ‘or getenuk (Lithocronius walleri) and: a

variety sof dik-diks (Rhynchotragus kirki, smithi, etc.).. In ad-

‘@itiony-tlephant;. rhmoceros, hippopotamus, giraffe (G. reticulata),

"dial alana,‘vid, lesser kadu, beisa, topi, hartebeest; water‘what itapalla, ‘two:forms of Grant’s gazelle, Thomson’s gazelle, | Mitpspritger: -Grévyls zebra; (Grant’s. zebra;: steinbuck, reedbuck and a variety’ of small duikers, together with a number of ostriches, inhabit: this reserve. In:the Southern reserve most of these’ forms also: occur; the giraffe is, However, the Masai type (G. tippelskerchi), the. zebra, Burchell’s zebra, and the oryx, te ifringed-eared oryx (Oryx callotis). Lions, leopards and cheetalis are also. fairly frequently met with. |

in Bunyoro, the Kibale and Butara forests in Toro, the sleeping sickness areas of Kabula and Mawogola on the Ankole-Masaka border, southern Busoga, and the uninhabited areas of north Bulamezi, Buruti, and north-east Singo. In the Sudan there is a large game reserve situated between the White and Blue Niles and the Sobat river. In Nigeria there are four game reserves, one in the northern and three in the southern provinces. The northern reserve is situated in the Bornu province and contains most. of the game animals to be found in the northern provinces; this area contains an adequate supply of water and grazing and is sufficiently large to function as a game sanctuary. The land around certain towns within this reserve is excluded from the reserve for a radius of 5 miles. In the southern provinces the best of the reserves is bounded on the west, south, and east by the Gwate creek; the other two reserves, the Orle river reserve, and the Anambra river reserve are not so suited for the purposes of game preservation. In Asia the principal game reserves are in the Federated Malay States, Burma, and Ceylon. In Negri Sembilan there is a reserve of 68,000 ac. situated on the Serting river. The country here is mostly low-lying with a few hills; a large part of it is covered with heavy forest and contains elephant, seladang, sambar, tapir, tiger, and large numbers of small game and birds. In Pahang there are three reserves, (1) the Krau reserve of 130,000 ac.; (2) the Gunong Tahan reserve totalling some 360,000 ac.; and (3) the Sungei Lui reserve (42,500 acres). These reserves contain most of the species of big and small game found in Malaya except the Javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus). In Burma the area set aside for reserves is at present by no means extensive, but more and larger reserves will probably be formed in the near future. The five reserves are'(1) the Pidaung sanctuary (2604 sq.m.) containing elephant, bison, sambar, hog-deer, tiger, leopard and bear; (2) the Kahilu reserve (200 sq.m.), containing the very rare Javan rhinoceros; (3) the Sheve-U-Daung sanctuary (81 sq.m.), which contains some specimens of the Sumatran rhinoceros (R. sumatrensis); (4) the Maymyo sanctuary (49 sq.m.); and (5) the Moscos islands (19 sq.m.), contain Sambar and a variety of smaller game animals and birds. In Ceylon one of the most important reserves is the game sanctuary of the Southern province; it comprises the extreme eastern division of the Hambantota district situated between the Yala and Kumbukkan rivers. In area this sanctuary is about 150 sq.m., and the entry into it can only be obtained on permission of the forest officers. It abounds in large and small game, sambar and the spotted deer being very abundant, and elephants, leopards, bears, and pigs are also to be met with. Another type of reserve in the Southern province is the resident sportsman’s reserve, which adjoins the game sanctuary on the west. During

the open season it is possible for the resident sportsman

(of

not. less. than six months’ residence) to shoot in this reserve on licences to be obtained from the revenue officer of the district. The game.in this reserve, although increasing in numbers, is not nearly so abundant as it is in the sanctuary. A similar sportsman’s reserve has been formed in the Eastern province, with an area of about: 300 sq.m., bounded on the east by the sea and the west by the Uva province boundary; in the north it extends as far as the Pottuvil-Mupane road, and southwards reaches Kumbukkan Oya. Most of this reserve is bush country, with some large lagoons surrounded by park lands. Elephants are sufficiently numerous to be a nuisance to sportsmen after smaller game, and sambar and spotted deer are numerous. A

sportsman’s réserve is also maintained in the province of Uva; the. reserve is situated in the southern part of the province and is.open to resident sportsmen only. Im India thé forests are. frequently divided up into shooting blocks, usually. of large size, one’ block being reserved as a game TisUganda: the Semliki reserve contains elephants, buffaloes, satictuary. The formation: of large game reserves, such as exist waterbackcs; skobs, ahd a variety of duikers. The Bunyoro game in Africa, is not possible in India, and to a large extent the game reséeve:’Combains: numbers of elephants, but its area: is far too must be protected by:‘shooting,licerices and the such small sazictuYent fos!’any:-realvuse'.a ed s.a general reserve. Other natural ames: as: maybe formedin: the. centres:of the game country. ‘Weundkisametuaries:are the Budongo forest and .Bugoma forest Jn : Australia ‘there, area: great. number of reserves, for the

7

GAME RESERVES _ preservation of native game.

In Western Australia alone some

42 reserves have been formed for the protection of bird-life and the smaller marsupials. The national park of 3,349 ac. is situated at Swan View, about 14m. E. of Perth; grey kangaroos and some of the smaller marsupials are found in this park. In Queensland there are also a large number of game sanctuaries, including about 4o island reserves. The national parks of Victoria, some 12 in number, serve to protect and preserve many rare birds and small marsupials. The largest of these parks is Wilson’s promontory of over 100,000 ac. and contains large numbers of the more common native animals. Mt. Buffalo is another important reserve of 25,980 ac.; it contains a number of interesting birds but not many mammals. The Grampians forest is another fine sanctuary in which kangaroos and wallabies are found. These forest reserves have practically no inhabitants, but are accessible to the public by roads or tracks; with the exception of Mt. Buffalo and Wilson’s promontory, there are no hotels or resthouses. In addition to these national parks there are also about 180 reserves in Victoria, in many of which the platypus and other rare mammals thrive, and the kangaroo and wallaby find plenty of shelter in the forests. Tasmania has a fine national park of 38,500 ac. in the south-central part of the island, and over 160,000 ac. are maintained as a game reserve in the region of Lake St. Clair, Lincoln. These two sanctuaries will ensure that the fast disappearing fauna of the island will be preserved for future generations. The national park includes the Mount Field range and adjoining country; the altitude varies from 500 to 4,721 ft. above sea-level, so that the fauna and flora of this region is both varied and interesting. Among the larger mammals Bennett’s wallaby (Macropus bennetti) is to be met with on the higher levels, and the smaller Rufous wallaby inhabits the scrub. Ringtail and brush phalangers are fairly common, and kangaroo rats and marsupial mice (Dromicia) occur. These latter, on account of their small size and nocturnal habits, are not often seen. Wombats are common on the Broad river valley

and on the open moors. The marsupial cats (Dasyurus) are found fairly frequently, and the Tasmanian devil and marsupial wolf (Thylacinus cynocephalus) are possibly also inhabitants of this area. The platypus is to be found in the lakes and the spiny anteater is also a native of the park. A large percentage of the Tasmanian birds are to be found within the boundaries, including specimens of the great wedge-tailed eagle. This national park, unlike so many of the reserves of Africa and elsewhere, is fairly easy to get to; trains run from Hobart to National park every week-day, and in the summer months a Sunday service is maintained. In New Zealand the national parks are chiefly maintained for the preservation of bird-life, and there are no native game animals. The parks are eight in number, of which the biggest are the Sounds National park, Tongariro, and Arthur’s Pass. Tongariro, in the North island, is remarkable for its beautiful scenery, containing within its boundaries the volcanic peaks of Ruapshu, Tongariro, and Ngarurhoe. Another North island park embraces the volcano known as Mt. Egmont. The most famous parks in the South island are the Sounds or Fiordland,

and Tasman park (97,800 acres). The former park is noted for its sounds, or fiords, and the latter for the inclusion of Mt. Cook, the highest peak in the dominion. All these parks function as valuable reserves for the preservation of the native fauna and flora. The deer which have been introduced into New Zealand

are not protected in these national parks, as the damage resulting

from these animals is so serious that it has been found necessary

l to take steps to reduce their numbers. In Africa the game reserves are usually in charge of the

that “Game warden includes assistant game warden and honorary game warden.” In certain special cases, such as permits for

export of game trophies, authority is vested only in the game warden. In addition there are a number of scouts, and valuable information is often received from casual natives. Honorary game wardens also give much assistance in the Federated Malay

(J. G. D.)

States.

THE

UNITED

STATES

The term “game preserve,” instead of “game reserve,” is used in the United States. In its strictest sense it is limited to areas set aside for the protection of those species of wild mammals and birds that are defined by law or commonly hunted as “game.” This is in contrast with the use of the term in England in connection with “shooting preserves.” In its broadest sense, as here used, it is applied to Federal, State, municipal and private reservations where killing or disturbance of wild life is prohibited. True game reservations are those established primarily for the protection of wild animals or birds, but such areas as national and State parks, national monuments and military and other reservations are of almost equal importance to the wild life forms, although their protection is incidental. Established in 1872, the Yellowstone National Park, famous for its scenic beauties, is one of the most important big-game sanctuaries in the United States, and protection and perpetuation of its wild life is of very general interest. The elk of the park have been the subject of numerous Federal, State and other conservation measures. The Elk Refuge, situated near Jackson, Wyc., with a present (1929) area of 4,225 ac., was established in 1912 to provide forage in winter for a herd of about 10,000 animals largely from the park region. Facilities for the winter care of big-game animals of the Yellowstone region are also being extended by the acquisition of areas in Montana north of the boundary of the park. Another example of an extensive area important in protecting wild life is found in Mount McKinley National Park, Alaska, the home of caribou and mountain sheep. Five executive departments administer reservations on which wild life is protected, as follows: The Department of Agriculture, bird refuges and game preserves; the Department of the Interior, national parks, reclamation and irrigation projects and certain national monuments; War and Navy Departments, military reservations; Department of Commerce, Afognak and Pribilof, or FurSeal, island reservations, Alaska. The Bureau of Biological Survey of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the chief Federal agency studying the distribution, habits and economic status of wild life, has under its charge 80 bird refuges and game preserves. These have been established by executive orders, the first signed by President Roosevelt on March 14, 1903, and by special acts of Congress. Five of the refuges are primarily preserves for buffalo, elk, deer, mountain sheep and antelope, and include the National Bison Range in Montana, Sullys Hill Game Preserve in North Dakota, Wind Cave Game Preserve in South Dakota, Niobrara Reservation in Nebraska and the Elk Refuge in Wyoming. Two others, the Upper Mississippi River Wild Life and Fish Refuge, and the Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge, Great Salt Lake, Utah, are of special importance to migratory birds. Most of the other refuges were established for the benefit of non-game species. The Forest,

Service of the Department of Agriculture administers a number of Federal refuges for big game in national forest areas, the more important being the Wichita in Oklahoma, the,Grand Canyon in

Arizona and the Pisgah in North Carolina.

|

Most of the States, and in some instances counties or. municipalities, have dedicated areas to the conservation of wild animal

and bird life. These refuges range from State lands, as in Ala-

game warden, assisted by assistants and honorary game wardens.

bama, where they are set aside as “forest reserves and game

carnivora in check;..a troublesome. task in certain of the East

tablished on private premises by contract with the owners, or, as in California, where refuge districts are defined and closed to

similar to those,.of the game warden, the game ordinance, stating

gifts of private areas.,

There. are also.employed a number of native scouts. ‘The staff, in addition to-looking after the reserves, have to keep the. large

refuges,” to those in some States acquired by purchase, those es-

African reserves. The staff of the Game Department, in Kenya hunting by, State law., The refuge system, in several States has Colony, consists of a game warden and, four assistants; in ad- been, greatly aided by donations of private lands. More ‘than by dition there are, 39 honorary game.. wardens whose powers, are 237,000 ac. have been added to the State refuges in Louisiana a

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8

GAMES

In Pennsylvania, numerous refuges ranging from 1,200 to 3,000 ac. in extent, are established in the midst of several thousand acres of State-controlled forest and other areas. Fire lanes are cleared and each refuge is marked by a single strand of wire high enough to permit free access of game. The surplus animals from the protected area restock the surrounding region. Many States in the West have designated extensive areas within Federal forest reserves as State game refuges, particularly in Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, Utah and California. The authority of the several States to locate refuges on Federal, State or private lands is contrasted with that of the Federal Government which is restricted to the public domain and areas specially acquired. In a number of States authority to establish refuges by regulation has been conferred upon State game officials, and what are in effect refuges are created by law or by regulation, closing local areas to hunting or to the taking of particular kinds of game. A few States have entered a comparatively new field by acquiring areas where the public may hunt waterfowl or other game during the open season. Louisiana, since 1921, has operated Pass-al’Outre, a 60,000 ac. marsh and water area in Plaquemines parish as a public shooting ground. In Utah a special area for public shooting is under operation by the State. Reelfoot lake, Tenn., and the Susquehanna flats, at the head of Chesapeake bay, Md., are in effect public shooting areas. Pennsylvania has maintained areas open to public shooting surrounding her State refuges for big game. The Adirondack region and the Catskill park in New York also may be mentioned as public hunting areas for big game.. Municipal preserves in some sections have proved highly attractive to wild life. Among the best known of these are Lake Merritt, at Oakland, Calif.; the preserve at Daytona, Fla.; and Cook county park, at Chicago. What may be termed “private” game preserves are virtually numberless. They may range from the premises of the farmer or landowner posted against public hunting, to those where extensive developments and improvements have been made for attracting bird and animal life and insuring its subsequent protection and care. Organizations of sportsmen and conservationists, as well as interested individuals, also establish and maintain sanctuaries for

wild life. The so-called “duck” clubs having shooting areas have set aside in many instances portions of their holdings as inviolate sanctuaries. The extent to which such areas have passed into private control has brought about a serious condition from the viewpoint of the unattached hunter. The acquiring of marsh and water areas by individuals or clubs has often saved such

areas to the wild fowl. Warden service, feed and even water has been supplied to render these preserves attractive to waterfowl, and in some cases sustenance Is provided for a much greater number of the birds than the members kill. At some clubs also game keepers and breeding plants are maintained that produce for liberation more birds than are annually taken there. Private quailshooting preserves, some ranging from 10,000 to 20,000 ac., chiefly on leased lands, are maintained in some States in the South.

(F. L. EA.)

GAMES,

CLASSICAL.

xr. Public Games—The

games of Greece (&yôves) and Rome

public

(Ludi) consisted in ath-

letic contests and spectacles of various kinds, generally connected with and forming a part of a religious observance. Probably no institution exercised a greater influence in moulding the national

character, and producing that unique type of physical and intellectual beauty which we see reflected in Greek art and literature, than the public contests of Greece (see ATHLETE; GLADIATORS; ATHLETIC Sports). ` The earliest games recorded are those at the funeral of Patroclus, Greek games were in their origin connected with religion; either, as here, a part of the funeral rites, or else instituted in honour of a god, or as a thank-offering. Each of the

ting the weight, the foot and the charlot race—were determined. The Olympian games were the earliest, and to the last they remained the most celebrated of the four national festivals. Olympia was a naturally enclosed spot in the plain of Elis. There was the grove of Altis, in which were ranged the statues of the victorious athletes, and the temple of Olympian Zeus with the chryselephantine statue of the god, the masterpiece of Pheidias. There Heracles (so ran the legend which Pindar has introduced

in one of his finest odes), when he had conquered Elis and slain its king Augeas, consecrated a temenos and instituted games in honour of his victory. A later legend, which probably embodies historical fact, tells how, when Greece was torn by dissensions

and ravaged by pestilence, Iphitus enquired of the oracle for help, and was bidden restore the games which had fallen into desuetude; and there was, in the time of Pausanias, suspended in the temple of Hera at Olympia, a bronze disc whereon were inscribed, with the regulations of the games, the names of Iphitus and Lycurgus. From this we may safely infer that the games were a primitive observance of the Eleians and Pisans, and first acquired their celebrity from the powerful concurrence of Sparta. The sacred armistice, or cessation of all hostilities during. the month in which the games were to be held, is also credited to Iphitus. In 776 B.c. the Eleians engraved the name of their countryman, Coroebus, as victor in the foot race, and thenceforward we have an almost unbroken list of the victors in each succeeding Olympiad or fourth recurrent year. For the next 50 years no names occur but those of Eleians or their next neighbours. After 720 B.c. we find Corinthians and Megareans, and later still, Athenians and extra-Peloponnesians. Thus what at first was nothing more than a village feast became a bond of union for all the branches of the Doric race, and grew in time to be the national festival. It survived even the extinction of Greek liberty, and had nearly completed 12 centuries when it was abolished by the decree of the Christian emperor, Theodosius, in the tenth year of his reign. Let us attempt to call up the scene which Olympia in its palmy days must have presented as the great festival approached. Heralds had proclaimed throughout Greece the “truce of God.” Those white tents belong to the Hellanodicae, or ten judges of the games, chosen one for each tribe of the Eleians. They have been here already ten months, receiving instruction in their duties. All, too, or most of the athletes must have arrived, for they have been undergoing the indispensable training in the gymnasium of the Altis. But along the “holy road” from the town of Elis a motley throng is crowding. Conspicuous in the long train are the Gewpol or sacred deputies, clad in their robes of office, and bearing with them in their carriages of state, offerings to the shrine of the god. There is no lack of noted visitors. A feature of the mediaeval tournament and the modern racecourse is wanting.

Women might indeed compete and win prizes as the owners of teams, but all except the priestesses of Demeter were forbidden, matrons on pain of death, to enter the enclosure. At daybreak the athletes presented themselves in the Bouleuterium, where the judges were sitting, and proved by witnesses that they were of pure Hellenic descent, ahd had no stain, religious or civil, on their character. Laying their hands on the bleeding victim, they swore that they had duly qualified themselves by ten months’ continuous training in the gymnasium, and that they would use no fraud or guile in the sacred contests. Thence they proceeded to the stadium, where they stripped to

the skin and anointed themselves. A herald proclaimed, “Let the runners put their feet to the line,” and called on the spectators to challenge any disqualified by blood or character. If no objection was made, they were started by the note of the trumpet, running in heats of four, ranged in places assigned by lot. The foot-race was only one of 24 Olympian contests which Pausanias

great‘ contests was held near some shrine or sacred place and is enumerates, though we must not suppose that these were all exassociated with some deity or mythical hero. It was not before

the 4th century that this honour was paid to a living man (see Plutarch, Eysander, 18). The games of the liad and those of the Odyssey at the court of Alcinous show at what'an early date

the'distinctive forms of Greek athletics—boxing, wrestling, put-

hibited at any one festival. Till the 77th Olympiad all was concluded in one day, but afterwards the feast was extended to five. ‘The order of the games is for the most part a matter of conjecture, but, roughly speaking, the historical order of their in-

stitution was followed. We will now describe in this order the

GAMES most important. (1) The Foot-race—For the first 13 Olympiads the dpdyos, or single lap of the stadium, which was 2ooyds. long, was the only

contest. The diavAos, in which the course was traversed twice, was added in the 14th Olympiad, and in the rsth the dé6duxos, or long race, of 7, 12, or, according to the highest computation, 24 laps, about 24m. in length. We are told that the Spartan Ladas, after winning this race, dropped down dead at the goal. There was also, for a short time, a race in heavy armour, which Plato highly commends as a preparation for active service. (2) Wrestling was introduced in the 18th Olympiad. The importance attached to this exercise is shown by the very word palaestra, and Plutarch calls it the most artistic and cunning of athletic games.

The practice differed little from that of modern times, save that the wrestler’s limbs were anointed with oil and sprinkled with sand. The third throw, which decided the victory, passed into a proverb, and struggling on the ground, such as we see in the famous statue at Florence, was not allowed, at least at Olympia.

(3) In lon), a known ôiokov,

the same year was introduced the mévraĝñov (pentathcombination of the five games enumerated in the wellpentameter ascribed to Simonides: äňħpa, aodwxelyr,

äkovra, many. Only the first of these calls for any comment. The only leap practised seems to have been the long jump. The leapers increased their momentum by means of aArHpes or dumb-bells, which they swung in the act of leaping. (4) The rules for boxing did not differ greatly from those of the modern ring (see Pucrtism), and the chief difference was in the

use of the caestus. This, in Greek times, consisted of leather thongs bound round the boxer’s fists and wrists; and the weight-

ing with lead or iron or metal studs, which made the caestus

more like a “knuckle-duster’” than a boxing-glove, was a later Roman development. The killing of an antagonist, unless proved to be accidental, not only disqualified for a prize, but was severely punished. The use of earguards and the comic allusions to broken ears, not noses, suggest that the Greek boxer did not hit out straight from the shoulder, but fought windmill fashion. In the pancratium, a combination of wrestling and boxing, the use of the caestus, and even of the clenched fist, was disallowed. (5) The charzot-race had its origin in the 23rd Olympiad. Of the hippodrome, or racecourse, no traces remain, but from the description of Pausanias we may infer that the dimensions were approximately 1,60oft. by 400ft. Down the centre there ran a bank of earth, and at each end of this bank was a turning-post round which the chariots had to pass. “To shun the goal with rapid wheels” required both nerve and skill, and the charioteer played a more important part In the race than even the modern jockey. Pausanias tells us that horses would shy as they passed the fatal spots. The places of the chariots were determined by lot, and there were elaborate arrangements for giving the drivers a fair start. The large outlay involved excluded all but rich competitors, and even kings and tyrants eagerly contested for the victory. Chariot-races with mules, with mares, with two horses in place of four, were successively introduced. Races on horseback date from the 33rd Olympiad. Lastly, there were athletic contests of a similar kind for boys, and a competition of heralds and trumpeters, Introduced in the 93rd Olympiad. The prizes were at first, as in the Homeric times, of some in~trinsic value, but after the 6th Olympiad the only prize for each contest was a garland of wild olive. The successful athlete received, in addition to the honours, very substantial rewards. A herald proclaimed his name, his parentage and his country; the Hellanodicae took from a table of ivory and gold the olive crown and placed it on his head, and in his hand a branch of palm; as he marched in the sacred revel to the temple of Zeus, his friends and admirers showered in his path flowers and costly gifts, singing the old song of Archilochus,rjvedkAa KadXlvexe, and his name was canonized in the Greek calendar. Fresh honours and rewards awaited him on his return home. If he was an Athenian he received, according to the law of Solon, soo drachmae, and free rations for life in the Prytaneum; if a Spartan, he had as his prerogative the post of honour in battle. Poets like Pindar, Simonides and Euripides sung his praises, and sculptors like

9

Pheidias and Praxiteles were engaged by the State to carve his statue. And there were well-attested instances of altars being built and sacrifices offered to a successful athlete. An Olympian prize was regarded as the crown of human happiness. Cicero, with a Roman’s contempt for Greek frivolity, observes with a sneer that an Olympian victor receives more honours than a triumphant general at Rome, and tells the story of the Rhodian Diagoras, who, having himself won the prize at Olympia, and seen his two sons crowned on the same day, was addressed by a Laconian in these words:—“Die, Diagoras, for thou hast nothing short of divinity to desire.” Alcibiades, when setting forth his services to the State, puts first his victory at Olympia, and the prestige he had won for Athens by his magnificent display. The Pythian games originated in a local festival held at Delphi, anciently called Pytho, in honour of the Pythian Apollo, and were especially devoted to musical competitions. The date at which they became a Panhellenic aywyv (so Demosthenes calls them) cannot be determined, but the Pythiads as a chronological era date from 527 B.c., by which time music had been added to

all the Panhellenic contests.

Now, too, these were held at the

end of every fourth year; previously there had been an interval of eight years. The prize was a chaplet of laurel. The Nemean games were biennial and date from 516 B.c. They were by origin an Argive festival in honour of Nemean Zeus, but in historical times were open to all Greece, and provided the established round of contests, except that no mention is made of a chariot-race. A wreath of wild celery was the prize. The Isthmian games, which were held on the Isthmus of Corinth in the first and third years of each Olympiad. Their early importance is attested by the law of Solon which bestowed a reward of too drachmae on every Athenian who gained a victory. The festival was managed by the Corinthians; and after

the city was destroyed by Mummius (146 B.c.) the presidency passed to the Sicyonians until Julius Caesar rebuilt Corinth (46 B.c.). They probably continued to exist till Christianity became the religion of the Roman empire. The Athenians were closely connected with the festival, and had the privilege of proedria, the foremost seat at the games, while the Eleans were absolutely excluded from participation. The games included gymnastic, equestrian and musical contests. The prize was a crown, at one time of parsley (or wild celery); later of pine. The importance of the Isthmian games in later times is shown by the fact that Flamininus chose the occasion for proclaiming the liberation of Greece, 196 B.C. The Ludi Publici of the Romans, as in Greece, were intimately connected with religion. At the beginning of each civil year it was the duty of the consuls to vow to the gods games for the safety of the commonwealth, and the expenses were defrayed by the treasury. Thus, at no cost to themselves, the Roman public were enabled to indulge at the same time their religious feelings and their love of amusement. Their taste for games naturally grew till it became a passion, and under the empire games were looked upon by the mob as one of the two necessaries of life. The aediles who succeeded to this duty of the consuls were expected to supplement the State allowance -from their private purse, Political adventurers were not slow to discover so ready a road to popularity, and what at first had been exclusively a State charge, was taken up by men of wealth and ambition. A victory over some barbarian horde, or the death of a relation, served as the pretext for a magnificent display. But the worst extravagance of private citizens was eclipsed by the reckless prodigality of the Caesars, who squandered the revenues of whole provinces in catering for the mob of idle sightseers on whose favour their throne depended. But though public games played as important a part in Roman as in Greek history, and must be studied by the Roman historian as an integral factor in social and political life, yet, regarded solely as exhibitions, they are comparatively devoid of mterest. - It is easy to explain the different feelings which the games of Greece and of Rome excite. The Greeks, at their best, were actors, the Romans, from first to last, were spectators. It is true that even in Greek games the professional element played a

LO

GAMES

large and ever-increasing part. As early as the 6th century B.c. Xenophanes complains that the wrestler’s strength is preferred to the wisdom of the philosopher, and Euripides, in a well-known fragment, holds up to scorn the brawny, swaggering athlete. But, what in Greece was a perversion and acknowledged to be such, the Romans not only practised but held up as their ideal. No Greek, however high in birth, was ashamed to compete in person for the Olympic crown. The Roman, though little inferior in gymnastic exercises, kept strictly to the privacy of the palaestra; and for a patrician to appear in public as a charioteer is stigmatized by the satirist as a mark of shameless effrontery. For the Roman world, the circus was at once a political club, a fashionable lounge, a rendezvous of gallantry, a betting ring, and a playground for the million. Juvenal, speaking loosely, says that in his day it held the whole of Rome; but there is no reason to doubt the precise statement of P. Victor, that in the Circus Maximus there were seats for 350,000 spectators. Of the various Ludi Circenses it may be enough here to give a short account of the most important, the Ludi Magni or Maximi. Initiated, according to legend, by Tarquinius Priscus, the Ludi Magni were originally a votive feast to Capitoline Jupiter, promised by the general when he took the field, and performed on his return from the annual campaign. They thus presented the appearance of a military spectacle, or rather a review of the whole burgess force, which marched in solemn procession from the capitol to the forum and thence to the circus, which lay between the Palatine and Aventine. First came the sons of patricians, mounted on horseback, next the rest of the burghers ranged according to their military classes, after them the athletes, naked save for the girdle round their loins, then the company of dancers with the harp and flute players, next the priestly colleges bearing censers and other sacred instruments, and lastly the simulacra of the gods, carried aloft or drawn in cars. The games themselves

arena, which was flooded for the occasion by a system of pipes and sluices, or on an artificial lake. The rival fleets were manned by prisoners of war or criminals, who often fought till one side was exterminated. In the sea-fight on Lake Fucinus, arranged by the emperor Claudius, 100 ships and 19,000 men were engaged. But the special exhibition of the amphitheatre was the munus gladiatorium, which dates from the funeral games of Marcus and Decimus Brutus, given in honour of their father, 264 B.c. It was probably borrowed from Etruria, and a refinement on the common savage custom of slaughtering slaves or captives on the grave of a warrior or chieftain. Nothing so clearly brings before us the vein of coarseness and inhumanity running through the character of the Roman as his passion for gladiatorial shows. Only after the conquest of Greece we hear of their introduction into Athens, and they were then admitted rather out of compliment to the conquerors than from any love of the sport. In spite of numerous prohibitions from Constantine downwards, they con-

the-Colosgeuma 5,000 wild and 4,000 tame beasts were killed, and te qokamemerate Trajan’s. Dacian victories there was. a butchery

must be. mentioned; the Coftabus (g.v:), a game peculiar to the Greeks, and with them the usual accompaniment: of a wine party: In its simplest form each guest threw what was left in his cup

tinued to flourish even as late as St. Augustine.

To a Christian

martyr, if we may credit the story told by Theodoret and Cassiodorus, belongs the honour of their final abolition. In the year 404. Telemachus, a monk who had travelled from the East on this sacred mission, rushed into the arena and endeavoured to separate the combatants. He was instantly despatched by the praetor’s orders; but Honorius, on hearing the report, issued an

edict abolishing the games.

(See GLADIATORS.)

Of the other Roman games the briefest description must suffice. The Lud: Apollinares were established in 212 B.C., and were annual after 211 B.C., consisting mainly of theatrical performances. The Megalenses were in honour of the great goddess, Cybele, instituted 204 B.C., and from 191 B.c. celebrated annually. Under the empire the festival assumed a more orgiastic character. Four of Terence’s plays were produced at these games. The Ludi Saeculares were celebrated at the beginning or end of each were fourfold:—(1) the chariot race; (2) the ludus Troiae; saeculum, a period variously interpreted by the Romans them(3) the military review; and (4) gymnastic contests. Of these selves as 100 or IIO years. Private Games.—There is quite naturally a much closer reonly the first two call for any comment. (1) The chariot employed in the circus was the two-wheeled war car, at first drawn semblance between the pursuits and amusements of children by two, afterwards by four, and more rarely by three horses. than of adults, Homer’s children built castles in the sand, and Originally only two chariots started for the prize, but under Greek and Roman children alike had their dolls, their hoops, Cahgula we read of as many as 24 heats run in the day, each of their skipping-ropes, their hobby-horses, their kites, their knucklefour chariots. The distance traversed was 14 times the length of bones and played at hopscotch, the tug-of-war, pitch and toss, the. circus or nearly 5m. The drivers were divided into com- blind-man’s bluff, hide and seek, and kiss in the ring, or at closely panies, distinguished by colours, whence arose the factions of the analogous games. Games of ball were popular in Greece from the circus which assumed such importance under the later emperors. days of Nausicaa, and at Rome there were five distinct kinds of In republican times there were two factions, the white and the ball, and more ways of playing with them. It is strange that we Teds two,more, the green and the blue, were added under the em- can find in classical literature no analogy to cricket, tennis, golf pire, and for a short time in Domitian’s reign, there were also or polo, and though the follis resembled our football, it was the: gold and the purple. Even in Juvenal’s day party spirit ran played with the hand and arm, not with the leg. Cock-fighting so high that‘a defeat of the green was looked: upon as a second was popular both at Athens and Rome, and quails were kept and Gannae.. After the seat of empire had: been transferred to Con- put to various tests to ‘prove their pluck. stantinople these factions of the circus were made the basis of Under indoor games we may distinguish games of chance and political cabals, which frequently resulted in sanguinary tumults, games of skill. Yesserae, marked with pips like modern dice, stich as the famous Nika revolt: (a.p. 532), in which 30,000 citi- were evolved from the żali, knuckle-bones with only four flat zensilost their lives. (2) The Ludus Troiae was a sham-fight on sides. The old Roman threw a hazard and called a main, just as ‘Hérséback, in which the actors were patrician youths. A descrip- did Charles Fox. The vice of gambling was lashed by Juvenal. _ tion of it will be found in the sth Aeneid. (See also. Creus.) The primitive game of guessing the number of fingers simula The two exhibitions we shall next: notice, though occasionally taneously held up by the player and his opponent is still popular given in the circus, belong more properly to the amphitheatre. in Italy where it is known as “morra.” Venatio was the baiting of wild animals, who were pitted against . Athena found the suitors of Penelope seated upon cowhides and ene another or against men—captives, criminals or trained; hunt- playing at weocot, which was a form of draughts, an invention ers. called bestiarii. The first certain instance on record of this ascribed to Palamedes. In its earliest form it was played on a amusement is In- 186 B.c., when M. Fulvius exhibited lions and board: with five lines-and with five pieces. Later we find eleven tigers In the arena. The taste for these brutalizing spectacles lines; and, a further development was the division of the board ‘grew apace, and the most distant provinces were ransacked by into squares. ° Lu : ga generals and proconsuls: to supply the arena with rare animals— „ Duodecim scripta, as the name implies, was played on a board giraffes, tigers and. crocodiles. Sulla provided for .a' single show with 12 double lines and approximated very closely to:our back‘g00 liens, and Pompey 600 lions, besides elephants, which were gammon. ‚There were 15: pieces on each side, and the moves’ were matched with Gaetulian hunters. Julius Caesar enjoys the doubt- detertnined by ‘a throw. of the dice; “blots? might be taken, and Syl -honour of inventing the bull-fight. At the inauguration of the object, of the player was to clear off all his own men. Lastly. he

DE

geo beasts:. The nawmachia' was a sea-fight, either in the

GAMETE—GAMING

AND

WAGERING

IT

regulating the odds according to their knowledge and information and the desire of the public to support certain horses rather than others, usualy manage to grow rich, while in the long run the backer of horses almost always loses money. On the more imBrBLiocRaPHY.—-Daremberg et Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquités portant races betting begins weeks or even months before the grecques et romaines, articles “Agon,” “Athleta,” “Circus,” “Ludi,” event. The odds are governed largely by the public demand, and “Olympia,” “Spiele”; Curtius and Adler, Olympia (1890, etc.); K. if a great many people bet on the one horse the price shortens Hachtmann, Olympia und seine Festspiele (1899); Hugo Blümner, Home Life of the Ancient Greeks (trans. 1910); T. P. Mahaffy, Old until in many cases instead of laying money against a horse a Greek Education (1881); P.E and F. B. Jevons, Manual of bookmaker takes odds, z.e., agrees to pay in the event of the horse Greek Antiquities (1898);: N. Gardiner, Greek Athletic Sports winning a smaller sum than he will receive if it loses. Bookmakers (1910) ; Becker- Marduardi, Handbuch der römischen Altertümer; W. employ many agents and touts on commission, and despite W. Hyde, Came Victor Monuments and Greek Athletic Art (Washattempts to check it, the habit of betting has grown into a proington, 1921); B. Schroeder, Der Sport im Altertum (Berlin, 1927); M. Berger and E. “Moussat, Anthologie des textes sportifs de Pantiquité nounced and widespread evil. The Betting Act, 1853, renders liable to punishment keepers of (Paris, 1927). (F. S.) GAMETE, in biology the name given to the special cells set places for the purpose of any person betting with persons reapart in most plants and animals for sexual reproductive pur- sorting thereto, and the Licensing Act, 1872, penalizes licensed poses. (See Sex.) They are usually of two kinds: (1) the ovum, persons who allow their houses to be used in contravention of which is large, stationary and heavily laden with food-materials the 1853 Act. The Act only applies to ready-money betting and to (yolk); and (2) the spermatozoon or (in plants) spermatozoid, places used for betting with persons physically resorting thereto, which is small, actively motile and, in all animals except the so that bets by letter, telegram or telephone do not fall within Arthropoda (insects, spiders, crabs, etc.) and nematode worms, its penalties. The 1853 Act makes it an offence to advertise a consisting of a head of nuclear material (see NUCLEUS) and a long betting house and an 1874 Act imposes penalties on persons vibratile tail. In the higher plants (conifers and flowering plants) advertising illegal betting. Street betting was penalized by the Metropolitan Streets Act, and in many fungi, this element is much modified (see PLANT), but 1867, the Vagrancy Act, 1873, and by-laws made by local authoriin most of the lower plants the spermatozoid closely resembles

into a metal basin, and the success of the throw, determined partly by the sound of the wine in falling, was reckoned ‘a divination of love. For the various elaborations of the game, Athenaeus and Pollux must be consulted.

the animal spermatozoon. In some Algae (q¢.v.), both gametes are spermatozoon-like; and in certain Algae and Protozoa the whole organism acts as a gamete. The two gametes, in all the above cases, fuse to form a zygote, which develops into the adult organism. An organism producing ova is said to be female, one producing spermatozoa, male: one producing both, hermaphro-

dite. (See SEx, HEREDITY, CYTOLOGY, HERMAPHRODITE, EmBRYOLOGY. ) GAMETOGENESIS, in embryology, the name given to an abnormal form of egg fertilisation due to the entrance of a number of spermatozoa into the ovum instead of one as in normal fertilisation. A corresponding number of male pronuclei are formed, and the subsequent development, if it takes place at all, is abnormal. The spermatozoa and ova are called the gametes. In the Arthropoda, selachians, amphibians and mammals the reproductive organs can admit of several spermatozoa normally entering the ovum, but of these only one forms a male pronucleus, the rest being absorbed. See EmBRYOLOGY, HEREDITY, SEX.

GAMING AND WAGERING.

At common law no games

were unlawful, but early legislation in England (1388, 1409, 1477 and 1541) sought to restrict games in the interests of archery. The early Stuarts encouraged manly sports, but Puritan agitation secured the Sunday Observance Act, 1625, which prohibited most sports and pastimes on Sunday. Cock-fighting and the setting of other animals to fight are offences against the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Acts. Other games have been declared illegal chiefly because of their tendency to promote gambling. Such

games include ace of hearts, pharaoh (faro), basset and hazard (1738), passage and all games with dice (1739), roulette or rolypoly (1744), lotteries (except under the Art Unions Act, 1846), rouge et noir, baccarat-banque (1884), chemin-de-fer (1895) and all card games which are not games of mere skill. Wagering has received a great deal of attention from parliament, but at common law an action would he to enforce a wager. In 1845 a general Gaming Act was passed by which all agreements by way of gaming or wagering are null and void and. no action lies to recover money, even from a stakeholder, alleged to-be won upon any wager. Until the Gaming Act, 1892, however, agents who paid lost bets were able to recover the amounts paid from their principals.

ties. These measures were found to be inadequate and in 1906 the Street Betting Act was passed. Severe penalties are imposed

on anyone frequenting or loitering in a street or public place (other than a racecourse or adjacent ground ona race day) for the purpose of betting or settling bets. Police constables may

arrest for such an offence without warrant. It is obvious, however, to anyone passing along the back streets of London or any large town that the Act is habitually broken. Under the Act, to have a betting transaction with a person under the age of 16 is a more serious offence and infants are also protected by the Betting and Loans (Infants) Act, 1892, which makes it a misdemeanour to send, with a view to profit, to anyone known by the sender to be an infant, a document inviting him to enter into a betting or wagering transaction. By the Finance Act, 1926, bookmakers are required to take out a license and a betting tax is imposed. Evasion of the tax has been so flagrant, however, that for the first time the use of the totalisator or pari-mutuel system has been authorized in England. This system, under which the whole sum staked on the horses in any race (less authorized deductions) is divided among the backers of the winning horses, has been in use on all French racecourses since 1866 and is in general use abroad. By the Racecourse Betting Act, 1928, the Betting Act, 1853, does not apply to any approved racecourse or any act done thereon on a ‘day when horse races, but no other races, take place thereon, and totalisators may be lawfully set up and operated thereon by the Racecourse Betting Control Board, set up under the Act, or any person authorized by them. It is, however, made an offence! tò have a betting transaction, whether by the totalisator:.or not, with a person apparently under the age of 17, whether such personis betting for himself or placing a bet for another person, unless it be proved that such person was at the time 17, or over. Lotteries—At common law gaming and betting houses were illegal only if they constituted a public nuisance. The 1541 Act

penalized persons maintaining houses for illegal games, and ‘in

4698 lotteries were declared public nuisances. Lotteries, or the determining of prizes by lot, were used in the entertamments and festivals of Roman emperors, of the feudal and merchant. printes of Europe and of Louis XIV.’s court. In the Italian: republics of the’z6th century the lottery principle was applied'to' encourage „Betting oh Horse. Races—In: ‘England, although football the sale of merchandise. The institution became very. popular in matches and greyhound racing: are.also responsible. for much France and gradually assumed, . despite the ‘protest. of. the parlebetting, ‘the general. public: bet ‘chiefly: on horse races. A large menis, an important place-in the Government fmanee. In‘1776 number of people make a living from-the habit. Special editions the biggest lotteries were merged ‘in the :Loterte Royale and. all of the evening papers are published giving: ‘ftips” and the odds private lotteries were suppressed. This lottery was suppressed quoted, ‘by: the:“‘beokmakers”™' or professional betting. men, who in' 11836 but in 1844 lotteries were authorized for the assistance by laying -money agaihst. a mumber of :horses. and. by shrewdly of charity and the fine arts: Lotteriés:were:suppréssed ‘in Belgium

GAMING AND WAGERING

I2

in 1830, Sweden in 1841 and Switzerland in 1865, but they are still common in many continental countries. The most important in the world is the Christmas “gordo” at Madrid, and the most generally popular is the Calcutta sweepstake on the result of the

Derby. Lotteries have also been made illegal in Alaska (1899), Hawaii (1900) and Porto Rico (1902). In England authorized lotteries were established as early as 1569, and from 1709 to 1824 the Government annually raised by lotteries large sums, averaging yearly from 1793 to 1824, £346,765. The prohibition of lotteries in general acts did not affect lotteries established or specially authorized by statute, but now the only lotteries which would be legal are those complying with the stringent conditions of the Art Unions Act 1846. The activity of parliament indicates the extent of the evil. The Act of 1698 was followed by Acts in 1722, 1722, 1733, 1738, 1739, 1744, 1751, and a number of roth century Acts. In 1802 the definition of lottery was extended to include little-goes and any game or lottery not authorized by parliament, drawn by dice, lots, cards, balls, or by numbers or figures or by any other way, contrivance or device whatsoever. Raffles and sweepstakes come within this definition and are illegal, and many devices by newspapers and tradesmen to attract customers by offering prizes have

been suppressed. Thus to sell goods with the benefit of a chance of securing a prize, or with thẹ promise of a prize the value or nature of which depends on chance is an offence even though full value be given for the purchase price. Similarly a competition the result of which depends on chance is illegal. If, however, the result depends on skill, the competition is not a lottery, and organizers of competitions have been ingenious in keeping within the letter of the law while offering the public all the excitement of a lottery. Between 1920 and 1926 huge sums were raised,

usually for charitable objects, by the offer of large cash prizes

Lottery Acts except that of 1698. The 1853 Act was extended to Scotland in, 1874, and wide powers to suppress

gaming houses,

the Gaming Act 1845 does not apply to Scotland.

In Ireland the

street betting, lotteries and gaming are conferred by the Burgh Police Act, 1892 and 1903. The weight of judicial opinion is that law is substantially as in England but the provisions for a betting tax do not apply to the Irish Free State and the 1928 Act does not apply to Ireland. It is the custom in Northern Ireland, how-

ever, to pass legislation which closely follows that in England. In

1923 the Irish Free State passed an act in the terms of the Gaming

Act, 1922, repealing s. 2 of the Gaming Act, 1835, See Brandt on Games (1872); Oliphant, Law of Horses, etc. (6th

ed, 1908); Coleridge, Law of Gambling

(and ed., 1913); Schwabe,

Stock Exchange (1905) ; Melsheimer, Stock Exchange (4th ed., 1905) ; Bewes, Stock Exchange Law and Practice (1910); Gregorio Leti, Critique sur les loteries (Amsterdam, 1697) ; J. Dessaulx, De la passion du jeu (1779) ; Endemann, Beiträge zur Geschichte der Lotterie (Bonn, 1882); Larson, Lotterie und Volkswirtschaft (1894); J. Ashton, History of English Lotteries (1893); Annual Report of the American Historical Association (1892). , (F. G.) AMERICA

Except in four States, where some form of wagering on horse racing has been legalized, all gaming and wagering is illegal in the United States, although devious plans have been evolved in many sections to evade existing laws and permit wagers, especially on the racing of horses or dogs. Lotteries were permitted in some States as late as 1890, when the last authorized lottery passed

with the demise of the famous Louisiana Lottery. Despite the

fact that all forms of gaming with cards, dice, roulette wheels, or other mechanical devices are forbidden, they are carried on surreptitiously throughout the country generally. Canada, although barring bookmakers, has legalized the mutuel or “iron men” machine system for handling of betting on horse races. The system is under strict government supervision and is

but since then the public appetite for such schemes has declined and several ambitious schemes have involved the promoters in permitted where racing is conducted and on races run within the loss. The 1802 Act is aimed at the habitual use of a place for a club enclosure only during the authorized meeting days assigned forbidden purpose, but in 1823 the sale of lottery tickets is made each club by the government. Mexico, with the most pliable of wagering laws on the conin itself an offence. The advertisement of foreign or illegal lotteries was forbidden in 1836 and 1844 and, if detected, tickets in tinent, shares with Cuba the distinction of being the centre of and advertisements of foreign lotteries are treated by the Customs winter racing for North America, with huge racing establishments as prohibited goods. The Gaming Act, 1845, greatly facilitates at Tia Juana and Juarez. Havana is the racing, as well as the the search of suspected gaming-houses and the proof that they government, seat of Cuba, are such, and in 1854 further provisions were enacted to facilitate Horse Racing.—Of all forms of betting in the Unitéd States, conviction and to provide summary penalties. Both public and horse racing attracts by far the greatest number of bettors, and

private gaming houses come within the statutes but a single instance of playing an unlawful game for money in a private

has resulted in the creation of many large syndicates for the purpose. In the major cities these groups, in many instances, have their headquarters in steel encased rooms as protection against the

house is not an offence. No action can be brought in England on an English security given in settlement of gaming debts contracted where gaming is “hijacker”—~a comparatively recent product who preys upon lawful (Moulis v. Owen, 1907, 1 K.B. 746), and probably not on successful gamblers or violators of other national prohibitory a foreign security, by reason of the Gaming Act, 1835. But if by laws, Powerful influences have been built up by these syndicates foreign law governing a gaming transaction a gaming debt is valid, and in some cases hundreds of thousands of dollars have been aa debt be enforced in England (Sazby v. Fulton, 1909, 2 expended by them in order to secure the election of State officials .B, 208).

Gambling in Stocks and Shares or in commodities falls within. the Gaming Acts, but buying or selling by way of speculation is not penalized in any way unless the shares or stock of a joint stock banking company are being bought or sold, when the provisions of Leeman’s Act, 1867, must be observed. The test is whether, although the transaction is in form commercial, the real intention of the parties is to thake a mere wager on the price of the shares or commodity at a date fixed by the contract.

The

form, however, of all bargains on the Stock Exchange is calculated and intended to preclude people from setting up a Gaming Act defence, as a contracting party is entitled to call for delivery or aceeptance of the stocks or shares named in the contract. But ia many. cases dealings with “outside stockbrokers” or “bucket shops” have been held to be mere wagers although the contracts

purported to give the right to demand delivery or acceptance. The '- Rourts, aye entitled to examine into the true nature of a trans-

-- InScotland the courts refuse to try actions on wagers. The

acts of 1710, 1835, 1906 and 1922 extend to Scotland, as do the

known to be. favourable to retention of legislation permitting betting on horse races or dog races. . in Kentucky, Maryland, Ilinois and Nevada, the four States

where race betting is legalized, the mutuel machine ‘system, or some modification of it, is used at the racing tracks, In this system the bettors make their own odds, as against the old bookmaking system where definite, established odds against the chances of the various entries in a race are offered by the bookmaker. In the mutuel system the bettor places his money on the horse

(or dog) he favours. The money bet on all entries is then divided,

less the “take,” or percentage to the track management, among those who placed money on the entries who finished first, second and third. Many times the amount of money bet by attendants at.a race track is wagered daily in poolrooms with bookmakers, in practically all cities. The bookmaker, who is of course operating surreptitiously, may, if he finds he has received more bets than he feels he wants to handle, “lay it off,” through an agent at the track. Then, too, the huge sums bet by gambling syndicates go into the betting machines at the track through a betting com-

GAMMA

RAYS—GANDA

missioner who, much more skilled in rapidly computing odds at the last moment than the average racegoer, waits until he can determine a close approach to the exact odds and then bets the money for his syndicate. The percentage taken by the management varies at various tracks. In Mexico the bettor is further handicapped in his chances for return by the additional deduction required by the government over that taken by the track owners. In the United States the percentage taken is from 54 to 11%; in Canada it is about 7% and in Mexico 54% by the management and 7% by the government.

In States not authorizing the mutuel system two plans are used to evade the law. In the certificate system, the bettor “buys an interest” in the horse, or dog, and is compensated proportionately

if his choice is a winner. In another plan of evasion pictures of

the various entries are sold to the bettors, pictures of the winning animals being bought back by the management at a price determined by the odds resulting from the total amount of money bet. Authorities in many States have, however, secured court ruling against these plans as illegal and in other cases have been the order, followed by long drawn out court battles as to the legality of the system. A third method of handling bets, where forbidden, is the oral system. In this, used extensively at Eastern tracks, no money is paid the bookmaker by the bettor at the time the bet is placed. Both parties depend on the loser to pay off the following day. In the dissemination of information on racing, both to the public and to professional gamblers, thousands of persons and elaborate systems are employed. The compilation of charts showing past performances of all entries is gathered daily at a tremendous expense. These charts are published by leading newspapers except where such publication is forbidden by State law. Then, too, an army of “clockers” or timers watch the daily training and performances of race horses at the various tracks. This information goes to two sources: to professional gamblers and syndicates for their own information, and to “handicappers,” employed by newspapers to make selections of probable winners for the following day’s racing. These selections are then published by the papers for the benefit of their readers. The network of telegraph wires used to convey this information from the various tracks rivals in magnitude those of the great press services which bring the world’s news to the newspapers. Gambling syndicates have their own leased wires, running direct from the tracks into their headquarters, so that they do not have to share their information with anyone else.

I3

ponents. All were driven from organized baseball as a result of the ensuing investigation. Slot Machines.—Slot machines and other mechanical devices, once legalized, have been driven to secret quarters in recent years. The same is true of punchboards, which award money or merchandise prizes to those who punch winning numbers from the holes in the board. Keno or Lotto is permitted in some sections for the raffling off of articles, particularly in holiday seasons. Authorities are not inclined, in a good many cases, to enforce the law against it where no money prizes are offered and especially if the raffle is held by members of some club or society. Cock-fighting.—Cock-fighting and pit fighting of dogs, once legal in the United States simply because there were no laws against them, have for many years been illegal. Both are now obsolete in the United States except for rare instances. Cock-fighting, once a national sport and gambling medium in Cuba, is now outlawed but carried on surreptitiously. In Mexico

the practice goes on as usual.

GAMMA

RAYS

(C. M. M.)

(usually written y-Rays) are electromag-

netic radiations of very high frequency emitted by certain radioactive bodies (see Raproactivity). These radiations possess wave lengths of less than ły Angstrom unit or 10” of a centimeter. They mark the present upper limit of the spectrum of electromagnetic radiations. (See X-rays: Nature of, fig. 1.) The various interesting properties possessed by these rays are chiefly due to their extremely high frequency.

GAMUT, a term in music used to mean generally the whole compass or range of notes possessed by an instrument or voice (from the Greek letter gamma, used as a musical symbol, and uz, the first syllable of the mediaeval hymn, Sanctus Johannes). Historically, however, the sense has developed from its stricter musical meaning of a scale (the recognized musical scale of any period),

originating in the mediaeval “great scale,” of which the invention has usually been ascribed to Guido of Arezzo (g.v.) in the 11th century. The whole question is somewhat obscure, but, in the evolution of musical notation out of the classical alphabetical system, the invention of the mediaeval gamut is more properly assigned to Hucbald (d. 930). In his system of scales the semitone oo

was always between the 2nd and 3rd of a tetrachord, as G, A, b B C, so the 4 B and # F of the second octave were in false relation to the p B and the § Fof the first two tetrachords. To this scale of four notes G, Ab]B,C were subsequently added a note below and a note above which made the hexachord with the semitone between

the 3rd and 4th both up and down, as F, G, A pB, C, D. It was at a much later date that the 7th, our leading note, was admitted into a key, and for this the first two letters of the last line of the above-named hymn “Sanctus Johannes” would have been used, save for the notion that as the note Mi was a semitone below Fa, the same vowel should be heard at a semitone below the upper Ut, and the syllable Si was substituted for Sa. Long afterwards the syllable Ut was replaced by Do in Italy, but it is still retained in France; and in these two countries, with whatever others employ their nomenclature, the original Ut and the substituted Do stand for the sound defined by the letter C in English and German terminology. The literal musical alphabet thus accords with the A B C D E EF G “I G syllabic: La, Si, Utor Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, “77° many a remnant óf Greek use survives. A was originally folwagered daily in these small sums constitutes a tremendous total. lowed in the scale by the semitone above, as the classical Mesé Professional Baseball.—Professional baseball proves another was followed by Paramesé, and this note, namely p B, is still called medium for the gambler, both large and small. Although strictly B in German, English } B (French and Italian Si) being repreopposed by law and club owners, oral betting is practised in base- sented by the letter H. The gamut which, whenever instituted, did ball parks, and pool tickets on the total number of runs scored not pass out of use until the roth century, regarded the hexachord each day by various combinations of teams listed on the ticket and not the octachord, employed both letters and syllables, made are sold in all principal cities. Large amounts are bet also by the former invariable while changing the latter according to key gamblers and syndicates on baseball and other sporting events, relationship, and acknowledged only the three keys of G, C and both professional and amateur. The extent to which this has F. (See, also, under MUSICAL NOTATION.) | GANDA, a Bantu tribe of East Equatorial Africa. The been carried was illustrated in 1919 when, it was charged, several members of a major league baseball team accepted money from Hamitic invaders, while remaining the light-skinned aristocracy, a gambling syndicate to “throw” a World’s Series to their op- have been much more absorbed by the local Bantu who form the

The handling of bets at all dog racing tracks is on the same

basis as at the horse racing tracks, but has not the ramifications of the latter, very few bookmakers, away from the tracks, handling bets on dog racing, as compared to the thousands who accept bets on horse racing. Lotteries or Pools.—Various forms of lotteries or pools also are played daily by hundreds of thousands in the larger cities, especially among the smaller gamblers. “Policy” and other lotteries which pay on terminal numbers of daily bank clearings, United States treasury balance and sales of shares on the Stock Exchange, attract them. Agents for these pools are widespread. It may be a woman or girl who daily canvasses bettors in her immediate neighbourhood or among her circle of friends, or the keeper of a little delicatessen or candy store who will accept the pennies of children from a nearby school. And the aggregate

I4

GANDAK—GANDHARVA

peasantry. Apart from this distinction of skin colour there is not much to distinguish the aristocracy from the peasantry (bakopi) in physical appearance, though there is in speech, and class distinction is no longer an ethnic one. Hair is thick and woolly and is kept short, and the Ganda alone among the surrounding Bantu tribes do not mutilate their persons in any way. Bracelets of iron, copper and ivory are worn but otherwise the people are not addicted to personal adornment. They cover the whole body from chest to ankles with robes of bark-cloth, the manufacture of which is an important industry. They live in large circular huts, divided by many partitions and thatched with unusual care and skill. The walls and partitions are covered with a characteristic reed-work, and every home of importance has attached to it a series of neatlykept courtyards surrounded by high fences of reed-work. A number of these residences surrounded by luxuriant gardens go to form a loose settlement, of which the market place is the conspicuous feature. The houses of the peasantry are simpler, of smaller dimensions and of ruder structure. Broad roads, carried over swamps by solid causeways, radiate from the capital to the villages of chiefs. The Ganda are skilled watermen and maintain a large flotilla of war canoes. Their canoes are in remarkable contrast to the dugouts of most of their neighbours, their keel, false prow and sewn boards suggesting an Indonesian origin. Their weapons consist of thrusting spears, a club which is used for war and executions, an oval shield of wickerwork with a central boss of wood or iron. Children use bows and arrows. They manufacture good pottery and artistic mats, and have a variety of musical instruments including the xylophone, flutes, harps, horns and drums. The drums of. the kabaka àre a tribal property and each is individually named, special drummers being detailed by chiefs for monthly- duty. Though they keep the usual domestic animals (their cattle being mostly of the short-horned, humped variety), they are essentially ‘agriculturalists, the banana and sweet potato being the staple crop though a few cereals are also raised. All land except the clan burial grounds is the property of the kabaka, and individual holdings which are cultivated by a man’s wife are granted him byhis

chief or directly by the king, or Rabaka. | The clans are totemic and exogamous, have each certain social ‘dnd political functions and are graduated in social status and prestige by various factors which are not constant.

Certain clans

are debarred from presenting a prince as candidate to the throne. Clans and their subdivisions have their separate estates (butaka) which are the clan burial grounds in charge of clan functionaries called bataka, who among other duties have to select the male and female life servants of the kabaka. Inheritance is patrilineal and,the heir is, ome.of the sons of the deceased, who is selected after the, funeral by his brothers and sisters. Wives are not inherited but live’as widows (with considerable licence) in separate huts. built .for:them: by the heir. Polygyny is usual, and Cae brotherhood is a widely practised institution. ` Society is elaborately organized on a. feudal system, at the centre:of which is the kabaka who exercises direct and absolute rule. He. is assisted by three ministers, the katikzro or chief executive, the mulamuzi oxn: chief. justice and muwanika or treasurer, and: a

variety. ef lesser officials including his naval and military commanders-in-chief. . ‘These ministers are also members of the lukiko or council, which consists of the chiefs of the 20 saza or counties

and similar functionaries are maintained as at the royal court, and judicial procedure prescribes that with certain exceptions trials shall start at the lowest court and reach the lukiko by a series of appeals or commitments. The kabaka’s mother has a very important position in the constitution. Their religion combines ancestor worship with the worship of a number of natural phenomena, such as Kiwanuka the lightning, Musisi the earthquake. Kazoba the firmament was the nearest approach to a high god, but such a conception is probably subsequent to Mohammedan and Christian influence and is not earlier than the comparatively modern deity Katonda. There is a caste of priests and diviners called Bamandwa, and virgins were dedicated as brides to the nature deities. See E. Hornell, “Indonesian Culture in East Africa” (in Man, i, 1928); Sir H. H. Johnston, The Uganda Protectorate (1902); J. Roscoe, The Baganda (1911). (J. H. D.)

GANDAK, a river of northern India. It rises in the Nepal Himalayas, flows south-west until it reaches British territory, where it forms the boundary between the United Provinces and Bengal for a considerable distance and falls into the Ganges opposite Patna. A snow-fed stream, its floods endanger the surrounding plains, lying at a lower level than its banks; it is accordingly embanked. The LITTLE GANDAK rises in the Nepal hills, enters Gorakhpur district about 8 m. west of the Gandak, and joins the Gogra just within the Saran district of Bengal. The Burut (or old) GANDAK also rises in the Nepal hills, and runs roughly parallel to and east of the Gandak, of which it represents an old channel, passing Muzaffarpur, and joining the Ganges nearly opposite to Moughjr. Its principal tributary is the Baghmati, which rises in the hills north of Kathmandu, flows southward through Tirhut, and joins the Burhi Gandak close to Rusera.

GANDAMAK: see AFGHANISTAN. GANDERSHEIM, a town of Germany in the republic of

Brunswick, in the deep valley of the Gande, 48 m. S.W. of Brunswick. Pop. (1925) 2,763. The convent church (Stiftskirche) contains the tombs of famous abbesses, and the famous abbey (now occupied by provincial government offices) dates from the rrth century. There are manufactures of linen, cigars, aluminium and wire. The abbey of Gandersheim was founded by Duke Ludolf of Saxony in 856. His own daughter Hathumoda was the first abbess and.under her successor, Louis ITI. granted a privilege, by which the office of abbess was to continue in the ducal family of Saxony as long as any member was found competent and willing to accept the same. Otto III. gave the abbey a market, a right of toll and a mint. The abbey was ultimately recognized as holding directly of the Empire, and the abbess had a vote in the imperial diet. The conventual estates were of great extent, and the elector of Han-

over and the king of Prussia were among its feudatories. Protestantism was introduced in 1568 and the last Roman Catholic abbess died in 1589; but Protestant abbesses were appointed to the foundation, and continued to enjoy their imperial privileges till

1803, when Gandersheim was incorporated with Brunswick. Gandersheim is famous for its literary memorials; Hroswitha, the famous Latin poet, was a member of the sisterhood in the oth century ; and the rhyming chronicle of Eberhard of Gandersheim

each county.and six additional men of importance for the king-

is in all probability the earliest historical work in Low German. „GANDHARVA, (1) in Vedic Hindu mythology a celestial

into which the country, is divided, together with three notables for

dom—all nominated by the kabaka. The functions of the lukiko | spirit of the highest sky, though iin the Avesta he was a dragon-like are judicial; administrative and advisory. Each county is in charge

monster, Gandarewa, dwelling im the sea, the abode of the white

ofa, Chief appointed by the kabaka who assigns him estates on

Haoma {see Soma).

appointment; þut neither these nox the chieftainship are heredi-

of minor deities with various collective functions.

But he. was soon multiplied into a, class Gandharva’s

table.and are held.solely .at-the, kabaka’s pleasure. The counties

anion with the Apsaras, (g.v.) typifies marriage, and they are

Are subdivided into approximately ten, districts each called gombplola, wader. distri¢t chiefs subordinate to-the. county chiefs, and

parents of. the first men. (see, YAMA).

He is also a herbalist.

maruka under them. Thepeasants are tenants-at-will of the land-

Later, the Gandharvas preside over battles; the most’ popular being Tumburu, the ‘ftambour” who leads them to watch those: of men.. They have their:own breed, of horses, their own land, lo-

boim 5 sok swhora . theyowe-allegianceand-seryice, including the - jaaipicepincenafitoadss personal -labour, taxes and military. obliga-

Takshila. and, Pushkalavata were. in. Gandharva-desa, and, Gan-

thes@district chiefs havea varying number of petty headmen or

sone Timp

‘hierarchy .ofchieftainship the same state

cated .on both. sides of,.the Indus, suggesting Gandhara, while

dhara-desa. respectively.. But Gandharva-nagara, —“‘town”1is some-

GANDHI—GANESHA

15

times spoken of as a real city or as only a mirage. (2) In Hindu law a gandharva marriage is informal, based on mutual consent.

order. Gandhi met them by personal penances. and by repeated postponements of the date on which he had foretold that India See A. A. Macdonell, Vedic M ythology, and E. W. Hopkins, Epic would be liberated from British rule. But he had generated forces Mythology, Strasbourg, 1897 and 1915. which he had no power to recall or control, and plain people were GANDHI, MOHANDAS KARAMCHAND (1869___), getting alarmed at the consequences. Muslim support was being Hindu nationalist leader, was born at Porbandar (Kathiawar, deflected from him by the encouragement which Lord Reading’s India) of a Bania family with official traditions. At the age of 19 Government was giving to Islamic sentiment over Turkey; and he went to London, studied for a time at University college, and his closest adherents were embarrassed by his frequent changes was called to the bar by the Inner Temple. Soon after starting of policy. Consequently, when he was arrested in March 1922 practice in the Bombay High Court he was called, in 1893, on and put on trial for conspiring to spread disaffection with a view professional business, to South Africa, where he threw himself to overthrowing the government of the country, the coup evoked at once into a long and bitter struggle for the liberties of the little excitement. Gandhi pleaded guilty, accepted responsibility Indian settlers in that country. He became leader of the opposi- for all that had happened and invited “the highest penalty that tion to a variety of measures taken by the local authorities to can be inflicted upon me for what in law is a deliberate crime and discourage Asiatic immigration and to limit the rights of citizen- what appears to me to be the highest duty of a citizen.” ship available to Asiatics already resident. Condemned to six years’ simple imprisonment, he was released It was in the course of this movement that his conception of in Jan. 1924 after an operation in gaol for appendicitis, and the resistance without violence developed; he relinquished his large rest of his sentence was unconditionally remitted. He came back income as an advocate, and founded a colony for his com- to a party which had chosen other leaders, and was soon to reverse patriots on Tolstoian lines near Durban. As the price he paid for his policy of boycotting the administration. Esteemed and conhis championship of the Indians’ grievances, besides being more sulted though he continued to be by his old followers, he was no than once arrested and imprisoned he suffered frequent indignities longer a power to sway the masses; at the end of 1925 he anat the hands of opponents. This neither checked his energies nounced his intentions of retiring from the world f or a year; and nor deterred him from rendering service of marked loyalty to the his more recent incursions into politics have been ineffective. The Government on three occasions; for he raised and commanded nationalist movement was switched on to lines more familiar to a Red Cross unit in the Boer War, he organized a plague hospital western constitutional usage. To the Oriental mind Gandhi when the epidemic broke out in Johannesburg, and he led a symbolised self-sacrifice and high idealism; western enthusiasts stretcher-bearer party in the suppression of the Natal revolt of were not wanting who, like M. Romain Rolland, compared him 1908. At last in 1914 a commission of inquiry into the Indian with the Founder of Christianity; and the transparency of his discontent recommended the removal of several of the worst character commanded the personal liking of even strong oppoinjustices against which Gandhi had striven; and he felt justified nents. But he expected too much of human nature, he played in closing down his activities in South Africa and returning to recklessly with inflammable material, his economic nostrums were India. There a wider field of political protest awaited him; and unpractical and he gave way to unexpected bursts of intolerance, he was soon at work organizing, in connection with the home- as when he described the British government of India as “satanic. » rule movement, resistance to the British Government by “soul He renewed his agitation in Jan. 1930 urging civil disobedience force” and non-cooperation. — by violation of the salt excise laws. He was arrested and interned In Jan. 1919 there were published two bills (subsequently at Poona on May 5. known as the Rowlatt Acts) giving the Government emergency See Romain Rolland, Mahatma Gandhi (1924); C. F. Andrews, (ME.) powers for dealing with revolutionary crimes and conspiracies; Mahatma Gandhi's Ideas (1929). these had followed the proposals of a.responsible commission GANDIA, a seaport of eastern Spain in the province of which had investigated the subject, and the powers they conferred Valencia; on the Gandia-Alcoy and Alcira-Denia railways. Pop. were safeguarded by elaborate protections against abuse. But (1920) 12 676. The town is on the left bank of the Alcóy or Gandhi declared them to be an insult, intended to discredit the Sérpis, which drains a rich and densely populated plain. The river Indian people on the eve of ostensible political reforms, and he enters the Mediterranean at the small harbour ọf Gandía (El denounced the bills as instruments of oppression. He instituted Grao), 3 m. N.E. Among the ancient buildings are the Gothic a campaign of Satyagraha (literally, insistence on truth) or non- church, the college founded by the director-general of the Jesuits violent disobedience to unjust laws in the first instance, enlarg- (1510-1572), and the palace of the dukes of Gandía. The town ing if necessary into disobedience to any law and complete non- manufactures leather, silk, velvet and ribbons, and exports fruit cooperation with the Government. Spreading rapidly, the agitation and imports coal, timber and flour. burst into violence in the Punjab and elsewhere, with results GANDO, an emirate of British West Africa, in the N.W. part which shocked Gandhi into a temporary suspension of his civil of the protectorate of Nigeria, and west of the Niger river. The disobedience. Later in the year, he formed common cause with state was established, c. 1819, on the death of Othman Dan Fodio, the Indian Mohammedans of the Khilafat party, aggrieved by the the founder of the Fula empire, and its area and importance varied terms of peace which Great Britain was offering to Turkey; and considerably during the roth century, several of the Fula emirates in July 1920 he proclaimed a general campaign of “non-violent being regarded as tributaries, while Gando itself was more or less non-cooperation.” Its points were the boycott of Government dependent on Sokoto. Gando in the middle of the century inservice, of the new legislatures and of the courts of law; the cluded both banks of the Niger at least as far north-west as surrender of all public offices; and the withdrawal of children Say. The districts outside the British protectorate now belong from Government schools; to which were subsequently added to France. Treaty relations with the British were entered into boycott of foreign goods and the adoption of the spinning-wheel in 1884 and in 1903 the part assigned to the British sphere by as an emblem of economic independence. agreement with France came definitely under the control of the The agitation spread rapidly. The unlettered people who saw administration in Nigeria. Gando is now included in the province his earnestness and asceticism, and heard his simple eloquence, of Sokoto. The chief town is Gando, situated on the Sokoto, regarded him as a saint, and invested him with the title of the first considerable affluent of the Niger from the,east, about Mahatma, or Great Soul. By 1921 Gandhi was at the zenith of 6o m. S.W. of the town of Sokotọ. his power. The National Congress, sitting at Christmas of that GANESHA or GANESH, in the post-Epic ;‘Hindu mythoyear, delegated its full authority to him, and empowered him to logy, eldest son of Siva and Parvati. His name means, leader of appoint his own successor. But signs of change were now appear- (Siva’s) attendants; he is a creator of obstacles, and as such came ing. The unrest into which the non-cooperation movement had to be placated for their removal. Depicted with an,, elephant’s plunged the country culminated in a series of grave outrages, head, to symbolize his.sagacity, he iis the god of worldly wisdom; some ofa racial character, of which the Moplah outbreak -was and is invoked on the first, page of.everybook, especially in i ledgers,

the worst, andi others, directed against the agencies of law and

as he bestows progperity in trade. He is worshipped all over’

16

GANESH

DATTA

SHASTRI—GANGSTER

India, especially in the south, and is affected by six sects, under his six titles, Maha-Ganapati, etc. These hold him, not Siva, to be the real first cause and the Hairamba Ganapatiyas are taxed with unedifying rites. See Hastings, E.R.E., vi., Edinburgh, 1913, S.U. GANAPATIVAS.

GANESH DATTA SHASTRI, SHRI JAGADGURU ), Indian philosopher, was born on July 12, r86r. (1861— He was educated at the Oriental college, Lahore, and Punjab

The most important channel of the Ganges for commerce is the Hooghly (g.v.), on which stands Calcutta, about 90 m. from the mouth. Beyond this city the navigation is conducted by native craft. Below Calcutta important boat routes through the delta

connect the Hooghly with the eastern branches of the river. The catchment basin of the Ganges is bounded north by a

length of about 700 m. of the Himalayan range, south by the Vindhya mountains, and east by the ranges which separate Bengal The average fall from Allahauniversity, and in 1882 became a teacher. He held professorships from Burma; area 432,480 sq. m. Benares to Calcutta, befrom mile; per in. 6 is Benares to bad Govern(1886-1907), college Christian of Sanskrit at Forman sed, 1 to 2 in. Great the to Calcutta from in.; 5 and 4 tween ment college and Oriental college (1908-17). In 1917 he was in the river-bed. Extenappointed senior professor of Sanskrit and theology at Sanstan changes take place from time to time themselves to the mainDharam college, Lahore. In 1926 he was invested by the Govern- sive islands are thrown up, and attach ment of India with the highest Sanskrit title of Makamehopad- land, while the river deserts its old bed and seeks a new channel. cities attest hyaya; he is the first Punjabi on whom this title has been con- it may be many miles off. Many decayed or ruined times. such in ancient changes ferred. . The Ganges is crossed by six railway bridges on its course as His publications include: Sariskrit-Hindi and Sanskrit-English-Hindi dictionaries; Shastriyasiddhanta (1909); First Book of Hindi Lan- far as Benares; and there is another at Sara in Eastern Bengal. guage; Bhagavadgita (the Song Divine, 1926), various manuals on The Upper GANGES CANAL and the Lower Gances CANAL, religious teaching, and articles on philosophical, religious and social with headworks at Hardwar, are the two principal systems of persubjects, ennial irrigation in the United Provinces. They include 568 m. GANGES (Ganca), a great river of northern India, formed of main canals, and irrigated 1,316,000 acres in 1920. New headGarhwal by drainage of the southern Himalayas. It rises in the works have more lately been completed. state, its lower course focusses the river system of Bengal, and GANGOTRI, a celebrated place of Hindu pilgrimage, in the It m. 1,500 of course a after it falls into the Bay of Bengal It is situated in the state of Tehri-Garhwal in the Himalayas. issues, under the name of the Bhagirathi, from an ice cave at the on the Bhagirathi, the chief head-stream of the Provinces, United above ft. 10,300 Gangotri, near snow-bed Himalayan a foot of a small temple about 20 ft. high, in which contains and Ganges, sea-level.. Ganga, Bhagirathi and other figures of representing images are During its passage through the southern spurs of the Himalayas river adjoining the temple is divided the of bed The mythology. subsequently and north-west, it receives the Jahnavi from the basins, where the pilgrims bathe. three into Brahmans the by off the Alaknanda, after which the united stream takes the name of is dedicated to Brahma, another to Vishnu portions these of One celebrated a is junction, of point their the Ganges. Deo Prayag, the third to Siva. The pilgrimage to Gangotri is considered “place of pilgrimage, as is also Gangotri, the source of the parent and in washing away sin and ensuring eternal happiness. efficacious stream. At Sukhi it pierces through the Himalayas, and turns

taken from this sacred spot is exported by pilgrims south-west to Hardwar, also a place of great sanctity. It pro- The water sold at a high price. The elevation of the temple and India to ceeds by a tortuous course through the districts of Dehra Dun, above the sea is 10,3109 ft. in Farukhabad, and Bulandshahr Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, GANGPUR, a feudatory State of India, in the province of which last district it receives the Ramganga. Thus far the Ganges has been little more than a series of broad shoals, long deep pools and rapids, except during the melting of the snows and throughout the rainy season. At Allahabad, however, it receives the Jumna, a large river, which rises also in the Himalayas farther west. The combined river winds east by south-east through

the United Provinces, receiving the Gumti and the Gogra at con-

secrated spots. But the tongue of land at Allahabad, where the Jumna and the Ganges join, is the true Prayag, or place of pil-

grimage, to which hundreds of thousands of devout Hindus re-

pair to wash away their sins in the sacred river. Here the great

festival called the Maghmela is held. Shortly after passing the holy city of Benares the Ganges enters Behar, and after receiving the Sone from the south, passes Patna, and is joined by the Gandak, which rises in Nepal. Farther

east it receives the Kusi, and then, skirting the Rajmahal hills, turns sharply southward, passing near the ruined city of Gaur.

The delta begins 220 m. in a straight line, or 300 by the windings

of the river, from’ the Bay of Bengal. The main channel takes the name of the Padma or Padda, and proceeds in a south-easterly direction, past Pabna to Goalanda, above which it is joined by the Jamuna or tiain stream of the Brahmaputra.

The vast con-

fluence receiyes further additions from the hill country to the éast, and forms a broad estuary known as the Meghna, which éiitets the Bay of Bengal near Noakhali. This estuary, however, is only the largest and most easterly of a great number of mouths ot channels. ‘Fhe most westerly is the Hooghly, which receives

the watérs of a number of distributary channels that start from the parent Ganges above Murshidabad,

Between the Hooghly on

the west and the Meghna on the €ast lies the delta. Its northern

angle consists of rich and fertile districts, such as Murshidabad,

Nadia, Jessore and the 24: Pargarias.* But towards its southern bašė, resting on the sea, the country ‘sinks into a series of swamps, intercepted by a network of' chanhéls.. This waste is known as the Sundarbans, from the swidari tree, which grows in abundance in the seaboard tracts. ve

Bihar and Orissa. The country is for the most part an undulating plain, broken by detached ranges of hills. The rivers are the Tb and the Brahmani, formed here by the union of the Sankh and the South Koel. The State possesses considerable mineral resources. A large coalfield also extends into it; deposits of manganese ore were first worked in 1908, and the output in 1921 was a little under 20,000 tons of ore; dolomite and limestone quarries

are also worked. The State has been opened up by the BengalNagpur railway, which runs through it for about 70 miles. Area,

2,492 $q.m.; pop. (1921) 300,271; estimated revenue, Rs.6,66,000.

GANGRENE,

a synonym

in medicine for mortification

(g.v.), or a local death in the animal body due to interruption

of the circulation by various causes. GANGSTER, a member of a group or gang operating in the

overcrowded sections of any large American community and participating in criminal practice for financial gain. Originally the gangster was hardly more than a rowdy—the product of indolence and drink—who started on a career of idleness and petty thievery. Joining a gang, he learned the tactics of gang warfare, struggling with fists and stones to help his gang gain supremacy over other rival groups. Early in the present century the gangster

became the paid agent of the unscrupulous politician of the

period, who was quick to recognize his value in carrying out his schemes without incrimination. Gang weapons changed during this time to clubs and blackjacks, and the gangster became a recognized element in the lower strata of big city life. Drug traffic and later silk and fur stealing became popular outlets for his energies. In labour unrest he became a notable factor. The employment of gunmen to help foment labour troubles, the hiring of strong-arm men by the employers to protect “scabs” and by the unions to intimidate and maltreat the strike-breakers is a chapter in the history of labour conditions. These professional “sluggers” used their dull periods for more peaceful diversions, such as picking pockets and snatching purses. When pistols came into general use the element of terror in gang methods increased.

GANILH—GANODONTA The argot of gangdom is distinctive. A “cold meat a gathering of gangsters to pay tribute to a comrade who “rubbed out” (killed). “Packing a rod” is carrying a electrocution, the fate which is potentially the meed

party” is has been gun, and of every

gangster, is known as “baking” or “frying.” A “gun Moll” is a

L7

Ganjam formed part of the ancient kingdom of Kalinga. The inaccessible country long kept the rising Mohammedan power at bay; and it was only a century after the first invasion of Orissa that a Mohammedan governor was sent to govern the Chicacole Circars, including the present district of Ganjam. In

woman who carries the weapons of a gangster, a “‘stool pigeon”

1753 Chicacole and the Northern Circars were made over to the

an agent who is in the paid employ of an influential leader and

French. In 1759 Masulipatam was taken by an English force sent from Bengal, and the French were compelled to abandon Ganjam and their other factories in the north. In 1765 the Northern Circars (including Ganjam) were granted to the English by imperial firman, and in August 1768 an English factory was founded at Ganjam, protected by a fort. The British found the district difficult to rule at first. In 1816 Ganjam was overrun by the Pindaris; and in 1836 occurred the Gumsur campaign, when the British first came into contact with the aboriginal Kondhs, and suppressed their practice of human sacrifice. In rg2z the pop. of the district was 1,835,562. It suffered severely from famine in 1919, and also from cyclones on two occasions. The principal crops are rice, other food grains, pulse and oil seeds; 46% of the cultivated land is under irrigation and fish is caught and cured. Salt is evaporated, as a government monopoly, along the coast. Sugar is refined at Aska. A considerable trade is conducted at the ports of Gopalpur and Calingapatam, which are only open roadsteads. The district is traversed throughout by the East Coast railway (Bengal-Nagpur system). The headquarters station is Berhampur; the town of Ganjam occupied this position till 1815, when it was found unhealthy, and its importance declined.

who acts as his confidential aide in all delicate commissions. His position is particularly dangerous since he is open to overtures from hostile factions and his services can usually be bought by the highest bidder. See F. H. Allport, Social Psychology (Boston, 1924); C. E. Merriam, New Aspects of Politics (Chicago, 1925); P. H. Furfey, The Gang Age (1926); F. M. Thrasher, Tke Gang (1927); and H. Asbury, The Gangs of New York (1928).

GANILH, CHARLES (1758-1836), French economist and financial writer, was born at Allanche (Cantal) on Jan. 6, 1758. He was educated for the profession of law and practised as avocat, During the revolutionary period he played an active part in public affairs, for which he suffered imprisonment, and under Napoleon he held several public offices. He died in 1836. Ganilh is best known as the defender of the mercantile schoal in opposition to the views of Adam Smith and the English economists. He wrote Essai politique sur le revenue des peuples de Vantiquité, du moyen age, etc. (1808); Des systémes d’économie politique

(1809); Théorie d’économie politique (1815); analytique de Véconomie politique (1826).

GANIVET,

ANGEL

Dictionnaire

(1865-1898), Spanish essayist and

novelist, was born at Granada. He entered the diplomatic profession and was appointed consul at Antwerp, Helsingfors (where he published in 1896 his first book Granada la Bella) and Riga. Ganivet shows a brilliant power of evocation in the novels La Conquista del reino de Maya . . . (1897) and Los Trabajos del

infatigable creador Pio Cio (1898). His best work lies, however, in the field of the essay—in the Idearium espanol (1897), where, as in the Epzstolario (1904), his original and suggestive thought

GANNET,

or Sotan Goose, Sula bassana, a large sea-bird.

It breeds in enormous numbers in certain stations in the north Atlantic (of which the Bass Rock in the Firth of Forth, and Bird Rock in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, are the most famous), arriving about the end of March and leaving again in the autumn. During the non-breeding season it ranges over the whole of the north

Atlantic. The plumage in both sexes is white, with the outer edge of the wing black and some bare patches of dark blue skin round has free play. GANJA, a town in the Azerbaijan A.S.S.R., in 40° 43’ N. the eye. The young are clad in brown, white-tipped feathers. and 46° 20’ E., altitude 1,446 ft., on a northern spur of the Ar- The nest is a shallow depression, usually in a mass of grass and menian plateau above the valley of the Kura river. Pop. (1926) seaweed. The single egg is white, and the young are hatched blind 55,510, mainly Tatars and Armenians. Its position on the rail- and naked. Striking mutual courtship ceremonies are performed, way has facilitated wine, liquorice and textile manufactures, in- The gannet feeds on fish, which it obtains by plunging into the cluding wool, cotton and silk. Calico mills constructed in 1925 water with closed wings, often from a considerable height. Fishhave 66,000 spindles, It is the outlet for the copper mines of ermen tow a board with a herring painted on it below the surface Kedabek and the sulphur pyrites of Chigari-dzor. Manganese of the water; the bird dives, strikes the board and breaks its is found in the district, which has cotton plantations, vineyards neck. The most remarkable structural features of the gannet are the (those of the German colony being specially noted), fruit gardens and a silkworm breeding industry. Beekeeping is profitable. The closed nostrils, the aborted tongue and the system of subcutaneous town is very old, and changed hands between Persians, Khazars air-spaces, which communicate with the lungs, and can be filled and Arabs even in the seventh century. Later it was captured by or emptied at will. These latter probably break the force of Mongols, Persians, Georgians and Turks. In 1804 it became Russian and was known as Elisavetpol until the formation of the Azerbaijan $.S.R. when it resumed its original name. In 1826 the Russians under Paskevich defeated a Persian attack on the town,

Amidst the ruins of old Ganja, 4 miles distant, is the “Green Mosque” and the beautiful mosque of the Persian Shah Abbas

its plunge. | In the southern hemisphere are two smaller forms, S. capensis

of South Africa and S. serrator of Australia, while the tropical

boobies, comprising four species, also belong here. One, S. variegata, from Peru, retains its spotted plumage throughout life and

is one of the guano birds,

The Persian poet, Shah Nizam

To the same genus belong the boobies, including the booby

be in the vicinity. There is a marked contrast between the newer quarters, and the winding, narrow unhealthy ancient streets, with their low-roofed, windowless huts.

out the world, and Brewster’s booby (S. brewsterz) on the Pacific coast of North America. GANODONTA or TAENIODONTA, an extinct group

of the Madras Presidency. It has an area of 4,798 sq.m., largely

two families, the Stylinodontidae, which resemble the sloths in certain characters of teeth, skull and feet, and the Conoryctidae, with a less distinct resemblance to the armadillos. In Stylinodon of the later Eocene the teeth are high-crowned, rootless, columnar

(1620) is in the modern town.

(Nizam-ed-Din), was born here in 1141 and his grave is said to gannet (S. leucogastra) of tropical and subtropical seas through-

GANJAM, district, British India, in the extreme north-east

mountainous and rocky, but interspersed with open valleys and

fertile plains, with groves of trees. The mountainous tract known

of clawed mammals of the North American Eocene. They include

as the Maliyas, or chain of the Eastern Ghats, has an average height of about 2,000 ft. The hilly region, formerly the agency oval prisms like those of the sloths, but retain an enamel coverof Ganjam, is now included with the agencies of Vizagapatam ing, the skull is short-faced, deep-jawed, small-brained, limbs and Godavari in one administrative division. The chief rivers are short and stout, pelvis deep, tail massive, fore foot of digging type the Rushikulya, the Vamsadhara and the Languliya. Sea and with large compressed claws. The Conoryctidae of the Paleocene aed fisheries occupy many people. The hilly region abounds in are more primitive, with unreduced tritubercular teeth and related in skull and skeleton to primitive Insectivora. The affinities of orests,

18

GANOID—GAP

the group are uncertain. It is regarded by Osborn and Matthew as a side-branch from primitive edentate stock paralleling the ground-sloths.

GANOJD, a name applied to fishes with rhombic bony scales

covered on the outer surface with a layer of ganoine, a vitreous substance. It is now known that ganoid scales differ considerably in structure, and that the ganoids are not a natural group. Most fishes with ganoid scales are extinct, but the gar-pikes (Lepidosteus) survive in the fresh-waters of North America, and the

Polypteridae in the rivers of Africa. (See Fis.) GANS, EDUARD (1797-1839), German jurist, was born at

Niger is navigable for over 1,000 miles. See F. Dubois “La région de Gao” (L’ Afrique frangaises [1909]).

GAOL or JAIL, a prison (g.v.). The two forms of the word are due to the parallel dual forms in Old Central and Norman French respectively, jaiole or jaole, and gatole or gayolle. The form “gaol” still commonly survives in English, and is in offcial usage, e.g., “gaol-delivery”; the spelling “jail” is used in America.

GAON

(plur. Gednim).

The transition from ancient to

mediaeval Judaism was accomplished by four successive groups of rabbis (of whom the Genim were the last), whose teaching Berlin on March 22, 1797, of Jewish parents. He studied law safeguarded tradition and whose advice or decisions were often first at Berlin, then at Gottingen, and finally at Heidelberg, where invoked far beyond the limits of their schools or communities. he attended Hegel’s lectures, and became thoroughly imbued with With the end of the Gednim centralized authority in Judaism the principles of the Hegelian philosophy. In 1826 he was ap- passed away and gave place to congregationalism. The age of pointed professor in the Berlin faculty of law. His great work is codification succeeded and the general acceptance of codes preErbrecht in weligeschichtlicher Entwicklung (1824, 1825, 1829 vented local autonomy from drifting into sectarianism. The and 1835). The liberality of his views, especially on political mat- invention of printing finally stereotyped the last code (Joseph ters, drew upon Gans the displeasure of the Prussian Government, Caro’s Shulhan ‘Artikh, q.v.) and retarded development. The and his course of lectures on the history of the last 50 years four groups were :— (published as Vorlesungen über d. Geschichte d. letzten fünfzig I. The Tanna’im (sing. Tannd, or teacher, from Aramaic Tend, Jahre, Leipzig, 1833-34) was prohibited. He died at Berlin on he taught; the root corresponds to the Hebrew Shanah, hence May 5, 1839. Mishnah) were the scholars whose teaching is recorded in the GANSBACHER, JOHANN BAPTIST (1778-1844), Mishnah (see Tatmup). The last tannd’im belong to three genAustrian composer, was born in 1778 at Sterzing in Tirol. He was erations (a) A.D. 70-100. Representative name, Johanan ben a pupil of the celebrated Abbé Vogler and later during his second Zakkai who, leaving the beleaguered Jerusalem, founded a school stay with Vogler, then (1810) living at Darmstadt, formed a close at Jamnia in Judaea and saved Judaism from perishing with the friendship with Weber and Meyerbeer. His own numerous com- Temple. (b) 100-130. Representative name ‘Aqiba (q.v.) who positions have been long since fergotten. died a martyr in the fight for freedom against Hadrian. (c) 130GANYMEDE, son of Tros (or Laomedon), king of Troy. 160. Representative name, Judah the Prince, compiler of the Because of his surpassing beauty (his name, if Greek at all, may Mishnah. The schools moved to Galilee (Usha, Sepphoris). mean “glad in brightness”), he was carried off by the gods, or II. ’Amord@im, lit. speaker, the spokesman of a Tannd, who Zeus, or, according to a later myth, the eagle of Zeus or the god repeated his discourses. But after the Mishnah was compiled the himself in eagle shape, to serve as cup-bearer (Homer, Jihad, v. ’Amora became an independent teacher. The age of the ’Amora’im 265, xx. 232; Horace, Odes, iv. 4. 1; Ovid, Met., x. 155). In com- lasted from the 2nd to the sth centuries and their work was the pensation, Zeus gave his father a stud of immortal horses (or a Gemara. In 350 the Palestinian schools decayed and were sucgolden vine, Lesches, Jlias parva, frag. 6). From fairly early ceeded by the Babylonian schools at Nehardea, Sura and Pumtimes (Theognis, 1,345 6th century B.c.), and perhaps especially beditha. Representative names, Rab (or Abba Arika, 175-247),

among Dorians (a Cretan variant makes Minos the ravisher, Athenaeus 6or E; cf. Plato, Laws, 636 C), his kidnapper was supposed to have a homosexual passion for him, hence the con-

notation which Catamitus, the popular Latin form of his name,

had and'has. As divine cup-bearer, he was apparently credited with making the Nile rise (Pindar, frag. 282, von Christ), and was’ later’ identified with the constellation Aquarius (pseudoEratosthenes, cafast., 26). “See téspecially Weizsacker-Drexler in Roscher’s Lexikon, s.v.

_GKO,"a town of French West Africa, the chief town of a

circle, im the colony in the French Sudan, on the left bank of the Niger, 400 m. by river below Timbuktu. Pop. about 5,000. The

present town dates from the French occupation in 1900; of the ancient city there are scanty ruins, the chief being a truncated pyramid, the remains of the tomb (16th century) of Mohammed Askia, the Songhoi conqueror, and those of the great mosque. e “ti y ‘of which’ the French settlement is the successor was founded by the Songhoi, probably in the 7th or 8th century, and became‘the capital of their empire. In the 14th century Gao was conquered by the king of Melle, and its great mosque was built (c. 2325) by the Melle sovereign Kunkur Musa on his return from a pilgrimage to Mecca.

: Ii the 15th century the Songhoi regained power and Gao attained its greatest prosperity in the reign of Askia.

It did not

Samuel (180-257) who arranged the calendar, and Ashi (352-427) who, with Rabina (d. 499), may be said to have compiled the Talmud. III. The Saboraim (properly Sebhdr@é, plu. of Sabhdra, a reasoner)

work.

during the 6th century effected slight supplementary

It was an era of persecution and creative thought was

hampered. The Gaon Sherira enumerates 12 Saboraim. IV. The Gednim (Gadn=Excellency, probably for Gedn Ya‘aqgobh, Ps. xlvii. 5) from the end of the 6th to the rzth centuries effected the transference of the centre of Judaism from Asia to Europe. The Gaonate was civilly subject to the Exilarch but throughout the diaspora enjoyed a wide authority. Their Responsa are of great importance and they standardized the liturgy. Among the great Gednim may be mentioned Sherira (ben Hanina of Pumbeditha, d. 1000), author of the famous circular letter addressed to Jacob ben Nissim of Kairowan in which the history of the Talmudic and Gaonate periods is set forth; Amram (ben Sheshna, of Sura, d. 875), the first authority to arrange a complete domestic and synagogal liturgy; and Sa‘adia (q.v.) of

Sura (892-942) who fought Karaism (see Kararres), translated the scriptures into Arabic, compiled a dictionary and was a master

of philosophy.

The last Gednim of Sura and Pumbeditha were

Samuel ben Hofni (d. 1034) and Hai (d. 1038) respectively. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— See the

relevant

articles

in Jew.

Encycl.

and

enjoy the’ commercial importance of Jenné nor the intellectual Hastings, Encycl, Rel, and Eth. (where lists of Tanna’im and Gednim stpremacy of Timbuktu, but was the political centre of the west- are given). J. Mann’s Jews in Egypt and Palestine (Oxford, 1922) isa ety Sudan fer a long period. On the break up of the Songhoi mine of information about details of the Gaonate. For general readers histories of H. Graetz (Philadelphia, 1891), of Margolis and Marx Power ‘the city dechined in importance. It became subject in 1590 the (ib. 1927) and I. Abrahams (Short Hist. of Jew. Lit., 1906), will be tothe Rema of Timbuktu, from whom it was wrested in 1770 by found useful. Benjamin of Tudela, who travelled in 116s, speaks of the

the:Tudreg! the last named surrendering possession to the French. Are hidh

; D’Isalquier (g.v.) spent some years in Gao in the

Gaonate (Eng. trans. by M. Adler, see pp. 39 sqq. Lond., 1907).

GAP, the capital of an arrondissement in the French depart-

ait Esih géntury.” In modern times it was reached by Mungo ment: of Hautes Alpes; 122 m. by rail from Marseilles. Pop.

‘Pek’ (E805) and by Heinrick Barth (1875). It is now the Niger

tertaitids' fértiins-Saharan motor traffic. From Gao upwards the

(1926) 7,024. It is the Vapincum of the Romans founded by Augustus about 14 B.c. In 1232 most of the region passed from

GAPAN— GARAY

19

Provence by marriage to the dauphins of Viennois. The town itself, however, remained under the rule of the bishops until 1512, when it was annexed to the crown of France. The town was sacked by the Huguenots in 1567 and 1577, and by the duke of Savoy in 1692. It was the birthplace of the reformer Guillaume Farel (1489-1565), who first preached his doctrines there about

Serbian territory, including the fortress of Belgrade (1867). Garashanin was preparing a general rising of the Balkan nations against the Turkish rule, and had entered into confidential arrangements with the Rumanians, Bosnians, Albanians, Bulgarians and Greeks, and more especially with Montenegro. But the execution of his plans was frustrated by his sudden resignation (at the

1561-62.

end of 1867), and by the assassination of Prince Michael a few months later (June 10, 1868). Although he was a Conservative in

Gap is built at a height of 2,418 ft. on the right bank of the Luye (an affluent of the Durance). The 17th century cathedral has been entirely reconstructed (1866-1905). The prefecture contains scientific and archaeological collections, as well as the archives, which include many mss. from the monastery of Durbon, etc. The episcopal see of Gap, now in the ecclesiastical province of Aix-en-Provence, is first mentioned in the 6th century, and in 1791 was enlarged by the annexation of that of Embrun.

GAPAN, a municipality (with 8 barrios or districts) of the province of Nueva Ecija, Luzon, Philippine Islands, almost directly south of Cabanatuan, the capital. Pop. (1918) 13,617. It is situated in a rich rice-growing region, and extensive forests in the vicinity contain fine hardwoods. It is one of the chief commercial municipalities of the province. In 1918 it had three rice mills with an output valued at 1,888,400 pesos. Its six schools were all public. Tagalog and Pampanga are the chief languages spoken.

GAPON, GEORGI

(1870-1906), Russian priest and revo-

lutionary known as “‘Father Gapon,” of Jewish origin, but became an orthodox priest. At one time he was an agent of the secret police, and was associated with the notorious Zubatov in Moscow. He then became Zubatov’s agent in St. Petersburg (Leningrad) to organize a workers’ movement under police supervision; the movement soon got beyond the power of the police and came under socialist leaders. Gapon led the unarmed crowd to present a petition to the tsar at the Winter palace (Jan. 22), when the soldiers fired on the crowd. Gapon vanished, but he was tracked by the revolutionaries and murdered, at Terioki, Finland, on April II, 1906.

politics, and as such often in conflict with the leader of the Liberal movement, Yovan Ristich, he certainly was one of the

ablest His ment prime Paris,

statesmen whom Serbia had in the 19th century. son, NILuTIN GARASHANIN (1843-1898), entered parliain 1874. He was minister of the interior (1880-83), and minister (1884-87). In 1894 he became ambassador in where he died on March 7, 1808.

GARAT,

DOMINIQUE

JOSEPH

(1749-1833), French

writer and politician, was born at Bayonne on Sept. 8, 1749. After practising as an advocate at Bordeaux, he came to Paris, and became a contributor to the Encyclopédie méthodique and the Mercure de France. He gained a reputation by an éloge on Michel de L’H6pital in 1778, and was three times crowned by the Academy for éloges on Suger, Montausier and Fontenelle. In 1785 be became professor at the Lycée. When deputy to the states-general in 1789, he served the popular cause by his narrative of the proceedings of the Assembly contributed to the Journal de Paris. He played an undignified part in politics, and became a tool in the hands of others. Danton made him minister of justice on Oct. 9, 1792, and entrusted to him what he called the commisison affreuse of communicating to Louis XVI. his sentence of death. In 1793 Garat became minister of the interior. Though himself uncorrupt, he acquiesced in corruption in his subordinates. At last, disgusted with the excesses which he -was

unable to control, he resigned (Aug. 15, 1793).

On Oct. 2 he

was arrested for Girondist sympathies but soon released. He escaped further molestation owing to the friendship of Robespierre, whose literary amour-propre he had flattered. On the gth

GARANA: see GUARANA. GARARISH, a semi-nomadic tribe of Semitic origin, on the

Thermidor, however, he took sides against Robespierre, and on

that, ‘Serbia' was! 'given'a new, although somewhat conservative, constitution; arid: that she obtained, ‘without war, the evacuatidn of all'-the ‘fortresses .zarrisoried by the Turkish troops on-:the

at Pest an heroic poem, in hexameters, under, the title Csatdr.: After this he issued in quick: succession, various historical dramas, among which the most successful were Arbécz, Orszégh Ilona.and

Sept. 12, 1794 he was named by the Convention as a member of the executive committee of public instruction. In 1798 he was right bank of the Nile from Wadi Halfa to Merawi. Many are agriculturists; they claim kinship with the Ababda, but are more appointed ambassador to Naples, and in 1799 became a member, then president, of the Council of the Ancients. After the revoluArab than Beja. tion of the 18th Brumaire he was chosen a senator by Napoleon GARASHANIN, ILIYA (1812-1874), Serbian statesman, and created a count. During the Hundred Days he was a member was born on Jan. 28, 1812, at Garasha (Kragujewac). In 1836 of the chamber of representatives. He was a member of the Prince Milosh appointed him a colonel and commander of the Institute of France from 1803 until the restoration of Louis then just organized regular army of Serbia. In 1842 he was called XVIII. He died at Ustaritz near Bayonne on’ April:25, 1833. His td the position of assistant to the home minister, and from that elder brother Dominig (173 st 799), was also a deputy to the time until his retirement from public life in 1867 he was repeat- states-general. edly minister of home affairs. He rendered great services to his The works of Garat idade; besides those already mentioned: Concountry as minister for foreign affairs. He sought to replace the sidérations sur ` la Révolution Francaise.’ (1792);; Mémoires sur la Russian protectorate over Serbia by the joint protectorate of Révolution, ou exposé de ma conduite (1795); Mémoires sur la vie de all the great powers of Europe. In 1853 he opposed co-operation M. Suard, sur ses écrits, et sur le XVIIIe siècle (r820). For the histor of Garat’s tenure of the ministry, see police reports of Dutard, in WF with Russia against Turkey and the western powers. His anti- A. oo Tableaux de la eee ors Française (3 vols., ‘Leipzig, Russian views led Prince Menshikov, while on his mission in 1867—70 Constantinople, 1853, peremptorily to demand his dismissal. GARAT, PIERRE-J EAN (1764-1823), French singer, Nevertheless his personal influence in the country secured the nephew of Dominique Joseph Garat, was born in Bordeaux on neutrality of Serbia during the Crimean War. It was due to April 25, 1764. Gifted with a voice of exceptional timbre and Garashanin that France proposed to the peace conference of Paris compass he was the favourite singer of Marie Antoinette,.to whom (1856) that the old constitution, granted to Serbia by Turkey as he gave lessons. At the beginning of the Revolution he accom~ suzerain and Russia as protector in 1839, should be replaced by panied Rode to England, where the two musicians appeared to» a more modern and liberal constitution, framed by a European gether in concerts. He returned to Paris in 1794, but fell under | international commission. But the agreement of the powers suspicion, was imprisoned for a short time, and then left Paris was not secured. Garashanin induced Prince Alexander Kara- for Hamburg. He gained a great reputation in all the capitals of georgevich to:convoke a national assembly, which had not been Europe, and retained his voice for a long period. ‘He was a keen: called to meet for ten years. ‘The assembly was convoked for partisan of Gluck in opposition to Handel: On: the institution ‘`of St. Andrew’s Day 1858, but its first act was to dethrone Prince the Paris Conservatoire he became its first oe ‘ob,singing, Alexander and: to recall the old prince Milosh Obrenovich.: and had many famous ' pupils.. REGS ic. She 4d ‘ When after the death'of his father Milosh (in 1860) Prince See Bernard Miall, Pierre Garat (1913). © yed Michael ascended the ‘throne, he entrusted the premiership and GARAY, JAN ‘OS.(1812—1858) ugarien. ost and author; foreign. affairs to Tliya:Garashanin.: The result of their policy was was born on ‘Oct. IO, 1812, at. Szegszárä. „In 1834 he brought. -out

20

GARBLE—GARD

Bdthori Erzsébet—the first two published at Pest in 1837 and the last in 1840. Garay removed in 1838 to Pressburg, where he edited

the political journal Hirnök (Herald). He returned to Pest in

1839, and in 1842 was admitted into the Kisfaludy Society, of which he became second secretary. He published a collection of his poems (1843); Tollrajzok (Sketches with the Pen, 1843);

Arpddok (1847), a collection of ballads; Balatont Kagylék (Shells from the Balaton Lake) (1848), lyrics; Frangepán Kristófné (Christopher Frangepan’s Wife) (1846), a poetical romance; and,

GARCIA DE LA HUERTA, VICENTE ANTONIO (1734-1787), Spanish dramatist, published an unsatisfactory collection of Spanish plays entitled Teatro Espanol (1785-86), and various dramas, of which only Raquel now survives.

GARCIA DE PAREDES, DIEGO (1466-1534), Spanish soldier and duellist, born at Trujillo, Estremadara. He served

in his youth in the war of Granada; after killing a relative, Ruy Sanchez de Vargas, in a street fight, he fled to Rome, where he took service as a soldier of Pope Alexander VI., then in conflict his last and most famous work, an historical poem in 12 cantos, with the barons of the Romagna. A personal quarrel resulting in with the title Szent László (Saint Ladislaus) (Eger, 1852). Garay a murder obliged him to pass over to the enemy. By his daring was professor of Hungarian language and literature to the Uni- and strength he won the admiration and trust of the Colonnas, versity of Pest in 1848-49. After about four years’ illness he died as also of Gonzalo de Cérdoba. He took part in the wars between on Nov. 5, 1853, in great want. Ferdinand V. of Aragon and Louis XII. on the frontier of Navarre, A collective edition of his poems was published at Pest the year after and once against the Turks on the Danube till 1530. His countryhis death by F. Ney (2nd ed. 1860), and several of his poems were translated by Kertbeny. See Garay Janos Osszes kélteményei (2nd ed., men, crediting him with feats of fabulous strength, made him ae 1860); and Dichtungen von Johann Garay (and ed., Vienna, the hero of many Miinchausen-like stories of personal prowess. He was killed at a jumping-match at Bologna in 1534; his body 1856). was carried to Trujillo and there buried in the church of Santa GARBLE, originally a mediaeval commercial term in the Maria Mayor in 1545. Mediterranean ports, meaning to sort out, or to sift merchandise, GARD, a department in the south of France, part of the old such as spices, etc., in order to separate what was good from the province of Languedoc. Pop. (1926) 402,600. Area 2,270 sq.m. refuse; hence to select the best of anything. Similarly a “garbler”’ It is bounded N. by the departments of Lozère and Ardèche, E. was an official appointed to sort out, or test the work of those by the Rhone, which separates it from Vaucluse and Bouches-duwho had sorted, the spices or drugs offered for sale in the London Rhône, S. by the Mediterranean, S.W. by Hérault and W. by markets. In this sense the word is obsolete, but by inversion, or Aveyron. Gard is divided into three sharply-defined regions. The rather perversion, ‘‘garble” now means to sort out or select, tree-clad Cévennes, with their deep and fruitful valleys, occupy chiefly from books or other literary works, or from public the north-west, reaching a height of 5,120 ft. on the frontier of speeches, some portion which twists, mutilates or renders inef- Lozère. The Garrigues, a dry, hilly limestone region stretches fective the meaning of the author or speaker. south from the Cévennes over about half the department, and GARBORG, ARNE EVENSEN (1851-1924), Norwegian grows cereals, vine and olive. The southern coastal plain is unwriter, was born on Jan. 25, 1851, at Thime. He joined the move- healthy because it has numerous lagoons and marshes, but it comment for the creation of a Norwegian literary language based on prises the best arable land and vineyards in Gard. the Jandsmaal or peasant dialect derived from old Norsk, in place Besides the Rhone and the Ardèche, the principal rivers are the of the Dano-Norwegian literary medium. He wrote a series of Cèze, Gard, Vidourle and Hérault. They all rise in the Cévennes, novels deeply penetrated by religious feeling. In 1895 he wrote a and the Cèze and the Gard feed the Rhone, the lower Vidourle cycle of lyric poems in the landsmaal, Haugtussa (1895), which forming the southwest boundary of the department. The Hérault describe a young girl’s belief in the supernatural. He also trans- rises, and flows for a short part of its course, in the west of Gard. lated the Odyssey (1918) and a selection from the Mahabharata The upper course of the river Gard is in mountain gorges, and (1921), and, for representation at the landsmaal theatre, which he melting snows often cause disastrous floods. Near Remoulins it and his wife had founded, Holberg’s classical comedy, Jeppe paa is crossed by a celebrated Roman aqueduct—the Pont du Gard. Berget (1921). His collected works, Skrifter i samling, began to The canal de Beaucaire extends from the Rhone at Beaucaire to appear in 1908. Garborg died on Jan. 14, 1924, at Asker. Aigues-Mortes, which communicates with the Mediterranean at See Erik Lie, Arne Garborg (1914). Grau-du-Roi by means of the Grand-Roubine canal. The climate is warm in the south-east, colder in the north-west; GARCAO, PEDRO ANTONIO JOAQUIM CORREA: it is rather changeable, and rain-storms are common. The cold see CoRREA GaRcAO,. Pepro ANTONIO JOAQUIM. and violent north-west wind known as the mistral is its worst GARCIA (DEL POPOLO VICENTO), MANOEL (1775-1832), Spanish tenor singer and composer, was born in drawback. Les Fumades (near Allégre) and Euzet have mineral Seville on Jan. 22, 1775. At 17 he made his début on the stage at springs. The chief grain crops are wheat and oats. Rye, barley Cadiz, in an operetta which included songs of his own composition. and potatoes are also grown. Gard is famed for its cattle, its breed He had already a considerable reputation as a composer of light of small horses, and its sheep, yielding very fine wool. In the operas.and as an operatic singer when he appeared in Paris in rearing of silk-worms it ranks first among French departments. 1808, in Paer’s opera Griselda. At Naples later he created some The principal fruit trees are the olive, mulberry and chestnut. famous rôles in Rossini’s operas, and sang them until 1816 when The vine is extensively cultivated and yields excellent red and he visited London and Paris. Between 18x19 and 1823 he lived white wines. The department is rich in minerals, namely coal, in Paris, singing in Ji Barbiére, Otello, Don Giovanni, etc., and iron, lime, lignite, asphalt, zinc, lead and copper, for the most producing some operas of his own-——he wrote about 100 in all— part situated in the neighbourhoods of Alés and La Grand’-Combe ef which La Morte di Tasso was the most important. But his and Le Vigan. Much salt is obtained from the coastal marshes, greatest work was done as a teacher of singing in London and The fisheries are productive. Manufactures include silk, of which Paris. Of his principles and method he left an account in his Alés is the chief centre, cotton and woollen fabrics, hosiery, carMetado di Canto, the substance of which was subsequently in- pets, ironware, hats (Anduze), gloves, paper, leather, earthenware corporated by his som Manoel in his admirable Traité complet and glass. There are important metallurgical works, the chief of de Fart du chant (1847). He died in Paris on June 2, 1832. which are those of Bességes. The exports of Gard include coal, His,son, Manoel Garcia (1805-1906), who celebrated his hun- lignite, coke, asphalt, building-stone, iron, steel, silk, hosiery, wine, dredth -birthday in London on March £7, 1905, was born at olives, grapes and truffles. Madrid, and as a teacher became no less famous than his father. The department is served by the P.L.M. railway. It is He was a professor at the Paris Conservatoire (1830-48), at the divided into the arrondissements of Nîmes, Alès, Uzès and Le Royal Academy of Music, London (1848-95), and will be remem- Vigan, with 40 cantons and 353 communes. The chief town. is . Bered;'it is$afe to say,'so long as the art of singing is studied, as Nimes, which is the seat of a bishopric of the province of Avignon the inventior:of the laryngoscope. . and of a court of appeal. Gard belongs to the rsth military region See M. Steiling Mackinlay, Garcia the Centenarian and his Times (Marseilles), and to the académie (educational division) of Mont(London, 1408). | pellier. Nîmes, Alès, Uzès, Aigues-Mortes, Beaucaire, Saint-Gilles,

GARDA—GARDEN Besseges, La Grand’-Combe

and Villeneuve-lés-Avignon

are the

CITIES

2I

GARDEN CITIES, a term first used in 1869 by A. T. Stewart

principal towns.: Opposite the manufacturing town of Pont-St.- in connection with the development of an estate on Long Island, Esprit the Rhone is crossed by a fine mediaeval bridge more than N.Y., are to be distinguished from “garden suburbs” which are, 1,000 yd. long built by the Pontiff brethren. Le Vigan, an ancient generally, merely suburbs with specially restrictive by-laws of town with several old- houses, carries on silk-spinning. an industrial city. (See Town AND Crty PLANNING and SoctraL GARDA, LAKE OF, the most easterly and the most ex- ARCHITECTURE.) The idea of a garden city, that is, a unit planned tensive of the Lombard lakes (the Lacus Benacus of the Romans), as a whole, was due to Sir Ebenezer Howard, who, in a book ensurpassed in the Alpine region only by those of Geneva and titled Tomorrow (London 1898), outlined a scheme for the buildConstance. The lake is now divided between the provinces of ing of a new model town to be called “Garden City.” The publiVerona, Brescia and Trento. Its broad basin orographically repre- cation of this book led to the formation of the Garden Cities sents the southern portion of the valley of the Adige, though that Association in 1899 and to the establishment of Letchworth, the river now flows through a narrow trench which is separated from first garden city, in 1903, and Welwyn, the second, in 1920. The the lake by the long narrow ridge of the Monte Baldo (7,277 ft.). main features of Howard’s scheme were (1) the purchase of a The lake is fed by the Sarca at its north end, while at the southern large area of agricultural land within a ring fence; (2) the planning extremity of the lake the Mincio flows out, on its way to join of a compact town upon it surrounded by a wide rural belt; (3) the Po. The area is about 143 sq.m, length 32} m., greatest the town to accommodate population and industry; (4) the town breadth about 10o m., height of surface above sea-level 216 ft. to be limited in extent and never to encroach upon the rural belt; and the greatest depth 1,135 feet. Its upper northern end is nar- (5) the land values arising from the population to belong to the row, but between Garda (east) and Salò (west) the lake expands community that created them. gradually into a nearly circular basin. Owing to this conformation Howard based his scheme upon the admitted need for a remedy the lake is much exposed to sudden and violent winds. The steep for the evils of the congestion of towns and the depopulation of grey limestone crags of Monte Baldo, on the eastern side of the the countryside. He pointed out the obvious facts that towns lake, contrast strongly with the rich vegetation on the western grew because people were attracted to them, and people left and southern shores. The portion of the western shore that the country districts because they did not like them. The country extends from Gargnano to Saló is the most sheltered and warmest must be made attractive, he said, and that can be done by estabpart of the region, so that not merely does it resemble one con- lishing there the magnet of town-life. A form of town which tinuous garden (producing lemons, figs, mulberries and olives) combined the undoubted social and economic advantages of towns but is frequented in winter. The lovely promontory of Sermione with the undoubted benefits of the country would be superior to (anc. Sirmio) at the southern end of the lake, has also an existing towns and would draw population to it. The new town extremely luxuriant vegetation. It was a favourite residence of would be limited in extent because (1) it is possible, he conCatullus; but the large ruins of a Roman villa on the promon- sidered, to get everything that is required in a town of about tory belong to the imperial period, while there are also remains 30,000, while improved means of transportation would enable of the Lombard period, and a fine castle of the Scaligers. At the those who wished to do so to travel to the big city, and because south end of the lake are the towns of Peschiera (144 m. by rail (2) the inhabitants of the rural belt should be kept in close from Verona on the east) and of Desenzano (174 m. by rail from touch with town-life and rural interests should form part of the Brescia on the west), which are 84 m. distant from each other. town’s economy. If such towns were scattered over the country There is a regular steamer service from these two towns. On the there would, he believed, be an end to rural depopulation and west shore of the lake are Salò, Maderno, Toscolano (a place im- the overcrowding of the great towns would cease. portant in the early history of the printing press), Gargnano and The “garden city” was to be created by a private corporation Limone, while the rugged east shore can boast only of Bardolino which would raise money on loan, lay out the town, construct, and Garda. At the northern end of the lake is Riva. the roads, drainage, public services, etc., and let the land on GARDELEGEN, a town in Prussian Saxony, on the main revisible leases, the rents increasing with the growth of population. line of the Berlin-Hanover railway. Pop. (1925) 8,900. Gardelegen Howard showed that the reasonable rents that could be got was founded in the roth century, and on the neighbouring heath would be amply sufficient to pay a return on the expenditure, Margrave Louis I. of Brandenburg gained, in 1343, a victory over leaving a considerable surplus. The rents, moreover, were to be Otto of Brunswick. It has a Romanesque church, and a hospital “rate-rents,” that is to say were to include such charges on propfounded in 1285. There are considerable manufactures, notably erty as were normally required to meet the expenditure of the agricultural machinery and buttons, and its beer has a great repute. local authority. GARDEN, MARY (1877— ), American operatic singer, Unearned Increment of the Community.—Howard conwas born at Aberdeen, Scotland, on Feb. 20, 1877. At the age of tended that his scheme was practicable for two main reasons. The six she was brought to the United States. In 1888 her family first was that by purchasing land at agricultural value and then settled in Chicago, where her early musical training was received. bringing a large population to it the increment in Jand value would She went to Paris in 1896, and studied under Trabadello, Cheval- be sufficient to provide a substantial economic foundation. The lier and Fougère. She made her début at the Opéra Comique, “unearned increment,” created by increase of population in Paris, April 3, 1900, in the title rôle of Louise. Her first appear- any particular place had hitherto invariably gone into private ance in the United States was at New York in the title rôle of pockets; in his scheme it would be retained for the community. Thais, Nov. 25, 1907. In r9ro she became a member of the Chi- That the amount of this “unearned increment” in general was cago Civic Opera company, assuming, among others, the parts of great was well known. Proposals for taxation of land values were Salomé, Thaïs, Mélisande and Louise. She was general director attempts to get possession of it. Howard’s scheme secured it of the Chicago Opera Association in 1921-22. In 1927 she sang for the community as it arose. His second main reason was that in Pelléas et Mélisande in Geneva, Switzerland; also in Paris in there was a tendency for industry to leave the congested cities the opera Resurrection. and to seek rural surroundings. Manufacturers were establishing GARDEN, the ground enclosed and cultivated for the growth their works on the outskirts of ‘towns and even in country villages,

of fruit, flowers or vegetables (see HORTICULTURE). From the fact that Epicurus (g.v.) taught in the gardens at Athens, the

because they found the costs and conditions of working in the

disciples of his school of philosophy were known as of bad Tay xnmwv—those from the gardens (Diog. Laértius x. 10); and Cicero (De finibus v. 1, 3, and elsewhere) speaks of the Horti Epicuri (the gardens of Epicurus). Thus as the “Academy” refers to the

organized. There should be a concerted movement of industry from the over-burdened cities to the new free towns, the garden

Platonic and the “Porch”

(eroå) to the Stoic school, so the

“Garden” is the name given to the Epicurean school of philosophy. For Garden Planning, see LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE.

cities too onerous.

This tendency, Howard declared, should be

cities.

Howard’s proposals came at a time when there was an increasing public interest in industrial housing. In the garden cities houses could be provided for the working classes under the best

possible conditions both as to cost and surroundings.

Many of

GARDENIA—GARDINER,

22

those who were interested in the housing question were therefore attracted to the garden city idea. In 1898 when Howard put forward his scheme there was no public interest in England in town-planning; but the advantages of planning a town in advance of building it were appreciated and gave additional point to Howard’s contentions. The housing and town-planning movements of the 2zoth century thus became closely associated with the garden city movement, and the influence of that movement upon them was profound, but the specific proposals for garden cities and the general ideas on which they were based were by no means expressed in the housing and town-planning activities that gained momentum in the early part of the century in England and reached their height in the years immediately after the World War. Letchworth and Welwyn.—There are two examples of garden cities in England and it should be noted that these are the only examples in the world.

Letchworth was established in 1903 as the first garden city on

Sir Ebenezer

Howard’s

plan.

An

area

of 3,822

acres

(after-

wards increased to 4,552 acres) was purchased 35 miles from

London and within 24 miles of the old market town of Hitchin, in Hertfordshire. A joint stock company, called First Garden City Ltd. was formed to carry out the enterprise, with an authorized capital of £300,000, the dividend on which was limited to 5% per annum. A plan was prepared for a town of about 32,000 inhabitants, with distinct areas for houses, shops and factories and a surrounding rural belt. Development was started in 1904. The company constructed the roads, drainage system, water, gas and electricity supplies. In 1928 the town had a population of about 14,000 with 80 industries, principally engineering works, but including corset-making, printing, book-binding, etc. ‘On the formation of the scheme the First Garden City, Ltd., made ’a public issue of share capital but only a small part was taken up and the undertaking was mainly financed by mortgages, loans and debentures. Interest has been paid on the bulk of the capital since the start; in 1913 a small dividend was paid on the share capital; in 1928 a start was made to pay off the accumulated artears of dividend on the shares. Howard’s scheme of revisible rents and rate-rents was found impracticable at’ Letchworth, the land being let on ordinary building leases for 99 years. Rates are levied by the local authority as in other towns. The growth of the town has been slow, less than half’ the ultimate population having been reached after 25 years. “The second garden city was started after the war in 1920, when Welwyn Gardén City was formed. This ‘second scheme was initiated’ by a joint stock company with an authorised share capital of “£250,000 entitled to a dividend not exceeding 7% pér annum. Welwyn, 20 miles from London, is a few miles north of Hatfield

on the London and North Eastern Railway main line. The estate

conisists’ of 2,383 acres, on which a town of 40,000 has been

pinned ‘with a small rural belt. When purchased the estate was completely rural ‘and ‘the: company has’ constructed the roads, drainage, water, electricity and other supplies.’ In‘1928 the town had a population of 7,000 with a number of industries, including engineering, breakfast foods, cinema studios, printing, etc. -The promoters’ of the scheme have had to contend with the difficulties of the post war period, and’ development has been slower than was anticipated. The public issue of shares in 1920 was not successful and the scheme hasbeen financed by debentures and Joans. The company was granted loans from the Public Works Loan Board for approved capital expenditure under

the provisions of the Housing Act r921. This has brought the scheme to some extent ‘under the supervision of the Ministry of

Health. Interest on, borrowed money has been paid from the Start, but no dividend has yet been declared on the share capital. Phe ‘featires of Welwyn are its consistent architectural develop-

Sob: ‘site plamiing’ public gardens, and absence ‘of small shops.

Being near to London a large proportion of the population is enin’business there; but the site is well adapted for indus-

af te f’ reps arid industrial development is likely to be accel-

er “at Letchworth’ land is let on building lease (but for iio"yeas) and rates are levied as in other towns, The company

SAMUEL

RAWSON

however undertakes certain public services (e.g. sewage disposal) at its own expense, and provides funds for education, sport, etc. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Ebenezer

Howard,

Garden

Cities

of Tomorrow

(1903); C. B. Purdom, The Garden City (1913); Town Theory and Practice (ed. by C. B. Purdom, 1923); C. B. Purdom, The Building of Satellite Towns (1925). (C. B. P.)

The United States has no “garden city” like Letchworth or

Welwyn, England, and no development of the “garden. village” as complete and significant as Port Sunlight or Bourneville, but it has

had many “industrial housing schemes’ carried out during the period of the garden city movement in England and some suburban developments that resemble the “garden city.” These developments are of great variety in origin, and extent and merit. Most of the industrial developments had some sort of general plan or layout. In some it was the typical American gridiron, and in many other cases it did not show great skill or merit. In only a few, even of the best, was there more than a street scheme. The average of these developments in the United States would show below 12 houses to the gross acre—probably not more than six—with lots averaging at least 50 ft. in width by more than roo ft. in depth. It is somewhat doubtful if an examination of the American schemes would disclose any element of co-operative or public ownership which is English in character rather than American, and yet in many industrial villages the land has been sold at a low price and without speculative profit. While there was no legal or definite limit to the return from the invested capital, many of the industrial enterprises were conducted often at a financial return lower than that recognized as a reasonable rate. The higher class suburban developments accept no such limitation. See SOCIAL ARCHITECTURE. (J. No.)

GARDENIA,

in botany, a genus of plants of the madder

family (Rubiaceae), containing about 80 species of evergreen trees and shrubs, natives of the warmer parts of the Old World. Several are grown in stoves or greenhouses for their handsome, sweet-scented white flowers. The flowers are developed singly at the end of a branch or in the leaf-axils, and are funnel- or salvershaped with a long tube. The double forms of Gardenia florida (China), known as Cape-jasmine, and G. radicans (Japan) are amongst the most beautiful and highly perfumed of any in cultivation. Gardenias are readily propagated by cuttings. They require plenty of heat and moisture in the growing season, and must be kept free from insects such as green fly, red spider and scale-insect.

GARDENING: see HORTICULTURE. GARDINER, JAMES (1688-1745), Scottish soldier, was born at Carriden in Linlithgowshire, on Jan. 11, 1688. The circumstances of his death (Sept. 21, 1745) are described i in Sir Walter Scott’s Waverley. In his early years he was reckless and profligate, but in 1719 a vision of Christ on the Cross led to his conversion, and from that time he lived a life of great devoutness. See P. Doddridge, Life of James Gardiner

GARDINER, SAMUEL RAWSON

(1747, often reprinted).

(1829-1902), English

historian, son of Rawson Boddam Gardiner, was born near Alresford, Hants. He was educated at Winchester and Christ Church, Oxford, where he took a first class in literae humaniores, and‘ became a fellow of All Souls (1884) and Merton (1892). For some years he was professor of modern ‘history at King’s college, London. Gardiner, who was himself a descendant of Cromwell and Ireton, is the historian of the Puritan revolution, and has written its history in a History of England from the Accession of James I. to the Outbreak of the Civil War, 16031642 (10 vols., 1863-82); History of the Great Civil War, 1642-1649 (4 vols., 1886); and History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate, 1649-1660 (3 vols., 1894-1903). His researches in: public and private collections of manuscripts at home, and in

the archives of Simancas, Venice, Rome, Brussels and Paris, were indefatigable.

In his judgments of men and their actions

he is unbiassed, and his appreciations of character exhibit a remarkable fmeness of perception and a broad sympathy. Throughout his work he gives a prominent place to everything which illustrates human ‘progress in moral and religious, ‘as well as political conceptions, and specially to the rise and devélopment of

the idea of religious toleration, finding his authorities not only

GARDINER in the words and actions of men of mark, but in the writings of obscure pamphleteers, whose essays indicate currents in the tide of public opinion. Gardiner’s style is clear and unadomed; he appeals constantly to the intellect rather than to the emotions, and is seldom picturesque, though in describing a few famous scenes, such as the execution of Charles I., he writes with pathos and dignity. Among the most noteworthy of his separate works are: Prince Charles and the Spanish Marriage .(2 vols., 1869); Outline of English History (1st. ed. 1887, later ed. 1919); Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution, 1625-1660 (1st ed., 1889; 3rd ed., 1906); Student’s History of England (2 vols., rst ed. 1890-91; later ed. 1920); What Gunpowder Plot Was (1897); Oliver Cromwell (1901). He edited collections of papers for the Camden Society, and from 1891 was editor of the English Historical Review. See H. B. Learned, Samuel Rawson Gardiner (1902); R. G. Usher, “Critical study of the historical method of S. R. Gardiner,” in Washington University Studies, vol. iii, part ii., no. i. (1915).

GARDINER, STEPHEN (1493?-1555), English bishop and lord chancellor, was born at Bury St. Edmunds, the son of a cloth merchant. He was educated at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, and became doctor of civil law in 1520, and of canon Jaw in the following year. About 1525 he was made secretary to Cardinal Wolsey whom

he accompanied on his important diplomatic mission to France in 1527. Next year Gardiner was sent by Wolsey to Italy with Edward Fox, provost of King’s college, Cambridge, to promote the business of Henry’s divorce from Catherine of Aragon. Though he failed to procure the desired decretal commission, Gardiner by his great intrepidity, won from Clement his consent to a general commission for Campeggio and Wolsey to try the cause in England. This, as Wolsey saw, was quite inadequate and he again instructed Gardiner to press the pope to send the desired decretal on, even if the latter was only to be shown to the king and himself and then destroyed. At last the pope gave what was desired on the express

conditions that Campeggio was to show it to the king and Wolsey and no one else, and then destroy it, the two legates holding their court under the general commission. In 1529 Gardiner was sent again to Italy, but this time the pope would make no further concessions, or promise not to revoke the cause to Rome. Gardiner’s services, however, were fully appreciated. He was appointed the king’s secretary. He had been already some years archdeacon of Taunton, and the archdeaconry of Norfolk was added to it in March 1529, which two years later he resigned for that of Leicester. In 1530 he was sent to Cambridge to procure the decision of the university as to the unlawfulness of marriage

23

dom. During the next few years he was engaged in various embassies in France and Germany until 1538 when, owing to Cromwell’s mistrust, he was replaced as ambassador in Paris by Bonner. In 1539 he took part in the enactment of the severe statute of the Six Articles, which led to the resignation of bishops Latimer and Shaxton and the persecution of the Protestant party. In 1540, on the death of Cromwell he was elected chancellor of the University of Cambridge. A few years later he attempted to fasten a charge of heresy upon Archbishop Cranmer in connection with the Act

of the Six Articles; and but for the intervention of the king would probably have succeeded. Though he had supported the royal supremacy, Gardiner objected to the religious doctrines of the

Reformation. He had to contend with frequent storms of royal indignation; but the king had need of him quite as much as he had of Cranmer; for Gardiner, even under royal supremacy, was anxious to prove ‘that England had not fallen away from the faith, while Cranmer’s authority as primate was necessary to upholding that supremacy. Thus Gardiner and the archbishop maintained opposite sides of the king’s church policy; and though Gardiner was encouraged by the king to put up articles against the archbishop for heresy, the archbishop could always rely on the king’s protection.

Under Edward VI. Gardiner was completely opposed to the policy of the dominant party both in ecclesiastical and in civil matters. The religious changes he objected to both on principle and on the ground of their being moved during the king’s minority, and he resisted Cranmer’s project of a general visitation. His remonstrances, however, were met by his committal to the Fleet, and the visitation of his diocese was held during his imprisonment. Though soon released, it was not long before he was called before the council, and, refusing to give them satisfaction, was thrown into the Tower, where he remained for over five years. His bishopric was given to Poynet, a chaplain of Cranmer’s and bishop of Rochester. On Mary’s accession, Gardiner was restored to his bishopric, and as lord chancellor, set the crown on the queen’s head at her coronation. He also opened her first parlia-

ment and for some time was her leading councillor. He was now called upon, in advanced life, to undo not a little of

of his early work—to vindicate the legitimacy of the queen’s birth and the lawfulness of her mother’s marriage, to restore the old religion, and to recant what he had written touching the royal supremacy. It is said that he wrote a formal retraction of his De

vera obedientia which is no longer extant. As chancellor he negotiated the queen’s marriage treaty with Philip, to which he shared the general repugnance, though he could not oppose her will. In executing it, however, he provided that the Spaniards should in i the government of the country. After the comwith a deceased brother’s wife, in accordance with the new plan nowise interfere in, for settling the question without the pope’s intervention. In this ing of Cardinal Pole, and the reconciliation of the realm to the see he succeeded, though not without a good deal of artifice. In Nov. of Rome, he still remained i in high favour. He no doubt approved 1531 the king rewarded him with the bishopric of Winchester, of the act, which passed the House of Lords while he presided vacant by Wolsey’s death. In 1532, nevertheless, he displeased there as. chancellor, for the revival of the heresy laws. Neither the king by the part he took in the preparation of the famous is there any doubt that he sat in judgment on Bishop Hooper, “Answer of the Ordinaries” to the complaints brought against and on several other preachers whom he condemned to be degraded from the priesthood. But he endeavoured to save the lives of them in the House of Commons. His next important action was not so creditable; for he was Cranmer and Northumberland, and much as he was maligned by “assistant” to Cranmer as counsel for the king, when the arch- opponents, there are strong evidences that his natural disposition bishop, in the absence of Catherine, pronounced her marriage was humane and generous. In’May 1553 he went to Calais as:one with Henry null and void on May 23, 1533. Immediately after- . of the English commissioners to promote peace with France; but wards he was sent to Marseilles, where an interview between the ' their efforts were ineffectual. In Oct. 1355 he again opened’ parliapope and Francis I. took place in September, of which event Henry ment as lord chancellor, but soon fell ill and died at Whitehall on stood in great suspicion, as Francis had hitherto maintained the. Nov. 12. He was buried i in Winchester cathedral. Besides his conspicuous statesmanship and legal ability, Garjustice of his cause. At this interview Bonner intimated the appeal'of Henry VIII. to'a general council in case the pope should diner Possessed a learning in divinity far from commonplace. ' His proceed to sentence against him. This appeal, and also one on be- ' part in the drawing up of doctrinal formularies in Henry VITI.’s half of Cranmer presented with it, were drawn up by Gardiner. time is not clear; but at a later date he wrote tracts in defence of In 153s he and other bishops were called upon to vindicate the the Real Presence against Cranmer, some of which, being written

King’s new title of “Supreme Head of the’ Church of England.” in prison, were published abroad under a féigned name. -Con‘The result was his celebrated De vera obedientit, the ablest of all troversial writings also passed between him and Bucer,' with whorr ‘the vindications of royal supremacy, reprinted in 1537 by the

he had sevéral interviews in Germany, when he was there’as Tan

VIII.’s ‘ambassador.’ A friend’ of ledrhing hé took great intere about -the visitation of his diocese. He was also employed to in promoting the study of Greék'at! Cambridge. He was, however, ‘answer’ the Popesbrief’‘threatening to’ deprive Henry ofhis king- Opposed to The new mehud „óf pronouncing thè language: oe

‘Swiss reformers. In the saine year he had a dispute with Cranmer da

hiing

asgi%

hajoo’

+

win

«

24

GARDNER—GARFIELD

duced by Sir John Cheke, and wrote letters to him and Sir Thomas Smith upon the subject, in which, according to Ascham, his opponents showed themselves the better critics, but he the superior genius. His house was spoken of by Leland as the seat of elo-

quence and the special abode of the muses. For a list of Gardiner’s writings and general bibliography, see the article in the Dict. Nat. Biog. See also J. A. Muller, Stephen Gardiner and the Tudor Reaction (1926).

GARDNER, PERCY (1846-

_+), English classical archae-

ologist, was born in London, and was educated at the City of London school and Christ’s college, Cambridge (fellow, 1872). He was Disney professor of archaeology at Cambridge (1880-87), and professor of classical archaeology at Oxford (1887-1925). Gardner was a fellow of the British Academy and of other learned societies in many foreign countries. Among his works are: Types

of Greek Coims (1883); A Numismatic Commentary on Pausanias (with F. Imhoof-Blumer, 1887); New Chapters in Greek History (1892), am account of excavations in Greece and Asia Minor; Manual of Greek Antiquities (with F. B. Jevons, 2nd ed. 1898); Grammar of Greek Art (1905); Principles of Greek Art (1913); New Chapters in Greek Art (1926); and a number of works on theological and ecclesiastical subjects. His brother, ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER (1862— ), educated at the City of London school and Caius college, Cambridge (fellow, 1885), was director (1887-95) of the British School at Athens, and later became professor of archaeology at University

college, London, and dean of the university. His publications include: Introduction to Greek Epigraphy (1887); Catalogue of the Vases in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge (1897); Ancient Athens (1902); Handbook of Greek Sculpture (1905); new and enlarged ed. (1915); The Art of Greece (1925), etc.

GARDNER, a city among the hills of northern Worcester

county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., 60m. W. by N. of Boston, at an altitude of 1,200ft. It is served by the Boston and Maine railroad.

The population was 16,971 in 1920 (32-7% foreign-born white)

and was 19,399 in 1930 by the Federal census. The outstanding industry is the manufacture of chairs, dating from 1805. Other important products are baby-carriages, oil stoves, silverware, timeclocks, wood-working machinery and reed, fibre and upholstered furniture. The aggregate factory output in 1927 was valued at $17,885,307. The city maintains a system of supervised playgrounds, a public bath-house and swimming pool, a toboggan slide and a ski jump. Gardner was formed in 1785 from parts of four other towns, and was named after Colonel Thomas Gardner (1724-75), who was mortally wounded at the battle of Bunker Hill. It was chartered as a city L

in 1923. GAREFOWL, also known as | Great Auk (Alca impennis), a

==

large flightless sea-bird, now ex-

linct.

tame

Slightly smaller than a H.

goose,

it resembled

its

ae sty ote

PN

osia

relative the razorbill (A. torda) ‘In appearance, but a large patch GREAT AUK (ALCA IMPENNIJS) of white occupied nearly all the KNOWN ALSO IN THE HEBRIDES, IT FREQUENTED, AS THE space between the bill and the WHICH GAREFOWL eye, while the bill itself bore eight or more transverse grooves. Owing to the small size of the wings, the bird was unable to fly.

It is a mistake to suppose that this bird had a high northern range. It bred in Iceland and on islands off Newfoundland, where

the French fishermen used both the bird and its eggs for food. Enormous numbers were killed, the birds being driven up a plank into the hold of the vessel (see Ritchie, Animal Life in Scotland). dt, became extinct about 1844. The egg resembled that of the razorbill in shape and colour, but was larger. (See AUK.)

AEFT ,

JAMES ABRAM

(1831-1881), twentieth

president of the United States, was born on Nov. 10, 1831 ina log

cabin in the little frontier town of Orange, Cuyahoga county, Ohio. His early years were spent in the performance of such labour as fell to the lot of every farmer’s son in the new states, and in the acquisition of such education as could be had in the district schools held for a few weeks each winter. But life on a farm was not to his liking, and at 16 he left home and tramping across the country to Cleveland, Ohio, sought employment from the captain of a lake schooner. But the captain drove him from the deck, and, wandering on in search of work, he fell in with a canal boatman who engaged him. During some months young Garfield served as bowsman, deck-hand and driver of a canal boat. An attack of the ague sent him home, and on recovery, having resolved to attend a high school and fit himself to become a teacher, he passed the next four years in a hard struggle with poverty and in an earnest effort to acquire an education; worked as a teacher, a carpenter and a farmer; studied for a time at the Western Reserve Eclectic Institute at Hiram, Ohio, and finally entered Williams College. On graduation, in 1856, Garfield became professor of ancient languages and literature in the Eclectic Institute at Hiram, and within a year rose to be its principal. Soon afterwards he entered political life. In the early days of the Republican party, when the shameful scenes of the Kansas struggle were exciting the whole country, and during the campaigns of 1857 and 1858, he became known as an effective speaker and ardent anti-slavery man. His reward for his services was election in 1859 to the Ohio senate as the member from Portage and Summit counties. When the “cotton States” seceded, Garfield appeared as a warm supporter of vigorous measures, and when the call came for 75,000 troops, at once offered his services to the governor, and became lieutenant-colonel and then colonel of the 42nd Ohio Volunteers, recruited largely from among his former students, He served in Kentucky, was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general of volunteers early in

1862; took part in the second day’s fighting at the battle of Shiloh, served as chief of staff under Rosecrans in the Army of the Cumberland in 1863, fought at Chickamauga, and was made a major-general of volunteers for gallantry in that battle. In 1862 he was elected a member of Congress from the Ashtabula district of Ohio, and, resigning his military commission, took his seat in the House of Representatives in Dec. 1863. In Congress he joined the radical wing of the Republican party, advocated

the confiscation of Confederate

property, approved

and defended the Wade-Davis manifesto, and was soon recognized as a hard worker and ready speaker. Capacity for work brought him places on important committees and his ability as a speaker enabled him to achieve distinction on the floor of the House and to rise to leadership. The year 1874 was one of disaster to the Republican party. The greenback issue, the troubles growing out of reconstruction in the South, the Crédit Mobilier and the “Salary Grab,” disgusted thousands of independent voters and sent a wave of democracy over the country.

Garfield himself was accused of corruption in connection with the Crédit Mobilier scandal, but the charge was never proved. A Republican convention in his district demanded his resignation, and re-election seemed impossible; but he defended himself in two pamphlets, “Increase of Salaries” and “Review of the Transactions of the Crédit Mobilier Company,” made a village-to-village canvass, and was victorious. In 1876 Garfield for the eighth time was chosen to represent his district; and afterwards as one of the two representatives of the Republicans in the House, he was a member of the Electoral Commission which decided the dispute regarding the presidential election of 1876. When, in 1877, James G. Blaine was made a senator

from Maine, the leadership of the House of Representatives

passed to Garfield, and he became the Republican candidate for

speaker. But the Democrats had a majority in the House, and he was defeated. Hayes, the new president, having chosen John Sherman to be his secretary of the treasury, an effort was made

to send Garfield to the United States Senate in Sherman’s place. But the President needed his services in the House, and he was not elected to the Senate until 1880.

GARFIELD—GARHWAL

25

The time had now come (1880) when the Republican party | GARGANEY, or Summer-Teat, Anas querquedula, is one must nominate a candidate for the presidency. General Grant of the smallest of the ducks and is a summer visitant to England, had served two terms (1869-77), and the unwritten law of where it breeds in the east Norfolk Broads. Slightly larger than custom condemned his being given another. But the “bosses” the common teal (A. crecca), the male has a nutmeg-brown beard of the Republican party in three great states—New York, Penn- and a white line behind the eyes. The female resembles the hen sylvania and Illinois—were determined that he should be re- teal, but possesses no wing spot. In Ireland and Scotland the nominated. These men and their followers were known as the garganey is rare. It has not a high northern range, and its appear“stalwarts.” Opposed to them were two other factions, one sup- ance in Norway and Sweden is casual. It is nowhere common in porting James G. Blaine, of Maine, and the other John Sherman, Europe, but ranges far to the eastward in Asia, and yearly visits of Ohio. When the convention met and the balloting began, the India in winter in enormous numbers. They nest very frequently contest along these factional lines started in earnest. For 28 in reed-beds. GARGANO, MONTE (anc. Garganus Mons), a massive ballots no change of any consequence was noticeable. Though votes were often cast for ten names, there were but two real mountainous peninsula projecting eastward from the north coast candidates before the convention, Grant and Blaine. That the of Apulia, Italy, and belonging geologically to the opposite Dalpartisans of neither would yield in favour of the other was cer- matian coast; it was indeed separated from the rest of Italy tain. That the choice therefore rested with the supporters of by an arm of the sea as late as the Tertiary period. It is of the the minor candidates was manifest, and with the cry “Anything same character as the Carso, being composed of fractured calcareous rock, and has numerous superficial and subterranean to beat Grant!” an effort was made to find some man on whom the opposition could unite. Such a man was Garfield. His long cavities. The highest point (Monte Calvo) is 3,465 ft. above seaterm of service in the House, his leadership of his party on its level. The oak forests for which it was renowned in Roman times floor, his candidacy for the speakership, and his recent election have entirely disappeared except in three sections, and have left to the United States Senate, marked him out as the available the soil dry and stony. Monte Sant’ Angelo (g.v.) is the principal man. Between the casting of the first and the 33rd ballot, Garfield, town. who was the leader of Sherman’s adherents in the convention, had sometimes received one or two votes and at other times none. On the 34th he received 17, on the next 50, and on the next almost the entire vote hitherto cast for Blaine and Sherman,

and was declared nominated. During the campaign Garfield was subject to violent personal abuse; the fact that he was alleged to have received $329 from the Crédit Mobilier as a dividend on stock led his opponents to raise, the campaign cry of “329,” and this number was placarded in the streets of the cities and printed in flaring type in partisan newspapers. The forged “Morey letter,” in which he was made to appear as opposed to the exclusion of the Chinese, was widely circulated and injured his candidacy in the West. That the charges against Garfield were not generally credited, however, is shown by the fact that he received 214 electoral votes to his opponent’s 155. He was inaugurated on March 4, 1881. . On July 2, while on his way to attend the commencement exercises at Williams College, the new president was shot in a Washington railway station by a disappointed office-seeker named Charles J. Guiteau, and on Sept. 19, 1881, he died at Elberon, New Jersey, whither he had been removed on the 6th. He was buried in Cleveland, Ohio, where in 1890 a monument was erected by popular subscription to his memory. In 1858 Garfield had married Miss Lucretia Rudolph, by whom

See Beltramelei, ZI Gangano (Bergamo, 1907) well illustrated,

GARGOYLE,

the chiméres that decorate the parapets of Notre Dame at Paris. The gargoyle of the developed Gothic period is usually a grotesque bird or beast sitting on its haunches on the back of a cornice moulding and, in order to throw the water far from the building, projecting for several feet. As “THE

B, C, E, F, FROM AMERICAN

he had seven children.

FLETCHER,

BrBcioGRaAPHY.—President Garfield’s writings, edited by Burke A. Hinsdale, were published at Boston, in 1882; The Life and Letters of James A. Garfield, by Theodore Clarke Smith in 1925.

THE

GARFIELD,

a rapidly growing industrial city of Bergen

county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the Passaic river, 12m. N.W. of

New York city. It is served by the Erie railroad (and for freight also by the Lackawanna) and by motor-coach’ lines. The population was 19,381 in 1920 (44% foreign-born white, largely from Italy, Hungary and Poland) and was 29,739 in 1930 by the Federal census.

It has extensive woollen and worsted mills, and various

in architec-

ture, a decorated water spout. Although technically speaking the term applies to the carved lions of classic cornices, or to the terra-cotta spout, such as those found frequently in Pompeii, in general usage the word has become restricted to the grotesque, carved spouts of the middle ages, and is even, incorrectly, applied to other grotesque beasts, such as

“HISTORY

COMPARATIVE

VIQLLET-LE-DUC;

ARCHITECT:

OF

METHOD”

6,

ARCHITECTURE

D,

FROM

ON

(BATSFORD)

GARGOYLES Ancient: G, Greek; H, Roman; Gothic: E, French undecorated; C and F, Notre Dame, Paris (c, 1225); B, the Ste. Chapelle Paris (c. 1250): A, St. Urbain, Troyes (ce. 1290); Mod-

GARHWAL,

a district of

British India, in the Kumaon di-

vision of the United Provinces. Pop. (1921) 485,186; area 5,612 sq.m. It consists almost entirely

of rugged mountain ranges running in all directions, and sepern: D, Farmers Loan and Trust arated by narrow valleys which Building, New York City (Starrett in some cases become deep gorges and Van Vleck, architects) or ravines. The only level portion of the district is a narrow strip of waterless forest between the southern slopes of the hills and the fertile plains of

other manufacturing industries, with an aggregate output in 1927 valued at $14,631,184. The city was founded in 1881; incorporated as a borough in 1898, and as a city in 1920. Between 1900 and 1920 the population increased over 450%.

Rohilkhand. The highest mountains are in the north, and embrace some of the most stupendous of the snow-clad giants, the principal peaks being Nanda Devi (25,661 ft.), Kamet (25,413),

wholesome food. The skipper (Scomberesox) and half-beak (Hemirhamphus), in which the lower jaw only is prolonged, are

ships, each chief with his own independent fortress (gark), that

Trisul (23,382), Badrinath (23,210), Dunagiri (23,181) and Kedarnath (22,853). The Alaknanda, one of the main sources of ate and tropical seas, and recognized by their long, slender, com- the Ganges, receives with its affluents the whole drainage of the pressed and silvery body, and by their jaws being produced into a district. At Devaprayag the Alaknanda joins the Bhagirathi, and long, pointed, bony and sharply-toothed beak. About 50 species thenceforward the united streams bear the name of the Ganges. are known, some attaining a length of 4 or 5ft. One species is Cultivation is principally confined to the immediate vicinity of common on the British coasts, and is well known by the name of the rivers, which are employed for purposes of irrigation. Tradi“long-nose,” The green bones deter many people from eating this tion has it that Garhwal originally consisted of 52 petty chieftain-

GAR-FISH, a genus of fishes (Belone) found in most temper-

fishes akin to the gar-pikes.

500 years ago, one of these chiefs, Ajai Pal, reduced all the minor

principalities under his own sway, and founded the Garhwal king-

26

GARIBALDI—GARIN

dom. He and his ancestors ruled over Garhwal and the adjacent state of Tehri, in an uninterrupted line till 1803, when the Gurkhas invaded Kumaon and Garhwal, driving the Garhwal chief into the plains. They in turn were defeated by the British in the war with Nepal in 1814, when Garhwal and Kumaon were converted into British districts, and the Tehri principality was restored to a son of the former chief. Since annexation, Garhwal has rapidly advanced in material prosperity. Two battalions of the Indian army (the 39th Garhwal Rifles) are recruited in the district, which also contains the military cantonment of Lansdowne. Grain and coarse cloth are exported, and salt, borax, live stock and wool are imported, the trade with Tibet being considerable. The administrative headquarters are at the village of Pauri, but Srinagar and Kotdwara are the chief marts. Transport is laborious, and the people are simple and attractive.

GARIBALDI,

GIUSEPPE

(1807-1882), Italian patriot,

was born at Nice on July 4, 1807. He entered the Sardinian navy, and, with a number of companions on board the frigate “Euridice,” plotted to seize the vessel and occupy the arsenal of Genoa at the moment when Mazzini’s Savoy expedition should enter Piedmont. The plot being discovered, Garibaldi fled, but was condemned to death by default on June 3, 1834. Escaping to South America in 1836, he was given letters of marque by the state of Rio Grande do Sul, which had revolted against Brazil, and after a series of victorious engagements, passed into the service of Uruguay. In Montevideo, he formed the Italian Legion, with which he won the battles of Cerro and Sant’ Antonio in 1846, and assured the freedom of Uruguay. He returned to Italy upon receiving news of the incipient revolutionary movement, and landing at Nice on June 24, 1848, placed his sword at the disposal of Charles Albert, He formed a volunteer army 3,000 strong, but shortly after the defeat of Custozza had to flee to Switzerland. Proceeding thence to Rome, he was entrusted by the Roman republic with the defence of San Pancrazio against the French, where he gained the victory of April 30, 1849. During May he dispersed the Bourbon troops at Palestrina, Velletri and elsewhere, and after the fall of Rome started on his wonderful retreat through central Italy

pursued by the armies of France, Austria, Spain and Naples. He escaped to Ravenna, then to Piedmont, and ultimately to America from whence he returned to Italy-in 1854, and purchased the island of Caprera on which he built his home. On. the outbreak of war in 1859 he was in command of ‘the Alpine infantry, defeating the Austrians at Casale on the 8th of May, crossing the

Ticino on the 23rd'of May, and, after a series of victorious fights, liberating Alpine territory as far as the frontier of Tirol. Returning to Como to wed the countess Raimondi, by whom he had ‘been aided during’ the campaign, he was apprised, immédiately after the wedding, of certain circumstances which caused him’ to abandon that lady and to start for central Italy. Forbidden to invade the Romagna, he.returned to Caprera, where with Crispi atid Bertani? he planned the invasion ef Sicily. Assured by Str’ James Hudson'‘of the sympathy of England, he began active preparations for the process which ended in the making

öf Italy.. He reached Marsala on May 11, 1860, ‘landed under the protéction of the British vessels “Intrepid” and “Argus,” and on

LE LOHERAIN

thusiastically received in London. On the outbreak of war in 1866 he assumed command of a volunteer army and on the 3rd of July

he defeated the Austrians at Monte Saello, on the 7th at Lodrone, on the roth at Darso, on the 16th at Condino, on the igth at Ampola, on the 21st at Bezzecca, but, when on the point of attacking Trent, he was ordered by General Lamarmora to retire. His famous reply “Obbedisco” (“I obey”) has often been cited as a classical example of military obedience to a command destructive of a successful leader’s hopes, but documents now published (cf. Corriere della sera, Aug. 9, 1906) prove that Garibaldi had for some days known that the order to evacuate the Trentino would shortly reach him. As early as the 16th of July Crispi had been sent to warn Garibaldi that, owing to Prussian opposition, Austria would not cede the Trentino to Italy, and that the evacuation was inevitable. Hence Garibaldi’s laconic reply. He returned to Caprera to mature his designs against Rome, which had been evacuated by the French in pursuance of the Franco-Italian convention of September 1864. In 1867, he prepared to enter papal territory, but was arrested at Sinalunga by the government and conducted to Caprera. He escaped to Florence, and, with the complicity of the second Rattazzi cabinet, entered Roman territory at Passo Corese on the 23rd of October. Two days later he took Monterotondo, but on Nov. 2nd, his forces were dispersed at Mentana by French and papal troops. Recrossing the Italian frontier, he was arrested at Figline and taken back to Caprera. In 1870 he formed a fresh volunteer corps and went to the aid of France, defeating the German troops at Chatillon, Autun and Dijon. Elected a member of the Versailles assembly, he resigned his mandate in anger at French insults, and withdrew to Caprera until, in 1874, he was elected deputy for Rome. Popular enthusiasm induced the ‚Conservative Minghetti cabinet to propose that £40,o00-with an annual pension of £2,000 be conferred upon him but the proposal was refused by Garibaldi, Upon the advent of the Left to power, however, he accepted both gift and pension. He died at Caprera on June 2, 1882, one of the greatest masters of revolutionary war. See Garibaldi, Epistolario, ed. E. E. Ximenes (2 vols., Milan, 1885), Memorie autografiche (11th ed., Florence, 1902; Eng. "translation by A. Werner, 1889), Scritti politicé e militari (1908) and Lettere e proclami (1917); G. Guerzoni, Garibaldi (2 vols., Florence, 1882); J. W. Mario, Garibaldi e i suoi tempi (Milan, 1884); G. M. Trevelyan, Garibaldi’s Defence of the Roman Republic (1907), Garibaldi and the

Thousand (1909) and Garibaldi and the Making of Italy, (1911); C. de Saint-Cyr, Garibaldi (1907); A. V. Vecchi, La Vita e La Geste r ne (Bologna, 1910) and A. Luzio, Garibaldi, Cavour, Verdi urin,I 24).

GARIBALDI,

GIUSEPPE

(1879-

), Italian general,

eldest son of Gen. ’Ricciotti Garibaldi and grandson of the ator, was born at Melbourne, July 29, 1879. He fought his father in the Greco-Turkish War in 1897, and served South African War, subsequently leading an adventurous

Liberunder in the life: in

South and Central America and in the Balkans. On the outbreak of the World War he raised an Italian Legion of 14,000 men, which fought on the side of France in the Argonne. In“ 1015 Garibaldi returned to Italy, and on Italy’s entry into the War he enlisted as a volunteer. He was soon afterwards commissioned, being given command of a battalion, and served with distinction in the IV. Army. He returned to the French front in March 1918 in commarid of the famous Brigata Alpi, and in June was promoted brigadier-general. He resigned his command in June 1919 and gave up his commission in Feb. 1920. He became opposed to

the following day his ‘dictatorship was proclaimed at Salemi. Oni the 15th the Neapolitan troops were routed at: Calatafimi, on the 2sth Palermo was taken, on the 6th’ of Jurié 20,000 Neapolitan regulars were compelled to capitulate, on fully 20, Messina fell and on Aug. 21, the battle of Reggio was 'won. On Sept. 7; Garibaldi the Fascist Government and in the autumn of 1924 was involved entered Naples, and a month later, ‘routed the remnant of the in‘an anti-Fascist agitation organised by the Ztalia libera AssociaBourbon army 40,000 strong on the Volturno. On Nov. 7, Gari- tion. Deciding, however, that the movement had no chanee of sucbaldi accompanied Victor Emmanuel during his solemn entry into cess, he departed for New York to devote himself: to business.’ GARIN LE LOHERAIN, French epic hero: The 12th cehNaples, and on the morrow returned to Caprera. Indignant at the cession of Nice to France and at the neglect tury chanson de geste of Garin le-Loherain is one of ‘the fiercest of his followers by the Italian government, he returned to political and most sanguinary narratives left by the trouvéres.’ This local life.’ ‘Elected. députy in 1861, his anger against Cavour found cycle of Lorraine, which is completed by Hervis de Metz, Girbérs Vidlent expression, until ‘Cavour’ § sutcessot, Ricasoli, enrolled the de Metz, Anséis, fils'de Girbert and Yon, is obviously based ‘on Garibaldians in the regular army. While marching on Rome in history, and affords a picture of the savage ‘feudal wars of the- rrth the:following year, he was taken prisoner at Aspromonte on the and rath centuries. The cycle relates three’ wars against hosts‘ of

zék‘of August. Liberated by an amnesty, ‘Garibaldi returned once

heathen invaders. In the’ first: of these Charles Martel and his

töre to Caprera amidst genéral sympathy, amd in 1864 was en-

faithful vassal Hervis of Metz fight by an extraordinary anachron-

GARLAND— GARNET ism against the Vandals, who have destroyed Reims but are defeated in a great battle near Troyes. In the second Hervis is besieged in Metz by the “Hongres.” In the third Thierry, king of Moriane, sends to Pippin for help against four Saracen kings. He is delivered by a Frankish host, but falls in the battle. Hervis of Metz was the son of a citizen to whom the duke of Lorraine had married his daughter Aelis, and his sons Garin and Begue are the heroes of the chanson which gives its name to the cycle. The dying king Thierry had desired that his daughter Blanchefleur should marry Garin, but when Garin prefers his suit at the court of Pippin, Fromont of Bordeaux puts himself forward as his rival and Hardré, Fromont’s father, is slain by Garin. The rest of the poem is taken up with the war that ensues between the Lorrainers and the men of Bordeaux. Blanchefleur becomes the wife of Pippin, while Garin remains her faithful servant. He is slain after avenging the murder of his brother. The remaining songs continue the feud between the two families. According to Paulin Paris, the family of Bordeaux represents the early dukes of Aquitaine, the last of whom, Waifar (745-768) was dispossessed and slain by Pippin the Short, king of the Franks; but the trouvéres had in mind no doubt the wars which marked the end of the Carolingian dynasty.

duction gives an excellent Garland.

27 account

of the life and works

of

See also J. A. Fabricius, Bibliotheca Latina mediase (1754); Histoire litt. de la France, vols. xxi., xxiii. and xxx.; the prefaces to the editions by T. Wright mentioned above; Haureau, Notices et extraits des MSS., vol. 27, pt. 2 (1879); P. Meyer, La Chanson de la croisade contre les Alb`geois (Paris 1875); A. nae Lexicographie latine du XIe et du XIIIe siècles (Leipzig "186 7); E. Habel, “Johannes de Garlandia” in Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft f. "deutsche Erziehungs und Schulgesch. xix. (1909); J. E. Sandys, Hist. of Class. Schol. (3rd ed. 1921); Haskins, Studies in Hist. of Medieval Science (Harvard, 1924).

GARLIC, Allium sativum, a bulbous perennial plant of the

family Liliaceae, indigenous apparently to south-west Siberia. It has long, narrow, flat, obscurely keeled leaves, a deciduous spathe, and a globose umbel of whitish flowers, among which are small bulbils. The bulb, which is the only part eaten, has membranous scales, in the axils of which are ro or 12 cloves, or smaller bulbs. From these new bulbs can be procured by planting out in February or March. The bulbs are best preserved hung in a dry place. Garlic is cultivated in the same manner as the shallot (¢.v.). It is stated to have been grown in England before the year 1548. The bulb has a strong and characteristic odour and an acrid taste, See Li Romans de Garin le Loherain, ed. P. Paris (1833); Hist. and yields an offensively smelling oil, essence of garlic, identical litt. de la France, vol. xxii. (1852): J. M. Ludlow, Popular Epics with allyl sulphide (C,H;).S. This, when garlic has been eaten, is of the Middle Ages (1865); F. Lot, “Etudes d'histoire du moyen âge evolved by the excretory organs, the activity of which it promotes. (1896); F. Settegast, Ouellenstudien zur gallo-romanischen Epik (Leipzig, 1904). A complete edition of the cycle was undertaken by From the earliest times garlic has been used as an article of diet.

E. Stengel, the first volume of which, Hervis de Mes fiir roman. Lit., Dresden), appeared in 1903.

(Gesellschaft

GARLIC-MUSTARD

(Alliaria officinalis), a plant of hedge-

banks, low woods and waste grounds, called also hedge-garlic, GARLAND, HAMLIN (x860__), American writer, was Jack-by-the-hedge and sauce-alone. It is an erect, somewhat born at West Salem (Wis.), Sept. 16, 1860. His early celebrity branching biennial or perennial herb, 2 ft. to 3 ft. high, of the was due in large part to his rebellion against the idyllic inter- mustard family (Cruciferae), native to Europe and temperate Asia pretations of rural life then current; and his Main-Travelled and naturalized in North America from Quebec and Ontario to Roads (1891), Other Main-Travelled Roads (1910), and Prairie Virginia. The long-stalked, coarsely-toothed leaves emit, when Folks (1893), written in a mood of intense resentment, remain crushed, a garlic-like odour. The plant bears white flowers, about among the most bitter indictments of the farm in American fic- $ in. across, followed by long, stout, four-sided pods. tion. Yet his fondness for the unbroken prairie makes his Son of GARNEAU, FRANCOIS-XAVIER (1809-1866), Canathe Middle Border (1917) and Trail-Makers of the Middle Bor- dian historian, the son of a working man, was born in’ Quebec. He der (1926) fascinating revelations of the lure of free land, of the had very little education, and entered a notary’s office when he epic movement of peoples that in a few decades swept the border was about 15, himself becoming a notary in 1830. In 1831 he line of civilization from the Alleghenies to the Pacific. The for- visited England, where he spent two years studying English instimer book is an admirable record of his boyhood in Wisconsin, tutions. Returning to Canada in 1833, he was appointed transMinnesota, and Iowa, his brief homesteading in Dakota,-and his lator to the chamber of Lower Canada, and from 1844-64 was early literary struggles in Boston. A Daughter of the Middle secretary to the city of Quebec. His Histoire du Canada (1845Border (1921) records his and his family’s later experiences, 48) treats of the history of all the French colonies in North chiefly in and near Chicago, a city which in Crumbling Idols America. By this work, strongly anti-British in tone, Garneau (1894) he heralded as a literary capital but which he has since may be said to have founded a school of patriotic Canadian hisdeserted for New York. His other work is most easily accessible torians and poets. He also published Voyage en Angleterre et en in the “Sunset” edition. France (1855).

GARLAND,

JOHN, ‘JOHANNES DE GARLANDIA (¢. I195—C.

1272), Latin grammarian ‘and poet, was born in England of noble family. He studied at Oxford under a certain John of London, and about 1202 went to Paris where he had Allan of Lille as a

teacher. He himself taught at Paris until 1229 when he went to the new university of Toulouse. In 1232 or 1233, Garland had to fly from Toulouse on account of religious troubles with the Albigensians. The rest of his life was spent at Paris in writing and teaching. Knowing Greek, and well read in the classics and the Fathers, Garland desired to stimulate a profound interest in Latin literature and language; hence his writings throw much light on the actual teaching of these subjects at Paris during his time. His Compendium Grammatice and his Liber de Constructionibus, both important for a knowledge of mediaeval Latin, are still unedited, but his Dictzonarius, a Latin vocabulary, was edited in 1857 by T. Wright, who also published fragments of the Poetria (1841), since edited in full by G. Mari (Milan 1892 and Erlangen 1902). The best known of Garland’s poems are De triumphis ecclesiae (ed. T. Wright 1856), books iv.—vi. giving a detailed account of the Albigensian crusade in the south, and Epithalamium beatae Mariae Virginum, still in ms. The De Mysteriis ecclesie was ed. by F. G. Otto (Giessen 1842) and the Morale scolarium, which covers such topics as general behaviour, table manners, virtue, and the defence of the pope against simony, by L. J. Pactow. (Berkeley, California 1927) who in his. intro-

GARNET or GARNETT, HENRY

(1555~1606), English

Jesuit, was born at Heanor, Derbyshire, educated at Winchester and afterwards studied law in London. Having become a Roman Catholic, in 1575 he joined the Jesuits in Italy, and in 1587 was made superior of the English province. Fearless and indefatigable in carrying on his propaganda and in ministering to the scattered

Catholics, even in their prisons, Garnet is remembered for his connection with the Gunpowder Plot for which he suffered death. On June 9, 1605 Garnet was asked by Catesby whether any under-

taking which should involve the destruction of the innocent’ together with the guilty was lawful. Garnet answered in the affirmative, giving as an illustration the fate of persons besieged in-time of war. Afterwards, however, he admonished Catesby against intending the death of “not only innocents but friends and necessary persons for a commonwealth,” and showed him a letter from the pope forbidding rebellion. According to Sir Everard Digby, Garnet, when asked the meaning of the brief, replied “that they (meaning the priests) were not to undertake or procure stirs, but yet they would not hinder any, neither was it the pope’s mind they should, that should be undertaken for Catholic good:. . . This

ariswer, with Mr. Catesby’s proceedings’ with: him and me, gave

me absolute belief that thé matter in ‘general was approved, though

every particular was not known.” A:.few' days later, according to Garnet, the Jesuit, Oswald: Tesemond, known as Greenway, ‘informed him of the whole a

my way-of confession,” but he urged

GARNET

28

Greenway to do his utmost to prevent its execution. Garnet’s conduct in now keeping the plot a secret has been a matter of consid-

erable controversy not only between Roman Catholics and Protestants, but amongst Roman Catholic writers. He appears to have taken no decisive steps to prevent the crime, and his movements immediately prior to the attempt were certainly suspicious. In September, shortly before the expected meeting of parliament on Oct. 3, Garnet organized a pilgrimage to St. Winifred’s Well in Flintshire, which included Sir Everard Digby, Rokewood, Jobn Grant and Robert Winter. During the pilgrimage Garnet asked for prayers “for some good success for the Catholic cause at the beginning of parliament.” After his return he went to Coughton where

“precious garnet” are found inlaid in mosaic work in Anglo-Saxon and Merovingian jewellery. The garnets form a well defined group of orthosilicates of the

general chemical formula 3R”O-R’20..3Si0, in which R”=Ca, Mg,Fe’,Mn” and R”=ALFe”,Cr”’, while silicon in some varieties is partly replaced by titanium. The following pure species are recognized: Grossular, 3CaQ-Al.0;,38i0.; Pyrope, 3Mg0-Al.0,3510.; Almandine, 3FeQ-Al.0;3Si0.; Spessartine, 3Mn0-Al.0535i0.; Andradite, 3CaO-Fe.Q.-35i0.; Uvarovite,

3CaO0-Cr.05-35102. Melanite, Iwaarite and Schorlomite are varieties of andradite containing significant percentages of titanium; Mr”, Y, and Zr appear rarely as minor constituents, Most garit had been settled the conspirators were to assemble after the ex- nets, however, prove on analysis not to be strictly any one of these plosion. On Nov. 6, Bates, Catesby’s servant and one of the con- minerals, but isomorphous mixtures of two or more of the end spirators, brought him a letter with the news of the failure of the members, the particular R’or R” being partly replaced by other plot, Ọn the 3ọth Garnet, addressed a letter to the government in metals of the same type. which he protested his innocence. On Dec. 4, Garnet and Greenway All garnets crystallize with cubic symmetry, usually in rhombic were, by the confession of Bates, implicated in the plot. In com- dodecahedra (110), or trapezohedra (211) or in a combination of pany with another priest, Oldcorne clas Hall, Garnet hid himself, the two. The hexoctahedron is found in some combinations, but but at last on Jan. 30, 1606, surrendered and was taken up to Lon- the octahedron and cube forms are rare. An imperfect cleavage don. Examined by the council on Feb. 13, he refused to incrimi- or parting parallel to the dodecahedron obtains, but is seldom nate himself, Subsequently, Garnet and Oldcorne having been observed in thin sections of garnet crystals. The hardness is placed in adjoining rooms and enabled to communicate with one variable, 6-5 to 7-5, the lime-alumina garnet being the softest. another, their conversations were overheard on several separate Density varies from 3-4 to 4-3 according to the composition. The occasions and considerable information obtained. Garnet at first refracting power is high, varying with the composition, thus:—

denied all speech with Oldcorne, but later on March 8, confessed

his connection with the plot. He was tried at the Guildhall on the 28th. In the eyes of the law, Garnet was guilty of misprision of treason, 7.¢,, of having concealed his knowledge of the crime, an

offence which exposed him to perpetual imprisonment and forfeiture of his property. His trial, like many others, was influenced by the political situation, the case against him being supported by general political accusations against the Jesuits as a body, and with evidence of their complicity in former plots. The prisoner himself prejudiced his cause by his numerous false statements, and

by adhering to the doctrine of equivocation. He was declared

guilty, and executed on May 3, 1606. He acknowledged himself justly condemned for his concealment of the plot, but maintained to the last that he had never approved it. Garnet’s name was included in the list of the 353 Roman Catholic martyrs sent to Rome from England in 1880. His aliases were Farmer, Marchant, Whalley, Darcey, Meaze, Phillips, Humphreys, Roberts, Fulgeham, Allen.

Garnet was the author of a letter on the Martyrdom of

Godfrey Maurice, alzas John Jones, in Diego Yepres’s Historia , particular de la persecucion de Inglaterra (1599); a Treatise of Schism; a translation of Canisius’ Summa òf Christian Doctrine (1622); a treatise on the Rosary; a Treatise of Christian Renovation (1616). AvutTHoritres;-—On the question of Garnet’s guilt, see A True and Perfect Relation of the whole Proceedings against ... Garnet a

Jesuit and his Confederates (1606, repr. 1679), the official account, but incomplete and inaccurate; Apologia pro Henrico Garneto (1610), by the Jesuit L’Heureux, under the pseudonym Endaemon-Joannes, and R, Abbot’s reply, Antilogia versus Apologiam Eudaemon-Joannes; H. More, Hist. Provinciae Anglicanae Societatis (1660); D. Jardine, Gunpowder Plot (1857); J. Morris, S. J., Condition of the Catholics under James I. (1872); J. H. Pollen, Fatker Henry Garnet and the Gunpowder Ploé (1888); S, R. Gardiner, What Gunpowder Plot was (1897), in reply to John Gerard, S.J., What was the Gunpowder Plot? (1897); J. Gerard, Contributions towards a Life of Garnet

(1898). See also State Trials II, and Cal. of State Papers Dom. (1603-10).

The original documents are preserved in the Gunpowder

Plot Book at the Record Office. See also GuNPOWDER Prot.

GARNET, in mineralogy a closely related group of silicate minerals. The name is from Lat. granatum, a pomegranate, in allusion to the resemblance of the crystals to the seeds of this fruit in shape and colour. Garnets were worn as beads in ancient Egypt, and have been extensively used as gem stones. The modern. carbuncle is a deep-red.garnet (almandine) cut en cabochon, or, with a ‘smooth convex surface frequently hollowed out at the

backin consequence of the depth of colour, and sometimes enliveped. with a foil. Though not extensively employed by the Greeks.as a.material for engraved gems, it was much used by the

Remans of the empire.

Flat polished slabs of almandine or

Grossular Pyrope Almandine

Spessartine Andradite Uvarovite

N +735 1-705 1-830

D 3-530 3-510 4-250

1-800 1-895

4-180 3-750

1-840

3-420

The refraction of andradite increases with increase in titanium content, a schorlomite or melanite from Kuusamo, Finland, with 18-98% To, having a refractive index of 2-or. Being cubic, garnets are normally singly refracting or isotropic, but the calcium garnets (grossular, andradite, melanite and uvarovite) are frequently birefringent, a fact which led Mallard to conclude that the garnets are really anorthic crystals with close approximation to cubic symmetry. Klein has referred the pseudocubic garnets to four structural types in which uniaxial and biaxial subindividuals interpenetrate, forming the actahedral, dodecahedral, trapezohedral, and topazolitic structures, distinguished in polarized light by the manner in which the garnet crystals break up into doubly refracting sectors. No complete explanation of anisotropism in the garnet group of minerals is however yet available. Some of the zoned grossular and andradite garnets show a succession of isotropic and anisotropic shells. Most of the garnets melt incongruently and break up into other compounds among which anorthite, monticellite, pyroxene, melilite, spinel and iron oxides have been recognized. From dry melts, spessartine and melanite have been crystallized while grossular has been synthesized under pressure by reaction of calcium orthosilicate and aluminium chloride. Ferriferous garnets fuse to a magnetic globule. Almandine (precious garnet), the iron-aluminium garnet, derives its name by corruption from alabandicus, the name given by Pliny to a stone found at Alabanda, a town in Asia Minor. It is usually of a deep red colour inclining to purple and shows a characteristic absorption spectrum consisting of three bands. The mineral is used considerably in jewellery. The home of almandine in igneous rocks is in the granite-gneisses particularly those of Archaean age, and in the dynamically metamorphosed argillaceous sediments—mica schists, para-gneisses and granulites. In areas of progressive dynamic metamorphism, the entry of almandine in these latter rocks marks a definite grade of metamorphosis, the mineral being generated from chlorite and quartz. Almandine frequently alters to chlorite and pseudomorphs of this mineral are common in mica schists. Noteworthy localities for large and well crystallized almandines are the schists of the St. Gotthard, the Zillerthal, and Fort Wrangell in Alaska.

GARNETT Pyrope, the magnesium-aluminium garnet, is named from the Greek aupwads (fiery eyed) in allusion to its deep red colour. Here are classed those garnets sometimes referred to as Bohemian garnet, Cape ruby and rhodolite. A pyrope of typical blood red colour is the common garnet of jewellery. It is distinguished from the red almandine by lower refraction and density. Pure pyrope is unknown in nature, the most magnesian type yet examined containing 75 molecular % of this constituent. The pure mineral would doubtless be colourless, the rich colour of the naturally occurring pyrope being due to one or more of the contained metals iron, manganese or chromium. Dry melts of the com-

29

ites and pegmatites and as a pneumatolytic product in cavities or lithophysae of acid lavas, In hornfeises and crystalline schists derived from manganiferous, argillaceous and quartzose sedi-

ments it is a characteristic mineral. In the crystalline schists, in areas of progressive metamorphism spessartine may be generated at an early stage, entering into the constitution of phyllites before biotiteis synthesized. Noteworthy localities for its occurrence

are in granite at Aschaffenburg (Spessart), in the cavities of rhyolites near Simpson (Utah) and Nathrop (Colorado). In the whetstones of the Ardennes minute isotropic spessartine (or spessartine with considerable percentages of the grossular molecule) forms colourless or reddish-yellow dodecahedra, often in

position of pyrope crystallize at atmospheric presstire to an assemblage consisting of forsterite, cordierite and spinel, and it great abundance. Fine large trapezohedra of spessartine are reis probable that pyrope is formed in nature only under high corded from numerous localities in the central provinces of pressures. The magnesian garnets occur only in eclogites, perido- India, where they form constituents of important manganese ore tites and serpentines resulting from the alteration of olivine-rich deposits. With andradite, calcium ferric garnet—named after J. B rocks. Noteworthy localities for their occurrence are Zoblitz and Greifendorf in Saxony and Meronitz in Bohemia, where they are d’Andrada who first examined it—are included the garnets known derived from serpentines. In North America they occur in as allochroite, aplome, colophonite, demantoid, jelletite and peridotites in Kentucky, New Mexico and other localities. The topazolite. The common colour of andradite is brown, but green Kimberlite pipes of the South African diamond fields contain in yellow and wine colours are not infrequent. The grass greer the “blue ground” irregular or rounded crystals of blood-red to demantoid is used as a gemstone and possesses high refractive anc brown pyrope (the so-called Cape ruby) examples of which have dispersive power. Andradite is a typical metamorphic mineral been found enclosing crystals of diamond. These garnets are but is found also in igneous rocks which have assimilated fragprimary crystals of an igneous eclogite (griquaite) or peridotite. ments of limestone. It is a characteristic constituent of andradite Pyrope weathers usually to chlorite, but in the serpentines it is skarns, metasomatic rocks arising at the contacts of limestone: frequently found surrounded by a fibrous rim composed largely of and acid plutonic rocks such as granites and quartz diorites. The amphibole, pyroxene and a spinellid mineral. This fibrous crust iron content of the andradite is largely provided by the solution: is frequently referred to as Kelyphite (Gr. xéAudos a nut shell). emanating from the cooling igneous intrusion. Noteworthy local. Though not always of the same constitution, a magnesian amphi- ities for andradite in Europe are the contact aureoles of the hole is a common constituent together with spinel or picotite. In Devonian igneous intrusions of the Oslo region, and Arendal most cases it is probably a reaction rim due to magmatic resorp- In North America andradite contact zones are frequently the tion. The production of amphibole and spinel by mutual reaction home of important ore deposits of iron and copper, e.g., the coppe: ore occurrences of Conception del Oro (Mexico) and the Clifton of pyrope and olivinic liquid may be represented as follows: The resulting products have a distinctly greater molecular volume, and it is probable that a reaction of this type sets in during the intrusion of pyrope-bearing peridotites to higher levels in the crust.

Grossular,

the lime-alumina

garnet,

is named

from

Lat.

grossularia, a gooseberry, in allusion to the common pale green

colour of its crystals. Here are classed the calcium garnets known

as cinnamon stone, hessonite, romanzovite and succinite. When pure the mineral is colourless or white but it is frequently pale green, amber, red, or even emerald green from the presence of

Morenci district (Arizona). Melanite, Iwaarite and Schorlomite are titaniferous andradites of entirely different geological mods of occurrence. They are practically limited to intermediate anc basic alkaline igneous rocks. These garnets are usually black, dul or resinous and in thin section dark brown, often zoned witl shells of varying titanium content. In schorlomite titanium i present, not only replacing silicon but also as Ti,O;. It occurs i the nepheline syenites of Magnet Cove (Arkansas) and in thi leucitophyre of Horberig, Kaiserstuhl, The original Iwaarit found in the ijolite of Iwaara, Finland, contains as much as 25% TiO. Titanium rich melanites occur in the alkaline and ultra alkaline igneous rocks, nepheline syenites, ijolites, borolanites leucitophyres, phonolites, etc., noteworthy localities for their oc

chromium. The red variety (cinnamon stone, chiefly from Ceylon) is often confused with zircon (hyacinth) from which it currence being Loch Borolan (Assynt), the Kaiserstuhl, Fen dis is readily distinguished by its much lower specific gravity. Gros- trict (Norway), Kola Peninsula, Magnet Cove, Port Cygne sular melts incongruently and an assemblage consisting of anor- (Tasmania) and other alkaline provinces. Uvarovite, named in honour of the Russian minister, Coun thite, wollastonite and gehlenite is obtained from its dry melts. Typically a metamorphic mineral, it occurs only in unmetamor- Uvarov, is a rare emerald-green calcium-chromium garnet know: phosed igneous rocks when these have been contaminated by In altered serpentines and metamorphosed limestones, in the firs lime-rich inclusions. It occurs as a subordinate constituent of some saussurites and rarely as a metasomatic or pneumatolytic product in altered serpentines. The characteristic home of grossular however is the thermally altered calcareous sediment where it accompanies other lime-rich minerals such as scapolite, idocrase

and wollastonite.

In regional metamorphism it is developed in

similar rocks, but it is noteworthy that in these occurrences the garnets are frequently isotropic, unlike those of contact rocks,

named rocks in cavities associated with chromite at Bisersk i the Northern Urals and also on Skyros and in limestones i Tasmania and at Orford (Canada). Crystals of uvarovit usually show anomalous birefringence. An isomorphous mixture of grossular, almandine and pyrop

forms the red garnet common in dynamically metamorphose

igneous rocks of the dolerite-gabbro group—amphibolites, horn blende schists and pyroxene rocks.

The almandine molecule ;

Noteworthy localities for its occurrence in fine crystals are in the dominant. In the amphibolites the garnets show a range of py Ala valley (Piedmont) where it occurs in hyacinthine dodecahe- rope content from 9-28 molecular %, and an average grossule C. E. T.) dra together with diopside and idocrase, an assemblage common content of 24%. GARNETT, RICHARD (183 §-1906), English ees an in mineral collections, in contact limestones at Monzoni, in ejected limestone blocks at Vesuvius, and in Elba developed in author, son of the learned philologist Rev. Richard Garnet (1789-1850), priest-yicar of Lichfield cathedral and afterwaré yellow octahedra. Spessartine, the manganese-aluminium garnet (from Spessart, keeper of printed books at the British Museum, was born at Lick Bavaria, where it occurs in red trapezohedra in granite) is usually field. He was educated at home and at a private school, and i of red, brownish-red or yellow colour, The crystal form is 1851, just after his father’s death, entered the British Museu commonly trapezohedral (2x1). This mineral, or a spessartine- as an assistant in the library. In 1875 he rose to be superintender rich almandine, is of widespread distribution. It occurs in gran- of the reading-room, and from 1899 to 1899, when he retired, t

GARNIER

30

was keeper of the printed books. In 1895 he was made a C.B. In the history of the British Museum library his place is second only to that of Panizzi. Besides introducing the “sliding press” in 1887 he was responsible for reviving the publication of the general catalogue, the printing of which, interrupted in 1841, was resumed under him in 1880, and gradually completed. He married (1863) an Irish wife, Olivia Narney Singleton (d. 1903); his son Edward (b. 1868), a well-known author, married Con-

stance Black, known under her married name as the translator of the works of Turgeniev, Tolstoy and other Russian authors. Dr. Garnett’s chief publications in book-form were: in verse,

Primula (1858), Io in Egypt (1859), Idylls and Epigrams (1869, republished in 1892 as A Chaplet from the Greek Anthology), The

Queen and other Poems (1902), Collected Poems (1893); in prose, biographies of Carlyle (1887), Emerson (1887), Milton

(1890), Edward Gibbon Wakefield (1898); a volume of remarkably original and fanciful tales, The Twilight of the Gods (1888); a tragedy, Iphigenia in Delphi (1890); A Short History of Italian

Literature

(1898);

Essays im Librarianship

and Bibliophily

(1899); Essays of an Ex-librarian (1901). He was an extensive contributor to the Encyclopedia Britannica and the Dictionary

Bizet, Offenbach, Massé and Duprato. member of the Institute of France.

In 1874 he was elected a

See L. G. B. P. Larroumet, “La vie de Charles Garnier,” in L’Ami des Monuments Francais, xviii., 65, 224; xix., 18 (1904-05).

GARNIER, MARIE JOSEPH FRANCOIS [Francis] (1839-1873), French officer and explorer, was born at St. Etienne on July 25, 1839. He entered the navy, and after voyaging in Brazilian waters and the Pacific he obtained a post on the staff of Admiral Charner, who from 1860 to 1862 was campaigning in Cochin-China. After some time spent in France he returned to the East, and in 1862 he was appointed inspector of the natives in Cochin-China, and entrusted with the administration of Cho-lon, a suburb of Saigon. At his suggestion the marquis de ChasseloupLaubat sent a mission to explore the valley of the Mekong. Garnier accompanied Captain Doudart de Lagrée on this expedition. From Kratie in Cambodia to Shanghai 5,392 m. were traversed, and of these 3,625 m., chiefly of country unknown to European geography. The area was surveyed with care, and the positions fixed by astronomical methods, most of the observations being taken by Garnier himself. Volunteering to lead a

detachment to Talifu, the capital of Sultan Suleiman, the sov-

ereign of the Mohammedan rebels in Yunnan, he successfully carried out the dangerous enterprise. When shortly afterwards Famous Literature, and co-editor, with E. Gosse, of the elaborate English Literature: an illustrated Record. This list represents Lagrée died, Garnier conducted the expedition in safety to the Yang-tsze-Kiang, and thus to the Chinese coast. The preparation only a small part of his published work. of his narrative, after his return to France, was interrupted by GARNIER, CLEMENT JOSEPH (1813-1881), French the Franco-German War, and during the siege of Paris he served economist, was born at Beuil (Alpes Maritimes) on Oct. 3, 1813. as principal staff officer to the admiral in command of the eighth He studied at the Ecole de Commerce, Paris, of which he became “sector.” Returning to Cochin-China he found the political cirsecretary and finally a professor. In 1842 he founded with Gilcumstances of the country unfavourable to further exploration, bert-Urbain Guillaumin (1801-64) the Société d’Economie turned to China, and in 1873 followed the upper course of the Politique; and in 1846 he organized the Association pour la Yang-tsze-Kiang to the waterfalls. He was next commissioned by Liberté des Echanges. He also helped to establish and edited for Admiral Dupré, governor of Cochin-China, to found 4 French many years the Journal des économistes and the Annuaire de protectorate or a new colony in Tongking. On Nov. 20, 1873 he économie politique. Of the school of laissez faire, he was en- took Hanoi, the capital of Tongking, and on the 21st of December gaged during his whole life in the advancement of the science of he was slain in fight with the Black Flags. His chief fame rests political economy, and in the improvement of French commercial and in on the fact that he originated the idea of exploring the Mekong,

of National Biography, editor of the International Library of

education. In 1873 he became a member of the Institute, 1876 a senator for the department in which he was born. He died in Paris on Sept. 25, 1881. Of his writings, the following are the more important: Traité d'économie politique (1845), Richard Cobden et la Ligue (1846), Traité des finances (1862), and Principes du population (1857).

GARNIER,

GERMAIN,

Marquis

(1754-1821), French

and carried out the larger portion of the work.

The narrative of the principal expedition appeared in 1873, as Voyage d’exploration en Indo-Chine effectué pendant les années 1866, 1867 et 1868, publié sous la direction de M. Francis Garnier, avec le concours de M. Delaporte et de M. M. Joubert et Thorel (2 vols.). An account of the Yang-tsze-Kiang from Garnier’s pen is given in the Bulletin de la Soc. de Géog. (1877). His Chronique royale du Cambodje, was reprinted from the Journal Asiatique in 1872. See Ocean Highways (1874) for a memoir by Colonel Yule; Petit, Francis Garnier (1885) and Hugh Clifford, Further India, in the Story of Exploration series (1904).

politician and economist, was born at Auxerre on Nov. 8, 1754. He was educated for the law, and obtained the office of procureur to the Chatelet in Paris. On the calling of the states-general he was elected as one of the députés suppléants of the city of Paris, GARNIER, ROBERT (c. 1545—c. 1600), French tragic poet, and in 1791 administrator of the department of Paris. After was born at Ferté Bernard (Le Maine). He published his first Aug.- 10, 1792, he withdrew to the Pays de Vaud, returning to work while still a law-student at Toulouse, where he won a prize France in 3795. Two years later he was among the candidates (1565) in the jeux floraux. It was a collection of lyrical pieces, for'the Directory; in 1800 he was prefect of Seine-et-Oise. At now lost, entitled Plaintes amoureuses de Robert Garnier (1565). the:Restoration, he received a peerage, became minister of State After some practice at the Parisian bar, he became conseiller du and member of privy council, and in 1817 was created a marquis. roi in his native district, and later heutenant-général criminel. In his early plays Garnier was a close follower of the Senecan He:died at Paris on Oct. 4, 1821. His literary reputation depends chiefly’ on his later works on political economy, especially his school. His pieces in this rhetorical manner are Porcie (published admirable translation, with motes’ and introduction, of Smith’s 1568, acted at the hôtel de Bourgogne in 1573), Cornélie and Wealth of Nations (1805) and his Histoire de la monnaie (2 vols., Hippolyte (both acted in 1573 and printed in 1574). His next 1829), which contains much sound and well-arranged material. group of tragedies—Marc-Antoine (1578), La Troade (1579), (1825-1808), Antigone (acted and printed 1580)—shows an advance on the ‘GARNIER, JEAN: LOUIS CHARLES French: architect; was born in Paris on Nov. 6,'1825, and died on theatre of Etienne Jodelle and Jacques Grévin, and on his own Aug 3: 1898: He was the son of 'a wheelwright and studied draw- early ‘plays, since the rhetoric is accompanied by some action. In 1582 and 1583 he produced his two masterpieces Bradaing and mathematics at the Petite Ecole de Dessin. He then entered the atelier of Lebas. Passing the entrance examination of mante and Les Juives. In Bradamante, which alone of his plays the. Ecole des Beaux Arts in 1842, he studied there in the evening, has no chorus, he cut himself adrift from Senecan models, and supporting himself by working by day in the officés of Viollet-le- sought his subject in Ariosto, the result being what came to be Duc:and other architects. In 1848 he won the Grand Prix de known later as a tragi-comedy. The dramatic and romantic story Rome and went to the Villa de Medicis. His:principal works were becomes a real drama‘in Garnier’s hands, though even there the the intasured drawings of the Forum of Trajan and the temple of lovers, Bradamante and Roger, never meet on the stage. The Mestasin Rome and the temple of Serapis:at Pozzuoli: Garnier’s contest in the mind of Roger supplies a genuine dramatic interest. othen Works include the imperial academy of music, the casino at Les Juives has for its theme the story of the barbarous vengeance Monte: Carlo, the Bischoffsheim villa at Bordighera, the Hotel du of Nebuchadrezzar on the Jewish king Zedekiah and his children. €ercle'de la: Librairie in Paris and his tombs for the musicians This tragedy, although almost entirely elegiac in conception, gains

GARNIER-PAGES—GAR-PIKE unity by the personality of the prophet. Faguet says that of all French tragedies of the 16th and 17th centuries it is, with Athalze, the best constructed with regard to the requirements of the stage. Actual representation is continually in the mind of the author; his drama is, in fact, visually conceived. The best edition of his works is by Wendelin Foerster (Heilbronn, 4 vols., 1882-83). A detailed criticism of his works is to be found ar T Faguet, La Tragédie française au XVIe siècle (1883, pp. 163-307). a

GARNIER-PAGES, LOUIS ANTOINE (1803-1878), French politician, was born at Marseilles on Feb. 16, 1803. His brother ETIENNE (1801-1841) was secretary of the society Aidetoi, le ciel t’aidera, under the Restoration, supported the revolution of July and sat in the Chamber of Deputies from 1831 until his death. Louis Antoine fought on the barricades in 1830, and after his brother’s death was elected to the Chamber. He was a leading spirit in the affair of the reform banquet fixed for Feb. 22, 1848. He was a member of the provisional government of 1848, and was named mayor of Paris. On March 5, he was made minister of finance, and incurred great unpopularity by the imposition of additional taxes. He was a member of the Constituent Assembly and of the Executive Commission. Under the Empire he was conspicuous in the republican opposition and opposed the war with Prussia, and after the fall of Napoleon ITI. became a member of the Government of National Defence. Unsuccessful at the elections for the National Assembly in 1871, he retired into private life, and died in Paris on Oct. 31, 1878. He wrote Histoire de la révolution de 1848 (8 vols., 1860-1862) ;Histoire de la comHepes exécutive (1869-1872); and L’Opposition et empire 1872).

GARNISH: see ATTACHMENT; EXECUTION; B ANKRUPTCY. GARO HILLS, a district of British India, in the Assam valley division of Assam. Area 3,140 sq.m. Pop. (1921) 179,140. It takes its name from the Garos, a tribe of Tibeto-Burma origin, by whom it is almost entirely inhabited. The Garos are probably a section of the great Bodo tribe, which at one time occupied a large part of Assam. In the 18th century they were a terror to the inhabitants of the plains below their hills. The early period of British rule is a record mainly of raids by the Garos, followed by blockades of the hills. At last in 1866 a British officer was posted among the hills with a small police force. This step was effective in putting a stop to raids till 1871-72, when further outrages were committed by some independent Garos. It was decided to annex their territory. A police force marched through the hills; the heads taken in the raids were surrendered and there were no further disturbances. The district consists of the last spurs of the Assam hills, which here run down almost to the bank of the Brahmaputra, where that river debouches upon the plain of Bengal and takes its great sweep to the south. The administrative headquarters are at Tura, where the American Baptist mission maintains a branch. Coal in large quantities and petroleum are known to exist in the hills. Nomadic cultivation is practised, z.e., patches of forest are burnt and cleared with the axe and crops are grown among the ashes. These patches are cultivated for a few years and then left, fresh areas being cleared in the same way. Nearly half of the cotton grown in Assam is raised by the Garos: it is remarkable for a short staple and woolly fibre, which has led to its being mixed with wool for carpet making. The Garos are an Assam tribe of the Bodo group which seems to have migrated from the direction of Bhutan, but probably absorbed spme pre-existing local stock (wavy and even curly hair is frequent); the existing culture suggests Indonesian affinities. A Tibeto-Burmese language is spoken; the tribe is related to the

Rabhas, Kacharis and Tipperas. Villages ‘are built on river banks, the houses raised on piles; land is communal and cultivation shifting, rice and cotton being

grown. Garos ‘are good fishermen but indifferent hunters. Disterision of the ear is practised. There are a dozen sub-tribes with varying customs and dialects, but all are divided into matrilineal

31

bridegroom’s house on probation, but this system is subject to compulsory cross-cousin marriage coupled with a rule by which a man must marry his wife’s father’s widow, who is in such cases the husband’s father’s sister, actual or classificatory. Such a wife takes precedence of her daughter married before her. A man’s sister’s son, called his zokrom, stands therefore in intimate relationship to him, as the husband of one of the daughters and ultimately of his widow and the vehicle through which his family’s interest in the property of his wife is secured for the next generation, for no male can inherit property. The dead are buried, followed by various forms of secondary disposal including urn burial, burial by water and sometimes by special treatment of the frontal bone. Head-hunting (q.v.) used to be practised, enemy skulls being kept in the latrines, and there are faint traces of cannibalism and human sacrifice in the past. Religion is generally animistic, but provides a benevolent creator and a sort of vague ancestor worship with soul figures of wood or stone, probably phallic, and a fertility cult which involves the sacrifice of an imitation horse. They believe in the reincarnation of the soul. (See also Asta: Ethnology; Heap-Huntine; LycanTHROPY; METEMPSYCHOSIS.) See A. Playfair, The Garos (1909).

GARONNE

(Lat. Garumna), a river of south-western France,

rising in the Maladetta

group

of the Pyrenees

and flowing

in a wide curve to the Atlantic ocean. It is formed by two torrents, one of which has a subterranean course of 24 m., disappear-

ing in the sink known as the Trou du Taureau (“bull’s hole”) and reappearing at the Goueil de Jouéou. After a course of 30 m. in Spanish territory, during which it flows through the fine gorge, the Vallée d’Aran, the Garonne enters France in the department of Haute Garonne through the narrow defile of the Pont du Roi, and at once becomes navigable for rafts. At Montréjeau it receives on the left the Neste, and encountering at this point the vast plateau of Lannemezan turns abruptly east, flowing in a wide

curve to Toulouse. At Saint Martory it gives off the irrigation canal of that name. At this point the Garonne enters a fertile plain, and supplies the motive power to several mills. It is joined on the right by various streams fed by the snows of the Pyrenees. Such are the Salat, at whose confluence river navigation begins,

and the Arize and the Ariége (both names signifying ‘‘river”). From Toulouse the Garonne flows to the north-west, now skirting the northern border of the plateau of Lannemezan which here drains into it by the Save, Gers and Baïse. On its right the Garonne receives its two chief tributaries, the Tarn, near Moissac, and the Lot, below Agen; afterwards it is joined by the Drot (or Dropt), and on the left by the Ciron. Between Toulouse and Castets, 334 m. above Bordeaux, the river is accompanied at a distance of 4 m. to 3 m. by the so-called “lateral canal” of the Garonne, structed in 1838—56. This canal is about 120m. long. From louse to Agen the main canal follows the right bank of the

from conTouGar-

onne, crossing the Tarn on an aqueduct at Moissac, while another aqueduct carries it across the Garonne at Agen. It has a fall of 420 ft. and over 50 locks. The carrying trade upon it is chiefly in agricultural produce and provisions, building materials, wood

and industrial products. At Toulouse the canal connects with the Canal du Midi, which runs to the Mediterranean. After passing Castets the Garonne begins to widen out consid-

erably to about 650 yd. at Bordeaux, its great commercial port. From here it flows between two flat shores to the Bec d’Ambés (154 m.), where, after a course of 357 m., it unites with the Dordogne to form the vast estuary known as the Gironde. The peninsula lying between these two great tidal rivers, the entre-deuxmers (“between two seas”), is famous for its wines. The drainage area of the Garonne is nearly 33,000 square miles. Floods are. of

common occurrence, and descend very suddenly. The most disastrous occurred in 1875, 1856,and in 1779, when the flood level at

Castets attained the record height of 424 ft. above low-water mark. ef fishes with four, or GAR-PIKE (Lepidosteys) a genus

perhaps more, species in the rivers. of North and Central America,

with elongate body covered. with. hatid rhombic. scales, with the

clans. Marriage is exogamous and polygamous and the proposal jaws produced, and with strong conical teeth. Fishes with ganọid comes from the woman, who, if. accepted, lives for a time in the scales of the same structure were abundant jn Mesozoic times.

32

GARRET—GARRICK

but Lepidosteus is not known before the Eocene. In the bill-fish he brought out Folkas Cahidas, a collection of short poems exor long-nosed gar (L. osseus) the jaws are exceedingly long and quisite in form. He died on Dec. 9, 1854, and on May 3, 1903, slender, in other species shorter and broader. The alligator gar of his remains were translated to the national pantheon, the JeroCuba, Mexico and the southern States, reaches a length of ro ft. nymos at Belem, where they rest near to those of Herculano and These are piscivorous fishes, of sluggish habits, but very voracious. Camoens. As poet, novelist, journalist, orator and dramatist, he The name gar or garfish is also given to the Belonidae, fishes of deserves the remark of Rebello da Silva: “Garrett was not a man warm seas, slender and with long jaws, but with thin cycloid of letters only but an entire literature in himself.” Besides his strong religious faith, Garrett was endowed with scales, and not related to the gar-pikes. GARRET, properly a small look-out tower built on a wall, a deep sensibility, a creative imagination, rare taste and a singular and hence the name given to a room on the top storey of a build- capacity for sympathy. He was first and always an artist. His artistic temperament explains his many-sided activity, his exing, the sloping ceiling of which is formed by the roof. pansive kindliness, his seductive charm, especially for women, his GARRETT, JOAO BAPTISTA DA SILVA LEITAO DE ALMEIDA, VISCONDE pe ALMEDDA-GARRETT (1799-1854), patriotism, his aristocratic pretensions, his huge vanity and perhaps the greatest Portuguese poet since Camoens, was born in dandyism and the ingenuousness that absolves him from many Oporto; but the French invasion of Portugal drove the family to faults in an irregular life. From his rich artistic nature sprang the Azores, and Garrett made his first studies at Angra. Going to his profound, sincere, sensual and melancholy lyrics, the variety the University of Coimbra in 1816 he soon earned notoriety by and perfection of his scenic creations, the splendour of his elothe precocity of his talents and his fervent Liberalism. His tragedy quence, the truth of his comic vein, the elegance of his lighter Lucrecia was played there in Feb. 1819, and he also wrote Merope compositions. The complete collection of his works comprises and a great part of Cato, all these plays belonging to the so-called 24 volumes. BrsriocrarHy—A. Romero Ortiz, La Literatura Portuguesa en el classical school. Leaving Coimbra with a law degree, he proceeded siglo XIX. (1869), pp. 165-221; Gomes de Amorim, Garrett, memorias to Lisbon, and on Nov. 11, 1822, married D. Luiza Midosi; but biographicas (3 vols,, 1881-88); Theophilo Braga, Garrett e ọ the alliance proved unhappy and a formal separation took place romantismo (Oporto, 1904), and Garrett e os dramas romanticos (Oporto, 1905), with a full bibliography; E. Prestage, ‘The Visconde In 1839. The reactionary movement against the Radical revolution of de Almeida Garrett” in the Oxford and Cambridge Review (1911), pp. 89-114. Frei Luiz de Sousa was translated by E, Prestage under 1820 reached its height in 1823, and Garrett had to leave Por- the title Brother Luiz de Sousa (1909). (E. P.; A. B.) tugal by order of the Absolutist ministry then in power, and went GARRICK, DAVID (1717-1779), English actor and theatto England. He became acquainted with the masterpieces of the rical manager, was descended from a-good French Protestant English and German romantic movements during his stay abroad. family named Garric or Garrique of Bordeaux, which had settled Imbued with the spirit of nationality, he wrote in 1824 at in England on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. His father, Havre the poem Camões, which destroyed the influence of the Captain Peter Garrick, who had married Arabella Clough, the worn-out classical and Arcadian rhymers, and in the following daughter of a vicar choral of Lichfield cathedral, was on a reyear composed the patriotic poem D. Branca. He was permitted cruiting expedition when his famous third son was born at Hereto return to Portugal in 1826, and thereupon devoted himself to ford on Feb. 19, 1717. Captain Garrick, who had made his home journalism. His defence of Liberal principles brought him three at Lichfield, in 1731 rejoined his regiment at Gibraltar. This kept months’ imprisonment and when D. Miguel was proclaimed ab- him absent from home for many years, during which letters were solute king on May 3, 1828, Garrett had again to leave the coun- written to him by “little Davy,” acquainting him with the doings try. He spent the next three years in and about Birmingham, at Lichfield. On his father’s return from Gibraltar, David, who Warwick and London. Sailing in Feb. 1832, he disembarked at had previously been educated at the grammar school of Lichfield, Terceira, whence he passed to S. Miguel, then the seat of the was sent with his brother George to the “academy” at Edial just Liberal government. Here he became a co-operator with the opened in June or July 1736 by Samuel Johnson, the senior by statesman Mousinho da Silveira, and assisted him in drafting seven years of David, who was then 19. This seminary was, howthose laws which were to revolutionize the whole framework of ever, closed in about six months, and on March 2, 1737, both Portuguese society. In his spare time he wrote some of the Johnson and Garrick left Lichfield for London—Johnson, as he beautiful lyrics afterwards collected into Flores sem Fructo (1845). afterwards said, “with twopence halfpenny in his pocket,” and He took part in the expedition that landed at Mindello on July 8, Garrick “with three-halfpence in his.”” Johnson, whose chief asset 1832, and in the occupation of Oporto. Early in the siege he was the ms. tragedy of Jrene, was at first the host of his former sketched out, under the influence of Walter Scott, the historical pupil, who, however, before the end of the year went to live at romance Arco de Sant’ Anna (1845-51). Rochester with John Colson (afterwards Lucasian professor at In 1834-35 he served as consul-general and chargé d’affaires Cambridge). Captain Garrick died about a month after David’s at Brussels, later the government employed him to draw up a arrival in London. Soon afterwards, his uncle, a wine merchant proposal for the construction of a national theatre, and a school at Lisbon, having left David a sum of £1,000, he and his brother of dramatists and actors arose under his influence. To give them entered into partnership as wine merchants in London and Lichmodels, he proceeded to write a series of prose dramas, choosing field, David taking up the London business. The concern was not his subjects from Portuguese history. He began in 1838 with prosperous, and before the end of 1741 he had spent nearly half the Auto de Gil Vicente and followed this up in 1842 by the of his capital. Alfageme de Santarem, and in 1843 by Frei Luiz de Sousa, one His passion for the stage completely engrossed him; he tried of the few great tragedies of the roth century, a work as intensely his hand both at dramatic criticism and at dramatic authorship. national as The Lusiads and written in a restrained and beautiful His first dramatic piece, Lethe, or Aesop in the Shades was played prose. at Drury Lane on April 15, 1740; and he became a well-known Entering parliament in 1837, Garrett soon made his mark as frequenter of theatrical circles. His first appearance on the stage an orator. He brought in a literary copyright bill, which, when was made in March 1741, incognito, as harlequin at Goodman’s it became law in 1851, served as a precedent for similar legisla- Fields, Yates, who was ill, having allowed him to take his place tion in England and Prussia. He wrote about this time the drama during a few scenes of the pantomime entitled Harlequin Student,

D. Filippa de Vilhena (1840), founded on an event in the revolu-

or The Fall of Pantomime with the Restoration of ithe Drama. tion of 1640. In July 1843 an excursion to Santarem resulted in a Garrick subsequently accompanied a party of players from the prose masterpiece Viagens na minha terra. He took no part in same theatre to Ipswich, where he played his first part as an actor the civil war that followed the revolution of Maria da Fonte. He spent much of the year 1850 in finishing his Romanceiro, a

collection of folk-poetry of which he was the first to perceive

the value; and in June 1857 he was created a viscount. he became for a short time minister of foreign affairs.

In x852 In 1853

under the name of Lyddal, in the character of Aboan (in South-

erne’s QOroonoko). On Oct. 19, 1741 he made his appearance at Goodman’s Fields as Richard III. and gained the most enthusiastic

applause. Among the audience was Macklin, whose performance of Shylock, early in the same year, had pointed the way along which

GARRICK Garrick was so rapidly to pass in triumph. On the morrow the latter wrote to his brother at Lichfield, proposing withdrawal from the partnership. Meanwhile, each night had added to his popularity on the stage. The town, as Gray (who, like Horace Walpole, at first held out against the furore) declared, was “horn-mad” about him. Before his Richard had exhausted its original effect, he won new applause as Aboan, and soon afterwards as Lear and as Pierre in Otway’s Venice Preserved, as well as in several comic

characters (including that of Bayes). Glover (“Leonidas”) attended every performance; the duke of Argyll, Lords Cobham and Lyttelton, Pitt and others praised the new actor. Within the first six months of his theatrical career he acted in 18 characters of all kinds, and from Dec. 2, he appeared in his own name. Pope went to see him three times during his first performances, and pronounced that “that young man never had his equal as an actor, and he will never have a rival.” Garrick’s farce of The Lying Valet, in which he performed the part of Sharp, was at this time brought out with so much success that he ventured to send a copy to his brother. His fortune was now made, and while the managers of Covent Garden and Drury Lane resorted to the law to make Giffard, the manager of Goodman’s Fields, close his little theatre, Garrick was engaged by Fleetwood for Drury Lane for the season of 1742. In June of that year he went over to Dublin. He was accompanied

by Margaret (Peg) Woffington, of whom he had been for some time a fervent admirer. From Sept. 1742 to April 1745 he

played at Drury Lane, after which he again went over to Dublin. Here he remained during the whole season, as joint-manager with Sheridan, in the direction and profits of the Theatre Royal in Smock Alley. In 1746-47 he fulfilled a short engagement with

Rich at Covent Garden, his last series of performances under a management not his own, With the close of that season Fleetwood’s patent for the management of Drury Lane expired, and Garrick, in conjunction with Lacy, purchased the property of the theatre, together with the renewal of the patent; contributing £8,000 as two-thirds of the purchase-money. In Sept. 1747 it was opened with a strong company of actors, Johnson’s prologue

being spoken by Garrick, while the epilogue, written by him, was spoken by Mrs, Woffington, Garrick was surrounded by many eminent players, and he had the art, as he was told by Mrs. Clive, “of contradicting the proverb that one cannot make bricks without straw, by doing what is infinitely more difficult, making actors and actresses without genius.”’ The naturalness of his acting fas-

cinated those who, like Partridge in Tom Jones, listened to nature’s voice, and justified the preference of more conscious critics. To be “pleased with nature” was, as Churchill wrote, in the Rosciad (1761), to be pleased with Garrick. For the stately declamation, the sonorous, and beyond a doubt impressive, chant of Quin and his fellows, Garrick substituted rapid changes of passion and humour in both voice and gesture, which held his audiences spellbound, Garrick’s French descent and his education may have contributed to give him the vivacity and versatility which distinguished him as an actor; and nature had given him an

eye, if not a stature, to command, and a mimic power of wonderful variety. The list of his characters in tragedy, comedy and farce would be extraordinary for a modern actor of high rank; it includes not less than 17 Shakespearian parts. As a manager he did good service to the theatre and signally advanced the popularity of Shakespeare’s plays, of which not less than 24 were produced at Drury Lane under his management. Many of these

were not pure Shakespeare; and he is credited with the addition of a dying speech to the text of Macbeth. On the other hand, Tate Wilkinson says that Garrick’s production of Hamlet in 1773 was

33

The Good Natur’d Man. For the rest, he purified the stage of much of its grossness, and introduced a relative correctness of costume and decoration unknown before. To the study of English dramatic literature he rendered an important service by bequeathing his then unrivalled collection of plays to the British Museum.

After escaping from the chains of his passion for the beautiful

but reckless Mrs. Woffington, Garrick had in 1749 married Made-

moiselle Violette (Eva Maria Veigel), a German lady who had attracted admiration at Florence or at Vienna as a dancer, and had come to England early in 1746, where her modest grace and the rumours which surrounded her created a furore. Garrick, who called her “the best of women and wives,” lived most happily

with her in his villa at Hampton, acquired by him in 1754, whither he was glad to escape from his house in Southampton street.

To

this period belongs Garrick’s quarrel with Barry, the only actor who even temporarily rivalled him in the favour of the public. In 1763 Garrick and his wife visited Paris, where they were cordially received and made the acquaintance of Diderot and others at the house of the baron d’Holbach. Grimm extolled Garrick as the first and only actor who came up to the demands of his imagination; and it was in a reply to a pamphlet occasioned by Garrick’s visit that Diderot set forth the views expounded in his Paradoxe sur le comédien. After some months spent in Italy, where Garrick fell seriously il, they returned to Paris in the autumn of 1764 and made more friends, reaching London in April 41765. Their union was childless, and Mrs, Garrick survived her husband until 1822. Her portrait by Hogarth is at Windsor castle. Garrick practically ceased to act in 1766, but he continued the management of Drury Lane, and in 1769 organized the Shakespeare celebrations at Stratford-on-Avon. Of his best supporters on the stage, Mrs. Cibber, with whom he had been reconciled, died in 1766, and Mrs. (Kitty) Clive retired in 1769. Garrick sold his share in the property in 1776 for £35,000, and took leave of the stage by playing a round of his favourite characters— Hamlet, Lear, Richard and Benedick, among Shakespearian parts; Lusignan in Zara, Aaron Hill’s adaptation of Voltaire’s Zaire ; and Kitely in his own adaptation of Ben Jonson’s Every Man in his Humour, Archer in Farquhar’s Beaux’ Stratagem; Abel Drugger in Ben Jonson’s Alchemist; Sir John Brute in Vanbrugh’s Provoked Wife; Leon in Fletcher’s Rule a Wife and have a Wife. He ended the series, as Tate Wilkinson says, “in full glory” with “the youthful Don Felix” in Mrs. Centlivre’s Wonder on June 10, 1776. He died in London on Jan. 20, 1779. He was buried in Westminster Abbey at the foot of Shakespeare’s statue. In person, Garrick was a little below middle height; in his later years he seems to have inclined to stoutness. The extraordinary mobility of his whole person, and his power of as it were transforming himself at will, are attested by many anecdotes and descriptions, but the piercing power of his eye must have been his most irresistible feature. The most discriminating character of Garrick, slightly tinged with satire, is that drawn by Goldsmith in his poem of Retaliation. Garrick was often happy in his epigrams and occasional verse, including his numerous prologues and epilogues. He had the good taste to recognize, and the spirit to make public his recognition of, the excellence of Gray’s odes at a time when they were either ridiculed or neglected. His dramatic pieces, The Lying Valet, adapted from Motteux’s Novelty Lethe (1740), The Guardian, Linco’s Travels (1767), Miss in her Teens (1747), Irish Widow, etc., and his alterations and adaptations of old plays, which together fill four volumes, evinced his knowledge of stage effect and his appreciation of lively dialogue

and acting. He was joint author with Colman of The Clandestine

well received at Drury Lane even by the galleries, “though without their favourite acquaintances the gravediggers.” Among his published adaptations are an opera, The Fairies (from Midsummer Night’s Dream) (1755); an opera The Tempest (1756);

Marriage (1766), in which he is said to have written his famous part of Lord Ogleby.

Douglas, and made the wrong choice between False Delicacy and

as a companion and to his fidelity as a friend.

Garrick’s Private Correspondence (published in 1831-32 with

a short memoir by Boaden, in 2 vols. 4to), which includes his ex-

Catherine and Petruchio (1758); Florizel and Perdita (1762). tensive Foreign Correspondence with distinguished French men But not every generation has the same notions of the way in and women, and the notices of him in the memoirs of Cumberland, which Shakespeare is best honoured. Few sins of omission can be Hannah More and Madame D’Arblay, and above all in Boswell’s charged against Garrick as a manager, but he refused Home’s Life of Johnson, bear testimony to his many attractive qualities

GARRISON

34

BrsLiocrarHy.—A collection of unprinted Garrick letters is in the Forster library at South Kensington. A list of publications of all kinds for and against Garrick will be found in R. Lowe’s Bibliographical History of English Theatrical Literature (1887). The earlier biographies of Garrick are by Arthur Murphy (2 vols., 1801) and by the bookseller Tom Davies (2 vols., 4th ed., 1805), the latter a work of some merit, but occasionally inaccurate and confused as to dates; and a searching if not altogether sympathetic survey of his verses is furnished by Joseph Knight’s valuable Life (1894). Percy Fitzgerald’s

Life (2 vols., 1868; new edition, 1899) is full and spirited, and has

been reprinted, with additions, among Sir Theodore Martin’s Monographs (1906). See also C. Gaehde, David Garrick als ShakespeareDarsteller, etc. (1904) ; Mrs. Parsons’ Garrick, and his Circle and Some unpublished Correspondence of David Garrick ed. G. P. Baker (Boston, Mass., 1907) and F. A. Hedgcock, A cosmopolitan actor, David Garrick and his French friends, etc. (1912). As to the portraits of Garrick, see W. T. Lawrence in The Connoisseur (April 1905). That by Gainsborough at Stratford-on-Avon was preferred by Mrs. Garrick to all others. Several remain from the hand of Hogarth, including the famous picture of Garrick as Richard III. The portraits by Reynolds include the célebrated “Garrick between Tragedy and Comedy.” Zoffany’s are portraits in character. Roubiliac’s statue of Shakespeare, for which Garrick sat, and for which he paid the sculptor 300 guineas, was originally placed in a small temple at Hampton, and is now in the British Museum.

GARRISON,

WILLIAM

LLOYD

(1805-1879),

the

American anti-slavery leader, was born in Newburyport (Mass.), on Dec. 10, 1805. His parents were from the British province of New Brunswick. The father, Abijah, a sea captain, drank heavily and deserted his home when William was a child, and it is not known whether he died at sea or on land. The mother, whose maiden name was Lloyd, is said to have been a woman of high character, charming in person and eminent for piety. She died in 1823. William had little education but made the most of his

opportunities. He was set to learn the trade of a shoemaker,

first at Newburyport, and then, after 1815, at Baltimore (Md.). Then he was apprenticed to a cabinet-maker (at Haverhill, Mass.), but ran away. In Oct. 1818, when he was 14, he was indentured to Ephraim W. Allen, proprietor of the Newburyport Herald, to learn the trade of a printer. He soon became an expert compositor, and after a time began to write anonymously for the Herald. His communications won the commendation of the editor, who had not at first the slightest suspicion that he was the author. He also wrote for other papers with equal success. His skill as a printer won for him the position of foreman, while his ability as a

the negroes, on being emancipated, must be colonized somewhere

beyond the limits of the United States; Garrison held that they should be emancipated on the soil of the country, with all the rights of freemen. Garrison saw that it would be idle to expose and denounce the evils of slavery, while responsibility for the system was placed upon former generations, and the duty of abolish-

ing it transferred to an indefinite future. His demand for imme-

diate emancipation fell like a tocsin upon the ears of slaveholders. The Genius, when it became a vehicle for this dangerous doctrine, was feared and hated. Baltimore was then one of the centres of the domestic slave trade, and upon this traffic Garrison heaped the

strongest denunciations. He was prosecuted for libel by the owner of a slave-carrying vessel, was fined $50, and, in default of payment, committed to gaol. John G. Whittier interceded with Henry Clay to pay Garrison’s fine and thus release him from prison. Clay responded favourably, but before he could act Arthur Tappan, a philanthropic merchant of New York, contributed the necessary sum and set the prisoner free after an incarceration of seven weeks. The partnership between Garrison and Lundy was then dissolved by mutual consent, and Garrison resolved to establish a paper of his own, in which he could advocate the doctrine of immediate emancipation and oppose the scheme of African colonization. He first’proposed to establish his paper at Washington, in the midst of slavery, but on returning to New England and observing the state of public opinion there, he came to the conclusion that little could be done in the South while the non-slaveholding North was lending her influence for the sustenance of slavery. He determined, therefore, to publish his paper in Boston, and set himself to the task of awakening an interest in the subject by lectures in some of the principal cities and towns of the North. In Boston, then a great cotton mart, he tried in vain to procure a church or vestry for the delivery of his lectures, until a body-of infidels under the leadership of Abner Kneeland (1774-1844), proffered him the use of their

small hall. He accepted it gratefully, and delivered (in Oct. 1830)

three lectures, in which he unfolded his principles and plans. On Jan. 1, 1831, without capital and without a subscriber, he and his partner, Isaac Knapp (1804-43), issued the first number of the Liberator, avowing their “determination to print it as long as they could subsist on bread and water, or their hands obtain employment.” Its motto “Our country is the world—our countrywriter was so marked that the editor of the Herald, when tem- men are mankind,” shows his changed viewpoint. The paper in porarily called away from-his post, left the paper in his charge. addition to favouring abolition, attacked war, alcoholic liquors The: printing-office afforded him an opportunity to increase his and tobacco, and assailed freemasonry, capital punishment, and meagre education. He was enthusiastic about liberty; the struggle imprisonment for debt. The editor, in his address to the public, of the Greeks to throw off the Turkish yoke enlisted his sympathy; uttered the words which have become memorable as embodying and:at one time he seriously thought of entering the West Point the whole purpose and spirit of his life: “I am in earnest—I will academy and fitting himself for a soldier’s career. His apprentice- not equivocate—I will not excuse—I will not retreat a single inch ship ended in 1826; when he began the publication of a new paper ——and I will be heard.” For many months Garrison and his part(actually the-old one under a new name), the Free Press, in his ner made their bed on the floor of the room in which they printed native place. The paper, whose motto was “Our Country, our their paper, and where Mayor Harrison Gray Otis of Boston, in Whole Country, and nothing but our Country,” was an intellectual compliance with the request of Governor Robert Y. Hayne of force,' but was too radical for Newburyport, and the enterprise South Carolina, “ferreted them out.” Otis decided, however, that faviéd. Garrison’ ‘then went’ to Boston, where; after working for the paper could not be suspended. In the same year (1831), a time as a journeyman printer, he became the‘ editor of the Na- $5,000 reward was offered for Garrison’s arrest and conviction un. tiénal Philanthropist, the ‘first journal established in America ‘to der the laws of Georgia. The Liberator, though in constant finan-

promote the’ cause of total abstinence from intoxicating liquors;

but a change in the proprietorship led to his withdrawal before the end of the year. In 1828 he established the Journal of the Times atBennington (Vt.), to support the ‘re-election of John Quincy

cial difficulties, exerted a mighty influence, and lived to record nat

Adams to the Presidency of the United States. This paper also

only President Lincoln’s proclamation of emancipation, but the adoption of an amendment to the Constitution of the United Statés for ever prohibiting slavery. ' ‘Garrison was a pacifist, and sought the abolition of slavery by

died? within a year. 'In Boston ‘he had ‘met Benjamin Lundy (g.v.),

moral means alone. He knew that the National Government had

Who had‘ fer years’ been preaching’ the abolition of slavery. Gar-

tigen! had-been deeply moVed'by Lunidy’sappeals, and after going to Vermont he showed the deepest interest in the slavery question.

Lundy ‘was then publishing in Baltimore a small monthly paper, Phe Genius of Universal Emancipation, and he went to Benning-

no: power over the system in any State, though he thought it should bring its moral influence to bear in favour of abolition. His

idea was to combine the moral influence of the North, and pour it through every open channel upon the South. To this end he made

ton ‘arid invited Garrison to join him in thé editorship. His mis-

his appeal to the Northern churches and pulpits, beseeching them to bring the power of Christianity to bear against the slave system, and to advocate the rights of the slaves to immediate and uncon-

but soon changed to total and immediate freedom for slaves

ditional freédom. When they did not respond, he denounced them, and by 1840 had become very unorthodox. The first sociéty organized under Garrison’s auspices, and in accordance with his

sion Was successful. "Garrison first accepted Lundy’s views of gradual emancipation}

when he joined Lundy in Baltimore in 1829. Lundy bélieved that

GARROTTE—GARSTIN principles, was the New England anti-slavery society in Jan. 1832. The same spring Garrison issued his Thoughts on African Colonigation, in which he showed from official documents that the American colonization society was organized in the interest of slavery, and that in offering itself as a practical remedy for that system it was guilty of deception. Garrison was deputed by the New England anti-slavery society to visit England for the purpose of counteracting the influence there of agents of the colonization society. He went in the spring of 1833, and was received with great cordiality by British abolitionists. He took home with him a “protest” against the American colonization society signed by Wilberforce, Zachary Macaulay, Samuel Gurney, William Evans, S. Lushington, T. Fowell Buxton, James Cropper, Daniel O’Connell and others.

Garrison's visit to England enraged the pro-slavery people, and when he returned in September with the “protest” against the colonization society, and announced that he had engaged the services of George Thompson as a lecturer against American slavery, there were fresh outbursts. The American anti-slavery society was organized in December of that year (1833), the declaration of its principles coming from Garrison’s pen. The activities of this society and Thompson’s lectures aroused such fury that, in the autumn of 1835, Thompson was compelled to return secretly to England. He had announced that he would address the women’s anti-slavery society in Boston, and a mob gathered. Not finding him, it seized Garrison and dragged him through the streets until he was rescued, and protected in the gaol until he could leave the city in safety. The abolitionists of the United States were a united body until 1839-40 when division occurred. Garrison countenanced the activity of women in the cause, even appointing them as lecturing agents; moreover, he believed in the political equality of the sexes, to which a strong party was opposed upon social and religious grounds. His attack on the churches caused dissent. Many believed that Garrison injured abolitionism by causing it to be associated in men’s minds with these unpopular views on other subjects. These differences led to the organization of a new national anti-slavery society in 1840, and to the formation of the

“Liberty Party” (g.v.) in politics (see Brrney, JAMES G.). The two societies sent their delegates to the world’s anti-slavery convention in London in 1840, and Garrison refused to take his seat in that body, because the women delegates from the United States were excluded. The discussions of the next few years served to make clearer than before that the Constitution of the United States supported slavery; and Garrison came to the conclusion that its pro-slavery clauses were immoral, and that it was therefore wrong to take an oath for its support. Because of this, Garrison burned the Constitution, denouncing it as “a covenant with death and an agreement with hell.” He chose as his motto, “No union with slaveholders,” and thereafter worked for peaceful disunion. When in 1861 the Southern States seceded from the Union and took up arms against it, he saw clearly that slavery would perish in the struggle and that the Constitution would be purged of its pro-slavery clauses. He therefore ceased to advocate

disunion, and devoted himself to hastening the inevitable event.

35

clined every form of public recognition. He died in New York on May 24, 1879, in the 74th year of his age, and was buried in Boston, after a most impressive funeral service, four days later. In 1843 a small volume of his Sonnets and other Poems was published, and in 1852 appeared a volume of Selections from his Writings and Speeches.

Garrison’s son, WILLIAM Lioyvp GarRIson (1838-1909), was a prominent advocate of the single tax, free trade, woman’s suffrage, and of the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act, and an opponent of imperialism. Another son, WENDELL PHILLIPS GARRISON (1840—1907), was literary editor of the New York Nation from 1865 to 1906. BreriocrarHy.—The great authority on the life of Garrison is the thorough and candid work of his sons, W. P. and F. J. Garrison, William Lloyd Garrison, 1805-1879; The Story of his Life told by his Children (4 vols., 1885-89). See Garrison: an Outline of his Life (1879), and William Lloyd Garrison and his Times (1880) by Oliver Johnson, a prominent abolitionist and intimate friend of Garrison. Goldwin Smith’s The Moral Crusader; a Biographical Essay on William Lloyd Garrison (1892) is a brilliant sketch. J. J. Chapman’s Garrison (1913) is valuable for its picture of the abolition movement; Lindsay Swift, William Lloyd Garrison (1911), is a reliable biography though it is too eulogistic; Edward Channing, A History of the United States (vol. v. and vi., 1905-25), and Ellis Paxson Oberholtzer, A History. of the United States since the Civil War (1917—26) give the relation of Garrison to the history of his time.

GARROTTE, an appliance used in Spain and Portugal for the execution of criminals (see CAPITAL PUNISHMENT). “Garrotting” is the name given in England to a form of robbery with violence which became rather common in the winter of 1862—63.

An act of 1863, imposing the penalty of flogging in addition to penal servitude for this offence, had the effect of stopping it almost entirely. GARSHIN, VSEVOLOD MIKHAILOVICH (18551888), Russian"author, was born in the government of Ekaterinoslav in Feb. 1855, the son of a retired army officer. From his childhood he had a nervous temperament, and in 1872 he was put under restraint for a year. In 1874 he entered the High School of Mines at St. Petersburg

(now Leningrad), but on the out-

break of the Russo-Turkish War (1877) he enlisted as a private in an infantry regiment. Wounded in Aug. 1878 he was invalided home; from that time he suffered from frequent attacks of melancholia, and in 1887 he tried to commit suicide by throwing himself down some stone steps, broke his leg, and died in a hospital

on March 24, 1888. Many of his best known stories, The Signal (1912); The Coward, Mad Love, or An Artist's Dream (1889); The Red Flower (1883); Attalea Princeps and That which was Not have been translated into English. His Four Days, written while he was lying wounded at Kharkov, created a great sensation.

GARSTANG,

JOHN

(1876-

`), British archaeologist,

born in Blackburn, was educated at Blackburn Grammar’ School and Jesus College, Oxford. From 1897 onward he directed excavations on various Roman sites m-Britain (Ribchester, Richborough, etc.), in Egypt, and in Nubia -In' t902 he became honorary reader in Egyptian archaeology, at Liverpool University, and in 1907 professor of the methods and ‘practice of archaeology. In the same year he led an expedition to Asia Minor and North Syria. He also conducted excavations on the Hittite site of Sakje-Genzi (1908 and roz1), ancient Meroé (Sudan) (1909-14), and Askalon, (1920-21). During the World War (1915-19). he served volun-

His services at this period were recognized and honoured by President Lincoln and others in authority, and the whole country knew that the agitation which resulted iin the abolition of slavery was largely due to his uncompromising spirit and maommanip tarily as liaison officer for the medical services. From. ro19-26 courage. In 1865 at the close of the war, he declared that, rar being he held the post of director of the British Schoolof Archaeabolished, his career as an abolitionist was ended. ‘He counselled ology in Jerusalem, and from 1920—26 that of director of: ‘the a dissolution of the American anti-slavery society, insisting that it department of antiquities of the Government of Palestine. Tey He has published many’ books on the results of his tesca rcha: had become functus officiis, and that whatever needed to ‘be done

for the protection of the freedmen could’ best be accomplished by new associations ‘formed for that: purpose. The’ Liberator was discoritinued at the end of the same year, after an existence of

35 years. He’ visited’ England for the second titne in 1846, and

including The Third Egyptian Dynasty (Igit); Roman Ribchester (1911); A Short Hist of, Ancient, t. i.Newberry,

Tort)3 Thfe Cane of theHittites | Gatti: Motes FeeSe Ae Indéx of Hittite

Geographical Names (1923) ; The Hittite Empire Gay.

GARSTIN,

SIR WILLIAM

EDMUND

(1849-1925),

again in 1867, ‘when he was received ,with distinguished honours, British engineer, was born in i India on Jan. 29, 1849. He was edupublic as well'as private. In 1869 he became president of the catéd at Cheltenham and King’s college, London, and in 1872

Free Trade Légnie, advocating the abolifion of custom’ ious

entered the’ Indian’ Public Works department. In 188 5 he was

throughout the world.’ In 1877, he again visited England, ‘andyu

transferred to Egypt, and in 1892 became inspector-general of

36

GARSTON—GARY

irrigation and under-secretary of State for Public Works. He proved himself an indefatigable worker, and by his efforts extensive areas were reclaimed in Egypt and the Sudan. Among his greatest works were the Asyut barrage and the Aswan reservoir. In addition, it was due to him that the White Nile was cleared of sudd, thus rendering possible free navigation between Khartoum

and Gondokoro. He was created K.C.M.G. in 1897 and G.C.M.G. in 1902. In 1907 he was appointed British Government director

he began his law practice in Chicago. In 1874 he organized the Gary-Wheaton bank, of which he was president. He was elected judge of Du Page county in 1882 and again in 1886. During this period he also frequently held court in Chicago, Cook county, and occasionally presided over important cases in other counties throughout the State of Illinois, He was three times elected president of the town of Wheaton, and on its becoming a city in 1890 served as mayor for two terms. Until 1898 he practised law in Chicago and became a leader and

of the Suez Canal company. During the World War he devoted himself to Red Cross work in England, being created G.B.E. in authority in corporation law and insurance matters. He was president of the Chicago Bar Association in 1893-94. In time he 1918. He died in London on Jan. 8, 1925. GARSTON, seaport, Wavertree parliamentary division, Liv- became general counsel and a director in a number of large railerpool borough, Lancashire, England, on the Mersey, 6 m. S.E. of roads, banks and industrial corporations, including steel and wire Liverpool, Pop. (1921) 28,729. The docks of the L,MS. rail- companies. He early saw the advantages of combination in busiway company, with over a mile of quayage are specially equipped ness. In 1891 he was one of the organizers of the Consolidated Steel and Wire Company. In 1898, upon the organization of the for shipping coal. GARTH, SIR SAMUEL (1661-1719), English physician Federal Steel Company, with the financial backing of J, P. Morand poet, entered Peterhouse, Cambridge, in 1676, graduating gan and Company, he became its first president and retired from B.A. in 1679, and M.A. in 1684. He took his M.D, and became a legal practice. This company was merged in Igor in the U.S. member of the College of Physicians in 1691. In 1697 he delivered Steel Corporation, which was then organized with a capital stock the Harveian oration, in which he advocated a scheme for pro- exceeding $1,000,000,000, then by far the largest industrial corviding dispensaries for the relief of the sick poor as a protection poration in the world. He was elected chairman of the executive

against the greed of the apothecaries.

In 1699 he published a

mock-heroic poem, The Dispensary, in six cantos, ridiculing the apothecaries and their allies among the physicians.

committee and later chairman of the board of directors and of

the finance committee, and continued to be chief executive officer during 26 years of remarkable development of the steel industry

GARTOK, a trade-market of Tibet, situated on the bank of and growth of the corporation,

the Indus on the road between Shigatse and Leh, to the east of Simla. In accordance with the Tibet treaty of 1904, Gartok, together with Yatung and Gyantse, was thrown open to British trade. In winter it consists of only a few dozen people whose houses stand in the midst of a bare plain. In summer, however,

The steel mills and town of Gary, Ind., were laid out in 1906

by the U.S. Steel Corporation, and later named in his honour. The site was then a waste of sand dunes. Twenty years later

Gary had grown, following the plans and large investments of the Steel Corporation, under Judge Gary’s direction, to be a beauti-

ful city of 100,000 people, with a splendid school system and with enormous and varied mills for the manufacture of iron and steel products. Equally important and beneficent developments were similarly carried out under E. H. Gary’s leadership in other parts 22,141, and is the centre of a well-cultivated region, noted for of the country, including those at Birmingham, Ala., Pittsburgh, its tea, rubber and chinchona plantations, but is better known Pa., and Duluth, Minn. As chairman of the Steel Corporation, he as one of the principal and most beautiful health resorts af Java. advocated and established many pioneer measures for the welSituated at a height of 2,300 ft. above sea-level, the town is fare of the employees of industrial corporations, including stock

all the trade between Tibet and Ladakh passes through this place. GARUT, a district in the residency of West Preanger, in Java, Dutch’ East Indies, the seat of an assistant resident, and a native regent. It is Sundanese territory, has a population of

very charmingly laid out, The district forms a plateau, around which are grouped magnificent mountains, some volcanoes, with mountain lakes, hot springs and other wonders of nature. Among the most interesting excursions are the crater of the Papandayan, a volcano still active, which blew out the greater part of one side of a mountain in 1772, killing thousands of people and destroying much of the surrounding countryside, and now erupts from the enormous crater hole which is left; the Kawah Kamodyan, a most interesting collection of pools of boiling mud, geysers and fumaroles; the Telega Bodas, or White Lake, situated amidst charming forest scenery; the Kawah Manut, or Bird’s Crater; the lakes of Bagendit and Leles, and the hot springs of Chipanas;

ownership by them and participation in profits, high wages and safe, sanitary and pleasing surroundings. He was always a strong

advocate and a firm upholder of the “open shop.” During his

chairmanship the seven-day week and the 12 hour day for labour in the steel mills were abolished. (J. A. Fa.)

GARY, a city of Lake county, Ind., U.S.A., at the southern end of Lake Michigan, 25m. S.E. of Chicago. It is on Federal

highways 12 and 20 and is served by the Baltimore and Ohio, the Michigan Central, the New York Central, the Pennsylvania, and the Wabash railways, two industrial belt railroads, and six interurban trolley lines and by lake steamers. The population in 1920 was 55,378, of whom 5,299 were negroes and 16,460 were foreign-

born white; and was 100,426 in 1930. the lake of Pendjalu; and Mount Chikorai. (E. E. L.) Gary is a creation of the United States Steel Corporation, GARVIE, ALFRED ERNEST (1861) English divine, was born on Aug. 29, 1861 at Zyrardow, Russian Poland; which in 1905 bought a tract of 8,oooac. here. The site conhe was educated privately in Poland and at George Watson’s College, Edinburgh, He studied for a year at Edinburgh University (1878-79), and after four years in business in Glasgow, spent eight years in study at Glasgow and at Oxford. He was appointed in 1903 a professor at Hackney and New Colleges, London, becoming in 1907 principal of New College. In 1922 he was appointed principal of Hackney College, and from 1924 onward held both posts.

sisted of barren sand dunes and swampy meadows, crossed by the

Grand Calumet and the Little Calumet rivers. By 1928 the city

had an assessed valuation of $152,382,970; 191m. of improved streets, 15m. of boulevards, 135m. of water mains, 90m. of streetcar track and a fleet of motor buses, 4m. of bathing beach, and 51sac. of public parks, golf courses and playgrounds. A cityplanning commission was appointed in 1919, and the city plan (adopted in 1924) includes a comprehensive zoning system, and

His numerous publications include: The Ritschlian Theology (1899) ; an ambitious scheme for the “Gary Gateway,” providing for a Handbook of Christian Apologetics (1913) ; The Christian Doctrine of civic centre.

the Godhead (1925) ; and The. Preachers of the Church (1926).

GARY, ELBERT HENRY (1846-1927), American jurist and business man, was born on Oct. 8, 1846, and brought up on his father’s farm, near Wheaton, Ill. He attended public school and Wheaton college, and studied law in the office of his uncle, Col. Vallette. He graduated in 1867 from the Union College of Law, which became the law department of the University of Chicago, and later of Northwestern university, Chicago. In 1869

The industries (chiefly subsidiaries of the United States Steel Corporation) represent an investment of $150,000,000, and include the largest steel works, tin-plate mills, rail mills and cement works in the country, The heat, light and water company, also a

subsidiary of the Steel Corporation, buys the electric current and the gas it distributes from the Illinois Steel company. The schools of Gary provide academic instruction 48 weeks in the year; physical training 52 weeks, on six and a half days each

GAS—GASCOIGNE

37

week. William A. Wirt, the first superintendent of schools, taking advantage of his unique opportunity for experimentation, worked out a system known among educators as the “Gary Plan” or “Platoon Plan,” and it has been adopted, with more or less modification, in many cities, Gary was chartered in 1906, and was named after Elbert H. Gary (1846-1927), chairman of the board of directors of the Steel Corporation. At the first Federal census (xoxo) after the

gases. This subject, which is discussed in the article MOLECULE, has for its purpose, (r) the derivation of a physical structure of a gas which will agree with the experimental observations of the diverse physical properties, and (2) a correlation of the physical properties and chemical composition.

founding of the city, the population was 16,802, and in the follow-

probably between 1530 and 1535. He was educated at Trinity college, Cambridge, and became a member of Gray’s Inn in 1555. His escapades were notorious; he was imprisoned for debt, and was obliged to sell his patrimony to pay the debts contracted at court. He was M.P. for Bedford in 1557-58 and 1558-59, but when he presented himself in 1572 for election at Midburst he was refused on account of his bad reputation. He married the wealthy widow of William Breton, thus becoming step-father to the poet, Nicholas Breton. Fighting in the Low Countries in 1572 he was driven by stress of weather tq Brill, which had just

ing decade it increased more than threefold. The original area has grown to 39-96 sq.m. At the beginning of the nation-wide strike of steel workers in 1919 (Sept. 22) the walk-out in Gary was almost complete, The city was occupied on Oct. 7 by Federal troops, who were not withdrawn until the strike was called off, on Jan. 7, 1920. For an account of the public school system, see F. P. Bachman and R. Bowman, Tke Gary Public Schools (1918).

GAS, a general term for one of the three states of aggregation

GAS COAL: see Coat anp Coat MINING. GASCOIGNE, GEORGE (c. 1535-1577), English poet, eldest son of Sir John Gascoigne of Cardington, Beds., was born

fallen into the hands of the Dutch. He obtained a captain’s commission, and fought in the campaigns of the next two years. Taken prisoner after the evacuation of Valkenburg by the English troops, be was sent to England in the autumn of 1574. He dedicated to The Gaseous State.—Matter is studied under three physical Lord Grey of Wilton the story of his adventures, The Fruites of phases—solids, liquids and gases, the latter two being sometimes Warres (printed in the edition of 1575) and Gascoigne’s Voyage grouped as “fluids.” The gaseous fluid with which we have chiefly into Hollande. In 1575 he had a share in devising the entertainto do is our atmosphere. Though practically invisible, it appeals ments provided for Queen Elizabeth at Kenilworth and Woodin its properties to, other of our senses; thus we feel it im its stock. Most of his works were actually published during the last motion as wind, and observe the dynamical effects of this motion years of his life, after his return from the wars. He died at Bernack, near Stamford, where he was the guest of George Whetin the quiver of the leaf or the motion of a sailing ship. The practically obvious distinction between solids and fluids may stone, on Oct. 7, 1577. Gascoigne acknowledged Chaucer as his master, and differed be stated in dynamical language thus: Solids can sustain a longitudinal pressure without being supported by a lateral pressure; from the earlier poets of the school of Surrey and Wyatt chiefly fluids cannot. Hence any region of space enclosed by a rigid in the added smoothness and sweetness of his verse. His poems boundary can be easily filled with a fluid, which then takes the were published in 1572 during his absence in Holland with the form of the bounding surface at every point of it. But here we title A hundreth Sundrie Floyres bound up in one small Posie . followed in 1575 by an authorized edition, The Posies of G. distinguish between fluids according as they are gases or liquids, of matter; also more specifically applied to coal-gas, the gaseous product formed in the destructive distillation of coal or other carbonaceous matter (see below, section Gas Manufacture; for gas engines see INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE).

G, Esquire .. . (not dated). This edition contains as preface a treatise on prosody, apparently the earliest in English, “Certayne Notes of Instruction concerning the making of verse or ryme in English.” Gascoigne was a ploneer In many directions. In 1576 he pubSir Oliver Lodge: “A solid has volume and shape; a liquid has lished The Steele Glas, sometimes called the earliest regular Engvolume, but no shape; a gas has neither volume nor shape.” It is necessary to distinguish further between a gas and a lish satire. Although this poem is Elizabethan in form and man“vapour.” The latter possesses the physical property stated above ner, it is written in the spirit of Pers Plowman. Gascoigne bewhich distinguishes a gas from a fluid, but it differs from a gas by gins with a comparison between the sister arts of Satire and

The gas will always completely fill the region, however small the quantity put in. Remove any portion and the remainder will expand so as to fill the whole space again. On the other hand, it requires a definite quantity of liquid to fill the region. To quote

being readily condensible to liquid, either by lowering the temperature or moderately increasing the pressure. The study of the effects of pressure and temperature on many gases led to the intro-

Poetry, and under a comparison between the old-fashioned “‘glas of trustie steele,” and the new-fangled crystal mirrors which he

cussed in the articles Density; THERMOMETRY; CALORIMETRY; DIFFUSION; CONDUCTION QF HEAT; and CONDENSATION OF GASES, The latter has for its province the preparation, collection and identification of gases, and the volume relations in which they combine; in general it deals with specific properties. The historical

which was derived probably from the Phoenissae in the Latin translation of R. Winter. Supposes, a version of Ariosto’s J. Supposit, is an early and excellent adaptation of Italian comedy, and “the earliest play in English prose acted in public or private.”

takes as a symbol of the “Italianate” corruption of the time, he duction of the term “permanent gases,” to denote gases which attacks the amusements of the governing classes, the evils of were apparently not liquefiable; but with improved methods these absentee landiordism, the corruption of the clergy, and pleads for gases have been liquefied and even solidified, thus rendering the the restoration of the feudal ideal, term meaningless. (See LIQUEFACTION oF GaseEs,) “Perfect gas” Againe I see, within my glasse of Steele But foure estates, to serve each country soyle, is applied to an imaginary substance in which there is no frictional The King, the Knight, the Pesant, and the Priest. retardation of molecular motion, i.e., one which obeys Boyle’s The King should care for al the subjects still, law. (See Puysics.) The Knight should fight, for to defend the same, The study of gases may be divided into two main branches: The Pesant, he shoulde labor for their ease, And Priests shuld pray, for them and for themselves.— the physical and the chemical. The former investigates essen(Arber’s. ed. p. 57.) tially general properties, such as the weight and density, the His dramatic work belongs to the period of his residence at relation between pressure, volume and temperature (piezometric and thermometric properties), calorimetric properties, diffusion, Gray’s Inn, both Jocasta (of which Acts i. and iv. were contribviscosity, electrical and thermal conductivity, etc., and generally uted by Francis Kinwelmersh) and Supposes being played there in properties independent of composition. These subjects are dis- 1566. Jocasia is a literal version of Lodovico Dolce’s Giocasta,

development of the chemistry of gases—pneumatic chemistry-—~is

treated in the article CHEMISTRY; the technical analysis of gaseous

mixtures is treated under CHEMISTRY, Gas Aualysis. Connecting

the experimental study of the physical and chemical properties is the immense theoretical edifice termed the kinetic theory of

Udal’s Ralph Roister Doister had been inspired directly by Latin

comedy; Gammer Gurton’s Needle was a purely native product; but Supposes is the first example of the acclimatization of the Italian models that were to exercise so prolonged an influence on the English stage. A third play of Gascoigne’s, The Glasse of Government (published in 1575), is a school drama of the “‘Prodi-

GASCOIGNE—GASHOLDERS

38

gal Son” type, familiar on the Continent at the time, but rare in England. Gascoigne’s

works

not

already

mentioned

include:

“G.G.

in

commendation of the noble Arte of Venerie,” prefixed to The Noble Art of Venerie or Hunting (1575); The Complaynte of Phylomene, bound up with The Steele Glas (1576) ; The Droomme of Doomes-day (1576), a prose compilation from various authors, especially from

the De contemptu mundi of Pope Innocent III., printed with varying titles, earliest ed. (1470?); A Delicate Diet for daintie mouthde Droonkardes .. . (1576), a free version of St. Augustine’s De ebrietate. The Posies (1872) included Supposes, Jocasta, A Discourse of the Adventures of Master Flerdinando] Jleronimi], in imitation of an Italian novella, a partly autobiographical Don Bartholomew of Bath, and miscellaneous poems. The Whole Workes of G.G.... appeared in 1587. In 1868-yo The Complete Poems of GG.... were edited for the Roxburghe Library by W. C. Hazlitt. In his English Reprints Prof. E. Arber included Certayne Notes of Instruction, The Steele Glas and the Complaynt of Philomene. The Steele Glas was also edited for the Library of English Literature, by Henry Morley, vol. i. p. 184 (1889). A new edition, The Works af George Gascoigne (The Cambridge English Classics, 1907, etc.) is edited by Dr. J. W. Cunliffe. See also F. E. Schelling, The Life and Writings of George Gascoigne (Publications of the Univ. of Pennsylvania series in Philology, vol. ii. No. 4, 1894); C. H. Herford, Studies in the Literary Relations of England and Germany in the Sixteenth Century, pp. 149-164 (1886), and “Gascoigne’s Glasse of Government,” in Englische Studien, vol. ix. (Halle, 1877, etc.).

GASCOIGNE, SIR WILLIAM

(c. 1350-1419), chief jus-

tice of England in the reign of Henry IV. Gascoigne practised as an advocate in the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II. On the banishment of Henry of Lancaster Gascoigne was appointed one of his attorneys, and soon after Henry’s accession to the throne was made chief justice of the court of king’s bench. After the suppression of the rising in the north in 1405, Henry eagerly pressed the chief justice to pronounce sentence upon Scrope, the archbishop of York, and the earl marshal Thomas Mowbray, who had been implicated in the revolt. This he absolutely refused to do, asserting the right of the prisoners to be tried by their peers. Although both were afterwards executed, the chief

justice had no part in the transaction. The oft-told tale of his committing the prince of Wales to prison is unauthentic, though it is characteristic of Gascoigne’s independence. Gascoigne appears to have been removed from his post or resigned soon after the accession of Henry V. He died in 1419, and was buried in the parish church of Harewood in Yorkshire.

GASCONY (Wasconta), an old province in the south-west of France. It takes its name from the Vascones, a Spanish tribe, which in 580'’and 587 crossed the Pyrenees and invaded the district known to the Romans as Novempopulana or Aquitania tertia. Basque, the national language of the Vascones, took root only ina few of the high valleys of the Pyrenees, such as Soule and Labourd; in the plains Latin dialects prevailed, Gascon being a Romance language. In the 7th century the name of Vasconia

1369, was due in part to a dispute over the sovereignty of Gas. cony, and during its course the whole of the duchy save a few towns and fortresses was lost; but the victories of Henry V. in northern France postponed for a time the total expulsion of the foreigner. This was reserved for the final stage of the war and was one result of the efforts of Joan of Arc, the year 1451 wit-

nessing the capture of Bayonne and the final retreat of the Eng. lish troops from the duchy. The French kings, especially Louis XI., managed to restore the royal authority in the duchy, although this was not really accomplished until the close of the 15th century when the house of Armagnac was overthrown. It was by means of administrative measures that these kings attained their object. Gascony

was governed on the same lines as other parts of France and from the time of Henry IV., who was prince of Béarn, and who united his hereditary lands with the crown, its history differs very slightly from that of the rest of the country. The Renais-

sance inspired the foundation of educational institutions and the Reformation was largely accepted in Béarn, but not in other parts of Gascony. The wars of religion swept over the land, which was the scene of some of the military exploits of Henry IY., and Louis XIV. made some slight changes in its government. As may be surmised the boundaries of Gascony varied from time to time, but just before the outbreak of the Revolution they were the Atlantic Ocean, Guienne, Languedoc and the Pyrenees, and from east to west the duchy at its greatest extent measured 170 miles. At the end of the ancien régime Gascony was united with Guienne to form a great military government. After the division of France into departments, Gascony, together with Béarn, French Navarre and the Basque country, formed the departments of Basses-Pyrénées, Landes, Hautes-Pyrénées and Gers. Parts of Gascony also now form arrondissements and cantons of

the departments of Lot-et-Garonne, Haute-Garonne, Ariège and Tarn-et-Garonne. ra See Barrau-Dihigo, “La Gascogne,” a bibliography

of manuscript

Sources and of printed works published in the Revue de synthèse his-

torique (1903); A. Larroquette, Les landes de Gascogne & la forêt landaise Mort-de-Marsan (1924); Eleanor C. Lodge, Gascony under English Rule (1926).

GAS ENGINE: sce INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE. k GAS-FILLED LAMP: see ErectrIc Lamrs AND VALVES, MANUFACTURE OF; LIGHTING. GASHOLDERS. As the manufacture of gas must be maintained at while the hours of produced

an approximately even rate throughout the 24 hours, rate of consumption varies considerably at the different the day, it is necessary to provide storage for the gas during the periods of minimum demand, and also to

provide against any temporary breakdown in the manufacturing

plant. In the early days of the gas industry the vessel in which the gas was stored was known as a “gasometer,” as this vessel readily recognized the sovereignty of the Merovingian kings, but had to serve the dual purpose of storing and measuring the amount in reality they remained independent. They even appointed of gas made. With the advent of the station meter in the year national dukes, against whom Charlemagne had to fight at the 1820 for measuring the volume of gas, the name of “gasholder” beginning of his, reign. Finally Duke Lupus II. made his sub- was adopted, but even now in Great Britain journalists and others mission in 819, and the Carolingians were able to establish Frank- invariably use the technically obsolete word “gasometer.” : ish dukes in the country. After the death of Duke Arnaud in The' capacity of the gasholder should be equal to at least 75% ' 864 the history of Gascony falls into the profoundest obscurity. of the maximum daily output. There are now four distinctive In the feudal-period Gascony comprised a great number of count- types of gasholders: (1) frame guided, (2) spirally guided, (3) ships ‘(inchiding Armagnac, Bigorre, Fézensac, Gaure and Par- dry or tankless; (4) spherical. The frame guided and spirally diac), viscountships (including Béarn, Lomagne, Dax; Juliac, guided holders may have one or more lifts, the one lift type Soule, Marsan, Tartas, Labourd ahd Maremne) and seigneuries being known as a single lift holder, and the other as a telescopic ég., Albref} etc). 0 Ta gasholder, the latter type being generally adopted for economic ' During the Hundred' Years’ War Gascony was a battle-field reasons. The movable vessel in which the gas is stored is known: for the forces of England and of France. The French'seized the as the floating gasholder. The steel structure which guides fhe düchy, but, aided by the rivalry between the powerful houses floating holder as it ascends or descends is termed the guide of Feix ‘and Armagnac, Edward III. was able to recover it, and framing, and is erected round the circumference of the steel or’ bythe treaty of Bretigny in 1360 John IL. recognized the abso- brick ‘tank ‘which contains the water for sealing the sides of the’ lute sovereignty of England therein. Handed over as a principality floating gasholder, thus preventing the escape of gas, Gas is: By Edward to his son, the Black Prince, it was used by its new admitted into the holder by nreans of an inlet pipe which passes:

was ‘substituted for that of Novempopulana.

‘The Vascones

Tuler ‘as @ base during his expedition into Spain, in which he re-

_beived substantial help from the Gascon nobles.

The renewal

of the war`between England and France, which took place in

through the bottom ‘of the tank, and extends to a’height of about)

6 in.’ abéve the water level; another similar pipe is provided as

an outlet for the’ gas to thedistrict mains; both pipes being cont

GASHOLDERS trolled by slide valves.

The telescopic form of holder (fig. 1) consists of two or more lifts, which work or slide inside one another, much in the same way as an ordinary telescope. The inner or first lift is constructed to a certain diameter, according to the capacity required, and the diameter of each succeeding lift is increased by about 2 ft., whilst the depth of each lift would be constant, and equal to about onefifth the diameter. In order to secure a gas-tight joint between

=

cA

PIE

i)

EEA

a

SN

-ots Zy SAN INL A BEIAL Zh

ae HY i S

Bedel

eia

\ yk

ZH Za TICES st HERTZ CESHE Lt pt te

Ht

Nt ee

eT

LL

7, ni

le fn

N lt fh

39

the tank walls with cement. Steel tanks are usually erected on a flat bed of concrete, laid at a foot or so below the normal ground level, the sides being formed of a number of tiers of steel plates varying in thickness to suit the pressure due to the depth of water in the tank. Steel tanks are much less costly than either brick or concrete tanks, and can be much more quickly erected. Frame Guided Gasholders.—These consist of a series of

columns or standards fixed at equal distances round the circumference of the tank, which are connected together by one or more tiers of horizontal girders or struts, and a series of diagonal bracing rods, thus forming a continuous tie all round. The guide framing may be carried up to the full height of the holder when fully inflated, or to the top of the second lift only, thus allowing the inner lift to run clear of the guide framing, which is then known as a “flying lift.” Channel guide runs are fixed to the inner face of the standards, to form a pathway for the guide rollers— which are attached to the crown and the dip of each lift—to work up and down for the purpose of guiding the gasholder and enabling it to withstand the overturning force of the wind. The underside of each cup is fitted with a corresponding number of radial rollers, which run in channel guides fixed to the inside of the next adjoining lift: the bottom curb of, the outer lift is also fitted with similar rollers working in channel guides fixed to the sides of the tank.

Spirally Guided Gasholders.—The floating lifts of a spirally

A,

guided gasholder (fig. 3) are practically the same in construction

DIA ARN

EO

FIG.

1—ELEVATION

AND

SECTIONAL

PLAN

2

Gj

OF TELESCOPIC

GASHOLDERS

This type consists of two or more lifts working into each other on the telescopic principle. The diameters of the lifts decrease by 2 ft., the depths

remaining constant

the lifts as they leave the tank, the bottom row of sheeting of the inner lift is prepared with a channel cup about 18 in. deep, whilst the top row of sheeting of the adjoining lift is fitted with an inverted channel cup, usually termed the “dip” (fig. 2). As, the inner lift rises out of the water in the tank, the channel cup engages with the dip, thus making a gas-tight water-sealed joint between the lifts. Each succeeding lift is fitted with a dip at the top, and a cup at the bottom, with the exception of the final or outer lift, which is provided with a dip at the top only, and a strong angle steel curb at the bottom. The crown of the holder is dome-shaped, and when at rest in the tank, is either supported by a trussed steel roof forming part of the inner lift, or upon a permanent steel or timber framing erected in the tank. The sheeting of the sides and crown of the holder is about 4 in. thick, with the exception of the rows of sheets adjoining the cup and dip, and also the junction between the crown and sides of the inner lift, which are much thicker, in order to allow for extra wear and strain at these points.

The tank may be constructed in brick, concrete or steel. Brick and concrete tanks are usually constructed by excavating the ground and building up the sides of the tarik, so that the top of same

finishes ‘about’ 6 in. above the ordinary ground-level. Water-tight-

FIG. 2.—CROSS-SECTION OF THE ‘*‘CUP AND DIP,’’ WHICH MAKES THE CONNECTION BETWEEN THE TWO LIFTS AND FORMS THE HYDRAULIC SEAL

of as the frame guided holder, with the exception that a number. double flanged rails, inclined at an angie of. 45° are secured. to the side sheeting of each.lift.at equal distances round, the circumference. The spiral guides run between a corresponding number

ness is obtained by encasing the bottom and side walls of the of sets of rollers (fig. 4) mounted in adjustable carriages, secured,

of tank in'a layer of clay puddle, or by: coating the inside surface of to the dips of the holder and top curb of the tank. Thè action

GASHOLDERS

4.0

the holder in rising or falling is comparable with the action of a| number of automatically controlled electric pumps, to the top of coarse threaded screw, and the spiral motion thereby imparted to | the tower. the floating vessel is sufficient to maintain the holder in a level Spherical Gasholders.—This type (fig. 6) is principally used condition, and enables it to resist the overturning force produced for storing gas under pressure. It is a plain sphere of simple conby the wind. This form of holder costs from ro to 15% less struction, usually about 50 ft. in diameter, formed of steel plates than the frame guided holder. about 5% of an inch thick. The gas to be stored is forced by a Dry Gasholdets.—In this type of holder (fig. 5) the tank with its water content is dispensed with, thereby greatly reducing the cost of foundations. The tankless gasholder consists of a cylindrical steel plate tower, within which a horizontal disc or piston moves up or down, receiving or expelling the gas. The piston is guided in its vertical movement by a system of rollers, travelling up or down the inner sides of the steel cylinder. The periphery or outer edge of the piston is lubricated and maintained gas-tight by means of several layers of moulded rubber packing rings, which |

TORO? SZN 7) KENVi

Hry

PAN

ON CYtf WERT

M

\{i ’ |

0 TO OOOO OQRRO O| Ne ASSee

Y

NN

NCH NT TOT NT [ENE TEN

Por

FRONT ELEVATION FIG. 4.—FRONT AND SET OF ROLLERS

TS

it UNL a

LR

RT

END ELEVATION END

ELEVATIONS

OF SPIRAL

GUIDE

RUN

BETWEEN

compressing plant into the sphere at a pressure of about 50 lb. per sq.in. When the gas leaves the outlet of the sphere, it is passed through suitable controlling governors, which reduces the pressure to such an extent as will meet the needs of the consumers. A

STL

UNE CE ON ae

sphere filled at a pressure of 50 lb. per sq.in. will store and deb ihn ‘ KÀ 4 S

N E

A

i

L Laa ba, Ben

OS

ELEVATION

N

FIG. 3.—THE

ELEVATION

AND

PLAN

OF SPIRALLY

GUIDED

GASHOLDER

SECTIONAL. ELEVATION

The construction differs from the telescopic type in having a number of doubleflanged ralls, inclined at 45°, secured to the side sheeting of each lift

effectively confine the gas to the underside of the piston. The | interior of the tower above the piston is freely accessible, well ventilated, and lighted by openings provided in the sides of the tower above the highest gas level. The packing seal, guide rollers and lubricators can, therefore, be readily inspected at any time, without interfering with the normal working of the gasholder. The roof of the dry gasholder does not enclose the gas—this being the function of the moving piston—and is only required to perform the duty of sheltering the moving piston from rain, snow

SECTIONAL PLAN

and dust. Another type of dry gasholder consists of a polygonal steel tower, with movable piston, similar in construction to that previously described, but in this design the periphery of the piston is.maintained gas-tight by means of a light gas-tar of moderate

viscosity, contained in an annulus formed on the outer edge of

the piston. As this seal is not absolutely tar-tight, a small quantity òf tar escapes and flows to the bottom of the cylinder, where it isscollected:ia a, series of chambers, and is pumped up again by a a

FIG.

5.—DRY

GASHOLDER

IN WHICH

WATER

TANK

1S ELIMINATED

In this type of holder a great reduction in foundation costs is effected.

The

holder cansists of a cylindrical steel tower in which a horizontal piston moves up and down, recelving or expelling the gas

:

IN WARFARE—GAS

GAS

liver about 34 times its cubical content at the lower pressure re-

quired in the distributing mains. See R. J. Milbourne, Gaskolder Design and Construction.

(R. J. Mz.)

T i j1 N

PAAA

M LEAN (LLL AIT BEET SEEPILLL WUWEI, OOOO

PRL

AI

MANUFACTURE

the much earlier work of Jane Austen. In Ruth (1853) Mrs. Gaskell again presents Knutsford, thinly disguised, and the little Unitarian chapel in that town. North and South, a powerful tale of the industrial revolution, first published serially in Household Words, was separately published in 1855. Then came—in 1857—-the Life of Charlotte Brontë, in two volumes. Two years earlier Miss Bronté had begged her publishers to postpone the issue of her own novel, Villette, in order that her friend’s Ruth should not suffer. This biography, by its vivid presentation of the tragic story of the three Bronté sisters, gave its author a place among English biographers.

In 1863 Mrs. Gaskell published her last long novel, Sylvta’s

Lovers, a romantic tale of Whitby smugglers and the press-gang riots. In the same year a one-volume story, A Dark Night’s Work,

and Cousin Phyllis and other Tales, appeared. Mrs. Gaskell died on Nov. 12, 1865, at Holyburn, Alton, Hants, and was buried in the graveyard of the Knutsford Unitarian church. Her unfinished novel, Wives and Daughters, was published in 2 vols. in 1866. See J. A. Payne, Mrs.

Gaskell and Knutsford

(2nd ed., 19005);

E. K. Chadwick, Mrs. Gaskell (2nd ed., 1913, with bibliography); and J. J. van Dulleman, Mrs. Gaskell, Novelist and Biographer.

This London GAS LIGHT AND COKE COMPANY. public utility company, working under Act of Parliament, had in 1928 an issued capital of over £35,000,000, and employed 20,000 men, whose interest in the company under its co-partnership scheme was £738,000. It was granted a royal charter in 1812, but

for many years had to face serious competition. In 1870 the City of London and Great Central companies were FIG. 6.—SPHERICAL GASHOLDER USED FOR STORING GAS UNDER PRESSURE This type consists of a plain steẹl sphere, the contained gas being forced in a

a pressure of 50 Ib. per square inch

GAS IN WARFARE: see CHEMICAL WARFARE. GASKELL, ELIZABETH CLEGHORN (1810-1865), English novelist and biographer, was born’ on Sept. 29, 1810, in a house in Lindsay row, Chelsea, London; now 93 Cheyne walk. Her father, William Stevenson (1772-1829), had been successively

Unitarian minister, farmer, boarding-house keeper for students at Edinburgh, editor of the Scots Magazine, and contributor to the Edinburgh Review before he received the post of keeper of the records to the Treasury, which he held until his death. His first wife, Elizabeth Holland, died a month after her daughter, Elizabeth, was born, and the babe was taken to Knutsford, Cheshire,

to be adopted by her maternal aunt, Mrs. Lumb. Thus her childhood was spent in the environment idealized in Cranford. From 1824 to 1826 Elizabeth went to school at Stratford-on-Avon, from

amalgamated with the old chartered company, and in the next six years the company’s position was consolidated by a further series of amalgamations to be followed later by those with the London Gas Light company (1883), with the West Ham company (1910), with the Barking & Chigwell and Loughton & Woodford companies (1912), with the Ilford company (1922) and with

the Brentford company (1926). About the same time began the more detailed regulation of the company by parliament, under which, inter alia, the dividends now decrease as the price of gas increases, and vice versa, while the quality of the gas supplied

is continually tested by a staff of public officers. In the early years gas but the invention of the increased the efficiency of to the company generally. for heating purposes and

was used almost wholly for lighting, incandescent mantle (1895) not only gas lighting, but gave a fresh stimulus Gas began to be more and more used in 1914 the official gas tests for heat

value began to be made.

During the World War the company

also supplied benzene, toluene and other raw materials for explosives. After the war, many new technical developments led to 1827 to 1829 she lived in London with her father and his second a very rapid growth of the company. Since 1920 gas has been sold wife; and after two winters at Newcastle-on-Tyne in the family only on the basis of heat content (Gas Regulation Act) and measof William Turner, a Unitarian minister, and a third in Edin- ured on this basis the increase in the output of gas has been burgh, she married, on Aug. 30, 1832, William Gaskell, minister about 25% in the five years 1922-1927. In 1927 2,642,000 tons of coal were carbonized and 46,300,of the Unitarian chapel in Cross street, Manchester, and from 1846 to 1853 professor of English history and literature in Man- o00,c00cu.ft. of gas sold to 1,207,520 consumers and distributed chester New college. They lived first in Dover street, then in through 3,885m. of main. The coke made was 1,672,000 tons and the output of coal tar 27,000,ccogal.; other items were Rumford street, and finally, in 1850, at 84 Plymouth grove. Mrs. Gaskell and her husband thought to emulate George 23,000 tons of sulphate of ammonia and 7,250,oco0gal. of creosote. (L. C. M.) Crabbe and write the annals of the Manchester poor, but only

one poetic “sketch” appeared (Blackwood’s Magazine, 1837). In 1844, while they were visiting North Wales, their infant son died, and to distract Mrs. Gaskell from her sorrow her husband sug-

GAS MANUFACTURE.

When coal is heated out of con-

tact with air it is resolved into a stable solid residue, known as coke, and volatile matter, the principal constituent of which is gested a long work of fiction. Hence Mery Barton, a Tale of gas, known as coal gas. The coke residue may be gasified in Manchester Life was begun. It was published in 2 vols., 1848; its steam to make water gas. Coal gas, either alone or mixed with

appeal for neighbourly love, its dramatic power and humour winning for the author the friendship of Carlyle, Landor and

water gas, is distributed in pipes for public supply.

one sketch, reprinted in the “World’s Classics” edition (1907), that was published in All the Year Round for Nov. 1863. Cran-

Another kind of gas can be made if air is blown either alone or mixed with steam through a deep hot bed of coal. From half

Coal gas has an average heating value of about 500 British

Dickens. Dickens asked her, in 1850, to contribute to his new Thermal Units per cubic foot and water gas, unless enriched by magazine, Household Words, and here the whole of Cranford carburetting (as see below), has a heating value of some 300 appeared at intervals from Dec. .1851 to May 1853, exclusive of B.T.U. per cubic foot. ford is an English’ classic. It is a picture of Knutsford indeed, but a work of imagination that has a place in literature beside

to two-thirds of this gas by volume is made up of the nitrogen contained in the air used for gasification, and the heating value

4.2

GAS MANUFACTURE

of such gas is of a much lower order than that of coal gas or water gas on that account, running about 120-160 B.T.U. per cubic foot. This is the form of gaseous fuel mainly used for large industrial furnaces and is known as producer gas.

Now

Temperature

Carbonization

in

Iron

there is a gradual process of condensation.

High temperature ;

Hori-

Vertical retorts

zontal

:

telórta

Low

:

temperature

Without | With

4

steam ES |

i

steam yy| ery

Sr

Carbon dioxide .

‘Unsaturated hydro-

; »€arbon

n,

Oxygen

z

í

Carbon monoxide"

‘Hydrogen

.

Methane

.'.

|.

Nitrogen „i:

rc

T. _ Crude naphtha . a a i Jie’:

- Water . , Light o

nee

ecg

RS

ró | Ammonia . .2:6 | Sulphate as thiocyaa Sulghat meee "4

Carbolic oil ae bi . ‘ae Ui iti

Creosoteol . l Bitch -ae ET i SS

|

phate as s

‘Hydrocyanic ‘| thiocyanate

this is driven

off in

In gas manufacture,

Retorts.—

Murdoch’s gas making apparatus was an iron retort placed in an inclined position, and heated by a fire burning on a grate below. For a long time, the retorts commonly employed in gas works were made of cast iron, which being charged with the coal to be carbonized, were heated by small coal to a temperature which probably ran from 600—700° C, a much lower temperature than now obtains, as is indicated by the yield of gas, which ran from 6,000~7,000 cu.ft. per ton of coal. Further description will be facilitated by a consideration of the principles involved in the carbonization process, that is the heating of coal out of contact with air. The essential elementary constituents of a coal are carbon, | hydrogen and oxygen, with small quantities of nitrogen and| sulphur and some incombustible matter. On heating out of contact with air, the coal fuses more or less and partially decomposes. Gaseous products of decomposition force their way through the plastic mass and give it a honeycombed structure. By the process of decomposition, however, the coal becomes less fusible, until it becomes a porous solid known as coke. Further heating drives off more gas and results in a shrinkage and hardening of the coke. The volatile matter coming away in the early stages is rich in easily condensible tarry matter and gaseous hydrocarbons. At a temperature above 800° C, the volatile matter is principally hydrogen gas. The following analyses are given to exemplify the composition of coal-gas, tar and liquor.

Gasks

the volatile matter,

the cooling is hastened by washing with water, which also removes ammonia, formed from the nitrogen compounds in the coal. The consequence is that the volatile matter is divided into three portions, two of them liquid but not mixing, because one

GAS FOR PUBLIC SUPPLY The first use made of coal gas was as an illuminant, burning without any previous admixture of air with a yellowish luminous flame. The earliest observation and demonstration of this property has been ascribed to John Clayton and to Jean Pierre Minckelers, but the first practical application on any considerable scale seems to have been made by William Murdoch who ran a small experimental plant in 1795, lighted a Soho factory by gas a few years later, and in Feb. 1808 was awarded the Rumford Medal of the Royal Society of London for his invention as described in a paper read before the Society. The Gas Light and Coke Company (g.v.) was incorporated in London in 1812. Low

considering

gaseous form owing to the high temperature, but on cooling down

e.

as ..

13:0 | Carbon dioxide as carbonate . 61-3. «4 Chlorine as chloride Phenol : Pyridine

|

ŘS

1°58 OrL2: To

o 0-21

:

'

1:78 0°36

FIG. 1.—SIMPLE GRATE BELOW

SETTING

OF A SINGLE

RETORT

DIRECT-FIRED

FROM

A

is oily, the tar, while,the other is the so-called ammonia liquor. The third portion is the gas which, after purification from sulphuretted hydrogen, is ready for distribution. It will be readily understood that both the quantities and the compositions of the tar, liquor and gas vary according to the nature of the original coal and the conditions of manufacture, particularly the temperature. The low temperature products are those resulting from the first processes of break-down in the coal. The high temperature products contain many of the substances formed by the secondary decomposition of the primary products, brought about by subjecting them to a higher temperature. The difference shows itself very plainly in the gas yield, which is much higher for high temperature working, and in the nature of the gas which contains much more hydrogen and less of the easily decomposable ‘compounds of carbon and hydrogen. The tar is usually smaller in amount for high temperature working and it is characterized by the presence of the so-called aromatic hydrocarbons ‘of the benzene type, which are products of secondary decomposition and are absent from low temperature tars. The increased yield of gas in high temperature workin is partly ‘due ‘to ‘the secondary decomposition of some of the more decomposable tar constituents, although it is mainly accounted for by an extensive formation of hydrogen peculiar to high temperature working. Fire-clay Retorts.—The volume of gas obtainable by working in iron retorts was limited by the properties of this material. An important advance was made when fire-clay was substituted for iron in ‘the construction of the retorts, because a higher temperature was petmissible and further improvement of a

_tadical character followed ‘when, in the heating of these retorts, gas firing and the récuperative principle could be employed. Recuperative Retorts.—This will be understood from fig. 2,

which showsasetting of

-shaped horizontal fire-clay retorts

in, a: setting. They are heated by a gas made by, passing air through, a deep, layer of red hot coke. ‘This. gas; meeting hot air

J| immediately, under the retorts, burns around them and carboniges

GAS MANUFACTURE the coal contained therein., The waste gases, after heating the retorts, do not, however, pass away directly to a chimney, as in

would supply, insistence, however, being rightly made upon the maintenance of that standard as all-important. These alterations in the conditions of manufacture and use, and in legislation, have permitted and encouraged such developments in gas manufacture

the old “direct” firing (fig. 1), but are turned downwards into the recuperator, where they pass along channels in which they are only separated by a thin fire-clay partition from air travelling upwards to meet the gas. By this plan, some of the heat is abstracted from the waste gases and restored to the setting in the air used for combustion. Consequently, less heat leaves the setting, and a higher temperature can be attained accompanied by a fuel economy. This system of carbonization in horizontal recuperative fire-clay retorts rapidly became standard practice, and remains so to a considerable extent. It enabled an average | gas yield of 10,000 cu.ft. of gas per ton of coal to be obtained, | and lowered the expenditure of fuel required for heating the| setting from 25-30% of the weight of coal carbonized to 15-20%. Although excellent in many ways, the horizontal retort setting as so far described had the disadvantage of requiring heavy labour for hand charging. This drawback has been te some extent neutralized by the use of mechanical charging machines.

Other methods were, however, coming forward by which the aid of gravity could be invoked for the moving of the coal and coke during carbonization, and some other advantages secured. Vertical Retorts.—The simplest form of the vertical retort was one in which the retorts were all set vertically instead of horizontally, as in the past, and, being filled with coal, were heated until the whole of the charge had been carbonized, after which it was withdrawn. This so-called Intermittent Vertical System was patented in England by Bueb in 1904, after previous trial at the Dessau Gas Works. It had the advantage, as compared with the hand-charged horizontal retort setting, of lessening labour and requiring less ground space for a given output. It had also the new characteristic, that the retort could be fully charged, thereby lessening that contact of the volatile matter with red hot coke and the walls of the retort, which make for secondary decomposition. A further advance was made almost at once by the introduction of continuous working into the vertical retort system by which, instead of completing the carbonization of the

43

FLUES

CIRCULATING ES

6 aU 2Ò u FLU USTION

= O5 & 5zZ O Q

aak

PRODUCER GAS

AIR

Peas ze

A

7N]

whole charge before withdrawing any portion of the coke residue, a continuous feed of coal was made to the top of the retort and coke was continuously withdrawn from the bottom by an extracting mechanism. The principal names associated with this system are WoodallDuckham, Glover-West and Robert Dempster and Sons, and it has been widely adopted. The idea had been applied with limited success previously by Settle and Padfield. Fig. 3 illustrates a setting of Glover-West retorts which can be taken as typical. The heating gas from the producer passes through apertures,

WASTE GAS UPTAKE

SECONDARY AIR

UPTAKES PRODUCER GAS UPTAKE

SAMPLING TUBES

HORIZONTAL RETORTS

5NO. SECTION TOP OF FLUE CIRCULATING COMBUSTION

BY COURTESY OF THE COUNCIL OF THE |NSTITUTLON OF GAS ENGINEERS. FIG. 3.—A SETTING OF 8 VERTICAL GAS RETORTS IN ELEVATION AND IN PLAN BELOW

i ABOVE,

as make for more complete gasification of coal, z.¢., obtaining, a larger proportion of its potential heat in the gas made. ..:

Steaming.—One mode of obtaining this result, to. which refer-

FIG. 2.—CROSS SECTION AND LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS OF A SETTING OF 6 HORIZONTAL RETORTS which can be regulated, into heating channels surrounding the retorts. ‘The upper sections are heated by waste gases alone. _ The heating quality of the gas is now of paramount importance. As a consequence, the heating value of a gas per cubic foot has

become recognized as of more consequence, than its illuminating power in “standard candles” and has become the statutory method of defining its quality, The British Gas Regulation Act of 1920 introduced the sale of gas by the therm, a therm being 100,000 B,T.U., and allowed gas companies and authorities to specify the standard quality in B.T.U.’s per cubic foot of the gas they

ence has already been made, has been working at-a higher temperature. . That has demanded special attention to: the quality of the refractory materials used in the construction of. the retorts and their settings and has led to an increase-in the use: of,,silica,

instead of fire-clay in vital. parts subject, te the higher temperatures... By such means, higher yields of gas per ton (13,000 ft. per ton) have become common. The gas.go :madejis rich in hydrogen and poorer in illuminating constituents than was commonly. supplied previously for,lighting-purposes and is lower :in calorific value, say 500, as. against 600; B.T.U. -per cubic foot. . Another method of ipcreasing the yield in yolume and thermal

units has come into use, known,as the “steaming”’ of vertical gas

retorts, which is, carried out_by-introducing steam at the base of.

GAS MANUFACTURE

44

SCRUBBER

WASHER

PURIFIERS

EXHAUSTER

u ee a EakLane e ima

aanl

GAS HOLDER

CONDENSERS pantfasarseebean] jpamamtenennhbebe

joss oats

RETORT HOUSE

TAR

LIQUOR

BY COURTESY

OF J.

E. CHRISTOPHER

FIG. 4.——TYPICAL

LAY-OUT

OF A GAS WORKS,

SHOWING,

FROM

LEFT TO RIGHT,

CONSECUTIVE

STEPS

IN THE PROCESS

OF MANUFACTURING

the continuous vertical gas*retort where it can react with the red

the ascension pipe and condensing of tarry matter.

hot coke. By this means an addition is made to the volume of gas by the interaction of carbon and steam which generates water gas (see below). An investigation by the Joint Research Committee of the University of Leeds and the Institution of Gas Engineers, carried out on a Glover-West setting of continuous vertical retorts, showed that a lean coal which, without steam, gave 10,400 cu.ft. of gas per ton of a calorific value of 544 B.T.U. per cu. ft. (gross), or 56-5 therms in gas per ton, gave when steaming was applied to the extent of 26.4% of steam on the weight of coal used, a yield increased to 16,900 cu.ft. of gas with a calorific value of 447 B.T.U. per cu.ft., or 75-7 therms in the gas nade per ton of coal. Thermal Efficiency.—The development of gas practice, as traced above, has resulted not only in a greater yield of gas but

together of the gas from a number of retorts into a hydraulic main is common practice. Easily condensible constituents come down there and in the following foul main which leads to the condensers. These are vertical pipes of considerable area and the cooling effect of air upon them causes such a lowering of temperature in the gas as to bring down both tar and water, which are gathered from the bases of the condenser pipes. The pipes themselves may be circular or may be made annular, so as to make a sort of chimney up which air will pass the more rapidly

in an increased thermal efficiency for the whole process

of

carbonization, that is the total number ‘of heat units obtainable by the combustion of the products, gas, coke and tar, has come gradually to form a higher proportion of the heat ‘units con-

Collecting

because it is warmed by the enclosing gas in the annular space. Water is sometimes used with success instead of air as a condensing medium. The next stage is the washing or scrubbing of the gas in which more complete cooling of the gas can be secured, and at the same time the dissolving out of soluble constituents carried by the gas. The construction of washers and scrubbers has called for many designs but intimacy of contact between gas and

liquid in the scrubber is sought in every case.

In the Livesey

Washer for example, the gas stream is repeatedly broken up and

tained in the coal carbonized. This has been effected by improved design of the setting and the use of the recuperative principle,

forced through water by an ingenious device. ~-In the scrubber,

retort practice it may be taken that for every 100 heat units contained in the coal carbonized, 24 will appear in the gas, 42 in the

from a revolving cone or cage (K. H. C. Feld). The condensing

as shown in fig. 4, the gas passes up a tower packed with boards, resulting in a lowered consumption of coke for the heating of coke, rings or other filling, so arranged as to give a large surface the retorts. Moreover, by the use of higher temperatures and of‘ contact, with the descending current of water or weak liquor steaming, the proportion of the heating value of the coal ob- whicli? is relied upon to complete the removal of ammonia from tained in the gas has been increased, as compared with that left the gas. Another type of scrubber contains slowly revolving disc in the coke. This is of primary importance, because in the consideration of a carbonization process it As necessary to bear in brushes, the fibres of which are alternately moistened by liquid mind that, owing to the efficiency of gas in use as compared with in the bottom of the scrubber and exposed to the gas current that of a solid fuel, the thermal value of a heat unit carried by which they are çalled upon to purify (Holmes, “Standard”). gas is much greater than that of a heat unit in coal or coke, Some use is made in the gas industry of centrifugal washers conusually two to four times as great and the comparative mone- sisting of a number of superposed chambers in each of which the tary value is correspondingly increased. In normal horizontel gas passes through a spray of liquid thrown out centrifugally coke available for sale after the heating of the retorts has been provided for and 5-6 in tar, which means that 71-6 of the original heat units have been obtained in the available useful products

of carbonization. Otherwise expressed the thermal efficiency of the carbonization process so conducted is 71-6%, 28-4% having been used and lost in the manufacture. In a more modern installation

and washing described will remove excess of moisture from the gas, ammonia and the more easily condensable tarry constituents. If, however, it is required to remove such volatile tar constituents as benzene and toluene with any degree of completeness, a further scrubbing with creosote oil or gas oil is found to be necessary.

a higher value would be attained, for example, in the investiga-

As shown in fig. 4, the tar and liquor condensed at different points of the system are led away to a common well, but there

tion of steaming reported above, the efficiencies of carbonization varied from 80-83%. Purification of Gas.—As indicated above, the volatile matter driven off from the coal and leaving the retort contains permanent gas and constituents more or less easily condensed or

is room for much discretion and modification in this respect. One constituent of coal gas which by law has to be completely eliminated if the gas is to be used for public supply, iis sulphuretted hydrogen, and the final process of purification in ordinary practice is to pass the gas through iron oxide purifiers, and thence to

principle. The succession of parts is indicated diagrammatically

sorbs sulphuretted hydrogen rapidly, becoming converted into

washed from it. Treatment for this purpose is made in a train gas-holders (see Gas Horners). The purifiers contain hydrated of apparatus which varies widely in detail but not much in oxide of iron, or similar material spread on grids. The oxide ab-

in fig. 4, In fig. ta so-called “ascension” pipe CH) is shown leading up-

sulphide. If, owing to this conversion, the sulphide material no

longer operative in absorbing sulphuretted hydrogen, is removed wards from a horizontal retort, then bending over and dipping be- and exposed to air, it is re-oxidized with the formation of free low the‘ liquid sealin the so-called hydraulic main, thé seal being sulphur. If a small amount of air is admitted along with the used’ to prevent access of air to the main when the retort is gas to the purifiers, this re-oxidation will take place in situ, and opened’ for charging and discharging. Some cooling occurs in this is usually done. When the sulphur content of the fouled

GAS MANUFACTURE

45

oxide has reached some 50%, the material is sold for the making | a cycle of operations which is carried out systematically. The coke

of sulphuric acid. Most of the sulphur in the gas is contained | is blown with steam until, by lowering temperature, the carbon dioxide produced in the water gas is lowering its quality too far. remains, however, a small quantity occurring as carbon bisul- During the steam blow, the water gas made is carried forward to phide and not removed by oxide of iron. It has been shown by a scrubber, down which water is running and then goes forward to Carpenter and Evans that by thermal treatment in the presence joint the main gas stream of the works for purification from sulof a nickel catalyst the carbon bisulphide can be converted into phuretted hydrogen. This water gas should have a calorific value sulphuretted hydrogen, subsequently removed. The sulphuretted hydrogen to be removed from the gas is

as sulphuretted hydrogen and is removed by this process. There

dependent upon the composition of the coal and other factors, but is of the order of 1% and the carbon bisulphide about onetwentieth of this amount or less. Of the same small order of magnitude are cyanogen and naphthalene. Ammonia.—Liquor containing the ammonia washed out of the gas is either sold as such or used at gas works for the production of ammonium sulphate. When distilled with lime, ammonia is driven off from it and being absorbed in sulphuric acid, forms the sulphate which constitutes a valuable manure. The quantity obtained at gas works usually lies between 20 and 30 lb. of ammonium sulphate per ton. The ammonia yield can be increased by steaming the retorts, but the liquor obtained is usually weaker because of the passage of undecomposed steam from the top of the gas retort into the gas. A weaker liquor has a lower commercial value if it has to be sent away for treatment and has the further disadvantage that after distillation for ammonia the residual liquor is greater in amount. The direct method of ammonia recovery in which the gas is passed through sulphuric acid for the absorption of ammonia, instead of effecting a separation of the ammonia liquor and distilling it has found little application in gas works. Tar.—The tar made at gasworks is subjected to a complicated process of distillation, resolving it into fractions which boil over in different temperature ranges, the fractions being afterwards refined. These operations are usually carried out at separate tar distilleries. The average yield of tar by the ordinary gasworks process can be taken as 5% of the weight of coal carbonized. At lower temperatures, more tar is produced and the light oil fraction coming over on distillation is usually greater in volume.

Water Gas.—A limited gasification of coke in steam can be effected in the continuous vertical retort as described above, but the complete gasification of the carbon in coke is carried out in an entirely different type of apparatus, known as a water gas plant. At high temperatures, carbon decomposes steam into hydrogen and carbon monoxide, but with an absorption of heat

GAS AND STEAM REVERSING GEAR

STACK VALVE ti

BLAST VALVE

GEAR

STACK WATER INLET

AIR INLET

BY

COURTESY

OF

THE

INSTITUTE

FIG. 5.—BLUE

OF

GAS

ENGINEERS

WATER-GAS

PLANT,

SHOWING

PARTS

of 300 B.T.U. per cu.ft. When the steam blast is replaced by air, in order to restore the high temperature in the fuel bed, the producer gas generated being heavily charged with nitrogen is not allowed to go forward to the scrubber, but is turned to waste up the stack. That continues until a satisfactory high temperature has been re-established in the fuel bed, when steam is again employed. The heaviest thermal loss in the process is that of the potential and thermal heat in the producer gas, but this is being

considerably lessened in the most modern plants by the installation

according to the equation C-+-H,0—CO-+H:—29,000 calories. of a waste heat boiler. Another means of lessening the same loss When the temperature of the carbon has been brought down by ' is adopted in the Dellwik Fleischer plant, in which, by the use of

this absorption of heat, the reaction is altered with the production | a thin bed of fuel and a powerful blast of air, regeneration of heat of carbon dioxide. An equilibrium tends to be established by the in the fuel bed can be carried out more quickly, more of the carbon catalytic action of the solid carbon (and inorganic ash constitu- being burned to carbon dioxide instead of carbon monoxide, so that CO X H,O ents) so that a ratio may be established among the gas more heat is generated in the fuel bed and less leaves the generator as potential heat of combustion in the blow gas. (The steam using CO, x He constituents, the ratio being constant for any one temperature but stage is known as the “run” and the air using stage as the “blow.’’) Carburetted Water Gas.—It has been noted that the water lowering with the temperature, The reversible reaction occurring [email protected], makes for a higher carbon dioxide content gas made by the process as described above has a calorific value of the gas as the temperature is lowered, and moreover, since the approximating to 300 B.T.U. per foot. It is known as “blue” velocity of gasification is rapidly lowered with falling temperature, water-gas and is definitely lower in grade than the coal gas made the gas made with the same rate of steam supply comes to contain from retorts. There is a means, however, ready to hand, of inmore undecomposed steam. Carbon dioxide lowers the calorific creasing the calorific value by utilizing some of the heat in the value of the gas and the steam requires condensation. The high gases leaving the generator for the purpose of cracking oil, that temperature of the carbon can, however, be restored by stopping is converting it into permanent gas, rich in hydrocarbons, and so the steam and blowing with air which raises the temperature of the obtaining a “carburetted’’ water-gas of enhanced calorific value. fuel bed, generating a producer gas. The industrial process based Fig. 6 illustrates a Humphreys and Glasgow plant used for this upon this principle of alternately blowing a bed of coke with process. The gas from the generator passes through two chambers, steam and air was made by Gillard (1849), Tessie du Motay and a carburettor and a superheater packed with brickwork, which are Lowe (1873) and called the water-gas process. The plant as raised to redness, some air being admitted for the combustion of illustrated in fig. 5, is that of Messrs. Humphreys and Glasgow. the “blow” gas therein. The oil is run in from the top of the carThe coke bed is enclosed in a steel casing, lined with fire-brick, burettor and should be such as can be efficiently cracked under and may be blown through the grate below by either air or steam. the conditions of the process. (In early stages of the development An arrangement of valves also enables the steam to be introduced of the plant the oil was run directly upon the coke in the generator, above the coke for a “down-run.” The exact arrangement and time but this was unsatisfactory for various reasons.) In this plant, in the up-run with steam, down-run with steam and blowing with blue water-gas leaves the generator with a calorific value of 300 air is varied to suit the fuel and other conditions and constitutes B.T.U. per cu.ft., but leaves the superheater enriched by the car-

GAS MANUFACTURE SAFETY VALVE

STACK VALVE

STEAM

STACK

OFF - TAKE

AIR INLET

STEAM DRUM

SUPERHEATER

CARBURETTED

CARBURETOR

BOILER

GENERATOR

STACK

STEAM INLET

SLUDGE COCK

GAS

BASE

ee 0

i

BY COURTESY

OF THE

INSTITUTE

OF GAS

ENGINEERS

FIG. 6.—CARBURETTED

WATER-GAS

buretting to an extent determined by the amount of oil used. The thermal efficiency of the oil’ cracking in the plant is high, amounting to something like 90% and consequently the thermal efficiency of the carburetted water-gas process is higher than that of the blue water-gas process and increases with the amount of oil used. The extent of carburetting employed is influenced by this factor, by the price of oil and the quality of gas desired. In England, carburetting is usually carried out so far as to bring the carburetted water-gas up to something like the same calorific value as the coal-gas made at the same works, say 500 B.T.U., but in America it has in the past been usually carried much further. It is plain too that blue water-gas, enriched by carburetting to the extent desired, can be used as a means of modifying the calorific value of the mixture of coal-gas and water-gas supplied from a works. The extent to which the coke made in a gas works may be economically gasified and water-gas supplied depends ‘on relative capital and operating costs and the prices of coal, coke and oil. A water-gas plant has the advantage, however, of being able to be put rapidly into full operation and the yield of gas per ton of fuel is high. In tests under working conditions, a blue water-gas plant gave the following results: 1,000 age gross 3°80 , 0°05 0-05

Gas in cu.ft. per ton coke to generator Calorific value of gas . B.T.U. . ; i Carbon dioxide . ._. Unsaturated hydrocarbons . | ; Oxygen . . ..

Composition of gas

Carbon monoxide.

Á

Hydrogen

aoe

Nitrogen .

Methane

'

,

42°35

49°60

0-65

3°50

A ,Carburetted Water-Gas Plant gave:—

g

Carburetted gas in cu.ft. per ton of coke . = Calorific value eds. oe a -Carbon dioxide . . Unsaturated hydrocarbons i Oxygen’. 2. ©) Composition of gas Carbon monoxide . E ; Hydrogen ie

| Methane E Nitrogen .

of 63,400 «. 485 gross . 5°2

.

6-0 o4 34°09 38°6

10-0

49,

’

es ee ee i ee ee

r

PLANT

AND WASTE

HEAT

WASH

BOX

BOILER

steam and hot gas valves are operated automatically. There is a mechanical coke feed, an annular boiler round the generator and a mechanical grate. A so-called back run has been introduced into the working during which steam is passed for a time down the superheater, up the carburettor and finally down the generator.

Complete

Gasification and Other Processes.—The proc-

esses so far described are those which have come into general use. Attempts are being made to make gas for public supply by completing the gasification of coal in one process instead of carbonizing it first in retorts and gasifying the coke residue, so far as may be desired, in steam in a separate generator and process. The water-gas process and generator is in some form embodied in all these plants. -In the United Gas Improvement Company’s plant some constructional modifications of the water-gas generator allow of the use of some coals in it in place of coke, In other plants, a retort is in effect superposed upon a water-gas generator (Tully). In another (Robinson) the working of horizontal gas retorts and water-gas generator is combined so as to discharge coke from the retorts into the generator and to utilize heat from the latter for carbonization. In plant by M. W. Travers, gas is recirculated to the generator after passing through a recuperator (heated by blow-gas) with the object of restoring sufficient heat to complete the carbonization process, both that and the gasification being carried out in the generator. Use is being made in gas works of coke ovens (g.v.) heated by producer gas; they are tending to be made narrow with reduced carbonization times. Vertical chambers ‘too are meeting with some success (Otto Pintsch). There is a large amount of gas of approximately the same composition as that made in horizontal retorts available from byproduct coke-oven plants, even when the heating of the ovens has been carried out by coke-oven gas. Such gas is being brought into use for public supply where economically advantageous, transmission over long distances being made by pumping. The newer systems of low temperature carbonization (q.v.) are still in the experimental stage and cannot be said to contribute to public supply. The development of gas manufacture is proceeding largely

from a systematic study of the quality of different coals for carbonization and gasification at different temperatures and rates.

‘Phe thermal efficiency of gas production in’ the carburetted The influence of the composition and physical properties of coal, water-gas plant with waste heat boiler, i.e., heat of combustion of such as fusibility and size of particle, the possibilities ‘arising

gas divided by heat of combustion--heat lost and utilized in carry- from blending different coals or pre-treating them by washing or ing out the process, was 67-1 in this test, using’ 1-85 gals. of oil and 35-32 Ib. of coke (dry) for each 1,000 cu.ft. carburetted water-gas made. © |

` In the latest designs of carburétted water-gas plant, the blast

preliminary gentle heating are receiving attention, while systematic studies ‘of thermal efficiencies are stimulating the design of apparatus for carbonization and gasification so as to secure higher N thermal and chemical yields.

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MANUFACTURE GAS

GAS MANUFACTURE GAS FOR INDUSTRIAL USE

47

| gradually increasing the proportion of steam with results tabu-

The gas manufactured for public supply finds extensive andį lated below.

increasing applications for industrial heating. Being thoroughly | r in. mesh. cooled and cleansed it can be controlled with nicety through'

The coal used was washed nut screened over a

Steam saturation, temperature of blast . for convenience, cleanliness and efficiency in use. It is a smokeless fuel, and by its use ground Percentage comTRER, of gas: space and expenditure on the cost of gas-making apparatus is | Carbon dioxi 7 Carbon monoxide saved. Since, too, such gas is of high calorific value and does not Hydrogen . . . àa carry into its flame any large proportion of nitrogen or other Methane è inert constituents, it can be used for high temperature processes | Nitrogen . in simple apparatus without the necessity of providing for that ! Total combustibles . De sar ea pre-heating of the air or gas or both which is a necessity for such high temperature work when the leaner producer gas is employed, || Cal. value of gas, B.T.Us. per) Gross . The simplest process of gas making is that used in making cu.ft. at o° and 760 mm. . f net producer gas, and the great bulk of gasification effected for such| Yield of gas cu.ft. at o°C andaes mm. Da purposes as the heating of steel-melting and other large industrial | ton of coal. s ' taps and valves, which makes

furnaces is conducted on, this plan.

|

Steam added to blast, Ib. per 1b. of coal carbon maintained at a high‘temperature, above 1,000° C, such | Percentage steam decomposed

Producet Gas.—When

.

air is passed through a deep bed of|

that complete contact with the carbon is ensured and equilibrium | obtained, practically the whole of the carbon is obtained as car- | Therms in gas per ton of coal (gross) bon monoxide, according to the equation vee of steam eae oe per veof co i C+4{0r-4N2}—> CO-2N2429,000 calories. Therms in gas If the temperature is lower, even although the contact is complete = X I0. Therms in coal and equilibrium is still attained, some carbon will be burned to CO: according to the equation The two columns “Weight of steam undecomposed per lb. of coal”

C+-0.-++-4N2—»CO»+-4N2-+-97,000 calories.

and “Therms in gas per ton of coal” have been added by the writer.

As the saturation temperature was raised by more steam, the gas composition shows a rise in carbon dioxide from 5 to 13% and a change over from a carbon monoxide producer gas, in which that constituent is dominant to a hydrogen producer gas is explained. The nitrogen has fallen and the percentage of total combustibles has also fallen on account of the increase of carbon dioxide, resulting from the lower temperature of the fuel bed. CO-+-2N2+40,+-4Ne |—>CO2-+-4N2+-68,000 calories. The calorific value of the gas has slightly diminished, but the Tt will be seen that even if the whole of the heat generated in volumetric yield increased, so that the yield in therms contained making the producer gas by converting the carbon to CO were in the gas per ton of coal gasified shows little change. The weight lost, sixty-eight ninety-sevenths of the total heat of combustion of steam undecomposed per lb. of coal has run up from 0-05 to of carbon to CO» would still remain available for use by its com- o-9 Ib. per ton of coal. Producer Construction.—The development of the apparatus bustion of the gas. This large proportion of heat available for the second stage of the combustion of the carbon in burning carbon in which the manufacture of producer gas is carried out can now monoxide to carbon dioxide isthe basis of producer gas practice. There are various factors which cause divergence in the composition of producer gas from that of the ideal producer gas equa-

If, however, the high temperature has been maintained and the carbon entirely converted to CO, it is plain‘that the gas will consist of one-third carbon monoxide and two-thirds nitrogen, and the equation representing its formation may be called the ideal producer gas equation. If this producer gas is collected and burned with air, it will generate heat according to the equation

tion. In the first place, when coal is used as a fuel and is fed down on the fuel bed, it is at once subjected to a process of distillation or carbonization in the current of producer gas ascending from below, made by the action of the blast upon the carbonized fuel, Producer gas is so enriched to some extent with hydrogen and hydrocarbons, particularly methane, and the percentage of nitrogen correspondingly diminished. More important, however,

is the modification in composition brought about by the steam

consequent upon a lowering’ of the temperature of the fuel bed

and the formation of water-gas by interaction with carbon, The more steam is used, the lower the, temperature and the more carbon dioxide and hydrogen ‘at the expense ‘of carbon monoxide is formed. The percentage of nitrogen.is further lowered by the admixture with water-gas. Moreover, as the quantity of steam is increased and the temperature decreases, the rate of steam decomposition by the carbon lessens.and steam passes through the fuel bed undecomposed. The quantity of steam supplied is best controlled by the temperature of the mixed blast at a point well beyond the introduction of the steam, SO as to allow a thorough mix-

be traced. It would appear that the earliest gas

gins to occur in quantity as soon as the saturation temperature, of

Sietiens, and a diagram of his Producer (1861) is given in fig. 7.

FROM RAMBUSH'S “MODERN GAS PRODUCERS” (BENN BROS.) FIG. 7.—OLD FYPE PRODUCER No BLAST UNDER PRESSURE

WORKING i

WITH ae

DRAUGHT AND i

ee were

deep shafts of brick-work, but the name most closely identified steam. It will be understood that. undecomposed steam, which. be- with the successftil establishment of the gas producer is that of

ing. The temperature of the blast rises with the. proportion. of

60° has been exceeded, is an objectionable constituent in the pro- It illustrates how the coal falls from the hopper and lies in the ducer’ gas, since it Is thermally useless and would tend to ‘prevent producer above the step grate. The ° producer was connected the attainment of high temperatures on combustion on account to a furnace, and the air for gasification was drawn through the of its high specific heat. Bone and Wheeler followed changes fuel bed by natural chimney draft, ‘operative on the furnace,

brought about in the composition and yield of producer gas,by supplemented at times by a syphon efect, induced by thedis$

4

GAS

48

MANUFACTURE

position of the main between producer and furnace. Pressure Producers.—More modern conditions have, however, demanded an increased output per unit of space and grate area, and this has been met by putting the producer under

positive blast.

Such a high rate of working involves a greater

tendency to clinker formation, which has been counteracted by

the use of steam.

Fig. 8 is an example of one of the many gas HOPPER

FIRE BARS

BY COURTESY OF THE POWER GAS CORP. FIG. 8.—PRODUCER FOR BLOWING

WITH

AN AIR-STEAM

BLAST

producers devised to work under these conditions. It is shown as a steel cylindrical shell, firebrick lined, and dipping into a water lute, which enables a pressure of blast to be maintained without escape, and ashes to be withdrawn through the water as

mechanical grate and water-cooled sides is also coming into u for water-gas generators.) The ash in the arrangement as shov in fig. 11 is delivered into a water trough below, which provides seal and a convenient channel from which the ash is automatical scooped. Details differ and a dry revolving base without wat seal is sometimes employed. The well-being of a producer depen upon keeping the distribution of the blast and the ascending g current as uniform as possible across the section of the produci so as to give satisfactory contact in all parts with the descendi fuel. Imperfections in this respect, such as the existence channels up the bed, have their effect in a deterioration in t quality of the producer gas made, indicated by a rise in tempe! ture of the gas leaving the producer. For this reason, the top the producer is usually provided with a number of poke hol through which pokers are periodically inserted by the produc man, for the purpose of keeping the fuel bed level, filling hollows or channels, and breaking up incipient clinkers. In so: of the more modern designs this work has been minimized by t ir.troduction of a mechanical revolving poker. In the form inti duced by Talbot, the poker was a central vertical shaft runni the whole depth of the producer, with two arms, one revolvi near the top of the fuel bed and the other just above the grate the clinker-forming region. This form of poker was difficult maintain in action over long periods, and it has been simplif by Talbot and others, as indicated in the diagram of the Chapr mechanical producer in fig. 9. There the horizontal arm of poker is ‘shown revolving near the top of the fuel bed. It is 1 intended to prevent clinkering of ash, but to keep the top of | fuel bed in good working order. By-product Producer Plant.—For many purposes, produ gas can be used hot from the producer without further cleani Indeed, that is so with the great majority of uses to which p ducer gas is put. If however the gas is generated for use in gas engine, which is thermally much more efficient than steam engine, it must be cleaned and cooled. The most cc plete system for providing washed clean producer gas, and at

required. The grate bars are shown arranged in a truncated cone,

and the air-steam blast is admitted to the space between them and the casing. An alternative to this “side-blowing” is to deliver the blast up the centre line of the producer from the bottom, the blast escaping from under a mushroom head. This arrangement is shown in fig. ro, The mushroom head in such a “centre-blown” producer must be kept in ashes below the hot gasifying coke to prevent its destruction. The side blown and centre blown arrangements are occasionally combined for very wide producers, in order to give àpenetration of the blast to all parts of the wide bed,

but such combination is not at all common and is somewhat

difficult to control. The simplest way of blowing a pressure producer is to use an injector supplied with steam under pressure, which can be easily arranged so as to be adequate in amount for injecting the air and at the same time saturating the blast (fig. 10).

It will be readily understood that one of the principal objects to be attained’ in the design of a producer is that there shall be no accretion of semi-fused ash into. large pieces of. clinker, and maximum facility for removing the ash necessarily left when the gasification is complete, so keeping the producer in good working order and minimizing labour. Fig. 9 illustrates one mode

of attaining these ends adopted in the Kerperly producer. The

central grate used for admission of the. blast revolves mechanically in the ash bed, affording little hold for any pieces of clinker

or bringing, a shearing stress to bear upon them with a disintegrating effect. The outside shell of the producer is lined with

FROM

RAMBUSH,

“MODERN

GAS

PRODUCERS"

(BENN

BROS.)

FIG. 9.—PRODUCER WITH MECHANICAL FEED COAL, AND GRATE REVOLVING IN FUEL BED

AND

DISTRIBUTOR

F

fire-brick in the ordinary way in its upper half, but in the lower half is constituted by what is in effect an annular boiler, with no

same time recovering as ammonia the nitrogen in the coal gasi (to the extent of some go lb. of sulphate of ammonia per t

comparatively cold metal surface of such a water jacket as it can

rated has been simplified by Lymn and Rambush and is show the simplified form in fig. 11. The producer carries a very 1 deeper fuel bed (say xro ft. against 5 ft.) tħan is ordin: employed, and more steam is employed in the blast, 1 Ib.

brickwork lining. Clinker cannot form in the same way on the is due to the late Dr. Ludwig Mond (1889). The plant he el on a hot surface of fire-brick, which is itself practically as hot

as the coke and ash in contact with it. The steam raised by the

annular boiler can be used for the blast. (This combination of 4

GAS MANUFACTURE ton of fuel gasified. By this means, the temperature of the fuel bed is kept low, and the coal is given a long time of exposure to the ascending gas current, as it gradually descends towards the grate. These conditions favour: the production and preservation of ammonia and of low temperature tars. The gas is washed, freed from ammonia, and cooled, by passing in turn through the three Lymn static washers, the ammonia being absorbed

DEEP GAS PRODUCER

hgAl

be: = a al PURE

|I

CONTAINER

aes

AGA Ley

BY COURTESY OF THE POWER GAS CORP. FIG. 10.—DEEP GAS PRODUCER STATIC WASHERS FOR WASHING,

STATIC WASHERS

FROM WHICH GAS PASSES THROUGH AMMONIA ABSORPTION, AND COOLING

by a solution of ammonium sulphate, maintained slightly acid, and the after-cooling being effected by water. The Lymn washer, which replaced the towers of the original Mond plant, consists of

a number of cones fixed to a central shaft, alternating with strips

fixed to the outer case of the washer, so that the descending water or liquor is repeatedly forming a falling sheet or shower, through which the ascending gas has to pass. The air.blast going to the producer ascends a washer “FI,” superposed on “C” and is there warmed and moistened by hot water which has been pumped from “C” after abstracting heat from the gas. Gas leaving such a plant is ready for use in furnaces, but centrifugal tar extractors and saw-dust scrubbers are employed in cleaning the gas more thoroughly for use in engines. The following results have been reported by Lymn (1924) as long-period averages using a Durham coal containing 80% of ash: Carbon dioxide 8-3%

4-9

of gaseous fuel for isolated gas engine units. In the smallest plants for this purpose, the so-called “suction gas plants,” it is the suction stroke of the gas engine which is relied upon to draw air through the fuel-bed of the producer. The gas on its way to the scrubber passes through a vertical water vaporizer, which provides all the steam required. Water is supplied to the scrubber and the gas passing up it is both cleaned and scrubbed. Blast Furnace Gas.—The blast furnaces used for the production of pig-iron may be regarded as very deep air-blown gas producers, from which the quality of the gas is lowered to some go or 100 B.T.U. per cu.ft., by the oxidation which much of the carbon monoxide undergoes in reducing oxide of iron to the metallic state. There are some special types of gas producer which have not been described. In one, invented by Dowson, air is drawn in both at the top and bottom of the fuel bed and the gas is collected in nostrils, which open into the producer half way down, where the fuel is red hot. By this means, the amount of tar in the gas is lessened, but the gas of necessity leaves the producer very hot and there are difficulties in keeping the gas exits open for the free passage of gas. In another special type of producer, the ash is run off as a liquid slag. No steam is employed in that case, since a very high temperature is a working necessity, and it may even be necessary to add some flux along with the coal. BrstiocraPHy:—Among books dealing with gas manufacture are: Alwyne Meade, Modern Gasworks Practice; and W. B. Davidson, Gas Manufacture. Producer gas is treated of by N. E. Rambush, Modern Gas Producers; and Dowson and Larter, Producer Gas. More general are Bone, Scientific Uses of Coal; and Haslam and Russell, Fuels and their Combustion. The Transactions of the Institution of Gas Engineers and Proceedings of the American Gas Association, the Gas Journal and Gas World, are periodicals dealing specially with gas manufacture. (J. W. C.)

GAS SUPPLY IN THE UNITED STATES In the little more than one hundred years since the first gas company was organized in the United States, the gas industry has developed into one of the key industries. It has not only expanded until to-day gas service is known in practically every town but it has also gone through a complete metamorphosis, and from a light-producing industry has emerged as a heat-producing one, selling a service which is rapidly growing in popularity for every

kind of domestic and industrial heating. This industry is repre-

sented by 957 manufactured gas companies and 577 natural gas companies. Seventy-five million people are served, Of the 1,534 plants, 1,472 are privately owned, and 62 are municipal plants Carbon monoxide . 21°0% owned and operated by cities. While municipal ownership in the Gas analysis ; Hydrogen 20°5% gas industry has never been popular in the United States, it is Methane . 4:9% Nitrogen . 45°3% becoming even less of a factor every year. B.T.Us. net an - RT | ` 178 The First Gas Plants.—Following the discovery of how to al. va o gas netto make gas from coal and the unparalleled success of gas lighting Gas efficiency || Cal. val. of coal (netto) j 80% in one or two European cities, it was in Baltimore that gas lightAverage gasyield (cu.ft.)ype er ton of dry fuel zasified . 122,000 ing got its start in the United States. Although there were a few Average ammonium sulphate yield per ton of dry fuel isolated instances of gas being used by individuals in other cities gasified . go lb. Average yield ofdry tarper ton of dry fuelgasifed 21 gal. previously, introduction of gas lights in Rembrandt Peale’s muSteam intọ producer per lb. of dry fuẹl i r lb. seum in Baltimore in 1816 proved to be such a sensation and sucWhen ammonia recovery is not attempted, the process of wash- cess that the city council passed an ordinance on June 17, 1816, ing and cooling is simplified. A washed producer gas has advan- permitting Peale and others to manufacture gas, lay pipes in the tages for many uses in that its control can be made so much streets and contract with the city for street lighting. The first more precise and its subdivision for heating purposes so much recorded demonstration of gas in the United States was in Philamore readily effected than with gas straight from the producer. delphia in Aug. 1796. The gas was manufactured by M: Ambroise Distribution, moreover, is much simplified, so that for example in and Company, Italian fireworkers and artists. A few years later, south Staffordshire a scheme is in operation for distributing’ pro- in 1812, David Melville of Newport, R.I., lighted his: home and ducer gas in pipes over a considerable area. Even in a works it is the street in front with gas which he manufactured. "He also an advantage to. be able to convey the gas in steel or cast-iron lighted a factory at Pawtucket and induced a Government to io mains, which drain themselves of all impurities, rather than fire- use gas at Beaver Tail lighthouse. Baltimore, however, was the first city to use a oreraa: brick lined conduits, in which tarry and dusty deposits accumulate, necessitating periodical clearances, by burning out, or other and other cities followed her lead. Introduction of gas lighting methods, was not rapid. Since it was a radical- change from the common Suction Producers.—Many. producer-gas plants are made for methods of lighting of those days, it was xegarded with fear by power purposes (Dowson, National) and washed producer-gas many people. As many objections were made -against it’ in: the finds one of its most characteristic applications in the provision United States as had been made in London when introduced there:

50

GAS MANUFACTURE

Gas was used first for street lighting. Later public buildings were lighted in this way, and a few wealthy citizens also used gas to light their homes. It was not until between the years 1865 and 1875 that the use of gas for home lighting began to make any great progress.

Domestic Gas.—The first authentic recorded use of gas for domestic purposes was about 1830 or 1832, when James Sharp, of Northampton, England, demonstrated the availability of gas for cooking in his own home. It was about the year 1859 when

gas started to be used to any extent for cooking in the United States, and this was done chiefly on stoves imported from England. Much interest was manifested at an exhibit of different types of gas stoves shown at the Centennial Exhibition, held in 1876, in Philadelphia. Many of the exhibitors used gas stoves in connection with their exhibits, The latter part of the 19th century saw the gas industry of the United States firmly entrenched as a utility furnishing light to homes and factories, with the domestic cooking business more or less in the nebulous stage. It was at this time, however, that the industry was given a severe blow, probably the worst that has ever been dealt to an industry in the history of American business enterprise. It was the advent of the electric light which caused consternation, and yet it was this same electric light which was responsible for placing the industry in its present place of importance. In the face of the keen competition the electric light would offer, it was apparent that the gas companies would have to look for other fields to conquer. To-day, some 50 years after the invention of the electric light, gas has established a record for itself as a fuel and both homes and industries use this smokeless fuel for thousands of purposes. Just at the turn of the 2oth century, the industry had the domestic-cooking business as a base load, and soon other fields of heat application were de-

veloped, until to-day there is hardly a heating process, in the home and in any industry, which cannot be and is not being done with gas. The sales of gas for the year ' 1927 revealed an increase of 15,000,000,000 cu.ft. over the record-breaking total registered for 1926. The sales figure was 471,000,000,000 cu.ft, a new high record, proportioned as follows: 324,000,000,000 cu.ft. for household purposes, 136,400,000,000 cu.ft. for industrial and commercial uses, and 5,600,000,000 cu.ft. for miscellaneous purposes. The use of manufactured gas for commercial and industrial heating applications continues to show phenomenal growth, the amount consumed in 1927 representing 29% of the total sales of manufactured gas for all purposes, or an increase of 9,995,000,000 cubic feet. Manufactured gas companies now serve 11,450,000 customers. Miles of main total 91,400, invested capital $2,700,000,000, and gross operating revenue $520,000,000. The manufactured gas industry has not reported a decrease in annual sales- or annual gross revenue in the last 21 years. Sales have

increased 408%- in 25 years while the population of the country has: increased only 50%.

7s Nataral Gas.—This industry is a large and important business in the United States. The total amount of natural gas produced In.2927 amiounted to 1;445,428,000,000 cu.ft. In 1927 there were 3,984,000 domestic consumers of natural gas, who used’a total of 2196,036,000,000:cu.ft. of natural gas. The estimated revenue from such domestic: uses.was $180,000,000. It is ‘estimated that there is more ‘than $z,;500,000,000 invested in the natural gas industry

inthe United States. The State of Obio has the largest number ef domestic, customers of natural gas, followed by California and a! X Pennsylvania. > s oo, | ‘Household: and ‘industrial consumption of gas-offer tremendous opportunities for further: development, substantiated by ‘figures

gathered; in: stirveys' made;iduring 1927. One survey, covering

f

pearly 8,000,000 homes in. 2,228 commiunities; showed that: while "78 Fo ef; allfamilies: living ;in: places’ of from 5,000 to 100,600 population and over have gas service, the percentage for ‘the

It is estimated that there are 7,250,000 gas cooking appliances, including gas ranges and cookers, 1,700,000 gas water heaters of all kinds, and 1,500,000 gas room heaters in use in the United States. Although gas has been used for cooking to the largest extent, it is only one of the conveniences which are available to the modern American home through the use of gas. Automatic hot water supply is growing in use, and many of the most up-todate homes have adopted the incinerator as an aid to cleanliness and sanitation. House heating by gas is a development which promises to do more than any other recent achievement to relieve the American home from back-breaking labour exerted merely to provide heat in the house. Gas house heating is completely automatic—it requires no attention. Cities having natural gas service have used this splendid fuel for house heating and auxiliary heating to the exclusion of all other fuels, but in the manufactured gas territory the premium over coal operation has prevented the general adoption of gas up to this time. This use is growing very rapidly. To eliminate noise, ensure freedom from interference with radio reception, and to provide an ideal method for refrigera- tion, there has been developed the gas operated automatic refrigerator. This unit is also available as a combination device with the cabinet type of kitchen range mounted directly over the refrigerator, an appliance which has especial interest for homes with small kitchens. The completely gas-equipped laundry with . its washer, dryer and ironer, reducing the work of washing and making the home independent of the weather, is also very popular. Fuel Gas.—No true concept of the gas business can be secured without referring to the growing use of this fuel in industry, and the important part it is playing in the manufacturing world.

A study of the stocks and bonds listed on the New York,

Stock Exchange and Curb Market fails to reveal any industry that cannot use gas profitably in some of its manufacturing processes. Yet such a list could be extended by thousands, gas having more than 21,000 uses in industry. : ' The chief advantages gas offers are as follows: Improvement Ìn quality and economy in manufacture of the product, owing to perfect heat control; marked increased production; fuel storage space eliminated; elimination of capital tied up in fuel investment; elimination of smoke and end of the ash removal nuisance. The Ford Motor Company plant at River Rouge alone uses approximately 50,000,000 cu.ft. of gas a day. This is enoughtosupply a city of 5,000,000 population. A typical industrial gas installation will consume as much gas in one day as 500 average homes. Gas is being used extensively for baking bread in large bakeries, making candy, roasting coffee, smoking meat, pasteurizing milk, pressing clothes, singeing cloth and yarn, melting glass and many | different kinds ‘of metal, vulcanizing automobile tyres, drying clothes and lumber, forging, heating rivets, galvanizing, welding, cutting metal, annealing, hardening and tempering alloy steel, tool

dressing, bolt and rivet making, shrinking locomotive tyres, heating structural steel for fabrication, bending pipe, plate heating, soft metal melting, aluminium melting, lead refining, silver refining, in treating various metals in ovens and for many other purposes, While the use of gas for heating homes was started in America but a few years ago, there are to-day many scores of thousands

of installations of central gas-fired units, exclusive of the millions of space heaters in use. Baltimore has 1,600, Chicago has 2,000, and other cities boast of more than 1,000 homes that are heated entirely with manufactured gas, and in addition natural gas zones with all homes heated by natural gas. Supplying a heating service that is in most localities not so expensive as to be prohibitive, the gas companies are preparing themselves to take on installa‘ tions’ at a rate two and three times in excess of what they have in the past. Using gas for house heating one obtains a service entirely automatic in character, free of labour, dirt, smoke, dust and ashes. Recent years have seen the use of gas heating.

developed in the so-called skyscraper. A large building in Boston

13 storeys high, 2,175,000 cu.ft. in size, is heated by manufactured: . . Goammamnities under s000 is:ionly: 54. The gas'appliances'ir actual gas. SH, ust also show ‘a.comparable difference. In towns of 100,000 and ‘CA most important step taken by the gas industry in behalf of. over, 799 of. the families have gas ranges, while in towns be- its-domestic customers was the establishment éf a testing laboray tween 5,000 and:16,000 population, the percentage falls to 47-9%. tory at Cleveland, ©., for testing gas appliances. In this manner 1

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GAS JOURNAL

FIG, 11.—-SECTIONAL VIEW OF A STEERE WATER-GAS MACHINE WITH BACKRUN, CHARGING MACHINE FOR MECHANICAL FUELING, AUTOMATIC GRATES, THREE-WAY BACKRUN VALVE AND WATER SPRAYS IN THE SUPERHEATER FOR MAKING BACKRUN STEAM AND LOW GRAVITY GAS The arrows indicate the course of the gas-making cycle, Wavy arrows show the blasting, which heats the fuel bed in the generator (4) to gasmaking condition. In so doing a producer gas is made which in turn is consumed as secondary air is admitted in the top of the carburetor (7). This combustion heats the checkerbrick in the carburetor and superheater to proper temperatures for cracking or gasifying the oi] -which is , sprayed into the machine at the top of the carburetor during the uprun. Straight arrows show the path of the uprun and the arrows formed with dashes, the course of the backrun. An ordinary gas-making cycle is: blasting, two minutes; uprun, 144 minutes; backrun, 1//2 minutes, then a final uprun of 14 minute 4

the American Gas Association has met the obligation of the | sulphate, 14 gal. of benzol, and ro gal. of tar. industry to the American people for the safest, most efficient Air Pollution by Coal Smoke.—Smoke pollutes the atmosand most economical utilization of its product. The laboratory is | phere, injures the health and destroys property. It is claimed financed by a large number of gas companies and manufacturers | that more persons are devitalized, disabled and poisoned by the of appliances, and into it has been built the hopes and aims of the | impurities contained in smoke-polluted air than by the noxious industry to serve the public to the best of its ability. In this | ingredients in food or water. Density of atmospheric smoke inlaboratory are being tested for the information of manufacturers, | creases pneumonia and causes other illnesses. As smoke diminishes gas companies, dealers and the general public, all manner appliances in which gas is hurned for domestic uses. |

THE FUTURE OF GAS

of sunlight and increases the humidity during both cold and warm weather, it is certain it exérts an important influence upon the

health of all persons who live in a smoky city. The Mellon Institute estimates the annual smoke loss and damage in i Pittsburgh is

The Passing of Coal as Fuel.—Leaders of American industry | $10,000, ooo, or almost ,as. much as the city’s yearly bill for believe, and are constantly preaching, a coming era of effective domestic fuel. Since Chicago has nearly five times the population

conservation of all natural resources and efficient and economical | of Pittsburgh, it is probably a conservative estimate to put the

use of. the public services. They foresee the time not only when | annual cost of smoke damage in that city at $20,000,000, or nearly oil will be reserved, for purposes of transportation by land and | double that of Pittsburgh. The total volume of air--diluted gases sea and. air, but also when the burning of raw fuel of any kind, | discharged from smoke stacks in Chicago each day amounts to including coal, will be, forbidden. They believe that the necessity | approximately 47,000,000,000 cu,ft., or 58 times as much as the for conservation, together with, the growing sense of the eco- | average daily consumption of manufactured Bas. ass y nomic waste and the loss of health and efficiency as a result of Smokeless Cities Possible.—Conservation of our natural resmoke, will,result in i coal being used exclusively as a raw material sources, ‘including coal, is one of the big problems of the age. rather than, as fuel. It is believed that perhaps 70% of the Few people. realize the enormous, amounts of coal and oil burned potential efficiency of coal is wasted in the average home and any- every year. Back in the days of the ‘Civil Wai, roughly 33,000,000 where from 25 to 75% in industrial plants. A ton of coal, used | tons ‘of coal were produced annually and the consumption , of in. the manufacture of gas will produce approximately `)1,400 Ih, pétroleum, which was then just coming into use, was about$ gal. of smokeless, fuel (coke), 79,000 cu ft. of BaS,, 2.5 Ib.of ammonium per caput. To-day, we produce 700,000,000 tons of coal a, zea

GAS METER— GASOLINE

52

and burn up 147 gal. of petroleum per person. Coal and oil supplies will not last forever and they must be used in such a way that we will derive the maximum efficiency from them. As has been pointed out, electrification of the railroads of the country would effect an enormous saving in the amount of coal burned each year. Use of gas and coke for heating would also effect big savings, in addition to making possible the reclamation of valuable

products from coal which now go up the chimney as smoke. When

the day of electrification of railroads and gas-heated cities becomes possible there will no longer be any smoke nuisance and

On the ordinary meter index there are four dials, a top one showing when a small quantity has passed—say 2ft. or 5ft., and three others as illustrated, from which the reading is taken. The hands of the outer dials move in the direction of the hands of a clock, that of the centre one in the opposite way. In reading, the

figure behind each hand is noted, and two ciphers added to the three numbers; thus 8, 7, 4, indicates 87,400 cubic feet.

Prepayment ‘meters are of two classes. In one the prepayment is made to an inspector, who then sets the meter to pass the cor-

life in the cities will become more pleasant and healthful.

OUTLET

The Ownership of Gas Companies.——Jn America gas companies and other utilities, such as electric light, telephone and street railway companies, are not only owned by those employed to manage them, but by thousands of investors. It is through sales of the securities that funds are provided for building the plants for the service of the people. These companies are regulated by State commissions in practically all States of the Union, which

20 1-2 11-2

ie r

PLATE

ULCER DUODENAL AND GASTRIC -

GASTRONOMY to the sense of smell? Of the palate there is no need to speak. It may even be said that gastronomy is a perfect art, for so

wide a range of enjoyment could not, in the opinion of the present writer be derived from listening to a symphony, hearing a poem read, or gazing at a beautiful building. Indeed, it would not be unreasonable to maintain, not merely that gastronomy is a perfect art, but that it is the only art which is perfect. Gastronomy Is a Science.—Unquestionably gastronomy is a science, for it has its laws, its formulas, its fixed processes. Art cannot be taught, whereas the profession of cookery should be preluded by a long apprenticeship. Certain physico-chemical laws have to be observed in the preparation of our food; and cooks often make scientific discoveries without knowing it. Why does red wine go well with roast meat and cheese? Because tannin

combines with albuminous substances in a manner propitious to digestion. Why do we eat potatoes fried? Because fats and starch are chemical substances belonging to the same group of hydrocarbonates. Why do we put lemon juice on fried dishes, or in a

salad? Because acids attack cellulose and saponify oil, and make them easier to digest. Likewise, there are culinary processes which are scientific applications of the laws of nature. Roast meat, for example, must be exposed to great heat for a short time in order that a crust may form all over the surface, and then placed in a moderately heated oven and left there as long as possible in order that the browned skin may imprison all the juices of the meat and that these, by a slow process, as it were of digestion, may make the flesh tender. Again, cooks know that a sauce the principal ingredient of which is the yolk of an egg must never be allowed to boil, or else its elements will become disunited: as we say, they will curdle.

They know, too, that, if need be, they can be reunited simply

by the addition of the yolk of another egg and a little boiling

water. If a dish is too salt, add at once a few spoonsful of milk or a little butter. Many practical examples of the kind could be cited. Cookery Since the World War.—The renewed interest in gastronomy is undoubtedly one of the effects of the World War. For four years millions of men, living as best they could on trench fare, sought solace in the misery of their leisure hours by dreaming of good cheer. For four years, whenever they came out of the line, they revelled in table-cloths, properly served meals, “made dishes” and the savours of which they were deprived. At the same time, men became more appreciative of life and its pleasures—-a kind of instinctive protest against the all-pervading menace of death, a parallel to which may be found in the reaction under the Directory after the famine and executions of the Terror. As people became more genuinely appreciative of good living, the cooking of the big “palace,’’ which hitherto had satisfied their requirements, lost its popularity. Diners would no longer tolerate those dull, stereotyped meals, at which a chicken’s breast is cut up into the tiniest fragments, and the sweets—half-melted ices or palsied puddings, as the case may be—have so unspeakably depressing an effect. The motor-car has made it possible for the traveller to avoid having meals in the large towns where the expresses stop, and to try his luck in the restaurants which are now springing up in ever-increasing numbers in the country round. But the adventure sometimes

turns out a misadventure.

At many

of these

restaurants it is always uncertain whether there will be guests or not; the dishes, therefore, are cooked a long time beforehand and kept in tins, to be warmed up when ordered. The unpleasant surprises a guest may experience who has the ill-luck to enter an establishment of this kind which is not presided over by a conscientious chef, or a cook careful of her reputation, may easily be imagined. The Good Restaurant.—Some restaurarit-keepers, encouraged by the various gastronomical societies founded in recent timés, have, while exploiting modern ideas of comfort, ën-

deavoured at the ‘samé time to ‘revive a lost tradition: They

57

|oftheirsulphuric guests

acid, or Bordeaux from Algeria. They do not crowd together like sardines, or furnish the place so expensively that a prohibitive increase of prices is inevitable. They set no store by luxurious interiors lighted with excessive brilliance, where a few solitary individuals dine lugubriously and groups of unoccupied waiters stand about. A first necessity in a good up-to-date restaurant is a cloak-room the use of which is optional. Think of a bachelor, who has two meals at a restaurant daily, being obliged to pay, from June to October, two hundred francs in cloak-room charges for a straw hat! In a good restaurant, the tables are well placed, the service is simple and the bill of fare consists of a few dishes only—but the preparation of each dish must be a labour of love, executed with care and patience. No orchestra disturbs the quiet of the place. The head waiter does not insist on your ordering what he himself fancies: the proprietor comes to ask your opinion of the Armagnac and the kirsch served to you. And a delightful surprise awaits you-—the bill is moderate. The result is that you leave the restaurant having dined well, your mind at ease, your heart at peace with the world. The Revival of Cookery.—For some time past a good deal has been heard about new dishes. As a matter of fact, there is hardly a dish which has not been attempted already. Many people, it is certain, do not know that in the Middle Ages, at the Tour d’Argent, the oldest restaurant in Paris, dormouse pastry, mixed dishes of snakes, porpoise, roast swan and crane stuffed with plums were served to the guests. Nor that Frederick the Great made his coffee with champagne and added mustard to give the remarkable drink a still stronger taste. Nor that, before the war, a cook named Jules Maincave gave to the world fillets of mutton with crayfish sauce, beef cooked in kum-

mel, bananas with Gruyére cheese, sardines with Camembert cheese and herring soup with raspberry jelly. These last experiments, it must be confessed, are highly unpleasant; for the ingredients in question could not possibly. be made to harmonize, any more than cat and dog. Nor is it at all clear how a mixture, for example, of chocolate and red wine could be rendered palatable. At the same time, it would be a mistake to go to the opposite extreme and content ourselves with the stereotyped dishes turned out by cooks devoid of imagination. When a writer uses hackneyed words—a habit of which journalism affords only too frequent examples—we say that he writes in clichés and that he writes badly. When a painter always paints the same picture over and over again, we are quick to compare him to a photographer lazily taking a succession of proofs from the same negative. Similarly, in the domain of cookery, the most modest dishes should afford a good housewife an opportunity of using her in~ ventive faculty and her intelligence. There is no reason why the culinary fashions of years gone by should immobilize and enslave us, nor why the gastronomists of to-day should be less adventurous, less eager for knowledge than their predecessors who, throughout the ages, have enriched cookery with a stream of new

discoveries. We should not abandon hope of improving on first

results. We should pay no attention either to dogmatists who accept the existing order of things, repeat and solemnly hand on to posterity what they have heard from their elders, and irrevocably condemn the unknown as a matter of principle, or to those who take fright at an unfamiliar flavour, like children swallowing their first oyster. If men had always acted thus, if no risks had been taken and no experiments made, whereby alone the adventurous instinct learns self-restraint, the range of our enjoyments would to-day be exceedingly limited. We should be no more tolerant of the consétvatism of people who will not eat roast chicken unless surrounded by watercress, or veal unless in the company of carrots or peas, or a leg ofmiitton with anything else than a dish of haricot beans. >’ > What we should aim at doing is to combine with familiar recipes something which, while setting off their good qualities, yet introduces an elernent of surprisé. and provides what was wanting

provide only good wines, instead of Vouvray rufied:-byw sited. in them. We should not bésitate to transform a sauce possessing

o

qieh

GASTROPODA

58

its traditional flavour into something more savoury and unex- | fish is usually required. Guests may at first be rather suspicious of their novelty, but the first mouthful will remove their apprehensions, and they will soon be in the proper frame of mind to appreciate the new style of cooking. When an unfamiliar harmony

pected. The harmonies which can be obtained from certain combinations of crisp and fatty substances and of watery and farinaceous vegetables, are worth studying. Here follow a few recipes in the new style of cookery; these will give an idea of the kind of dish which harmonizes with a modern dining-room. Tomato Tart.—This is a simple, family dish which is sure to be appreciated by old and young alike. Make an open tart of unsweetened pastry. Fill it with a thick béchamel (a sauce made of flour and butter) flavoured with cheese, mixed with concentrated tomato essence. Place on this foundation tomatoes which have been cooked in butter flavoured with onion, and stuffed with mushrooms and olives. The tomatoes should have been put in the oven just before being placed in the tart. Then cover the whole with breadcrumbs done with butter to a golden brown, and the tart is ready to be served. It forms a dish of three storeys, and each of them succulent. Cold Pork with Truffles—fFoie gras flavoured with truffles is excellent; but it seems a pity to mix two decided flavours. Surely it is better to use truffles to give flavour to something which in itself is comparatively tasteless. M. Verdier, ex-manager of the Maison Dorée, and one of the greatest chefs of the day, recommends that pieces of raw truffle should be pressed as deeply as possible into a piece of fresh pork. Choose a piece which is closegrained and not too lean. When the pork is inlaid with a sort of mosaic of truffle, roll it, tie it up and roast it. Let it cool in its own fat, and serve it cold the next day with whatever salad is in season. Haricot Beans with Cream Sauce.—School-boys and soldiers learn.to hate haricot beans; but they are a vegetable which can be either detestable or delicious according to the way in which they

are cooked. If you want to make haricot beans really exquisite, let them soak for twenty-four hours and then boil them very slowly. Meanwhile get ready in a saucepan a spoonful of good béchamel, half a litre of cream, and plenty of grated Gruyére

of flavours forms itself on the palate, we should try to analyze the sensation just as we identify the different instruments in an orchestra. This is the right way to train our taste. We shall create new

sources of pleasurable sensation, and we may even enrich humanity by fresh progress in the culinary art.

BrstiocrapHy.—Among works on gastronomy which have recently appeared, or which can definitely be regarded as authoritative, the following may be mentioned: Ali-Bab, La Gastronomie Pratique; Auguste Escoffier, Le Guide Culinaire; Edouard Nignon, Les Plaisirs de la Table; Paul Poiret, ro7 Recettes ou Curiosités Litteraires; Paul Reboux, Plats Nouveaux; E. Richardin, La Cuisine Francaise; Bertrand Guegan, La Fleur de la Cuisine Francaise; Paul de Cassagnac, Les Vins de France; Salles and Prosper Montagné, La Grande Cuisine; and the works of Philéas Gilbert, Edouard de Pomiane, Paul Bouillard, and Maurice des Ombiaux. See also COOKERY. (P. Re.)

GASTROPODA,

a large group

of invertebrate

animals

ranked as a class of the phylum Mollusca and represented by such familiar forms as the limpet, the whelk, the common snail and slug. There is no single English name which can be given to this group. The land and freshwater . forms which have shells may all be termed `

“snails” and the shell-less land forms |

BY COURTESY

“slugs,” and by a reasonable usage the name “snails” or “sea-snails”’ may be ° given to marine gastropoda with shells . (whelks, periwinkles, etc.), and the shellless marine forms (Nudibranchia, etc.) may be called “slugs” or “sea-slugs.” The gastropoda are primarily distinguished from other molluscs by their shell, which is a single structure and is spirally coiled, at least in the larval state. In many gastropoda, however, it is very

OF S. CROOK

cheese. Putin plenty of pepper and not very much salt. When the FIG. 1.—GARDEN SNAILS much modified in the adult and, though it ie e : sauce has been brought to a creamy consistency, pour it over the CLIMBING is spiral in a large number of genera, it haricots after first straining them. Sprinkle the whole witha little may lose this appearance and become (e.g.) cup-shaped or tubugrated cheese, and brown lightly in the oven. lar. In some forms it is covered over by the mantle ańd de'. Jf you like you can colour this dish with methylene blue. This generate, and it may also be entirely absent. The gastropoda ig a. new idea which has scandalized the whole cooking world. are also distinguished from other molluscs by their asymmetrical Methylene blue is an absolutely harmless chemical product; in organization. The latter is brought' about by a process which fact itis actually ordered by doctors as a remedy for digestive takes place in larval development, during which the anus and disorders, so it cannot do anyone any harm. Dissolve in water as the organs adjacent to the latter are moved forwards venmuch methylene blue as you can put on the point of a knife. You trally from their originally posterior position and then twisted will get water the colour of an African sky. Boil the beans in this through 180°, so that they come to lie above and to one side of water, and they will’ take on a greenish-blue shade which will astonish your guests.

=

:

_ al Lettuce and Orange Salad.—You need to have the soul of arabbit: to eat.salad as it is usually served—green leaves slightly lubricated with oil.and flavoured faintly acid with vinegar. A salad ' is, only a background; it needs embroidering.. To give character to avyhettuce salad, cut up slivers of orange rind as small as pine needles, and sprinkle them over the salad. If you want something still more entertaining for your guests, cut up a carrot into equally small slips. This -will at once arouse the attention of any gourmet. Which..is orange and which is carrot,-he will wonder. How does the orange come to have a flavour of carrot and the carrot a flavour of orange? You will have given him a real gastronomic entertainment..

ET

.

;

- Stewed Apples Flavoured with Tangerine.—A dish of ‘stewed apples, rust-coloured and unadorned, is a melancholy sight. Met ‘this economical. dish, which is. to be found in the least pretentious homeż, can be given.a. very attractive flavour. All that is meedet is to-put in little pieces of. the rind of tangerines, after , Sendoving.all.the white pith. The dish can easily be decorated with ¿Aces of tangerine which have first been freed from their pips

à

ye

7

vg

eae

i

i

a

FX

4

R

inrum. a

`

bese.cishes:are much easier to make than might be thought maine description. They are far less difficult than most, of the

FRON

MEHEUT,

“ETUDE

DE LA

MER”

(ALBERT LEVY)

FIG. 2,—BUCCINUM

UNDATUM

the head. The flexure of the intestine is a phenomenon seen in other molluscs; the twisting or “torsion” of the anal complex jis peculiar to. gastropods, and it is believed to bring about the asym-

metry mentioned above, the, chief feature of which is the atrophy

| or the’ complete disappearance of the kidney, gill and auricle

originally situated on the left side of the. body, those of the original right side persisting in a-more or less unmodified condition. The

clearly defined and well-developed head is likewise distinctive. ., , ; Phe gastrepoda constitute the largest class.of molluscs and num;

epas high-class cookery, for which strong bouillen.of meat or er. some '39,0009 ,living species, which range in size from giant AR ar

GASTROPODA

59

in Bronn’s Tierreich). whelk-like forms 2ft. in length, down to minute species of Vertigo |man, who is continuing Simroth’s treatise nt of the contents re-arrangeme any involve not does this But fossil enigmatic An state. adult the in long millimetre barely a divided into two are latter the as Euthyneura, Pelseneer’s of over measuring ingens) from the Wealden of Kent (Dinocochlea sub-classes. In Thiele’s to contents their in equivalent orders, 6ft. in length has been described as a fossil gastropod. the distinction between the Opisrecognize authors both short, animals marine were gastropods carliest the probability In all the air-breathing pulmonata. Thiele’s promoand they now constitute an important part of the marine fauna. thobranchia and to the rank of sub-classes is advantageous, groups two these of tion They have also populated fresh water and land, and the familiar however, as it emphasizes the marked Helicidae, the Zonitidae and Bulistructural and bionomic differences bemulidae are among the largest tween these groups. It is true that they regroups of land invertebrates. In semble each other in certain distinctive general, their range of habitat features (e¢.g., they are hermaphrodite and is diversified. They are found at the visceral complex is detorted) in which very great depths in the sea as they both differ from the Streptoneura. well as in the shallower water, But they are otherwise very clearly defined the pelagic and gastropods and have a radically dissimilar evolutionary (Pteropoda and Heteropoda) history. form part of the marine plankton Thiele’s Archaeogastropoda contain the (minute floating organisms). The same families as Pelseneer’s Aspidofreshwater and terrestrial gastrobranchia and Simroth’s Scutibranchia. His poda occupy a great variety of Mesogastropoda are Pelseneer’s Taeniohabitats and as a whole are to be FROM ALDER AND HANCOCK, “BRITISH NUDIglossa and his Stenoglossa are equivalent BRANCHIATA” (RAY SOCIETY) - reckoned as a very adaptable FIG. 3.—HERMAEA DENDRITICA to Pelseneer’s sub-order of that name. group, though the need for mois- L____— With regard to the status given to these OFFICE) STATIONERY. (dM than, distributed universally less them ture and lime salts renders Pelseneer’s scheme seems at present groups 5.—SPONGIOBRANFIG. e.g., millepedes and Collembola. CHAEA AUSTRALIS. NOTE more rational. While Thiele’s elevation of, Generally speaking, gastropods are sedentary, inactive animals THE SUCKERS the Stenoglossa to the rank of an order is that rely on their hard shells and unobtrusive habits for protecby the marked specialization of these forms justified extent some to skelejointed a tion. The cumbrous shell and the absence of it leaves the Taenioglossa, a carrion-feeders, and carnivores as ton render them slow in their movements. On the other hand, with too great an appearance of unigroup miscellaneous and large tend and exertion muscular considerable very they are capable of Probably Thiele’s rating of the Stenoglossa is justifiable, to be very tenacious of life. A limited number of genera are more formity. and what is required is a more complete knowledge of the relaactive and mobile and have taken to swimming, climbing and tionships of families constituting the Taenioglossa. burrowing. Many marine gastropods and the majority of the Little can be said concerning ‘the numerous minor divisions. organic on or terrestrial and freshwater forms feed upon plants deal of work remains to be done in elucidating the condébris, and such a diet was no doubt characteristic of the primi- A great and relationships of families, the structure of which is stitution become have however, groups, tive gastropod stock. Several known. Many of the minor groups are probably very imperfectly structure. and carnivorous and are modified accordingly in habits natural associations. The work of Pilsbry representing from far Classification.—The classification of the gastropoda has group of land pulmonata has gone a enormous the on (1909-28) time present the at Even past. the undergone many changes in long way towards disentangling submain there is no universally accepted system so far as the chaotic assemblages originally the divisions are concerned, although there is a general measure of treated as “Helicidae,” “Bulimuligroups. lesser the of certain of agreement as to the composition dae”? and “Zonitidae,” and the The class Gastropoda, including the orders Nudibranchiata, course of pulmonate evolution is Tectibranchiata and Pulmonata, was created by Cuvier in 1795; becoming correspondingly clearer Gastrothe with rank in equal as later he created the Pteropoda to us. But even so, this large poda. In 1812 Lamarck created the group Heteropoda, ranking unwieldy order is in need of and it also equal with Gastropoda. In 1846-48 Milne-Edwards estabcomprehensive treatment along ‘The hiata. Prosobranc and anchiata lished the orders Opisthobr bionomic as well as morphologiPteropoda were held as a distinct cal lines. class until Pelseneer in 1888 showed their affinities to the ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Opisthobranchiata. The gastropoda are divisible, The diversity of opinion about as we have already seen, into a the main subdivisions may be large number of groups, each distaken to imply that any natural tinguished by anatomical and groups of these dimensions (subclasses, orders) that may exist in FROM “ANIMALS OF ALL COUNTRIES" (HUTCH- bionomic peculiarities. The significances of these divisions will the class have hot yet been made INSON’S PERIODICALS) FROM MARTINI AND CHEMNITZ, “CONCHYLIENbe easier to grasp, if the main FIG. 6.-—-TETHYS LEPORINA, SHOWapparent by morphological reCABINET” (GUSTAV FOCK) certain ING COWL-LIKE FRONTAL VEIL evolutionary tendencies that have Nevertheless, FIG, 4.—PLEUROTOMARIA RUMPHII search, FORMED FROM ANTERIOR TEN- been manifested within the class broad groupings are recognized by those authors who in the last TACLES . are briefly indicated in advance. treatment. two decades have subjected the class to comprehensive structure and morphology are well deIt will be convenient to contrast three such systems which The details of gastropod text-books on this subject, and the descriphave been proposed by Pelseneer, Simroth and Thiele respectively. scribed in the standard of a selection of such of the more imconsists here given tion tend they Different as these three schemes appear at the offset, the main evolutionary changes illustrate as modifications portant in fact to recognize the same main groupings. For table of systems Se ee group. the within see top of page 60, are sedentary gastropods’ living of primitive most The famsame the The Streptoneura of Pelseneer contain precisely algae, sea-weeds or organic ilies (limpets, trochids, periwinkles, whelks, etc.) as do the marine animals which feed upon by means ofa flattened foot and Prosobranchia of Simroth and Thiele. The rest of the class is débris. They creep onabout Which is usually: coiled external:shell, an protection for rely them divides Thiele treated as a single sub-class by Pelseneer. though it is affected organization, internal Their adult. the in n Hofalsd seems to te the intentioof

into two sitb-classes (ag

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pete

gt

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a

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GASTROPODA

60

CLASS GASTROPODA Pelseneer 1906

Sub-class 1. Crder r. Sub-order x.

Ws

2.

Order 2. Sub-order x. 5 2. Sub-class 2. Order r. Sub-order r. 5 2.

Order 2. Sub-order r. eg 2.

Streptoneura. Aspidobranchia. Docoglossa.

Rhipidoglossa.

Pectinibranchia. Taenioglossa. Stenoglossa.

Simroth 1907 Order Prosobranchia. Sub-order 1. Pectinibranchiata.

A. Siphonostomata.

B. Heteropoda.

C. Holostomata. Sub-order 2. Scutibranchiata. A. Podophthamata. B. Edriophthalmata. Order Pulmonata.

Euthyneura. Opisthobranchia. Tectibranchia. Nudibranchia.

Pulmonata. Basommatophora. Stylommatophora.

by the “torsion” already mentioned, as far as the visceral nervous commissure and alimentary canal are concerned, is still more or less symmetrical. Pleurotomaria, Fissurella and Haliotis among the Rhipidoglossa exemplify this type of organization., In the course of evolution the main departures from the latter are as follows: (1) The visceral complex (heart, gills and kidneys) becomes asymmetrical through the atrophy and disappearance of ANTERIOR

AORTA HEART

INTESTINE VISCERAL GANGLION

POSTERIOR AORTA ANUS GILL KIDNEY SHELL EDGE OF MANTLE

GONADUCT CEREBRAL GANGLION STOMACH PEDAL GANGLION

Thiele 1925-26 Sub-class r. Prosobranchia. Order 1. Archaeogastropoda.

Order 2, Mesogastropoda. Order 3. Stenoglossa. Sub-class 2. Opisthobranchia.

Order r. Pleurocoela. Order 2. Saccoglossa.

Order 3. Acoela. Sub-class 3. Pulmonata. Order 1. Basommatophora. Order 2. Stylommatophora.

head and foot at one end. The greater part of the body is spiral coiled, and the coiled portion (the visceral sac) is sheathed in fleshy covering, the mantle, which projects as a free fold at tl anterior end and hangs down like a skirt around the head ar foot. In the cavity thus formed between the mantle and hez the function of respiration is normally carried out either by gil or by a lung. In the former case the mantle cavity is largely opt to the exterior; in the second the edge of the mantle is adhere to the “neck,” a small hole (the pneumostome) being left fór t] admission of air into the lung. In certain Rhipidoglossa the mant edge is not complete anteriorly and dorsally, but is interrupt either by a longitudinal slit or a series of holes probably represen

ing a slit, the edges of which have fused. The mantle secretes a shell which is formed ina single pie and is in most cases spirally coiled. The minute structure of tl shell and its chemical composition is described in the artic Motuiusca. In individual development the shell appears in tl embryo as a plate or cap-like rudiment which becomes coiled a grows in size by the deposition of mineral salts round the ed, of the open end (aperture). It is likely that the forerunners the gastropoda had a cap-shaped shell in the adult state. In the most archaic representatives of the class, however (e Bellerophon, among the extinct Cambrian genera and Pleurot maria among living forms) the shell is coiled. It is worthy note that in Bellerophon the shell is not of an elongate or scre like spiral shape, its coils being all in one plane (planospiral), li

RADULA MOUTH

CTENIDIUM (GILL-PLUME) GONAD

Liver RESPIRATORY LAMELLAE

Foor

FROM SPENGEL, “ERGEBNISSE UND FORTSCHRITTE DER ZOOLOGIE” (FISCHER) FIG. 7.—DIAGRAM OF GASTROPOD ORGANISATIONS

those of the above named organs which are situated on the right side of the adult body. (2). The shell may become internal and degenerate and finally disappear and a secthdary external symmetry may be established. (3) A terrestrial and air-breathing mode of life has been adopted independently by several groups. (4) A carnivorous or carrion-eating habit has been acquired on several occasions. (5) The creeping mode of progression has been abandoned by certain families in favour of swimming and floating or of

a, truly sessile (adherent) mode of life.

. These by no means exhaust the list of specialization exhibited by the class; but they. are the most frequent and lead to the most striking modifications of structure. External Features and General Organization.—The body

PENIS

ANUS THE OSPHRADIUM OR OLFACTORY PATCH

OF THE INNER FACE

OF THE MANTLE-SKIRT

COLUMELLA MUSCLE

ADRECTAL (PURPURIPAROUS) GLAND APERTURE OE THE

HEART NEPHRIDIUM (KIDNEY)

KIONEY

‘TESTIS

INTESTINE

LIVER

VAS DEFERENS

FIG. 8.—MALE OF LITTORINA LITOREA, REMOVED SHOWING THE ORGANS ON ITS INNER FACE

STOMACH

FROM

ITS

SHELI

that of the primitive cephalopod Nautilus. The modifications the adult shell are complex and manifold. The general plan a the terminology employed in describing shells are shown in fig. and the various modifications are described and illustrated in te: books and conchological treatises. It is sufficient here to allu to the most important change that is encountered in the cla The shell, which is to be regarded as primitively spiral, becor

of a gastropod is: divisible, like that of nearly all molluscs, into four main parts—the visceral sac, the mantle which covers the latter, the head and the foot. The morphological unity of the head and foot has been suggested by Naef, and this subject is unwound and secondarily cap-shaped in many Streptonev The whole.animal may be (Patella, Capulus). Furthermore, the edges of the mantle m discusséd in the article Montusca. visualized as having an elongate and worm-like body with the grow over the shell and cover a large part of its surface, T]

61

GASTROPODA condition is found in such genera as Fissurella, Cypraea, and Marginella among the Streptoneura and in various Opisthobranchia (Aplysia) and Pulmonata (Viirina). The overgrowth of the mantle may be complete and the shell is thus internal and degenerate (Lamellariidae and slug-like Pulmonata). Finally, the shell may disappear entirely (Titiscania, many nudibranchs, Oncidium). This progressive atrophy of the shell occurs in many groups of gastropods. Although it may become of advantage to the animal as allowing it greater freedom of movement, the loss of the shell is to be regarded at least at the offset as an innate tendency of the class and probably of the molluscan phylum as a whole. The head in the gastropoda is well developed and clearly defined from the rest of the body to WHORLS a OF THE SHELI which it is connected by a mobile “neck.” It is usually provided with sense organs, a snout or SIPHONAL NOTCH muzzle and one or two pairs of OF THE MOUTH OF THE SHELL tentacles. The foot is a powerful muscular organ. Usually it Is FROM

LANKESTER,

“TREATISE

ON

ZOOLOGY”

(A a È BLACK) FIG. 9.—TRITON SHELL, SECTION

rather elongate and has a flat surface suitable for a creeping gait.

Notable modifications of the foot are seen in marine forms which dig in sand (Natica, Bullomorpha). These gastropods have the foot transformed into a “digging-shield” shaped like a snowplough. In heteropods and “pteropods,” it is madified for use in swimming. On the posterior dorsal surface of the foot there is in nearly

adult Streptoneura a solid plate, the operculum. When the animal withdraws itself into its shell, this plate by reason of its position and shape remains applied to the aperture of the shell which it closes like a lid. The operculum is absent in nearly all the Euthyneura, but certain terrestrial forms such as the Helicidae secrete a glutinous or calcareous plate over the mouth of the shell when they estivate or hibernate.

pod evolution, it will be best to describe the main organization and metamorphosis of a gastropod larva. As will be seen in the section on embryology, the larva is symmetrical in the early stages of development, the mouth and the anus lying at opposite ends of the body. At a stage which more or less corresponds with the appearance of the shell, the anus shifts downwards and forwards and ultimately comes to lie below and near the mouth. At this stage the mantle cavity is seen as a small space surrounding the anus. Such coiling as the shell may show at this stage is “exogastric,” że., the coils are situated above PROPODIUM

METAPODIUM

FROM

“PROCEEDINGS,”

MALACOLOGICAL

SOCIETY.

COURTESY

OF

THE

COUNCIL

mantle cavity and the adjacent parts rotate upwards and come to

lie above the head and to the right of the latter. The coils of the shell at the same time roll downwards and assume an “endogastric” position, i.e., they lie over the foot and away from the head. It will be seen that there are two movements involved in this reorganization of the larval symmetry, viz., the ventral flexure of

the intestine and the torsion or rotation of the pallial complex up the right side of the body. Though these two changes may be merged into one in individual development they must be carefully distinguished. The ventral flexure is found in the gastropoda, Cephalopoda, Scaphopoda, and Lamellibranchia; torsion is found in the gastropoda alone. If processes of this kind, which occur in the course of individual development, may be taken to epitomize events which happened during the evolutionary history of the race, then it is to be inferred that metamorphosis is a summary of changes which took place in gastropod evolution. Many theories have been put forward to account for these processes. ‘They agree in attributing great importance to the influence of the spiral shell and the acquisition of a flat and elongate sole. If it is true that the gastropoda are descended from animals with / a simple cap-like shell and a

The foot often exhibits along its sides a ridge (epipodium) which extends from the head to the posterior extremity. The epipodium is well-developed in the Rhipidoglossa and often bears appendages and

_sense-organs. It has been assumed to have

a common origin with the funnel of the Cephalopoda. The head and foot are joined to the visceral mass by a narrow and highly mobile “neck.” The animal Is attached to the shell by the strong columellar muscle, and by the contraction of the latter the animal can withdraw itself into the shell. This muscle is inserted into the columella or axial pillar of the shell (cf. fig. 9). The disposition of the chief external parts having thus been sketched, it will FROM MURRAY HJORT, AND “THE DEPTHS OF THE OCEAN” now be convenient to describe how the (MACMILLAN LTD.) FIG. 10.—-CRESEIS ACI- characteristic gastropod asymmetry is atCULA tained. Some details of the internal organization are given below; but it is necessary at this stage to recall the preliminary statement that, while some primitive forms are symmetrically organized, the main parts of the visceral complex (gills, kidneys, etc.) being paired, in most gastropods the organs of the right hand side are atrophied or absent in the adult, and that in the Streptoneura the visceral commissure is twisted into a figure-of-eight. In addition; the spiral winding of the shell and visceral mass has to be accounted for. Before considering how and in what circumstances this highly characteristic organization was developed in the course of gastro-

BY

FIG. 11.—SINUM COMPLANATUM the head and away from the foot. Soon, however, the anus, the

Ae

oa

pn tebe seine ge

relatively

small

foot,

then

it

FIG, 12.—HALIOTIS TUBERCULATA seems likely that, as the shell acquired a tubular shape, it became necessary to bring the originally posterior anus and associated organs into 2 position in which they would not be covered in by the growing shell. Hence the flexure of the intestine, the result of which was to bring the anus near the head. But it plainly could not persist in this position, as the elongation of the foot would tend to drive it backwards. Its rotation up the side of the body, until it came to lie above and to the right of the head, brought it into the most convenient position. It is also likely that the change in the spire of the shell from an exogastric to an endogastric posi-

tion may have influenced the torsional process. Naef. assumes that the animals which gave rise to the primitive gastropods were swimming forms. In such a mode of life the exogastric spire would be no inconvenience. But with the advent of a

creeping habit the heavy, forwardly directed shell could no longer maintain its position and would fall on one side. This displacement of the shell would almost. inevitably affect the position

GASTROPODA

62

of the pallial complex. The position ultimately taken up by the but they are without doubt absent or rudimentary in many car- . latter may be explained either as directly due to the displace- nivorous forms. The radula is secreted in a pharyngeal coecum, ment of the shell or as an adaptation that placed the pallial and is a narrow, ribbon-like organ consisting of a basal membrane complex in a less cramped and restricted situation. It is quite supporting a number of rows of teeth usually arranged in two uncertain whether the rotation of the shell or growth of the foot ‘symmetrical sets, one on each side of a median tooth. The numwas most influential in bringing about torsion. It is likely that ber, arrangement, and shape of the teeth are very characteristic and are of great systematic value as they serve to distinguish not both contributed. The foregoing account must not be taken as a description of only the larger groups (sub-classes, orders, actual events but of the factors which are likely to have been etc.) but also genera and species. The range in the number of teeth is very wide. EMBRYO WITH EMBRYO WITHOUT In some of the Eolids there are only 16 VENTRAL FLEXURE FLEXURE rows each with a single tooth. In UmbraOF THE INTESTINE VELUM culum, on the other hand, there may be as many as 750,000 teeth. On either side of the radula are two salivary glands which usually secrete only mucus, though in sundry carnivorous gen- FROM LANKESTER, “TREATISE era they contain an acid which dissolves ZOOLOGY" (A & © BLACK)

MANTLE ANUS

PALLIAL

CAVITY

FOOT MOUTH

FIG. 15.—-MANDIBLES JANUS

AFTER ROBERT LANKESTER, “TREATISE ON ZOOLOGY" (A & C BLACK) FIG. 13.—FOUR STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A GASTROPOD ING THE PROCESS OF THE BODY TORSION

SHOW-

concerned in producing flexure and torsion. The spiral winding of the shell and the torsion of the viscera are to be carefully distinguished, as they are probably not causally connected. The main process of torsion, at least in ontogeny, takes place before the spiral winding of the shell and visceral mass is manifest. The cause of the actual asymmetry of the internal organs is not entirely clear. The twisting of the visceral commissure may be due to the effect of the torsion; but the atrophy and reduction of the originally left hand organs is not at first sight referable to the latter. They have been explained.as due to the pressure of the shell after it has assumed the VISCERAL GANGLION endogastric position. In the Euthyneura the process outlined above tends to be

reversed

(detorsion).

The vis-

wall is thrown into numerous folds. In the Stenoglossa it bears a characteristic gland, which in Conus and other Toxoglossa constitutes the “poison gland.” The portion of the oesophagus adjacent to the stomach is sometimes enlarged to form a muscular

“gizzard,” the walls of which are lined with teeth or plates. The stomach is usually thin-walled, but it is lined with a hard cuticle in many genera. It has no digestive function other than that of containing food which is being digested. Digestion is effected by the liver and (when present) the crystalline style. The liver is usually a bilobed organ, the left -lobe being larger than the right in most cases. It secretes a digestive ferment which is poured into the stomach by two ducts, and it also has absorptive and. excretory functions. The crystalline style is a rodshaped structure usually of tough, gelatinous consistency, which is either lodged in a special pyloric coecum or lies free in the

proximal part of the intestine. (eg., Patella)

between the. detorsion of the Pulmonata and that ọf the Opisthobranchia-and to refer them to different causes. . |

ally colourless and contains amoe-

bocytes. Haemoglobin is found in the:blood of certain species of

t INTERNAL

few. genera.

Plamorbis and haemocyanin in a

ORGANIZATION

at the

amférior'end of the head, which

and bent

A

|

Its ,

FROM “CAMBRIDGE MILLAN)

NATURAL

(MAG

HISTORY"

FIG. 16.—RADULA OF VERMETUS

The lymphatic tissue is either diffuse or concen-

.

visceral mass, but it becomes posteriorly situated in some of the Opisthobranchia as the result of complete detorsion and the re- — acquisition of bilateral symmetry. In the Rhipidoglossa (with ` few exceptions) it consists of a ventricle and two auricles, but even in this group the left auricle is larger than the right. In © Fissurella alone are.the auricles equal in size. In all other gastro- ' poda there is only one auricle, the left. There is a well-developed arterial system in nearly all gastro- . poda. The venous blood, on the other hand, is carried to the “ ae

somewhat downwards., In many

intoithe cavity of the head;

(e.g., Pterocera).

trated in a special gland (e.g, in certain Opisthobranchia). The heart is always dorsal in position. It is usually in front of the ,

System.—

of:the:.Streptoneura: the mouth is at. the end of ‘a proboscis which ‘gan- be thrust ‘out: or ‘withdrawn


gee ar Metco and the Caribbéan sea, gives the following numg CESS oeSaat ‘and: deep-water: forms: Littoral ‘species, 280; ‘Apart ’ fein these limitations the teena gastropoda are als OES Oit dowh tó. the edge of the*-continental shelf. (about most world-wide im distribution.’ A slug’ Anadenus: is found at RO Firkon day deep wäter'spécieš; $3.: Among-typical abyssal

i9;o60ft: inthe Himalayas, and‘ Chronos sublimis was taken at `

GASTROPODA STOMACH

MANTLE-CHAMBER

DORSAL SURFACE OVERHUNG BY THE MANTLE-SKIRT

CYENIDIUM (GILL-PLUME)

RETRACTOR

RECTUM AND ANUS -

MUSCLE OF FooT

EYE RENAL ORGAN Sg eae end Senn

SER

EN

AURICLE OF THE HEART

=

CEPHALIC TENTACLES

~

THE OTOCYST ATTACHED TO THE CEREBRAL GANGLION

VENTRICLE

MOUTH & ODONTOPHORE

VESICULA SEMINALIS LIVER

PENIS

TESTIS

PROPODIUN AND MESOPODIUM

OPERCULUM METAPODIUM AFTER SOULEYET

IN LANKESTER,

“TREATISE ON ZOOLOGY*

(A & C BLACK)

FIG. 31.—-OXYGYRUS

KERAUDRENI

over 16,000ft. on Mt. Carstenz in New Guinea. Land snails and | marine forms the great power of adhesion manifested by the slugs are found in well-vegetated areas, e.g., woodland, pastures, foot prevents them from being washed away to unfavourable hedges and banks, jungle, among mosses and lichens and in more ground. On land the habits of burrowing and entering crevices, arid situations such as cliff faces, rocks and sand dunes. They of estivation and hibernation are safeguards against climatic burrow underground, climb trees and invade houses. The means by which land gastropoda are dispersed act rather more slowly than those by which marine and freshwater forms are carried about. As a result, land snails and slugs are more

CEPHALIC TENTACLES

EGG-FLOAT ATTACHED

FROM LANKESTER, “TREATISE ON ZOOLOGY” (A & C BLACK) FIG. 32.—FEMALE JANTHINA WITH

EGG

FLOAT

localized in their distribution. Extreme cases of such restricted distribution are seen among the Achatinellidae (tree snails) of the Sandwich Islands and the Partulas of Tahiti. Many species of these groups are restricted to single valleys or ridges, and well

marked mutational forms are even said to be restricted to a single tree or group of trees. On the other hand; given suitable conditions, dispersal may be to a certain degree facilitated by their habits and constitution. Bartsch has pointed out that the Cerions of the Florida Keys, etc., which can live for four days in sea-water and have the habit of fixing themselves to dead wood during estivation, have probably

excess. Protection against drought is of great importance for animals which require much water. The shelled terrestrial forms are protected against desiccation, and in addition many have the faculty of secreting a covering to the aperture of the shell after they have retired into the latter. The naked forms die very quickly if exposed to very dry air or strong sunlight. Both shelled and naked forms tend to secrete themselves in the daytime and to emerge in the evening or during rainy spells. Apart from the dependence upon certain necessary external conditions gastropoda seem to be adaptable animals and peculiarly tenacious of life. There are well-authenticated records of land snails which have lived for years without food. : Marine and terrestrial gastropoda have to contend with other hostile forces besides the physical factors of their environment. Marine Mollusca are preyed upon by a variety of enemies. As eggs and larvae they are eaten by very many vertebrate and invertebrate animals. Fish and sea-birds feed on them in the adult state and whales consume large quantities of the planktonic forms. Birds, carnivorous beetles and small mammals such as rats and mice, take a heavy toll of land snails. Ducks, geese and water beetles feed on pond and river snails. The gastropoda are vegetable eaters, carnivores or live on organic débris of all kinds. Most Aspidobranchia and Taenioglossa feed on plants, the marine forms browsing on algae. Natica, the Lamellariidae, and the Heteropoda are, however, carnivorous. Natica preys on lamellibranchs, through the shells of which it bores by means of an acid secretion.

have washed away such timber from the low-lying coastal regions which the Cerions inhabit: The chief continental areas of the world are each characterized by a number of peculiar families and genera, and certain’ deductions as to former land-connections

between such areas may be made.

Thus the Achatinidae, Dor-

casiinae, Limicolaria, Burtoa, etc., are exclusively found in Africa and the Bulimulidae, Drymaeus and Borus, in South America. Among the land Mollusca of South America, however, are representatives of the Stenogyridae, a, family characteristic of African fauna, and conversely there are Bulimulus-like genera in Africa.

Habits, etc.—The greater number of gastropoda arẹ passive animals of relatively small size and limited powers of locomotion. Usually increase ọf activity is associated with the carniyorous

habit.

Their: inertia and Jack-of mobility, are compensated by

the. shell, their more..or less. obscure appearance and,secretive

Cap-

tain F. Davis found that the clam Spisulla

been transported from island to island after hurricanés which

elliptica is persistently preyed upon by Natica aldert on the Dogger Bank, about

FROM THE

TAYLOR, “MONOGRAPH OF LAND AND FRESHWATER

88% of the clams taken on certain hauls

having their shells bored by their enemy. The sessile Taenioglossa, like Vermetus, . FIG, 33.—EPIPHRAGM OF are plankton-feeders. The Stenoglossa are

MOLLUSCA ISLES”

OF

THE

BRITISH

HELIX POMATIA mainly carnivorous and prey upon other molluscs, or else they feed on carrion., Among the Opisthobranchia

the Eolids feed on hydroids, the stinging cells (mematocysts) of which are retained and stored in the dorsal papillae, from which

they are discharged when the animal is attacked. The majority of the land Pulmonata feed on green plants, fungi, lichens or vegetable débris. The snail-slug (Testacella) feeds.on earth-worms, and Glandina, Oleacina and the Streptaxidae are similarly carnivorous. Commensalism

is not’ of such

fréquent occurrence

among

habits, which: are their chief defences: against enemies, Among| gastropoda as it is among Lamellibranchia. A certain number of

GASTROPODA

68

Taenioglossa are ectoparasitic (Stilifer, Thyca, etc.), and endoparasitic (Entoconcha, Entocolax) upon echinoderms. The only other animal that has so far been recorded as being the host of a gastropod is the stomatopod crustacean Gonodactylus chiraja, which harbours Epistethe gonodactyli. In their turn gastropods serve as hosts for parasites of various kinds. Certain trematode worms pass part of their life-cycle in marine and freshwater gastropods, and in two cases the association is of serious consequence to man. The effect of these parasites on the snail is sometimes disastrous. The author of this article found a high

pod shells; but unfortunately we know practically nothing about the internal structure of extinct members of the class. The status

of many interesting and important fossils cannot therefore be satisfactorily discussed in terms of the classification usually employed. The earliest undoubted gastropod remains found in the Lower Cambrian (Olenellus) beds include spirally-coiled shells (Raph-

istoma) and others which are cup-shaped (Scenella, Palaeacmea). The latter are usually treated as representatives

of the

Docoglossa (limpets) which, owing to the presence of a spiral protoconch (embryonic whorl), must be considered as de-

FROM

MEHEUT,

“ETUDE

DE

LA

MER"

(ALBERT

FIG. 34.—-WHELK

LEVY),

DEVOURING

A PIPEFISH

percentage of a small gastropod Paludestrina ventrosa castrated by a trematode which had invaded the reproductive organs of its host. Infection by such parasites is probably high when the parasite passes the rest of its life-cycle in a vertebrate host which preys on the gastropod, as in the case of sea-birds which feed on small water snails in tidal ditches. Certain dipterous flies are parasitic on land snails and several kinds of mites are found on the latter, though it is uncertain if they are actually parasitic. The gastropoda are protected, as has been stated above, from

the attacks of enemies by passive means (their shell and retiring habits). The shell, however, is not always an adequate safeguard from assault. Carnivorous beetles thrust their heads into the aperture and drag the inmate out. Boettger has produced some very interesting and suggestive observations on the relation between attacks of this sort and the development of projections from the sides of the shell-aperture in certain land snails (Otala) which are attacked by carabid beetles. Whether the colour-pattern and sculpture of the shell, which is often very elaborate, are of any protective value is uncertain at present. Observations upon the destruction of the common hedge snails (Cepea) seem to show that birds do not discriminate between the banded and the un-

scended from spiral ancestors. In somewhat later Cambrian horizons are found undoubted gastropod shells of a planospiral (nautiloid) shape (Cyrtolites, Bellerophon). These were actually regarded as nautiloids by Deshayes and placed by him in the Cephalopoda. They are now held to be gastropods and have been com- FROM MEISENHEIMER, “DIE WEIN. BERGSCHNECKE” pared with the pelagic Taeniaglossan AtFIG. 36.—OVIPOSITION lanta. The slit at the edge of the shell- OF HELIX POMATIA aperture comparable with that found in the rhipidoglossate Pleurotomaria, a genus which appeared in the Silurian (possibly in the Cambrian), justifies the inclusion of Bellerophon among the Rhipidoglossa rather than the Taenioglossa. Nevertheless the similarity of their shell to that of the pelagic Atlanta suggests that they were of a swimming or floating habit and gives some support to the theory of Naef that the

profound changes in symmetry and general organization that

mark off the gastropoda from the rest of the Mollusca were due to or associated with a change of habit, the floating pelagic life being abandoned for one spent creeping about on the sea bottom. We have, however, no grounds for believing that the Cambrian Bellerophontidae represent the most primitive grade of gastropod organization. In short, neither from these nor any other Cambrian

genera do we obtain any clue as to the structure of the primitive gastropoda. Along with the undoubted Rhipidoglossa (Aspidobranchia) above described there are found gastropods which are usually held to be representatives of the Pectinibranchia. Stenotheca seems to be related to the Taenioglossan Capulus, and the modern Pyramidellidae are traced to other Cambrian forms.

The Streptoneura are thus well represented in the oldest fossiliferous rocks. In lower and upper Silurian times they increased and many families still flourishing appeared at that epoch, e.g., the

of.

| asm a ben

.

bh

ar en Oem

w x

l

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7

a

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wa

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az

ee

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.

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FROM KUKENTHAL,

"HANDBUCH

DER ZOOLOGIE,” BY PERMISSION WALTER DE GRUYTER & CO.

FIG. 35.—TESTACELLA

EATING

AN EARTHWORM

banded varieties of C. kortensis and C. nemoralis. Few positive instances of protective or warning coloration are known, as the habits and enemies of the animals concerned are so imperfectly known. Various species of Cochlicella certainly resemble the seed-pods of the plant on which they mainly feed, and certain Clausilias are sufficiently like leaf-buds; but it is difficult to decide if these resemblances are more than fortuitous. Sundry marine forms which feed on holothurians and tunicates resemble these animals in colour; but again the protective value of the resemblance is uncertain. PALEONTOLOGY

AND EVOLUTION

` A great: deal is known concerning the fossil remains of gastro-

FROM

A. Y. ZITTEL, “GRUNDZÜGE DER PALAEQNTOLOGIE” FIG. 37.—SHELL OF BELLEROPHON BICARENUS

(CAMBRIAN)

Scalaridae, the Capulidae and Turbinidae. Many groups of Rhipidoglossa now extinct reached their developmental climax in mid-Primary times. The Pleurotomariidae, represented at the present day by four very rare species, numbered several hundred species. Undoubted Euthyneura do not appear until the Carboniferous, when tectibranchs like Acteon, etc., are found. With this fact in

mind, it is necessary for us to consider briéfly one of the most puzzling serjes of fossils that have been found in Primary rocks. ,

GASTROTRICHA For a long time certain tubular shells resembling somewhat those of ‘“Pteropods” have been known from Cambrian strata. They have variously been interpreted as thecosomatous pteropods, as cephalopods and tubicolous annelids. Broili (in the last edition of Zittel’s Grundziige der Paläontologie) retains them in the gastropoda as an enigmatic class, the Conularida. In 1911 Walcott, in describing the Cambrian fauna of the Burgess shales (British Columbia) figured a species of the genus Hyolithes, H. carinatus, in which are seeh structures somewhat resembling the fins of pteropods. It is not easy, however, to accept these structures as indicative of fins like those of thecosomatous pteropods, and as the shells of these forms are not in themselves sufficient clue to the identity of the animals it is better to accept broili’s verdict. Nevertheless, if these remains are subsequently proved to be those of pteropods, and if the hiatus in time between their

appearance and that of the other Opistho- sy courtesy or tHe smitasonbranchia is not merely due to the imper- ** 'NS™7T fection of the geological data, then we 3jee cee shall be driven to one of the two very interesting conclusions. It will be necessary to assume either that the Thecosomata were developed directly from the primitive streptoneuran stock and are not from the Opisthobranchia, as is usually believed, or that the Cambrian Thecosomata have nothing to do with modern “Pteropoda,” but represent an early essay in pteropod-like specialization. The Pulmonata first appear in the Carboniferous. Dendropupe and Anthracopupa, which seem to be undoubted land pulmonates, referable to the modern family of the Pupidae, are found in the Carboniferous of North America. Undoubted Basommatophora (Auricula, Limnea, Planorbis) appear in the Jurassic; but it is by no means certain if the terrestrial Pulmonata actually preceded the fresh-water forms. Since their first appearance in the Carboniferous the Pulmonata, both terrestrial and aquatic, steadily increased through Secondary and Tertiary times until the present day, when they are one of the largest and most highly diversified groups of living animals. ECONOMIC

USES

Although the gastropods are not of outstanding service or disservice to man in any one respect they are of considerable importance in a number of ways, Their chief value is perhaps as an

article of diet; for since the earliest stages iw man’s development they have been used as food. In middle and late Paleolithic deposits in Europe, limpets, periwinkles and top shells occur.

In certain “kitchen middens” of the Upper Paleolithic in the west of Scotland they occur in such profusion as to lead one to suppose that the people who formed these deposits lived principally upon these molluscs. The natives of Tierra del Fuego, according to Tylor, used similarly to subsist on various kinds of shellfish, and gas-

tropods of various kinds occur in their middens.

At the present day H. Lang

(quoted by Pilsbry) states that the Achatinas (large land snails) “are a welcome _————_______ addition to the food supply of most tribes” mais in the Belgian Congo, and that their shells Fic. 39.—GLow WORM “are seen lying on refuse heaps and along LARVAE EATING, SNAIL the rivers.” Among European peoples whelks, periwinkles and ormers are largely consumed; 889 tons of whelks and 3,245 tons ‘of periwinkles were delivered at Billingsgate market, London, in 1922. Though landsnails are only eaten in a few districts in Eng-

land they are largely used in France, where Helix pomatia (the Roman snail) is cultivated on escargotiéres or snail farms. As bait and as the food of edible fishes, birds and whales, gastropods are of substantial indirect value to man. The shells of gastropoda have been put to a variety of uses by the different races of mankind. The mother-of-pearl obtained

69

from large specimens of Turbo and Haliotis is imported inte Europe for button-making, inlaying and sundry articles of virtu. Among native tribes shells are put to many uses. Those of Cypraea moneta (the money cowry) are used as currency in Africa and elsewhere, and other species of Cypraea are reserved as ornaments for kings and chieftains in the Pacific islands. The

left-handed chank (Turbinella rapa) is used in the ritual of the

god Vishnu in India. Trumpets are still made from Triton shells in Africa and the East, just as they apparently were among the early inhabitants of the Mediterranean. The natives of Central Africa use the large shells of various species of Ackatina as drinking-vessels and salt-containers. The rock-whelk (Murex) is no longer fished in the Mediterranean for the sake of the dye which was used in preparing “Tyrian” purple; but species of Fasciolara are still employed for obtaining dye by various native races. Gastropoda are obnoxious to man in at least two important connections. Considerable damage is done to crops by slugs and land snails. A small snail Zonitoides arboreus causes sugar-cane root disease in Louisiana. Marine gastropods are less obviously obnoxious to man, but one at least in the British Isles has proved itself a troublesome pest of oyster-beds. This is the American slipper limpet (Crepidula fornicata), which was accidentally introduced many years ago and has since then multiplied excessively and overruns the oyster beds in south-east England. A more disastrous work is done by those freshwater gastropods which harbour parasites harmful and even fatal to man and one of his more valuable domestic animals. (a) In the Middle East, in Japan, various parts of Africa and in South America and the West Indies, species of a trematode, Schistosoma (= Bilharzia) which cause bladder disease in man, pass part of their life cycle in various species of Jsidora and Planorbis. A focus of this dis-

ease has been recently detected in Portugal, where Planorbis metidjensis is probably the intermediate host of the parasite. (b) The liver fluke (Distomum hepaticum) passes part of its life in the water snail Limnea truncatula. Sheep grazing in flooded meadows or near streams become infected with the fluke, which causes “liver-rot.” For the historical treatment of this subject see Moxrtusca.

BIBLioGRAPHY.—(a)} Comprehensive Works: G. W. Tryon and H. A. Pilsbry, Manual of Conchology, 2nd. series (Pulmonata), vols. i~xxvil.

in progress (1885-1926) ; J. W. Taylor, A Monograph of the Land and

Freshwater Mollusca of the British Isles, vols, i-tii. (1894 et seq.); H. Simroth (contd. H. Hoffman), “Prosobranchia” and “Pulmonata,” Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen d. Tierreichs (1896-1927) ; W. Kobelt in Martini and Chemnitz’s Conchylien Cabinet, in progress (Nürnberg,

1909) ; J. Thiele, “Mollusca,” W. Kükenthal and T. Krumbach’s Hand-

buch der Zoologie (1925-26). (b) Monographs etc.: C. Eliot, Supplement (part viii) to J. Alder and A. Hancock’s Monograph of the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca (1910) ; J. Meisenheimer, “Die Weinbergschnecke (Helix pomatia)” Monographien sur einheimischer Tiere, ed, H. E. Ziegler (Leipzig, 1912); J, Tesch, “Pteropoda,” Schultz’s Des Tierreichs (1913) ; H., Nierstrasz, “Die parasitischen Gastropoden,” Ergebnisse u. Fortischritte der Zoologie, vol. iii., ed. J. W. Spengel (Jena, 1911-13); N. B. Eales, “Aplysia,” Monograph xxiv., Liverpool Mar. Biol. Comm. (1921); H. Hofman, “Die Vaginuliden,” Jenäische

Zeitschr. Naturwiss, Bd. 6x (1925); B. Prashad, “Anatomy of the Common Indian Apple Snail, Pila globosa,” Mem. Indian Mus. (Calcutta, 1925). (c) Distributional, taxonomic and other works: Martens

and Thiele, “Gastropoda,” Wiss. Ergebn. deutsche Tiefsee Expedn., ed. C. Chun (in progress) (1903). M. M. Schepman, Prosobranchia, etc. of

the Siboga Expedition, 58-66 (Leyden, 1908-13) ; A. Naef, “Studien zur generellen Morphologie der Mollusken” Th. x and 2, Ergebn. Fortschr.

Zoologie, vol iii. (Jena, 1911-13) ; H. Suter, A Manual of New Zealand Mollusca (1914) ; K. Künkel, Zur Biologie der Lungenschnecke (Heidelberg, 1916) ; N. Annandale (and others), Freshwater and Estuarine Fauna of India, etc, passim Rec. and Mem. Ind. Mus.; H. Pilsbry, “Land Mollusks of the Belgian Congo,” Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist,

4o (1919); P. Pelseneer, “Les variations et leur hérédité chez les Mollusques,” Mem. in 8° Ac. Roy. Belgique (1920); N. B. Eales, “Gastropoda (Anatomy),” Natural History Reports, British Antarctic

(Terra Nova) Expedn. r910., Zool. vol. viii. (19¢g) ; Hy Pasbry and e J. Bequaert, “The Aquatic Molluscs of the Belgian ae Amer. Nat. Hist. Mus. 53 (1927).

GASTROTRICHA,

a small group of fairly uniform ani-

mals which live at the bottom of ponds and marshes, hiding amongst the recesses of fresh-water plants and eating organic débris and Infusoria, They vary in size from one-sixtieth to one-

GATCHINA—GATLING

7O

three-hundredth of an inch, and move by long cilia. Two ventral tion was necessitated by a fire in 1854 which destroyed a consider: ' bands of regular transverse rows of cilia are usually found. The able part of the town. Education is provided by a grammar school, . head bears some especially large cilia. The cuticle which covers a large day school for girls, and technical and art schools. There is the body is here and there raised into overlapping scales which a service of electric trams, privately owned by a London company, may be prolonged into bristles. The body, otherwise circular in and five bridges connect the town with Newcastle-upon-Tyne section, is slightly flattened ventrally. There is a protrusible (g.v.). There are large iron works (including foundries and facpharynx armed with eversible retories for engines, boilers, chains and cables), shipbuilding yards, BRISTLES ORAL CAVITY curved teeth. This leads to a SURROUNDING glass manufactories, chemical, soap and candle works, brick and THE muscular oesophagus with a tritile works, breweries and tanneries. The town also has a depot of MOUTH radiate lumen, which acts as a the L.N.E.R., with large stores and locomotive works. Extensive sucking pump and ends in a funcoal mines exist in the vicinity; and at Gateshead Fell are large nel-valve projecting into the oval quarries for grindstones. stomach. The nitrogenous excreGateshead (Gateshewed) probably grew up during late Saxon | tory apparatus consists of a times, the mention of the church there in 1080 being the first evi- coiled tube on each side of the dence of settlement. In 1552, on the temporary extinction of the ° stomach, ending internally in ‘diocese of Durham, Gateshead was attached to Newcastle, but large flame-cells. A cerebral gangin 1554 was regranted to Bishop Tunstall. During the next cenLATERAL lion rests on the oesophagus; it CUTICULAR tury Bishop Tunstall’s successors incorporated nearly all the trades « PLATES BRISTLES is continued some way back as of Gateshead, and Cromwell continued this policy. As part of the two dorsal nerve trunks. In palatinate of Durham, Gateshead was not represented in parlia- DORSAL BRISTLE OF some species there are eyes. The ment until 1832. In 1336 the burgesses claimed an annual fair on ` BASAL PART two ovaries lie at the level of St. Peter’s Day, and depositions in 1577 mention a borough market | the juncture of the stomach and held on Tuesday and Friday, but these were apparently extinct in rectum. The large eggs are laid Camden’s day, and no grant of them is extant. y amongst water weeds. The male FROM “ZEITSCHRIFT FUR WISSENSCHAFT,” GATH, one of the five royal cities of the Philistines. It ` AFTER ZELINKA (ENGELMANN) reproductive system is little GASTROTRICHA (CHAETONOTUS would seem to be identical with the Kn-tu in the lists of Thuthknown. The Gastrotricha are her- MAXIMUS), A SMALL GROUP OF mose III. and Gimtu (Gintu) of the Tell-Amarna letters. The maphrodite. The group is divided ANIMALS LIVING AT THE BOTTOM OF name occurs several times in the Old Testament, especially in into two sub-orders, the Euich- PONDS AND MARSHES AND FEEDING connection with the history of David. Goliath, the Philistine ° thydina, with a forked tail, and ON ORGANIC DEBRIS AND INFU- champion, hailed from Gath. Rehoboam is said to have fortified . IN SIZE THEY RANGE FROM the Apodina, in which the tail is SORIA. Gath, but Uzziah found it still a Philistine city. Sargon’s records«. 1/60 TO 1/300 OF AN INCH not forked. About 50 species are show that he took it in 712 B.c. Gath was evidently a place of known. The group shows no clear affinities with any of the great importance, a walled city (2 Chr. on xxvi. 6), and it is surprising>

phyla. See:À. C. Stokes, The Microscope (Detroit, 1887-88); S. Hlava, Zool. Anz., xxviii., 1905, p. 331.

GATCHINA, now Trotsk (g.v.).

GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806), American general, was born at Maldon in Essex, England, in 1728. He entered the

its exact location has been lost since the time of Sennacherib. The« Onomasticon of Eusebius fixes the site near the road five Roman «. miles from Eleutheropolis (Beit Jibrin) on the way to Diospolis ‘ (Lydda). The Roman road is still traceable and at the place indi: ; cated stands Tell es-Safi, a small mud village, having near it the mound which marks the site of the Crusaders’ castle; Blanche- i garde. The village stands on a cliff about 300 ft. high in which` are many caves. A fenced city on such an eminence would be ;

English army at an early age, and was rapidly promoted. He accompanied Gen. Braddock in his disastrous expedition against Ft. Duquesne in 1755, and was severely wounded in the battle of remarkably strong, and surprise is naturally felt at its complete $ July 9; he saw other active service in the Seven Years’ War. disappearance. After the peace of 1763 he purchased an estate in Virginia, where The position of the village at Tell es-Safi has precluded a com-| he lived till the outbreak of the American Revolution in 1775, plete survey, but the excavations carried out there have, on the | when he was named by Congress adjutant-general. In 1776 he whole, proved disappointing and rendered the identification with` was appointed to command the troops which had lately retreated Gath highly questionable. This and the fact that the sister Philis-,: from Canada, and in Aug. 1777, as a result of a successful intrigue, tine. cities do not occupy sites naturally strong, but are merely was appointed to supersede Gen. Philip Schuyler in command of mounds on the plain, make it possible that Gath may yet be ' the Northern Department. In the two battles of Saratoga (q.v.) found between the.coast and the Shephelah. Albright suggests his army defeated Gen. Burgoyne, who, on Oct. 17, was forced to ‘Arak e]-Minshiyeh, or:rather Ahmad el-‘Araini a hill close beside. surrender his whole army. This success was, however, due largely it, as the site of Gath. Tell es-Safi he would identify with | to the previous manoeuvres of Schuyler and to Gates’s subordi- Makkedah. {

eis. ee eet ES sate ©

nate officers. The intrigues of the Conway Cabal to have Wash-

ington. superseded by Gates completely failed, but Gates was president for a time of the board of war, and in 1780 was placed in chief command in the South. He was totally defeated at Camden, S.C., by Cornwallis on Aug. 17, 1780, and in December was superseded by Greene, though an investigation into his conduct terminated in.acquittal (1782). He then retired to his Virginian estate, whence he removed to New York in 1790, after emancipating his slaves and providing for those who needed assistance. He diedin New York on April ro, 1806. See Jobn H. Brandow, “Horatio Gates,” New

Aşsoç. Proc., vol. iü, pp. 9-19 (1993).

Fa

York State Hist.

GATESHEAD, municipal, county and’ parliarhentary borough, Durham, England: on the Tyne opposite Neweastle, and on the L.N.E.R. Pop. (1931) 122,379: “Though one of the’ largest county ‘towns, neither its streets nor its. public buildings; except perhaps its ecclesiastical buildings, have much .claim to drchitectural beauty. ‘The parish church of St. Mary is an ancient cruciform ‘edifice surmounted by a lofty tower: but extensive restora-

See W. F. Albright, in Bulletin of the Airean School of Oriental ` Research, 1921 and 1924. (E. Ro.)

GATHAS, the name given to certain chapters of the Zend-; Avesta of Zoroaster. It contains the discourses and exhortations of the prophet as well as 17 hymns written in an archaic metre. The language is of considerable antiquity, differing considerably from that ordinarily used in the Avesta. See ZEND-AVESTA and ZOROASTER.

GATINEAU,

' ‘ :; '

a river of Quebec in Canada, rising in a;

chain of large lakes due north of 48° N. lat., and continuing south- | westerly until it merges into the Ottawa, about one m. below the

city of that name. This is one of the main sites of hydroelectric * See QUEBEC and OTTAWA., ‘GATLING, RICHARD JORDAN (1818-1903), Ameri- " can inventor, was born in Hertford county (N.C.), Sept. 12, 1818. '

power development in the Dominion.

He assisted in the construction and perfecting of machines. for~ sowing cotton seeds, and for thinning the plants. In'183ọ he perfected a practical screw propeller for steamboats. only to find’ that a patent had been granted to John Ericsson for a similar.

71

GATTI-CASAZZA—GAUGAMELA invention a few months earlier. He established himself in St. Louis, and taking the cotton-sowing machine as a basis he adapted it for sowing rice, wheat and other grains. The introduction of these machines did much to revolutionize the agricultural system in the country. Becoming interested in the study of medicine through an attack of smallpox, he completed a course at the Ohio medical college in 1850. In the same year he invented a hemp-breaking machine, and in 1857 a steam plough. At the outbreak of the Civil War he devoted himself at once to the perfecting of fire-arms. In 1861 he conceived the idea of the rapid fire machine-gun which is associated with his name. By 1862 he had succeeded in perfecting a gun that would discharge 350 shots per minute; but the war was practically over before the Federal authorities consented to its official adoption. The invention was adopted by almost every civilized nation. Gatling died in New York city, Feb. 26, 1903.

GATTI-CASAZZA,

GIULIO

(1869-

_+), operatic di-

rector, was born at Udine, Italy, Feb. 3, 1869. He was educated at the University of Ferrara and the Royal Superior Naval Academy of Genoa, graduating as an engineer, and studied privately | literature, history and music.

In 1893 he was made a member of

the board of directors of the Municipal theatre and superintendent of the other musical institutions of Ferrara and subsequently (1898) became general artistic and administrative director of the Scala, Milan, remaining there until 1908. Among the singers who appeared under his management were Caruso and Chaliapin, and his management in general was distinguished by much vigour and initiative. In 1908 he was appointed general artistic and administrative director of the Metropolitan Opera, New York.

GATTY,

MARGARET

(1809-1873),

English

writer,

daughter of the Rev. Alexander Scott (1768-1840), chaplain to Nelson, was born at Burnham, Essex, and married in 1839 the Rev. Alfred Gatty, vicar of Ecclesfield, near Sheffield. Mrs. Gatty is remembered for her many admirable books for children, the most famous of which is the Parables from Nature (5 vols. 185s—71). As “Aunt‘Judy” of Aunt Judy’s Magazine she became the personal friend of thousands of her child readers and correspondents.

GATTY, NICHOLAS COMYN (1374), English composer, was born at Bradfield near Sheffield on Sept. 13, 1874. He was educated privately and at Downing College, Cambridge, and afterwards entered the Royal College of Music, where he studied composition under Stanford. In 1907 he became musical critic to the Pall Mall Gazette. For many seasons he acted as musical assistant on the stage at Covent Garden. In 1927 he received the degree of Mus.D. from Cambridge university. He is principally a composer of opera, but’ has also written: Variations on “Old King Cole” for orchestra; a suite for strings; a setting of Milton’s ode: “Fly, envious Time” for chorus and orchestra; three Short Odes (Clough and Shelley); variations and a sonata in G for violin and piano; two sets of piano waltzes,

and a number of songs. His operas are: Greysteel (unpublished), produced at Sheffield (1906) and Duke or Devil. (Manchester,

House of Commons in 1640. Apparently his views changed as the revolutionary tendency of the Presbyterian party became more pronounced, for in 1648/9 be addressed to Lord Fairfax A Religious and Royal Protestation ... against the proceedings of the parliament. Under the Commonwealth he faced both ways. At the Restoration he was made bishop of Exeter. He complained to Hyde, earl of Clarendon, of the poverty of the see, and based claims for a better benefice on a certain secret service, which he explained on Jan. 20, 1661 to be the sole invention of the Ezkon Basilike, The Pourtraicture of his Sacred Majestie in his Solitudes and Sufferings, put forth within a few hours after the execution of Charles I. as written by the king himself. To which Clarendon replied that he had been before acquainted with the secret and had often wished he had remained ignorant of it. Gauden was advanced in 1662, not as he had wished to the see of Winchester, but to Worcester. He died on May 23 of the same year. See Private Correspondence between Chas. I. and Sir Ed. Nicholas pubd. as vol. v. of the Memoirs of John Evelyn (1827); C. Wordsworth, Who wrote Eikon Basilike? two letters addressed to the archbishop of Canterbury (1824), and King Charles the First, the Author of. Icon Basiliké (1828); E. J. L. Scott’s introduction to, his reprint (x880) of the original edition; articles in the Academy, May and

June 1883, by C. E. Doble; another reprint edit. by E. Almack for the King’s Classics (1904) ; and E. Almack, Bibliography of the King’s Book (1896) which summarizes etc. the arguments on either side and gives a full bibliography.

GAUDIER-BRZESKA,

HENRI

(1891-1915),

French

sculptor, a leading representative of the Vorticist movement which held that the subject-matter of a work of art need not represent or be like anything in nature; only it must be alive with rhythmic vitality. He was born at St. Jean de Braye, Loire, on Oct. 4, 1891. He was the son of Joseph Gaudier, a joiner. After gaining a scholarship he was educated at Bristol college; and was there provided with funds to study art. He went to Nuremberg and Munich and in 1910 returned to France. He henceforth called himself Gaudier-Brzeska. His first commission in sculpture was the statue of Maria Carmi. At the age of 22 he had established his style in the marbles “The Dancer” and “The Embracers.” He was killed in a charge at Neuville St. Vaast on June g, 1915. A memorial exhibition of his work was held at the South Kensington museum, London. See Ezra Pound, Gaudier-Brzeska: His Life and Work.

GAUDY, as a noun, in the sense of rejoicing or feast, a

word used of a commemoration dinner at an Oxford college. (ARBELA), BATTLE OF (Oct. 1, GAUGAMELA

331 B.c.). After his defeat at Issus, Darius assembled a vast horde of men at Babylon. Thence, marching northwards, he crossed to

the left bank of the Tigris, and established his magazines and

harems at Arbela (Erbil).

From Arbela he moved forward to

Gaugamela, some 32 miles westwards. Having conquered Egypt, Alexander marched northwards through Palestine, crossed the Tigris at Bezabdi, north of modern Mosul, and, learning of the Persian king’s whereabouts, he at once moved forward with a picked force of cavalry. Having located the enemy, he rested

his army for four days and fortified his camp.

Whilst this was

1909), both in one act; Prince Ferelon, musical extravaganza in t act, produced in 1919 and now established in the repertoire of the “Old Vic.” (vocal score published by the Carnegie Trust); The Tempest (unpublished), Surrey Theatre, London, 1920; King Alfred and the Cakes, and Macbeth.

taking ‘place, Darius deployed his army on the plains of Gaugamela, which he converted into a huge parade ground by levelling

Argentine ‘Republic and’ Uruguay of mixed Spanish and Indian

agreed, and whilst the camp was being fortified, “he took the light

endurance, with a combination of dignity and arrogance in their

noitting the whole country where he was about to fight the battle.” On his return he called together a conference at which’ hé discussed ‘what he had seen, and urged upon his generals the importance of the immediate execution of orders. Whilst the soldiers

it. On the fourth night ‘Alexander advanced, but when 34 miles

distant from him he called a halt, and assembled his’ generals.

Parmenio suggested that they should encamp where they were,

GAUCHOS, a nomadic South American race inhabiting the and reconnoitre the ground and the enemy. To this Alexander

descent. They are tall, handsome, strikingly dressed and of great infantry ‘and the companion cavalry and went all round, reconbearing. Their chief otcupation is leather making and ranching,

the wild conditions únder which they live having made them excellent horsemen, skilled'in the use of the lasso and bolas (q.v.).

"GAUDEN, JOHN (1605-1662), English bishop and writer, reputed author of the Ziton Basilike, was born at Mayland, Essex,

were testing, Parmenio came to Alexander’s tent and suggested a night attack. This proposal Alexander refused to consider, his

where his father was ‘vicar. Educated at Bury St. Edmunds and reason (more probable than the story of his disdaining such at St. John’s college, Cambridge, he seems to have been at Oxford

until 1630, when he becamé vicar of Chippenham. His synipa-

thies'weré at first with the parliamentary party. He was chaplain

craft) being that in the approaching battle he had planned to

déliver a decisive blow, and he knew well the difficulties coincident: with night operations, “Having

rejected this advice,

to’ Robert’ Rich, second earl of Warwick, and preached before the Alexander drew up his army. ‘The phalanx was marshalled’ in

GAUGAMELA

72

the centre, the right wing consisting of its three right divisions, the hypaspists, the agema and the Companion cavalry; the left wing of the remaining three divisions of the phalanx, the Grecian cavalry and the Thessalian cavalry. Thus far the order of battle was normal. The problem which faced Alexander was very similar to that which confronted Cyrus in Xenophon’s account of the battle of Thymbra. Alexander applied the tactics

CENTRE OF PERSIAN ARMY

gap the Indian and Persian cavalry burst, and advanced towards

the baggage camp. While this action was in progress, the Persian cavalry on Darius’s right wing rode round Alexander’s left wing and attacked Parmenio in flank. Parmenio, now completely surrounded, sent a messenger to Alexander informing him of his critical situation. He received this message whilst he was pursuing the fragments of the Persian left wing, and at once wheeled round with the Companion cavalry, and led them against the Persian right. The Persian cavalry, who were now falling back, | finding their retreat menaced, fought stubbornly. “They struck and were struck without quarter” but were routed by Alexander, The pursuit was now taken up, and was continued until midnight, when a forced march was made on Arbela. About 32 miles were covered, but in vain, for Darius made good his escape. Arrian

states that the Persians lost 300,000 in killed and Alexander only 100, and 1,000 horses. These figures are obviously unreliable.

Tactics.—This battle was not won by reckless courage but by

audacity tempered by a wonderful grasp of what the enemy in:

=

tended to do, and how his actions could be turned to advantage,

w

= t < a o

yN

ATTALUS. BRISO

BALACRUS ALEXANDER }AGRIANIANS CutTus +ARCHERS +JAVELINMEN

PHARSALIAN HORSE

Ob

i

ikwRo \° 2

A

6

z5 PHILIP. EriGYIUS

;

GREEK CAV,CRATERUS SIMMIAS POLYSPERCHON CAY. THESSALIAN (92 SITALCES

THRACIAN

CRATERUS INFANTRY

(fy)COERANUS GREEK ALLIED CAVALRY ‘ |#) AGATHO ODRYSSIAN CAVALRY (Æ) ANDROMACHUS GRECIAN MERCENARIES

NICANOR.,EGELOCHUS HYPASPISTS H MELEAGER ARISTO GLAUCIAS

I| MELEAGER 2PERDICCAS S ZCOENUS z > z =AGEMA FOOT xZ

BAGGAGE CAMP

DEMETRIUS 2] HERACLIDES 9SSorots =4| 2

(a) 4 AGRIANIANS

(ATTALUS)

(b) } ARCHERS (BRISO) (C)CLEAN DER VETERAN MERCENARIES (d) ARETES LIGHT CAVALRY (@) ARISTO PAEONIAN CAVALRY

(f? MENIDAS GREEK MERCENARY

CAVALRY

FIG. 1.—DIAGRAM OF BATTLE OF GAUGAMELA (ARBELA), OCT. 1, 331 B.C.. SHOWING DISPOSITION OF ALEXANDER'S ARMY UNDER SEPARATE GENERALS The Greeks numbered 7,000 cavairy and 40,000 foot, while the Persians

‘| This is clearly seen if the diagrams are studied. The order of battle is the normal one, but out of it is developed a very different type of attack to those of the battles of Granicus and Issus. Alexander is never obsessed by past successes, also he never invents what may be called experimental attacks. What he does is to measure up his antagonist and to act accordingly: First he seeks information; this is the foundation of his security, for in spite of his audacity security is always the foundation of his offensive action. Once he has made up his mind he distributes his force economically; his order of battle consists of a protective left and an offensive right, and in his right he concentrates his punch, Having secured his plan, he rapidly moves towards the Persian left flank, not only to get beyond the level ground, but to prevent a double envelopment, and to increase the distance between his left LEFT FLANK

were probably five times as strong. The battle ended in the complete shattering of the Persian army

ERSIAN

°

made use of at Thymbra. Behind his front he drew up a reserve

OF PERSIAN ARMY

AAN

BACTRIAN

C

100 Cuanidts

force consisting of two flying columns; these he posted one be-

hind each wing at an angle to the front, so that they might take the enemy in ftank should an attempt be made to turn the wings; or, if this did not take place, then they were to wheel inwards and reinforce the main army. In front of the Companion _ cavalry he posted half the Agrianians, archers and javelin-men to oppose the charge of the Persian chariots. The baggage guard

consisted of Thracian infantry. In all Alexander’s army numbered

7,000 cavalry and 40,000 foot, the Persians were, in all probability, about five times as strong. This order of battle should be kept clearly in mind, for, as it will be seen, it was through Alexander’s ability to develop his tactics from it that he won the battle.

The Battle—The initiative was taken by Alexander. He ad-

vanced, not directly on the Persians, but towards their left, and so compelled Darius to move on to the unlevelled ground. Darius,

fearing that his chariots would become useless, ordered his left-

wing cavalry to ride round Alexander’s right and halt him. Alexander met this attack with his light cavalry, and a general cavalry engagement took place. Then Darius launched his chariots, but

they never got home, as the charioteers were shot down by the light infantry in front of the Companion cavalry. The Persian left

was now unmasked and in some confusion, whereupon Alexander wheeled round the Companion cavalry and with the four right divisions of the phalanx he led them towards the gap formed in the Persian front by the advance of their cavalry, and made straight for Darius. This cavalry charge, closely supported on its left by the dense array of bristling pikes in echelon, smote such terror into

FIG. 2.—ALEXANDER’S FIRST ATTACK ON THE PERSIAN EXTREME

LEFT, This manoeuvre compelled Darius to uncover his left centre, thereby leaving | a gap, through which Alexander foresaw he could penetrate the Persian line

and the Persian right. This will enable him to shatter the Persian

left before the Persian right can annihilate his own left. Also, if he can only draw the Persian right well inwards, should he be able

to

the enemy’s left, he will then be in a position to take Darius that he fled the field. Meanwhile the Persian cavalry on theirsmash right in reverse. In diagram 2, the position of Darius, the deAlexander’s original right, finding their rear threatened took to cisive point, is off the plan to the left, yet it is the point Alexander, fight, and the Macedonians, following up the fugitives, slaughter ed intends to strike. He opens the battle by moving away from it, and therm. The left wing, on account of the diagonal march, was in so compels Darius to uncover the immediate left flank of his rear of the right, and the impetuous advance of Alexander appears centre. Though now well placed to attack in oblique order the. to have created a gap betwe iten and the right wing. Through this outer flank of the Persian left wing

he does not do so, for the.

GAUGUIN

73

decisive point is not the left wing but the centre. In diagram 3 it |Aven and who allowed us to see not without a show of mystery

will be seen that under cover of his right flying column, he sud- | the lid of a cigar box, on which we could make out a shapeless denly obliques inwards, and concentrates superiority of force op- | landscape synthetically designed in violet, vermillion, Veronese posite the gap once filled by the Scythian and Persian cavalry, green and other unmixed colours, just as they are pressed out of Through this gap he charges at top speed and strikes Darius in a tube, almost without white in them. ‘How does that tree appear rear. This charge succeeds, not because the Companion cavalry to you,’ Gauguin had asked—‘very green?—Well then use green are advancing at top speed, but because their mobility is developed —the finest green on your palette—and that shadow is rather from the security afforded by the flying column and the phalanx. blue? Do not be afraid to paint it as blue as possible.’ ” “Thus,” continues Denis, “was presented to us for the first time the fruitful conception of the plane surface covered with colours put together in a certain order . . . we learned that every work of art is a transposition, a caricature, the passionate equivalent of a sensation which has been experienced. ... Gauguin freed us from all restraints which the idea of copying placed on our Ae

A

a

an

ae a

X ss\

painter’s instinct. . . . Henceforth we aspired to express our own personality. . . . If it was permissible to use vermillion in painting a tree which seemed to us at that moment reddish . . . why not stress even to the point of deformation the curve of a beautiful shoulder, exaggerate the pearly whiteness of a carnation, stiffen the symmetry of boughs unmoved by a breath of air?” (Theories 1890-1910, published in 1920.) Thus Gauguin’s ideas were taken up by a group of young students in Paris, which included Bonnard Denis, Ibels, Ranson,

Vuillard and Maillol. In 1889 “‘the school of Pont Aven” moved to Pouldu near by. Their life there and the inn at Pouldu, the rendezvous of artists, which was adorned by Gauguin, was de-

JaA CAMP

FIG. 3.—DIAGRAM SHOWING PENETRATION TACTICS OF ALEXANDER By suddenly turning

inwards, under cover of his right flying column, Alex-

ander concentrated superlor forces in the gap caused by his initfal manoeuvre (see fig. 2) and was thus able to take the army of Darius in the rear

The penetration by shock is absolutely successful. Gaugamela is one of the most perfect examples of the tactics of penetration to be found in history. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander, Diodorus Siculus; Q. Curtius; Riistow and Kéchly Geschichte der griechischen Kriegswesens (1852); G. Grote, History of Greece (1906); H. Delbruck, Geschichte der Kriegskunst (1908); J. G. Droysen, Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen (1917); The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. vi.

(1927).

(J.F. C. F.)

GAUGUIN, PAUL (1848-1903), French painter, one of the pioneers of the Post-Impressionist movement. He was born in Paris on June 7, 1848, the son of a journalist from Orleans and of a mother partly of Peruvian descent. He spent his childhood in Peru and at Orleans, and after having done his military service in the marines he entered the banking firm of Bertin in Paris in 1871. In 1873 he married Mette-Sophie Gad, a Danish lady. In 1875 he began to spend his free time in painting. Encouraged by his friend, C. Pissaro, he acquired the Impressionist technique. His interest in art took more and more hold of him, and in 188 he decided to give up his appointment at the bank. His means soon gave out and after an unfortunate attempt to get

scribed by Mr. Ch. Chassé in ?’Occident (1903). In 1888 Gauguin went to Arles to meet his friend, Van Gogh. The two artists had planned to work together, but Van Gogh succumbed to an attack of lunacy and Gauguin left him. (See P. Gauguin, Avant et Aprés.) Among Gauguin’s best work of this period are “Le Christe Jaune,” and “La Lutte de l’Ange avec Jacob.” He copied Manet’s “Olympia,” which he considered one of the masterpieces of the age, he etched a portrait of Mallarmé, executed some lithographs and carved reliefs in wood. But in spite of all his efforts his financial position did not improve. His journey to Martinique had inspired him with a love for the tropics and he conceived a plan of going to the South Seas where he could live cheaply and devote himself to his vocation. He sold all his pictures by auction for 9,860 frcs. and went to the island of Tahiti in 1891. There he lived a simple life with the natives which he described in his autobiographical novel Noe Noa. On his return to Paris he exhibited his paintings at Durand Ruel, but the lifein the big city no longer suited him; he left for Tahiti In 1895 never to return. Out there, inspired by ħis admiration for primitive life, for the luminous colour of the tropical landscape, he produced paintings of great decorative beauty and originality. “L'esprit Veille,” “Seule,” “Devant la Case,” “La Fuite” and “Jours Delicieux” are among his most notable works. They represent the bronzed native Maoris in their surroundings of exotic plants and primitive dwellings. In rgor he moved to Dominiha on the Marquesas isles. He built himself a house and decorated it with carvings and paintings. The natives treated him as one of their own and he sided with them against the overbearing European representatives of the administration. The end of his life was approaching; he lived in extreme want; in order to pay his taxes he worked in a Government office for 6 fres. a day; his health was failing. He died on May 9, 1903, and was buried in the Mission cemetery. Victor Ségalen, a navy doctor and writer, who was in the Marquesas isles at the time, gave a vivid and sad account of his end (Mercure de France, June 1904). His last important picture, entitled “D’où venons nous? Que sommes-nous? où allons-nous?” is one of his masterpieces, It was painted under the shadow of an attempted suicide. His description of this work in a letter to his friend, D. de Montfreid, is of interest, as it throws light on his artistic creed. “Before I

assistance from his wife’s relations at Copenhagen, he separated from her and his children, returning to Paris without means. A period of travel followed. He worked on the island of Martinique (1887~88) and then went to Pont Aven in the Bretagne, where he soon became the leading spirit of a group of painters. The movement thus started was known as “Synthesism.”’ Gauguin himself was not a theorist. He wished to be rid of all that might intervene between the artist’s vision and his canvas; but the other members of the group felt otherwise. Emile Bernard lectured on the synthetic doctrine, Filiger contributed his medi- died I wished to paint a large canvas that I had in mind, and I aeval fancies, Sérusier propagated the new ideas; he clarified the worked day and night that whole month inan incredible fever. vague doctrines of Gauguin. The new tendency is explained by To be sure it is not done like a Puvis de Chavannes, sketch after Maurice Denis, one of Sérusier’s disciples in Paris; he says: “It nature, preparatory cartoon, etc, It is all done straight from the was on our reassembling in 1888 that the name of Gauguin was brush on the sackcloth full of knots and wrinkles, so the appearrevealed to us by Sérusier, who had Just returned from Pont , ance is terribly rough... . . I put in t all my energy, a passion

‘GAUHATI—GAUL

74

so dolorous, amid circumstances so terrible, and so clear was my vision that the haste of the execution is lost and life surges up. It does not stink of models, of technique, or of pretended rules, of which I have always fought shy, though sometimes with fear. It is a canvas four metres, fifty long and one metre, seventy high. The two upper corners are chrome yellow, with an inscription on the left and my name on the right, like a fresco whose corners are spoiled with age and which is appliquéed upon a golden wall. To the right at the lower end a sleeping child and three crouching women. Two figures dressed in purple confide their thoughts to one another. An enormous crouching figure, out of all proportion and intentionally so, raises its arms and stares in astonishment upon these two, who dare to think of their destiny; a figure in the centre is picking fruit; two cats near a child; a white goat; an idol, its arms mysteriously raised in a sort of rhythm seems to indicate the Beyond. Then, lastly, an old woman nearing death appears to accept everything. . . . She completed the story. . . . It is all on the bank of a river in the woods. In the background the ocean, then the mountains of a

neighbouring island. Despite changes of tone the colouring of the landscape is constant—elither blue or Veronese green. Where does the execution of a painting commence and where does it end? At that moment when the most intense emotions are in fusion in the depths of one’s being, when they burst forth like lava from a volcano .. .P The work is created suddenly, brutally if you like, and is not its appearance great, almost superhuman?” Gauguin, then, had left Impressionism behind; he had profited by its technique in the use of using colours pure and unmixed; but his work was impregnated with symbolism, his design was expressive, his colour arrangements decorative. His influence on modern art was far-reaching. Besides the school of Pont Aven and the Synthesists, he inspired such artists as Ed. Munch and Toulouse Lautrec. His ideas revolutionized poster design and

design in all Arts and Crafts work (Van de Velde, Lemmen, Gallé-Nancy,) His primitive woodcarving and his terra-cotta figure called “Oviri,” the Tahitan Diana, was admired by such artists as Picasso and led to the appreciation of negro sculpture. His lithographs and woodcuts opened new fields in the graphic arts. . ; ; See: Jean de Rotonchamp, Paul Gauguin (1925); Ch. Morice, Paul

Gauguin

(1919); Gauguin’s writings: Noa Noa

(1924), the manu-

script’ with original illustrations is in the possession of Mr, D. de

Montfreid, who also owns the manuscripts of Choses Diverses (1896-

97); and of Le Sourire, a satirical journal written in Tahiti; Racontars dun.Rapin (x902), written ọn the Marquesas islands, is reproduced for the most part in Rotonchamp’s book: Avant et Aprés, published by Charles Morice in Vers et Prose (1903) ; the manuscript was reproduced in facsimile (Leipzig, 1919); Lettres de Paul Gauguin à G. D. de: ‘Mont fretd: (1920) ;.The Intimate Journal of P. Gauguin, with a prefacé by Emile Gauguin (1923); M. Guerin, L’oeuvre Gravé de

Gauguin (1927)..

. (LA. R.

‘iGAUHATI, 'a town of British India, headquarters of the Kamrup. district.of Assam, mainly on the left or south, but partly

omthe right. bank of 'the Brahmaputra. Pop. (1921) 16,480. Gauhatt.is the headquarters of the district and of the Brahmaputra _ Valley division. It is beautifully situated, with an amphitheatre oftwoeded hills to: the south. During the 17th century it was taken amd, setaken -by Mohammedans and Ahoms eight times in fifty years; ‘but:in, 168x-it became the residence of the Ahom governor afslower Assam, and 'in 1786 the capital of the Ahom raja. On , theveéssion of Assam to the British in 1826 it was made the seat

af the. Britisk administration of Assam, and so continued till

1874, when the headquarters were removed to Shillong in the

Khasi hills, 67 m. distant, with which Gauhati is connected by an

excellent motor road. Two much-frequented places of Hindu pilgrimage are situated in the immediate vicinity, the ‘temple of

Kamakhya on a hill 2 m. west of the town, and the rocky island gt.Umananda in the Brahmaputra. Gauhati is an important centre . $f iriver trade, and the largest seat of commerce in Assain. The ieeeFerda

z. A college:

institutions are the Cotton Arts colege and a

(GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (185 5-1919), American , SFist wag born . in Jersey City (N. J.), on March 31, 1855. He v

pasa pupil-of J. G. Brown and L. E. Wilmarth, and he became

a painter of military pictures, portraying incidents of the Americar

Civil War. He was elected an associate of the National Academy

of Design in 1880, and in 1882 a full academician, and in the latter year became a member of the Society of American Artists. His important works include: “Charging the Battery,” “News from Home,” “Cold Comfort on the Outpost,” “Silenced,” “On the` Look-out,” and “Guerillas returning from a raid.” He died ip New York, Dec. 21, 1919.

GAUL, Lat. Gallia, the name of the two chief districts known to the Romans as inhabited by Celtic-speaking peoples, (a) Gallia Cisalpina or Citerior, i.e., North Italy between Alps and Apennines and (b) the far more important Gallia Transalpina or Ulterior, usually called Gallia simply, the land bounded by the Alps, the Mediterranean, the Pyrenees, the Atlantic and the Rhine, 1.€., modern France and Belgium with parts of Holland, Germany and Switzerland.

(a) Gallia Cisalpina (g.v.) was mainly conquered by Rome by 222 B.C,; later it adopted Roman civilization, whence it was often

known as “Gallia Togata”; about 42 B.C. it was united with Italy,

Its chief distinctions are that during the later Republic and earlier Empire it yielded excellent soldiers, and that it produced Virgil

(by origin a Celt), Livy, Catullus, Cornelius Nepos, the elder and

the younger Pliny and other distinguished writers, (b) Gaul proper first enters ancient history when the Greek |

colony of Massilia was founded (?600 B.c.). During the Punic

Wars it became important to Rome as the highway to Spain (g.v.). In 121 B.C. the coast from Montpellier to the Pyrenees (z.¢., all that was not Massiliot), with its port of Narbo (mod. Narbonne) and its trade route by Toulouse to the Atlantic, was | formed into the province of Gallia Narbonensis and Narbo itself

into a Roman municipality. Gradually the province was extended north of Massilia, up the Rhone, while the Greek town itself be- ` came weak and dependent on Rome. Narbonensis was distin: guished from “‘Gallia Togata” as “Gallia Bracata,” from the long trousers (bracae, incorrectly braccae) worn by its inhabitants. .. We owe our earliest detailed knowledge of pre-Roman Gaul to

the Commentaries of Gaul was at that time peoples, the Aquitani, and the Belgae. These

Julius Caesar. Gallia Narbonensis apatt, divided among three more or less distinct the Gauls (who called themselves Celts): occupied respectively the south, the centre

and the north of the country between the Pyrenees and the Rhine, The tribes were numerous. Prominent among them were the Helvetii, the Sequani and the Aedui in the basins of the Rhone and the Saône; the Arverni in the Cévennes; the Senones and Carnutes. in the basin of the Loire; the Veneti and other Armorican tribes ` between the mouths of the Loire and the Seine. These were all Celts. The Nervii, Bellovaci, Suessiones, Remi, Morini, Menapii _ and Aduatuci were Belgic; the ‘Tarbelli and others were Aquitani; while the Allobroges inhabited the north of Gallia Bracata, having been conquered in 121 B.c. The ethnological divisions thus set forth by Caesar have’been much discussed (see Cxeur and articles -

on the chief tribes). . g1 As the result of the Gallic wars (58-51) of Caesar (g.v.) the *

whole of Gaul to the Rhine and the ocean became Roman terti- : tory, and in '49 Massilia was annexed. But Roman territory had”, still to be romanized. Caesar had no time to organize his corn: quest; this was left to Augustus. As settled by him, and in patt perhaps also by his successor Tiberius, Gaul fell into five admin: istrative areas :— phe

(i.) Narbonensis, that is, the land between Alps, sea and Cé

vennes, extending up the Rhone to Vienne, is by nature distinct iv : many ways from the rest of Gaul. It is a sun-steeped southeri ,

region, the home of the vine and olive, of the minstrelsy of thè“

Provencal and the exuberance of Tartarin, distinct from the coldér’ and more sober north. Augustus found it already familiar with, Roman ways and civilized enough to need no garrison. Accordi ingly, it was henceforward governed by a proconsul (appointed bý}

the senate) and freed from the burden of troops, while its locat government was assimilated to that of Italy: The old’ Celtie tribes were broken up; instead, municipalities of Roman citizét i

were founded to rule their territories. Thus the Allobroges now disappear and the colonia of Vienna (Vienne) takes their plait

if

GAULT—GAUR the Volcae vanish, and we find Nemausus (Nimes). By AD. 70 the area was “Italia verius quam provincia” (Pliny). The Gauls obviously had a natural bias towards the Italian civilization, and there soon became no difference between Italy and southern Gaul. But, though education spread, the results were somewhat disappointing. Trade flourished; the many towns grew rich and could afford splendid public buildings. But no great writer and no great administrator came from Narbonensis. (ii.-iv.) Across the Cévennes lay Caesar’s conquests, Atlantic in climate, new to Roman ways. The whole area, often collectively styled “Gallia Comata,” from the inhabitants wearing their hair long, often “Tres Provinciae,” was divided into three provinces, each under a legatus pro praetore appointed by the emperor, with a common capital at Lugdunum (Lyons). The three were: Aquitania, reaching from the Pyrenees almost to the Loire;

Lugdunensis, the land between Loire and Seine, reaching from Brittany in the west to Lyons in the south-east; and Belgica in the north. Here also it was found possible to dispense with garrisons, not because the provinces were as peaceful as Narbonensis, but because the Rhine army was close at hand, while the splendid system of roads rendered the movement of troops easy. As befitted an unromanized region, the local government was unlike that of Italy or Narbonensis. Roman municipalities were not unknown, though very few; the local authorities were the magistrates of the old tribal districts. Local autonomy was carried to an extreme, but the policy succeeded. If the Gauls of the Three Provinces, or some of them, revolted in A.D. 21 under Florus and Sacrovir, in 68 under Vindex, and in 7o under Classicus and Tutor, (see Crvriis, CLAUDIUS), all five leaders were romanized nobles, with Roman names and Roman citizenship, and their risings were directed rather against the Roman government than the Roman empire. In general, Roman civilization was accepted more or less rapidly; in particular, the worship of “Augustus and Rome,” devised by the first emperor as a bond of state religion connecting the provinces with Rome, was eagerly welcomed. It agrees with the vigorous development of this worship that the Three Provinces, though romanized, retained their own local feeling. As

75

These provincial divisions were modified by Diocletian, but

without seriously affecting the life of Gaul. The whole country continued Roman and fairly safe from barbarian invasions till after 400. In A.D. 407 a multitude of Franks, Vandals, etc., broke in; Roman rule practically ceased, and the three kingdoms of the Visigoths, Burgundians and Franks began to form. There were still a Roman general and Roman troops when Attila was defeated in the campi Catalaunici in A.D. 451, but the general, Aetius, was “the last of the Romans,” and in a.D. 486 Clovis the Frank brought Roman rule in Gaul to a final end. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—-The most recent and most authoritative work is C. Jullian, Histoire de la Gaule, vols. i—viii. For Roman antiquities see, besides articles on the modern towns (ARLES, NIMES, ORANGE, etc.), Brpracts, Atesra, Itrus Portus, AQUEDUCT, ARCHITECTURE, AMPHITHEATRE, etc.; for religion, Drumpism; for education, T. Haarhoff, Schools of Gaul (Oxford, 1920); for the Roman provinces, Th. Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman Empire, vol. i. and M. Rostovtzeff, Social and Economic Hist. of the Roman Empire, ch, vi. See also Desjardins, Géographie historique et administrative de la Gaule romaine; Fustel de Coulanges, Histoire des institutions politiques de l'ancienne France; for Caesars campaigns, article CAESAR, JULIUS, and works quoted; for coins, art. Numismatics and Blanchet, Traité des monnaies gauloises. (F. J. H.; G

GAULT: see CRETACEOUS SYSTEM. GAUR or LAKHNAUTI, a ruined city of British India, in

the Malda district of Bengal. The ruins are situated about 8 m. south of English Bazar, the civil station of the district of Malda, and on the eastern bank of an old channel of the Ganges. It is said to have been founded by Lakshman, the Sena king of Bengal, and its ancient name was Lakshmanavati, corrupted into Lakhnauti. Its known history begins with its conquest at the end of the rath century by the Mohammedans, who retained it as their capital in Bengal for more than three centuries. The seat of government was transferred about 1340 to Pandua (gq.v.), also in Malda district. When Pandua was in its turn deserted (about 1455), Gaur once more became the capital, but in 1564 owing to a change in the course of the Ganges it was abandoned for Tanda, a place somewhat nearer the main stream. Gaur was temporarily reoccupied by Akbar’s general in 1575, when Daud Shah, the last of the late as the 3rd century the cults of Celtic deities (Hercules Mag- Afghan dynasty, refused to submit to the Mogul emperor. This usanus, Deusoniensis, etc.) were revived, the Celtic leuga reintro- occupation was followed by a virulent epidemic, which depopuduced instead of the Roman mile on official milestones, and a brief lated the city and completed its downfall. Since then it has been effort made to establish an independent, though romanized, Gaul little better than a heap of ruins, almost overgrown with jungle. under Postumus and his short-lived successors (A.D. 259-273). The western side of Gaur was washed by the Ganges, and it The area was too large and strong to lose its individuality; it was was protected both from inundation and from attack by great also too rural and too far from the Mediterranean to be roman- embankments. Within the space enclosed by these embankments ized as fully and quickly as Narbonensis. Even the Celtic lan- and the river stood the city proper. The city in its prime measguage lingered on in forest districts into the 4th century A.D. ured 74 m. from north to south, with a breadth of r to 2m. The Town life, however, grew. The chefs-lieux of the tribes became ramparts of the city, which was surrounded by extensive suburbs, practically, though not officially, municipalities, and many of these still exist; they were works of vast labour, and were on the average towns reached considerable size and magnificence of public build- about 4o ft. high, and 180 to 200 ft. thick at the base. ings. But they attest their tribal relations by their appellations, Fergusson in his History of Eastern Architecture thus dewhich are commonly drawn from the name of the tribe and not scribes the general architectural style of Gaur :-—“It is neither like of the town itself; to this day Amiens, Paris, Rheims, Soissons that of Delhi nor Jaunpore, nor any other style, but one purely and others perpetuate the memory of tribes like the Ambiani, the local and not without considerable merit In itself; its principal Parisii, the Remi, and the Suessiones. Literature also flourished. characteristic being heavy short pillars of stone supporting pomted In the latest empire Ausonius, Symmachus, Sidonius, Apollinaris arches and vaults in brick.” The ruins long served as a quarry and other Gaulish writers, chiefly of Gallia Comata, kept alive for the builders of neighbouring towns and villages, till in rg00 the classical literary tradition, not only for Gaul but for the world. steps were taken for their preservation by the government.’ The (v.) The fifth division of Gaul was the Rhenish military fron- finest ruin in Gaur is that of the Great Golden Mosque, also called tier, which was organized as two military districts. The northern Bara Darwaza, or twelve-doored (1526). ‘The Small Golden or one was the valley of the Meuse and that of the Rhine to a point Eunuch’s mosque has fine carving, and is faced with stone fairly just south of Bonn; the southern was the rest’ of the Rhine valley well preserved. The Tantipara mosque (1475-86) has beautiful to Switzerland. Each district was garrisoned at first by four, later moulding in brick, and the Lotan mosque of the same'period is by fewer, legions, which were disposed at various times in some of unique in retaining glazed tiles. The citadel: was entered ‘through the following fortresses: Vetera (Xanten), Novaesium (Neuss), a magnificent gateway called the Dakhil Darwaza (?r#60-74). At Bonna (Bonn), Moguntiacum (Mainz), Argentorate: (Strasbourg) the south-east corner was a palace, surrounded‘ by a‘avall of brick and Vindonissa (Windisch in Switzerland). At first the districts, 66 ft. high, of which a: part is.standing. ‘ Near: by were-the royal being purely military, were called after the garrisons: “exercitus tombs:..: Within the citadel is the Kadém:'Rasul'mosque (1530);

Germanicus superior” (south): and “inferior” (north)., Later one or two municipalities were founded—the oldest, Colonia Agrippinensis, at Cologne in’ AD. 51—and about a.p. 80-90. the two “Exercitus” were turned into ‘the two provinces ef Upper and Lowér Germany (see GERMANY). = 7 roa tt

whith is still used, and close outside is .a tall tower called the Firoz Minan (perhaps signifying “tower of victory”); There are a number of Mohammedan buildings: on'the ibanks:.of a great: reser:

voir called Sagar Dighi; including, notably;ithe tomb of the saint Makhdum Shaikh Akh? Siraj (d: gij

ie

y

see

‘Prot

n

te

x

GAUR— GAUTIER

76

See M. Martin (Buchanan Hamilton), Eastern India, vol. ii. (1831) ; G. H. Ravenshaw, Gaur (1878) ; James Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture (1876).; Reports of the Archaeological Surveyor, Bengal Circle (1900-04).

GAUR (Bibos gaurus), the wild ox of India. The gaur, which extends into Burma and the Malay Peninsula, is the typical representative of an Indo-Malay group of wild cattle characterized by a ridge on the withers, compressed horns, and white legs. The gaur, which reaches a height of nearly 6ft. at the shoulder, is characterized by the forward curve and great elevation of the ridge between the horns. The colour is blackish-grey. Hill-forests are the resort of this species.

GAUS, FRIEDRICH (1881-

_), German diplomat, born

en Feb. 18, 1881, at Brunswick. He became in 1923 director of the legal department in the government, and was concerned in the preparation of German diplomatic documents from the end of the war onwards, but notably in questions of disarmament and of justice. He took part in the Genoa (1922) and London (1924) conferences and acted as legal adviser to the German government

in the preparation of the Locarno treaties.

GAUSS,

KARL

FRIEDRICH

(1777-1855),. German

mathematician and physicist, was born at Brunswick on April 30, 1777. He was the son of a bricklayer and owed his education to the influence of the reigning duke. He went to the Caroline college and later to Gottingen. In 1798 he returned to Brunswick, where he tried to earn his living by teaching privately. When the new observatory at Gottingen was completed in 1807, Gauss became Director and Professor of Astronomy. He practically never left the observatory until he died on Feb. 23, 1855. Gauss began his mathematical researches at an early age; this early work was incorporated in his Disqutsitiones Arithmeticae (1801) which is a standard work on the theory of numbers. This was followed by a large number of memoirs in pure mathematics. Because of this work he is ranked with Laplace and Lagrange among the three greatest masters of modern mathematical analysis. Amongst other researches in this connection Gauss made extensive use of determinants and imaginaries; he arrived at the method of least squares; observed the double periodicity of elliptic functions; applied vigorous tests on the convergence of an infinite series, and worked out a solution for binomial equations. He wrote on biquadratic residues, and solved the problem of the representation of numbers by binary quadratic forms; he also proved the law of quadratic reciprocity. Gauss began his magnetic and electrical researches about 1830; his first memoir, Intensitas vis magneticae terrestris ad mensuram absolutam revocata, was published in 1833; in this he proposed a system of units based on the units of length, mass and time. He called these units absolute units and the unit of magnetic field has been named the Gauss. With Weber he constructed a magnetic observatory free from iron where they made observa-

two memoirs, Über Gegenstände der höheren Geodesie (1843 and 1846). He also wrote a treatise on astronomy, Theoria motus cor-

porum coelestium (1809). See W. Sartorius, Gauss, zum Gedächtniss (1856).

GAUTIER, LEON

(1832-1897), French literary historian,

was born at Havre, educated at the Ecole des Chartes, and became successively keeper of the archives of the department of Haute-Marne and of the imperial archives at Paris under the empire. In 187r he became professor of palaeography at the Ecole des Chartes. He was elected member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1887, and became chief of the historical section of the national archives in 1893. Léon Gautier rendered great services to the study of early French literature, the most important of his numerous works on mediaeval subjects being a

critical text (Tour, 1872) with translation and introduction of

the Chanson de Roland, and Les Epopées frangaises (3 vols., 1866-67; 2nd ed., 5 vols., 1878-97, including a Bibliographie des chansons de geste). He died in Paris on Aug. 25, 1897. GAUTIER, THEOPHILE (1811-1872), French poet and miscellaneous writer, was born at Tarbes on the 31st of August 1811. He was educated at the grammar school of that town, and afterwards at the Collége Charlemagne in Paris, but was almost as much in the studios. He very early devoted himself to the study of the older French literature, especially that of the 16th and the early part of the 17th century. This study qualified him well to take part in the Romantic movement, and enabled him to astonish Sainte-Beuve by the phraseology and style of some literary essays which, when barely eighteen years old, he put into the critic’s hands. In consequence of this introduction he at once came under the influence of the great Romantic cénacle, to which, as to Victor Hugo in particular, he was also introduced by his gifted but ill-starred schoolmate Gérard de Nerval. With Gérard, Petrus Borel, Corot, and many other less known painters and poets whose personalities he has delightfully sketched in the articles collected under the titles of Histoire du Romantisme, etc., he formed a minor romantic clique who were distinguished for a time by the most extravagant eccentricity. A flaming crimson

waistcoat and a great mass of waving hair were the outward signs which qualified Gautier for a chief rank among the enthusiastic devotees who attended the rehearsals of Hernani with red tickets marked “Hierro,” performed mocking dances round the bust of Racine, and were at all times ready to exchange word or blow with the perruques and grisâtres of the classical party. In Gautier’s case these freaks were not inconsistent with real genius and real devotion to sound ideals of literature. He began (like Thackeray, to whom he presents in other ways some striking points of resemblance) as an artist, but soon found that his true powers lay in another direction. .

His first considerable poem, Albertus (1830), displayed a good deal of the extravagant character which accompanied rather than tiòns and from which they sent telegraphic messages along a crude marked the movement, but also gave evidence of uncommon line which they erected. In connection with his magnetic meas- command both of language and imagery, and in particular of a urements, Gauss. organized a German Magnetic Union so that descriptive power hardly to be excelled. The promise thus magnetic observations were taken at a fixed time at various places given was more than fulfilled in his subsequent poetry, which, in ir ‘Europe. Gauss and Weber designed the instruments used in consequence of its small bulk, may well be noticed at once and by these measurements, notably an apparatus for measuring declina- anticipation. The Comédie de la mort, which appeared soon after tion and the unifilar and bifilar magnetometers. The union worked (1832), is one of the most remarkable of French poems, and from 1834 to 1842, and their results were published in memoirs though never widely read has received the suffrage of every Resultate aus den Beobachtungen des Magnetischen Vereins competent reader. Minor poems of various dates, published in 4836-41 (1837-43). In these memoirs we find the inverse square 1840, display an almost unequalled command over poetical form, law: and Gauss’s theory on earth magnetism; this theory is a an advance even over Albertus in vigour, wealth and appropriatemathematical presentation of the distribution of magnetism over ness. of diction, and abundance of the Special poetical essence. the earth’s surface rather than a theory to account for the exist- All these good gifts reached their climax in the Emaux et camées, ence of earth magnetism. Gauss applied mathematics to electro- first published in 1856, and again, with additions, just before the static and.electrodynamic problems; his theories were based on poet’s death in 1872. These poems are in their own way such as assumptions concerning the position: and motion’ of. imponderable cannot be surpassed. Gautier’s poetical work contains in little electrified. particles. He also carried out researches in optics and an expression of his literary peculiarities. There are, in addition particularly on systems. of lenses. These wére published ‘in to the peculiarities of style and diction already noticed, an extraorDiopirische Untersuchungen (1840), A memoir on capillary at- dinary feeling and affection for beauty in art and nature, and a traetion, contains a solution of a problem in the calculus of varia- strange indifference to anything beyond this range, which has tion and. another on attractions treats of the attraction of homo- doubtless injured the popularity of his work. geneous ellipsoids. Gauss took part in geodetic surveys, and wrote But it was not, after all, as a poet that Gautier was to achieve

GAUTIER

D'ARRAS— GAUZE

either profit or fame. For the theatre, he had but little gift, and his dramatic efforts (if we except certain masques or ballets in which his exuberant and graceful fancy came into play) are by far his weakest. It was otherwise with his prose fiction. His first novel of any size, and in many respects his most remarkable work, was Mademoiselle de Maupin (1835). Unfortunately this book, while it establishes his literary reputation on an imperishable basis, was unfitted by its subject, and in parts by its treatment, for general perusal, and created, even in France, a prejudice against its author which he was very far from really deserving. During the years from 1833 onwards, his fertility in novels and tales was very great. Les Jeunes-France (1833), which may rank as a sort of prose Albertus in some ways, displays the follies of the youthful Romantics in a vein of humorous and at the same time half-pathetic satire. Fortunio (1838) perhaps belongs to the same class. Jettatura, written somewhat later, is less extravagant and more pathetic. A crowd of minor tales display the highest literary qualities, and rank with Mérimée’s at the head of all contemporary works of the class. First of all must be mentioned the ghost-story of La Morte amoureuse, a gem of the most perfect workmanship. For many years Gautier continued to write novels. La Belle Jenny (1864) is a not very successful attempt to draw on his English experience, but the earlier Militona (1847) is a most charming picture of Spanish life. In Spirite (1866) he endeavoured to enlist the fancy of the day for supernatural manifestations, and a Roman de la momie (1856) is a learned study of ancient Egyptian ways. His most remarkable effort in this kind, towards the end of his life, was Le Capitaine Fracasse (1863), a novel, partly of the picaresque school, partly of that which Dumas was to make popular, projected nearly thirty years earlier, and before Dumas himself had taken to the style. This book contains some of the finest instances of his literary power. Yet neither in poems nor in novels did the main occupation of Gautier as a literary man consist. He was early drawn to the more lucrative task of feuilleton-writing, and for more than thirty years he was among the most expert and. successful

77

century. But he was a humorist as well, and this combination, joined to his singularly kindly and genial nature, saved him from some dangers and depravations as well as some absurdities to which the humanist temper is exposed. As time goes on it may be predicted that, though Gautier may not be widely read, yet his writings will never cease to be full of indescribable charm and of very definite instruction to men of letters. Besides those of his works which have been already cited, we may notice Une Larme du diable (1839), a charming mixture of humour and tenderness; Les Grotesques (1844), a volume of early criticisms on some oddities of 17th century literature; Caprices et zigzags (1845), miscellanies dealing in part with English life; Voyage en Espagne

(1845),

Constantinople

(1854),

Voyage

en

Russie

(1866), brilliant volumes of travel; Ménagerie intime (1869) and Tableaux de siège (1872), his two latest works, which display his incomparable style in its quietest but not least happy form. There is no complete edition of Gautiers works, and the vicomte Spoelberch de Lovenjoul’s Histoire des œuvres de Théophile Gautier (1887) shows how formidable such an undertaking would be. But since his death

made:

Fusains

numerous

further

et eaux-fortes and

collections

Tableaux

of articles

have

à la plume

been

(1880);

L'Orient (2 vols., 1881); Les Vacances du lundi (new ed., 1888); La Nature chez elle (new ed., 1891). In 1879 his son-in-law, E. Bergerat, who had married his younger daughter Estelle (the elder, Mme. Judith Gautier—herself a writer of distinction—was at one time Mme. Catulle Mendès), issued a biography, Théophile Gautier,

which has been often reprinted. With it should be compared Maxime du Camp’s volume in the Grands Écrivains français (1890) and the numerous references in the Journal des Goncourt. Critical eulogies, from Sainte-Beuve (repeatedly in the Causertes) and Baudelaire (two articles in L’Art romantique) downwards, are numerous. The chief

of the decriers is Émile Faguet in his Études littéraires sur le XIXe

siècle. In 1902 and 1903 there appeared two respectable academic éloges by H. Menal and H. Potez. (G. Sa.)

GAUTIER D’ARRAS, French trouvére, flourished in the

second half of the r2th century. Nothing is known of his biography except what may be gleaned from his works. He dedicated his romance of Eracle to Theobald V., count of Blois (d. 1191); among his other patrons were Marie, countess of Champagne, practitioners of this art. Soon after the publication of Made- daughter of Louis VIL and Eleanor of Guienne and Baldwin IV., moiselle de Maupin, in which he had not been too polite to count of Hainaut. Eracle, the hero of which becomes emperor journalism, he became irrevocably a journalist. He was actually of Constantinople as Heraclius, is purely a roman d’aveniures the editor of L’Artiste for a time: but his chief newspaper and enjoyed great popularity. His second romance, Jie et Galeron, connexions were with La Presse from 1836 to 1854 and with the dedicated to Beatrix, the second wife of Frederick Barbarossa, Moniteur later. His work was mainly theatrical and art criticism. treats of a similar situation to that outlined in the lay of Eliduc The rest of his life was spent either at Paris or in travels of by Marie de France. See the Oeuvres de Gautier d'Arras, ed. E. Loseth (1890) ; Hist. litt. considerable extent to Spain, the Netherlands, Italy, Turkey, England, Algeria and Russia, all undertaken with a more or less de la France, vol. xxii. (1852); A. Dinaux, Les Trouvéres (1833-43). definite purpose of book-making. Having absolutely no political GAUVAIN, AUGUSTE (1861), French journalist opinions, he had no difficulty in accepting the Second Empire, and diplomat, was born at Vesoul Oct. 6, 1861. From 1889 to and received from it considerable favours, in return for which, 1892 he was on the staff of Le Journal des Débats and in 1893 behowever, he in no way prostituted his pen, but remained a came general secretary to the European Commission of the literary man pure and simple. He died on the 23rd of December Danube. In 1904 he was appointed French secretary to the Central Office of International Transport at Berne. In 1908 he 1872. Accounts of his travels, criticisms of the theatrical and literary returned to the staff of Le Journal des Débats and from that time works of the day, obituary notices of his contemporaries and, directed its foreign policy. Gauvain, who became a member of the above all, art criticism occupied him in turn. It has sometimes Academy of Moral and Political Sciences, published verbatim been deplored that this engagement in journalism should have in 14 volumes all his articles in Le Journal des Débats from 1908 diverted Gautier from the performance of more capital work in to 1920. oe his works are: Les origines de la guerre européenne: (1915)} literature. Perhaps, however, this regret springs from a certain misconception. Gautier’s power was literary power pure and L’Europe avant la guerre (1917); L’affaire grecque (1917); La quessimple, and it is as evident in his slightest sketches and criticisms tion Yougoslave (1918) ; L’encerclement de l Allemagne (1919). GAUZE, a light, transparent fabric, originally of silk, and as in Emaux et camées or La Morte amoureuse. On the other hand, his weakness, if he had a weakness, lay in his almost total in- now sometimes made of linen or cotton, woven in an open manner difference to the matters which usually supply subjects for art with very fine yarn. It is said to have been originally made at and therefore for literature. He has thus been accused of “lack Gaza in Palestine, whence the name. Some of the gauzes from of ideas” by those who have not cleared their own minds of cant; eastern Asia were brocaded with flowers of gold or silver. In the and in the recent set-back of the critical current against form and weaving of gauze the warp threads, in addition to being crossed in favour of “philosophic” treatment, comment upon him has as in plain weaving, are twisted in pairs from left to right and sometimes been unfavourable. But this injustice will, beyond from right to left alternately, after each shot of weft, thereby all question, be redressed again. He was neither immoral, keeping the weft threads at equal distances apart, and retaining irreligious nor unduly subservient to despotism, but morals, them in their parallel position. The textures- are woven either religion and politics (to which we may add science and material plain, striped or figured; and the material receives many desprogress) were matters of no interest to him. He was to all ignations, according to its appearance and the purposes to intents a humanist, as the word was understood in the 15th which it is devoted. A thin cottom fabric, woven in the same way,

GAVARNI—GAWAIN

78

is known as leno, to distinguish it from muslin made by plain weaving. Silk gauze was a prominent and extensive industry in the west of Scotland during the second half of the 18th century,

|

particular statutes. It is more correctly described as “socage tenure, subject to the custom of gavelkind.” The chief peculiari-

ties of the custom were: (1) A tenant could alienate his lands by

feoffment at 15 years of age. (2) There was no escheat on attainder for felony. (3) Generally the tenant could dispose of his lands by will. (4) In intestacy the estate descended to the sons (or, in the case of deceased sons, their representatives) in equal shares: “Every son is as great a gentleman as the eldest son is.” Though females claiming in their own right were postponed to GAVARNI, PAUL (1804-1866), pseudonym of HIPPOLYTE males, yet by representation they inherited together with them. SULPICE-GUILLAUME CHEVALIER, French caricaturist, born in (5) A wife was dowable of one-half, instead of one-third of the Paris, Jan. 13, 1804. In 1833 he founded the Journal des Gens du land. (6) A widower might be tenant by courtesy of one-half monde, and began a series of lithographed sketches, in which he without having had any issue, but only so long as he remained unportrayed the striking characteristics, the foibles and vices of the married. Gavelkind was, previous to the Conquest, the general various classes of French society. The letter-press explanations custom of the realm, but was then superseded by the feudal law of attached to his drawings were short, forcible and highly humorous. primogeniture. It was abolished by the Law of Property Act, 1922, The different stages through which Gavarni’s talent passed, are well and the Administration of Estates Act, 1925. Irish gavelkind was a species of tribal succession, by which the worth being noted. At first he confined himself to the study of Parisian manners, more especially those of the Parisian youth. land, instead of being divided at the death of the holder amongst He was engaged as caricaturist of Le Charivari. Many im- his sons, was thrown again into the common stock, and redivided portant publications owed a great part of their success to the among the surviving members of the sept. The equal division amongst children of an inheritance in land is of common occurclever and telling sketches contributed by Gavarni. Always desiring to enlarge the field of his observations, Gavarni rence outside the British Isles and is discussed under Succession. ` no longer limited himself to such types as the lorette and the (See also INHERITANCE; TENURE.) See T. Robinson, On Gavelkind (1897); Pollock and Maitland, Parisian student, or to the description of the noisy and popular pleasures of the capital, but turned his mirror to the grotesque History of English Law. GAVESTON, PIERS (d. 1312), earl of Cornwall, favourite sides of family life and of humanity. Whilst showing the same power of irony as his former works, enhanced by a deeper insight ofthe English king Edward II., was the son of a Gascon knight, into human nature, Gavarni’s compositions of this time generally and was brought up at the court of Edward I. as companion to bear the stamp of a bitter philosophy. He returned from a visit his son, the future king. Early in 1307 he was banished by the to London in 1849 deeply impressed with the scenes of misery king; but he returned after the death of Edward I. a few months : and degradation which he had observed among the lower classes later, and at once became the chief adviser of Edward II. Made of that city. What he had witnessed there, became the almost earl of Cornwall, he received lands and money, and married exclusive subject of his drawings, as powerful, as impressive as Edward’s niece, Margaret de Clare, (d. 1295). He was regent ever. Most of these last compositions appeared in the weekly during the king’s short absence in France in 1308, and was conpaper L'Illustration. In 1857 he published in one volume the spicuous at Edward’s coronation. These proceedings and Gavesseries entitled Masques et visages (12mo.), and in 1869, about ton’s own arrogance aroused the anger and jealousy of the barons. two years after his death, his last artistic work, Les Douze Mois They demanded his banishment; and the king, forced to assent, (x vol. fol.). Gavarni was much engaged, during the last period sent his favourite to Ireland as lieutenant, where he remained of his life, in scientific pursuits. He sent several communica- for about a year. Returning to England in July 1309, Gaveston tions to the Académie des Sciences, and till his death on Nov. 23, showed himself more insolent than ever. In 1311 the king was forced to agree to the election of the “ordainers,” and the ordi1866, he was éagerly interested in mathematical questions. Gavami’s Oeuvres choisies were edited in 1845 (4 vols. 4to) with nances they drew up provided inter alia for the perpetual banishletterpress by J. Janin, Th. Gautier and Balzac, followed in 1850 ment of Gaveston, who retired to Flanders, but returned secretly by two other volumes named Perles et parures; and some essays in to England at the end of 1311. Soon he was publicly restored by prose and in verse written by him were published by Ch. Yriarte, Edward, and the barons had taken up arms. Deserted by the in 1869. See also E. and J. de Goncourt, Gavarni, Phomme et oeuvre (1873, 8vo) ; Henri Frantz and Octave. Uzanne, Daumier and Gavarni king he surrendered to Aymer de Valence, earl of Pembroke (special studio edition 1906). J. Claretie has devoted an essay to (d. 1324), at Scarborough in May 1312, and was taken to DeddingGavarni. A catalogue raisonné of Gavarni’s works was published by ton in Oxfordshire, where he was kidnapped by Guy de BeauJ: Armelhault and E. Bocher (Paris, 1873, 8vo). champ, earl of Warwick (d. 1315). He was beheaded on Blacklow A : GAVAZZI, ALESSANDRO (1809-1889), an Italian Hill near Warwick on June 19, 1312. Gaveston, whose body was preacher and patriot, who was born at Bologna on March 2r, buried in 1315 at King’s Langley, Herts, left an only daughter. See W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol. ii. (Oxford, 1896); 1809.. He at first became a monk (1825), and attached himself to of the Reigns of Edward I. and Edward II., edited by W. the. Barnabites. at Naples, where he afterwards (1829) acted as Chronicles Stubbs. Rolls series (London, 1882-1883) ; also J. C. Davies, Baronial professor of'rhħetoric.. Driven into exile on account of his liberal Opposition to Edward IT. (1918). views he found refuge in England, where he joined the Evan.GAVIAL, a fish-eating relative of the crocodile. (See gelical: church, and became head and -organizer of the Italian i Protestants in London... Returning ‘to Italy in 1860, he served as GHARIAL, CROCODILE.) GAVIIDAE: see Loon. army-chaplain ‘with Garibaldi. In 1870 he became head of the

but on the introduction of cotton-weaving it greatly declined. In addition to its use for dress purposes, silk gauze is much employed for bolting or sifting flour and other finely ground substances. The term gauze is applied generally to transparent fabrics of whatever fibre made, and to the fine-woven wire-cloth used in safety-lamps, sieves, window-blinds, etc.

+

GAVOTTE, properly the dance of the Gavots or natives of Bree Church (Chiesa libera) of Italy, united the scattered Congregations into the “Unione delle Chiese Hbere in Italia,” and in Gap, a-district in the Upper Alps, in the old province of Dauphiné: 1875. founded in. Rome'the theological college of the Free Church, It is a dance of a brisk and lively character, somewhat resembling | dp which he: himself taught dogmatics, apologetics and polemics, the minuet, but quicker and less stately (see DANCE); hence also . Me died in Rome on. the oth day of January 1880.

oe

the use of this name for a form of. musical composition.

2 decades

‘GAWABRA: see Arass. : GAWAIN, son of King Loth of Orkney, and nephew to Arthur on his mother’s side, the most famous hero of Arthurian ?

, -GAVELKIND, a peculiar system of tenure. associated chiefly

romance. The first mention of his name is in a passage of William `+ of Malmesbury, recording. the discovery of his tomb in the prov-.

' * Amongst. his publications are No Union with Rome

(1871); The

Priest in Absolution (1877) ; My Recollections of the Last Four Popes,

ie

answer to Cardinal Wiseman

(1858);

Orations,

with the county of Kent, but found:also in other parts of England:

In Kent all land was presumed to be Kolden by this. tenure until the contrary, was proved, but some lands have been disgavelled: by

y

we

vf ~4

t

gr

f

A

ince.of Ros.in Wales. He is there described as Walwen qui futt, ;

haud degener. ‘Arturis ez sorore nepos. ‘Here he is said to have »'

reigned ‘over Gallowdy; and: there is certainly some connection; ‘

Aahir +

m x Ši

GAWAMA?A—GAY the character of which is now not easy to determine, between the

two.

In the later Historia of Geoffrey of Monmouth, and its

French translation by Wace, Gawain plays an important and “nseudo-historic” rôle. On the receipt by Arthur of the insulting

message of the Roman emperor, demanding tribute, it is he who is despatched as ambassador to the enemy’s camp, where his arrogant and insulting behaviour brings about the outbreak of hostilities. On receipt of the tidings of Mordred’s treachery, Gawain accompanies Arthur to England, and is slain in the battle which ensues on their landing. Wace, however, evidently knew more of Gawain than he has included in his translation, for he speaks of him as Li quens Walwains Qui tant fu preudom de ses mains (11. 9057-58) ;

and later on says Prous fu et de mult grant mesure, D’orgoil et de forfait n’ot qure Plus vaut faire qu’il ne dist

Et plus doner qu’il ne pramist (ro. 106-109).

The English Arthurian poems regard him as the type and model of chivalrous courtesy, “the fine father of nurture,” and as Prof. Maynadier has well remarked, “previous to the appearance of Malory’s compilation it was Gawain rather than Arthur who was the typical English hero.” It is thus rather surprising to find that in the earliest preserved mss. of Arthurian romance, 3.¢., in the poems of Chrétien de Troyes, Gawain, though generally placed first in the list of knights, is by no means the hero par excellence. The latter part of the Perceval is indeed devoted to the recital

of his adventures at the Chastel Merveilleus, but of none of Chré‘tien’s poems is he the protagonist. The anonymous author of the Chevalier à V’épée indeed makes this apparent neglect of Gawain a ground of reproach against Chrétien. At the same time the majority of the short episodic poems connected with the cycle have

Gawain for their hero. In the earlier form of the prose romances, e.g., in the Merlin proper, Gawain is a dominant personality, his feats rivalling in importance those ascribed to Arthur, but in the later forms such as the Merlin continuations, the Tristan, and the final Lancelot compilation, his character and position have undergone a complete change, he is represented as cruel, cowardly and treacherous, and of indiferent moral character. Most unfortunately our English version of the romances, Malory’s Morte d’Arthur, being derived from these later forms (though his treatment of Gawain is by no means uniformly consistent), this unfavourable aspect is that under which the hero has become known to the modern reader. Tennyson, who only knew the Arthurian story through the medium of Malory, has, by exaggeration, largely contributed to this misunderstanding. Morris, in The Defence of Guinevere, speaks of “gloomy Gawain”; perhaps the most absurdly misleading epithet which could possibly have been applied to the “gay, gratious, and gude” knight of early English tradition. The truth appears to be that Gawain, the Celtic and mythic origin of whose character was frankly admitted by the late M.

Gaston Paris, belongs to the very earliest stage of Arthurian tradition, long antedating the crystallization of such tradition into ary form. He was certainly known in Italy at a very early Prof. Rajna has found the names of Arthur and Gawain in ters of the early 12th century, the bearers of those names

literdate; charbeing

then grown to manhood; and Gawain is figured in the architrave of the north doorway of Modena cathedral, a r2th-century building. Recent discoveries have made it practically certain that there existed, prior to the extant romances, a collection of short episodic poems, devoted to the glorification of Arthur’s famous nephew and his immediate kin (his brother Gaheris, or Gareth, and his son Guinglain), the authorship of which was attributed to a Welshman, Bleheris; fragments of this collection have been preserved to us alike in the first continuation of Chrétien de Troyes Perceval, due tọ Wauchier de Denain, and in our vernacular Gawain poems. Among these “Bleheris” poems was one dealing with Gawain’s adventures at the Grail castle, where the Grail is represented as non-Christian, and. presents features strongly reminiscent of the ancient Nature mysteries. There is good ground for believing that as Grail quester and winner, Gawain -preceded alike.Perceval a

79

and Galahad, and that the solution of the mysterious Grail problem is to be sought rather in the tales connected with the older hero than in those devoted to the glorification of the younger knights. The explanation of the very perplexing changes which the character of Gawain has undergone appears to liein a misunderstanding of the original sources of that character. Whether or not Gawain was a sun-hero, and he certainly possessed some of the features— we are constantly told how his strength waxed with the waxing of the sun till noontide, and then gradually decreased; he owned a steed known by a definite name le Gringalet; and a light-giving sword, Excalibur (which, as a rule, is represented as belonging to Gawain, not to Arthur)—all traits of a sun-hero—he certainly has much in common with the primitive Irish hero Cuchullin. The famous head-cutting challenge, so admirably told in Syr Gawayne and the Grene Knighte, was originally connected with the Irish champion. Nor was the lady of Gawain’s love a mortal maiden, but the queen of the other-world. In Irish tradition the other-world is often represented as an island, inhabited by women only; and it is this “Isle of Maidens” that Gawain visits in Diu Crone ; returning therefrom dowered with the gift of eternal youth. The Chastel Merveilleus adventure, related at length by Chrétien and Wolfram, is undoubtedly such an “other-world” story. It seems probable that it was this connection which won for Gawain the title of the ‘Maidens’ Knight,” a title for which no satisfactory explanation is ever given. When the source of the name was forgotten its meaning was not unnaturally misinterpreted, and gained for Gawain the reputation of a facile morality, which was exaggerated by the pious compilers of the later Grail romances into persistent and aggravated wrong-doing; at the same time it is to be noted that Gawain is never, like Tristan and Lancelot, the hero of an illicit connection maintained under circumstances of falsehood and treachery. Gawain, however, belonged to the pre-Christian stage of Grail tradition, and it is not surprising that writers bent on spiritual edification found him somewhat of a stumbling-block. Chaucer, when he spoke of Gawain coming “again out of faérie,” spoke better than he knew; the home of that very gallant and courteous knight is indeed Fairy-land, and the true Gawain-tradition is informed with fairy glamour and race. : BrsriocrapHy.—See Syr Gawayne, the English poems relative to that hero, ed. F. Madden (Bannatyne club, 1839); Histoire littéraire de la France, vol. xxx. (1888), intro. and summary of episodic “Gawain” poems by Gaston Paris; J. L. Weston, Legend of Sir Guwain (1897); and Legend of Sir Perceval (1906); Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (1898), Sir Gawain at the Grail Castle (1904), Sir Gawain and the Lady of Lys (1907), all three trans. by J. L Weston in Nutt’s Arthurian Romances, vols. i., vi. and vii. For the Celtic derivation of this and other Arthurian characters see R. S. Loomis, Celtic Myth and Arthurian homens (Columbia Univ. Press, 1927). (J.L. W.

GAWAMA?A: see ARABS. GAWLER, a town of Gawler county, South Australia, on the Para river, 24% m. by rail N.E. of Adelaide. It is one of the most thriving places in the colony, being the centre of a large wheatgrowing district; it has also engineering works, foundries, flourmills, breweries and saw-mills, while gold, silver, copper and lead are found in the neighbouring hills.

GAY, JOHN

(1685-1732), English poet, was baptized on

Sept. 16, 1685 at Barnstaple. On leaving school he was apprenticed to a silk mercer in London, but being weary, according to Dr. Johnson, “of either the restraint or -the servility of his occupation,” he soon returned to Barnstaple, where he spent some time with his uncle, the Nonconformist minister. He then returned to London, and though no details are available for his biography until the publication of Wine in 1708, the account he gives in Rural Sports (1713), of years wasted in attending on courtiers who were profuse in promises never kept, may account for his occupations. Among his early literary friends were Aaron

Hill and Eustace Budgell. In The Present State of Wit (1711) Gay attempted to give an account of “all: eur.periodical papers, whether monthly, weekly or diurnal.” To Lintot’s Miscellany (1712) he contributed “An Epistle to. Betnard Lintot,” containing some lines in praise of Pope, and a version of the story of Arachne from the sixth book of the Metamorphoses of Ovid. He

GAY—GAYA

80

was for a short time (1712-14) secretary to the duchess of Mon-

mouth. Swift got him a place as secretary to the ambassador at the Hanoverian court, but before he could take up the post Queen Anne died, and all hope of official preferment was removed with her death.

The dedication of his Rural Sports (1713) to Pope was the

beginning of a lasting friendship. In 1713 he produced a comedy, The Wife of Bath, which was acted only three nights, and The Fan, one of his least successful poems; and in 1714 The Shepherd’s Week, a series of six pastorals drawn from English rustic

life, written in ridicule of the Arcadian pastorals of Ambrose

Philips, but entertaining on their own account. In 1715, probably ‘with help from Pope, he produced What d’ye call it? a dramatic skit on contemporary tragedy, with special reference to Otway’s Venice Preserved. In 1716 appeared his Trivia, or the Art of

Walking the Streets of London, a poem in three books, for which he received several hints from Swift. Trivia has a dry wit and an admirable style; its matter makes it a social-historical document of some importance. In Jan. 1717 Gay produced the comedy of Three Hours after Marriage, which was a failure. In this piece he had assistance from Pope and Arbuthnot, but they were glad

to have it assumed that Gay was the sole author. Gay had nurmerous patrons, and in 1720 he published Poems on Several Occasions by subscription, realizing £1,000 or more. In that year James Craggs, the secretary of State, presented him with some South Sea stock. Gay, disregarding the prudent advice of Pope and other friends, invested his all in South Sea stock, and.

lost everything. The shock made him dangerously ill, but his friends came to his assistance. He had patrons in William Pulteney, afterwards earl of Bath, in the third earl of Burlington, who constantly entertained him at Chiswick or at Burlington House, and in the third earl of Queensberry. He was a frequent visitor with Pope, and received unvarying kindness from Congreve and Arbuthnot. In 1724 he produced a tragedy called The Captives. In 1727 he wrote for Prince William, afterwards duke of Cumberland, his famous Fifty-one Fables in Verse, for which he naturally hoped to gain some preferment. He refused the situation

of gentleman-usher to the Princess Louisa, who was still a child. His friends thought him unjustly neglected by the court, but he

had no particular claim on the king’s favour, and had already

_ received (1722) a sinecure as lottery commissioner with a salary of £150 a year, and from 1722 to 1729 he had lodgings in the palace at Whitehall.

He certainly did nothing to conciliate the favour of the Gov-

ernment by his next and most famous production, the Beggar's Opera, a lyrical drama produced on Jan, 29, 1728 by Rich, in which Sir Robert Walpole was caricatured. The part of Polly Peachum was played by Lavinia Fenton, afterwards duchess of Bolton. This piece, which was said to have made “Rich gay and Gay rich,” was an innovation, and for a time it drove Italian opera off the English stage. Under cover of the thieves and highwaymen who figured in it was disguised a satire on society, for Gay made it plain that in describing the moral code of his characters he had in mind the corruptions of the governing class. The play ran for 62 nights, though the representations, four of

which were “benefits” of the author, were not, as has sometimes

been. stated, consecutive. Swift is said to have suggested the subject, and Pope and Arbuthnot were constantly consulted while the work was in progress, but Gay must be regarded as the sole author. He wrote a sequel, Polly, the representation of which

was forbidden by the lord chamberlain, no doubt through the influence of Walpole. This act of “oppression” proved an excel-

lent advertisement for Polly, which was published by subscription in 1729, and brought its author more than £1,000.

The duchess

of Queensberry was dismissed from court for enlisting subscribers in the palace. The duke of Queensberry gave him a home, and the duchess continued her affectionate patronage until Gay’s death, which took place‘ on Dec. 4, 1732. He was buried in Westminster

Abbey. The epitaph on his tomb is by Pope, and is followed by Gay’s own mocking couplet :— ures

i

Life is a jest, and all things show it, T thought so once, arid now I know it.

Acis was The new ited

and Galatea, an English pastoral opera, the music of which written by Handel, was produced at the Haymarket in 1732. profits of his posthumous opera of Achilles (1733), and a volume of Fables (1738) went to his two sisters, who inherfrom him a fortune of £6,000. He left two other pieces, The

Distressed Wife (1743), a comedy, and The Rehearsal at Goat-

ham (1754), a farce. The Fables, slight as they may appear, cost him more labour than any of his other works. The narratives are in nearly every case original, and are told in clear and lively verse. The moral which rounds off each little story is never strained. They are masterpieces in their kind, and the very numerous editions of them prove their popularity. They have been translated into Latin, French and Italian, Urdu and Bengali. Gay’s

fame was revived by the three and a half years’ run (June s5,

1920 to Dec. 17, 1923) of the Beggar’s Opera at the Lyric theatre, Hammersmith. The two best editions of Gay’s Poetical Works are those by

J. Underhill (1893) and by J. C. Faber (1926), the latter including Polly and the Beggars Opera. The Plays and the Poems were edited in the Abbey Classics (1923). The Beggars Opera was also edited by G. H. McLeod (1906; rev. ed. with music, 192%) and by O. Doughty (1922). See also L. Melville, Life and Letters of J. Gay (1921) and W. E. Schultz, Gay’s Beggar's Opera, its content, history | and influence (New Haven, 1923). Gay’s Chair (1820), edited by Henry Lee, a fellow-townsman, contained a biographical sketch by his nephew, J. Baller.

GAY, WALTER

(1856-

_), American artist, was born at

Hingham (Mass.), on Jan. 22, 1856. In 1876 he became a pupil

of Léon Bonnat in Paris. He received an honourable mention in the Salon of 1885; a gold medal in 1888, ahd similar awards at Vienna (1894), Antwerp (1895), Berlin (1896), and Munich ~ (1897). He became an officer of the Legion of Honour and a member of the Society of Secession, Munich. Works by him are

in the Luxembourg, the Tate Gallery (London), and the Boston and Metropolitan (New York) Museums of Art. His composi-

tions deal mainly with French interiors and French peasant life. -

GAYA, a town and district of British India, in the Patna division of Bihar and Orissa, with a station on the Grand Chord |

line of the East Indian railway. With a population (1921) of 67,562 it is, next to Patna, the most populous town in the province. Gaya is a celebrated place of Hindu pilgrimage, for it is a sacred duty for Hindus to make offerings there for the salvation of their parents and ancestors; it is estimated that no less than 300,000 pilgrims come annually. There are altogether 45 sacred places between (and including) Pretsil hill on the north and Bodh-Gaya | on the south, a distance of 15 m., but most are in Gaya itself. The principal shrine is the Vishnupad temple built by the Mahratta princess, Ahalya Bai, in 1787. Others are the rocky templecrowned hills of Ramsila (372 ft.) and Brahmajuni (450 ft.). The last, which overlooks the civil station, has been identified with the Gayasirsa hill on which Buddha preached. The District oF GAYA, with an area of 4,714 sq.m. and a population (1921) of 2,152,930, consists of a wide plain, with wooded hills along the southern boundary, whence the country falls with a gentle slope towards the north. The hills in the south, which contain scenes of the most picturesque beauty, rise to a height of 2,202 ft. at Durvasarhi and to 1,832 ft. in the Mahabar hills. A long range extends from near Bodh-Gaya north-eastwards, and elsewhere in the open plain, rocky hills occur, either detached of in groups, such as Maher, 1,620 ft.; Kauwadol and the Barabar hills. The northern part of the district is highly cultivated; the portions to the east and west are less fertile; while in the south the country is thinly peopled; and in the jungles covering the hills and the country below them, tigers, leopards, bear and deer arè found. The principal rivers are the Son, which marks the boundary between Gaya and the Shahabad, the Punpun and the Phalgu, formed by the junction of two large hill streams, the Nilajan and Mohana. The last three rivers are subject to heavy floods. Agriculture depends largely on artificial irrigation, which is mainly

effected by an indigenous system of channels leading from the rivers across gated in the

and storage reservoirs made by building embankments the lines of drainage. The north-west of the district is irriby part of the Son canal system. Mica mines are worked south-west of the district, which contains part of the Bihar

GAYAL—GAZA mica belt, one of the largest sources of the world’s supply. Other industries are the production of shellac, which centres on Imamganj, the weaving of carpets and blankets, notably at Obra, and

the manufacture of brass utensils and of black stone-ware, chiefly ornaments sold to pilgrims at Gaya. The district is traversed by the Grand Chord line of the East India railway, the South Behar railway running into the Monghyr district, and a branch line to Patna. Gaya district is singularly rich in ancient sites and has many archaeological remains associated with the early history of Buddhism. Bodh-Gaya, about 6 m. S. of Gaya, is one of the

holiest sites of Buddhism. A mound on the Sobhnath hill has been identified with the burial place of Kasyapa, the greatest of Buddha’s disciples; the remains of a monastery are in a valley

(Hasra Kol) near by, where fine sculptured figures have been found. In the Barabar hills there are rock-cut caves or rooms, in

some of which the rock has been wrought to an extraordinary polish. An inscription of Asoka in one group shows they were dedicated to the use of ascetics called Ajivikas. The other group was hewn out of the rock for the use of the same sect by his grandson, Dararatha; they are called the Nagarjuni caves, after a Buddhist teacher of that, name who is believed to have lived in them in the znd century A.D.

GAYAL, a domesticated ox allied to the Gaur (g.v.) but dis-

tinguished by the more conical and straighter horns, and the straight line between them. Gayal are kept by the natives of the hill-districts of Assam, Tenasserim, and Upper Burma.

GAY-LUSSAC,

JOSEPH

LOUIS

(1778-1850), French

chemist and physicist, was born at St. Léonard, in the department

of Haute Vienne, on Dec. 6, 1778. He entered the Ecole Poly-

technique at the end of 1797; three years later he was transferred

to the Ecole des Ponts et Chaussées, and shortly afterwards he went to assist C. L. Berthollet in his researches. In 1802 he was

appointed demonstrator to A. F. Fourcroy at the Ecole Poly-

technique, where subsequently (1809) he became professor of chemistry, and from 1808 to 1832 he was professor of physics at the Sorbonne, a post which he resigned for the chair of chemistry at the Jardin des Plantes. In 1806 he was made an academician. In 1831 he was elected to represent Haute Vienne in the chamber

of deputies, and in 1839 he entered the chamber of peers. He

died in Paris on May 9, 1850. Gay-Lussac’s earlier researches were mostly physical in character and referred mainly to the properties of gases, vapour-tensions, hygrometry, capillarity, etc. His first memoir, published in 1802, dealt with the expansion of gases, In 1804 the French Academy, desirous of securing some observations on the force of terrestrial magnetism at great elevations above the earth, obtained the use of a balloon, and entrusted the task to him and J. B. Biot, In their first ascent from the garden of the Conservatoire des Arts on Aug. 24, 1804 an altitude of 4,000 metres was attained; Gay-Lussac made a second ascent by himself on Sept. 16, when the balloon rose 7,016 metres above sea-level. At this height, he made observations not only on magnetism, but also on the temperature and humidity of the air, and collected several samples of air at. different heights. The magnetic observations led him to the conclusion that the magnetic effect at all attainable elevations above the earth’s surface remains constant; and on analysing the samples of air

he could find no difference of composition at different heights. (For an account of both ascents see Journ. de phys., 1804 and

BaLtoon.) In the same year, in conjunction with Alexander von Humboldt, he read a paper on eudiometric analysis (Ann. de Chim., 1805); it contained the germ of his most important gener-

alization, the law of combination by volumes, which was, however,

not enunciated in its general form until after his return from a journey through Switzerland, Italy and Germany.

In 1809 his important memoir on gaseous combination was published; in it he pointed out that when gases combine with ane another they do so in the simplest proportions by volume, and that the volume of the compound formed bears a simple ratio to that

of the constituents (see CHEMISTRY: Physical). About this time Gay-Lussac’s work became more purely chemical. In 1808, he succeeded, with the collaboration of L. J. Thénard, in preparing potassium by the action of red-hot iron on

St

fused potash; the properties of the element were studied and in 1809 he used it for the reduction of boron from boracic acid in 1809. Gay-Lussac carried out some work on chlorine (1809) and iodine (1814) which brought him into direct rivalry with Humphry Davy. He considered “oxymuriatic acid” (chlorine) to be a compound, whereas Davy saw no reason to suppose that it contained oxygen and regarded it as an element, a view which GayLussac was reluctantly compelled to accept. In 1810 Gay-Lussac published a paper which contains some classic experiments on fermentation, a subject to which he returned in a second paper published in 1815, At the same time he was working with Thénard at the improvement of the methods of organic analysis, and by combustion with oxidizing agents, first potassium chlorate and subsequently copper oxide, he determined the composition of a number of organic substances. His last great piece of pure research was on prussic acid. In a note published in 181r he described the physical properties of this acid, but he said nothing about its chemical composition till 1815, when he described cyanogen as a compound radicle, prussic acid as a compound of that radicle with hydrogen alone, and the prussiates (cyanides) as compounds of the radicle with metals. The proof that prussic acid contains hydrogen but no oxygen was a most important support to the hydrogen-acid theory, and com-

pleted the downfall of Lavoisier’s oxygen theory; while the isolation of cyanogen was of equal importance for the subsequent era of compound radicles in organic chemistry. As a result of his success as an investigator Gay-Lussac’s services as a technical adviser became in great demand. He had been a member of the consultative committee on arts and manufactures since 1805; he was attached to the “administration des poudres et salpétres” in 1818, and in 1829 he received the lucrative post of assayer to the mint. His services to industry included his improvements in the processes for the manufacture of sulphuric

acid (1818) and oxalic acid (1829); methods of estimating the amount of real alkali in potash and soda and for estimating the available chlorine in bleaching powder by a solution of arsenious acid; directions for the use of the centesimal alcoholometer published in 1824 and specially commended by the Institute; and the elaboration of a method of assaying silver by a standard solution of common salt. Among his research work of this period may be

mentioned the improvements in organic analysis and the investi-

gation of fulminic acid made with the help of Liebig, who gained the privilege of admission to his private laboratory in 1823-1824.

The most complete list of Gay-Lussac’s papers is contained in the Royal Society’s Catalogue of Scientific Papers, which enumerates 148, exclusive of others written jointly with Humboldt, Thénard, Welter and Liebig. Many of them were published in the Annales de chimie, which after it changed its title to Annales de chimie et physique he edited, with Arago, up to nearly the end of his life; but some are to be found in the Mémoires d’Arcueit and the Comptes rendus, and in the Recherches physiques et chimiques, published with Thénard in 1811.

GAZA, THEODORUS

(c. 1400-1475), one of the Greek

scholars whe were the leaders of the revival of learning in the 15th century, was born at Thessalonica. On the capture of his city by the Turks in 1430 he fled to Italy. During three years spent in Mantua he learned Latin from Vittorino de Feltre, supporting himself meanwhile by teaching Greek, and by copying mss. In 1447 he became professor of Greek in the new univer: sity of Ferrara, to which his fame soon attracted students from all parts of Italy. He had taken some part in the councils which were held in Siena (1423), Ferrara’(1438), and Florence (1439),

with the object of bringing about a reconciliation between the Greek and Latin Churches; and in 1450, at the invitation of Pope Nicholas V., he went to Rome, where he was for some years

employed in making Latin translations from Aristotle and other Greek authors. After the death of Nicholas (1455), Gaza removed to Naples, where he enjoyed the patronage of Alphonso the Magnanimous for two years (1456-58). Shortly afterwards he was

appointed by Cardinal Bessarion to a benefice in Calabria, where he died about 1475. His Greek grammar (in four books), written

in Greek, first printed at Venice in 1495, and afterwards partially translated by Erasmus in 1521, although in many respects | defective, especially in its syntax, was for a long time the lead-

GAZA—GDYNIA

82 ing text-book.

description of these operations, which culmiHis translations into Latin were very numerous. !and Gaza. For a of Jerusalem, see PALESTINE, OPERATIONS IN. ' capture the in nated Wiederbelebung des klassischen Altertums (1893),

See G. Voigt, Die and article by C. F. Bähr in Ersch and Gruber’s Allgemeine Encyklo-a pädie. For a complete list of his works, see Fabricius, Bibkothkec Graeca (ed. Harles), x.

GAZA, the most southerly city of the Philistine Pentapolis,

separated from the sea by 3 m. of sand dunes. It was a centre where ancient trade routes met, and through it passed the frankincense from Arabia on its way to the Mediterranean world. It is now the first town on the railway from Egypt to Palestine and since 1922 capital of the southern province of Palestine. The town is well supplied with water. Before the World War it was a prosperous town with good bazaars, a considerable manufacture of black pottery, and a growing export trade in barley. “Gaza was more than half destroyed by the war and now (1927) the population which had been somewhat replenished since, is dwindling away northward in search of sustenance.” The small harbour of Gaza

(El-Mineh) is used mainly for the export of grain. The anchorage is seven fathoms. The only industry is provided by about 100 primitive looms on which is made coarse cloth for Bedouin cloaks. The population (16,000 before the War) has greatly decreased. History.—The Egyptian monarch, Thutmose ITI. (c. 1500 B.C.) found in Gaza a convenient base for operations against Syria. Gaza’s king was a vassal of the Pharaohs in the Tell Amarna period about a century later. Joshua’s victories brought him to its neighbourhood but not within its walls. It was one of the strongholds from which the Philistines harassed Israel; and Gaza, famous for the worship of Dagon and Derketo, was the scene of Samson’s glorious death. Solomon and Hezekiah gained a footing here without being able to retain it. Her traffic in slaves evoked the curse of Amos. In 735 B.c. Tiglath-Pileser made it tributary to Assyria. Gaza coquetted with Egypt and received condign punishment from Sargon. In the three centuries following it was bandied between Babylon and Egypt. Gaza resisted Alexander the Great only to be broken and made a “desert.” From the third to the first centuries B.C. Egyptian, Syrian and Jewish armies fought for its possession. The Romans made Gaza into an important place (named Minoa) and Augustus presented it to Herod. New Gaza was built on another site in the first century ap. Although it showed itself ill-disposed to accept Christianity, a Christian community settled here early, and the Philemon, to whom St. Paul addressed a letter, was said to have been its first head. In AD. 634 it surrendered to Omar’s troops, and since Hashim the great-grandfather of the Prophet was buried here became a sacred Muslim city. In the 12th century the crusaders found it almost desolate. Baldwin ITI. erected a fortress (1149) but after Hattin Gaza surrendered. The Khwarismians inflicted a painful defeat here on the Christian and Saracen armies whom dire necessity drove into a strange and fleeting alliance. In the 16th century the Turks crushed the Mamelukes here and Egypt lay open to Salim I. Gaza fell to Bonaparte (1799). Three battles were fought at Gaza during the World War—the first, March 26-27; and the second, April 19, 1917, in which Gen. Sir Archibald Murray failed to take and hold the city; and the third in November of the same year when Gen. Allenby secured its evacuation by breaking through the Turkish line at Beersheba. The town was much ruined and the mosques damaged.

GAZALAND, a district of Portuguese East Africa. Formerly

indicating a large region between Delagoa bay and the Pungwe river, the name is now confined to the lower Limpopo district. The modern territory of Gaza, part of the district of Lourenço Marques, is 73,584 sq.km. in extent, comprising 5 sub-districts. It is one of the chief recruiting grounds for negro labour in the Transvaal gold mines. The region derives its name from the Swazi chief Gaza, a contemporary of Chaka, the Zulu king. Refugees from various clans oppressed by Dingaan (Chaka’s successor) were welded into one tribe by Gaza’s son Manikusa, who took the name of Sotchangana, his followers being known generally as Matshangana. Between 1833 and 1836 Manikusa made himself master of the country as far north as the Zambezi and captured the Portuguese posts at Delagoa bay, Inhambane, Sofala and Sena, killing nearly all the inhabitants. The Portuguese reoccupied their posts, but held them with great difficulty, while in the interior the Matshangana continued their ravages unchecked, depopulating large’ regions. Manikusa died about 1860, and his son Umzila established himself in independence north of the Manhissa river as far as the Zambezi and inland to the continental plateau, a position he maintained till his death (c. 1884). His chief rival was a Goanese named Gouveia, who came to Africa about 1850. Having obtained possession of a prazo in the Gorongoza district, he ruled there as a feudal lord while acknowledging himself a Portuguese subject. Portugal’s hold on the coast had been more firmly established at the time of Umzila’s death, and Gungunyana, his successor, was claimed as a vassal, while efforts were made to open up the interior. This led in 1890-91 to collisions on the borderland of the plateau with the newly established British South Africa Company, and to the arrest by the company’s agents of Gouveia, who was, however, set at liberty and returned to Mozambique via Cape Town. An offer made by Gungunyana (1891) to come under British protection was not accepted. In 1892 Gouveia was killed in a war with a native chief. Gungunyana maintained his independence until 1895, when he was captured by a Portuguese force and exiled. He died in 1906. With the capture of Gungunyana opposition to Portuguese rule largely ceased. Later a considerable number of Europeans settled in Gazaland, devoting themselves chiefly to the cultivation of the sugar-cane, rice and maize. The chief town is Chai Chai (Villa Nova de Gaza), a port on the Limpopo.

Brsrrocrapny.—Palestine Expl. Fund Memoirs, iii. (1881) 234 seq.; G. A, Smith, Hist. Geog. of the Holy Land (1895, etc.); Duncan Mackenzie, “The Port of Gaza and Excavation in Philistine,” Pal. Expl.

See G. McCall Theal, History of South Africa since' 1795, vol. vi u (1908); Eric Walker, A History of South Africa (1928).

GAZELLE, the name given to a group of antelopes forming’ *

a the genus Gazella (see ANTELOPE). | GAZETTE, a name given to news-sheets or newspapers having an abstract of current events (see NEWSPAPERS).

yy

*

` é

GBANDI, 2 people of Liberia west of the Loma or Toma, '

with whom (and with the Kpelle) (g.v.) they have many affinities.”

See D. Westermann, Die Kpelle, ein Negerstamm in Liberia (1921). '

GBE, a people physically and socially resembling the Kpelle, `

living in Liberia north of the Krumen folk and speaking an idiom * EREI akin to the Krumen dialects.

GDYNIA, a Polish seaport and naval base, on the bay of

Gdynia, opening out into Danzig bay, on the Baltic. It is 12 m. ; N.W. of Danzig, with which it is connected by railway. The'.! Polish Government in building a railway to the port passing over’ territory entirely Polish, has also a scheme for a canal to the port k

from a convenient point on the Vistula, thus tapping the whole '

Fund Quart. Statement, 50 (1918) 72 seq.; J. Garstang, “Walls of Gaza,” P.E.F.Q.S. 52 (1920) 156 seq.; W. Phythian Adams, “Reports on. Soundings at Gaza”: P.E.F.Q.S. 55 (1923) 11 seg. Also Ghazza in

E waterway system of Poland. were": Poles the 1920, in Russia Soviet with During the struggle

Battles of Gaza, 1917.—Gaza forms the natural “gate” into

led them to build a port of their own at Gdynia. By 1924 they had!

Encycl. of Islam (Bibl.).

:

Palestine from Egypt by the coast route.

(E. Ro.)

Thus when in 1917

the British Government decided to change their operations for the

defence of the Suez Canal into an offensive against ‘the Turkish forces in Palestine, Gaza formed thé obvious initial objective. But the first and second ‘direct attacks, on' March 26:and April 17—19,

failéd, and ’it-wasinot until the autumn that ‘Gaza fell as a result

: of AHenby’s `indirect ‘move, first’ against Beersheba

and then

against the ‘weak’ centre of the Turkish front between Beersheba

ts SE te ted

unable to utilize Danzig for naval or military purposes, and this’:

built the southern mole, 550 metres in length, and a breakwaters 175 metres long, forming part of the northern mole, together with’ y a landing stage 150 metres long, a narrow gauge railway along the southern mole, an electric power station, water supply an other equipment. A contract for further construction was signedy.

by a Franco-Polish syndicate, the date for the completion of the: aii contract being Dec. 31, 1930,

Its main provisions are (1) the making of an entrance candi!

GEAR— GEBHARD rr metres deep, to the harbour, (2) the construction of the harbour with a water area of about 500 ac. and 7,900 metres of quays, together with a basin eight metres deep and a pier for passenger vessels, the depth of water at the quays being from eight to ro metres and (3) the digging of an inner basin or dock on the foreshore, with a water area of about roo ac. and a depth of water at the quays of 10 metres. The Polish Government proposes to spend a large sum on the equipment of the port, comprising large warehouses, a grain elevator, powerful cranes, railway sidings and paved roads. In 1930 the port will have quayage for 30 large steamers and a handling capacity annually of 2,500,000 tons, but it will be constructed so as to permit of a great increase in its size and capacity. In 1925, 85 vessels, of 73,351 net tonnage, entered, and 79 vessels, of 69,981 net tonnage, cleared the port, exclusive of coastal shipping. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—-S.

Slawski,

Poland’s Access to the Sea

1925); The Polish Handbook, 1925 (London, 1925).

(London,

GEAR, an outfit, applied to the wearing apparel of a person, or to the harness and trappings of a horse or any draft animal, as riding-gear, hunting-gear, etc.; also to household goods or stuff. The phrase “out of gear,” though now connected with the mechanical application of the word, was originally used to signify “out of harness” or condition. The word is also used of apparatus generally, and especially of the parts collectively in a machine by which motion is transmitted from one part to another by a series of cog-wheels, continuous bands, etc. (See BICYCLE; MECHAN1cs; Motor VEHICLES; Power TRANSMISSION; STEAM ENGINE.)

83

Ahmad Pasha Taimur, at Cairo. Berthelot’s conjecture was therefore well founded. Of the remaining extant treatises, the most noteworthy are the Great Book of Properties, the three Books of the Element of the Foundation, and a Book of Poisons, the last having been discovered in 1928 by Prof. Julius Ruska of Berlin. Jabir’s thought is often confused and superstitious, yet he has a two-fold importance for the history of chemistry. In the first place he was a skilled and ingenious experimentalist, and describes

for the first time the preparation of nitric acid, the method of conducting certain essential chemical operations, ‘and many other things of the same kind. Secondly, he suggested the comprehensive theory that all metals are composed of two principles resembling sulphur and mercury. This theory, which was a development of the Aristotelian conception of two “‘exhalations,” persisted for many centuries and was at last modified into the phlogiston theory of Beccher and Stahl (17th and 18th centuries av.) Jabir explained the existence of different varieties of metals by assuming that the sulphureous and mercurial principles are not always pure and that they do not always combine together in the same proportion. If they are perfectly pure and combine together in the most perfect natural equilibrium, then the product is the most perfect of metals, viz., gold. Defects in purity or proportion or both result in the formation of silver, lead, tin, iron or copper; but since these metals are all essentially composed of the same constituents as gold, the accidents of combination may be removed by suitable

treatment. Such treatment, which Jabir believed could be effected by means of elixirs, was the object of Alkzmia or alchemy. Jabir’s chemical theory was thus a development of Greek scienGEAR-CUTTING MACHINES: see Macuine Toots. GEBER or JABIR, more fully Abi Mis Jabir ibn Hayyan, tific and occult philosophy. Etymological and other evidence renwas the most celebrated chemist of mediaeval times. There is ders it likely that his contact with Hellenism was made through reason to believe that he belonged to the famous South Arabian Persian channels rather than through Syria and Egypt. The reputribe of Al-Azd, some members of which settled in the town of tation he acquired has never since been equalled in the whole deKifa shortly after its foundation by the Caliph Omar in ap, 638. velopment of chemistry; there is, indeed, scarcely a single later Jabir’s father, Hayyan, was a druggist in Kiifa and an ardent sup- Arabic alchemical work in which he is not quoted, or at least menporter of the ‘Abbasid family, at that time plotting to secure the tioned. When, in the 12th and 13th centuries, Islamic science was caliphate. It is probable that Jabir was born at the town of Tus transmitted to Latin Christianity, the fame of Jabir went with it; (near the present Meshed) in the year aD. 721 or 722, while his and, as we have seen, at least one of his books was translated into father was in Persia as an ‘Abbasid agent. Shortly afterwards, Latin. There are, however, several Latin treatises (Summa perHayyan was arrested and executed by "Umayyad officers, and the fectionis, magisterii, De investigatione perfectionis, De inventione younger Jabir was sent to Arabia, where he studied under Harbi veritatis, Liber fornacum, Testamentum Geberi) which pass under at Himyari. As a youth, Jabir attached himself to the sixth Shi‘ite his name, but of which no Arabic original has hitherto come to Imam, Ja‘Far al-Sadiq, from whom he probably obtained his first light. These works, while their content as a whole can be fairly introduction to occultism, though perhaps not to alchemy itself. closely paralleled in the presumably authentic Arabic works, show He is said to have afterwards joined the Sufi order, then recently a very much greater regard for systematic treatment and exposifounded by Abū Häshim of Kūfa (died A.D. 777—778). In later tion than the latter; hence several scholars, notably Kopp, Wiedelife, Jabir became a friend of Hariin al-Rashid’s powerful minis- mann, Berthelot and Darmstädter, have regarded them as Euroters the Barmakides, and, according to tradition, shared their ban- pean forgeries fathered upon the venerable name of Jabir. They ishment from Baghdad in A.D. 803. Retiring to Kūfa, he spent the are universally regarded as the most important of mediaeval chemrest of his life in obscurity, though one authority maintains that ical works, and the problem of their authorship is in urgent need he survived until the accession of the Caliph Al-Ma’min in A.D. of solution. It is perhaps significant that a 13th-century man813. His laboratory at Kūfa came to light some two centuries uscript of the Summa and De investigatione perfectionis, discovlater, during building operations in a quarter of the town known ered at Florence in 1925 by Darmstädter, contains also a Latin version of the genuine Arabic work, The Book of Mercy. as the Damascus Gate. See M. P. E. Berthelot, La Chimie'au Moyen Age (3 vols., Paris, Jabir was a voluminous writer, and fortunately made a list of 1893); E. Darmstädter, Die Alchemie des Geber (Berlin, 1922) an an the titles of his books, which was reproduced in part by Ibn Al- Liber Misericordiae Geber (Archiv. fiir Geschichte der Medizin, xvii., 4, Nadim in his Kitab al-Fihrist, a Muslim encyclopaedia of the roth 181~197, 1925); J. Ruska, Uber des Schriftenverzeichnis des Gaber ibn century A.D. Many of these books are still extant, nearly 100 hav- Hajjan (Archiv. f. Gesch. d. Med. xv., 53-67, 1923) and Die siebsig Bücher des Gaber ibn Hajjan (Lippmann Festschrift, Berlin, 1927, pp. ing been reported as existing in manuscript or native lithographs 38-47) ;E. J. Holmyard, “Jabir ibn Hayyan” (proc. Roy. Soc. Med., in various European, Indian and North African libraries. They 1923, Xvi., 46-57) ; An Essay on Jabir ibn Hayyan (Lippmann Festare, however, for the most part unedited (1928), and it is therefore schrift, 28-37), and The works of Geber (London, 1928). A complete impossible to express a final con¢lusion upon Jabir’s scientific

knowledge. In 1893, nine small works were edited and translated by O. Houdas and published by M. P. E. Berthelot in his La Chimie au Moyen Age (Paris), but they are by no means the most important. Among the Latin alchemical manuscripts in the Bibliothèque Nationale Berthelot found a mutilated treatise, entitled Liber de Septuaginta (Johannis), Translatus a Magistro Renoldo Cremonensi (Gerard of Cremona), which he considered was probably a translation from the Arabic Jabir. At that time (1893), the Arabic version was unknown; it was; however, discovered in 1926 by Prof. Max Meyerhof, who:found two separate maniscripts of it in the private libraries of Nureddin Bey Mustafa'and

edition of the Arabic works, with translation into SER Holmyard, is in course of publication (Paris, 1928).

by E. J.

GEBHARD: TRUCHSESS VON WALDBURG (154ri 1601), elector and archbishop of Cologne, second son of William, count of Waldburg, was born on Nov, ro. 1547, at Cologne, studied at Ingolstadt, Perugia and Louvain, and took orders. He

held. various positions at the cathedrals of Augsburg, Strasbourg, Cologne, and again at Augsburg, and in Det. 3577 was elected elector archbishop of Cologne.

He became a convert

to the

Reformed doctrines, but it was suspected that his conversion was due to his desire to marry Agnes; countess of Mansfeld. The marriage was celebrated in February’ 1583, amd caused a great scandal,

GEBHARDT—GEDDES

84

Gebhard declined to give up his see, and collected an army. April he was

deposed and excommunicated

In

by Pope Gregory

XIII.; a Bavarian prince, Ernest, bishop of Liége, Freising and Hildesheim, was chosen elector, and war broke out between the rivals. The Lutheran princes of Germany gave no real support to Gebhard, who had Calvinistic leanings, and the only armed assistance he received was from John Casimir, administrator of the Rhenish Palatinate. Early in 1584 he was driven from Bonn. He found refuge in the Netherlands. In 1589 Gebhard went to live at Strasbourg, where he had held the office of dean of the cathedral since 1574. He died at Strasbourg on May 31, 1601. Gebhard was a drunken and licentious man, who owes his prominence rather to his surroundings than to his abilities.

smooth scales which enable it to slip through the sand with the minimum of friction. Colours as a rule are drab, greys, browns, and dirty whites predominating, and to the weird and forbidding aspect thus produced the general prejudice against those creatures

in the countries where they occur, which has led to their being classed with toads and snakes, is no doubt to be attributed. Their

bite was supposed to be venomous, and their saliva to produce painful cutaneous eruptions; even their touch was thought suf.

ficient to convey a dangerous taint. It is needless to say that in

this instance the popular mind was misled by appearances. The geckoes are exceedingly useful creatures, feeding on insects, Many species have a voice, the call differing with the species but being usually a feeble click or chirp. All species so far as known See J. H. Hennes, Der Kampf um das Erzstift Koln (Cologne, 1878) ; are oviparous, the eggs being white, hard-shelled and usually laid

L. Ennen, Geschichte der Stadt Kéln (Cologne, 1863-80); and Nuntiaturberichte aus Deutschland. Der Kampf um Kiln, edited by J. Hansen (Berlin, 1892).

GEBHARDT,

EDUARD

VON

(1830-1925),

German

painter, was born in Estonia, and studied at Diisseldorf, where he became a professor in the academy in 1873. He modelled his

style on that of the old Nuremberg and Flemish schools, and depicted scriptural subjects, using the German costume of the rs§th and 16th centuries for his figures. But his heads were drawn

from nature, from the tough and hardy population of his native land.

His art constituted a reaction towards realism after the

staged and vapid productions of the Piloty school.

Among his

more important works are the “Last Supper,” and the “Ascension,” in the National Gallery at Berlin; the “Crucifixion” in the

cathedral at Reval; there are examples of his work in the museums of Elberfeld, Diisseldorf, Dresden, Barmen, Breslau, and Magdeburg. Between 1884~-9t he worked on mural decorations for a hall in the monastery of Loccum, Hanover. He also painted portraits. He died at Diisseldorf on Feb. 3, 1925.

GEBWEILER: see Gueswiitrr. GECKO, a general term applied to any lizard of the family Geckonidae. For the most part geckoes are small creatures with

a soft skin, a short, stout body, large head and weak limbs; the most salient constant characteristic of the group is the absence of connivent eyelids, the eyes, which are usually large and prominent, being protected by a transparent, watchglass-like covering which is probably a modified nictitating membrane. The group is cosmopolitan in distribution, occurring everywhere in warmer climates, even on the remotest oceanic islands,

and is adapted to very diverse habitats. All its members are insectivorous and the great majority have the digits modified for climbing; the fingers and toes are dilated either terminally or at their bases and the lower surface of the dilation is covered with transverse plates whose arrangement is exceedingly diverse in the different genera; each plate is beset with numerous tiny, hairlike processes which give the whole surface a velvety appearance. When the feet are placed on any surface the velvety pile accomodates itself to the slightest irregularities and pressure forces the

air out from between the hairs; the resulting vacuum gives sufficient adhesion to enable many species to climb absolutely smooth and vertical surfaces and even to run across a whitewashed ceiling. Claws are well developed in most species and, in a few, are provided with a special sheath, into which they are retractile.

The most remarkable modification of the feet is found in the genus Palmatogecko from the deserts of Damaraland; here there is no adhesive apparatus but the toes are webbed to their extremities

to enable the animal to walk over and burrow into the loose sand.

The tail is extremely fragile and is quickly regenerated, the new one having a simpler scalation.than, the original. Ofter.the tail is peculiar in shape; it may be long and tapering or short and blunt, or even globular; in one species. (Gymnodactylus platyurus) itis leaf-shaped. It seems highly probable that in many instances,

particularly where it is large and globular, the tail serves as a storehouse of reserve nutriment on which the animal can draw

„during unfavourable conditions. As a rule the skin is.soft and delicate, and covered with minute granules, but frequently there are darge.tubercles intermixed with these. Teratoscincus, a western Asiatic desert dweller, has, however, developed large, overlapping

beneath the bark of trees or attached to the under side of leaves, (H. W. P.)

GED, WILLIAM (1690-1749), the inventor of stereotyping

was born at Edinburgh. In 1725 he patented his invention, developed from the simple process of soldering together loose types of Van der Mey. Ged, although he succeeded in obtaining a cast in similar metal, of a type page, could not persuade Edinburgh printers to take up his invention, and finally entered into

partnership with a London stationer named Jenner and Thomas James, a typefounder. The partnership, however, turned out very ill; and Ged, broken-hearted at his want of success due to trade jealousy and the compositors’ dislike of the innovation, died in poverty on Oct. t9, 1749. Two prayer-books for the university of . Cambridge and an edition of Sallust were printed from his stereotype plates, In his time the best type was imported from Holland, and Ged had repeated offers from the Dutch which, from patriotic motives, he refused. His sons tried to carry out his patent, and it was eventually perfected by Andrew Wilson. GEDDES, SIR AUCKLAND CAMPBELL, K.C.B; 1917, and G.C.M.G., 1922 (1879— ), British politician, was born on June 21, 1879, the son of Auckland Campbell Geddes of, Edinburgh and the younger brother of Sir Eric Geddes, and was educated at George Watson’s college, Edinburgh, and Edinburgh university. He studied medicine, qualified as a practitioner, was. at the London hospital for a time and later studied at Freiburg: . He was a demonstrator and professor of anatomy first at Edinburgh, then at the Royal college of surgeons, Dublin, and afterwards at McGill university, Montreal. He also had some military experience in the South African War and afterwards in the World War. 7 In 1916 Geddes became director of recruiting, and in Aug,' 1917, minister of National Service, a seat in parliament being’ found for him at Basingstoke. After the Armistice Geddes be came president of the Local Government Board and minister of, Reconstruction, and in May, 1919, president of the Board of Trade. At the Board of Trade he began the removal of the bars riers to British trade which the war had necessarily set up, and

he had to deal with the difficulties which immediately arose in the coal industry. In this delicate task he was at least temporarily successful, and managed materially to reduce the price of domestic coal. In the same year an opportunity was afforded him to return to academic life by his election as principal of

McGill university. He accepted the appointment, subject to its’

not being operative till the abatement of the coal crisis allowed of his leaving the Board of Trade. But during the delay the Government prevailed on him to accept instead the post of British ambassador in Washington. His tenure of the embassy!

(1920-3) was crowded with important negotiations in which he, showed himself a successful diplomatist. On leaving Washington. Geddes left the public service and became chairman of the Rie

Tinto Company. ate GEDDES, SIR ERIC CAMPBELL, G.C.B., 1919 (1875%:.

), British man of business and administrator, born in Indié,’

on Sept. 26, 1875, is the son of Auckland Campbell Geddes of:

Edinburgh, and the elder brother of Sir Auckland Geddes. He; was educated at the Oxford Military college and Merchistott; Castle school, Edinburgh. He gained some business experience, at lumbering in the United States, and was afterwards connected

GEDDES, NORMAN BEL—GEDYMIN ` with railways—frst, the Baltimore and Ohio system, and then the Rohilkhand and Kumaton in India. Returning to England he joined the North Eastern Railway Co. under Sir George Gibb, and, having succeeded him in 1906, was himself the general

manager of this line when the World War broke out. Geddes was one of the business men whom Lloyd George, on becoming Minister of Munitions, enlisted in Government employ. He became deputy director general of munitions supply, 1915-16, and was then appointed, though a civilian, director general of

transportation, and succeeded in bringing the British lines of communication in France into a high state of efficiency. He was transferred

to the Admiralty

in May,

1917, as controller, in

order to develop and utilize the whole of the shipbuilding resources of the country and concentrate them under one authority. A month or two later, in spite of having no parliamentary experience, he was appointed First Lord of the Admiralty, and was returned to the House of Commons as M.P. for the borough of Cambridge. After the Armistice Geddes was employed on questions connected with demobilization. When the Government was

35

signs for enlarging the city and for the several university colleges. In collaboration with J. Arthur Thomson he wrote The Evolution of Sex (1889, rev. ed. 1901) and other works on kindred subjects.

His works include Cities in. Evolution (1913) and The Life and W orks of Sir Jagadis Chandra Bose (q.v.), the Bengali physicist (1920).

GEDYMIN (d. 1342), grand-duke of Lithuania, was supposed

by some to have been the servant of Witen, prince of Lithuania,

but more probably he was Witen’s younger brother and the son of Lutuwer, another Lithuanian prince. Gedymin inherited a vast domain, comprising Lithuania proper, Samogitia, Red Russia, Polotsk and Minsk; but these lands were environed by powerful foes, the most dangerous being the Teutonic Knights and the

Livonian Knights of the Sword. The systematic raiding of Lith-

uania by the knights under the pretext of converting it had long since united all the Lithuanian tribes against the common enemy;

but Gedymin aimed at establishing a dynasty which should make Lithuania not merely secure but mighty, and for this purpose he began negotiations with the Holy See. At the end of 1322 he wrote to Pope John XXII. soliciting his protection against the already reconstructed in Jan., 1919, he left the Admiralty in order to persecution of the knights, informing him of the privileges and organize and preside over a new Ministry of Transport. In 192r granted to the Dominicans and the Franciscans in Lithuania, the into also him receive to sent be should legates that desiring a bill introduced by Geddes for the re-grouping of the railways was passed; he then resigned office in Oct., and the ministry was church. Gedymin then issued circular letters, dated Jan. 25, 1325, his doreduced in personnel and importance. Sir Eric himself was ap- to the principal Hanse towns, offering a free access into settleown their choose to were immigrants The settlers. to mains pointed in Aug., 1921, chairman of a small committee, later letters were known as the “Geddes Axe,” to recommend public economies to ments and be governed by their own laws. Similar the Government. In various reports in the winter of 1921-22 the sent to the Wendish or Baltic cities, and to the bishops and landanticipated committee recommended savings amounting to £86,000,000; but owners of Livonia and Esthonia. In short Gedymin throwing open the semiSir Eric complained that only £52,000,c00 of this amount was Iyan the Terrible and Peter the Great by actually saved. In 1922 he left Parliament and returned to a savage Russian lands to western culture. In Oct. 1323 representatives of the archbishop of Riga, the business career, becoming chairman of the Dunlap Rubber Co. of Dorpat, the king of Denmark, the Dominican and bishop and of Imperial Airways, Ltd. Franciscan orders, and the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order

GEDDES, NORMAN

BEL (1893-

_+), American scenic

assembled at Vilna, when Gedymin confirmed his promises and

artist, was born in Adrian, Mich., on April 27, 1893. After a short period at the Cleveland school of art, he went to the Chicago Art institute. From Chicago he moved to Detroit, where he was engaged as a commercial artist. Interested in the theatre, he soon secured a position as scenic director, his work attracting the attention of a California director. He removed to Los Angeles, where he presented his first dramatic production, Nyu, in 1916. His first scenic work in New York was for Chas. W. Cadman’s Shanewis, presented in 1918 at the Metropolitan opera house, since which time he has designed many operas, musical comedies and plays, his most popular success being The Miracle. He designed and produced Jeanne d'Arc in Paris in 1925. He was codesigner of the Guild theatre in New York, and the author of A Project for a Theatrical Presentation of the Divine Comedy of

undertook to be baptized as soon as the papal legates arrived. A compact was then signed at Vilna confirming the promised privileges. But the christianizing of Lithuania was by no means to the liking of the Teutonic Knights, and they strove to nullify Gedymin’s design. Gédymin’s chief object was to save Lithuania from destruction at the hands of the Germans. But he was still a pagan reigning over semi-pagan lands; he was equally bound

(1903), giving attention mainly to the civic aspect of its work.

by. the marriage of his son Lubart with the daughter of the Halic-

Going in 1914 to London, he organised a civic exhibition. During his professorship in Bombay he made surveys and reports on

zian prince; Kiey seems

to his pagan kinsmen in Samogitia, to his orthodox subjects in

Red Russia, and to his Catholic allies in Masovia. His policy, therefore, was necessarily tentative and ambiguous. Thus his raid upon Dobrzyn, the latest acquisition of the knights on Polish soil, gave them a weapon against him. The Prussian bishops, who were devoted to the knights, at a synod at Elbing questioned the authority of Gedymin’s letters and denounced him as an Danie Alighieri (1924). enemy of the faith; his orthodox subjects reproached him -with GEDDES, PATRICK (1854__), British biologist and leaning towards the Latin heresy; while the pagan Lithuanians sociologist, was born at Perth on Oct. 20, 1854. Trained in accused him of abandoning the ancient gods. Gedymin then biology in the laboratory of T. H. Huxley, University College, repudiated his former promises; he refused to receive the papal London, and at several continental universities, he became suc- legates who arrived at Riga in Sept. 1323, and dismissed the cessively demonstrator in physiology at University College, Lon- Franciscans. Gedymin saw that the pagan element was still the don, in zoology at Aberdeen and in botany at Edinburgh. In strongest force in Lithuania, and could not yet be dispensed with 1883 he was appointed professor of botany at University College, in the coming struggle for nationality. But, through his amhassaDundee, and in 1919 became professor of sociology and civics dors, he privately informed the papal legates at Riga that his at Bombay university. Geddes did pioneer research in the evolu- difficult position compelled him to postpone his own baptism, tion of sex. His interest from the beginning was in the relation and the legates showed their confidence in him by forbidding of biological science to society, and in particular to the problems the neighbouring states to war against Lithuania for the next of civics. His Outlook Tower in Edinburgh was for many years four years, besides ratifying the treaty made between Gedymin a stimulating laboratory of sociological enquiry, from which and the archbishop of Riga. Nevertheless in 1325 the Order, sprang a publishing house in Edinburgh and the regional survey disregarding the censures of the church, resumed the war with movement, with its synthetic study of the organic relationship Gedymin, who by the marriage of his daughter to Casimir, son between city, country and industrial area—the theme of count- of Wladislaus Lokietek, king of Poland, had improved his less lectures and papers by Geddes, and of group meetings in position. many countries throughout a period of more than thirty years. While on his guard against his northern foes, Gedymin from Geddes, while retaining his professorship of botany at Dundee, 1316 to 1340 was extending his rule over neighbouring Russian was one of the founders of the Sociological Society in London principalities. The principality of Halicz-Vladimir was obtained

many Indian cities and gardens, and in Jerusalem produced de-

to have been acquired by conquest.

Gedymin also secured an alliance with the grand-duchy of Muscovy by marrying his daughter, Anastasia, to the grand-duke

86

GEELONG—GEIBEL

Simeon. He was strong enough to counterpoise the influence of triptych at Prague represents the “Adoration of the Magi” in Muscovy in northern Russia, and assisted the republic of Pskov, the centre and “Donors and Saints” on the wings. It is distins which acknowledged his overlordship, to break away from Great guished for the original conception of some of its figures and for Novgorod. His internal administration bears all the marks of its animated background. Another “Adoration of the Magi” is a wise ruler. He protected the Catholic as well as the orthodox in the possession of Oscar Reinhart at Winterthur. The National clergy, encouraging them both to civilize his subjects; he raised Gallery, London, has recently acquired one of the most attractive the Lithuanian army to the highest state of efficiency then attain- pictures by the master. It represents “Nativity,” a night scene, able; defended his borders with a chain of strong fortresses; and remarkable for its rendering of chiaroscuro. See K. van Mander, Schilderboek; Leo Balet, Der Frühholländer built numerous towns including Vilna, the capital (c. 1321). GedyGeertgen (1910); Sir Martin Conway, The Van Eycks and Their min died in the winter of 1342 of a wound received at the siege Followers (1921) ;- M. Friedlander, Geertgen und Bosch (1927). of Wielowa. He was married three times, and left seven sons GEESTEMUNDE: see WESERMUNDE. and six daughters. See Teodor Narbutt, History of the Lithuanian Nation (Pol.) GEEZ. The name given to the language of an ancient nomadic (Vilna, 1835); Antoni Prochaska, On the Genuineness of the Letters Semitic race of Ethiopia. See ETHIOPIA and SEMITIC LANGUAGES: ' ty

of Gedymin (Pol.) (Cracow, 1895); Vladimir Bonifatovich Antonovich, Monogruph concerning the History of Western and Southwestern Russia (Rus.) (Kiev, 1885). (R. N. B.; X.

GEFLE, a seaport of Sweden on an inlet of the Gulf of ‘Bothnia, chief town of the district (län) of Gefleborg, 112 m. N.N.W. GEELONG, a seaport of Grant county, Victoria, Australia, of Stockholm by rail. Pop. (1928) 39,464. It is the chief port of. situated on a land- locked arm of Port Phillip known as Corio the district of Kopparberg, with its iron and other mines and bay, 45 m. by rail S.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1925) 39,100. Gee- forests. The exports consist principally of timber and wood-pulp, long was incorporated in 1849. As a manufacturing centre it is iron and steel, imports of coal, grain and machinery. The harof considerable importance. The first woollen mill in the colony bour, which has two entrances about 20 ft. deep, is usually icewas established here, and the tweeds, cloths and other woollen bound from January to April. Large vessels generally load in fabrics of the town are noted throughout Australia. There are the roads at Graberg, 6 m. distant. There are slips and shipextensive tanneries, flour-mills and salt works, while at Fyansford, building yards, and a manufacture of sail-cloth. The town is an 3 m. distant, there are important cement works and paper-mills. important industrial centre, having tobacco and textile mills, and Corio bay, a safe and commodious harbour, has a depth of 25 ft. breweries. At Skutskär at the mouth of the Dal river are woodat low water and is being deepened to 29 ft. There is extensive pulp- and sawmills, dealing with the timber floated down the quayage, and the largest wool ships are able to load alongside the river. The principal buildings are a castle, founded by King John wharves, which are connected by rail with all parts of the colony. JII. (1568—1592), but rebuilt later, and a council-house ‘erected The facilities given for shipping wool direct to England from this by Gustavus III. GEGENBAUR, CARL (1826-1903), German anatomist, port have caused a very extensive wool-broking trade to grow up was born on Aug. 21, 1826 at Wiirzburg and was educated at the in the town. GEERTGEN VAN HAARLEM (c. 1465-1493), Dutch university there. In 1855 he was appointed professor of anatomy | painter active in Haarlem. He was surnamed “‘tot Sint Jans,” as at Jena, and in 1873 at Heidelberg, where he was also director of he lived with the knights of St. John at Haarlem. He is one of the Anatomical Institute until 1901. In his best known work, the most interesting Dutch artists of the 15th century and he is Grundriss der vergleichenden Anatomie (Leipzig, 1874; Eng. trans, important, as he represents a school of which very few works have 1878), Gegenbaur laid stress on the high value of comparative survived destruction. According to Van .Mander, who is the anatomy as the basis of the study of homologies. A distinctive authority on what is known of his life, he was a pupil of Ouwater piece of work was effected by him in 1871 in supplementing the ` at Haarlem. Neither the year of his birth nor of his death is evidence adduced by Huxley in refutation of the theory of the known, but only that he was 28 years old when he died. Diirer, origin of the skull from expanded vertebrae. Huxley demonstrated on seeing his work, is said to have exclaimed: “Here is a born that the skull is built up of cartilaginous pieces; Gegenbaur. painter,” but as Dürer is not known to have visited Haarlem the showed that “in the lowest (gristly) fishes, where hints of the truth of this story has been doubted. Geertgen painted a large original vertebrae might be most expected, the skull is an unsegtriptych for the high altar of the knights of St. John. The central mented gristly brain-box, and that in higher forms the vertebral panel with the “crucifixion” and one of the wings were destroyed nature of the skull cannot be maintained, since many of the in the religious troubles; but the other wing has been identified bones, notably those along the top of the skull, arise in the skin.” with the aid of Van Mander’s description. This wing is now in Other publications by Gegenbaur include a Textbook of Human the Vienna gallery, sliced into two separate panels, front and Anatomy (Leipzig, 1883, new ed. 1903), the Epiglottis (1892). ack. The front represents the dead Christ being mourned by and Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrates in relation to the His friends. The pathos of the scene is expressed with deep feel- Invertebrates (Leipzig,2 vols., 1898, 1901). In 1875 he founded: ing. The influence of Rogier van der Weyden is seen in the the Morphologisches Jahrbuch, which he edited for many years, Magdalen wringing her hands. In the background is a realistic In 1goz he published a short autobiography under the title burial scene on Mount Calvary. Here the artist broke away Erlebtes und Erstrebtes. Gegenbaur died at Heidelberg in 1903.,, See Fürbringer: Heidelberger Professoren aus dem roten Jahrhundert ‘from the traditional symbolical assemblage of emblematic figures (Heidelberg, 1903). on the altarpieces: ‘of his time and felt his way towards the more GEGENSCHEIN or counterglow, an extremely faint lumi. vivid and dramatic style of the next generation of Dutch painters. ' The same is true of the other panel (the back of the wing) on nescence of the sky, seen opposite the direction of the sun. Its ‘which the emperor Julian the Apostate is causing the bones of faintness is such that it can be seen only by a practised eye under St. ‘John the Baptist to be buried. In the mid-distance of this favourable conditions. It is invisible during the greater part of panel is an admirable group of portraits of the knights of St. June, July, December and January, owing to its being then blotted ` John at Haarlem among whom the artist lived. They are life- out by the superior light of the Milky Way. It is also invisible dur:: like studies of individual characters and seem to presage those ing moonlight and near the horizon, and the neighbourhood of a’ grèat, democratic portrait groups famous in Dutch ;‘paintings of bright star or planet may interfere with its recognition. When noné’, of these unfavourable conditions supervenes it may be seen at’ e 17th century. A number of pictures are ascribed to him on stylistic grounds. nearly any time when the air is clear and the depression of the suné ‘Among theseis the “‘St. John the Baptist” of the Berlin museum, below the horizon more than 20 degrees. (See ZoDIACAL LIGHT. Jè ‘where the pensive saint is sitting in beautiful park-like scenery. GEIBEL, EMANUEL (1815-1884), German poet, was; In the same collection is “Virgin and’ Child. ” The Louvre contains born’at Lübeck on Oct. 17, 1815, the son of a pastor in the ag the “Resurrection of Lazarus,” the ‘Amsterdam museum “The Virgin’s Kindred” and the. “Adotation of the Magi.” The: “Man läy'nót in theology but in classical and romance philology. | of Sorrows” at Utrecht is a painful but wonderful picture; a 1838 he accepted a tutorship at Athens, where he remained uh HeT

:

eh

GEIGE—GEIKIE 1840. His first poems, Zeitstimmen, political poems directed against radicalism, appeared in 1841; a tragedy, König Roderich, in 1843. In the same year he received a pension from the king of

Prussia, which he retained until his invitation to Munich by the king of Bavaria in 1851 as honorary professor at the university. Meanwhile he had produced Konig Sigurds Brautfahrt (1846), an epic, and Juniuslieder (1848, 33rd ed., 1901), lyrics which both in content and in poetic form showed a great advance

on his

early work. A volume of Neue Gedichte (Munich 1857) mainly on classical subjects, was followed by the Spa&therbstblatter (1877). His later years were spent in Liibeck, where he died on April 6, 1884. His works further include two tragedies, Brunhild (1858, sth ed., 1890), and Sophonisbe (1869), and translations of French and Spanish popular poetry. Beginning as a member of the group of political poets who heralded the revolution of 1848, Geibel became gradually conservative. He was the chief poet to welcome the establishment of the empire in 1871 and was one of the early singers of German imperialism. His strength lay not, however, in his political songs but in his purely lyric

poetry, such as the fine cycle Ada and his still popular love-songs. Geibel’s Gesammelie Werke were published in 8 vols. (1883, 4th ed. 1906) ; his Gedichte have gone through about 130 editions. An excellent selection in one volume appeared in 1904. See also K. Goedeke, E. Geibel (1869); C. C. T. Litzmann, E. Geibel, aus Erinnerungen, Briefen und Tagebüchern (1887), and biographies by C. Leimbach (znd ed., 1894), K. T. Gaedertz (1897) and Kohut (r915). See A F. E. A. Geibel, Der Briefwechsel von E. Geibel und P. Heyse 1922).

GEIGE, in modern German the violin; in mediaeval German the name applied to the first stringed instruments played with a bow, in contradistinction to those whose strings were plucked by fingers or plectrum such as the cithara, rotta, and fidula.

GEIGER,

ABRAHAM § (1810-

1874), Jewish theologian and orientalist, was born at Frankfort-on-Main on May 24, 1810, and educated at the universities of Heidelberg and Bonn. In 1832 he went to Wiesbaden as rabbi of the synagogue, and in 1835 helped to found the Zeitschrift fiir jüdische Theologie (1835-39 and 1842—47). From 1838 to 1863 he lived in Breslau, where he organized the reform movement in Judaism and wrote some of his most important works, including Lehr- und Lesebuch zur Sprache der Mischna (1845), Studien from Mai- sx courtesy or THe METROPOLee (1850), translation into German my eae a Sac: of the poems of Juda ha-Levi (1851), and Urschrift und Ubersetzungen der ea ie ee ihrer Abhängigkeit von der innern Entwickelung des Judentums (1857). In 1863 Geiger became head of the synagogue of Frankfort, and in 1870 he removed to Berlin, where, in addition to his duties as chief rabbi, he took the principal charge of the newly established seminary for Jewish science. His later works included a history of Judaism, Das Judentum und seine Geschichte (1865— 71). He died on Oct. 23, 1874. See J. Derenbourg in Jiid. Zeitschrift, xi. 299-308; E. Schrieber, Abraham Geiger als Reformator des Judentums (1880), art. (with por-

trait) in Jewish Encyclopaedia.

GEIGER, WILHELM

(1856—

_—+), German scholar, was

born in Nuremberg on July 21, 1856. He became professor at Erlangen in 1891, and was professor of Indian and-Iranian philology at Munich from 1920 to 1924. He edited the Zeitschrift

für Buddhismus and prepared, with E. Kuhn, Grundriss der Iranisçhen Philologie (4 vols., 1895-1904). Other works are: Handbuch der Avestasprache (1879); Ostiranische Kultur:im Altertum (1882); Ceylon, Tagebuchblätter und Reiseerinnerungen (1898); Litteratur und. Sprache der Singhalesen (1900); Dipayamsa und Mahavamsa und. die Entwicklung der geschichtlichen Ueberlie-

ferung in Ceylon. (edited x905); Pali, Litteratur und Sprache

87

(1916); Păli Dhamma (1921); Elementarbuch des Sanskrit (3rd ed., 1923); and a translation of Samyutta Nikaya (Eng. trans.,

1924).

GEIJER, ERIK GUSTAF

(1783-1847), Swedish historian

and poet, was born at Ransäter in Värmland, on Jan. 12, 1783. He was educated at the University of Uppsala, and, after a short period of teaching in the university, entered the public record office at Stockholm. There, with some friends, he founded the “Gothic Society,” to whose organ Jduna he contributed a number of prose essays and of songs, which he set to music. About the same time he issued a volume of hymns, of which several are inserted in the Swedish Psalter. Geijer became assistant to Erik M. Fant, professor of history at Uppsala, and succeeded him in 1817. In 1824 he was elected a member of the Swedish Academy. A single volume of a great projected work, Svea Rikes Hafder, a masterly critical examination of the sources of Sweden’s legendary history, appeared in 182s.

His Svenska folkets historia (3 vols., 1832-36; Eng. trans. by J. H. Turner, 1845), a clear view of the political and social development of Sweden down to 1654. The acute critical insight, just thought, and finished historical art of these incomplete works of Geijer entitle him to a high place among Swedish historians. His chief other historical and political writings are his Teckning af Sveriges tillstånd 1718—1772 (1838), and Feodalism och republikanism, ett bidrag till Samhällsförfattningens historia (1844). Geijer also edited, with the aid of J. H. Schröder, a continuation of Fant’s Scriptores rerum svecicarum medii aevi (1818—28), and,

by himself, Thomas Thorild’s Samlade skrifter (1819-25), and Konung Gustaf III.’s efterlemnade Papper (4 vols., 1843-46). Failing health forced Geijer to resign his chair in 1846, after which he removed to Stockholm for the purpose of completing his Svenska folkets historia, and died there on April 23, 1847. His Samlade skrifter (13 vols., 1849—55; new ed., 1873—77) include a large number of philosophical and political essays contributed to | reviews. His poems were collected and published as Skaldestycken

(Uppsala, 1835 and 1878).

For Geijer’s biography, see his own Minnen (1834), which contains copious extracts from his letters and diaries; B, E. Malmström, Minnestal öfver E. G. Geijer, addressed to the Uppsala students (June 6, 1848), and printed among his Tal och esthetiska afhandlingar (1868), and Grunddragen af Svenska vitterhetens hafder (1866-68) ; and S. A. Hollander, Minne af E. G. Geijer (Örebro, 1869). See also lives of Geijer by J. Hellstenius (1876), J. Niekson (Odense, 1902) and J. Landquist (1924).

GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD

(1835—1924), Scottish geolo-

gist, was born at Edinburgh on Dec. 28, 1835. He was educated at the high school and university of Edinburgh, and in 1855 was

appointed an assistant on the Geological survey. His ability at once attracted the notice of his chief, Sir Roderick Murchison, with whom some of his earliest work was done on the complicated regions of the Highland schists; the small geological map of Scotland published in 1862 was their joint work, and a larger map was issued by Geikie in r892. In 1863 he published his essay “On the Phenomena of the Glacial Drift of Scotland” (Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow) in which the effects of ice action in that country were for the first time clearly and connectedly delineated.

His

Scenery of Scotland (1865; 3rd ed., 1901), was, he claimed, “the first attempt to elucidate.in some detail the history of the topography of a country.” In the same year he was elected F.R:S. At

this time the Edinburgh school of geologists—-prominent among them Sir Andrew Ramsay, with his Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain—were maintaining the supreme importance of denudation in the configuration of land-surfaces, and partic-

ularly the erosion of valleys by the action of running water. Geikie’s book, based on extensive personal knowledge of the

country, was an able contribution to the doctrines of the Edinburgh school, of which he himself soon began to rank as one of

the leaders.

i

ee

In 1867, when a separate branch of the Geological Survey was established for Scotland, he was appointedydirector. He was the first holder (1871) of the Murchison "professership of geology and nd 1mineral at’ Edinburgh. These two appointments he held till 1881, when he succeeded Andrew Ramsay in the joint offices

GEIKIE—GELADA

88

of director-general of the Geological Survey of the United KingGEISHA, the name of the professional dancing and singing dom and director of the museum of practical geology, London, giris of Japan (a Sino-Japanese word meaning “person of pleasfrom which he retired in February 1901. A feature of his tenure ing accomplishments”). The training of the true Geisha or singof office was the impetus given to microscopic petrography, a ing girl, which includes lessons-in dancing, begins often as early branch of geology to which he had devoted special study, by a as her seventh year. Her apprenticeship over, she contracts with splendid collection of sections of British rocks. Later he wrote her employer for a number of years, and is seldom able to reach two important and interesting Survey Memoirs, The Geology of independence except by marriage. There is a capitation fee of Central and Western Fife and Kinross (1900), and The Geology two yen per month on thẹ actual singing girls, and of one ven of Eastern Fife (1902). on the apprentices. In 1871 Geikie brought before the Geological Society of LonSee Jukichi Inouye, Sketches of Tokyo Life; Sir Ian Hamilton, don an outline of the Tertiary volcanic history of Britain. He Staf Officers Scrapbook. travelled not only throughout Europe, but in western America to GEISLINGEN, a town in the republic of Württemberg, on examine volcanic formations. While the canyons of the Colorado the Thierbach, 38 m. by rail E.S.E. of Stuttgart. Pop. (1925) confirmed his long-standing views on erosion, the eruptive regions 13,762. It has shops for the carving and turning of ivory and of Wyoming, Montana and Utah supplied him with valuable data wood, besides iron-works, machinery factories, glass-works and

in explanation of volcanic phenomena. The results of his further researches were given in his paper on “The History of Volcanic Action during the Tertiary Period in the British Isles,” Trans. Roy. Soc, Edin. (1888). His mature views on volcanic geology were stated in his presidential addresses to the Geological Society in 1891 and 1892, and afterwards in his book, The Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain (1897). Other results of his travels are collected in his Geological Skeiches at Home and Abroad (1882). Geikie was president of the British Association in 1892 and of

the Royal Society in 1909; he received the Order of Merit in r914. He died near Haslemere, Surrey, on Nov. 10, 1924. His experience as a field geologist resulted in an admirable text-book, Outlines of

Field Geology (sth ed. 1900). His Text-Book (1882, 4th ed. 1903), and Class-Book of geology are standard works. His other works include Memoir of Edward Forbes (with G. Wilson), and memoirs of his old chiefs Sir R. I. Murchison (1875)

and Sir Andrew Crombie Ramsay (1895); Founders of Geology (lectures at Popea University 1897); Geological Map of England and Wales, witk Descriptive Notes (1897); Types of Scenery and their Infiuence on Literature (Romanes lectures, 1898); The Teaching of Geography (1887); Scottish Reminiscences (1904); and Landscape in History and other Essays (1905).

brewing.

The church of St. Mary contains fine wood-carving,

Above the town lie the ruins of the castle of Helfenstein, which was destroyed in 1552. The town, which passed to Wiirttemberg in 18to, has chalybeate springs.

GEL, the name given by Graham (g.v.)} to the coagulated precipitate from a sol or colloidal solution (see Corroms). GELA, a town of Sicily on the S. coast, province of Caltanisetta, 74 m. by rail and 41 m. direct E.S.E. of Girgenti. Pop. (1921) 25,603. The poorly built modern town stands on a sandhill near the sea, with a fertile plain (the ancient Campi Geloi)

to the north of it. It has only an open roadstead. Outside it on

the east are scanty remains of a Doric temple (480-440 B.c.?)

which was still standing in the 18th century, of which a single pillar only remains (height about 264 ft., lower diameter 52 ft.). Between it and the modern ‘town the stylobate of a large and earlier temple was found. This seems to have been constructed towards the end of the 7th century B.C. on the site of a still earlier edifice. The stylobate measures 115 by 58 ft. A large number of

decorative terracottas were found. Both buildings were probably dedicated successively to Athena. On the west of the town, on the Capo Soprano, was the ancient necropolis, where many tombs of GEIKTE, JAMES (1839-1915), Scottish geologist, younger the Greek period have been discovered. brother of Sir Archibald Geikie, was born at Edinburgh on Aug. The ancient city was founded by Cretan and Rhodian colonists 23, 1839. He was educated at the high school and university of in 691-690 B.c., and itself founded Acragas (see AGRIGENTUM) in Edinburgh. He served on the Geological Survey from 1861 until 582 B.C, It also had a treasure-house at Olympia. The town took 1882, when he succeeded his brother as Murchison professor of its name from the river to the east. The Rhodian settlers called geology and mineralogy at the university of Edinburgh. He in- it Lindioi (see Linpus). Gela enjoyed its greatest prosperity vestigated the origin of surface-features, and the part played in under Hippocrates (492-485 B.c.), whose dominion extended over their formation by glacial action. His views are embodied in his a considerable part of the island. Gelon seized the tyranny on chief work, The Great Ice Age and its Relation to the Antiquity of his death, soon became master of Syracuse and transferred his Man

(1874; 3rd ed., 1894). He was elected F.R.S. in 1875. He died in Edinburgh on March 1, 1915. James Geikie became the header of the school that upholds the all-important action of landice, ag against those geologists who assign chief importance to the work of pack-ice and icebergs. Continuing this Hine of investigation in his Prehistoric Europe (1881), he maintained the hypothesis of five inter-Glacial periods in Great Britain, and argued that the palacoclithic deposits of the Pleistocene period were not post-

_ but begat or pre-Glacial. ?

works indude: Outlines of Geology

Structural and Field Geology (ae. a (or GEYLER),

ae

(1886;

VON

=

3rd ed. 1806 ; and

ai

KAITSERSBERG,

capital thither with half the inhabitants of Gela, leaving his

brother Hieron to rule over the rest. Its prosperity returned, however, after the expulsiori of Thrasybulus in 466 B.c., but in 405 it was abandoned by Dionysius’ order (see SYRACUSE). The inhabitants returned and rebuilt the town but it was only refortified

in the time of Timoleon. In 311 3.c. Agathocles put to death over

4,000 of its inhabitants; and finally, after its destruction by the

Mamertines about 281 3.c., Phintias of Agrigentum transferred

the remainder to the new town of Phintias (now Licata, g.v.).

In Roman times they still kept the name of Gelenses or Geloi in their new abode. The modern town was known until recently as Terrasrova di Sicilia.

JO N (4445-1510), “the German Savonarola,” was born at Remains of a temple of Athena of the 6th cent. B.c. with five Schaifhausen on March 16, 1445, but in 1448 went to live at terracottas have been found; while scanty remains of another, a < erg in Upper Alsace. He studied at Freiburg university century later (perhaps that of Apollo) are to be seen, and nuwhere he afterwards lectured until 1478 when he accepted a call merous tombs have been excavated. (T. A.) to the cathedral ‘of Strasbourg. There his sermons—bold, inSee the monograph by Orsi, Monumenti dei Lincei, xvii. (1906); cisive, denunciatory, abounding in quaint illustrations and based

on texts by no means confined to the Bible—won for him a well deserved fame. Geiler died at Strasbourg on March 10, I5IO.

Notizie degli Scavi, 1907, Pareti in Römische M itteilungen, 1910.

GELADA, alarge species of baboon, Theropithecus gelada,

differing from the members of the genus Papio (see Basoon) by

The genuineness of the numerous works ascribed to the nostrils being situated some distance from the tip of the Gei investigated by E. Martin in the Allgemeine deutsche Bork muzzle. In the heavy mantle of long brown hair covering the forease F. W. von Ammon, Geyler’s Leben, Lehren und Predigte . na L. Dacheux, Un Réformateur catholique ù la fin du-XVe n (1826) ; quarters of the old males, with the exception of the bare chest, siècle, J. G.

which is reddish flesh-colour, the gelada recalls the Arabian baboon de Æ.. (1876); R. Cruel, Gesch. der deutschen Predigt. (1879); P. de (Papio

Lerenzi, Geiler’s ee

pod

g of.tke

Schriften (4 vols., 1881); T. M. LindReformation, i. (1906); and Herzog-Hauck, Real-

hamadryas). The gelada inhabits the mountains of Abys-

sinia, where it descends in droves’ to pillage cultivated lands. A second species, T. obscurus, inhabits eastern Abyssinia.

GELASIUS—GELATIN GELASIUS, the name of two popes. GELASIUS I., pope from 492 to 496, was the successor of Felix III. He confirmed the estrangement between the Eastern and Western churches by insisting on the removal of the name of

Acacius, bishop of Constantinople, from the diptychs. He is the author of De duabus in Christo naturis adversus Eutychen et Nestorium. A great number of his letters has also come down to us. His name has been attached to a Liber Sacramentorum anterior to that of St. Gregory, but he can have composed only certain parts of it. As to the so-called Decretum Gelasii de libris recipiendis et non recipiendis, it also is a compilation of documents anterior to Gelasius, and it is difficult to determine Gelasius’s contributions to it. At all events, as we know it, it is of

389

of purity; the purer form obtained from skins and bones (to which this article is restricted) is named gelatin; a preparation of great purity is “patent isinglass,” while isinglass (qg.v.) itself is a fish-gelatin; less pure forms constitute glue (q¢.v.), and an aqueous solution appears in commerce as size. In the manufacture of gelatin the bones are degreased and

steeped in dilute hydrochloric acid to remove the mineral matter, which together with the acid is removed by repeated washings with water. The product is known as osseine. Skin gelatin is limed to remove the albuminous and mucinous constituents. This process has to be carefully controlled to minimize bacterial decomposition. This is done by frequently turning the stock and also by replacing the liquor with fresh milk of lime. The stock is then thoroughly Roman origin, and 6th-century ot later. (L. D.) washed with water to remove the lime, and subsequently treated Gexasrus IT. (Giovanni Coniulo), pope from Jan. 24, 1138, to with dilute hydrochloric or sulphurous acid to cause the maximum Jan. 29, 1119, was born at Gaeta of an illustrious family. He swelling; the latter acid is often used for its bleaching properties became a monk of Monte Cassino, was taken to Rome by Urban though seldom for food or photographic gelatin. Sulphites are subII., and made chancellor and cardinal-deacon of Sta. Maria in sequently removed (in the preparation of edible gelatin) by oxidaCosmedin. Shortly after his unanimous election to succeed tion to sulphates by means of hydrogen peroxide. The hydroPaschal II. he was seized by Cencius Frangipane, a partisan of chloric acid used must be free from iron, which has an effect on the the emperor Henry V., but freed by a general uprising of the colour of the final product, and from arsenic. Romans in his behalf. The emperor drove Gelasius from Rome The “boiling” process has to be conducted with great care, in March, pronounced his election null and void, and set up otherwise the gelatin itself is decomposed, and distilled water is Burdinus, archbishop of Braga, as antipope under the name of therefore used. The heating is best carried out in aluminium Gregory VIII. Gelasius fled to Gaeta, where he was ordained vessels, since copper and zinc offer danger of metallic contaminapriest on March 9, and on the following day received episcopal tion. Generally the first heating is at about 60° C for some hours, consecration. He at once excommunicated Henry and the anti- or until the liquor has dissolved about 5% of its weight of gelatin. pope and, under Norman protection, was able to return to Rome This is drawn off and the second heating with a fresh volume of in July; but the disturbances of the imperialist party, especially water is carried out at about 70° C. The runnings are clarified, of the Frangipani, who attacked the pope while celebrating mass concentrated in vacuum pans, chilled and cut into slices which in the church of St. Prassede, compelled Gelasius to go once are dried by hot air. The dried sheets can be further purified by more into exile. He set out for France, consecrating the cathe- soaking in dilute hydrochloric acid, to convert insoluble calciur dral of Pisa on the way, and arrived at Marseilles in October. He phosphate to soluble calcium chloride, and then dialysing against was received with great enthusiasm at Avignon, Montpellier and a stream of distilled water till free from chlorides. Method: other cities, held a synod at Vienne in Jan., 1119, and was planning designed to produce a specially pure product for scientific worl to hold a general council to settle the investiture contest when are described by S. B. Schryver (1923-27). he died at Cluny. His successor was Calixtys TI. The percentage composition of pure gelatin is very similar tc His letters are in J. P. Migne, Patrol. Lat. vol. 163. The. original that of the other proteins (g.v.). On the whole the nitrogen i life by Pandulf is in J. M. Watterich, Pontif. Roman. vitae (Leipzig, rather higher (18%), and the sulphur very low (0-2% to 0-6%) 1862), and there is an important digest of his bulls and official acts The amino-acids obtained by complete hydrolysis are char in Jaffé-Wattenbach, Regesta pontif. Roman. (1885-88). See J. Langen, Geschichte der römischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis

Innocenz III. (Bonn, 1893); F. Gregorovius, Rome

in the Middle

Ages, vol. 4, trans. by Mrs. G. W. Hamilton (1896); A. Wagner, Die

unteritalischen 1885); W. von iii. (Brunswick, im Mittelalter, vol. 4 (1899).

Normannen und das Papsttum, ro86-r150 (Breslau, Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit, Bd. 1890) ; G. Richter, Annalen der deutschen Geschichte iii. (Halle, 1898); H. H. Milman, Latin Christianity, (C. H. H.)

GELATI, a village in the Georgian S.S.R., rz m. east of the town of Kutais, on a rocky spur 705 ft. above sea level in the valley of the Rion, which is growing in importance because of coal mines. It was an ancient monastery and its principal church, a sandstone cathedral, dates from the end of the eleventh century, and contains the royal crown of the former Georgian kingdom of Imeretia, besides ancient mss., ecclesiological furniture, and fresco portraits of the kings of Imeretia.

GELATIN, a familiar protein (g.v.); it is derived from substances in the supporting structures of vertebrate animals by boiling with water or dilute acids. These precursors are known as “‘col-

lagens,” and belong to the class of proteins called “Scleropro-

teins” or “Albuminoids.” They are characteristically deposited in long fibres in the tendons, cartilages, bones, skin and white connective tissue, for the purpose of supporting and padding the tis-

acterized by the high amounts of glycine, proline, oxyproline anc

the absence of tryptophane and tyrosine. Properties.—Gelatin is a nearly colourless, transparent, amor phous substance, flexible and horny when in the normal dry con dition, in which state, however, it retains about 17% of water. I swells to many times its normal volume when immersed in cok water, dilute alkalis and salt solutions. The amount of swellin depends on the acidity, being least at the isoelectric point which i about py 4-7. (See Hyprocen Ion CONCENTRATION.) The swell

ing increases on either side of this reaction, reaching a maximun at about fa 2-6 and then decreasing to p, 1-1. In solutions mor

acid than this the gelatin passes into solution. On the alkaline sid the swelling increases to about #, 9-8 and then decreases slight;

In solutions more alkaline than fz 11-6 the gelatin dissolves. Th swelling at maximum acidity is about double that at maximur

alkalinity. Inorganic salts generally depress the swelling, the per centage reduction being greater with increasing strength of sali A slight contraction of total volume accompanies swellin; and also a liberation of heat. From this it follows that low tem peratures favour the absorption of water by gelatin, whilst hig temperatures favour the drying-out process. When the swolle

sue. They are insoluble in water or salt solution, hot or cold, and

gelatin is heated to 35° C it goes into solution. If this solutio contains more than 1% of gelatin it sets to a firm jelly whe

swell in dilute acids and alkalis, but do not appear to dissolve. If hydrolysed gently by boiling in water, by means of high-pressure steam or by boiling with dilute acids, the collagen is converted to

allowed to stand at 10° C. This is the most characteristic an important property of gelatin, and on this depends its great us as an adhesive, in the form of glue.

gelatin, some of which is further hydrolysed to products intermediate between gelatin and the amino-acids. It is probable that the conversion of collagen to gelatin is not merely an hydration, since ammonia is evolved on heating collagen with water, but not

on boiling gelatin. Preparation.—Gelatin occurs in commerce in varying degrees

Gelatin is insoluble in the usual organic solvents, such as ethe chloroform, benzene, and absolute alcohol. The amount of alcoh required to precipitate gelatin from aqueous solution depends o the hydrogen ion concentration of the fluid and the temperatur It is most readily precipitated at the isoelectric point. Gelatin completely precipitated from aqueous solution by the addition «

|

GELDERLAND

go

USES OF EDIBLE GELATIN

MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS

GENERAL TABLE USES

SPECIAL DIETARIES

Infant

CONFECTIONERY in

Fever

Broths, || Tubercune

Soups So p

Jelfied

BY COURTESY

Noug:

Chews, Tatfies

Kidto

UNIVERSITY

OF

Formal-

eee

Oori

Dehyde |||piotaaew

Gelatin || (55304 Sup-

Giutol, Giuiot

Goliato ;

Glutoid,#

ci

lutefd

Dryi

Pilt Coating

A

.

Detanning

fee

Sahenatane

Mn

ant

rele Powdered Extracts || Milk

Wines

latin

Clanfication of

Extracts,

ate,

o

photo

heprep,of

Chemistry |||Eilts’

; Glyco-

te Slides

al Metal

Applied

Glyceroge!-

Microscop-

psute

Matatial&

Viinerarice

Ointment Base Galatol

Coating for

Special

other

Conservation

Desiecated = OF

Hemo- ||| Melena

Fruits

Bread

Pill

eda

Jams and

a INSTITUTE

Glycerin-

Jellies

t

MELLON

Gelatinized Milk

po

aida

OF THE

Creams, Fondants and

Gelatin ||

Custards

Mayonnaise

Canned Meats

i | Icing for Dysphagia}

Puddings ‘an

Foams

lows and

Rolis

Malnutrif

Marshmal-

Emulsion

Meringues

Patients

OTHER FOOD PRODUCTS

nges,

Divia,

Tooth

Pastes,

as Body

Glaze on Cotice

Emulsify-

Celttor| |Demonstra-

Gelatin ||and totes | [ing Agent

Phenomena

Chroma-

Aa,

PENNSYLVANIA

GRAPH

SHOWING

THE USES OF EDIBLE

an equal volume of an aqueous saturated solution of ammonium

GELATIN

on heating and cooling, and also irreversible changes on prolonged

sulphate. Potassium dichromate reacts with gelatin in the presence heating in water. of light to produce a jelly which, on drying out, is insoluble. This Uses of Gelatin.—As a food, in jellies and soups, it has conproperty is made use of in photography and photo-lithography. siderable value, being readily digested and absorbed; but owing Formaldehyde produces an insoluble condensation product with to the lack of certain essential amino-acids it can only partially gelatin. replace other proteins in the diet. As an emulsoid colloid, it has Gelatin, like all other proteins and amino-acids, is an amphoteric a protective action, inhibiting the precipitation of salts and the substance, acting as a weak base in solutions more acid than the flocculation of other colloids. For this reason it is sometimes added isoelectric point, and as a weak acid in solutions more alkaline. to cow’s milk when used for infant feeding, to inhibit the formaThus it will form gelatine chloride when treated with dilute hydro- tion of large curds of casein in the stomach. It is also extenchloric acid. This is more soluble and more ionized than gelatin sively used in the manufacture of ice-cream, to prevent the formaitself. Also these acid salts carry a positive electric charge. In tion of large ice crystals, to maintain the permanency of the solutions made alkaline to the isoelectric point by the addition of emulsion of milk and to give “body” to the material. As an emulcaustic soda or milk of lime, sodium or calcium gelatinates are sifying agent it is used in the confectionery trade, in the preparaformed, which are more soluble than gelatin and carry a negative electric charge. It has been shown that at the isoelectric point,

osmotic pressure, electrical conductivity and the lowering of the surface tension are at a minimum; whereas the viscosity, turbidity and precipitability by alcohol are at a maximum. Observations on the specific rotatory power of gelatin solutions at various temperatures by C.R. Smith (1919) have led him to the yiew that there are at least two substances in gelatin or two forms of the same substance. One, “sol form A,” is stable at 35° C and above; the other, the “gel form B,” is stable at 15° and below. Apparently o-55 to 1-0% of the gel form B must be present for gelation to occur; below 15°, the gelatin being all in this form, a o-55% solution will set. At 30°, at least 10 grams of gelatin must

present in too c.c. in order that there may be o-55—1-0 gram

of the gel form present, Above 35° all the gelatin is in the sol state and gelation does not occur at any concentration. Schryver and his colleagues have described experiments on

purified gelatin which also indicate that at least two substances

are present; previous to this a great deal of work was done by Field, Sheppard and Smith. They find further that on heating gela-

tim with water intramolecular changes take place which result in

tion of such sweets as “marsh mallows.” For the same reason it is employed in making spraying emulsions of insecticides and | fungicides. Pure gelatin is used extensively in the preparation of

photographic plates, films and papers, for obtaining the precipitated silver salts in an extremely fine-grained suspension. In pharmaceutical preparations it is used for coating pills and making capsules. It is also used for making culture media for bacteriological work. A new use for gelatin that is rapidly assuming importance is the adding of one quarter of 1% in cultural butter-

milk to prevent wheying off, i.e., the separation of the casein from the liquid. See R. H. Bogue, The Chemistry and Technology Glue (1922).

of Gelatin and (S. W. C

GELDERLAND (Guelders), a province of Holland, bounded S. by Rhenish Prussia and North Brabant, W. by Utrecht and South Holland, N. by the Zuider Zee, N.E. by Overysel and S.E. by the Prussian province of Westphalia. It has an area of 1,940 sq.m. and a pop. (1926) of 798,580, the density per sq.m.

being 411.

The main portion of Gelderland north of the Rhine and the

Old Ysel forms an extension of the province of Overysel, being

* Profound modification of the physical properties, but which are composed of diluvial sand and gravel, covered with heaths an¢ Rol accompanied by the degradation into lower products as with patches of fen. South of this line, however, the soil consists of commercial gelatin. It would seem, therefore, that gelatin behaves fertile river-clay. The northern portion is divided by the New. (or | &S & myxtore of substances which may undergo reversible changes Gelders) Ysel into two distinct regions, namely, the Veluwe

GELDERLAND

QI

(“bad land’) on the west, and the former countship of Zutphen | in the Netherlands of his day. He married (1) Sophia, heiress ot Mechlin, and (2) in 1331 Eleanor, sister of Edward III. of

on the east. In this last division the ground slopes downwards from south-east to north-west (131 to 26 ft.) and is intersected

by several fertilizing streams which flow in the same direction

to join the Ysel. The extreme eastern corner is occupied by older Tertiary loam, which is used for making bricks, and upon this and the river-banks are the most fertile spots, woods, cultivated land, pastures, towns and villages. The highlands of the Veluwe lying west of the Ysel really extend as far as the Crooked

Rhine and the Vecht in the province of Utrecht, but are slightly detached from the Utrecht hills by the Gelders depression, which forms the boundary between the two provinces. This extends from the Rhine along the Grift, the Luntersche Beek and the Eem to the Zuider Zee, and would still offer an outlet in this direction to the Rhine at high water if it were not for the river dikes. The two main ridges of the Veluwe hills (164 and 360 ft.) extend from the neighbourhood of Arnhem north-west to Harderwyk and north to Hattem. In the south they stretch along the banks of the Rhine, forming a strip made up of sandhills and trees, claylands and pastures. All over the Veluwe are heaths, scantily cultivated, with fields of rye and buckwheat, cattle of inferior quality, and sheep, and a sparse population. There is also a considerable cultivation of wood, especially of fir and copse, while tobacco plantations are found at Nykerk. The southern division of the province is watered by the three large rivers, the Rhine, the Waal and the Maas, and has a level clay soil, varied only by isolated hills and a sandy, wooded stretch between Nijmwegen and the southern border. The region enclosed between the Rhine and the Waal and watered by the Linge

is called the Betuwe (“good land”), and gave its name to the Germanic tribe of Batavians. There is here a denser population, occupied in the cultivation of wheat, beetroot and fruit, the breeding of excellent cattle, shipping and industrial pursuits. The principal centres of population, such as Zutphen, Arnhem (the chief town of the province), Nijmwegen and Tiel, as well as smaller old towns lie along the rivers. (X.)

England. By purchase or conquest he added considerably to his territories. He did much to improve the condition of the country, to foster trade, to promote the prosperity of the towns, and to maintain order and security in his lands by wise laws and firm administration. In 1338 the title of duke was bestowed upon him by the emperor Louis the Bavarian, who at the same time granted to him the fief of East Friesland. He died in 1343, leaving three daughters by his first marriage, and two sons, Reinald and Edward, by Eleanor of England. His elder son was ten years of age, and succeeded to the duchy under the guardianship of his mother Eleanor. Declared of age two years later, Reinald III. found himself involved in a struggle between two rival factions which only ended after his death in 1374, with the recognition as duke of his nephew William of Jiilich, son of his younger sister, Maria. Duke William was able, restless and adventurous. He took part in no less than five crusades with the Teutonic order against the heathen Lithuanians and Prussians. In 1393 he inherited the duchy of Jiilich, and died in 1402. He was succeeded by his

brother, Reinald IV. (d. 1423), in the united sovereignty of Gelderland, Zutphen and Jiilich. On his death, Gelderland passed to the young Arnold of Egmont, grandson of his sister Johanna, whose daughter Maria (d. 1415) was wife of John, count of Egmont (d. 1451). Arnold was recognized as duke in 1424 by the emperor Sigismund, but in the following year the emperor revoked his decision and bestowed the duchy upon Adolf of Berg. Arnold in retaliation laid claim to the duchy of Jiilich, which had likewise been granted to Adolf by Sigismund, and a war followed

which ended in Arnold retaining Gelderland and Zutphen, and Gerard, the son of Adolf (d. 1437), being acknowledged as duke of Jülich. To gain the support of the estates of Gelderland in this war, Arnold had made many concessions limiting the ducal prerogatives, and granting large powers to a council consisting of representatives of the nobles and the four chief cities; his extravaHistory.—It was formerly a duchy of the empire, bounded gance and exactions led to continual conflicts, and in his later by Friesland, Westphalia, Brabant, Holland and the Zuider Zee; years a conspiracy was formed against him, headed by his wife part of which has become the province of Holland. The territory and his som Adolf, which gave an opportunity of intervention to of the later duchy of Gelderland formed part of the Frankish Charles the Bold of Burgundy. For 92,000 golden gulden, Arnold kingdom of Austrasia. In 843, by the treaty of Verdun, it became sold the reversion of the duchy to Charles (1471). On Feb. 23, part of Lotharingia (Lorraine), and in 879 was annexed to the 1473 Arnold died, and Charles became duke of Gelderland. His kingdom of East Francia by the treaty of Mersen. The nucleus succession was not unopposed. Nijmwegen offered an heroic reof the later county and duchy was the district surrounding the sistance and only fell after a long siege. After Charles’s death in town of Gelder or Gelre, lying between the Meuse and the Niers, 1477 Adolf was released from captivity In which he had been held, and placed himself at the head of a party in the powerful and since 1715 included in Rhenish Prussia. There were in the 11th century a number of counts ruling in

city of Ghent, which sought to settle the disputed succession by

bant. War followed, and on June 5, 1288, Reinald was defeated

tempted to transfer the reversion of Gelderland to France, but

various parts of what was afterwards known as Gelderland. forcing a match between him and Mary, the heiress of Burgundy. Towards the close of that century Gerard of Wassenburg acquired On June 29, 1477, however, he was killed at the siege of Tournai; a dominant position and is generally reckoned as the first hered- and Mary gave her hand to the archduke Maximilian. Catherine, itary count of Gelderland (d. 1117-18). His son, Gerard II. (d. Adolf’s sister, made an attempt to assert’ the rights of his son, 1131), married Irmingardis, daughter and heiress of Otto, count Charles, but by 1483 Maximilian had crushed all opposition and of Zutphen, and their son, Henry I. (d. 1182), inherited both established himself as duke of Gelderland. Charles of Egmont, however, did not surrender his claims, but countships. His successors Otto I. (1182-1207) and Gerard III. (1207~29) were lovers of peace and strong supporters of the with the aid of the French collected an army, and in the course Hohenstaufen emperors, through whose favour they were able to of 1492 and 1493 succeeded in reconquering his inheritance. In increase their territories by acquisitions in the districts of Veluwe 1507 he invaded Holland and Brabant, captured Harderwijk and and Betuwe. Otto II. (1229-71) became a person of so much Bommel in 15x1x, threatened Amsterdam in 1512, and took Gronimportance that he was urged to be a candidate for the dignity of ingen. It was, undoubtedly, a great and heroic achievement for emperor, but he preferred to support the claims of his cousin, the ruler of a petty state like Gelderland thus to assert and mainWilliam II. of Holland. In return for the loan of a considerable tain his independence against the overwhelming power of the sum of money William gave to him the city of Nijmwegen in house of Austria. It was not till 1528 that the emperor Charles V. pledge. His son Reinald I. (d. 1326) married Irmingardis, heiress could force him to accept the compromise of the treaty of of Limburg, and in right of his wife laid claim to the duchy Gorichen, by which he received Gelderland and Zutphen for life against Adolf of Berg, who had sold his rights to John I. of Bra- as fiefs of the empire. In 1534 the duke, who was.childless, atand taken prisoner at the battle of Woeringen and surrendered his was compelled by the estates in 1538 to appoint as his successor claims to John of Brabant. In 1310, Reinald received from the William V. of Cleves (d. 1592). Charles died the same year. emperor Henry VII. the exemption of his subjects from the liabil- William, with the aid of the French, succeeded in maintaining ity to be sued before any court outside his jurisdiction, and in his position in Gelderland for several years, but was forced te cede the duchy to Charles V. by the treaty of Venloo (Sept. 7, 1317 he was made a prince of the empire, |

Reinald II., his son (1326-43), was one of the foremost princes

1543).

a

=

2

GELDERN—GELON

92

see lives by J. A. Cramer (Leipzig, 1744), H. Doring (Greiz, 1833), Gelderland was now definitely amalgamated with the Habsburg and H. O. Nietschmann (and ed., Halle, r901r) ; also Gellerts Tagebuch Low the of revolt the until ds, Netherlan the dominions in aus dem Jahre 176x (and ed., Leipzig, 1863) and Gellerts Briefwechsel Countries led to its partition. In 1579 the northern and greater mit Demoiselle Lucius (Leipzig, 1823). part, comprising the three “quarters” of Nijmwegen, Arnhem and GELLERT or KILLHART, in Welsh traditional history, Zutphen, joined the Union of Utrecht and became the province of the dog of Llewellyn, prince of Wales. The dog, a greyhound, is Gelderland in the Dutch republic. Only the quarter of Roer- left to guard the cradle in which the infant heir sleeps. A wolf monde remained subject to the crown of Spain, and was called enters, and is about to attack the child, when Gellert flies at him. Spanish Gelderland. By the treaty of Utrecht (1715) this was In the struggle the cradle is upset and the infant falls underneath, ceded to Prussia with the exception of Venloo, which fell to the Gellert kills the wolf, but when Prince Llewellyn arrives and United Provinces, and Roermonde, which, with the remaining sees the empty cradle and blood all around, he thinks Gellert has Spanish Netherlands, passed to Austria. Of this, part was ceded killed the baby. He at once stabs him, and then finds his son to France at the peace of Basel in 1795, and the whole by the safe under the cradle and realizes the dog’s bravery. Gellert is treaty of Lunéville in 1801, when it received the name of the supposed to have been buried near the village of Beddgelert department of the Roer. By the peace of Paris of 1814 the bulk (“grave of Gellert”), Snowdon, where his tomb is pointed out to of Gelderland was incorporated in the United Netherlands, the visitors. The date of the incident is traditionally given as 1205. remainder falling to Prussia, where it forms the circle of The story is only the Welsh version of a common tale which is Diisseldorf. traced to the Indian Panchatantra and perhaps as far back as The rise of the towns in Gelderland began in the 13th century, 200 B.C. See W. A. Clouston, Popular Tales and Fictions (1887); D. E. river commerce and markets being the chief cause of their prosperity, but they never attained to the importance of the larger Jenkins, Beddgelert, its Facts, Fairies and Folklore (Portmadoc, 1899).

cities in Holland and Utrecht, much less to that of the great Flemish municipalities. They differed also from the Flemish cities in the nature of their privileges and immunities, as they did not

possess the rights of communes, but only those of “free cities” of the Rhenish type. The power of the feudal lord over them was much greater. The states of Gelderland first became a considerable power in the land during the reign of Arnold of Egmont (1423-73). From this time the absolute authority of the sovereign

in Gelderland was broken. The states consisted of two members— the nobility and the towns. The towns were divided into four separate districts or “quarters” named after the chief town in each—Nijmwegen, Arnhem, Zutphen and Roermonde. Each quarter had peculiar rights and customs, and their representatives met together in a separate assembly before taking part in the diet of the states. The nobility possessed great influence in Gelderland

and retained it in the time of the republic.

(G. E.)

GELDERN, a town in Rhenish Prussia, on the Niers, 28 m, N.W. of Düsseldorf, at the junction of railways to Wesel and Cologne. Pop. (1925) 6,501. The town dates from about rroo and was an important fortified place; until 1371 it was the residence of the counts and dukes of Gelderland. Its fortifications were strengthened by Philip II. of Spain but they were razed by Frederick the Great, the town having been in the possession of Prussia. since 1703. Its industries include the manufacture of metal ware, shoes, cigars and silk.

GELIMER or GEILAMIR

(ff. 530-534), last king of the

Yandals mm Africa, a great-grandson of Gaiseric, succeeded when Hilderic was deposed in 530. Justinian invited him to allow the old king to remain sovereign in name and to content himself with the actual power; he was in reality desirous of an excuse for interference in Africa. In 533 he sent against him a great expedition under Belisarius (¢.v.). Gelimer was completely defeated, and in 534 taken ptisoner. He was then permitted to settle in Galatia. GELLERT, CHRISTIAN FURCHTEGOTT (1715-

GELLIUS,

AULUS

(c. av. 130-180), Latin author and

grammarian, probably born at Rome. He studied grammar and rhetoric at Rome and philosophy at Athens, after which he returned to Rome, where he held a judicial office. His teachers and friends included many distinguished men—Sulpicius Apellinaris, Herodes Atticus and Fronto. His only work, the Noctes Atticae, is compiled from a commonplace book, and comprises notes on grammar, geometry, philosophy, history and almost every other branch of knowledge. The work, of which all but one book is extant, is valuable for the insight it affords into the life of those times, and for the numerous excerpts it contains from the works of lost ancient authors. Editio princeps (Rome, 1469); the best editions are those of Gronovius (1706) and M. Hertz (1883-85; editio minor, 1886, revised by C. Hosius, 1903, with bibliography). There is a translation in nglish by W. Beloe (1795), and in French by various hands (1896). See Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol., 1. (1906), 210.

GELLIVARA

[Getitvare], a mining town of Sweden in

the district (Jan) of Norrbotten, 815 m. N. by E. of Stockholm by rail. It lies in the well-nigh uninhabited region of Swedish Lapland, 43 m. N. of the Arctic Circle. It owes its importance

to the iron mines in the mountain Malmberget 44 m. to the north, rising to 2,024 ft. above sea-level (830 ft. above Gellivara town). During the dark winter months work proceeds by the aid of electric light. In 1864 the mines were opened but abandoned in 1867. They were reopened in 1884 and a provisional railway built from Malmberget to Luleå at tbe head of the Gulf of Bothnia (127 m. S.S.E.). In 1891 the Swedish Government bought the railway. The output of ore was insignificant until

1892, but since then it has increased considerably.

GELNHAUSEN, a town in the Prussian province of Hesse-

.

Nassau, on the Kinzig, 27 m. E.N.E. of Frankfort-on-Main, on the railway to Bebra. Pop. (1925) 4,750. Gelnhausen became an imperial town in 1169, and here diets of the Empire were freuently held. In 1803 the town became the property of Hesser760), German poet, born at Hainichen, Saxony, on July 4, 1715, assel, and in 1866 passed to Prussia. It is still surrounded by the son of a pastor, studied at Leipzig, became privatdocent there ancient walls and towers. On an island in the river are ruins of in 1745, and in 1751 extraordinary professor. He died at Leipzig the palace built by Frederick I. (Barbarossa) before 1170, anc on Dec. 13, 1769. Gellert’s lovable personality endeared him to a destroyed by the Swedes in the Thirty Years’ War. The beautiwile circle of friends and readers. His best work is to be found ful Marien Kirche, with four spires (of which that on the transept in the admirable Fabeln und Erzählungen (1746—48) for which is curiously crooked), was built in the 13th century, and restorec be took La Fontaine as his model, His Geistliche Oden und Lieder in 1876-79; among other ancient buildings are the town-hall, th (1737), ‘though i’ force and dignity they cannot compare with Firstenhof (now administrative offices), and the Hexenthurm the older church hymns, were among the great religious poems Indian-rubber goods and brushes are manufactured. of their time. Some of them were set to music by Beethoven. GELON, son of Deinomenes, tyrant of Gela and Syracuse. Ot Gellert wrote a few comedies: Die Betschwester (1745), Die the death of Hippocrates, tyrant of Gela (491 B.c.), Gelon, wh, franks Frau (1748), Das Los in der Lotterie (1748) and Die had been his commander of cavalry, succeeded him, and in 485 sirtlichen Schwestern (1748). his aid having been invoked by the Gamori (the oligarchica ‘See Gellerts Sämtliche Schriften {first edition, To vols., 1769-74; šast edition, 1867). Sämtlicke Fabels und Rysdhlaungen have been landed proprietors) of Syracuse who had been driven out by repeatedly reprinted. A selection ef Gellert’s poetry (with an excellent the populace, he seized the opportunity of making himself despot introduction) will be found in F. Mun , Die Bremer Beiträge From this time Gelon paid little attention to Gela, and devote 1899). A translation by J. A. Murke, Gelleri’s Fab

other Poems (1851). For a further account of Gellert’s life e dacs

himself to the aggrandizement of Syracuse, which attained extraor dinary wealth and influence. When the Greeks solicited his ai

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THE DIRECTION OF DR. GEORGE F, KUNZ, HON. CURATOR OF PRECIOUS STONES, AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY; (1, 7, 8, 9, 15, 16, 17, 18) DR. GEORGE F. KUNZ, (2) MRS. W. E. COX, (3, 4, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15) THE AMERICAN

PRECIOUS

AND

SEMI-PRECIOUS

1, Turquoise, China; 2, turquoise, Egypt; 3, demantoid garnet, Chudévaya river, Urals, Russia; 4, garnet (pyrope), Gallup, New Mexico; 5 and 6, kunzite, Palo, San Diego County, Calif.; 7, tourmaline, Paris, Maine; 8, tourmaline (tricoloured), Minas Geraes, Brazil; 9 and 10, aquamarine,

GEM EXPERT WITH TIFFANY AND COMPANY MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, (5S) TIFFANY

STONES

Minas Geraes, Brazil: 11 and 12, quartz amethyst, Ural Mountains, Asiatic Russia; 13 and 14, topaz, Orina Preta, Brazil; 15 and 16, malachite, Russia; 17, opal on ironstone, Queensland, Australia; 18, opal, New South Wales

GELSEMIUM—GEM

93

against Xerxes, he refused it, since they would not give him comGELSENKIRCHEN, a town of Germany in the Prussian mand of the allied forces (Herodotus vii. 171). In the same year | province of Westphalia, 27 m. W. of Dortmund on the railway

the Carthaginians invaded Sicily, but were totally defeated at | Duisburg-Hamm. Pop. (1925) 207,153. It has coal mines, iron Himera, the result of the victory being that Gelon became lord of furnaces, tin, steel and boiler works, and soap and chemical facall Sicily. After he had thus established his power, he made a tories. In 1903 various neighbouring industrial townships were show of resigning it; but his proposal was rejected by the multi- incorporated with the town. tude, and he reigned without opposition till his death (478). GEM, a word applied in a wide sense to certain minerals See Herodotus vii.; Diod. Sic. xi. 20-38; also Srce: Wistory, and which, by reason of their brilliancy, hardness, and rarity, are valSYRACUSE. ued for personal decoration; it is extended to include pearl (Lat. GELSEMIUM, a drug consisting of the root of Gelsemium gemma, a bud—from the root gen, meaning “to produce”—or nitidum, a clinging shrub of the natural order Loganiaceae, hav- precious stone). In a restricted sense the term is applied only to ing a milky juice, opposite, precious stones after they have been cut and polished as jewels, lanceolate, shining leaves, and whilst in their raw state the minerals are conveniently called axillary -clusters of from one to “gem-stones.” Sometimes, again, the term “gem” is used in a yet five large, funnel-shaped very narrower sense, being restricted to engraved stones, like seals and cameos. fragrant yellow flowers. The fruit is composed of two separConfining attention here to'the mineralogy and general properties of gems, it may be noted that the term “precious stone” is able jointed pods, containing usually applied only to diamond, ruby, sapphire and emerald. numerous flat-winged seeds. The stem often runs underground for Other stones, such as opal, topaz, spinel, aquamarine, chrysobery], peridot, zircon, tourmaline, amethyst and moonstone, are ina considerable distance, and indiscriminately with the root it cluded in the group “semi-precious stones,” but the particular is used in medicine. The plant species in it may vary from time to time with changes in fashions. is a native of the United States, In the trade, owing to the vastly superior hardness of diamond, growing on rich clay soil by the dealers in diamonds are sharply distinguished from those in other side of streams near the coast, stones, a firm practically never handling both sorts, and in confrom Virginia to the south of sequence stones other than diamonds are grouped together and are known as “fancy stones.” Florida. In the United States it is commonly known as the Descriptions of the several gem-stones will be found under their respective headings, and the present article gives only a brief wild, yellow, or Carolina jasreview of the general characters of the group. mine, although in no way reCrystalline Form and Cleavage.—Most precious stones oclated to the true jasmine, which belong to the order Oleacur crystallized, but the characteristic form is destroyed in cutting. BY COURTESY OF THE ROYAL HORTICULTURAL The crystal forms of the several stones are noticed under their ceae. It was first described in SOCIETY 1640 by John Parkinson, who FLOWERING BRANCH OF THE CAR- respective headings, and the subject is discussed fully under grew it in his garden from seed OLINA JASMINE. A SHRUB WHOSE CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. A few substances used as ornamental stones, sent by Tradescant from Vir- ROOT YIELDS A DRUG USED'IN MEDI. like opal, are amorphous or without crystalline form; whilst others, ginia; at the present time it is CINE like the various stones of the chalcedony group, display no obvious but rarely seen, even in botanical gardens, in Great Britain. crystal characters, but are seen under the microscope to possess The drug contains a volatile oil and two potent alkaloids, a crystalline structure. Gem-stones are frequently found in gravels gelseminine and gelsemine. Gelseminine is a yellowish, bitter or other detrital deposits, where they occur as rolled crystals or substance, readily soluble in ether and alcohol. It is not employed fragments of crystals, having survived owing to their superior therapeutically. Gelsemine has the formula, C.HisNOs, and is a density and hardness. ` colourless, odourless, intensely bitter solid, which is insoluble in Many crystallized gem-stones possess the property of cleavage water, but readily forms a soluble hydrochloride. The dose of and tend to split parallel to planes intimately related to their this salt is from ,4,th to wth of a grain. The British Pharma- atomic structure. This property must not be confused with the copoeia contains a tincture of gelsemium, the dose of which is “parting” shown, for instance, by corundum which is the result from five to 15 minims. s of repeated twinning, the stones tending to split along the planes The drug is essentially a nerve poison. It has no action on the separating individuals. An easy cleavage, such as characterizes skin and no marked action on the alimentary or circulatory sys- topaz, may render the fashioning of the stone difficult and protems. Its action on the cerebrum is slight, consciousness being duce incipient cracks in a cut stone; such flaws are called retained even after toxic doses, but there may be headache and “feathers.” The cutting of diamonds was very laborious until the giddiness. The drug rapidly causes failure of vision, diplopia, discovery that the rough stone could easily be reduced by cleavage ptosis or falling of the upper eyelid, dilatation of the pupil, and to an octahedron; owing to the use of high-speed cutting-discs in a lowering of the intra-ocular tension. This last action is doubtful. recent years, the practice of splitting diamonds has to some The most marked action of the drug is upon the anterior cornua extent lessened. The method of cutting gem-stones is described of grey matter in the spinal cord. It can be shown by a process under LAPIDARY. Hardness.—A high degree of hardness is an essential property of experimental exclusion that to an arrest of function of these cells is due the paralysis of all the voluntary muscles of the body of a gem-stone, for however beautiful a mineral may be, it is usethat follows the administration of gelsemium or gelsemine. Just less to the jeweller unless it be hard enough to take a brilliant before death the sensory part of the spinal cord is also paralysed, polish and to withstand the abrasion to which articles of personal general anaesthesia resulting. Shortly after the administration of adornment are necessarily subjected. Paste imitations may be even a moderate dose respiration is slowed and ultimately the brilliant when new, but they soon become dull through rubbing or drug kills by its action on the respiratory centre in the medulla even chemical change of the surface. Minerals are arranged on the oblongata. In cases of poisoning the essential treatment is artifi- following arbitrary scale of hardness, which is due to Mobs: diacial respiration, which may be aided by the subcutaneous exhibi- mond I0, corundum (ruby, sapphire) 9, topaz 8, quartz 7, felspar 6, tion of strychnine. apatite 5, fluor 4, calcite 3, gypsum 2, talc xr. It is merely an order Though the drug is still widely used, the rational indications for and has no arithmetical significance; thus diamond differs much its employment are singularly rare and uncertain. The conditions more from corundum than does the latter from talc. Chrysoberyl in which it is most frequently employed are convulsions, bron- scratches topaz but is scratched by corundum, and is therefore chitis, severe and purposeless coughing, myalgia or muscular pain, said to have a degree of hardness 84. A steel file will scratch anyneuralgia, and various vague forms of pain. thing with hardness below 7, The test of hardness must be used

94

GEM

with caution in order to avoid injuring the stone; it should preferably be used to attempt to scratch a known mineral, for instance a piece of quartz, and care must be taken to avoid breaking or splitting the stone.

Specific Gravity.—Gem-stones differ markedly among them-

selves in density or specific weight; and, although this is a character which does not directly affect their value for ornamental purposes, it furnishes by its constancy an important means of distinguishing one stone from another. Moreover, it is a character very easily determined and can be applied to cut stones without injury. The relative weightiness of a stone is called its specific gravity, and is often abbreviated as S.G. The number given in the description of a mineral as S.G. shows how many times the stone is heavier than an equal bulk of the standard with which it is compared, the standard being distilled water at 4° C. If, for example, the S.G. of diamond is said to be 3-5, it means that a diamond weighs 34 times as much as a mass of water of the same bulk. The various methods of determining specific gravity are

described under Density. The readiest method of testing precious stones, especially when cut, is to use dense liquids. The most convenient of them is methyline iodide, with density 3-32, which may be mixed with benzol, with density 0-88. By pouring a little benzol on to methyline iodide in a tube and gently shaking it, a diffusion, column is formed and stones of differing density will float at corresponding depths. Chips of known stones may be: used as indicators. Methyline iodide readily separates the true from the false topaz (yellow quartz) as the latter floats in it. For denser stones Retgers’s salt, silver-thallium nitrate, may be used. It melts above 75° C. to a clear yellow liquid, miscible with water, with a density of 4.6.

Absorption: Colour, Dichroism, Etc.—The beauty and con-

sequent value of gems depend on the depth or the absence of colour. Diamonds are prized according to their freedom from any trace of colour, especially yellow, except that a slight bluish shade is greatly appreciated; colourless stones are said to be of pure “water.” Corundum, topaz and quartz provide water-clear stones, but the absence of “fire” hinders their use. “Burnt” zircons have considerable fire and have been mistaken for diamonds. The value of coloured. stones depends on their transhicency and depth of tint. The colour of most gem-stones is not an essential property of the mineral, but is due to some pigmentary matter often too minute in quantity for certain determination. Thus corundum when pure is colourless, and the presence of various mineral substances is responsible for the red of ruby, the biue of sapphire, and the many other shades of corundum that occur. The tmctorial matter is not always distributed uniformly throughout the stone, but may be arranged in separate layers or zones or even In irregular patches. Sapphire, for stance, is often patchy, only one small piece of the stone being blue and the remainder yellow or white; the skilful lapidary arranges the blue patch on the culet so that, as all the emergent light traverses this

their brilliance and “fire” closely resembling diamonds. Radi emanations have the power of imparting colour to certain spec such as diamond, kunzite and quartz; the change appears to sult from the displacement of electrons within the atom, and original colour may be restored by exposure to light or the ult violet rays, or by heating. The alteration in colour brou about by light or heat is due to the displacement of the cons uent atoms without derangement of their relative positions; example of topaz shows that the displacement may be relativ considerable, because of the relatively considerable increase in refractivity and density. Inasmuch as the eye has not the power of analysis, the 1 of a stone depends on the balance of the parts of the spectr transmitted by it, and consequently the appearance of.a st in daylight and in artificial light may be different; thus mi sapphires darken in artificial light; in alexandrite the yellow p of the spectrum is absorbed, and in consequence the colow green by daylight and cherry-red by artificial light. In cert zircons and in almandine-garnet, as was shown by Sir A. Church, the absorbed portions in the spectrum are narrow, i these stones show characteristic absorption spectra; in the for instance the cause of the peculiar absorption is a minute trace uranium, so that all zircons do not show this absorption. A doubly-refractive stone may exercise different absorptior the case of the two rays into which it splits up the light fal

on it, and is then said to possess dichroism.

Sometimes the :

ference is so marked, as in the instance of tourmaline and kunz as to be discernible by the unaided eye, but generally a dich

scope (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY) must be used. In the directior

single refraction (optic axis) no dichroism exists, and theref a stone must be viewed in several directions. Dichroism is a 1 ful property for distinguishing between ruby and garnet, as latter, being singly refractive, shows no dichroism. Lustre and Sheen.—tThe brilliancy of a cut stone depe upon the relative amount of light which is reflected from a surf and which itself depends on the refractivity and hardness of stone. Diamond, being both very hard and highly refractive, a lustre of its own, known as “adamantine”; zircon and der toid approach it, but gem-stones generally have a “vitreous” lus like fractured glass. The presence of twin lamellae, fibres, or cleavage-cracks affi the appearance of the stone. The asterism of star-ruby or s sapphire is due to an arrangement of tubular cavities arrangec 60° in planes perpendicular to the crystallographical axis. A s ilar arrangement of fibres parallel to a single direction prodi chatoyancy; cat’s-eyes, as such stones are called, are provided chrysoberyl and quartz, and tiger’s-eye is a silicified crocido Twin lamellae are responsible for the sheen of moonstone, and peculiar tridescence of opal is caused by the interference of 1 within the stone.

Refraction.—As the optical properties of minerals are f explained under CRYSTALLOGRAPHY little need be said here on the remarkably variegated character of tourmaline is due to the subject. In the “brilliant” form of cutting, the facets at the t complexity of its constitution which includes molecular groups of the stone are arranged so that the light refracted throug exexcising great timctorial power. The character of the pigment facet at the top returns in a nearly parallel direction but + in the case of a stone is often not definitely known. It by no lateral displacement so that it emerges through another facet. means follows that the agent responsible for the colour of a piece the case of diamond with the highest refractive index of any g of glass is capable of imparting the same tint to a natural stone: stone (2-42) all the light is reflected at the base of a well thus a glass of sapphire-blue may be obtained by the use of cobalt, stone, and the same is very nearly true of zircon (the optic but experience of synthetic stones has shown that cobalt will not denser type, I-93—1-98.) and sphene (1-90—-1-98), but as the ref diffuse without the addition of sufficient magnesia to produce a tivity decreases a larger proportion of the light escapes at the b blue spinel and not a sapphire, and that a blue sapphire may be Since most gem-stones contain in their constitution one or n produced by the use of titanium. Probably ferric oxide causes a of the molecular groups—silica, alumina, magnesia or their yellow, and ferrous oxide a bottle-green tint, and red is due to morphous equivalents—the refractivity and specific gravity chromium, pink to lithium and manganese. Many colours fade closety related as was shown by Sir H. A. Miers, but with the in aeexposure of the stone to sunlight, pink being particularly duction of other elements as in the case of diamond, sphene topaz, the relation no longer holds. The refractive indices and Exposure to heat often alters the colour and, when ‘it brings double refraction are important characters for the discrimina about an improvement in the appearance of the stone, the method of gem-stones, and may be determined, except in the case is often employed; for instance, the beautiful pink topazes are the stones of very high refraction, by means of a total-reflectom: result of heating certain yellow stones, and again. certain brownish for a faceted stone without its removal from the setting. A. wircons cam be decolorized by heat, the stones then on account of venient form of refractometer, which may be used for inc

portion, the effect is a uniformly blue stone. On the other hand,

PLATE II

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PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF DR. GEORGE F. KUNZ, HON, CURATOR OF PRECIOUS STONES, AMERICAN MUSEUM OF (2, 6, 12) DR. GEORGE 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13) BY COURTESY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY,

DIAMONDS

AND

OTHER

1, Sapphire, crystal, Ceylon; 2, sapphire, blue, Ceylon; 3, chrysoberyl, Ceylon; 4, ruby, Burma: 5, star sapphire, Ceylon; 6, ruby; 7, diamonds, natural round bort (white, grey, black); 8, diamond, crystal in blue

HARD

NATURAL F. KUNZ

HISTORY;

GEM

EXPERT

WITH

TIFFANY

AND

COMPANY;

(1,

STONES

ground matrix, Kimberley, S. Africa; 9, diamond, Brazil; 10, emerald in limestone, Muzo Mine, Colombia; 11, emerald, East Indian carving, Muzo Mine, Colombia; 12, jade (Jadeite) Mogaung, Burma; 13, jade (Nephrite), New Zealand

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STONES, AMERICAN URAL HISTORY, (5)

MARINE

1, Pearl in Unio, common fresh water mussel; 2, Pearl from Unio, fresh water mussel; 3, Oriental pearl, black, Gulf of Mexico; 4, Pearl in shell of common clam (Venus mercenaria), Long Island Sound; 5, ambergris,

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MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY; GEM DUVAL COMPAGNIE, (6) MRS. W. E.

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EXPERT WITH TIFFANY AND COMPANY; COX, (7) YAMANAKA AND CO.

B

SUBSTANCES concretion from whale: 6, coral, precious, Japan; 7, amber, Chinese carving, Burma; 8, Corallum rubrum, precious coral, Mediterranean; 9, amber, enclosing insect, Samland, Baltic coast

GEMBLOUX—GEMS, ARTIFICIAL ranging from 1-300-1-800, has been devised by Dr. G. F. Herbert

Smith. Another instrument on the same principle but with longer focal length has recently been devised by Mr. B. J. Tully. Dispersion.—Whenever

light is incident

on one facet and

emerges through another not parallel to the first it is split up mto a spectrum, the angular width of which depends upon the dispersion of the stone, this being measured by the difference between the refractive indices for the extreme red and violet rays. This play of colour is known as “fire,” and is especially characteristic

of diamond, which combines large dispersion with high refraction. Colourless zircon is not much inferior to diamond in “fire”;

sphene and green garnet (demantoid) are even superior to it, but being coloured stones do not show it as conspicuously. Chemical Composition.—With the exception of diamond, which is crystallized carbon, the gem-stones are composed of alumina or silica or a combination of them in varying proportions with or without other molecules. Corundum (ruby, sapphire) is alumina, and quartz (rock-crystal, amethyst, etc.) is silica; spinel and chrysoberyl are aluminates, beryllonite, apatite and turquoise are phosphates, and the remainder are silicates of varying complexity of constitution. In the examination of cut stones chemical tests are obviously impracticable. The artificial production of certain gems, chiefly rubies and sapphires, by processes which yield prod-

ucts identical in composition and physical properties with natural stones is described in the article Gems, ARTIFICIAL. Gem-stones have been imitated not only by paste and other glassy substances but by composite stones called doublets and triplets. In a doublet the front is real but the back paste, and in a triplet the front and back are real but the central section is paste, the purpose of which is to impart colour to the stone or to improve it. By immersing such imitations in oil or water, the bounding surfaces may be detected, and if the stone be unmounted it may be immersed in boiling water, or in alcohol or chloroform, when it will fall to pieces owing to the dissolution of the binding cement. Nomenclature.—Before the days of mineralogy as a science

the classification of gem-stones was vague and based almost solely on colour, which is the least reliable of all the physical characters, and the names which were used by early writers and mostly survive to this day, though not always with the same significance, are related to this character with possibly only one exception—diamond (adiamentem, unconquerable, in reference to its supposed resistance to a blow with a hammer). Thus emerald (smaragdus) was used generally for green, sapphire for blue, ruby (ruber) for red, topaz for yellow stones. The earliest known lucid descriptions of stones are contained in the great work on natural history by the elder Pliny, a victim of the great eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in A.D. 79. A study of them shows that many of the names though still surviving have a different significance; thus his sapphire is known to us as lapis lazuli, and his topaz is our peridot. Superstitions.—In early days gem-stones were believed to possess many magic virtues and charms; thus emeralds were supposed to benefit the eyes and amethysts to prevent drunkenness. The belief in lucky stones still lingers, and the prejudice against

95

stones of Russia (in Russian, 1922) ; Rosenthal, Au jardin des gemmes (1922); T. C. Wollaston, Opal: The gem of the Never-Never (1924) ; C. W. Cooper, The precious stones of the Bible (1924); H. Michel,

Die kunstlichen Edelsteine (1926).

GEMBLOUX,

(G. F. H. S.)

a town in the province of Namur, Belgium,

25 m. S.E. of Brussels on the main line to Namur. Pop. (1925) about 5,000. Here on Jan. 31, 1578, Don John of Austria defeated the army of the provinces under Antony de Goignies. In 1860 the State institute of agriculture was founded here. Gembloux is a busy railway centre with engine works.

GEM CUTTING: see Larwary AND GEM CUTTING. GEMINI (The Twins, z.e., Castor and Pollux), in astronomy,

the third sign in the zodiac, denoted by the symbol II. By the Egyptians this constellation was symbolized as a couple of young kids: the Greeks altered this symbol to two children, variously

said to be Castor and Pollux, Hercules and Apollo, or Triptolemus and Iasion; the Arabians used the symbol of a pair of peacocks. Castor is a double star with a separation of nearly 6” easily resolved with small telescopes; the period of revolution of the two components is 350 years. Each of these visual components is a spectroscopic binary, the periods being 9-2 days and 2-9 days respectively. Another interesting star is ¢ Geminorum, which is variable in a period of 10-15 days; it belongs to the Cepheid class of variables.

GEMINIANI, FRANCESCO (c. 1667-1762), Italian violinist, was a native of Lucca, and studied the violin under Lunati (Gobbo) and afterwards under Corelli. He may also have had

lessons in composition from Scarlatti. In 1714 he arrived in London, where he found a patron in the earl of Essex. In 1715 he played his violin concertos with Handel at the English court and later spent much time in Dublin, where he had a fine house in which he gave private concerts. After visiting Paris and residing there for some time, he returned to England in 1755. Ona

visit to Dublin in 176r a servant robbed him of a manuscript, an incident which is said to have hastened his death (Sept. 17, 1762). Geminiani brought to England great improvements in the technique of violin-playing, and he handed down his method in the first book on the subject, his Art of Playing the Violin. GEMISTUS PLETHO [or PretHon], GEORGIUS (c. 1355-1450), Greek Platonic philosopher and pioneer of the revival of learning in Western Europe, was a Byzantine by birth, but settled at Mistra in the Peloponnese. He changed his name to the equivalent Pletho (“the full’), perhaps owing to its similarity to that of his master Plato, whom he introduced to the West during his visit to Florence in 1439, as one of the deputies from Constantinople on occasion of the general council. Cosimo de’

Medici and Cardinal Bessarion were much impressed by him. He

endeavoured

to promote

the union of the Greek and Latin

Churches, and founded a sect on the speculative mysticism of

Neoplatonism. He probably died before the capture of Constantinople. His treatises on the distinction between Plato and Aristotle appeared at Venice (1540), on the religion of Zoroaster (Paris, 1538); on the condition of the Peloponnese (ed. A. Ellissen in Analekten der mittel- und neugriechischen Literatur, iv.);

and the Nouor (ed. C. Alexandre, Paris, 1858). Many of his volumes of excerpts from ancient authors, and works on geography, ae a BrsuiocrRaPHy.—The most compreliensive work on gem-stones is music and other subjects exist in,ms. first edition of which

opals as a source of misfortune has not wholly ‘disappeared.

Prof. Max Bauer’s Edelsteinkunde (1909), the was translated, with additions, by L. J. Spencer under the title Precious Stones (1904). A full account of the properties of gem-stones is given in G. F, Herbert Smith’s Gem-Stones and their distinctive characters (4th ed. 1923). Summaries of the subject are contained in Sir A. H. Church’s Precious Stones (1913), which serves also as a guide to the collections in the Victoria and Albert museum, and W. F. P. McLintock’s Guide to the Collection of Gemstones in the Museum of Practical Geology, London (1912). Certain aspects of

gem-stones have been discussed by G. F. Kunz in The curious lore of precious stones (1913), The magic of jewels and charms (1915), Shakespeare and precious stones (1926). Information. regarding finds and localities is included in Mineral Resources, published annually by the United States Geological Survey. Other recent books which may

See especially F. Schultze, Geschichte der Philosophie der Reneaissance (1874); J. A. Symonds, The Renaissance in Italy (1877), i. H. F. Tozer, “A Byzantine Reformer,” in Journal of Hellenic Studies, vii. (1886), chiefly on Pletho’s scheme of political and Social reform for the Peloponnese; W. Gass, Gennadius und Pletho (1844). Most of Pletho’s works are in Migne, Patrologia Graeca, clx.; for a complete list see Fabricius, Bibliotheca Graeca (ed. Harles), xï.

GEMOT: see SARE MOOT, VILLAGE COMMUNITIES, WITAN. GEMS, ARTIFICIAL, denote precious stones artificially

made and having the chemical, physical and optical properties of natural gems. Of the precious stones, the diamond, emerald, ruby and sapphire have all been successfully synthesized. Only the ruby be consulted are J. Wodiska, A book of Precious Stones (1909); and the sapphire, however, have outgrown the laboratory stage A, Wruck, Die Gekeimmisse der Edélsteine’'’(1911); A. Eppler, Dze of the production and represent the principal products of the

Schnouck-und Edelstein (x912): C. Doelter, Die farben der'Mineralien

synthetic precious stone or artificial gem industry. Artificial insbesondere der Edelsteine . (1918) 3: F. B- Wade, A , text-book, of amethysts, garnets, tourmalines, etc., have not appealed to the precious stones. for. jewellers, and. gem-loving. public (1918); A. EB. Fersman, The coloured stones of Russia (1921), Precious $

coloured

industry because they are not valuable enough as natural products.

:

96

GEMS, ARTIFICIAL

that in the presence of vapour of potassium carbonate ; The pearl is almost altogether of animal origin. Only the dia- found alumina would be changed into corundum. Sand cruci | amorphous The here. treated be will mond, emerald, ruby and sapphire with alumina, potassium carbonate and chromic filled were bles beauty of natural precious stones is due to their composition and fine charcoal, packed around a core composed with mixed oxide; the of hardness the to due is cutting. Permanence of beauty fluoride and gently heated. The charcoal calcium and alumina of Extrastones and to the fact that they are chemically inert. dioxide and made the mass porous. After eight carbon as escaped affect also may rareness and custom as such , neous conditions days the largest stone produced was 4 to 5 mm. long and about their value. about 4 of a carat. These not The Diamond.—The transformation of the diamond to t mm, thick, weighing 60 mg. or but lacked the beauty of gems, into cut be to thin too were only process The frequently. accomplished been graphite or carbon has up of a series of layers, made be to appears which stone natural the has also been reversed and some few diamonds have been produced these layers gives to the ruby its wealth through coming light The interesting an is Moissan of work The investigators. by various by a priest near Geneva, by fusing instance. He developed his experiments from the analytical work of colour. Rubies were made Verneuil succeeded in fusing stones. into rubies natural of of Friedel. The Devil’s canyon in Arizona was once littered with chips the process to a point developed and aluminium of oxide the diaTiny Friedel. by analyzed were meteorites. Some of these in size, of good colour’ large were that made were rubies where monds were found embedded in the mass of iron. Moissan tried industry possible. One work: an make to sufficient speed a at and electric an In meteor. fiery the of conditions the to reproduce 30 or more Carats: furnace he placed a carbon crucible containing pure iron and man can operate about ten furnaces producing A carbon. The carbon dissolved in the molten iron until a saturated per hour per furnace. oxy,’ the in alumina fusing by ly commercial made are Rubies he heat white at was material the while solution was formed, and molten mass to solidify in th plunged it in a bath of molten lead. The sudden cooling caused hydrogen flame and permitting the inverted oxy-hydrogen’ modified A flame. the of zones cooler crystalwas carbon liquid the and pressure internal tremendous It produces a flame’ practice. modern in used is Deville of torch mg. 6 about lized into small diamonds. One of these, weighing e from 1,900° to 2,400° C, (about a1, of a carat), when burned in oxygen produced about of many zones varying in temperatur Theoretically, 22 mg. should have

The torch consists of two concentric tubes: the inner tube carries,

This difference is due to the presence of different impurities. Almost all the rays of light impinging upon the surface of an

process. The presence of even 0.0005 of 1% of a certain impurity

23 mg. of carbon dioxide.

and has a: been produced. Up to 1928 synthetic diamonds had not been the oxygen, extends about a foot beyond the outer top. shaped In the cylindrical lower portion the of torch, the in were experiments numerous although produced commercially beyond, progress. The high dispersion of light gives to the diamond its outer or hydrogen-carrying tube extends an inch or two is placed in a sieve so-called “play of fire.” It reflects almost all the rays of light the oxygen tube. The ruby-forming powder cylindrical top. that strike its surface and give it the characteristic lustre known bottom box which, in turn, is screwed into the of the oxygen tube. When the torch is lit a hammer is caused > as adamantine. The Emerald.—Chemically, the emerald is a metasilicate of to knock periodically on the top of this box, and particles of, aluminium and glucinum. Hautefeuille and Perry, 1890, dissolved alumina are thus blown into the flame. In the beginning of the’ the constituents of the gem in their relative proportions in a bath process, the flame is comparatively cold and just heats a rod that’: of dimolybdate of lithium and, keeping the bath at 800° C for 15 is placed to catch this powder. As the powder continues to fall on‘ days, succeeded in crystallizing out tiny emerald crystals. A little this rod it forms a pyramid of fritted alumina. The heat is chromic oxide was used to give the green colour. These crystals gradually increased until the top of this pyramid becomes molten , were perfect, but too small; the largest being only 2 mm. long by and a tiny stalk or “pin-head” begins to grow. At this stage the: x mm. wide and 1 mm. thick. They were much more expensive flame is made still hotter and the powder falls in molten drops than the natural product. Beyond this successful laboratory upon this pin-head. Each succeeding drop falls upon a larger base, attempt, no successful means have been found up to 1928 for pro- until an unflawed pear-shaped, or so-called ruby boule, is produced, ' This boule is one single crystal with the optical axes directly ducing the emerald on an industrial scale. Beryl, the natural métasilicate of ghicinum and aluminium, is golden yellow in perpendicular to one another. When the stem of this boule is” colout. The emerald is identical with it save its green colour. broken the stone breaks in two. Pure alumina is essential for this“ jeopardize the industry, as this amount is sufficient absolutely to * discolour the ruby, and produce a brick-red instead of the pigeon-. much as in the case of glass, and the emerald is not as optically blood stone. This impurity was found by Levin to be magnesium oxide Mg.O. The stone cut from a boule is physically and chem; « dense as the diamond. The Ruby.—The ruby was the first of the precious stones to ically identical to the natural ruby. There is perhaps but one’ be synthesized on a commercial scale. Chemically, it is the oxide method of telling the synthetic from the natural stone. In the: of aluminium with a trace of chromic oxide, to which it owes its natural stones the imperfections have flat bounding sides and are; rich pigean-blood colour. Corundum (Al:0;) is often free from so-called negative crystals; the imperfections in the synthetic. the oxide of chromium and we have either a colourless stone or, stones have round surfaces and are simply air bubbles which in’ emerald enter ft, and very few are reflected from its surface, very

if some other oxides are present, we may have a blue stone—the

sapphire, or shades of green, smoky tinges, etc. The effect of radium emanations on natural and synthetic rubies is shown in an experiment by F, Bordas. Using radium bromide of 1,800,000 activity he turned natural rubies into a brick red colour. The synthetic stones were not affected. But the synthetic product is often ruined during manufacture by quantities of impurities that are so small they can scarcely be detected by analytical methods.

many cases can be detected only by a powerful magnifying glass. ` Both the natural and the synthetic stones are made up of a series. of successive layers; the synthetic stone having curved layers, the:

natural product flat, parallel layers. Ve The Sapphire.—Sapphire chips cannot be fused into recon" structed sapphires in a way similar to the making of synthetic

rubies because the colour disappears. In some of the experiments’ of Deville and Carron with the ruby, blue patches were obtained,”

An interesting attempt to crystallize aluminium oxide out of a and it was believed by them that the sapphire owed its blue colour”

molten bath was that of Fremy and Hautefeuille.

The oxides of

lead, aluminium and chromium were fused.in a large crucible for about seven to eight days in a furnace used for glass making. Masses of rubies from 30 to 40 kg. were sometimes obtained, but

among these not a ruby was found that was thick enough to be of any value as a gem. One of the crystallographic axes developed

to a lower oxide of chromium. Experimenters, however, failed: to realize any blue colour by the use of some of the oxides of} chromium. The cobalt oxides, which are used so extensively in,

ceramics to produce blue, cannot be retained in the corundum., By the addition of materials, such as calcium oxide, blue stones!

are obtained, but are not genuine, synthetic sapphires. Research, more than another, and only thin, laminated crystals were pro- was abandoned and then taken up again in 1909 by Verneuil and:

duced. Attempts to condense alumina vapour produced similarly

imperfect gems. Fremy and Verneuil carried on a series of experiments with ordinary sand crucibles for this purpose. It was

Levin. The sapphire owes its blue colour to the presence of the’ oxides of iron and titanium. Up to the time of the actual synthe: sizing of the sapphire, there existed no complete analysis showing). ‘

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1. CARNELIAN. 2. SARD. 3. CHALCEDONY. 4. PLASMA. 3. NICOLO. 6. MOSS AGATE. 7. BANDED AGATE. 8. PERIDOT, $9. HELIOTROPE. 10. BLACK JASPER. 11. GREEN JASPER. 13, YELLOW JASPER. 14, ROCK CRYSTAL. 15 AND 20. AMETHYST. 16 AND 17. GARNET. 18 AND30. GLASS PASTES. 19. 2i. BERYL. 22. EMERALD. 23. TOPAZ. 24. TURQUOISE, 26. LAPIS LAZULI. 27. ONYX. 28 PORPHYRY. 29. SERPENTINE, 31. STEATITE 1, ITALIC, 2D CENTURY B.C.; 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 12-18, 20, 21, 23, 28, ROMAN, 1ST CENTURY B.C. TO 2D CENTURY A.D.; 3, 6, If, GREEK, 6TH-STH CENTURY B C.; 19TH CENTURY A. D 3 19, HITTITE, 20 MILLENNIUM B. C.; 25, 30, HELLENISTIC, 3D-IST CENTURY B. C.; 26, EPHTHALITE (NORTH INDIAN), STH-6TH CENTURY A.D.; 7, 29,

2D MILLENNIUM B.C.; 8, 24, 25, 30 ARE CAMEOS AND THE REST INTAGLIO SEALS

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12. RED JASPER. SARDONYX. 25. 10, 22, 24, 1331 M.NOAN, 3D-

GEMSBOK—GEMS

IN ART

97

stones and not blue stones were first obtained in the fusion of the

in classical literature (see especially Pliny, N.H. xxxvii, 76; xxxvii., 15; Theophrastus, De lapidibus I., 5; VII., 41), and an examination of the stones themselves (fig. 2 A, B, C, D). By this method the stones were worked with variously shaped drills ending in balls, discs, cylinders, etc. (Plate VI., 1), which are made to rotate by the help of the wheel (fig. 1). Nowadays the stone to

iron oxide and titanium oxide with corundum. A greater quantity

be engraved is fastened to a handle and held to the head of the

both of these oxides present in the natural gem. Titanium is widely

distributed in the earth’s crust. The titanium oxides grade away in colour from white to blue and purple. The higher oxide of titanium, TiO, is the stable oxide in molten corundum and gives to the corundum a lavender colour.

Pinkish

of iron oxide produced the necessary reduction of the titanium oxide and the true blue colour of the natural sapphire was finally

obtained. The reaction is delicately balanced and prolonged heating will cause the blue colour to change back to pinkish. This explains why natural sapphire chips lose their colour when fused.

The blue corundum boule is identical with the natural stone and they are distinguished only with great difficulty by experts. After fusion only part of the iron and titanium oxides are left.

A. J. Moses found only traces of FeO; and about o-1 of 1% of TiO. The analysis of the natural products extant before the synthesis of the sapphire did not show the presence of titanium oxide. The synthetic ruby or sapphire like the unpolished natural stones require the lapidary’s art to bring out their intrinsic qualities. About 20,000,000 carats of rubies and 12,000,000 carats of sapphires are produced annually and the demand is growing. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—H. Sainte-Claire Deville and H. Caron, “Mémoire sur l'apatite, La wagnérite et quelques espèces artificielles de phosphates métalliques,” Institut de France, Académie des Sciences, Comptes Rendus, tome xlvii., p. 985 (1858); A. Gaudin, “Sur la production de quelques pierres précieuses artificielles,” Institut de France, Académie des Sciences, Comptes Rendus, tome Ixix., p. 1,342 (1869); P. Hautefeuille and A. Perrey, “Sur les combinaisons silicatées de la glucine,” Annales de chimie et de physique, 6 serie, tome XxX., p. 447 (1890); C. Friedel, “Sur Pexistence du diamant dans le fer météorique de Cafion Diablo,” Institut de France, Académie des Sciences, Comptes Rendus, tome cxv., p. 1,037 (1892); see articles by H. Moissan, in Institut de France, Académie des Sciences, Comptes Rendus, tome cxiv—cxxiii. (1892—96); W. H, Gintl, “Ueber die Darstellung krystallisirter Thonerde im elektrischen Schmelzofen und einige Nebenproducte dieses Schmelzprocesses,” Zeitschrift fiir angewandte Chemie, p. 1,173 (1901); A. Verneuil, “Production artificielle du rubis par fusion,” Institut de France, Académie des Sciences, Comptes Rendus, tome CXXXV., p. 791 (1902), “Sur la nature des oxydes qui colorent le saphir oriental,” Institut de France, Académie des Sciences, Comptes Rendus, tome cli., p. 1,063 (1910); A. J. Moses, “Some Tests upon the Synthetic Sapphires of Verneuil,” Amer. Jour. of Science, vol. lxx., p. 271 (Oct. r9r0); A. A. Heller, “Making Sapphires in the Laboratory,” Scientific American Supplement, p. 60 (July 23, 1910); I. H. Levin, “Synthesis of Precious Stones,” the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, vol. v., no. 6, pp. 495-500 (June, ey j

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FROM MARIETTE, “GRAITE DES PIERRES GRAVEES”

FIG. 1.—A GEM ENGRAVER OF THE 18TH CENTURY AT WORK IN HIS SHOP SURROUNDED BY THE VARIOUS TOOLS OF HIS TRADE rotating drill and moved as the work requires (Plate VI., 2). It has been suggested that the ancients reversed the process and held the stone stationary while the rotating tools were guided by the hand, as in modern dentistry. -The cutting is not actually done by the drills but by the powder which is rubbed on the stone with the drill. This is nowadays diamond powder, mixed with oil; it was known also to the Romans (see Pliny, N.H. xxxvii., 15, and Manilius, Astronomica IV., 926), but in the period before Alexander emery powder was probably used. The wheel used in our times is either worked by the foot (fig. x1) or by an electric motor lathe. The former, though more cumbrous, has the advantage of giving the artist more direct control over the speed. On the gravestone of a gem cutter of the Roman empire found at Philadelphia

in Asia Minor (fig. 2, V) a tool is represented which looks like the bow used by modern jewellers and which, by being drawn back and forth, could impart a rotating movement similar to that of GEMSBOK, an African antelope of the genus Oryx (see the wheel. But since we know that the rotating wheel was well ANTELOPE; Oryx); also the German name for the chamois (g.v.). known to the ancients in the making of pottery it is probable GEMS IN ART. The word gem is used as a general term that they made use of it in gem engraving also. After the cutting for precious and semi-precious stones especially when engraved of the gem was complete the surface was often polished. Such a with designs for sealing (intaglio) or for decoration (cameo). polish was popular, especially among the Etruscans and in the Such gems exist in large numbers from the early Sumerian period later Greek and Roman periods, For this purpose Naxian stone to the decline of the Roman civilization and again from the (naxium) was used, as Pliny informs us (N.H. xxxvi., 10). We do not know definitely whether the ancient gem cutters Renaissance to modern times. They satisfy the aesthetic sense in many ways. The inherent beauty of the material, with its rich made use of the magnifying glass but it is probable that they did. and varied colours, its lustre and brilliance, gives pleasure at first The general principle of concentrating rays was known to Arissight. The hard and durable quality of the stones has made for tophanes (Clouds, 766 seg.). Pliny several times mentions the use unusually good preservation, so that we can appreciate in many of balls of glass or crystal brought in contact with the rays of the cases the artist’s work in its original state—a rare opportunity in sun to generate heat (N.H. xxxvi., 67 and xxxvii., 10), and Seneca ancient art. Moreover, the smallness and preciousness of the speaks more specifically of this principle applied for magnifying gems invited exquisite workmanship, and in certain periods, when objects (Nat. Quaest. I., vi., 5). art was at a high level, the achievements in this field were very Moreover, two crystal lenses dating from about 1600-1200 B.C. notable. The best ancient gem engravers combined minuteness have been found in Crete, and pieces of round glass in Egypt and accuracy of detail with a largeness of style that is indeed which may be early magnifying glasses. remarkable. A gem engraving of this class possesses the nobility Beck, Ant. J. VIXI., 3, pp. 327-330 (July 1928). and dignity of a marble or bronze sculptural work, though it is HISTORY often confined to the space of less than half a square inch, The Technique of Gem Engraving.—Only soft stones and Mesopotamia.—The art of engraving stones probably originated metals can be worked free hand with cutting tools; the harder in south Mesopotamia. There it attained a high degree of pror stones require the wheel technique. This technique was known in ficiency as early as the fourth millennium p.c.}:é¢,, during the Mesopotamia as early as c. 4000-3000 B.c. (Plate II. 1), as well Elamite and Sumerian civilizations. The engravings were worked ‘by as to the Minoans in the middle Minoan ITI. period (c. 1800-1600 on stones mostly of cylindrical shape (Plate L, 19), suspended B.C., Plate IL, 13). The method of work seems to have been a string and used as seals. The materials were petrified shell and similar to that in use to-day, to judge by the references we have marble, and the subjects axe chiefly heroes fighting. animals,

GEMS

98

IN ART

deities with worshippers and decorative motives (Plate II., 1, 2). | for their engravings they used chiefly symbols, script and orna

After the Akkadian invasion (c. 2800 B.c.) the art of seal en- ments (Plate II., 14), only occasionally pictorial scenes. Though:

graving reaches its greatest height, and semi-precious stones like rock crystal were cut in masterly fashion. The mythical King Gilgamesh performing his great exploits is the favourite representation (Plate II., 3). Cuneiform inscriptions begin to appear. After the decline of the Akkadian empire the representations become more and more conventionalized. Hematite gradually

historically, therefore, these scarabs are of great importance: especially as they have been found in great numbers and form 3

continuous series—the artistic value is frequently secondary. The

great majority lack the interest of subject treatment, though thie” finish of their execution is remarkable. The commonest material, is faience, but the coloured quartzes—camelian, amethyst, jasper.

etc., are also employed.

w

Crete.—From the earliest times we find Greece treading di

Fe rn eens Fas,eet

independent path influenced but not conditioned by her oriental, neighbours.

In Crete gem engraving occupied an important play eh

The stones of the early Minoan period (c. 3500-2200 B.C.) show a great variety of shapes—including cylindrical, pyramidal, conoid:

quadrilateral and three-sided rounded beads—and are engrave.

with rude pictographs, consisting of primitive renderings of humai

beings, animals, ships and floral and linear patterns (Plate i: tr). It is clearly an experimental stage without traditional forms’ The stone is invariably of a soft variety, .¢., steatite of different’

colours worked by hand. As time went on—during the first ang

second middle Minoan periods (c. 2000-1800 B.c.)—the three" sided elongated bead became the standardized shape and the picto¥

graphs were transformed into less rude, more conventionalized:

forms (Plate II., 12). Several symbols now generally occur toz:

gether, showing that from mere ideographic meaning they had

acquired a phonographic value as syllables or letters. In other. words, the primitive pictographs have evolved into hieroglyphs, The material still remains the soft steatite. During the middle: Minoan third period (c. 1800-1600 B.c.) the hieroglyphic scrips 4 te K

reached its full development, the symbols appearing in highiy’ systematized form, executed often with great nicety (Plate Us,

P BM COURTESY OF (A, By C, D, Hy I, J & N) FURTWANGLER, “ANTIKE GEMMEN,” HI; (E, F, G, Ke L & M) METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK; (Ọ & P) THE TRUSTEES OF TRE BRITICH MUSEUM

FG, ‘2.--SPECIMENS OF GEM ENGRAVER'S ART AND CHIEF FORMS USED

: Ay B, C, D——Four-sided stone with unfinished engravings: E, F.—Minoan stone forms—tentold and glandular; G—Ring with pendant; H.—Scarab:

“T.—Scarabold; J.—-Dome; K, L.—Swivel rings; M.—Cone form; N.—Part of a -grave stone of a gem engraver; O.—Greek searab; P.—Etruscan scarab; Q.—

Heron and grasshopper, signed by Dexamenos

beconases-the prevailing material. The most frequent subjects are the “Introduction Scene”—a seated goddess ‘towards whom a second: deity leads a worshipper, the Gilgamesh legend, and other

raythieal representations (Plate IL, 4). During the Amorite dynasty (¢. 2100-1800), to which belonged the famous King iteurabi, we are again in a highly artistic period, but probably

of: short duration.

The representations are mostly the same as

diring the. preceding ¢pech, and the use of cuneiform inscriptions becomes important (Plate II, 5), until in the Kassite period (c: 1800) it oanstitutes the most conspicuous feature (Plate II., 7).

' zvÁfter the dewnfall of the Amorites in Babylonia, southern

. Mesopotamia no longer played an important part politically, servjag only as a cultural centre. The other oriental countries which now came inte prominence naturally profited by the older civiligation, and the Hittites (second millennium B.c.), the Assyrians

{frst half of first millennium B.C.) and other peoples of Asia Minor all became conversant with the art of gem engraving.

They carried on the southern Mesopotamian tradition with some contributions. of théir:own (Piate IT., 6, 9, 10). The favourite subjects aze adoration scenes and heraldic groupings of deities and animals. Decorative motives are popular. The cylinder form

16). The stones are now no longer steatite but hard varieties, such as carnelian, chalcedony and green jasper. They are worked

with the wheel, this technique having been learned from the Orient}: In the next period (late Minoan, c. 1600-1100) we note a gréat

change. The Minoan written language has finally evolved into. Bi

linear script and concurrently it disappears from the seal stones?” In its stead we find naturalistic designs—animals (Plate IL., 17%

cult and sacrificial subjects (Plate II., 13), deities and demons;*:

hunting and war scenes, że., the stock subjects of Cretan arty executed with an amazing élan and vivacity. The stones are now regularly the hard quartzes, of lentoid and glandular forms (fig. 2, E, F). Similar engraved gems as well as gold rings with efit:

graved bezels have been found at Mycenae and other places,’

within the range of Cretan influence. Towards the end of the ‘Tate?

Minoan period the art deteriorated. The soft steatite again took’

the place of the harder stones, and the subjects became merely’, conventionalized representations. Gradually there was established’: the geometric style in which linear designs were engraved by hand’, on soft stones of the prevalent oriental forms (Plate II., 18). I the 7th century B.C. a revival in artistic conceptions is noticeable:

The use of hard stones worked by the wheel was reintroduce’.

and the designs were largely ‘borrowed from Eastern motives: . (Plate II., 18). And this was the prelude to several centuries ‘of,’

a flourishing output, lasting throughout the classical civilizations:

Greece.—The study of Greek and Roman gems is the study: of, classical art in miniature; for the gems reflect faithfully the styles

of the various periods to which they belong, so that they represent! an accurate. picture of the development, the prime and the deg%

cadence of'classical art. In the'gems of the 6th and early sth, expression.. The chief forms are the scarab and the scaraboid (fg remains in vogue, but conical and dome-shaped seals with a flat 2, H, I) regularly set in swivel rings (fig. 2, K, L, Q). The subt. .base for the intaglio are the most popular (fig. 2, J, M). The jects àre the same ‘as in other branches of archaic art. At :th t : gollowred quartzes are the favourite material. When the power of beginning of:the period the human figure in kneeling posture is thei, Miiri gave wey to that of Persia, the Persian gem engravers most popular,» but.soon É a greater Variety was attempted. Gods; "\Rilitvted inthe footsteps of their predecessors both in technique aA Strie? bat the favourite themė now becomes the exploits of and góddésses are comparatively‘ rare, but Herakles is'a favourite; ; and various demons; the Silenus, the Siren and the Sphinx are aio tak kingof Persia (Plate IE, 8). i alse common.’ Anidng the. figures: without mythological signifi: cance; the commonest. are: warriors, archers, athletes ‘and ‘horse#: : Ig Sest -the cylinder form, ‘thes; from century B.c. the dainty charm of archaic Greek art. finds a happy”:

e

Ye

meni; and/among:the animals the. lion, bull, boar, deer, ram, cock’ and horse (Plate. IIL; 1-4, 6; 8uand IV., 1-3); ‘The. coloured: rye}

PLATE IT Daa An, i

oe af RA a od

pratense

aT

ae et

gk a

any

Pa aS EEEO ete cnn OOO

` oreCites an fe i

Bees suey

3

Re s

tree

et roe

bid tay Key wa aos ot Trane

cates miele

ea

F

NET

AEE,

P

aV

BY COURTESY OF (7, 11-15, 17) THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK, (8, í BRETT COLLECTION, (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10) THE E. T. NEWELL COLLECTION

ORIENTAL,

CRETAN

AND

OTHER

GEMS,

FROM

4000-500

B.C.

(PLASTER

IMPRESSIONS,

EXCEPT

FIG.

14)

l. Elamite, 4th millennium: marble. 2. Sumerian, 4th millennium; shell. 3. Akkadian, lst half of 3rd millennium. 4. Sumero-Akkadian, 2nd half of 3rd

3500-2200; serpentine. 12. Middle Minoan, |. and II.; serpentine. 13. Late Minoan, I.—lII.; red jasper. 14. Egyptian scarab, 13th dynasty; glazed steatite.

Syrian, c. 1400-1000;

lil.; chalcedony. 17. Late Minoan, I.—I!.; onyx. steatite. 19. Geometric stone, chariot; steatite

millennium; marble.

5. Amorite, c. 2100-1800; hematite.

hematite.

6. Hittite, North

7. Kassite, c. 1800; rock crystal.

8. Persian

seal of Darius, c. 500; chalcedony. 9. Hittite, c. 1400-1000, showing Egyptian influence; hematite. 10. Assyrian, c. 700; carnelian. 11. Early Minoan, c.

15. Graeco-Phoenician scarab, Bes with lions; green jasper. 18.

16. Middle Minoan,

Island

gem,

sea

horse;

PLATE LIT

BY COURTESY

OF (1, 7, 10, 12, 18) THE MUSEUM OF FINE ARTs, BOSTON, (2, 3, 4; 9} THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK, TROSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM, (20) THE CABINET DES MEDAL LLES, PARIS, (21) THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM, FLORENCE, (22)

ARCHAIC , Athena,

GREEK, » late Gth

HELLENISTIC

AND

century. 2. Hadea and Persephone.

(5, 6, 8, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 23, 24) THE

STAATLICHE

GRAECO-PERSIAN Chalcedony, c. 460. 3. Winged

y Sth century. 4. Youth and dog. Chalcedony, early 5th century. 5. Woman playing , 2nd half of5th ~ 6. Playing the kithara. Steatite, signed by c. Banded agate, 2nd of Sth century. 8. Satyr dancing. Agate, late SthSyries, century. carnelian, ao eea One Bi e ralada; 1st half of 4th with trophy. oeo a) 8, 12. Two-horse Chalcedony, c. 400. 13. Woman passing chiton over-head, Lapis lazuli, late Sth century.

GEMS,

V. AND

14. Woman with bird.

MUSEEN,

VI. CENTURIES

Chalcedony, 2nd half of Sth century.

BERLIN

B.C. (PLASTER IMPRESSIONS) 15. Lion

selzing deer. Rock crystal, late 4th century. 18. Eros with goose. Chalcedony, ¢. 400. 17. Chelron wounded, Chalcedony, 2nd half of 5th century. 18, Statue of a victorious boxer. Banded agate, late Sth century. 19. Girl writing. Chalk Cedony, late Sth century. 20. Portralt of Alexander. Carnelian, 21. Muse with lyre. Yellow glass paste. Hellenistic. 22, Graeco-Persian; Persian lady. Hellenistic. Chalcedony, 2nd half Sth century. 23. of Philetairos. Chalcedony sprinkled with sper, Hellenistic. 24. Graeco-Persian; Horseman spearing boar. Chalcedony, 2ndhalf 5th century 7

GEMS

IN ART

99

quartzes, such as the carnelian, chalcedony and agate, are the chief preferably contests of Persians and Greeks, or hunting scenes (Plate III., 24), or single figures of Persian nobles or ladies (Plate materials used. The second half of the sth and the early 4th centuries mark III., 22). Animals are also favourite subjects. These representaanother climax in the history of Greek gem engraving. We find tions are executed in a broad, spirited style, chiefy on chalcedony the same conception of serene beauty in the minute products of stones of scaraboid form. A rectangular shape with one faceted the gem-cutters as in the contemporary statues. The favourite | side is also popular. Etruria—Etruscan gems make their appearance toward the end shape employed is no longer the scarab but the scaraboid (fig. 2, I), generally large and thick, and perforated to be worn on a | of the 6th century B.C. and remain in vogue until the 4th. They swivel (fig. 2, L) or as a pendant (fig. 2, G). With regard to the | closely copy Greek styles, forms and subjects (Plate V., 1-4). At choice of subjects the chief theme is now the daily life of the | times their execution is excellent, but there is always a certain

people, especially of the women.

A woman taking a bath, making | dryness and stiffness which serve to distinguish even their best

music, playing with animals, etc., are all favourite representations; | products from pure Greek work. The shape is invariably that of

animals are likewise common; mythological subjects are less | the scarab, worked often with minute care, while to the Greek popular. The favourite deities are Aphrodite, Eros and Nike | artist it was of secondary interest (compare fig. 2, O and P). (Plate III., 5, 9, 10-19). By far the commonest stone of this | Moreover, the edge of the base on which the beetle stands, which period is the chalcedony. Less frequent are the carnelian, agate, | in the Greek examples is left plain, is ornamented in the Etruscan rock crystal, jasper and lapis lazuli.

gems, except in the earliest period and in the more careless speci-

The inscriptions which occur on Greek gems form an interest- | mens. By far the commonest material is the carnelian. The ing study. They generally give the name of the owner, often only | subjects chosen are chiefly taken from Greek mythology. Homeric the beginning of his name being recorded. Occasionally they refer | and Theban heroes predominate (Peleus, Achilles, Odysseus, Ajax, to the people represented or they contain a greeting. Sometimes | Tydeus and Kapaneus). Inscriptions sometimes occur; but they the name of the artist is given. Of the latter the most prominent | do not, as in the Greek gems, give the nameof the owner or of the are Epimenes (Plate IV., 8) and Dexamenos (fig. 2, Ọ and Plate | artist but of the figure represented. At the end of the 5th century another class of scarab becomes IV., 5). Their works rank among the best which have been pro-| prevalent, lasting until the beginning of the 3rd century B.c. It is duced in Greek gem-cutting. The Greek gems of the Hellenistic period about 323-30 B.c. | not confined to Etruria but occurs also elsewhere in Italy. The reflect the somewhat heterogeneous styles of contemporary sculp- | distinguishing characteristic is that it is roughly worked with ture: but there are not many notable representations. A great | the round drill (Plate V., 4), evidently merely for decorative change takes place in the shape of the stones. Instead of the per- | effect, which is heightened by the brilliant polish. Herakles and forated scarabs and scaraboids the unperforated ringstone, gen- | Silenus are the popular subjects. Roman Gems.—The Etruscan scarabs are superseded in Italy erally flat on one side and convex on the other, becomes the accepted form. The stones are often of considerable size and the | in the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.c. by ringstones in which we can large rings in which they are mounted are not uncommonly pre- | distinguish two styles, according as they imitate Etruscan (Plate served. The favourite stones are the hyacinth, garnet, beryl, | V., 5) or Hellenistic art (Plate V., 6). There are no great artistic topaz, amethyst, rock crystal, carnelian, sard, agate and sardonyx, | achievements among them but they are nevertheless of interest many of them introduced into the Greek world from the East | in that they form an important source of knowledge for the Roman after the conquests of Alexander the Great. Glass, as a substitute | art of the earlier republican period. In the rst century B.C. the two for more precious material, is often used.

Among the subjects | styles became merged, with Greek elements predominating ‘(Plate

represented the most important is the portrait, which now acquires | V., 7) and growing gradually into the classicist style of the : great popularity (Plate ITI., 20, 23). Scenes from daily life and | Augustan age. mythology both occur (Plate ITE., 21). Engraved gems enjoyed a great popularity in Rome during the A great technical innovation introduced in this period is the | late republican and early imperial periods. We know this not only cameo, in’which the representation instead of being engraved in | from the large number of examples which have survived but also the surface of the gem is carved in relief (Plate V., 15). It is | from literary sources. Gem-collecting became a passionate purtherefore the converse of the intaglio. These cameos naturally did | suit. Wealthy men vied with one another in procuring fine specinot serve as seals, as did the intaglio, but were used purely for | mens and paid enormous prices for them.” The keenness of this

instruments and jewellery. For such work the coloured quartzes | rivalry can be gauged by the story that’ the senator Nonius was were generally employed, their various layers being skilfully and | exiled from Rome because he refused to give a certain gem (valeffectively utilized; but imitations in glass paste also occur (Plate | ued at 20,000 sesterces) to’ Mark Antony. Public-spirited men, then as nowadays, after having formed their collections would deI., 30). Graeco-Phoenician and Graeco-Petsian Gems.—Another | posit them in the temples for all to enjoy. Scaurus, the son-in-law class of gems in which the influence of archaic Greek art is | of Sulla, is said to have been the first Roman to have a collection strongly shown is that of the Graeco-Phoenician scarabs, chiefly | of gems. Julius Caesar was an eager and discriminating collector, found in the Carthaginian cemeteries of Sardinia (Plate II., 15). | and deposited ás many as six'separate collections in the temple of The stones there discovered show that during the 6th century | Venus Genetrix. The style of the representations is that of ‘the B.C. Phoenician art was strongly subjected to Egyptian influence, | classicist art of the early imperial’ period which we encounter but from the end of that century both the Greek style and Greek | in other contemporary products. Its dominant characteristic’ is subjects were adopted.: This archaic Greek style persevered in | a quiet, cold elegance. The Subjects have a wide range comprising

the Phoenician stones throughout the sth century and into the | mythological and every-day themes, including portraits of' ‘dis4th, long after a freer stylé-had been introduced in Greece itself | tinguished men, copies and adaptations of famous statues, symbols

—a phenomenon with which wé'ate familiar from Carthaginian | and gryloi—fantastic combinations of heads and ‘figures, prob-

coins. The shape of stone is regularly the scdrab and the favourite | ably with superstitious import (Plate V., 8-13). The prevalent matérial green jasper. The representations consist chiefly of the | form‘is throughout the ringstone. The variety of stones used is

favourite’ Greek types of youths and men, and of mythological large, for at this time of Roman world dominion and increased cteatures. ‘Fantastic combinations of heads and masks probably | commercial facilities they could be‘obtained without difficulty from ¢ | all‘narts of the empire. The commonest are ‘the carnelian, sard, ' had‘ an apotropaic significance. ` The Graeco-Persian gems illustrate the influence of Greek art sardonyx, chalcedony and amethyst; especi#lly’‘fine engravings ` in the East. In Persia the gems of ‘purely: Persian style (Plate T., ase often found on garnets, hyacinths, beryls, topazes and peridots, 8) are followed in‘the second ‘half of the sth and the first haff of more rarely on emeralds and sapphires. The nicolo and red jasper, the 4th century by gems in which Persian and Greek elements which occurred only occasionally ‘in former periods, now enjoyed commingled. They were evidently made by Greeks for Persians. great popularity.. The Roman ‘enthusiasnr’for this wealth of beauThe subjects are taken from the ‘daily life of the Persian nobles, tiful stones can be gauged frora thé’ rematks of Pliny (N.Z.

LOO

GENE

xxxvii., 1) who declared that some gems are considered “beyond any price and even beyond human estimation, so that to many men one gem suffices for the contemplation of all nature.” Cameos continued in use throughout this period, chiefly of sardonyx, onyx and glass paste (Plate V.,15). The favourite subjects are portraits and mythological scenes. Among the former are valuable representations of emperors and princes. Signatures of artists are found not infrequently both on the intaglios and cameos. In fact, by far the majority of ancient gem-cutters known to us belong to early imperial times. The most. distinguished artist was Dioskourides, of whom we know that he made the imperial seal-ring of Augustus (Pliny N.H. xxxvii., so and 73). Other well-known names are Gnaios (Plate V., 12), Aspasios, Eutyches (Plate V., 13), Aulos, Apollonios, Agathangelos (Plate IV., 16). (See GREEK Art; Roman Art.) Late Roman Period.—By the 2nd century A.D. glyptic art was on the decline. Of the large number of gems of that period which have survived very few have any artistic value. The majority stow hasty, careless workmanship and the representations are lifeless and monotonous (Plate V., 14). The shape of the gems is always the ringstone and the materials are very much the same as those in use during the preceding period. Nicolo and jasper now become specially common, probably on account of supposed magical properties. The same deterioration is noticeable in the early Christian (Plate V., 22) and Gnostic gems (Plate V., 21). A gem now became a talisman with long, often unintelligible formulae. The symbolism is largely associated with Mithraic worship. The name Abraxas (or Abrasax) occurs with great frequency (Plate V., 21). The commonest materials are hematite and jasper. More important artistically are the Sassanian gems (3rd to 7th

century A.D.) which indeed represent the last important product

of gem engraving in the ancient world. The representations are a mixture of oriental traditions and late Roman forms. Espe-

cially fine are some of the portraits (Plate V., 20). In north India the Ephthalites (white Huns) established a civilization about A.D. 475 which lasted until about A.D. 550. That they too practised the art of gem engraving is shown by a recently

la haute Asie,” Recherches sur la glyptique orientale (1883-86), the

best general account; O. Weber, Altorientalische Siegelbilder the best account

of artistic

development;

D.

G. Hogarth,

(1917),. Hittite.

Seals, with Particular Reference to the Ashmolean Collection (1920); |

G. Couteneau, La Glyptique Syro-Hittite; L. Délaporte, Catalogue ` des cylindres, cachets et pierres gravées de style oriental du Musée’ du Louvre (1920-23), chief emphasis on subjects represented; L.

Legrain, “The Culture of the Babylonians, from their Seals in the

Collections of the Museum,”

Publications

University of Pennsylvania Museum,

of the Babylonian Section, xiv.

(1925), important for

chronology. Egypt.—F. Petrie, “Royal Tombs of the First Dymasty,” Egypt Explor. Fund. XVIIIth Memoir, p. 24, Pl. xii., fig. 3-7, and Pl. xviti-xxix.; P. E. Newberry, Egyptian Antiquatees, Scarabs, an

Introduction to the Study of Egyptian Seals and Signet Rings (1906}; H. R. Hall, Catalogue of Egyptian Scarabs, etc., in the Britisk Museum, vol. i. (1913). Crete and Mycenae.—FL von Fritze, “Die

’Mykenischen Goldringe und ihre Bedeutung für das Sacralwesen,” in Strena Helbigiana (1900); D. G. Hogarth, “The Zakro Sealings,”

in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxii. (1902) ; A. J. Evans, Scripta Minoa (1909) and The Palace of Minos at Knossos, i. (1921) and ii. (1928). Classical Gems.—A. Furtwängler, in Jahrb. des deutschen arch. Inst., vol. iii-iv. (1888-89), articles on “gem-engravers” and Antike Gemmen, i-iii. (1900), the fullest and best general account of the;

subject; M. N. H. Story-Maskelyne, The Marlborough Gems (1870); S. Reinach, Pżerres gravées des collections Marlborough et d'Orleans (1895); A. Furtwängler, Beschreibung der geschnittenen Steine im Antiquarium X1896); E. Babelon, Catalogue des camées antiques et modernes de la Bibliothèque Nationale (1897); J. D. Beazley, The

Lewes House Collection of Ancient Gems (1929); G. M. A. Richter,

Catalogue of Engraved Gems in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, (1920); H. B. Walters, Catalogue of Engraved Gems and Cameos in’ the British Museum (1926). For a list of 16th to 18th century publications of gem collections, see A. Furtwangler, Antike Gemmen, iit, pp. 402 ff. Sassanian Gems—P, Horn, Sassanidische Siegelsteine von P. Horn ynd Georg Steindorff (1891). Gnostic Gems.—Cabrol, Dict. d'Archéologie chrétienne, s.v. “Abrasax.” Post-Classical Gems.—O. M. Dalton, Catalogue of the Post-Classical Gems in the British Museum | (G. M. A, R.) , (1918), with useful bibliography.

GENE.

The word gene (Gr. yévos, race) has come to be

used, more particularly in the United States, as the equivalent; of the word gen. The latter was first coined by Johannsen (1909). to signify the unit in inheritance. As a prefix, gen appears in such. words as genetic and genealogical, but used by itself it stands for, a purely hypothetical unit in inheritance. In England the word. “factor” is more frequently used, but factor has also a wider. significance; gene is equivalent to genetic factor. The word 1s,, used almost exclusively in Mendelian literature, and has come to: have a more specific application to the elementary unit carried|

discovered stone with the portrait of an Indian king (Plate I,, 26), Post-classical Times.—In post-classical times there are two epochs in which the art of gem engraving again flourished, the Renaissance and the 18th and early 19th centuries, The artists of by chromosomes. The functional significance of the gene in de- ’ both periods borrowed freely from the antique. Those of the velopment, in determining the character of the individual, is the, Renaissance were too individual to keep very closely to the ancient subject at present of much speculation, and diverse views have. spirit, and Renaissance works are therefore seldom difficult to distinguish from ancient gems (Plate V., 16). The gem engravers of

the 18th century, on the other hand, had little inspiration of their own, and consciously tried to copy ancient work as exactly as

possible. And though at first this copying was done purely out of admiration for the antique, it soon developed with unscrupu-

lous people into an extensive output of forgeries. At times it is

extremely difficult to tell definitely whether a certain piece is ancient or a faithful copy. Mostly, however, the copyist betrayed

himself by a slight innovation characteristic of the spirit of his

been expressed as to how the genes are related to the characters,, for which they are, in a sense, the sponsors in the germinal ma~,’ i terial. The assumption of fundamental units in heredity is a familiar,. procedure in biological literature. Herbert Spencer postulated, physiological units out of which the body is built, somewhat as are crystals from molecules of a salt in solution. Darwin’s theory of pangensis called for “gemmules,” supposed to be specific particles set free from all parts of the body, which uniting with similar particles in the eggs and sperm-cells render the inheritance

own time rather than that of the antique (Plate V., 18); and in of acquired characters possible. Haeckel used the word “plasti- .' a large number of cases, notably in the famous Poniatowski gems dule” for the ultimate particles of the protoplasm, De Vries postu- ‘i h

(Plate V., 17, 19), the spirit and composition are so far removed ai work that few people would nowadays be deceived

lated intracellular pangenes, which, being set free from the nu- ` Sho e

forged. mscriptions. are easily detected, but sometimes they are

cleus, determine the character of the cell but do not pass beyond, the cell boundaries. Weismann invented an elaborate system of ” hierarchies of elements consisting of biophors (the simplest) : determinants, ids and idants (chromosomes). The determinants i were supposed to be sorted out during the earlier embryonic, « cell-divisions in an orderly fashion, each cell finally getting 4..) particular kind that determined its functional behaviour. N one; of Weismann’s units were supposed to pass beyond the limits of i

wer, af times genuine ancient gems are supplied with forged

fictitious in the sense that they were devised to carry out certain i

An interesting feature of the gems of this period is presented

by the inscriptions which often appear and give the signatures of the artist or would-be artist. For besides signing their own names, often in Greek or Roman letters, it became the practice to sign the name of a famous ancient, artist. Generally such

cut with great care and present a difficult problem.

More-

signatures. The best-known gem-cutters of this period are the

famous Natter, the three Pichlers, Marchant and Burch.

a modern times the art bas a certain limited vogue, not com-

Darkbile, heweyer, with the great periods we have described,

. But gograpey—Mesopotamia —J . Menant, “Les pierres gravées de

the cell. In all these earlier hypotheses the units were purely,” imaginary processes. To the units were assigned arbitrarily such;

properties as the particular end in view required.

a.

The idea of units in Mendelian work has a different derivation, `

The results of experimental breeding have shown that when çer,He,

tain contrasted characters are brought together in a hybrid (Fi),‘

GEMS

BY COURTESY OF (1, 2, 6) THE METROPOLITAN BERLIN (16) STAATLICHE MUSEEN, MUSEUM,

GREEK

AND

ROMAN

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GEMS,

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NEW

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7, 8, 9, 10,

15)

THE

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B.C. (ENLARGED

1-15. GREEK: 1 Eros and gir. Carnelian; early 5th century. 2. Herakies. Carnelian; early 5th century. N 3. Archer. Chalcedony; c. 500. 4. Heron. by Dex4 3rd aquarter of Sth century 5. Portraitsigned a Chalcedony; nk amenos. Yellow Jasper; : 3rd quarter offtStn century. "86. Dancer. Gold ring; middle Sth century. 7. Donkey, Gold ring, early 4th DEY. 8. Youth with hirae. Chalcedony; signed by Epimenes, c. 500. 9. Race horse

PLaTEe IV

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14)

THE

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THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM, (3-8, VIENNA, (21-23) THE E. T. NEWELL COLLECTION

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nelian.

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PLATE VI

IN ART GEMS

WSS

ANDINHOAL

“GuyaesBue-weh usopow uy soujyoru YzIM pasn syonyo pue sjijq'T

ip 9y} YPM ouogs 9y} uo paqqna s; yojym (ijo yya paxjwu snp puowejp) iapmod 34} Aq }ng

40

‘sjip 94} Aq zou ‘auop s; Bujyyno əy,

NYSGOW

soJ|nbed YAOM 94} se parow pue jjjap Bujzezos oY} Jo peoy oy} 0} play s 3] 'ajpuey eB 0} pauozsey sj poAiBue oq 0} əuozs eyl *jeəs e uo 410M 48 Jəarabuə UY "zZ

ONIAVYDNSA

GENEALOGY the two original characters appear in the next generation (F2), in definite proportions. Mendel pointed out that these numerical relations could be understood if for any one pair it is assumed that the reproductive cells of the first two parents that were crossed each introduced into the hybrid an element representative of the character in question. He further assumed that these ele-

TOL

relation of the endocrine substances produced by the gonad or other glands having internal secretions), it is possible to change the secondary sexual organs of one sex into those of the other. (T. H. M.)

GENEALOGY, a pedigree or list of ancestors. or the study

of family history (from the Gr. yéros, family, and Aóyos, theory). Biblical Genealogies.——-The aims and methods of ancient ments are sorted out in the germ-cells of the hybrid (without having contaminated each other) in such a way that each germ- genealogists require to be carefully considered before the value of cell (egg or sperm) carries one or the other of these elements. the numerous ancestral lists in the Bible can be properly estiChance fertilization of any egg by any sperm will give the numer- mated. Many of the old “genealogies,” like those of Greece, have ical ratios found in the next (F.) generation. No special functions arisen from the desire to explain the origin of the various groups or characteristics are assigned to these elements (genes) other than which they include. The subdivision of tribes, their relation to their power to divide, or at least to reproduce themselves and each other, the intermingling of populations and the like are thus each to retain in the hybrid its specificity. All later work in genetics frequently represented in the form of genealogies. The “sons” of rests on these Mendelian postulates, but in the further develop- a “father” often stand for the branches of a family as they existed ment of the subject evidence has been found that makes it pos- at some one period, and since in course of time tribal relations sible to locate the genes in the chromosomes and even to deter- would vary, lists will present discrepancies. Many of the Biblical mine their relation there with respect to one another. For example, names are nothing more than personifications of nations, tribes, in the vinegar (or fruit) fly, Drosophila melanogaster, which has towns, etc., grouped together to convey some idea of the bond by been more thoroughly examined than any other form, it has been which they were believed to be connected. Thus we find among found that the genes are inherited in great groups. They are said the “sons” of Japhet: (the nations) Gomer, Javan, Tubal; Canaan to be linked together. There are as many of these linkage groups “begat” Sidon and Heth; the “sons”? of Ishmael include the wellas there are chromosome pairs. The members of one group usu- known tribes Kedar and Jetur; Jacob, or the synonym Israel, perally remain united, but there may be occasional interchanges sonifies the “children of Israel.” The recognition of this usage between the members of a group, always in an orderly fashion often furnishes an ethnological interpretation to those genealogi(crossing over). Such interchanges take place only between. like cal stories which obviously do not relate to persons, but to tribes linkage groups, z.e., between each group derived from the father or peoples personified. The Edomites and Israelites are regarded with that from the mother—never between different linkage as “brothers” and since Esau (Edom) was born before Jacob groups. Crossing over has made it possible to determine the se- (Israel) it would appear that the Edomites were held to be the quence of the genes within each group, and to get a rough measure older nation. The union of two clans is expressed as a marriage, of their distances apart, on the assumption that this distance or the wife is the territory which is dominated by the husband apart determines the chance of crossing over between them, The (tribe); see Cates. If the woman is not of noble blood, but is a mapping of the genes on this assumption has made it possible to handmaiden or concubine, her children are naturally not upon the predict accurately the behaviour of the genes in any known situ- same footing as those of the wife; consequently the descendants ation. of Ishmael, the son of Hagar (Sarah’s maid), are inferior to Isaac The localization of the genes in the chromosomes (which are and his descendants, whilst the children of Keturah, Abraham’s material bodies easily visible under the microscope) has undoubt- concubine, are still lower—from the Israelite point of view. This edly led to the conception of the genes as material particles ly- application of the terms of relationship is characteristic of the ing in a single line in each chromosome. Whether they are so Semites. The “father” of the Rechabites is their head or founder conceived or not does not affect the theory that the characters and a common bond, not necessarily physical, unites all ‘‘sons,” of the individual have representatives in the chromosomes that whether they are “sons of the prophets” (members of prophetic permit formulation of definite laws of heredity. guilds) or “sons of Belial” (worthless men). There is some further evidence concerning the relation of the Every case has to be judged upon its own merits, and allowance genes of characters that is significant. While it is true that our made both for the ambition of the weaker to claim or to strengthen knowledge concerning the gene has been determined by following an alliance with the stronger, and for the desire of clans or indithe reappearance of single contrasted pairs of characters from one viduals to magnify the greatness of their ancestry. The first step generation to the next, nevertheless there is abundant evidence must always be the careful comparison of related lists in order to that each gene may affect many characters at the same time; a test the consistency of the tradition. Next, these must be critically study of any pair of which will lead to the same result. The studied in the light of all available historical material, though genes then are thought of as fundamentally different from Weis- indeed such evidence is not necessarily conclusive. Finally, (a) mann’s determinants. In fact, there is reason to infer that every literary criticism must be employed to determine if possible the gene contributes to every part of the body, affecting some parts dates of such lists, since obviously a contemporary register is more more than others, and the latter are only those that are picked trustworthy than one which is centuries later; (b) a critical estiout for convenience in studying heredity. As a corollary to this mate of the character of the names and of their use in various periview there is the further inference, based on sufficient evidence, ods of Old Testament history is of importance in estimating the that the character of the individual is the result of a definite antiquity of the list—for example, many of the names in Chronbalance (or interaction) between the activities of the genes. If icles attributed to the time of David are indubitably exilic or postthis balance is changed the end result is affected. This is most exilic; and (c) principles of ordinary historical probability are as evident in the case of sex determination where the female is the necessary here as in dealing with the genealogies of other ancient result of one kind of balance and the male of another in animals peoples, and attention must be paid to such features as fluctuation and plants with separate sexes. Alterations in this balance, if in the number of links, representation of theories inconsistent with not too extreme, may give rise to intersexes that stand in certain the growth of national life, schemes of relationship not in accordrespects between the typical males and females. The balance also ance with sociological conditions, etc. G. B. Gray’s Hebrew carries with it the tacit assumption of a normal environment. If Proper Names (1896), with his article in the Expositor (Sept. the environment is altered the end result may be different. Thus 1897), pp. 173-190, should be consulted for the application and in certain hermaphroditic plants, and perhaps also in animals, it range of Hebrew names in O.T. genealogies and lists. is possible to suppress the development of one set of sexual orThe Biblical genealogies commence with “the generations of the gans by changing the outside influences (light, temperature, etc.). heaven and earth,” and by a process of elimination pass from It is more questionable whether in the higher animals with sepa- Adam and Eve by successive steps to Jacob and to his sons (the rate sexes it is possible to change one sex into the other by alter- tribes), and finally to the subdivisions of each tribe. According to ation in the environment, although it has been demonstrated that this theory every Israelite could trace back his descent to Jacob, by changing the internal environment (especially by altering the the common father of the whole nation. Such a scheme, however,

GENEALOGY

I02

is full of manifest improbabilities. It demands that every tribe and every clan should have been a homogeneous group which had preserved its unity from the earliest times, that family records extending back for several centuries were in existence, and that such a tribe as Simeon was able to maintain its independence in spite of the tradition that it lost its autonomy in very early times (Gen. xlix. 7). The whole conception of the unity of the tribes cannot be referred to a date previous to the time of David, and in the older writings a David or a Jeroboam was sufficiently described as the son of Jesse or of Nebat. The genealogical zeal as represented in the Old Testament is chiefly of later growth, and the exceptions are due to interpolation (Josh. vii. 1 18, contrast v. 24), or to the desire to modify or qualify an older notice. This, in the case of Saul (x Sam. ix. 1), has led to textual corruption; a list of such a length as his should have reached back to one of the

“sons” of Benjamin (cf. e.g. Gen. xlvi. 21), else it were purpose-

Chron. xxiv.) presents many names which belong solely to post exilic days, thus suggesting that the scribes desired to show tha the honourable families of their time were not unknown centuries

previously. Everywhere we find the results of much skill ang labour, often in accordance with definite theories, but a thorough investigation reveals their weakness and often quite incidentally

furnishes valuable evidence of another nature.

Ms

The intricate Levitical genealogies betray the result of succes

sive genealogists who sought to give effect to the development of the hierarchal system. The climax is reached when all Levites are traced back to Gershon, Kehath and Merari, to which are ascribeg respectively Asaph, Heman and Ethan (or Jeduthun). The last

two were not originally Levites in the later accepted sense of the term (see 1 Kings iv. 31). To Kehath is reckoned an important: subdivision descended from Korah, but in 2 Chron. xx. 19 the two

are distinct groups, and Korah’s name is that of an Edomite clan less, The genealogies, too, are often inconsistent amongst them- (Gen. xxxvi. 5, 14, 18) related to Caleb, and thus included among selves and in contradiction to their object. They show, for exam- ‘the descendants of Judah (1 Chron. ii. 43). Cases of adjustment, ple, that the population of southern Judah, so far from being redistribution and “Levitizing” of individuals are frequent. Ther. “Israelite” was half-Edomite (see JupaH), and several of the are traces of varying divisions both of the singers (Neh. xi. 1): | clans in this district bear names which indicate their original affin- and of the Levites (Num. xxvi. 58; Ezr. ii. 40, iii. 9; 1 Chron. xy ity with Midian or Edom. Moreover, there was a free intermix- 5-10, xxiii.), and it is noteworthy that in the case of the latter we ture of races, and many cities had a Canaanite (ze. pre-Israelite) have mention of such families as Hebroni (Hebronite), Libii population which must have been gradually absorbed by the Isra- (from Libnah)—ethnics of south Judaean towns. In fact, a sig. elites (cf. Judg. i.). That spirit of religious exclusiveness which nificant number of Levitical names find their analogy in the list marked later Judaism did not become prominent before the Deu- of names belonging to Judah, Simeon and even Edom, or are teronomic reformation and it is under its influence that the writ- closely connected with the family of Moses; e.g. Mushi (iie, ings begin to emphasize the importance of maintaining the purity Mosaite), Gershon and Eleazar (cf. Gershom and Eliezer, sonsief of Israelite blood, although by this time the fusion was complete Moses). The Levites bear a class-name, and the genealogies show (see Judg. iii. 6) and for practical purposes a distinction between that many of them were connected with the minor clans and fam; Canaanites and Israelites within the borders of Palestine could ilies of South Palestine which included among them Moses and his

scarcely be discerned. Many of the genealogical data are intricate. Thus, the interpretation of Gen. xxxiv. is particularly obscure (see Levrres ad fin.; SIMEON). As regards the sons of Jacob, it is difficult to explain their division among the four wives of Jacob; viz. (a) the sons of Leah are Reuben, Simeon, Levi and Judah (S. Palestine), Issachar and Zebulun (in the north), and Dinah (associated with Shechem); (b) of Leah’s maid Zilpah, Gad and Asher (E. and N. Palestine); (c) of Rachel, Joseph (Manasseh and Ephraim, i.e., central Palestine) and Benjamin; (d) of Rachel’s maid Bilhah, Dan and Naphtali (N. Palestine). ‘It has been urged that (b) and {d} stood upon a lower footing than the rest, or were of later origin 'or that Bilhah points to an old clan associated with Reuben (Gen; xxxv. 22) or Edom (Bilhan, Gen. xxxvi. 27), whilst Zilpah represents an Aramaean strain. ‘Tradition may have:combined distinct: schemes, and the belief that the wives were Aramaean at least, comcides with the circumstance that:Aramaean elements predominated in certain of the twelve tribes. The number “twelve”

is: artificial and can be obtained only by coùnttàg Manasseh and Ephraim as one or by omitting Levi, and a careful study of Old

Testamer i history makes it extremely difficult to recover the irtbes as historical units. See, on these points: the articles on the

kin. Hence, it is not unnatural that Obed-edom, for example, obvé

ously a southerner, should have been reckoned later as a Levité, and the work ascribed by the chronicler’s history to the closing

years of David's life may be influenced by the tradition that

was through him these mixed populations first attained importance, In the time of Josephus every priest was supposed to be able to prove his descent, and perhaps from the time of Ezra downwards lists were carefully kept. But when Anna is called an Asherite (Luke ii. 36), or Paul a Benjamite (Rom. xi. 1), family tradition was probably the sole support to the claim, although the tribal, feeling had not become entirely extinct. The genealogies of Jesus’

prefixed to two of the gospels are intended to prove that He was a. son of David. But not that alone, for in Matt. i. He is traced back

to Abraham the father of the Jews, whilst in Luke iii. He, as the,’ second Adam, is traced back to the first man. The two lists are’.

hopelessly inconsistent; not because one of them follows the line

of Mary, but because they represent independent attempts. That” in Matthew is characteristically arranged in three series of foui, teen generations each through the kings of Judah, whilst Lukes. passes through an almost unknown son of David; in spite of this,’

however, both converge in the person of Zerubbabel.

i See further, A. C. Hervey, Genealogies of Our Lord; H. von Sode. several tribes, B. Luther, Zeit, d: alftest. Wissens. (1901), pp. I Ency. Bib. ii. col. 1666 sqg.; B. W. Bacon, Hastings’ Dict. Bibi we¢.;-G. B. Gray, Expositor (March' 1902), Dp. 225-240, and in Pp. 138 seg. On the subject generally see J. F. M’Lennan’s Studie (and ser., ch. ix., “fabricated genealogies”); S. A. Cook, Ency,’. Eney, Bib., art. “Tribes”; and-H. W:\Hegg’s thorough treatment Bib. ii. col. 1657 sqq. (with references); W. R. Smith, Kinship og Cao ihe last-mentioned Work, © ` Marriage (and ed., especially ch. i.). (S. A. C.) a és ilOf purity of descent:shéws itself conspicuously in porModern.—Two forces have combined to give genealogy ‘its tions ofT omic law-(Deut. vii. 1-3, xxiii. 2-8), Be inthe importance’ during the period of modern history: the laws of reforms of Nehemiah aidEzra.’ Phe desire to prove the continuity inheritance, particularly those which govern the descent

of the ‘race, enforced by the experience of the exile, gave the impetus to genealogical zeal, and many of the extant lists proceed from this age when the true historical succession of names was memory of the past. This applies with special force to the lists ina Chronicles which present finished schemes of the Levitical divi-

Mons by the side of earlier attempts, with consequent confusion wilcontradiction. ‘Thus the immediate ancestors of Ethan appear tethe time of Hezekiali (2 Chron. xxix. r2),

of reas’

estate, and the desire to assert the privileges of a hereditary aris)’

tocracy. But it is long before genealogies are found in the posses: :

sion of private families. The succession of kings and princes In the chronicle book; the line of the founders and patrons ofih

abbeys is recorded by the monks with curious embellishment’ of legend. But the famous suit of Scrope against Grosvenor will Musy

trate the’ late appearance of private ‘genealogies in' England: ’ f

he with Asaiah 1385 Sir'Richard Scrope, lord'of Bolton, displaying ai?Heman ere contemporaries of David, andbuttheir’ 8 genealogies the host ‘that: invaded’ Scotland, found that his arms hisof bånner a golden! eea Seed rbavi contaiz

i avery unequal number of links (1 Chime,4,917 By another application’ of genealogical metho bend inaSit blue field were borné byHea carried knight ofthethe Chester palatii o d the ate, one Robert Grosvenor. dispute to a couutia eset ofthsinstit :ution of priests and Levites by David (rz of chivalry, whose decision in kis favour was Confirmed on apped,

+

GENEALOGY to the king. Grosvenor asserted that he derived his right from an

ancestor, Sir Gilbert Grosvenor, who had come over with the Conqueror, while an intervening claimant, a Cornish squire named Thomas Carminowe, boasted that his own ancestors had borne the like arms since the days of King Arthur’s Round Table.

It is

remarkable that in support of the false statements made by the claimants no written genealogy is produced. The evidence of tombs and monuments and the reports of ancient men are ad-

vanced, but no pedigree is exhibited in a case which hangs upon genealogy. It is possible that the art of pedigree-making had its first impulse in England from the many genealogies constructed to make men familiar with the claims of Edward III. to the crown of France, a second crop of such royal pedigrees being raised in later generations during the contests of York and Lancaster. But

it is not until after the close of the middle ages that genealogies multiply in men’s houses and are collected into volumes. The mediaeval baron, knight or squire, although proud of the nobility of his race, was content to let it rest upon legend handed down the generations. The exact line of his descent was sought only when it was demanded for a plea in the king’s courts to support his title to his lands. From the first the work of the genealogist in England had that taint of inaccuracy tempered with forgery from which it has not yet been cleansed. The mediaeval kings, like the Welsh gentry of later ages, traced their lines to the household of Eden garden, while lesser men, even as early as the 14th century, eagerly asserted their descent from a companion of the Conqueror. Yet beside these false imaginations we find the law courts, whose business was often a clash of pedigrees, dealing with genealogies centuries long which, constructed as it would seem from worthy evidences, will often bear the test of modern criticism. Genealogies in great plenty are found in manuscripts and printed volumes from the 16th century onward. Remarkable among these are the descents recorded in the Visitation Books of the heralds, who, armed with commissions from the crown, the first

of which was issued in 20 Hen. VIII., perambulated the English counties, viewing arms and registering pedigrees. The notes in their register books range from the simple registration of a man’s name and arms to entries of pedigrees many generations long. To the heralds these visitations were rare opportunities of obtaining fees from the visited, and the value of the pedigrees registered is

notably unequal. Although it has always been the boast of the College of Arms that Visitation records may be produced as evidence in the law courts, few of these officially recorded genealogies are wholly trustworthy. Many of the officers of arms who recorded them were, even by the testimony of their comrades, of indifferent character, and even when the visiting herald was an ae ourable and industrious man he had little time to spare for the

investigation of any single genealogy. Deeds and evidences in private hands may have been hastily examined in some instances— indeed, a herald’s summons invites their production—and monuments were often viewed in the churches, but for the most part

men’s memories and the hearsay of the country-side made the backbone of the pedigree. The further the pedigree is carried’ beyond the memory of living men the less trustworthy does it become. The principal visitations took place in the reigns of Elizabeth, James I., Charles I. and Charles II. No commission has been issued since the accession of William and Mary, but from that

time onwards large numbers of genealogies have been recorded in

the registers of the College of Arms, the modern ones being com-

piled with a care which contrasts remarkably with the unsupported

statements of the Tudor heralds. Outside the doors of the College of Arms genealogy has now

103

modern critical spirit. Nevertheless, the 2oth century has not yet seen the abandoning of all the genealogical fables nourished by the Elizabethan pedigree-mongers, and the ancestry of many noble houses as recorded in popular works of reference is still derived from mythical forefathers. Thus the dukes of Norfolk, who, by their office of earl marshal are patrons of the heralds, are provided with a roth century Hereward for an ancestor; the dukes of Bedford, descendants of a 15th century burgess of Weymouth, are traced to the knightly house of Russell of Kingston Russell, and the dukes of Westminster to the mythical Gilbert le Grosvenor who “came over in the train of the Conqueror.” Genealogical research has, however, made great advance during the last generation. The critical spirit shown in such works as Round’s Studies in Peerage and Family History (1901) has assailed with effective ridicule the methods of dishonest pedigreemakers. Much raw material of genealogy has been made available for all by the publication of parish registers, marriage-licence allegations, monumental inscriptions and the like, and above all by the mass of evidences contained in the volumes issued by the Public Record Office. Within a small space it is impossible to set forth in detail the methods by which an English genealogy may be traced. But those who are setting out upon the task may be warned at the outset to avoid guesswork based upon the possession of a surname which may be shared by a dozen families between whom is no tie of kinship. A man whose family name is Howard may be presumed to descend from an ancestor for whom Howard was a personal name: it may not be presumed that this ancestor was he in whom the dukes of Norfolk have their origin. A genealogy should not be allowed to stray from facts which can be supported by evidence. A man may know that his grandfather was John Stiles who died in 1850 at the age of fifty-five. It does not follow that this John is identical with the John Stiles who is found as baptized in 1795 at Blackacre, the son of William Stiles. But if John the grandfather names in his letters a sister named Isabel Nokes, while the will of William Stiles gives legacies to his son and daughter John Stiles and Isabel Nokes, we may agree that reasonable proof has been given of the added generation. A new pedigree should begin with the carefully tested statements of living members of a family. The . next step should be to collate such family records as Bible entries, letters and diaries, and inscriptions on mourning rings, with monumental inscriptions of acknowledged members of the family. From such beginnings the genealogist will continue his search through the registers of parishes with which the family has been connected; wills and administrations registered in the various probate courts form, with parish registers, the backbone of most middle-class family histories. Court rolls of manors in which members of the family were tenants give, when existing and accessible, proofs which may carry back a line, however obscure, through many descents. When these have been exhausted the records of legal proceedings, and notably those of the court of chancery, may be searched. Few English households have been able in the past to avoid an appeal to the chancery court, and the bill and answer of a chancery plaintiff and defendant will often tell the story of a family quarrel in which a: score of kinsfolk are involved; the plead. ings may contain the material for a family tree of many branching generations. Coram Rege and De Banco rolls may even, in the course of a dispute over a knight’s fee or a manor carry a pedigree to the Conquest of England, although such good fortune can

hardly be expected by the searcher out of an undistinguished line.

In proving a genealogy it must be remembered that in the descent of an estate in land must be sought the best evidence for

been for some centuries a favourite study ofantiquaries, whose

a pedigree. At the present time the study of genealogy grows’ rapidly in

the English baronage heads another host of works occupied with

A family with the surname of Cuthbert has been known to hail St.

“G.E.C.’s” Complete Peerage shows’ the. mighty advance of the

hardt has incorporated in its pedigree such German princes of ‘old

researches have been of the utmost value to the historian, the English estimation. It is no less popular in, America, where societopographer and the biographer. County histories, following the ties and private persons have of late years published a vast numexample of Dugdale’s Warwickshire folios, have given much space ber of genealogies, many of which combine the results of laborious to the elucidation of genealogies and to the amassing of material research in American records with extravagant and unfounded from which they may be constructed. Dugdale’s gréat work on claims concerning the European origin of the families dealt with.

the genealogy of English noble families, and the second edition of Cuthbert of Lindisfarne as its progenitor, angone surnamed Eber-

GENEE—GENERAL

104

times as were found to have Eberhardt for a Christian name. Genealogy in modern France has, with a few honourable exceptions, fallen into the hands of the popular pedigree-makers, whose concern is to gratify the vanity of their employers. Italy likewise has not yet shaken off the influence of those venal genealogists who, three hundred years ago, sold pedigrees cheaply to all comers. But much laborious genealogical inquiry had been made in Germany since the days of Hiibner, and even in Russia there was some attempt to apply modern standards of criticism to the chronicles of the swarming descendants of the blood of Rurik. In no way is the gap made by the dark ages between ancient and modern. history more marked than by the fact that no European family makes a serious claim to bridge it with its genealogy. The unsupported claim of the Roman house of Massimo to a descent from Fabius Maximus is respectable beside such legends as that which made Lévis-Mirepoix head of the priestly tribe of Levi, but even the boast of such remote ancestry has now become rare. The ancient sovereign houses of Europe are, for the most part, content to attach themselves to some ancestor who, when the mist that followed the fall of the Western empire begins to lift, is seen rallying with his sword some group of spearmen. Brprrocrapuy.—Genealogical works have been published in such abundance that the bibliographies of the subject are already substantial volumes. Amongst the earlier books from the press may be noted Benvenuto de San Georgio’s Montisferrati marchionum et principum regiae propagium successionumque series (1515) ; Pingonius's Arbor gentilitiae Sabaudiae Saxoniaeque domus (1521); Gebweiler’s Epitome regii ac vetustissimi ortus Caroli V. et Ferdinand: I. omniumque archiducum Austriae et comitum Habsburgienstum (1527); Meyers work on the counts of Flanders (1531), and Du Boulay’s genealogies of the dukes of Lorraine (1547). Later in the same century Reineck of Helmstadt put forth many works having a wider genealogical scope, and we may cite Henninges’s Genealogiae Saxonicae (1587) and Theatrum genealogicum (1598), and Reusner’s Opus genealogicum catholicum (1589-1592). For the politically inconvenient falseness of Francois de Rosiéres’s Stemmata Lotharingiae ac Barri ducum (1880), wherein the dukes of Lorraine were deduced from the line of Charlemagne, the author was sent to the Bastille by the parlement of Paris and his book suppressed. The 17th century saw the production in England of Dugdale’s great Baronage (1675-1676), a work which still holds a respectable place by reason of its citation of authorities, and of Sandfor history of the royal house. In the same century André Duchesn the historian of the Montmorencys, Pierre d’Hozier, the chronicle of the house of La Rochefoucauld, Rittershusius, Imhoff, Spener,

(1849). Valuable genealogical material will be found in such period; icals as the Genealogist, the Herald and Genealogist, the Topographer, ` and Genealogist, Collectanea topographica et genealogica, Miscellaneg genealogica et heraldica and the Ancestor. In Germany the Deutscher Herold is the organ of the Berlin Heraldic and Genealogical Society: The Nederlandsche Leeuw is a similar publication. i Modern criticism of the older genealogical methods will be found’ in J. H. Round’s Peerage and Pedigree, 2 vols. (London, 1910), and in other volumes by the same author. The Harleian Society has published many volumes of the Herald’s Visitations; and the

British Record Society’s publications, supplying a key to a vast

mass

of wills,

chancery

suits

and

marriage

licences,

are

of stil]

greater importance. The Victoria History of the Counties of England

includes genealogies of the ancient English county families still among: the land-owning classes. English pedigrees before the Conquest are in W. G. Searle’s Anglo-Saxon Bishops, Kings and Nobles (1899), Genealogical dictionaries of noble French families include Victor de Saint Allais’s Nobiliaire universel (21 vols., 1872—1877) and Aubert de la Chenaye-Desbois’ Dictionnaire de la noblesse (15 vols., 18631876). A sumptuous work on the genealogy and heraldry of the ancient duchy of Savoy by Count Amédée de Foras began to appear in 1863. Spain has Lopez de Haro’s Nobiliario genealogico de loş reyes y tulos de España, Italy has the Teatro araldico of Tettoni and Saladini (1841-1848), Litti’s Famiglie celebri and an Annuario della nobilità. Such annuals are now published more or less intermittently in many European countries. Finland has a Ridderscap och Adels Kalender, Belgium the Annuaire de la noblesse, the Dutch Netherlands an Adelsboek, Denmark the Adels-Garbog and Russia had the Annuaire of Ermerin. But chief of all such publications is the ancient Almanach de Gotha, containing the modern kinship of royal and princely houses, and now accompanied by volumes dealing with the houses of German and Austrian counts and barons, and with houses ennobled in modern times by patent. A useful moder reference book for students of history is Stokvis’s Manuel d'histoire: et de généalogie de tous les états du globe (1888-1893). The best man-, ual for the English genealogist is Walter Rye’s Records and ets Searching (1897). G. Gatfield’s bibliography (1892) is helpful. Data for American genealogies may be found in the New England Historical and Genealogical Register; New York Genealogical and Biographical Record; Genealogical Magazine of New Jersey; Publications of the Genealogical Society of Pennsylvania; Mayflower Descendant: New Haven Genealogical Magazine; Wiliam and Mary, College Quarterly; Maryland Historical Magazine; Virginia Magazine of History and Biography; South Carolina Historical and Genealogical Magazine; Nebraska and Midwest Genealogical Record; Utah Genealogical and Historical Magazine; National Genealogical Society Quarterly; Americana; Vineland Historical Magazine; Magazine of. American Genealogy; Lineage Books of the Daughters of the Am. Rev,

GENEE,

ADELINE

(c. 1882-

), Danish dancer, was

born at Aarhus, Jutland, and began to study her steps when a, child. After appearing in Berlin, Copenhagen and Paris, she came

Lohmeier and many others contribute to the body of continental enealogies. Pierre de Guibours, known as Pére Anselme de Ste e, published in 1674 the first edition of his magnificent Histoire yo London. The precision and technical perfection of her dancing made her a great favourite. For many seasons she was première généalogique de la maison royale de France, des pairs, grands oficiers de la couronne et de la maison du ray et des anciens barons decease at the Empire, London. She was in America in 1908-13,

du royaume. Qf this encyclopaedic work a third and complete edition appeared in 1726-1733. A modern edition under the editorship of M. Potier de Courcy began to be issued in 1873, but remains incomplete. Among 18th-century work Johann Hiibner’s Biblio.

theca genealogica (1729) and Genealogische Tabellen (1725-1733),

with Lenzen’s commentary on the latter work (c. ae with Gatterer’s Handbuch der Genealogie Abriss der Genealogie (1788), the latter an early science of genealogy. Hergott’s Genealogia diplomatica

Habsburgicae

(1737) is the imperial genealogy

emperors own histori

er.

1756), may be (1761) and his kind or class). It has been added to the titles of various officials, manual on the military officers and others; thus the head of a religious order augustae gentis

compiled

by the

ern peerages in England may be said to date from that o Arthur Collins, whose one-volume first edition was published in

r7og. The fifth edition appeared in 1778, in eight volumes, to be republished in 28r2 by Sir Egerton Brydges, the “Baptist Hatton”

of Disraeli’s novel, whe corrected many legendary pedigrees, besides inserting his own forged descent from a common ancestor with the dukes of Chandos. From this work and from the Irish peerage of Lodge (as re-edited _by Archdalf) most of the later peerages have quarried their material.

of Wotton and Betham.

With these may be named

the baronetages

Of modern popular peerages and baronet-

ages that of Burke has been published since 1822 in many editions and now appears yearly. Most important for the historian are the Complete Peerage of oe eel Cs ed. 1910), and the i o e author. e Peerage of Scotland {1769) of Sir Robert Douglas of Glenbervie came to a edition

in 3813, edited by J. P. Wood, and the whole work has been revised and re-edited by Sir James Balfour Paul (1904, etc.). Of the popular manuals of English untitled families, Burke’s Genealogical and Heraldic Dictionary of the Commoners (1833-1838) is now brought up to date from time to time and reissued as the Landed Gentry.

Lists of pedigrees in English

rFENERAL, a term which, from its pointing to all or most of

the members of a class, the whole of an area, etc., as opposed to particular” or to “local,” is hence used in various shades of meaning for that which is prevalent, usual, widespread, or miscel; laneous, indefinite, vague (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus,

printed works are supplied by Mar-

shall’s Genealogist’s Guide (1903), while pedigrees in the manuscript collections of the British Museum are indexed in the list of R. Sims

is the “Superior-general,” more usually the “general,” and we find the same combination in such offices as that of “accountant: general,” “postmaster-general,” “attorney-” or “solicitor-general,”

and many others, the additional word implying that the official

in question Is of superior rank, as having a wider authority or’

sphere of activity. This is the use that accounts for the applica-

tion of the term, as a substantive, to a military officer of superior.

rank, a “general officer,” or “general,” who commands or admin-

isters bodies of troops larger than a regiment, or consisting of

more than one arm of the service (see also Orricers).

It was

towards the end of the 16th century that the word began to be,

used in its present sense as a noun, and in the armies of the time: the “gener I” was commander-in-chief, the “‘lieutenant-general”

commander of the horse and second in command of the army,

and the “major-general” (strictly “‘sergeant-major-general”) com ‘ mander of the foot and chief of the staff. Field marshals, who; have now the highest rank, were formerly subordinate to the’ general >

offiters. ł

major-general—are

and third

These titles—general, , è °

lieutenant-general

cat

` ip, still applied in most armies to the &first, second’, ?

gtades of general officer. It may be noted that durin i

the 17th century “general” was not confined to a commanding

GENERAL

AVERAGE—GENERAL

officer of an army, and was also equivalent to “admiral”;

thus

affiliated companies

STRIKE

105

directly connected with its activities.

Its

products include Chevrolet, Pontiac, Oldsmobile, Oakland, Buick, La Salle and Cadillac motor cars, Fisher bodies, Delco-Light electric plants, and Frigidaire automatic refrigerators; also Hyatt Popham and Richard Deane, were styled “generals at sea.” roller bearings, New Departure ball bearings, Klaxon horns, HarGENERAL AVERAGE: see AVERAGE. GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY, LTD. (1) A Brit- rison radiators, Delco-Remy starting systems, guide lamps and ish joint stock company, covers in its operations the entire field of Lovejoy hydraulic shock absorbers, Jaxon rims, AC spark plugs, electrical engineering, from the equipment of the largest generat- speedometers, air cleaners and oil filters,- Brown-Lipe-Chapin ing stations, power transmission systems, railway electrifica- differential gears, Jacox steering gears and Inland steering wheels, tions and the like down to lamps, bells and the small electrical General Motors trucks, Yellow cabs and coaches. Its outstanding stock issues as of Sept. 30, 1928, consisted of $134,916,000 in accessories used in domestic service. The foundations of the present company were laid in 1886 with preferred and debenture stock, par value $100 and $435,000,000 a small London establishment for the supply of electrical appa- in common stock, par value $25 a share. There were no bonds. The plants of the corporation are located in more than 50 ratus. With electric lighting a commercial success, a new department was established, and the “G.E.C.,” as it is familiarly known, cities in the United States and abroad in which were built 1,562,has developed. In the early eighteen-nineties the lamp works, the 748 cars in 1927. The cars are sold by 18,000 dealers in over source of Osram lamps, were incorporated, followed by glass works 100 countries. The wholesale value in 1927 of its exports exceeded $170,000,000. During 1924 it made one in every six cars for the conversion of the raw material at Leamington. In 1900 42 acres of land were purchased at Witton, Birming- made in the United States and Canada; in 1925 one in every ham, for the erection of works for the making of dynamos, mo- five; in 1926 one in every four and in 1927 almost one in every tors, conduit tubes, etc., followed soon after by the purchase of a two. The total net sales of the corporation in 1927 aggregated further 63 acres, partly for works extensions and partly for a hous- $1,269,519,673; on its payrolls there were in that year 200,000 ing estate for the employees. The arc-lamp carbon works estab- employees receiving more than $300,000,000 in wages. (A. P. Sr.) lished at this time on this site, the only one of its kind in Great GENERAL STRIKE. The strike weapon (or stoppage of Britain, subsequently played an important part in the World War. While the war was in progress the G.E.C. made further exten- work, in the sense of withdrawal of labour) is usually employed sions in many directions, chiefly at the instance of the Govern- for the purpose of securing an improvement in working condiment and in 1928 was a self-contained enterprise, covering every tions; it is often used to resist reductions of wages or addition to department of electrical manufacture and reaching out to all areas. working hours, though in such a dispute the stoppage is usually a In addition to the administrative departments at Kingsway, there | “lock-out.” Many strikes are confined to individual factories were 21 home branches, numerous branches overseas, and agencies or workshops. Others extend to towns or areas; and some to in all the principal markets of the world. The nominal capital of industries on a national scale, like coal mining or cotton manuthe company was nearly £10,000,000, of which some £6,000,000 facture. If all industries combined in stoppage that would form was share capital, and the remainder debentures. The profits in a national or general strike; but in practice no country has ever had, in the strictly comprehensive sense, a general strike. At best, 1927 exceeded £1,000,000. (X.) (2) A United States electrical manufacturing concern created stoppages have varied greatly in range and effect. And the broad in 1892, and incorporated in New York under a special act of experience of two centuries in Great Britain is roughly similar to the legislature, Chapter 323, Laws of 1892, as amended by Chapter that of practically all the industrial countries of the world. It indicates that there is no easily identified body of theory or 181, Laws of 1922, State of New York. Its principal office is at practice bearing on the general strike. In their History of Trades Schenectady, N.Y. On Jan. 1, 1893, the outstanding capital stock of the company Unionism, Mr. and Mrs. Sidney Webb noted three different methwas about $35,000,000 and at the beginning of 1928 had grown ods which during that period the trade unions had adopted for to $223,000,000. In 36 years annual sales increased from $r2,- enforcing the common rules they wished to have adopted in the 000,000 to $312,000,000. The value of its manufacturing plants conditions of employment: (1) mutual insurance; (2) legal enincreased from $4,000,000 to $200,000,000 and manufacturing actment; and (3) after 1824, collective bargainmg. In the last floor space from 400,000 to more than 25,000,000 sq.ft., while 20 or 30 years, up to 1914, both the great strikes and the gradual the number of employés grew from 4,000 to 73,000. These figures changes of the period have been regarded as of less importance do not include associated companies, which are represented by an than the series of legal decisions of the House of Lords as final court of appeal. investment of slightly more than $90,000,000. : Towards the end of the first quarter of last century there was In the United States the company has 24 main manufacturing plants, is represented by distributors in 103 cities and has sales considerable industrial strife; it included an almost general lockoffices in all important centres. The Canadian General Electric out in Glasgow, a strong combination of seamen on the north-east Co., Ltd., operates throughout the Dominion of Canada. The coast, and the enforcement of many by-laws by the Dublin trades, export and foreign business is conducted by the International then better organized than others in Great Britain. Joseph Hume General Electric Co., Inc., which is represented throughout the and Francis Place pleaded for moderation. They warned the unions of the danger of reaction. But ship-owning interests, among world. The General Electric company maintains fully a dozen labora- others, at that time generally hostile to unionism, pressed for tories, including the well known research laboratory at Schenec- parliamentary inquiry into the conduct of workmen and the effect tady, N.Y. General Electric and its associated companies design, of recent legislation. Many of the employers suggested the com-

when under the Protectorate the office of lord high admiral was put into commission, the three first commissioners, Blake, Edward

manufacture and sell almost every form of apparatus and device for the generation, transmission, distribution, control, measurement and consumption of electric energy. The General Electric company has had three presidents: the late Charles A. Coffin, E. Wilbur Rice, Jr., and Gerard Swope.

There have been three chairmen of the board: H. McK. Twombly,

Charles A. Coffin and Owen D. Young.

(G. Sw.)

GENERAL MOTORS CORPORATION, organized Oct. 13, 1916 to succeed a company with a similar name formed Sept. 16, 1908, for the purpose of manufacturing automotive equip-

ment, is an operating organization owning the assets of manufac-

turing operations which are designated as divisions. It also owns a large part or all of the stock of a number of subsidiary- and

plete abolition of trade unionism; others would have made even friendly socìeties impossible. A more definite form of strike action is traceable in the revolutionary period or that of the new unionism between 1829 and 1842. Appreciating the weakness of isolated action, or effort on a purely craft basis, many trade union leaders attempted to form national societies of all trades; they also urged that all manual

workers should belong to one comprehensive organization. When a six months’ strike at Hyde, near Manchester, failed, there was immediate support for the view that no local union could succeed against a combination of employers. Succeeding conferences advocated central executives for different industries; and in the case

of the cotton spinners a grand general council of the United King-

106

GENERAL

STRIKE

; they colntative by committees of sympathizers in other trade societies dom was established, although the records of its represe London, The ce. assistan other d rendere and tions subscrip lected From character as covering the three kingdoms are incomplete. in a strike committee; the earlier and purely began council trades union; trades the of n ambitio such projects emerged the greater emergency committee gave way by 1860 to permanent councils that is, a national association representative of all classes of wagein many of the large centres of population. In June 1866 deleearners whose large-scale organizations would be able to face gates representing all the leading trade unions met at Sheffield machin such But . lock-out considerable strain both in strike and to devise a method of defence against the constant use of the rs ery was at this point impressive only on paper; the employe lock-out. The conference does not appear to have decided what, were generally victorious; and the admittedly prejudiced report constituted a lock-out as distinguished from a strike; there was of ts opponen the for l of Nassau Senior supplied fresh materia certainly much friction among the individual organizations. The of t trade unionism, particularly in arguments regarding restrain Union royal commission which investigated trade union problems at this trade. Ultimately the Grand National Consolidated Trades period presented an inconclusive and inconsistent report. Sucincreasan even not (1833-34, see Rosert Owen) collapsed; and ceeding years were full of similar sectional activity. The miners ing economic prosperity brought success to strikes promoted in the cotton operatives achieved certain victories in legislation; and 1834 of summer the In labour. of ns interests of better conditio unions had on occasion the support of several organs of the trade ration, federal organizations were plainly in process of disinteg in some parts of the country stoppages for specific objects later, the membership turned in part to consideration of Owenite press; ul; but throughout all this effort important organiza. » successf were of ion dislocat al industri rable social reform. Nor did the conside y emphasizing the futility of the strike weapon, . regularl were tions the r842 merit the description of a general strike. Much of arly true of the central executive of the particul is attitude activity of the period was bound up with Chartist agitation; at That Engineers. In tendering evidence to the of Society mated Amalga in ed submerg almost was one point the trade union movement it remarked that all strikes were a 1867 ion in commiss royal political effort. But many trade union leaders came to disapprove only in relation to the workmen but, not money, of e waste complet the year, that in when, and ion, ical associat c-polit of this economi 1873-74 is regarded as one of period s. The employer the to also obto strike Chartist executive at Manchester called for a general in trade union history; but the immediately tain the charter, local trade union officials were active in persuad- the high water marks strikes on a large scale. The conflict ip ing their members to avoid both the meetings and the resolutions. succeeding years include ended in failure for the workmen. 1878 in industry cotton the quarter Decline of the General Strike Idea.—In the next general collapse of trade union, forces of a century there was much gradual building up of large amal- Almost immediately a le to resist reductions in wages and gamated societies of skilled artisans, with centralized administra- began; it proved to be impossib ing policy within the unions led to Conflict s hours. in increase tion, friendly society benefits, and substitution of industrial machinery was clearly inadegeneral s; their able weaknes consider 1843 Between warfare. class of methods cruder the for diplomacy d only limited success, on achieve s federati at attempt and quate; in successful largely as and 1860 trade unions were regarded The General Strike of 1926.—Such ebb and flow, characterachieving their more limited aims; in any event, of the aggressive first part of policy of 1830-34 little remained. Strikes were deprecated; there istic of the remainder of the 19th century and of the War, proWorld k the of outbrea the until century present the cesgeneral a was practically no trace of argument in favour of Certain ` sation of work. At a national conference in 1845 trade unionists duced no definite theory or practice of the general strike. measure the others; ensive than compreh s more were stoppage in activity union trade of method new a of declared their support conciliation or arbitration. So quickly, however, did circumstances of support accorded by trade unions to their colleagues in the change in the trade depression of 1845 that the next two years industries affected varied very considerably; and for the crisis : were remarkable for reduction of wages, strikes and lock-outs of 1926 there was no effective preparation or precedent. That (or turn-outs) in many branches of industry. Generally speaking, stoppage has been described by the general council of the trades these stoppages proved disastrous for the workers; there was union congress as a “national” rather than a “general” strike. much complaint regarding the weakness of their central execu- Pending the report of a royal commission appointed to enquire: tives and committees. In the midst of this dislocation representa- into the condition of coal-mining the British Government in 192! tive trade unionists were constantly urging the importance of gave temporary subsidy, amounting to £23,000,000 in all, for the timely words with the employers in the interest of pacific settle- purpose of enabling the industry to tide over the intervening . ment. The weapon of the strike, in the sense of declaring war on period. The detailed report of the general council of the congress the employers, was during these years of crisis taken away from summarizing events leading to the stoppage definitely suggests

many of the local branches; a local lodge had usually to submit that the Miners’ Federation of Great Britain, following the break.’ its demand to a vote of the whole body of members throughout down of negotiations, committed the future conduct of the dis-: is Great, Britain, a procedure which involved delay and gave cen- pute to the general council. Of great importance, this point tral committees an opportunity to work for peace. But Mr. clearly stated in a letter of May 1, 1926 to the prime minister and and Mrs, Webb emphasize the fact that although most of the signed by the acting secretary of the trades union congress. Earlyexecutive committees were from 1845 always setting their faces on May 3, 1926, the Government intimated that in their belief no against strikes, that did not imply the abandonment of an ener- solution of the difficulties in the coal industry which was both getic trade policy. This period, and succeeding periods, like their practicable and honourable to all concerned could be reached, predecessors, included a bewildering variety of movements for except by acceptance of the report of the royal commission. Prior

to the continuance of the negotiations the Government called for: the repudiation of a certain strike action (in the Daily Mail build;: ings), together with immediate and unconditional withdrawal ot, progress of large national trade societies like the Amalgamated the instructions for a general strike. The T.U.C. general coundl., Society of Engineers. From 1857 there was. another period of pleaded that the action on the part of the members of the Daily. organization

On a national basis, usually ending in failure ;

minor

or |stoppages; threats of general lock-out in the whole industry, as In the case of the engineering trade; and the growth and

strife... As before, the weakness of trade union organization was plain; in the 1859-6o strikes the masons alone of the building trades were regarded as effectively organized into a single society a extending throughout England, ,..

Mail staff had been taken entirely without their authority. Thee trade uniens had made no preparations for a stoppage on a large’

permanent trades councils appear in the leading industrial centres, an Important step in the consolidation of the trade union movement, In early times every important strike had, been, supported

termination of the strike by a process of attrition. By the gen ral ig a g

scale, and at once protested against Government’s suggéstions., fi

It was urged that the Government were in this case less media} Most of the authorities regerd the, distinctive policy. of the tors than a directly interested party, even before the negotiations Junta, the committee which largely regulated union policy from broke down. In the epinion of .the general council the position 1860-70, as the combination of extreme caution in trade matters adopted by, the Government in their ‘ultimatum left only tyg; and energetic agitation for political reforms. About this period alternatives, (1) the capitulation of the Government or (2) the council the first was regarded as unlikely, in view of the natio ayi resources, over which the Goyernment had control. The second aa

’

sf

GENERAL

STRIKE

107

was an alternative which the general council could not contem- |pared with the publications in the interests of the strike it had plate, on the ground that it would disorganize the trade union | an undeniable advantage. Tens of thousands of volunteers facilitated food trains, lorries, and kindred provision; the milk pool in Hyde Park covered the metropolitan area and actually showed miners’ case. By this time the national strike, as it afterwards was a profit of £73,000 at the end of the stoppage. Special constabudescribed by the T.U.C., or general strike as it was described lary were increased from 98,000 to 226,000; nearly half a million by others, was in progress. Informal meetings with Sir Herbert volunteers were enrolled; and increasing transport provision was Samuel, who had acted as chairman of the royal commission, pro- further augménted by Admiralty resources in the carriage of mails duced a formula which was recommended by the trades union and other urgent traffic. Naval ratings secured the operation of congress for the acceptance of the Miners’ Federation. Its pro- electricity works in important centres, including 28 power stations posals commended themselves to the council, but were rejected in London. By May ro, more than 3,600 trains were running; by the miners; and, finally appreciating that the deadlock was considerable numbers of men had returned to work; a day later, complete, the general council decided to issue notices terminating Woolwich arsenal employees decided to return; and men engaged the strike. They pleaded that in view of all the facts known to in the shipbuilding and engineering trades, who had been called them they felt it to be in accordance with the instructions they out, made only partial response. British financial strength was had received from the conference of trade union executives that fully maintained; and there was no suggestion of panic. All the the strike should be terminated with the maximum of advantage facts indicate that a strike on a national scale is now exceedingly both to the miners and to the other trade unions; on that ground it difficult to maintain, chiefly because (1) there is no guarantee of was important that a decision should be reached while the unions more than very limited response to the strike call by the workers remained strong and well disciplined. On the one hand, the miners themselves; (2) the remarkable growth of motor and other transrejected the Samuel memorandum, regarded by the general coun- port proves that alternative service, chiefly of voluntary character, cil of the trades union congress as an equitable basis for settle- can be readily mobilized; (3) essential services, such as gas, water ment; on the other, the general council pleaded its responsibility and electricity, can be covered by Admiralty and War Office reto trade unionism in general, contending that it could not follow sources, at all events in the larger centres of population; and (4) the miners’ executive in a policy of mere negation, that such a there is nowhere that complete paralysis of effort which, in all course would permit the splendid response of the sympathetic theory of the general strike, has always been regarded as essential strike to disappear in process of attrition, bring the unions to to its speedy success. Economic alternatives are now such that bankruptcy, undermine the morale of their membership, destroy even a much larger stoppage than that of 1926 could be worn their capacity to resist attempts which might be made to impose down in comparatively short time, especially as the strain on the adverse conditions, and to discriminate against the membership resources of the unions would be immediately much greater than when the industries directly engaged in the strike resumed opera- that of those of the State. And since leading transport unions on tions. This decision to end the strike was unanimous, and some the conclusion of the strike signed agreements undertaking not to months later the policy of the general council was approved by call a stoppage in future before negotiation with the railway coman overwhelming majority in a conference of trade union execu- panies and other employers, as well as the fact that the Trades Disputes Act of 1927 is now on the Statute Book, any large scale tives called to hold the “inquest” on the strike. Why the 1926 Strike Failed.—Broadly speaking, the events strike is now apparently remote. (See DIRECT ACTION.) CW. Gr.) of 1926 suggest that the difficulties of organizing a successful BIBLIOGRAPHY.—For the theory of the general strike see E. Buisson, general strike are almost overwhelming. In Great Britain at least 15,000,000 people are definitely engaged in industrial and La Grève Générale (1905); H. Lagardelle, Za Gréve Générale et le Socialisme (1905); E. Pataud, and E. Pouget, Comment nous ferrons commercial pursuits, But trade union organization covered little la Revolution (Eng. trans., 1913); A. D. Lewis Syndicalism and the more than 5,000,000 at the time of the strike; of that 5,000,000, General Strike (1912); J. R. Commons and others, History of Labour 1,500,000 are estimated to have taken part, plus rather more than in the U.S.A. (1918) ; Paul Brissenden, History of the IW.W. (1919); 1,000,000 in the coal-mining industry not at work. The aggregate G. D. H. Cole, The World of Labour (1913); and R. W. Postgate, Bolshevik Theory (1920). For the general strike of 1926 see response was small, even among people to be regarded as sympa- The G. Glasgow, General Strikes and Road Transport (1926); K. Martin, thetic. The direct cost to the State, placed in a supplementary The British Public and the General Strike (1926); A. J. Cook, The estimate at £433,000, was far below what the maintenance of Nine Days (1926); E. Burns and R. P. Arnot, The General Strike, essential services was regarded as certain to involve; the volume 2 separate vols. (1926-27); R. W. Postgate, E. Wilkinson and J. F, of voluntary assistance was remarkable. The indirect cost is more Horrabin. A Workers History of the Great Strike (1927, full bibl.). dificult to measure; but £50,000,000 or £60,000,000 has been The General Strike in the United States and Canada.— suggested. For industry as a whole the loss was undoubtedly The trade union movement in the United States and Canada has much more substantial. But such loss does not involve immediate neither used nor advocated the general strike. Organized labour, pressure on the community; the advantage to the strikers for numbering 3,500,000 members among 30,000,000 wage earners, purely strike purposes is therefore much reduced. On the other lacks the numerical strength needed for effective general strike hand, the resources of the unions are speedily exhausted. The action. Structurally the trade union movement is unadapted to general strike cost the National Union of Railwaymen at least the use of such a weapon. Each of the 107 unions loosely afili£1,000,000. In addition to assistance rendered directly by other ated in the American Federation of Labour jealously preserves the unions the trades union congress was able to allocate from sub- right to independent action. Railroad unions, essential in a general scriptions more than £63,000 to the Miners’ Federation. To a strike movement, are not even affiliated with the A.F. f L. special fund promoted for the Miners’ Federation, more than In revolt against this particularism, the Industrial Workers of £93,000 was contributed. Impressive as these sums were, they the World was formed by socialists and syndicalists in 1905. to were small in comparison with the need. At the end of 1925 the advance concepts of industrial unionism and the general strike. total membership of British trade unions was 4,447,818; the This organization failed to achieve the effective industrial organipreliminary figures for 1926, the year of crisis, showed a loss of zation necessary as the basis for a general strike., 300,000. Moreover, the general strike involved the heaviest exNevertheless during the war and immediately after, general penditure in dispute pay ever experienced by’ registered trade strike propaganda penetrated deeply into western American unions in any one year. In consequence, their funds were reduced unions. The Seattle general strike of 60,000 workers called Feb. 6, from £12,750,000 to a little more than £8,500,000. Only in 1921, 1919 by the city labour council, was ended Feb. rı without obwhen they disbursed £7,000,000 in unemployment pay, have trade taining its objective of helping shipyard workers on strike to gain unions suffered suçh inroads on their resources, wage increases. The Winnipeg strike called May r5, 1919 by the Although the printing and allied ‘trades ceased work, the Gov- city central body in support of. metal trades unionists striking érhment. and private effort were able to or e a press service for recognition and wage increases, lasted six weeks and. involved which speedily reached ai considerable section of the people; com- 25,000 workers,|Even civil servants joined the walkout and the

movement, completely establish reactionary elements in the coun-

try, and kill any possibility of getting fair consideration of the

108

GENERATION—GENESIS

police force was discharged for strike sympathies. National union officials counselled against these strikes and in many cases where contracts had been violated, ordered their members back to work. Following failure of these two walkouts, the general strike fell into disfavour and consequent industrial depression made the weapon impracticable.

BreuiocraPuHy—Anna Louise Strong, Seattle General Strike (1919) ; Ole Hanson, Americanism and Bolshevism (1920) ; Defense Committee, Winnipeg General Sympathetic Strike (1919); Committee of 1,000, Winnipeg General Strike (1919). Files of Industrial Worker, Seattle, Solidarity, Chicago, I:W.W. publications, and of Union Record, official

by the more recent light from external evidence, and no alter-

native theory has as yet been produced. According to this, Genesis is a post-exilic work composed of a post-exilic priestly source’ (P) and non-priestly earlier sources which differ markedly from P in language, style and religious standpoint, but much less markedly from one and another. These sources can be traced elsewhere in the Pentateuch and Joshua, and P itself is related

to the post-exilic works Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah. In its present form Genesis is an indispensable portion of the biblical

history, and consequently its literary growth cannot be viewed

apart from that of the books which follow. On internal grounds it appears that the Pentateuch and Joshua, as they now read, vitan older history by “Deuteronomic” any one of the various methods by which plants, animals or sub- tually come in between in Judges and Kings), and the stances are produced (Lat. generare). The subject may be divided compilers (easily recognizable in Chronicles, where the influmonarchy the of treatment and later life of origin first the (1) viz.: into the folowing branches, P and the present Mosaic produced which circle the of (3) ence and ion, living beings, (2) non-sexual or agamic reproduct been stages where gamic or sexual reproduction. For the first two of these branches legislation is quite discernible. There have been down, have cut extant adjusted sources or revised earlier third the S for ; OGENESI PARTHEN and IS see ABIOGENESIS, BIOGENES is the and more extensive division, including (1) the formation and by compilers who have incorporated fresh material, and it knit fairly a book the made have who Genesis of embryo compilers the later of ent developm the (2) and ovum, the of on fecundati (espeproblems literary the of investigation technical The whole. TION GY. and EMBRYOLO in different animals, see REPRODUC GENERATIONS, ALTERNATION OF. The alternating cially the extent of the earlier sources) is a work of great comphases—particularly the sexual and asexual changes—which take plexity, and, for ordinary purposes, it is more important to place in successive generations of animals and plants. In plants obtain a preliminary appreciation of the general features of the gamotophytes alternate with sporophytes, the latter being asexual, contents of Genesis. Value—That the records of the pre-historic ages in Gen. this phenomenon being found in all plants except certain lower forms in which sporophytes are absent. It is well exemplified in i—xi. are at complete variance with modern science and archaeomosses and ferns. Among animals the alternation of generations logical research is unquestionable. But although it is impossible takes several forms. The broods of butterflies and moths differ in to regard them any longer either as genuine history or as subcolour at certain seasons. In flat worms or trematodes, and jects for an allegorical interpretation (which would prove the insects such as Phylloxera, heterogenesis—the succession of a accuracy of amy record) they are of distinct value as human parthenogetically produced generation by a dioecious—takes place. documents. ‘They reflect the ideas and thoughts of the Hebrews, See REPRODUCTION, BRYOPHYTA, PTERIDOPHYTA, GYMNOSPERMS, they illustrate their conceptions of God and the universe, and they furnish material for a comparison of the moral development PROTOZOA, COELENTERATA, PLATYHELMINTHES, ANNELIDA. of the Hebrews with that of other early races. Some of the traGENERATOR: see ELECTRIC GENERATOR. GENESIS, the name of the first book in the Bible, derives ditions are closely akin to those current in ancient Babylonia, but its title from the Septuagint rendering of ch. ii. 4. It is the first a careful and impartial comparison at once illustrates in a strikof the five books (the Pentateuch), or, with the inclusion of ing manner the relative moral and spiritual superiority of our Joshua, of the six (the Hexateuch), which cover the history of writers. On these subjects see Cosmocony; DELUGE; PARADISE; the Hebrews to their occupation of Canaan. The “genesis” or and HEBREW RELIGION. The records of the patriarchal age, xii.—l. are very variously “becoming” (3,.¢., coming into being) of history begins with records of antediluvian times: the creation of the world, of the first pair estimated, although the great majority of scholars agree that of human beings, and the origin of sin (i-iii.), the civilization they are not contemporary and that they cannot be used as they and moral degeneration of mankind, the history of man to the stand, for pre-Mosaic times. Apart from the ordinary arguments time of Noah (iv.—vi. 8), the flood (vi. 9-ix.), the confusion of of historical criticism, it is to be noticed that external evidence languages and the divisions of the human race (x.—xi.). Turning does not support the assumption that the records preserve genumext to the descendants of Shem, the book deals with Abraham ine pre-Mosaic history. There are no grounds for any arbitrary (xii—xxv. 18), Isaac and Jacob (xxv. 19—xxxv.), the “fathers” distinction between the “pre-historic” pre-Abrahamic age and the of the tribes of Israel, and concludes with the personal history later age. External evidence, which recognizes no universal deluge of Joseph, and the descent of his father Jacob (or Israel) and and no dispersal of mankind in the third millennium B.c., throws his brethren into the land of Egypt (xxxvii-l.). The book of its own light upon the opening centuries of the second. It has Genesis, as a whole, is closely connected with the subsequent revealed conditions which are not reflected in Genesis, and impor: oppression of the sons of Israel, the revelation of Yahweh the tant facts upon which the book is silent—unless, indeed, in Gen. God of their fathers (Ex. iii. 6, 15 seq., vi. 2-8), the “exodus” xiv., there is a passing allusion to the great Babylonian monarch of the Israelites to the land promised to their fathers (Ex. xiii. 5, Khammurabi in the name Amraphel (see article ABRAHAM): Deut. i. 8, xxvi. 3 sqq., xxxiv. 4) and its conquest (Josh. i. 6, A perusal of modern attempts to recover historical facts or histor: xxiv.); cf. also the summaries Neh. ix. 7 sgg., Ps. cv. 6 sgg. For ical outline from the book will show how very inadequate the an analysis of the contents see the commentaries. material proves to be, and the reconstructions will be found to Its Compositeness.—Only on the assumption that the book depend upon an interpretation of the narratives which is often of Genesis is a camposite work is it possible to explain the dupli- liberal and not rarely precarious, and to imply such reshaping cation of events, the varying use of the divine names Yahweh and rewriting of the presumed facts that the cautious reader can and Elohim, the linguistic and stylistic differences, the internal place little reliance on them. Whatever future research may bring,

Seattle trade union daily.

(H. O’C.)

GENERATION, the act of procreation or begetting, hence

yntricacies of the subject matter, and the differing standpoints as regards tradition, chronology, morals and religion. The cumulative effect of the whole evidence is too strong to be withstood,

it cannot

was of composite origin. Immense labour has been spent upon

which they now appear; and the difference is an important one., We have now a background upon which to view the book, and,

remove

the internal peculiarities

which

combine

to

show that Genesis preserves, not literal history, but popular tra-

ditions of the past. External evidence has proved the antiquity |

and already in the 17th century it was recognized that the book of various elements, but not that of the form or context ii.

the ctitical analysis of the contents, but it is only since the work of Graf (1866) and Wellhausen (1878) that a literary hypothesis has been found which explains the most obvious intricacies. ‘The

Graf-Wellbausen literary theory has gained the assent of almost all trained and unbiased biblical scholars; it has not been shaken

on the one hand, it has become obvious that the records preserve,

(as is only to be expected) oriental customs, beliefs and modes,’

of thought.

But it has not been demonstrated that these ar

exclusively pre-Mosaic.

On the other hand, a better acquaintance i

GENESIS with the ancient political, sociological and religious conditions has made it increasingly difficult to interpret the records as a whole literally, or even to find a place in pre-Mosaic Palestine for the lives of the patriarchs as they are depicted. Neverthe-

less though one cannot look to Genesis for the history of the early part of the second millennium B.c., the study of what was thought of the past, proves in this, as in many other cases, to

be more instructive than the facts of the past, and it is distinctly more important for the biblical student and the theologian to understand the thought of the ages immediately preceding the foundation of Judaism in the sth century B.C. than the actual history of many centuries earlier. Characteristics——A noteworthy feature is the frequent personification of peoples, tribes or clans. (See GENEALOGY.) Midian (i.e., the Midianites) is a son of Abraham; Canaan is a son of Ham (ix. 22), and Cush the son of Ham is the father of Raamah and grandfather of the famous S. Arabian State Sheba and

the traders of Dedan (x. 6 sq., cf. Ezek. xxvii. 20-22). Bethuel the father of Rebekah is the brother of the tribal names Uz and Buz (xxii. 21 seg., cf. Jer. xxv. 20, 23). Jacob is otherwise known as Israel and becomes the father of the tribes of Israel; Joseph is the father of Ephraim and Manasseh, and incidents in the life of Judah lead to the birth of Perez and Zerah, Judaean clans. This personification is entirely natural to the oriental, and though ‘“‘primitive” is not necessarily an ancient trait (cf. 1 Chron. iv. 10). It gives rise to what may be termed the “prophetical interpretation of history” (S. R. Driver Genesis, p. 111), where the character, fortunes or history of the apparent individual are practically descriptive of the people or tribe which, according to tradition, is named after or descended from him. The utterance of Noah over Canaan, Shem and Japheth (ix. 25 seg.), of Isaac over Esau and Jacob (xxvii.), of Jacob over his sons (xlix.) or grandsons (xlviii.), would have no meaning for Israelites unless they had some connection with and interest for contemporary life and thought. Herein lies the force of the description of the wild and independent Ishmael (xvi. 12), the “father” of certain well-known tribes (xxv. 13~15); or the contrast between the skilful hunter Esau and the quiet and respectable Jacob (xxv. 27), and between the tiller Cain who becomes the typical nomad and the pastoral Abel (iv. 1-15). The interest of the struggles between Jacob and Esau lay, not in the history of individuals of the distant past, but in the fact that the names actually represented Israel and its near rival Edom. These features are in entire accordance with oriental usage and give expression to current belief, existing relationships, or to a poetical foreshadowing of historical vicissitudes. But in the effort to understand them as they were originally understood, it is very obvious that this method of interpretation can be pressed too far. It would be precarious to insist that the entrances into Palestine of Abraham and Jacob (or Israel) typified two distinct immigrations. The separation of Abraham from Lot (cf. Lotan, an Edomite name), of Isaac from Hagar-Ishmael, or of Jacob from EsauEdom scarcely points to the relative antiquity of the origin of these non-Israelite peoples who, to judge from the evidence, were closely related. Or, if the “sons” of Jacob had Aramaean mothers, to prove that those which are derived from the wives were upon a higher level than the “sons” of the concubines is more difficult than to allow that certain of the tribes must have contained some element of Aramaean blood (cf. 1 Chron. vil. 14, and see ASHER; Gap; MANASSEH, TRIBE OF). Some names are clearly not

those of known clans or tribes (e.g., Abraham, Isaac), and many of the details of the narratives obviously have no natural ethnological meaning. Stories of heroic ancestors and of tribal eponyms intermingle; personal, tribal and national traits are interwoven. The entrance of Jacob or Israel with his sons suggests that of the children of Israel. The story of Simeon and Levi at Shechem

is clearly not that of two individuals, sons of the patriarch Israel; in fact the story actually uses the term “wrought folly in Israel”

(cf. Jud. xx. 6, 10), and the individual Shechem, the son of

Hamor, cannot be separated from the city, the scene of the incidents. Yet Jacob’s life with Laban has many purely individual traits. And, further, there intervenes a remarkable passage with

109

an account of his conflict with the divine being who fears the dawn and is unwilling to reveal his name. In a few verses the

“wrestling” (‘-b-k) of Jacob (yé‘dkéb) is associated with the Jabbok (yabbdék); his “striving” explains his name Israel; at Peniel he sees “the face of God,” and when touched on his vulnerable spot (the hollow of the thigh) he is lamed, hence “the children of Israel eat not the sinew of the hip which is upon the hollow of the thigh unto this day” (xxxii. 24~32). Other examples of the fusion of different features can be readily found. Three divine beings appear to Abraham at the sacred tree of Hebron, and when the birth of Isaac (from sahak, “laugh’’) is foretold, the account of Sarah’s behaviour is merely a popular and trivial story suggested by the child’s name (xviii. 12-15; see also xvii. 17, xxi. 6, 9). An extremely fine passage then describes the patriarch’s intercession for Sodom and Gomorrah, and the narrative passes on to the catastrophe which explains the Dead Sea and its desert region and has parallels elsewhere (¢.g., the Greek legend of Zeus and Hermes in Phrygia). Lot escapes to Zoar, the name gives rise to the pun on the “little” city (xix. 20), and his wife, on looking back, becomes one of those pillars of salt which still invite speculation. Finally the names of his children Moab and Ammon are explained by an incident when he is a cave-dweller on a mountain. To primitive minds which speculated upon the “why and wherefore’ of what they saw around them, the narratives of Genesis afforded an answer. They preserve, in fact, some of the popular philosophy and belief of the Hebrews. They furnish what must have been a satisfactory origin of the names Edom, Moab and Ammon, Mahanaim and Succoth, Bethel, Beersheba, etc. They explain why Shechem, Bethel and Beersheba were an-

clent sanctuaries (see further below); why the serpent writhes along the ground (iii. 14); and why the hip sinew might not be eaten (xxxii. 32). To these and a hundred other questions the national and tribal stories (of which no doubt only a few have survived, and of which other forms, earlier or later, more crude or more refined, were doubtless current) furnish an evidently adequate answer. Myth and legend, fact and fiction, the common stock of oral tradition, have been handed down, and thus constitute one of the most valuable sources for popular Hebrew thought. The book is not to be judged from any one-sided estimate of its contents. By the side of much that seems trivial, and even nonmoral (for the patriarchs themselves are not saints) it is noteworthy how frequently the narratives are didactic. The characteristic sense of collective responsibility, which appears more incidentally in xx. 7, is treated with striking intensity in a passage (xviii. 23-33) which uses the legend of Sodom and Gomorrah as a vehicle for the statement of a familiar problem (cf. Ezek. xviii., Ps. lxxiii., Job). It will be observed that interviews with divine beings presented as little difficulty to the primitive minds of old as to the modern native; even the idea of intercourse of supernatural beings with mortals (vi. 1~4) is to-day equally intelligible. The modern untutored native has a not dissimilar

undeveloped and childlike attitude theology and a simple cultus. The told of imaginary figures, and the the lives of the historical heroes the testimony of modern travellers

towards the divine, a naive most circumstantial tales are most incredible details clothe of the past. So abundant is to the extent of which East-

ern custom and thought elucidate the interpretation of the Bible, that it is very important to notice those features which illustrate Genesis. “The oriental,” writes S$. I. Curtiss (Bzbl. Sacra, Jan. 1901, pp. 103 sgq.), “is least of all a scientific historian. He is the prince of story-tellers; narratives, real and imaginative, spring

from his lips, which are the truest portraiture of composite rather than individual oriental life, though narrated under forms of individual experience.” There are, therefore, many fundamental facts which combine to show that the critical student cannot isolate the book from oriental life and thought; its uniqueness lies in the manner in which the material has been shaped and the use to which it has been put. Questions of Date—The Book of Jubilees (mot later than ¢. 100 B.C.) presents the history in another form. It retains some of the canqnical matter, often with considerable reshaping; it omits

IIO

GENESIS

| ee

many details (especially those to which exception could be taken), |scattered and commended to the benevolence of the Israelites, . and adds much that is novel. The chronological system of the , But the curse obviously represents an attitude quite opposed to latest source in Genesis becomes an elaborate reckoning of heav- the blessing pronounced upon Levi by Moses (Deut. xxxiii. 8-11). , enly origin. Written under the obvious influence of Jater religious The Edomite genealogies (xxxvi.) represent a more extensive aims, it is especially valuable because one can readily compare people than the references in the popular stories suggest, and the the two methods of presenting the old traditions. The Book latter by no means indicate that Edom had so important a career of Jubilees (g.v.) also enables the student to test the arguments as we actually gather from a few allusions to its kings (xxxvi. based upon any study restricted to Genesis alone. Thus it shows 31-39). The references to Philistines are anachronistic for the that the “primitive” features of Genesis afford a criterion which pre-Mosaic age, and it is clear that the tradition of a solemn is sociological rather than chronological. This is often ignored. covenant with a Philistine king and his general (xxi. 22 seq., xxvi. For example, the conveyance of the field of Machpelah (xxiii.) 26 seg.) does not belong to the age or the circle which rememis conspicuous for the absence of any reference to a written con- bered the heavy oppressions of the Philistines. Similarly, the treattract in contrast to the “business” methods in Jer. xxxii. This ment of the covenant by the author of Jubilees (xxiv. 28 sqq.) does not prove that Gen. xxiii. is early, because writing was used is only intelligible when one recalls the attitude of Judah to the in Palestine about 1400 B.c., and, on the other hand, the more Philistine cities in the 2nd century B.c. Finally, the thread of the simple forms of agreement are still familiar after the time of tradition unmistakably represents a national unity of the 12 sons Jeremiah (e¢.g., Ruth, Proverbs). Similarly, no safe argument can (tribes) of Israel; but this unity was not felt at certain periods be based upon the institution of blood-revenge in Gen. iv., when of disorganization, and the idea of including Judah among the sons ~ one observes the undeveloped conditions among the Trachonites of Israel could not have arisen at a time when Israel and Judah of the time of Herod the Great (Josephus, An. xvi. 9, 1), or the were rival kingdoms. Thus in the original text of 2 Sam. xix. 43 varying usages among modern tribes. In the Book of Jubilees the men of Israel claim to be the first-born rather than Judah; there is the same kind of personification; there are fresh examples cf. also I. Chron. v. 1 sg. where Joseph obtains the birth-right. In of the “prophetical interpretation of history,” and by the side of so far as the traditions can be read in the light of biblical history the older “primitive” thought are ideas which can only belong to it is evident that they belong to different ages and represent difthis later period. In each case we have merely a selection of ferent national, tribal, or local standpoints. Religious Interests—Noteworthy is the interest taken in current traditional lore. For example, Gen. vi. 1-4 mentions the marriage of divine beings with the daughters of men and the sacred sites. Certain places are distinguished by theophanies or birth of Nephilim or giants (cf. Num. xiii. 33). Later allusions by the erection of an altar (Jz. place of. sacrificial slaughter). to this myth (e.g., Baruch iii. 26-28, Book of Enoch vi. sqq., Mizpak in Gilead is the scene of a covenant or treaty between 2 Peter ii, 4, etc.) are not based upon this passage: the fragment Jacob and his Aramaean relative commemorated by a pillar itself is all that remains of a more complete written myth. Old (Massébah). It was otherwise known for an annual religious myths underlie the account of the Creation and the garden of Eden, ceremony, the traditional origin of which is related in the story amd traces of other versions or forms appear elsewhere in the Old of Jephthah’s vow and sacrifice (Judg. xi.), and its priests Testament. Again, the Old Testament throws no light upon the are denounced by Hosea (v. 1). Shechem, the famous city of redemption of Abraham (Is. xxix. 22), although the Targums the Samaritans (“the foolish nation,” Ecclus I. 50, 26), where: and ether sources profess to be well-informed. The isolated ref- Joseph was buried (Josh. xxiv. 32), had a sanctuary and a sacred erence to Jacob’s conquest of Shechem in Gen. xlvili. 22 must pillar and tree. It was the scene of the coronation (a religious have belonged to another context, and later writings give in a ceremony) of Abimelech (Judg. ix.), and Rehoboam (I. Kings later and thoroughly incredible form allied traditions. In Hosea xii. 1). The pillar was ascribed to Joshua (Josh. xxiv. 26 seq.), xii. 4, Jacob’s wrestling is mentioned before the scene at Bethel and although Jacob set up at Shechem an “altar,” the verb sug: (Gen, xxxii. 24 sgg., xxviii, 1r sgg.). The overthrow of Sodom gests that the original object was a pillar (Gen. xxxiii. 20). The and Gomorrah is described, in Genesis (xviii. seg.)}, but Hosea first ancestor of Israel, on the other hand, is merely associated refers only to that of Admah and Zeboim (xi. 8, cf. Deut. xxix. with a theophany at an oracular tree (xii. 6). The Benjamite . 23, Gen. x. 19)—different versions of the great catastrophe were Bethel was especially famous in Israelite religious history. The. doubtless current. Consequently investigation must start with story tells how Jacob discovered its sanctity (it was the gate the particular details which happen to-be preserved, and these not of heaven), made a covenant with its God, established the sacred necessarily In their original or in their only form. Since the pillar, and instituted its tithes (xxviii.). The prophetess Deborah`

antiquity of elements of ‘tradition is independent of the shape in which they appear before us, a careful distinction must be drawn

between those details which do not admit of being dated or located

aud those which do. There is evidence for the existence of the sames Abram, Jacob and Joseph in early times, but this does not prove the antiquity of the present narratives encircling them.

Historical Backgrounds.—Popular tradition often ignores

events of historical importance, or, as repeated experience shows, will represent, them. in such a form that the true historical kernel could never have been recovered without some external clue. The absence of definite references to the events of the Israelite monarchy does not necessarily point to the priority of the traditions in Genesis or their later date. Nevertheless, some allusion to

national fortumes is reflected in the exaltation of Jacob (Israel)

ever Esau (Edom), and in the promise that the latter should

dwelt under a palm-tree near Bethel (Judg. iv. 5), and her name

is also that of the foster-mother of Rebekah who was buried near | Bethel beneath the “oak of weeping” (xxxv. 8). Bochim (“weeping’’) elsewhere receives its name when an angel appeared to the ° Israelites (Judg. ii. 1, Septuagint adds Bethel). To the prophets : Hosea and Amos the cultus of Bethel was heathen and, immotak ` even though it was Yahweh himself who was worshipped there (see BETHEL). South of Hebron lay Beersheba, an important centre and place of pilgrimage, with a special numen by whom.

oaths were taken (Amos viii. 14, see Sept. and cf, the commen;. taries). Isaac built its altar, and Isaac’s God guarded Jacob in his; journeying (xxxi. 29, xlvi. 1). This patriarch and his “brother”. Ishmael are closely associated with the district south of Judah;” both are connected with Beer-lahai-roi (xxiv. 62, Sept. xxv. 12);, whose fountain was the scene of a theophany (xvi.). Their tradi,’ tions are thus localized in the district of Kadesh, famous in the:,

break the yoke from his neck; later writers (in the Targums) bring this up-to-date, Israelite kings are foreshadowed (xvii. 6, events of the Exodus (cf. xvi. 14, xxi. 21, xxv. 18, Ex. xv. 22)i? xxxv. 1: P), and Israel’s kingdom has theideal limits as ascribed to Abraham planted a sacred tree at Beersheba and invoked “thet Solomon (xv. 18, see I. Kings iv, 2x; but of. art. SOLOMON), everlasting God? . (xxi. 33). But the patriarch is more closel* Judah is promised a world-wide king. (xlix. 810), though else- identified with Hebron, which hada sanctuary (cf. 2 Sam. xv. #% where the supremacy of Joseph rouses jealousy of his ‘“‘broth- seg.), and an altar which he built “unto Yahweh” (xiii. 18). The. ers” (xavi. 8). Different dates and circles of interest are thus

manifest. The cursing and dispersion of Simegn,and Levi (zlix.

sacred oak of Mamre was famous in the time of Josephus (B: ee iv. 9, 7), it was later a haunt of “angels” (Sozomen), and Coit’

Jidah (Josh. xix. 1, 9), and that the, Levitical priests are later

still has its holy tree. Beneath the oak there appeared the three d

in the territery of stantine was obliged to put down the heathenish cultus. The plad 5-7} recall the fact that Simeon’s cities were

GENET

III

archal traditions could not be presented in an entirely new form, and that to achieve their aims the writers could not be at direct the importance of Hebron. Taken from primitive giants by the variance with current thought. Southern Interests.—There is relatively little tradition from non-Israelite clan Caleb (g.v.) it is predominant in the patriarchal traditions. Jacob leaves his dying father at Beersheba north Israel; Beersheba, Beer-lahai-roi and Hebron are more (xxviii. 10), but according to the latest source he returns to him prominent than even Bethel or Shechem, and there are no stories at Hebron (xxxv. 27), and here, north of Beersheba, he continues of Gilgal, Shiloh or Dan. Yet in the nature of the case there to live (xxxvii. 14, xlvi. 1-5). The cave of Machpelah became the must have been a great store of local tradition accessible to some grave of Isaac, Rebekah and Leah (but not Rachel); and though writers and at some periods. Interest is taken not in Phoenicia, Jacob appears to be buried beyond the Jordan, it is the latest Damascus or the northern tribes, but in the east and south, in source which places his grave at Hebron (l. 1-11 and 12 seq.). Gilead, Ammon, Moab and Ishmael. Particular attention is paid So in still later tradition, all the sons of Jacob with the exception to Edom and Jacob, and there is good evidence for a close relaof Joseph find their last resting-place at Hebron, and in Jewish tionship between Edomite and allied names and those of south prayers for the dead it is besought that their souls may be bound Palestine (including Simeon and Judah). Especially significant, up with those of the patriarchs, or that they may go to the too, is the interest in traditions which affected the south of Palescave of Machpelah and thence to the Cherubim. The increasing tine, that district which is of importance for the history of Israel prominence of the old Calebite locality is not the least interest- in the wilderness and of the Levites. It is noteworthy therefore, ing phase in the comparative study of the patriarchal traditions. that while different peoples had their own theories of their earliest The association of the ancestors of Israel with certain sites history, the first-born of the first human pair is Cain, the eponym is a feature which finds analogies even in modern Palestine. of the Kenites, and the ancestor of the beginnings of civilization There are old centres of cult which have never lost the veneration (iv. 17, 20-22). This “Kenite” version had its own view of the of the people; the shrines are known as the tombs of saints or institution of the worship of Yahweh (iv. 26); it appears to welis (patrons) with such orthodox names as St. George, Elijah, have ignored the Deluge, and it implies the existence of a fuller etc. Traditions justify the reputation for sanctity, and not only corpus of written tradition. Elsewhere, in the records of the are similar stories told of distinct figures, but there are varying Exodus, there are traces of specific traditions associated with traditions of a single figure. Genesis preserves a selection of Kadesh, Kenites, Caleb and Jerahmeel, and with a movement into traditions relating to a few of the old Palestinian centres of cult. Judah, all originally independent of their present context. Like We cannot suppose that these first gained their sacred character the prominence of the traditions of Hebron and its hero Abrain the pre-Mosaic “patriarchal” age; there is in any case the ham, these features are not fortuitous, though the problems they obvious difficulty of bridging the gap between the descent into bring cannot be discussed here (see Camb. Anc. History, ii. 359 Egypt and the Exodus; and it is clear that when the Israelites $9q., tii. 472 sqq., Vi. 185 seq.). BIBLIOGRAPHY.--S. R. Drivers commentary (Westminster Series) entered Palestine they came among a people whose religion, tradition and thought were fully established. It is only in accordance deals thoroughly with all preliminary problems of criticism, and is the best for the ordinary reader; Dillmann (6th ed., E. trans.) is technical, with analogy if stories were current in Israel of the institution Ryle (Cambridge Bible) and Bennett (Century Bible) more popular. of the sacred places, and closer study shows that we do not Spurrell, Notes on the Text of Genesis, and Ball (in Haupt’s Sacred Books of tke O. T.) appeal to Hebrew students. Addis, Documents of preserve the original version of these traditions. A venerated tree in modern Palestine will owe its sanctity to the Hexateuch, Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, Tke Hexateuch, and C. F. Kent, Beginnings of Hebrew History, are important for the litsome tradition, associating it, it may be, with some saint; the erary analysis. J. Wellhausen’s sketch in his Proleg. to Hist. of Israel Israelites in their turn held the belief that the sacred tree at (E. trans., pp. 259-342) is admirable, as also is the general intro. Hebron was one beneath which their first ancestor sat when three (trans. by W. H. Carruth, 1907) to Gunkel’s valuable commentary. divine beings revealed themselves to him. But it is noteworthy Fuller bibl. information will be found in the works already mentioned, the articles in the Ency. Bib. (G. F. Moore), and Hastings’s Dict. that Yahweh alone is now prominent; the tradition has been in (G. A. Smith), and in the fine volume by J. Skinner in the Interrevised, apparently in writing, and, later, the author of Jubilees national Critical Series. (S. A. C) (xvi.) ignores the triad. At Beer-lahai-roi an El (“god”) appeared GENET, EDMOND CHARLES (1763-1834), French minto Hagar, whence the name of her child Ishmael; but the writer prefers the unambiguous proper name Yahweh, and, what is more, ister plenipotentiary to the United States in 1793, was born on Jan. the divine being is now Yahweh’s angel—the Almighty’s sub- 8, 1763, at Versailles. He was for a time attached to the embassy ordinate (xvi.). The older traits show themselves partly in the at Berlin and later to the embassy at Vienna; and at the age manifestation of various Els, and partly in the cruder anthro- of 18, following his father’s death, succeeded him as secretary pomorphism of the earlier sources. Later hands have by no means interpreter at the ministry of foreign affairs. In 1787 he was eliminated or modified them altogether, and in xxxi. 53 one can sent to the embassy at St. Petersburg where he remained unstill perceive that the present text has endeavoured to obscure til July 1792, when his liberal views made him persona non the older belief that the God of Abraham was not the God of his grata. After a brief stay in Paris, where he came more fully “brother” Nahor (see the commentaries). The sacred pillar under the influence of the Revolution, “citizen”? Genet was sent erected by Jacob at Bethel was solemnly anointed with oil, and as French minister to the Congress of the United States. He it (and not the place) was regarded as the abode of the Deity was assuming a position which would require much tact, but his (xxvili. 18, 22). This agrees with all that is known of stone-cults, impetuous nature combined with the ovations accorded him by but it is quite obvious that this interesting example of popular the Democratic-Republicans, led him into misjudging public belief is far below the religious ideas of the writer of the chapter opinion regarding American neutrality. His activities in instigating in its present form. There were many places where it could be military operations against the Spanish possessions of Florida and said that Yahweh had recorded his name and would bless his Louisiana and against Canada, the fitting out of privateers in worshippers (Ex. xx. 24). They were abhorrent to the advanced American ports, his acrimonious debates with the Federal Governethical teaching of prophets and of those imbued with the spirit ment and his caustic attacks on the president, demonstrate con-

vine beings, and in the cave of Machpelah the illustrious ancestor and his wife were buried. There is a distinct tendency to emphasize

of Deuteronomy

(cf. ii. Kings xviii. 4 with v. 22), and it is clusively his lack of diplomacy. Genet’s threat to override the executive by appealing to the people caused Washington to ask

patent from Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Is. lvi—lxvi. that even at a late date opinion varied as to how Yahweh was to be served. It is significant, therefore, that the narratives in Genesis (apart

the French republic to recall its representative. :His successor,

“citizen” Fauchet, brought orders te arrest him and send him back

from P) reflect a certain tolerant attitude; there is much that is to France for trial, but Washington refused to permit the extradicontrary to prophetical thought, but even the latest compilers have tion. He subsequently became a naturalized American citizen. not obliterated all features that, from a strict standpoint, could In 1794 he married Cornelia Tappen Clinton, daughter of the appear distasteful. Although the priestly source shéws how the lore could be reshaped, and Jubilees represents later efforts along

similar lines, it is evident that for ordinary readers the patri-

governor of New York and in 1814, four years after the death of

his first wife, married Martha Brandon Osgood, daughter of the first postmaster general. He died on July 14, 1834. B

GENET—GENEVA

II2

See M. Minnigerode, Lives and Times (1925) ; G. C. Genet, Washington, Jeferson and “Citizen” Genet 1793 (privately printed 1899) ; Report 1896 (1897) and Report 1897 (1898) of the American Historical Association; The American Historical Review vol. iii. (1898); and Mississippi Vailey Historical Review vol. vi.

GENET, a south European carnivorous mammal referable to

the Viverridae or family of civets, but also taken to include several allied species from Africa, The

occurs throughout the south of mereen Europe and in Palestine, as well RANAR

as North Africa. The furis ọfa dark-grey colour, thickly spotted

with black, and having a dark

| |

streams and feeds on small mammals and birds. It differs from the true civets in that the anal

ees

of the chain of Mont Blanc, the only other affluent of any six being the Allondon. Market gardens, orchards, and vineyard occupy a large proportion of the soil, the apparent fertility of which is largely due to the unremitting industry of the inhabi tants. In 1926 there were 6,907 cows, 2,575 horses, 4,585 swing and 2,298 bee-hives in the canton. Besides building materials, such as sandstone, slate, etc., the only mineral ta be found with, in the canton is bituminous shale, the products of which can be used for petroleum and asphalt. The canton is served by broad

territory belonging to the city (just around it, with the outlying districts of Jussy, Genthod, Satigny and Cartigny) 16 commune (to the south and east, including Carouge and Chéne) ceded by

= GENEL

CRGENEETD.

NEE:

pouch is a mere depression and contains only a faint trace of the characteristic odour of the former.

GENETICS,

The turbid Arve is its largest tributary and flows from the snows-

gauge railways and electric tramways. It was admitted into the Swiss Confederation in 1815 and ranks as the junior of the 2, cantons. In r8rs—r816 it was increased by adding to the olg

p

streak along the back, while thẹ # tail, which is nearly as long as the body, is ringed with black and white. It S the a of m

through it from east to west, and then along its south-west edge,

a term coined by Bateson to designate that

Savoy, and 6 communes (to the north, including Versoix), cy off from the French district of Gex. In 1920 the canton had 171,000, the city 135,059 inhabitants,

(In the following statistics those for the city are enclosed within brackets.) This population was divided as follows in point of

portion of biology concerned with heredity, variation, develop- religion: Roman Catholic 75,483 (57,744), Protestants 84,979 ment and evolution. It is the science which seeks to account for (68,016) and Jews 2,919 (2,815). In point of language 133,436 the resemblances and the differences which are exhibited among (102,699) were French-speaking, 20,705 (17,449) German-speak: organisms related by descent. Its problems are thase of the cause, ing, and 11,539 (10,118) Italian-speaking, while there were also the material basis, and the method of maintenance of the speci- 193 (170) Romansch-speaking. These are the figures for national; ficity of germinal substance; in other words, “how the characters ity: §4,901 (39,910) were Genevese citizens, and 64,376 (55,550) of parents and offspring are related, how those of the adult lie Swiss citizens of other cantons. Of the 51,721 (42,599) foreigners, latent in the egg, and how they become patent as development

‘abe Its methods are those of observation, experimental reeding, cytology and experimental morphology. Its prosecution

demands a knowledge of general physiology and of mathematics. Tt has both scientific and practical application: its principles impinge upon all doctrines of evolution and upon agricultural, animal and plant breeding practices, Its possible applications to human affairs have created the need for and the development of the applied science of eugenics (g.v.). Out of the aceumulated facts of genetical experimentation,

there has been developed the theory of the gene (g.v.) intended

to accommodate these facts. Jt states (1) that the hereditary

characters of the individual are referable to paired elements (the genes) in the germinal material (the chromosomes, g.v.) which

are held together in a definite number of linkage groups; (2) that

the members of each pair of genes separate when the germ-cells mature in accordance with Mendel’s first law, and that in consequence each ripe germ-cell comes to contain one set only;

(3) that the members of different linkage groups assort inde-

pendently in accordance with Mendel’s second law; (4) that an orderly interchange—crossing-over—also takes place, between the

there were 26,751 French, 14,744 Italians, 3,061 subjects of the German republic, 851 British subjects, 1,367 Russians, and somé citizens of the United States of America. In the canton ther

were 13,293 (6,639) inhabited houses and 49,626 (40,285) sepa rate households. In 1910 the canton contained 62,611 (51,740) foreigners but the number has fallen in consequence of the emigration during and after the World War.

HISTORY

se

In prehistoric times a great lake city, built upon piles which

may still be seen, existed where the waters from the Alpine lakes spread out over the plain before narrowing into the channel of, the Rhéne. This city was the prehistoric Geneva.

After the end

of the period of lake dwellings the inhabitants established them-

selves on the hill on the left bank of the lake and the river.

Caesar states that Geneva was a town

(oppidum)

situated

in the extreme north of the country of the Allobroges; the Rhéné

Separated it from the territory of the Helvetii, whose invasion Caesar repelled. The community (vicus) of Geneva was one of

those dependent on the city of Vienne. It was of some size, and

had temples, aqueducts, ports and ships. It was built on the elements in corresponding linkage groups; and (5) that the usual plan of intersecting roads meeting in a central forum. Ont Frequency of crossing-over furnishes evidence of the linear order road ran from the south to the lake ports, and the other from of the genes in each linkage group and of the relative position the east to the bridge over the Rhéne. When the district of of the genes with respect to each other. Vienne was made into a province, Geneva became a Roman city

_ The gene, a conception as reasonable and as real as the atom, ig to be looked upon as a particular state of organization of the chromatin at a particular point in the length of a particular chromosome. ($ee ANIMAL BREEDING, HEREDITY, CYTOLOGY,

MENDELISM and el BREEDING.)

Hy.—T. H. Mo ke Theor 1926) ; F, A. E. Crew, n a Mep in Ua iliam Bateson, Naturalist (1928).

i : T en (F. A. E. C.)

GENEVA, a city and canton of Switzerland, situated at the extreme south-west corner both of the country and of the Lake af Geneva or Lac Léman. The canton is, save Zug, the smallest

in the Swiss Confederation, while the city, long the most populoys in the land, is now surpassed by Zürich and by Basel.

The Canton,—The canton has an area of 108-9 sq.m., of which

(ivitas) with part of what is now Savoy dependent on it. When

the empire became Christian, a bishop was appointed at Geneva. After the Barbarian invasions the city shrank to half its former

size. It was now concentrated on the high ground; at the foot

of the hill the forum constituted a separate township, the Bourg

de Four. The pagan temples were converted into Christiat churches. At the top of the hill rose St. Peter’s, while St. Victor's was built in the detached part of the town. _ Order had been restored by the Burgundian kings in the sth

century, but Gundibald

was

defeated by Clovis

and his: so 5

were dethroned by the Franks (534). Geneva owed its impot tance to its bridge over the Rhône. In 563 the bridge was carried

4a nimmen manini $

away by a flood caused by a landslide at the other end of the lake: it was, however, immediately rebuilt. Geneva lay on the

11% are lake, It is entirely surrounded by French territory (the path of the armies marching to the conquest of Italy. Charl department of Haute Savoie to the south, and that of the Ain west and north), save for about 34 m. on the extreme north, where it borders on the Swiss canton of Vaud, The Rhone flows

praida

i

?=

yo} ¥ Li en aarE iT E Aç +

magne held.an assembly there in 773. After the break-up ọf $ H ei

empire, a new kingdom was set up in Burgundy, that of the’ Rudolphians. During the feudal period the Burgundian Kings

te Siete, £

anf

niE

GENEVA

L13

had more to fear from the hereditary counts of Genéva than from the elected bishops. Rudolph ITI. conferred estates on the bishops and favoured them at the expense of the counts. On his death in 1032 the emperors of the Holy Roman empire inherited

The latter town remained attachéd to the old faith, while Berne embraced the Reformation. One party in Geneva showed a

his lands. Frederick Barbarossa confirmed the temporal powers

speaking districts. After a certain amount of conflict, the people of Geneva declared definitely in favour of the Reformed faith on May 21, 1536. The bishop, Pierre de la Baume, had already left the city, never to return (July 14, 1533). The syndics and

of the bishop of Geneva, who became a prince of the empire, and made the Church independent of the nobles of the district. The count of Geneva had a residence in the town, the old royal chateau, but had to do homage to the bishop for the chateau and for other fiefs. The sole direct ruler of Geneva was the prince bishop. But the Genevese were always characterised by their passion for inde-

pendence, and imitating the example of the Italian towns, with which they traded, they attempted towards the end of the 13th century to create a municipal organization for themselves. They were able to play off against one another the rival rulers of the district. Savoy.—In Maurienne, a remote district of the country, there presently arose a count, who came to be known as the count of Savoy and was on bad terms with both the count of Geneva and the bishop. Peter of Savoy, who was well received in England by the queen, his niece, acquired the tights of the elder branch of the counts of Geneva, succeeded in depriving the younger branch of the county of Vaud, and entered into

relations with the city of Geneva.

His nephew Amadeus

the

Great declared himself the protector of the citizens, who had formed themselves into a municipality with syndics and other

officers. The count of Geneva was reduced to a mere vassal of his cousin of Savoy, while the bishop was compelled to yield to the latter his palace, together with the vidommat, the office empowering him to administer summary justice in the city. Finally the bishop recognized the municipality, after the

citizens, posted on the towers of St. Peter’s, had withstood bombardment by the count of Geneva from his castle. This castle

was dismantled in 1320. In the meantime the citizens had defeated the count’s army near the laké (June 6, 1307), a victory

comparable with that of the Swiss over the duke of Austria at the other end of Switzerland (Morgarten, 1315). But by calling

similar tendency, and this was encouraged by Berne. The French theologian Guillaume Farel was sent to convert the French-

the council took over the reins of authority, and claimed the

sovertign powers of the bishop. The Fribourgeois, who, together with the Bernese, had again come to the help of Geneva in 1530, now seceded from the alliance. The Bernese had their hands full with their obligations to other cantons, and the Genevesé had to defend their new republic unaided in the war which was waged without mercy from 1534 to 1536. The bishop rallied his supporters at the chateau of Peney (they were therefore known as the péneisans) and joined forces with the duke to attack Geneva. The Genevese were on the point of succumbing in thé unequal struggle when, in Jan. 1536, the Bernese at last came to their aid. They occupied the Vaud, which Charles III. had promised six years earlier to hand over to them as a pledge if he attacked Geneva. They also seized the Gex district, and, in combination with the Genevese, took the castle of Chillon, from which they delivered Bonivard, the prior of St. Victor. The Valaisans and even the Fribourgeois themselves joined in the struggle. The duke was on the point of losing his lands on the shores of Lake Leman and the bishop of Lausanne his city when King Francis I. undertook the conquest of the remainder of Savoy and Piedmont. The little war waged round Geneva was the match which set alight a larger conflagration.

Francis I.’s rival, Charles V., took a hand in the quarrel. When

peace was restored between the two potentates, Charles IIT. had lost his lands, Once the Genevese were rid of him they were able to organize their independent Protestant republic in peace. Calvin.—It was at this stage that Calvin appeared on the

scene.

He was passing through the town and was induced by

Farel to remain,

The great reformer was not immediately suc-

cessful, and was obliged to leave thé town. He was, however, in the count of Savoy the Genevese had fallen out of the fry- recalled by his partisans, and he undertook the task of imposing ing pan into the fire. They had been able to free themselves

on the Genevese, who were intoxicated with their newly-won

from the count of Geneva and to defy the bishop, but they discovered that their protector, not content with the office of vidomne, intended to make himself “prince” of the city. He still retained some partisans, however, although some of the bishops

freedom, a severe moral discipline. He succeeded in subduing the libertins, though not without some éxecutions, as was the manner of the day. One of his most lasting achievements was

did more to deserve the support of thé ¢itizens—Guillaume de Marcossey, who rebuilt the walls, and Adhémar Fabry, who codified the privileges of the town (1387). The counts of Savoy,

the assistance of Théodore de Béze (1559). It became a sort of

successors to the counts of Geneva and created dukes of Savoy, endeavoured to obtain election to the bishopric of Geneva either for themselves (Amadeus VIII., Pope Felix V.), or for a cadet of the family or for a prelate devoted to its interests. Involved in the struggle between France and Burgundy by the policy of the House of Savoy, the town was ransomed by the

Swiss after their victory over Charles the Bold (1477). The

measures taken by Louis XI. had destroyed the fairs at Geneva, and the prevalent distress of the r5th century became still worse in the 16th, when Duke Charles III., in 1525, went so far as to impose his will on the assembly of the citizens (Conseil des Hallebardes). Better times came at last thanks to the commercial relations established between Geneva and the Swiss. Some of the citizens arranged an alliance with Fribourg. A few of the leaders were executed by the duke and the bishop, including Berthelier and

Lévrier, but this did not prevent the two cities from being united, after several attempts, by a treaty of combourgeoisie (1526).

The name of Eiguenots (EHidgenossen, confederates), was given

to the patriotic party, and that of Mamelus to the rethaining

partisans of the duke, who were supported, outside the city, by the gentilshommes de la Cuiller. l The Reformation and Independence.—The situation was complicated by the Reformation. The canton of Berne had in the meantime joined the combourgeoisie of Geneva and Fribourg.

the foundation of the Academy of Geneva, which he set up with

training school for Protestant missionaries. Geneva came to be to Protestantism what Rome was to Catholicism. It was a city of refuge for the persecuted from Italy, England and France, and it thus acquired a cosmopolitan character, and the love of learning was fostered. Calvin was the virtual ruler of the city, and from that fastness, through his emissaries and a voluminous correspondence, he directed his disciples in all parts of Europe. His influence was particularly great in France, and the Huguenots

(g.v.) promised if necessary to send an army to the assistance of Geneva, “the holy city of Jerusalem,” as Sully called it. The gains of the war of 1536 were not lasting, EmmanuelPhilibert of Savoy recovered his lands; Berne only retained the Vaud; Geneva was once more encircled by enemies; and finally, Calvin died in x564. On the other hand, Berne renewed the

treaty of combourgeoisie, and Ziirich entered the alliance in 1384.

Some time before this Henry ITI. of France had made an alliance

with Berne and Solothurn for the “conservation” of Geneva (1579). Civil war broke out in France. Henry III.’s envoy Sancy brought a Swiss contingent to his aid, and Geneva entered

the struggle. Sometimes in concert with Santy’s troops and the Bernese, sometimes alone, the Genevese fought and held their ground in the devastated districts like Gex. Henry of Navarre, the former Huguenot leader, presently succeeded Henry ITI. In

spite of his former friendship with Geneva, he deprived the Genevese of the Gex district, which they had conquered, when he made peace with Savoy (r6or). With complete disregard of treaties, Duke Charles Emmanuel

II4

GENEVA o

attempted to take Geneva by surprise by scaling the n

n Ae ladders (night of the Escalade, Dec. 12, 1602). He was c

and after peace had been concluded the king of France an

Swiss came to realize that they must keep good guard over the town which served them as a door of communication. Henry a hoped to discharge the considerable debt which the oe France and Navarre owed Geneva by paying the garrison of the :

town.

Development.—Geneva now entered on a period of tranquil-

lity. It enjoyed the friendship of the last of the Huguenot ry Agrippa d’Aubigné, who died in the city, and Henry de

Ro a

who was buried there. Industry prospered, particularly the clock-

making industry, with the assistance of the refugees who fled to Geneva at the time of the St. Bartholomew massacre and of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (qg.v.). There grew up a

re-election to the Conseil d’Etat led to the disturbances of Aug 22, 1864. ; The radical party returned to power under Antoine Carteret, and supported the church of Pére Hyacinthe Loyson against the Catholics. The Catholic curé Gaspard Mermillod, who later became a cardinal, was exiled in 1873. A later radical leader, Henyj

Fazy, was more in sympathy with the Catholics. The separation of Church and State was voted in 1907. The conservative party, now known as the Democrats, has sometimes held office under

Arthur Cheneviére, Gustave Ador, and Théodore Turrettini. Th has introduced certain reforms such as the referendum, the popular initiative and proportional representation. The socialist party, and other party formations have since come into existence. .. Culture.—Geneva

is noted for its intellectual activities.

One

of the best-known periodicals was the old Bibliothèque britan-

patrician class, which constantly became more exclusive. The

nique, or Bibliothéque universelle, now amalgamated with the Revue de Genève. The Academy founded by Calvin has been’ transformed into a university with six Faculties. An Institute of agement of affairs. The Seigneurie was governed by a Petit Conseil of 25 members, Higher International Studies was founded in the year 192. from among whom the four syndics were appointed annually. Great interest is taken in intellectual and social questions of all Although they were elected, or their elections were confirmed, by kinds. The International Red Cross Society was founded at; the other councils (which they appointed themselves), they were Geneva in 1864. This institution, together with the more recently | ;f League of Red Cross Societies, exists to tend the sick in j always chosen from a small group of families. The councils con- founded sisted of larger bodies including smaller ones; the “Sixty” ln- time of peace and to mitigate the horrors of war. cluded the “Twenty-five,” and this again any smaller number of . It is not surprising that such a city, with its tradition of inde. members considered suitable to deal with difficult cases; the “Two pendence, and its fame as an intellectual centre and as a focus of hundred” included the “Sixty,” with a sufficient number of depu- international movements, should have been chosen as the seat ties to make up the total. The assembly of the citizens and of the League of Nations (q¢.v.), which has been housed in the burghers, which gradually became less and less influential, was Hotel National since Nov. 1920. Designs for a new building and conference hall (the latter for the joint use of the League of Na called the Conseil Général. The citizens were constantly restive under the rule of the Petit tions and the International Labour Office) were approved by the’ Conseil; during the 18th century there were sometimes such seri- Council in 1927, after an international competition. The plans gus disturbances that the allies of Geneva were obliged to act as were subsequently changed owing to a gift of £400,000 from Mf, mediators or even to intervene and to guarantee the treaties of John D. Rockefeller, Jr., for a new Library, but the site was finally pacification which were concluded. The citizens had the right of selected in 1928. The International Labour Office was at first.

cultivated middle classes, however, claimed a share.in the man-

|

'

protest (représentation) against the decisions of the Petit Conseil,

but the latter did not consider itself obliged to take notice of the

protests. Hence the terms représentants and négatifs which often

eccur in connection with the measures taken against Jean Jacques

Rousseau.

The fame of Geneva had grown greatly. To Russia she had given Lefort, to France, Necker, to America, Gallatin, to the world, Rousseau. Among Rousseau’s friends the physicist De Luc

became reader to the queen of England, and the publicist D’Ivernois, who also lived in London, was, like Mallet du Pan, an

opponent of the French Revolution, Voltaire, Rousseau’s rival,

made the chateau of Ferney, not far from Geneva, a centre of

European intellectual society, and Dr. Tronchin attracted many

distinguished guests to his native country. Later, Horace Benedict

de Saussure undertook the scientific conquest of Mont Blanc; and a school of painters began to flourish. And on her exile, Madame

de Staél, Necker’s daughter, was to transfer to the chateau at

Coppet, near Geneva, the salon she had formerly held at Paris.

The 19th Century.—Just as this Genevan school was develop-

ing, the French Revolution occurred. Revolutionary clubs were

formed and under the influence of incitements from abroad, began

to persecute the aristocrats. Geneva, imitating the example of Paris, had its “Terror.” An attempt was made to remedy the situ-

ation by the egalitarian constitution ef 1794, but an end was not put to disorder until the French occupation of 1798.

On the fall of Napoleon Geneva became the 22nd canton of

Switzerland. Its territory was increased by the inclusion of certain ‘ Gathelic communes, both Sardinian and French, and this linked

R wp directly with the rest of Switzerland. Geneva made an important contribution to the confederation in the person of General

Dufour, who defeated the seceding league of Catholic cantons, the

Sonderbund. The first Government of the Restoration period was

regarded as reactionary. Democratic agitation in the rgth century resulted in the constitution of 1842, which set up the Conseil d'Etat as the executive authority and the Grand Conseil as the legislative body, and established municipal autonomy. In. 1847

James Fazy instituted a pure radical régime; his failure to obtain

$

housed at Pregny, 14 m. out of Geneva. A new building (ad: joining the League of Nations new site) was begun in 1923—and, finally opened in June 1926. + Bwærrocrarmy.—Documents, etc.: Société d’Histoire et d’Archéologiy

de Genéve, Mémoires et documents (1841, etc.), Régeste Genévois avant Pannée 1312 (ed. P. Lullin and C. Le Fort, 1866), and Documents sur VEscalade de Genéve, tirés des Archives de Simancas, Turin; Milan, Rome, Paris, et Londres, 1598-1603 (1903) ; Institut Nationél. Genévois, Mémoires (1854, etc.); Registres du Conseil de Genèbg (1900~25) ; Les sources du droit à Genéve jusqu’en 1462 (1927). Far general history see: G. Fatio, Genève à travers les siècles, (with bibli 1900) ; H. Denkinger, Histoire populaire du Canton de Genéve (Geneva, 1905) ; F. Gribble, Geneva (1908) ; L. Blondel, Les Faubourgsdè Genève (Geneva, 1919); E. Choisy, Esquisse de Phistoire religieuse.dé Genève (Geneva, 1928). For separate periods, etc., see R. Montando, Genève, des origines aux invasions barbares (with bibl., Geneva, 1922); J. A. Gautier, Histoire de Genève des origines à année 1690

(new ed., 8 vọl, Geneva, 1895-1912); F. de Crue, Relations dibh

matiques de Genève avec la France, Henri IV. et les deputés de Geneve (Geneva, 1901), La guerre féodale de Genève et léstablissement dedy commune, 1285-1320 (Geneva, 1912), La déliverance de Genéve;.¢i 1536 (Zurich, 1916), and Necker, Mirabeau, et les Genévois (with bibl, Lausanne, 1923); E. Favre, Combourgeois, Genève, Fribow

Berne, 1526, publ. by the Soc. d’Hist. et d’Arch. de Genéve (Geneva! 1926); E. Doumergue, La Genève Calviniste (Lausanne, 1905) ‘Dé Cramer, La Seigneurie de Genéve et la Maison de Savoie de 1559 1603, 2 vol. (Geneva, 1912); H. Naef, La Conjuration d’Amboise e

Genéve in Soc. d’Hist. et d’Arch. de Genéve, Mémoires et AOM vol. xxxi. (1922) ; H. Fazy, Histoire de Genève à Pépoque de l Escalast ‘ (Geneva, 1902); L. Achard and E. Favre, La Restauration dé: VN République de Genève 1813-1814 (Geneva, 1913); F. D'Ivernois and `

C. Pictet de Rochement, Genève et les traités de 1815, Correspondance, diplomatique (1914). See also C. Martin, La Maison de ville g&'

Genève, publ. by the Soc. d’Hist. et d’Arch. de Genéve (with bibl, 1906), and A. Babel, Histoire corporative de Vhorlogerie, de Vorfevrerie et des industries annexes, in Soc. d’Hist. et d’Arch. de Genéve Mémoires et documents, vol. xxxiii. (1916), (EF. De C.) ’

GENEVA, a city of Ontario county, New York, U.S.A., at the

northern end of Lake Seneca (36m. long, with an average wid’

of 2m. and a maximum depth of 624 feet). It is on federal highway. 20 and the State Barge canal, and is served by the Lehigh Valie and the New York Central railways. The population was 14,648 in 1920 (83% native white) and was 16,053 in 1930 by the Federa

GENEVA—GENEVIEVE census.

Geneva is a well built city, with fine old residences and

streéts arched with century-old trees, and is surrounded by the beautiful and romantic scenery of the Finger Lake region. It is

the seat of Hobart college for men (founded 1822) and William

Smith college for women (a co-ordinate institution, founded 1908); the Smith observatory (1888); a State armory; and a State agricultural experiment station. The Lafayette tree, under which Gen. Lafayette held a reception in 1825, is said to be the largest tree in the State. A medicinal spring, struck at a depth of 64oft. in boring for natural gas in 1885, flows at the rate of 350,ooogal. per day. There are large nurseries in and around the city, and it has important manufactures, notably of razors, optical frames, lenses, marine engines, preserved fruits and vegetables, canning machinery, enamelled ware and paste, with an aggregate output in 1927 valued at $9,531,935. Geneva was’ settled about 1787, near the site of a Seneca village (Kanadasega), which had been destroyed in 1779. The Indian burial mound, on the edge of the city, is still inviolate, in accordance with a pact made by the early settlers. A delegation from the Seneca Nation visits it annually to make sure that the agreement is kept. The city was chartered in 1898.

GENEVA, LAKE OF, the largest lake in central Europe. It is Lacus Lemannus of classical writers, but from the 16th century onwards Lac de Genéve, though from the end of the 18th century the name Lac Léman was revived. Its area is 223 sq.m., of which about 140 sq.m. are Swiss and 83 sq.m. French. The French part takes in nearly the whole of the south shore, save its west and east ends, which belong respectively to Geneva and to Valais. The lake is formed by the Rhone, which enters it at its east end, between Villeneuve and St. Gingolph and quits it at its west end, flowing through the city of Geneva. The only important

tributaries are the Drance (S.), the Venoge (N.) and the Veveyse (N.). The direct length from Chillon to Geneva is 394 m., the maximum depth is 1,0154 ft., mean depth 500 ft., greatest width (between Morges and Amphion) 84 m., normal width 5 miles. The lake forms two well-marked divisions separated by the strait

IIS

armies in the field, originally adopted at an international conference held at Geneva, Switzerland, in 1864, and afterwards replaced by the convention of July 6, 1906, also adopted at Geneva. This later agreement is the one now known as the Geneva Convention. The conference of 1864 was the result of a movement which sprang from the publication in 1862 of a book entitled Un Souvenir de Solférino by Henri Dunant, a Genevese philanthropist, in which he described the sufferings of the wounded at the battle of Solférino with such vivid effect that the subject became forthwith one of public interest. It was energetically taken up

by M. Gustave Moynier, whose agitation led to an unofficial congress being held at Geneva in Oct. 1863. The convention afterwards received the adherence of every civilized power. At a second conference on the same subject, held at Geneva in 1868, a supplementary convention was drawn up, consisting of 14 additional articles which never became operative. The Brussels International Conference (1874) for the codification of the law and customs of war occupied itself with the Geneva Convention, but in this relation led to no result. At The Hague Peace Conference of 1899 Great Britain withdrew her objections to the application of the convention to maritime warfare, and agreed to the adoption of a special convention “adapting to Maritime warfare the principles of the Geneva Convention.” After some unsuccessful efforts an invitation by the Swiss Government was accepted in March 1906 by 35 States, only Turkey, Salvador, Bolivia, Venezuela, Nicaragua and Colombia abstaining, and the conference was held at Geneva in July 1906, when a full revised convention was adopted, which replaced that of 1864. This was again revived at The Hague Peace Conference of 1907 and adopted as Convention X. See The Hague Conventions and Declarations of 1890 and roo7 (ed. by James Brown Scott, 1918}, and the article, War, Laws or.

GENEVIEVE,

ST. (c. 422-512), patroness of Paris, was

born, according to tradition, at Nanterre near Paris. At the age of seven she was induced by St. Germain, bishop of Auxerre, to

dedicate herself to the religious life, and on the death of her parents she removed to Paris, where she distinguished herself by

of Promenthoux, and as a bar, divides the Grand Lac from the Petit Lac. The “Grand Lac” is to the east and the “Petit Lac” (W.) is the special Genevese portion. The unusual blueness of the waters has long been remarked, and transparency increases away from the Rhone entry as the river-borne mud sinks to the bottom. The lake level is highest in summer. There are remarkable temporary disturbances of level known as seiches both longitudinal and transverse, in which the whole mass of water in the lake rhythmically swings from shore to shore. The currents are irregular. The principal winds that blow over the lake are the bise (north-east), the vaudaire or Féhn (south-east), the sudois or vent de pluie (south-west) and the joran (north-west). The storm winds are molan (from the Arve valley) and the bornan (from the Drance valley). The lake is not as rich in fish as the other Swiss lakes. Prof. Forel knows of but 20 indigenous species (of which the Féra, or Coregonus fera, is the principal) and six that have been introduced by man in the roth century. Lake dwellings, of varying dates, have been found on the shores.

her benevolence, as well as by her austere life. She is said to have predicted the invasion of the Huns; and when Attila with his army was threatening the city, she persuaded the inhabitants to remain

Despite steamers first placed on the lake in 1823, and railways along each shore, the red lateen sails of minor craft still brighten the landscape. The railway along the northern shore runs from

heroine of mediaeval legend. Her story is a typical example of the widespread tale of the chaste wife falsely accused and repudiated, generally on the word of a rejected suitor,’ Genovefa of Brabant, wife of the palatine Siegfried of Treves, was falsély

Geneva past Nyon, Rolle, Morges, Ouchy (the port of Lausanne),

Vevey and Montreux to Villeneuve (564 miles). That on the south shore gains the edge of the lake at Thonon only (224 m.

on the island and encouraged them by an assurance, justified by subsequent events, that the attack would come to nothing (451). She is also said to have had great influence over Childeric, father of Clovis, and in 460 to have caused a church to be built over the tomb of St. Denis. She was buried in the church of the Holy Apostles, popularly known as the church of St. Geneviéve. In

1793 the body was taken from the new church, built in her honour by Louis XV. in 1764, when it became the Panthéon, and burnt on the Place de Gréve; but the relics were enshrined in the church of St. Etienne du Mont, where they still attract pilgrims. Her festival is celebrated on Jan. 3. BrsLiocrRaPHy.—The main source is the anonymous Vita s. Genovefae virginis Parisorium, published In 1687 by D, P. Charpentier. See H. Lesetre, Ste. Geneviéve (1900) ; A. D. Sertillanges, Sainte Geneviéve (1917); and A. Potthast, Bibliotheca medi aevi.

GENEVIEVE (Genoveva or GenoveraA), OF BRABANT,

accused by the majordomo Golo.

Sentenced to death she was

spared by the executioner, and lived for six years with her son in

from Geneva), and then runs past Evian and St. Gingolph to Le Bouveret (20 m. from Thonon). In the harbour of Geneva two erratic granite boulders project above the water, and are named Pierres du Niton (supposed to be altars of Neptune). The lower of the two has been taken as the basis of the triangulation of Switzerland.

meanwhile found out Golo’s treachery, was chasing the roe when he discovered her hiding-place, and reinstated her in her former honour. Her story is said to rest on the history of Marie of

See Prof. F. A. Forel’s monumental work, Le Léman (3 vols., Lausanne, 1892-1904); also (with fine illustrations) G. Fatio and F. Boissonnas, Autour du lac Léman (Geneva, 1902); L. W. Collet, Les Lacs (1925). ' if

The change in name

GENEVA

CONVENTION,

an international agreement

a cave in the Ardennes nourished by a roe. Siegfried, who had

Brabant, wife of Louis IT., duke of Bavaria, and count-palatine of thé Rhine, who was beheadéd'on fan: 18, 1756, for supposed

infidélity, a crime for which Louis afterwards had to do penance.

may have been due to the cult of St.

Geneviéve, patronéss of Paris. The tale first obtained wide popu-

larity in L’Innocence reconnue, ou vie de Sainte Genevieve de

for the purpose of improving the condition of wounded ‘soldiers of Brabant (pr. 1638) by the Jesuit René de Cérisier (1603-627),

GENGA—GENLIS

116

man, generally engaged in sacrificing. At every wedding a bed, the lectus genialis, was made for the genius and tuno of the husBIBLIOGRAPHY.—S. Grundtvig, Danske Kaempeviser (1867); R. band and wife, and its presence in the house was a sigh of matriKohler, “Die deutschen Volksbiicher von der Pfalzgräfin Genovefa” in mony (Horace, Epp. i. 1, 87; Paulus, epit. Fest. 83, 23 Lindsay). Zeitschrift fiir deutsche Philologie (1874); B. Seuffert, Die Legende Individual Genius.—Owing to the rise of individualism and von der Pjalzgräfin Genovefa (Würzburg, 1877); “Sir Triamore,” in Bishop Percy’s Folio ms., ed. Hales and Furnivall, vol. ii. (1868); also to the prevalence of Greek ideas concerning a guardian spirit

and was a frequént subject for dramatic representation in Germany. Several other forms of the legend exist.

The Erl of Toulous

and the Emperes

of Almayn,

ed. G. Liidtke

(Berlin, 1881); The Romance of Octavian, ed. E. M. Goldsmid (Aungervyle Soc., Edinburgh, 1882); F. J. Child, English and Scottish Popular Ballads, vol. ii., art. “Sir Aldingar” (1886); B. Golz, Pfalz-

grän Genovefa in der deutschen Dichtung (Leipzig, 1897).

GENGA, GIROLAMO (c. 1476-1551), Italian architect and painter of the Umbrian school, was born in Urbino about 1476.

He studied with Luca Signorelli and then with Pietro Perugino. According to Vasari, who knew him personally, he decorated the hall of Pandolfo Petriicci’s palace at Siena with a series of frescoes. Six of these were carved out of the wall and sold; three are now in the National Gallery. (See J. P. Richter, Mond Collection.) In Rome he painted the “Resurrection” in the church of S. Caterina da Siena. One of his leading works is the “Disputation of the Four Fathers òf the Church” in the Brera, Milan, painted for the church of S. Agostino at Cesena. As a painter he was an eclectic, making the different styles of Signorelli and Perugino his own. He also imitated Pintoricchio. His work is decorative in design

=

or daimon, the genius lost its original meaning, and came to be a sort of personification of the individual’s natural desires and

appetites. Hence the phrases indulgere genio, genium defrudare, signifying respectively to lead a pleasurable and a stingy life. However, the development did not stop here. The genius came to be thought of as a sort of guardian angel, a higher self; and, as the Greek daimon was sometimes rationalized into the individual’s character or temper, so also Horace half-seriously (Epp. ii. 2, 187) says that only the genius knows what makes one person so different from another, adding that he is a god who is born and

dies with each one of us. This individual genius was worshipped

by each individual especially on his birthday. A few inscriptions

even mention the genius of a dead person, as Christian epitaphs sometimes speak of his angel. Genius of the Emperor.—To show reverence for the genius of another, or to swear by it, was a mark of deep respect; hence it is not unnatural that the genius of Augustus and of his suc-

and light in colour but does not rise to the excellence of his cessors formed objects of popular cult. Thus to worship the great masters. Genga was a sculptor, a musician, a theatrical de- genius Augusti avoided the feeling against worshipping any living signer and an architect as well as a painter. He was indeed in the emperor, which remained fairly strong in Italy (see L. R. Taylor first place an architect; when in Rome he studied and measured in Trans. Amer. Philol. Assoc., vol. li., 116 et seq.) : for of course the antique buildings, and he was then appointed ducal architect by all genit were divine and might properly bé worshipped. the duke of Urbino. His most important architectural works are: Further Developments.—As Greek daimones were by no San Giovannt Battista in Pesaro; the bishop’s palace at Sinigaglia; means always the guardian spirits of individuals, so also we get the new palace for the duke of Urbino on the Monte Imperiale. a vast variety of genii; i.e., guardian spirits, of places, genius loci, He was also concerned in the fortifications of Pesaro. Genga died including buildings (genius balnéorum, etc.) ahd corporations of on July 11, 1551. His son Bartolommeo (1516—58) was an archi- all sorts, from the State (genius populi Romani) to small bodies tect and painter. of troops, guilds of tradesmen and so forth. A very curious deGENISTA, in botany, a genus of about 90 spécies of shrubs velopment is that we sometimes hear of the genius of a god, even of the family Leguminosae, and natives of Europe, western Asia of Jupiter, or of the iuno of a goddess. and north Africa; three are British. G. anglica is the needle-furze Use in English.—Apart from the Latin use of the term, the or petty whin, found on heaths and moist moors, a spinous plant plural “genii” (with a singular “‘genie”) is used in English, as with slender spreading branches 1 to 2 ft. long, very small leaves equivalent to the Arabic jinn, for a class of spirits, good or bad, and short racemes of small yellow fowérs. The pollen is emitted such as are described, for instance, in The Arabian Nights. But in a shower when an insect alights on it. G. tinctoria, dyer’s green- “genius” itself has become the regular English word for the highweed, the flowers of which yield a yellow dye, has no spines. It est conceivable form of original ability, something altogether is & native of Europe and Asia and naturalized in the north-eastern extraordinary and beyond even suprenie educational prowess, and United States. Other species are grown on rock-work or as differing, in kind apparently, from “talent,” which is usually disgreenhouse plants. tinguished as marked intellectual capacity short only of the inexG (VE, in grammar the name given to one of the cases plicable and unique endowment to which the term “genius” is or declensions of nouns to indicate the relationship in which they confined. Stand to other words in the sentence. The Latin language conSee further Wissowa, Religion u. Kultus, 2nd ed., p. seq. tained six declensions of nouns the Nominative or subject, the and the classical dictionaries; also J. F. Nisbet, Insanity 175of etGenius. Vocative or person addressed, the Accusative or the object to- (1891); F. Galton, Hereditary Genius (new ed., 1892), and C.

wards which the action is directed, the Genitive indicating its Lombroso, Man of Genius (Eng. trans., 1891). origin or source, the Dative that to which an action is directed, GENLIS, and the Ablative from which something is taken. In Greek the SAINT-AUB STEPHANIE-FELICITE DU CREST DE Comtesse pe (1746~1 830), French writer and ablative was excluded, and in French and Italian case is obviated educator, was IN, born at Champcéry, Autun, France. At six years of by the use of itions. In English the genitive, also called the age she was received as a canoness into the noble chapter

possessive case, is the only declension employed, though certain exceptions necessitate the use of the dative and accusative cases.

See GRAMMAR and articles on the different languages.

GENTUS

(Lat. the begetter).

In its earliest meaning in

private cult, the genius of the Roman heuse-father and the iuno

(see Juno) of the house-mother were worshipped. These certainly

were not the souls of the married pair, as is clear both from their

names and from the fact that we never hear in any early document of the gesius or iuno of a dead person. As no cult was paid to the genius of any other member of the family, it seems reasonable to suppose that they were the male and female forms of the family’s, or clan’s, power of continuing itself by reproduction which were in the keeping of the heads of the family or clan for the time being, and passed at death to their successors, (See

of Alix, near Lyons, with the title of Madame la Comtesse de Lancy, taken from the town of Bourbon-Lancy. Her entire education, however, was conducted at home. In her 16th year she was married to Charles Briillart de Genlis, a colonel of grenadiers, who afterwards became marquis de Sillery. Some years later, through the influence of her aunt, Madame de Montesson, who had been clandestinely married to the duke of Orleans, she entered the Palais

Royal as lady-in-waiting to the duchess of Chartres (1770). She

acted with great energy and zeal as goverriéss to the daughters `

°

of the family, and was in 1781 appoirited by the duke of Chartres

` to the responsible office òf gouverneur of his sons, a step which ` led to the resignation of all the tutors as well as to much social | scandal.

She wrote several wòrks for the use of her pupils, the ,

Rose, Primitive Culture in Italy, 149 ef seg.) In this as in best known of which are the Thédtre d'éducation (4 vols., 1779all forms of his cult, the genius was often conceived as appearing 80), a collection of short comedies for young people, Les Annales. de la vertu (2 vols., 1781) and Adale et Théodore (3 vols., in the form of a snake, although he is also shown in art as a young 1782). She anticipated many modern methods of teaching. His”

“

. ;

GENNADIUS

II.—GENOA

117

tory was taught with the help of magic lantern slides and her pupils learnt botany from a practical botanist during their walks. Madame de Genlis welcomed the Revolution, but the fall of the Girondins in 1793 compelled her to take refuge in Switzerland

Savoy. From the mouth of the Bisagno in the east, and from the lighthouse point in the west, it stretches inland over hill and dale to the great fort of Sperone (the Spur), on the summits of Monte Peraldo at a height of 1,650 ft.,—the circuit being little less than along with her pupil Mademoiselle d’Orléans. In this year her 12 m., and all the important points along the line being defended husband, from whom she had been separated since 1782, was by forts or batteries. A portion of the enclosed area is open guillotined. country, dotted only here and there with houses and gardens. In 1794 Madame de Genlis fixed her residence at Berlin, but There are eight gates, the more important being Porta Pila and was expelled by order of King Frederick William, and afterwards Porta Romana towards the east, and the Porta Lanterna or settled in Hamburg, where she supported herself for some years Lighthouse gate to the west. Architectural Features.—The main architectural features of by writing and painting. After the 18th Brumaire (1799) she returned to France, and was well received by Napoleon, who gave Genoa are its mediaeval churches, with striped facades of black her apartments at the arsenal, and assigned her a pension of 6,000 and white marble, and its magnificent 16th-century palaces. The francs. Her government pension was discontinued by Louis XVIII. earlier churches of Genoa show a mixture of French Romanesque Her Diners du Baron d'Holbach (1822), in which she set forth and the Pisan style—they are mostly basilicas with transepts, and with a good deal of sarcastic cleverness the intolerance, the as a rule a small dome; the pillars are sometimes ancient columns, fanaticism, and the eccentricities of the “philosophes” of the 18th and sometimes formed of alternate layers of black and white marble. The facades are simple, without galleries, having only century, caused much discussion. She died on Dec. 31, 1830. The numerous works of Madame de Genlis (which exceed 80) owed pilasters projecting from the wall, and are also alternately black much of their success to adventitious causes. They are useful, however and white, This style continued in Gothic times also. The oldest (especially the voluminous Mémoires inédits sur le XVHIe siècle, ro is S. Maria di Castello (11th century), the columns and capitals vols., 1825), aS furnishing material for history. Most of her writings were translated into English almost as soon as they were published. A of which are almost all antique. S. Cosma, S. Donato (with relist of her works with useful notes is given by Quérard in La France mains of the 1roth-century building) and others belong to the littéraire. Startling light was thrown on her relations with the duc rath century, and S. Giovanni di Prè, S. Agostino (with a fine de Chartres by the publication (1904) of her correspondence with him campanile), S. Stefano, etc., to the 13th. S. Matteo, the church in L’Idylle d'un “gouverneur” by G. Maugras, See also Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol. iii.; H. Austin Dobson, Four Frenchwomen of the Doria family, was founded in 1126 by Martino Doria. The (1890); W. de Chabreul, Gouverneur de princes, 1737-1830 (1900); façade dates from 1278, and the interior from 1543. In the L. Chabaud, Les Précurseurs du féminisme (1901); Lettres inédites crypt is the tomb of Andrea Doria by Montorsoli, and above the. ad... Casimir Baecker, r802-1830 (1902), edited by H. Lapauze; high altar hangs the dagger presented to the doge by Pope Paul and T. Harmand, Madame de Genlis (1912). III. To the left of the church is an exquisite cloister of 1308 GENNADIQUS II. or GEORGIOS SCHOLARIOS (4. c. with double columns, in which a number of sepulchral inscrip1468), patriarch of Constantinople from 1454 to 1456, philosopher tions of the family and the statue of Andrea Doria by Montorand theologian, was one of the last representatives of Byzantine soli are preserved. The little square in front of the church is learning. He appears to have been born at Constantinople and to surrounded by Gothic palaces of the Doria family. The cathedral have served the emperor John VII. Paleologus as counsellor. He of S. Lorenzo was reconstructed about the end of the 11th century, was present at the great council held in 1438 at Ferrara and and consecrated in r1z18. The façade has three elaborate door-

Florence with the object of uniting the Greek and Latin Churches,

and there met the celebrated Platonist, Gemistus Pletho. In church matters, as in philosophy, the two were opposed,—Pletho maintaining strongly the principles of the Greek Church, Georgios being more willing to compromise. On his return to Greece, however, Georgios violently opposed the union. In 1448 he became a monk at Pantokrator, and in 1453 was elected patriarch of Constantinople by Mohammed JI. A few years later he found his position under a Turkish sultan so irksome that he retired to the monastery of John the Baptist near Serrae in Macedonia, where he died about 1468.

ways (13th century). The interior was rebuilt in 1307. The campanile, which rises’ above the right-hand doorway, was completed in 1522, and the cupola was erected after the designs of the architect Galeazzo Alessi in 1567. The fine Early Renaissance (1448) sculptural decorations of the chapel of S. John the Baptist were due to Domenico Gagini of Bissone on the Lake of Lugano. In the treasury of the cathedral is an octagonal bowl, the Sacro Catino, brought from Caesarea in rror, which corresponds to the

descriptions given of the Holy Grail, and was long regarded as an

emerald of matchless value, but is in reality only a remarkable piece of ancient glass. His writings, which include philosophical translations and commenThe church of S. Ambrose, rebuilt by the Jesuits (1587), has a taries, defences of Aristotle, ‘and expositions of Christianity for Mo- richly decorated interior (16th century). The Annunziata del hammedans and Jews, are described in W. Gass, Gennadius und Pletho Guastato (1587), one of the largest churches in the city, is a (1844), and in Fabricius, Bibliotheca Graeca, ed. Harles, vol. xi. Some cruciform structure, with a dome. The interior is covered with are printed in Migne, Patrol. Gr. vol. elx. See also F. Schultze, Gesch. gilding and frescoes of the 17th century. San Siro was rebuilt by der Phil. d. Renaissance (1874), i. GENOA (anc. Genua, Ital. Genova, Fr. Génes), the chief port the Benedictines in the 11th century, and restored and enlarged of Liguria, Italy, and capital of the province of Genoa, 119 m. by the Theatines in 1576, the facade being added in 1830. Santa N.W. of Leghorn by rail. Pop, (1921) 316,217 (town); 553,999 Maria di Carignano, belongs mainly to the 16th century, and was (commune). The town is situated on the Gulf of Genoa, and is designed by Galeazzo Alessi in imitation of S. Peter’s at Rome. the chief port of Italy, the seat of an archbishop and a university The interior is fine, while the colouring of the exterior is less and a strong fortress. The city, as seen from the sea, is “built pleasing. The highest gallery of the dome is 368 ft. above the seanobly,” and deserves the title of the Superb. Finding only a small level, and 194 ft. above the ground. space of level ground along the shore, it has been obliged to climb The palaces of the Genoese patricians, famous for their sumpthe lower hills of the Ligurian Alps, which afford many a coign of tuous architecture, their general effectiveness, and their artistic vantage for the effective display of its architectural magnificence. collections, were many of them built in the latter part of the 16th The original nucleus of the city is that portion which lies to the century by Galeazzo Alessi, a pupil of Michelangelo, whose style east of the port in the neighbourhood of the old pier (Molo is imposing and displays marvellous ingenuity in using a limited Vecchio). In the middle of the 12th century, it was found neces- or unfavourable site to the greatest advantage. Several of the sary to extend the line of circumvallation: but it was not till villas in the vicinity of the city are also his work. The Via Gari1320-30 that a third line took in the greater part of the modern baldi is flanked by a succession of magnificent. palaces, chief site of the city proper. This presented about 3 m. of rampart among which is the Palazzo Rosso. It was presented by the towards the land side, and can still be traced, though large por- duchess of Galliera to the city (1874), along with its valuable tions, especially towards the east, have been dismantled. The contents, its, library and picture gallery, which includes fine expresent line of circumvallation dates from 1626~32, the period amples of Van Dyck and Paris Bordone. The Palazza Municipale, when the independence of Genoa was threatened by the dukes of built by Rocco Lurago at the end of the 16th century, once the

IIg

GENOA

south-westerly winds. An outer harbour, 247 ac. in area, has constructed in front of this by extending the Molo Nuovo been marble of staircase noble a hanging terraced garden fronting a by the Molo Duca di Galliera, and another basin, the Vittorio which leads to the spacious council chamber. In an adjoining room are preserved two autograph letters of Columbus, and the Emanuele III., for coal vessels, with an area of 96 ac., has been violin of Paganini (g.v.). Opposite the Palazzo Rosso is the formed to the west of this, between it and the lofty lighthouse. Palazzo Bianco, bequeathed to the city by the duchess of Galliera which rises on the promontory at the south-west extremity of the (1889) and subsequently converted into a museum. In the Via harbour, while a further extension in front of San Pier d’Arena Balbi is the Durazzo Pallavicini palace with a noble façade and as far as the mouth of the river Polcevera is in progress. The staircase and a rich picture-gallery; also the Palazzo Balbi- largest ships can enter the harbour, which has a minimum depth Senarega, which has Doric colonnades and a fine orangery. The of 30 ft.; it has two dry docks, a graving dock and a floating` Palazzo dell’ Universita has an extremely fine court and staircase dry dock. Very large warehouses have been constructed. The of the early 17th century. The Palazzo Doria in the Piazza Prin- exports are olive oil, hemp, flax, rice, fruit, wine, hats, cheese, cipe, presented to Andrea Doria by the Genoese in 1522, was steel, velvets, gloves, flour, paper, soap and marble, while the remodelled in 1529 by Montorsoli and decorated with fine frescoes main imports are coal, cotton, grain, machinery, etc. Genoa has by Perino del Vaga. Its garden was destroyed by the building of a large emigrant traffic with South America, and a large general the railway. The old palace of the doges, originally a building of passenger steamer traffic both for America and for the East š the 13th century, to which the tower alone belongs, stands near (161,922 in 1926). The development of industry has kept pace with that of the Palazzo Gothic the is the cathedral. Another very fine building di S. Giorgio, near the harbour, dating from about 1260, occupied harbour. The Ansaldo shipbuilding yards construct armoured from 1408 to 1797 by the Banca di S. Giorgio, now completely re- cruisers both for the Italian navy and for foreign Governments, stored and occupied by the offices of the Port Authority. The The Odero yards, for the construction of merchant and passenger Cimitero di Staglieno, about 14 m. from the city on the banks steamers, have been similarly extended, and the Foce yard is also of the Bisagno, is one of the chief features of Genoa; its situation important. A number of foundries and metallurgical works is of great natural beauty and it is remarkable for its modern supply material for repairs and shipbuilding. Tanneries and cotsepulchral monuments. The university, founded in 1471, has ton-spinning and weaving mills have considerably extended 1,409 students, with faculties in law, medicine, natural science, throughout the province. Cement works have acquired considerengineering and philosophy. The naval engineering school has able importance. The manufactures of motor cars, hats, crystal_261 students, and the institute of economics and commerce 587. lized fruits and of filigree silver-work may also be mentioned. The Genoa is also well supplied with other institutions for higher edu- total trade of the port increased from well under 1,000,000 tons in cation. The hospitals and the asylum for the poor are among the 1876 to 7,581,359 metric tons in 1926. Of this large total 6,192,property of the dukes of Turin, has a beautiful entrance court and

fimest institutions of their kind in Italy. Mention must also be

225 tons are imports and only 1,389,134 tons are exports, and as

made of the Academy of Fine Arts, the municipal library, the Teatro Carlo Felice and the Verdi Institute of Music. The irregular relief of its site and its long confinement within the fortifications have made Genoa a picturesque confusion of narrow streets, lanes and alleys, varied with stairways climbing the steeper slopes and bridges spanning the deeper valleys. Large portions of the town are inaccessible to carriages, and many of the important streets have very little room for traffic. In modern times, however, a number of fine streets and squares with beautiful gardens have been laid out. The Piazza Deferrari, a large irregular space, is the chief focus of traffic and the centre of the Genoese tramway system; and imposing new buildings have been erected in and round it. The. Via Venti Settembre leads southgast to the Ponte Pila, the central bridge over the Bisagno, and to @ growing residential quarter beyond it, with a new sea front, the Corso d'Italia, connecting with the previously existing coast voad.. Tbe Via Roma, which gives on to the Via Carlo Felice near the Piazza Deferrari, leads to the Piazza Corvetto, with the equesirian statue of Victor Emmanuel II. To the left is the Villetta

the railway returns show that in the financial year 1925-26, 5,944,341 tons were loaded on to trucks, the vast majority of the former amount was conveyed by rail. The four main lines which centre on Genoa—(1) to Novi, which is the junction for Alessandria, where lines diverge to Turin and France via the Mont Cenis, and to Novara and Switzerland and France via the Simplon, and for Milan; (2) to Acqui and Piedmont; (3) to Savona, Ventimiglia and the French Riviera, along the coast; (4) to Spezia and Pisa—all have been electrified, and the first has two alternative double lines for the: passage over the Apennines, as far as Arquata Scrivia. There iş

Dinegro, a beautiful park belonging to the city. To the right is

The discovery of a Greek cemetery of the 4th century B.c. is the

another park, the Acquasola, laid out in 1837 on the site of the old ramparts. Im front of the principal station is the Piazza Acquaverde, with a statue of Columbus, at whose feet kneels the figure of America. The Via di Circonvallazione a Monte leads up

to the hills at the back of the town, where new suburbs have been

constructed. San Pier d'Arena on the west has now become a part of Genoa. Genoa is well served with electric tramways, which rum into the suburbs onthe east as far as Nervi and to Pegli on the west. Three fumicular railways from different points ae city give access to ihe highest parts of the hills behind own, MOTRINCTCE _ Coma and Industry.—Though its existence as a mari-

time power was originally due to its: port, it is only since 1870 that Genoa has provided the conveniemces necessary for the

modern development of its trade, the duke of Galliera’s gift of £80,000 to the city im 1875 being deveted to this purpose. A Farther enlargement of the harbour was mecessitated upon the opening of the St. Gotthard tumnel in 1882, which extended the commercial range of the port through Switzerland into Germany. The. old harbour is semi-circular in shape, 232. ac. in’ area, with mamerous `quays, and protected by’ moles froin southern and

a marshalling station, connected directly with the harbour by tunnels, at Campasso north of San Pier d’Arena. Genoa is the most important harbour in the western Mediterranean, with the exception of Marseilles, with which it carries on a keen rivalry. The total of shipping entered in 1926 was 5,069 vessels with 2 tonnage of 8,645,246, while that cleared was 5,092 vessels with a tonnage of 8,662,110.

HISTORY

only proof that Genoa was ever occupied by the Greeks. It was destroyed by the Carthaginians in 209 B.C. but restored by the Romans, who made it and Placentia their headquarters against the. Ligurians. An inscription of 117 B.c. (now preserved in the.

Palazzo Municipale at Genoa) gives the text of the by the patroni, Q. and M. Minucius of Genua, in between the people of Genua and the Langenses or inhabitants of a neighbouring hill-town. It is only

decision given a controversy| Langates, the ' from inscrip-

tions of other places that we know that Genoa had municipal. rights, and we do not know at what period it obtained them:

Strabo (iv. 6. 2, p. 202) states that Genoa exported wood, skins,

and honey, and imported olive oil and wine, though Pliny speaks. of pi S of the district as the best of Liguria (Hist. Nat. XV.

07).

i

The history of Genoa during the dark ages, throughout .the”’ Lombard and Carolingian periods, is but ‘the repetition of the»

general history of the Italian communes. The patriotic spirit ang naval prowess of the Genoese, developed in their defensive wars;

against the Saracens, led to the foundation of a popular consti?

tution and to the rapid growth of-a powerful marine. From the’ necessity of leaguing together against the common Saracen foe)

II0 GENOA—GENOVESI GENOA, CONFERENCE OF (April 1o-May 19, 1922), century in expelling the

Genoa united with Pisa early in the 11th Muslims from the island of Sardinia; but the Sardinian territory thus acquired soon furnished occasions of jealousy to the conquering allies, and there commenced between the two republics the long naval wars which terminated fatally for Pisa in the battle of Meloria (1284). Genoa secured great advantages from the trade stimulated by the crusades. The seaports wrested at the

same period from the Saracens along the Spanish and Barbary coasts became important Genoese colonies, whilst in the Levant, on the shores of the Black Sea, and along the banks of the

Euphrates were erected Genoese fortresses of great strength. The commercial and naval successes of the Genoese during the middle ages were the more remarkable because, unlike their rivals, the Venetians, they were the unceasing prey to intestine discord— the Genoese commons and nobles fighting against each other, rival

factions amongst the nobles themselves striving to grasp the supreme power in the state, nobles and commons alike invoking the arbitration and rule of some foreign captain as the sole means of obtaining a temporary truce. From these contests of rival nobles, in which the names of Spinola and Doria stand forth with greatest prominence, Genoa was soon drawn into the great vortex of the Guelph and Ghibelline factions; but its recognition of foreign authority—successively German, Neapolitan, and Milanese-——gave way to greater independence in 1339, when the government assumed a more permanent form with the appointment of the first doge, an office held at Genoa for life, in the person of Simone Boccanera. Alternate victories and defeats of the Venetians and Genoese—the most terrible being the defeat sustained by the Venetians at Chioggia in 1380—ended by establishing the great relative inferiority of the Genoese rulers, who fell under the power now of France, now of the Visconti of Milan. The Banca di S. Giorgio, with its large possessions, mainly in Corsica, formed

during this period the most stable element in the state, until in 1528 the national spirit appeared to regain its ancient vigour when Andrea Doria succeeded in throwing off the French domination and restoring the old form of government. The government as restored by him, with certain modifications tending to impart to it a more conservative character, remained unchanged until the outbreak of the French Revolution and the creation of the Ligurian republic. The Ligurian republic was soon swallowed up in the French empire, but not before Genoa had experienced terrible privations in the siege when Masséna held the city against the Austrians (1800). In 1814 Genoa rose against the French, on the assurance given by Lord William Bentinck that the allies would restore to the republic its independence. It had, however, been determined by a secret clause of the treaty of Paris that Genoa should be incorporated with the dominions of the king of Sardinia. The discontent so created kept alive in Genoa the republican spirit which, through the influence of a young Genoese citizen, Joseph Mazzini, was a permanent menace not only to the Sardinian monarchy but to all the established governments of the peninsula. A republican outbreak occurred in 1848, but after a short and sharp struggle the city, momentarily seized by the republican party, was recovered by General Alfonzo La Marmora.

In April-May 1922 an important Conference of the Powers, attended also by representatives from the British Dominions was held at Genoa. (See GENOA, CONFERENCE OF.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Among the earlier Genoese historians the most important are Bartolommeo Fazio and Jacopo Bracelli, both of the 15th century, and Paolo Partenopeo, Jacopo Bonfadio, Oberto Foglietta, and Agostino Giustiniano of the 16th. Paganetti wrote the ecclesiastical history of the city; and Accinelli and Gaggero collected

material for the ecclesiastical archaeology. The memoirs of local writers and artists were treated by Soprani and’ Ratti. See also Bréquigny, Histoire des révolutions de Génes jusqu’en 1748; Serta,

La Storia dell antica Liguria e di Genova (1834) ; Nuova istoria della

repubblica di Genova (1858), and Storia della rep. di Genova dal? anno 1528 al r550 (Genoa, 1874) ; Blumenthal, Zur Verfassungs- und Verwaltungsgeschichte Genua’s im reten Jahrhundert (Kalbe an der Saale, 1872); Malleson, Studies from Genoese History (1875); L.

Isnardi and E. Celesia, Storia della Université dt Genova

a meeting of representatives of the British self-governing Dominions and of 2ọ European states, including not only the Allies and ex-neutrals, but all the ex-enemy Powers except Turkey (who was excluded on the ground that she was an Asiatic country}. Above all, the conference was attended by representatives of Soviet Russia, and the dominant issue was the renewal of relations between Russia and the countries of Europe. Before the conference met M. Briand had been succeeded as prime minister by M. Poincaré.

Since the project of the Genoa conference had already

been accepted by the supreme council, M. Poincaré could not reject it altogether, but he sought to interpret the agreed programme in the narrowest sense and to hedge the participation of Russia with the fullest possible restrictions. He gave detailed and stringent instructions in this sense to his representative, M. Barthou. The general conference was preceded by a meeting between M. Poincaré and Mr. Lloyd George at Boulogne, on Feb. 25, a meeting of Allied economic experts in London from March 20 to 28, which drew up detailed agenda for Genoa, and two other preliminary meetings of a regional character, one between the members of the Little Entente at Belgrade, and another at Warsaw between Poland, Latvia, Estonia, and Finland. The parties represented at Warsaw subsequently conferred at Riga with representatives of Soviet Russia. The invitation to Genoa was accepted by the Soviet Government with alacrity, but was declined by the United States. Adverse Influence of the Rapallo Treaty.—At its first plenary session the conference set up four commissions, the first to examine methods of putting into practice the principles of the Cannes resolution of Jan. 6, 1922 (see CANNES, CONFERENCE or), while the other three were to deal respectively with financial subjects, economic and commercial subjects, and transport. These three latter commissions ell reported before the conference came to an end; but their reports were bound to remain academic unless the first commission achieved positive results. The task of the first commission was more difficult, because it was general and political in character, and its work was soon suspended in favour of informal discussions between the three principal Allied Powers and Belgium on the one side and the Russians on the other. Meanwhile the Germans signed, on April 16, a separate treaty with the Russians at Rapallo, in which the objects of the Genoa conference were achieved as between these two parties by a mutual renunciation of reparation claims and a resumption of normal consular

and diplomatic relations. This separate Russo-German treaty damaged the general prospects of the conference by the fear it instilled into the Allies. In these circumstances there was little prospect of success for a general pact of non-aggression, which Mr. Lloyd George suggested on April 25. But the conference actually broke down through the intransigence of Belgium, who insisted upon the integral restitution of foreign-owned private property in Russia. France supported the Belgian contention. Eventually a formula on the British lines was carried, even Belgium finally giving way; but it was so evident that, with Great Britain and France divided, rio positive result could be achieved, that the Genoa conference was quietly wound up by remitting its agenda to a mixed commission of experts, who duly met at The Hague from June 26 to July 20, 1922, but also foundered on the rock of foreign-owned private property in Russia. The Genoa conference was interesting because economic and financial problems were approached from the point of view ‘of reconstruction, and not of reparation. It was also the first attempt at a settlement between the European gov-

ernments and Soviet Russia. See Sir C. Gordon and E. Montpetit, The Genoa Conference, Joint Report of the Canadian Delegates (1922); J. S. Mills; The Genoa ees 3 Bi iat Conference (1922).

GENOVESI,

ANTONIO

(1712-1769), Italian writer on

philosophy and political economy, was bem at’Castiglione, near

(Genoa,

Salerno, on the rst of November, 1712.» He was educated for the

patriae (1854-57). See further Atti della Società Ligure di a aApatria

church, and, after some hesitation, took ordets in 1736 at Salerno, where he was appointed on aloaeeee at the theological

1861-67); The Liber jurium reipublicae Genuensis was edited by Ricotti in the 7th, 8th, and gth volumes of the Monumenta historiae (1861 seq.); Giornale Ligustico di archeologia, storia, e belle

arti.

seminary. During this period of

his Hfe he began the study of

IZ0

GENRE—GENTIAN

philosophy, being especially attracted by Locke. Dissatisfied with ecclesiastical life, Genovesi resigned his post, and qualified as an advocate at Rome. Finding law as distasteful as theology, he devoted himself entirely to philosophy, of which he was appointed extraordinary professor in the university of Naples. His first works were Elementa Metaphysicae (1743 et seq.) and Logica (174). The former is divided into four parts, Ontosophy, Cosmosophy, Theosophy, Psychosophy, supplemented by a treatise on ethics and a dissertation on first causes. The Logic, an eminently practical work, written from the point of view of Locke, is in five parts, dealing with (1) the nature of the human mind, its faculties and operations; (2) ideas and their kinds; (3) the true and the false, and the various degrees of knowledge; (4) reasoning and argumentation; (5) method and the ordering of our thoughts. If Genovesi does not take a high rank in philosophy, he deserves the credit of having introduced the new order of ideas into Italy,

at the same time preserving a just mean between the two extremes of sensualism and idealism. Although bitterly opposed by the

ary, son of a military surgeon, was born at Bordeaux on August 10, 1758. He studied law, and at the outbreak of the Revolution was an advocate of the parlement of Bordeaux. In 1790 he became procureur of the Commune, and in July 1791 was elected by the newly created department of the Gironde a member of the court of appeal. In the same year he was elected deputy for the department to the Legislative Assembly. As reporter of the diplomatic committee, in which he supported the policy of Brissot,

he proposed two of the most revolutionary measures passed by the Assembly: the decree of accusation against the king’s brothers (January 1, 1792), and the declaration of war against the king of Bohemia and Hungary (April 20, 1792). He was vigorous in his denunciations of the intrigues of the court and of the “Austrian committee’: but the violence of the extreme democrats, culminating in the events of Aug. 10, greatly alarmed him; and when he was returned to the National Convention, he attacked the Commune of Paris (October 24 and 25). At the trial of Louis XVI. he

supported an appeal to the people, but voted for the death senpartisans of scholastic routine, Genovesi found influential patrons, tence. As a member of the Committee of General Defence, and amongst them Bartolomeo Intieri, a Florentine, who in 1754 as president of the Convention (March 7~21, 1793), he shared in founded the first Italian or European chair of political economy the bitter attacks of the Girondists on the Mountain; and on the (commerce and mechanics), on condition that Genovesi should be fatal day, June 2, 1793, his name appeared among the first of the first professor, and that it should never be held by an ecclesias- those inscribed on the prosecution list. He was tried by the Revotic. The fruit of Genovesi’s professorial labours was the Lezioni lutionary Tribunal on Oct. 24, 1793, condemned to death and di Commercio, the first complete and systematic work in Italian guillotined on the 31st of the month, displaying on the scafon economics. On the whole he belongs to the “Mercantile” school, fold a stoic fortitude. Gensonné was accounted one of the though he does not regard money as the only form of wealth. most brilliant of the little band of brilliant orators from the Specially noteworthy in the Lezioné are the sections on human Gironde, though his eloquence was somewhat cold and he always wants as the foundation of economical theory, on labour as the read his speeches. See F. A. Aulard, L’Eloquence Parlementaire pendant la Revolution source of wealth, on personal services as economic factors, and on the united working of the great industrial functions. He advo- française, vol. 2 p. 462. cated freedom of the corn trade, reduction of the number of reGENTIAN, botanically Gentiana, a large genus of herbaceous ligious conimunities, and deprecated regulation of the interest on plants belonging to the family Gentianaceae. The genus comprises loans, In the spirit of his age he denounced the relics of mediaeval about 400 species—most of them perennial plants with tufted institutions, such as entails and tenures in mortmain. Gioja’s growth, growing in hilly or mountainous districts, chiefly in the more important treatise owes much to Genovesi’s lectures. northern hemisphere; but they are absent from Africa. The Genovesi died on the 22nd of September 1769. leaves are opposite, entire, smooth, and often strongly ribbed. Brariocrarry.—Opere scelte, with Life by A. Fabroni (3 vols., The flowers have a persistent 4- to s-lobed calyx and a 4- to sMilan, 1824-35); Opusculi e Lettere familiari (Venice, 1827); R. lobed tubular corolla; the stamens are equal in number to the Bobba, Commemorazione di Antonio Genovesi (Benevento, 1867); G. M. Monti, Due grandi reformatori del setticento: A Genovesi et lobes of the corolla. The ovary is one-celled, with two stigmas, either separate and rolled back or contiguous and funnel-shaped. G. H. Galanti (1926). GENRE, as applied to paintings, has primarily to do with a The fruit when ripe separates into two valves, and contains numertype of subject, but the proper application of the term is limited ous small seeds. The majority of the genus are remarkable for also by the painter’s attitude toward the subject. In genre paint- the deep or brilliant blue colour of their blossoms, comparatively ing the artist deals with intimate scenes and subjects from ordi- few having yellow, white, or more rarely rèd flowers; the last nary daily life. The elimination of imaginative content serves to are almost exclusively found in the Andes. Only six species occur in Great Britain. G. Amarella (felwort or focus attention upon the shrewd observation of types, costumes and settings and upon the beauty and appropriateness of colour, autumn gentian) and G, cumpestris are small annuals growing on form and texture. True genre painting should reduce to a mini- chalky or calcareous hills, and bearing in autumn tubular pale mum such subjective qualities as the dramatic, historical, cere- purple flowers; the latter is most easily distinguished by having monial, satirical, didactic, romantic, sentimental and religious. two of the lobes of the calyx larger than the other two, while Characteristic works by Steen, Daumier, Rowlandson and Hogarth the former has the parts of the calyx in fives, and equal in size.

would thus be too satirical or didactic to qualify perfectly as genre, while those of Wheatley, Morland and Fragonard would be too sentimental and those of J. F. Millet too romantic.

In Europe, genre paintidg scarcely deserves serious notice until the late middle ages when we ofteii find in manuscript books illuminated calendars showing the occupations appropriate to the

months or seasons.

(See ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS.)

These

little genre pictures give intimate glimpses of the life of the time. Soon the taste for genre becomes so keen that Petrus Cristus, Pieter Aertsen and Pieter Bruegel paint scenes in shops and kitchens thinly disguised as religious subjects. This practice was followed later by Rembrandt, supreme in his ability to express prefound emotion without surrendering the objective attitude. The greatest home of genre painting was indeed Holland in Rem-

Some intermediate forms between thése two species occur;

although rarely, in England; one of these, G. germanica, has larger flowers of a bluer tint, spreading branches, and a stouter stem: Some of these forms flower in spring. G. Pneumonanthe, the

Calathian violet, is a rather rare perennial species, growing in

moist heathy places from Cumberland to Dorsetshire.

Its average

height is from 6 to 9 in. It has linear leaves, and a bright blue corolla 14 in. long, marked externally with five greenish bands. It

is the handsomest of the British species; two varieties of it are known in cultivation, one with spotted and the other with white flowers. G. verna and G. nivalis are small species with brilliant |

blue flowers and small leaves. The former is a rare and local perennial, occurring, however, in Teesdale and the county of

Clare in Ireland. It has a tufted habit of growth, and each stem

only one flower. It is sometimes cultivated as an edging . brandt’s time when flourished Adtiaen van Ostade, Getard Dou, bears for flower borders. G. nivalis in Britain is very rare and

Gabriel Metsu, Jan Verner, Pieter de Hooch and Terborch.

Among later exponents are Jean Siméon Chardin in France and Pietro Longhi in Italy. GENSONNE, ARMAND (1758-1793), French revolution-

only on a few of the loftiest Scottish mountains.

occurs , It differs from

the last in being an annual, and having a more isolated habit of:

growth, and in the stem bearing several flowers. On the Swiss mountains these beautiful little plants are very abundant, and-, By

GENTIANACEAE

I2I

are one of the striking floral features of the Alps. For ornamental | and enters into a well-known compound called diapente as a chief purposes several species are cultivated. ingredient. About 50 species occur in North America, widely distributed GENTIANACEAE (the gentian family), in botany, a throughout the continent, but most numerous in the Rocky Moun- family of Dicotyledons belonging to the sub-class Sympetalae, tain region. Of some 15 species found from the Great Plains east- and containing about 800 species and 80 genera. It has a worldward, among the best known are the fringed gentian (G. crinita), wide distribution, and representatives adapted to very various one of the most beautiful American wild flowers; the closed or bottle gentian (G. Andrewsii), the most common species; the downy gentian (G. puberula), of the prairie region; and the stiff gentian or ague-weed (G. quinque flora), which extends southward to Florida. Of the many Rocky Mountain species, those with

conditions, including, for instance, alpine plants, like the true gentians (Gentiana), meadow plants such as the British Chlora perfoliata Cyellow-wort) or Erythraea Centaurium (centaury), marsh plants such as Menyanthes trifoliata (bog-bean), floating water plants such as Limnanthemum, or steppe and sea-coast plants such as Cicendia. They are annual or perennial herbs, rarely shrubs, and generally growing erect, with a characteristic forked manner of branching; the Asiatic genus Crawfurdia has a climbing stem; they are often low-growing and caespitose, as in the alpine gentians. The leaves are in decussating

fringed flowers, as G. elegans and G. barbellata, are among the most conspicuous. Representative of the 12 or more species found in California and northward in the coastal mountains are the single-flowered gentian (G. simplex), with slightly fringed flowers, and the western blue gentian (G. calycosa), which through-

out the summer forms sheets of intense blue in alpine meadows

from California to British Columbia and eastward to Montana. By far the most important of the species used in medicine is G. lutea, a large handsome plant 3 or 4 ft. high, growing in open grassy places on the Alps, Apennines and Pyrenees, as well as on some of the mountainous ranges of France and Germany, extendpairs (that is, each pair is in a ing as far east as Bosnia and the Danubian principalities. It has plane at right angles to the prelarge oval strongly-ribbed leaves and dense whorls of conspicuous vious or succeeding pair), except yellow flowers. Its use in medicine is of very ancient date. Pliny in Menyanthes and a few allied and Dioscorides mention that the plant was noticed by Gentius, a aquatic or marsh genera, where king of the Illyrians, living 180-167 B.C., from whom the name or radical. SevGentiana is supposed to be derived. During the middle ages it was FROM REGEL, “GARTEN FLORA” (FERDINAND they are alternate A < eral genera, chiefly American, are much employed in the cure of disease, and as an ingredient in ENKE) counter-poisons. In 1552 Hieronymus Bock (Tragus) (1498- GENTIAN (GENTIANA ACAULIS), A saprophytes, forming slender lowgrowing herbs, containing little 1554), a German priest, physician and botanist, mentions the use STEMLESS ALPINE SPECIES or no chlorophyll and with leaves reduced to scales; such is of the root as a means of dilating wounds. The root, which is the part used in medicine, is tough and flexi- Voyria, mainly tropical American. The inflorescence is generally ble, scarcely branched, and of a brownish colour and spongy tex- cymose, often dichasial, recalling that of Caryophyllaceae, the ture. It has a pure bitter taste and faint distinctive odour. The lateral branches often becoming monochasial; it is sometimes bitter principle, known as gentianin, is a glucoside, soluble in water reduced to a few flowers or one only, as in some gentians. The and alcohol. It can be decomposed into glucose and gentiopicrin flowers are hermaphrodite and regular, with ‘parts in fours and by the action of dilute mineral acids. It is not precipitated by fives, with reduction to two in the pistil; in Chlora there are six tannin or subacetate of lead. A’solution of caustic potash or soda to eight members in each whorl. The calyx generally forms a forms with gentianin a yellow solution, and the tincture of the root tube with teeth or segments which usually overlap in the bud. to which either of these alkalis has been added loses its bitterness The corolla shows great variety in form; thus among the British in a few days. Gentian root also contains gentianic acid genera it is rotate in Chlora, funmnel-shaped in Erythraea, and

(CisH100s), which is inert and tasteless. It forms pale yellow silky crystals, very slightly soluble in water or ether, but soluble in hot strong alcoho] and in aqueous alkaline solutions. This substance is also called gentianin, gentisin and gentisic acid. The root also contains 12 to 15% of an uncrystallizable sugar called gentianose, of which fact advantage has long been taken in

Switzerland and Bavaria for the production of a bitter cordial spirit called Enzianbranntwein, The use of this spirit, especially

in Switzerland, has sometimes been followed by poisonous symp-

toms, which have been doubtfully attributed to inherent narcotic properties possessed by some species of gentian, the roots of which may have been indiscriminately collected with it; but it is quite

possible that it may be due to the contamination of the root with

that of Veratrum album, a poisonous plant growing at the same altitude, and having leaves extremely similar in appearance and size to those of G. lutea. Gentian is one of the most efficient of the class of substances which act upon the stomach so as to invigorate digestion and thereby increase the general nutrition, without exerting any direct influence upon any other portion of the body than the alimentary

canal. Having a pleasant taste and being nonastringent (owing

to the absence of tannic acid), it is the most widely used of all bitter tonics. The British Pharmacopoeia contains an aqueous extract (dose, 2-8 grains), a compound infusion with orange and lemon peel (dose, $—-1 ounce), and a compound tincture with orange peel and cardamoms (dose 4~1 drachm). It is used in

cylindrical, bell-shaped, funnel-shaped or salver-shaped in Gentiana; the segments are generally twisted to the right in the bud; the throat is often fimbriate or bears scales. The stamens, as many as, and alternating with, the corolla-segments, are inserted at very different heights on the corolla-tube; the filaments are slender, the anthers are usually attached dorsally, are versatile, and dehisce by two longitudinal slits; after escape of the pollen they sometimes become spirally twisted as in Erythraea, Dimorphic flowers are frequent, as in the bog-bean (Menyanthes). There is considerable variation in the size, shape and external markings of the pollen grains. The form of the honey-secreting developments of the disk at the base of the ovary also shows considerable variety. The superior ovary is generally one-chambered, with two variously developed parietal placentas, which occasionally meet, forming two chambers; the ovules are generally numerous and anatropous or half-anatropous in form. The style, which varies much in length, is simple, with an undivided or bilobed

or bipartite stigma.

The fruit is generally a membranous

or

leathery capsule, splitting septicidally into two valves; the seeds are small and numerous, and contain a small embryo in a copious endosperm. The brilliant colour of the flowers, which often occur in large numbers (as in the alpine gentians), the presence of honey-glands

and the frequency of dimorphy and dichogamy, are adaptations

for pollination by insect visitors. In the true gentians (Gentiana)

the flowers of different species are adapted for widely differing

dyspepsia, chlorosis, anaemia and various other diseases, in which

types of insect visitors, Thus Gentiana lutea, with a rotate yellow

sometimes added to purgative medicines to increase and improve

insect visitors; G. Pueymonanthe, with a long-tubed, bright blue

the tone of the stomach and alimentary canal is deficient, and is corolla and freely exposed honey, is adapted to short-tongued their action. In veterinary medicine it is also used as a tonic,

corolla, is visited by humble bees; and G. verna, with a still longer

122 narrower tube, is visited by Lepidoptera.

GENTILE—GENTILI l

,

Gentiana, the largest genus, contains about 4oo species, distributed over Europe (including arctic), five being British, the

the habit of a Venetian noble. These paintings influenced the development of Venetian art; they are unfortunately no longer -

extant. About 1420 he went to Florence, where in 1423 he painted

of Santa Trinita, mountains of Asia, south-east Australia and New Zealand, the an “Adoration of the Magi” for the church Uffizi, Florence, and is considered his whole of North America (30 species) and along the Andes to Cape which is preserved in the period belongs a “Madonna Horn: it does not occur in Africa. Bitter principles are general best work now extant. To the same museum. Another fine Berlin the in now is which Child,” and roots, in the vegetative parts, especially in the rhizomes and and have given a medicinal value to many species, e.g., Gentiana example of his work is the “Madonna with Angels” (1425) lent lutea and others. The next largest genus in North America is by H.M. the King to the National Gallery, London. The wings of Sabbatia which has representatives from the Atlantic coast this altarpiece are in the Uffizi. He attained a wide reputation, , and was engaged to paint pictures for various churches, more westward into the prairie region. (See GENTIAN.) particularly Brescia, Siena, Perugia and Orvieto. In 1427 he philosopher Italian _+), GENTILE, GIOVANNI (1875and politician, was born at Castelvetrano (Trapani) on May 29, was called to Rome by Martin V. to adorn the church of St. 1875. He studied literature and philosophy at the University of John Lateran with frescoes. Michelangelo said of him that his Palermo, and after a series of university appointments became works resembled his name, meaning noble or refined. They are in 1918 professor of the history of philosophy in the University full of a quiet joyousness, and show a naïve delight in splendour of Rome. Two years later he founded the Giornale critico della and in gold ornaments. GENTILESCHI, ARTEMISIA and ORAZIO DE, | filosofia italiana. Created a Senator in 1918, he supported the : Fascist movement from its beginnings, and when Mussolini’s Gov- Italian painters. Orazro (c. 1562—c. 1647) is generally named Orazio Lomi de ernment came into power, Gentile was appointed minister of education. He was then a Liberal, but subsequently joined the Gentileschi. He was born in Pisa, and studied under his halfFascist party, of which he became a prominent member. As brother Aurelio Lomi. He afterwards went to Rome and painted minister of education, he carried out an organic reform of the frescoes in S. Maria Maggiore, in the Lateran and in San Niccolo Italian educational system, impressing upon teachers the impor- in Carcere; he was associated with the landscape-painter Agostino tance of an understanding of the development of mind and reviv- Tassi, executing the figures for the landscapes of this artist. ing religious teaching in the schools. For Gentile, education is a Among his best works are: “The Circumcision” in the church of process of self-formation which should culminate in philosophy, Gesu at Ancona; “The Madonna and S. Clara” in the Casa Rosei the supreme form of self-consciousness. At this point alone do at Fabriano; “The Annunciation” in San Siro, Genoa; “Mary we arrive at reality, which is something given in the pure actual- Magdalene” in Pal. Negrotti at Genoa; “The Finding of Moses” ity of mind. Reality is not identifiable with the ideas of individual in the Prado, Madrid; “Saints Cecilia and Valerian” in the Brera, minds, but with the pure thinking or perfect self-consciousness Milan; a “Flight into Egypt” in the Louvre, Paris; another in the of the super-personal, transcendental principle in the universe Belvedere, Vienna, and “Joseph and Potiphar’s Wife” at Hampwhich overcomes all oppositions and distinctions. In this obvious ton Court. At an advanced age Gentileschi went to England at the attempt to revive idealism, Gentile endeavours to reform Hegelian invitation of Charles I., and he was employed in the palace at dialectics and often appeals to the system of Vico. Greenwich: Van Dyck included him in his portraits of a hundred Among his numerous works, which include an edition of Bruno’s illustrious men. His works generally are strong in shadow and . writings (1907), one of Vico’s works (1914) and a translation positive in colour. He died in England about 1647. l of Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason (1910), are:—La Filosofia ARTEMISIA (1597— after 1651), Orazio’s daughter, studied first, a Marx (1899); Storia, della filosofia italiana (1902, etc.); Il under Guido Reni, acquired much renown for portrait-painting, ` modernismo (1909); Bernardino Telesio (1911); I problemi della and considerably excelled her father’s fame. She was a beautiful scolastica e îl pensiero italiano (1913); Sommario di Pedagogia and elegant woman; her likeness, painted by her own hand, is to come sctenza filosofica (2 vols., 1913-14); Teoria generale dello be seen in Hampton Court. Her most celebrated composition is . spirito come atto puro (1916; 3rd ed., 1920; Eng. trans., 1922); “Judith and Holofernes,” in the Uffizi gallery, Florence, certainly . Sistema dì Logica come teorie del conoscere (1917; 2nd ed., a work of singular energy, but repulsive in its physical horror. « 1918); 7 fondamenti della filosofia del diritto (1917); Le origini She went to England about 1638 and painted many portraits della filosofa contemporanea in Italia (4 vols., 1917-23); Il there. Artemisia refused an offer of marriage from Agostino Tassi, . Problemo scolastico del dopo guerra (1919); La Riforma dell and bestowed her hand on Pier Antonio Schiattesi, continuing, educazione (1920; Eng. trans., 1923); Studi sul Rinascimento however, to use her own surname. She settled in Naples, whither (1923); Lo Spavento (1924); Il Fascismo al governo della scuola she returned from England, and was commissioned to paint three (1924); Che cosa è il fascismo (1925); Scritti. politici (1925). pictures for the cathedral of Pozzuoli. See E. Chiocchetti, La filosofia di Gentile (1922): V. La Via, L'Id GENTILI, ALBERICO (1552-1608), Italian jurist, who. ismo Attuale di Gentile pe F. de Sate oe eC oe a has great claims to be considered the founder of the science of, GENTILE, in the English Bible, the term generally applied international law, second son of Matteo Gentili, a physician of to those who were not of the Jewish race. It is an adaptation noble family and scientific eminence, was born on the 14th of: of the Lat. gentilis, of or belonging to the same gens, the clan or January 1552 at Sanginesio, a small town of the march of Ancona family; as defined by the grammarian Sextus Pompeius Festus which looks down from the slopes of the Apennines upon the dis(ce. AD. 150, edit. K. O, Miiller, 1839, p. 94): “gentilis dicitur et ex tant Adriatic. After taking the degree of doctor of civil law at the eodem genere ortus et is qui simili nomine appellatur; ut ait university of Perugia, and holding a judicial office at Ascoli, he chas [c. 2x10 B.C.], gentiles mihi sunt, qui meo nomine appel- returned to his native city, and was entrusted with the task of lantur,” Jn post-Augustan Latin gentilis meant “national,” be- recasting its statutes. Sharing the Protestant opinions of his longing to the same race. Later still it meant “foreign,” i.¢., other father, he and his brother, Scipio, afterwards a famous professor than Roman, and was used in the Vulgate with gentes, to trans- at Altdorf, fled with their. father to Carniola, where in 1579 4

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late the Hebrew goyyim, nations, LXX. vn, the non-Israelitish peoples (see further Jews). It is also used by Mormons of all who are pot Mormons. (A. L. W.) GENTILE DA FABRIANO (c. 1370-1427), Italian painter, born at Fabriano, was the first great Umbrian master. About 1411 he went to Venice, where by order of the doge and sen-

atebe was engaged to adorn the great hall of the palace with frescoes from the life of Barbarossa. He executéd this work

so entirely. to the satisfaction of his employers that they granted

him a peńsion for life, and accorded him the privilege of wearing

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Matteo was appointed physician to the duchy. The Inquisition

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condemned the fugitives as contumacious, and they soon received vep”

orders to quit the dominions of Austria. Alberico set out for England, travelling by way of Tübingen and

Heidelberg, and everywhere meeting with the reception to which

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In the autumn of 1580, with a commendatory letter from the eal a of Leicester, at that time chancellor of the university, and wasi shortly afterwards qualified to teach by being admitted to thë; tł &

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same, degree which he had taken’at Perugia. His lectures on Ros ae,

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GENTLEMAN

123

His faults are not few. His style is prolix, obscure, and to the modern reader pedantic enough; but a comparison of his greatest established his position as an accomplished civilian, of the older work with what had been written upon the same subject by, for and severer type, and secured his appointment in 1587 to the instance, Belli, or Soto, or even Ayala, will show that he greatly regius professorship of civil law. It was, however, rather by | improved upon his predecessors, not only by the fullness with

man law soon became famous, and the dialogues, disputations and commentaries, which he published henceforth in rapid succession,

an application of the old learning to the new questions sug- | which he has worked out points of detail, but also by clearly sepgested by the modern relations of states that his labours have | arating the law of war from martial law, and by placing the subproduced their most lasting result. In 1584 he was consulted | ject once for all upon a non-theological basis. If, on the other by government as to the proper course to be pursued with Men- | hand, the same work be compared with the De Jure Belli et Pacis doza, the Spanish ambassador, who had been detected in plot- | of Grotius, it is at once evident that the later writer is indebted to ting against Elizabeth. He chose the topic to which his at- | the earlier, not only for a large portion of bis illustrative erudi-

tention had thus been directed as a subject for a disputation | tion, but also for all that is commendable in the method and when Leicester and Sir Philip Sidney visited the schools at Oxford | arrangement of the treatise. The following is probably a complete list of the writings of in the same year; and this was six months later expanded into a| book, the De legationibus libri tres. In 1588 Alberico selected the | Gentili, with the places and dates of their first publication: De law of war as the subject of the law disputations at the annual | juris interpretibus dialogi sex (London, 1582); Lectionum et epist. “Act” which took place in July; and in the autumn published in | quae ad jus civile pertinent libri tres (London, 1583—1584); De

London the De Jure Belli commentatio prima. A. second and a | legationibus libri tres (London, 1585); Legal. comitiorum Oxon.

third Commentatio followed, and the whole matter, with large | actio (London, 1585-1586); De divers. temp. appellationibus additions and improvements, appeared at Hanau, in 1598, as the | (Hanau, 1586); De nascendi tempore disputatio (Witteb., 1586);

De Jure Belli libri tres. It was doubtless in consequence of the | Disputationum decas prima (London, 1587); Conditionum liber

reputation gained by these works that Gentili became henceforth | singularis (London, 158 7); De jure belli comm. prima (London, more and more engaged in forensic practice, and resided chiefly | 1588); secunda, ib. (1588-1589); tertia (1589); De injustitia in London, leaving his Oxford work to be partly discharged by a| bellica Romanorum (Oxon. 1590); Ad tit. de Malef. et Math. de deputy. In 1600 he was admitted to be a member of Gray’s Inn, | Prof. et Med. (Hanau, 1593); De jure belli libri tres (Hanau, and in 160 was appointed standing counsel to the king of Spain. | 1598); De armis Romanis, etc. (Hanau, 1599); De actoribus et He died on the 19th of June 1608, and was buried, by the side of | de abusu mendacii (Hanau, 1599); De ludis scenicis epist. duae Dr. Matteo Gentili, who had followed his son to England, in the | (Middleburg, 1600); Ad I. Maccabaeorum et de linguarum mis-

churchyard of St. Helen’s, Bishopsgate. By his wife, Hester de | ture disp.

(Frankfurt,

1600); Lectiones

Virgilianae

(Hanau,

Peigni, he left two sons, Robert and Matthew, and a daughter, | 1600); De nuptiis libri septem (1601); In tit. si quis principi, et Anna, who married Sir John Colt. His notes of the cases in which | ad leg. Jul. maiest. (Hanau, 1604); De latin. vet. Bibl. (Hanau, he was engaged for the Spaniards were posthumously published in | 1604); De libro Pyano (Oxon. 1604); Laudes Acad. Perus. et 1613 at Hanau, as Hispanicae advocationis libri duo. This was in |Oxon. (Hanau, 1605); De unione Angliae et Scotiae (London, accordance with his last wishes; but his direction that the re- | 1605); Disputationes tres, de libris ĵur. can., de libris jur. civ., de mainder of his MSS. should be burnt was not complied with, since | Jatinitate vet. vers. (Hanau, 1605); Regales disput. tres, de pot. fifteen volumes of them found their way, at the beginning of the | regis absoluta, de unione regnorum, de vi civium (London, 1605); roth century, from Amsterdam to their permanent home in the | Hispanicae advocationis libri duo (Hanau, 1613); In tit. de verb.

' signif. (Hanau, 1614); De legatis in test. (Amsterdam, 1661). Bodleian library. The true history of Gentili and of his principal writings has only | An edition of the Opera omnia, commenced at Naples in 1770, was been ascertained in recent years, in consequence of a revived ap- | Cut F by the ae eee noe oe aa ee a preciation of the services which he rendered to international law. Piconj Crea) aa eia by W. Belger annerid a the Prohatch The movement to do him honour originated in 1875 in England, | the Groningen Gymnasium for 1867; an inaugural lecture delivered in as the result of the inaugural lecture of Prof. T. E. Holland, and | 1874 by T. E. Holland, translated into Italian, with additions by the was warmly taken up in Italy. In spreading through Europe it author, by A. Saffi (1884); the preface to a new edition of the De jure

encountered two curious cross-currents of opinion—one the ultra-

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Catholic, , which three : centuries before had ordered t his name : to be Vaaldarnini Id a and d Forlict oe y Foglietti (1875), Speranza and Dee Giorgi e (1876), erased from all public documents and placed his works in the| Fiorini (a translation of the De jure belli, with essay, 1877), A. Saffi

Index; another the narrowly-Dutch, which is, it seems, needlessly | (1878), L. Marson (1885), M. Thamm (1896), B. Brugi (1898), T. A. (an analysis of theprincipal works of Gentili) in his History of resulted. | Walker These A two currents careful i of the; supremacy of Grotius. : z tke Law of Nations, vol. i. (1899); H. Nézarel, in Pillet’s Fondateurs respectively Ina bust of Garcia Moreno being placed in the Vatl- | ge droit international (1904) ; E. Agabiti (1908). See also E. Comba, can, and in the unveiling in 1886, with much international oratory, | in the Rivista Christiana (1876-77) ; Sir T. Twiss, in the Law Review of a fine statue of Grotius at Delft. The English committee, under | (i) ;

the honorary presidency of Prince Leopold, in 1877 erected a | 1000

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ine Anna

a

te ’

a PE

Univ. di Perugia,

1883,

NS.,

monument to the memory of Gentili in St. Helen’s church, and E Bees r EEEa E E E aie A Ga saw to the publication of a new edition of the De Jure Belli. The | De legationibus Libri Tres, with an introduction by E. Nys and a Italian committee, of which Prince (afterwards King) Humbert translation of the text by G. J. Laing (1924). ` GENTLEMAN, in its original and strict signification, a term was honorary president, was less successful. It was only in 1908, the tercentenary of the death of Alberico, that the statue of the denoting a man of good family (from Lat. gentilis, “belonging to great heretic was at length unveiled in his native city by the min- a race or gens,’ and “man”; the Lat. generosus [its invariable ister of public instruction, in the presence of numerous deputations translation in English-Latin documents]}). In this sense it is the from Italian cities and universities. Preceding writers had dealt equivalent of the Fr. gentilhomme, “nobleman,” which lattér term with various international questions, but they dealt with them has in Great Britain been long confined to the peerage (see Nositsingly, and with a servile submission to the decisions of the church. ity); and the term “gentry” (“gentrice” from O.Fr. gentertse It was left to Gentili to grasp as a whole the relations of states one for gentelise) has much of the significance of the Fr. noblesse or to another, to distinguish international questions from questions the Ger. Adel. This was what was meant by the rebels under with which they are more or less intimately connected, and to John Ball in the 14th century when they repeated:

attempt their solution by principles entirely independent of the authority of Rome. He-uses thé reasonings of the civil and even the canon law, but he proclaims as his real guide the Jus Naturae, the highest common sense of mankind, by which historical precedents are to be criticized and, when this appears to be necessary,

Set aside.

i

=

ae eS

i

3 When Adam delved and Eve span,

Who was then the gentleman?

Selden (Titles of Honor, 1672), discussing the title “gentleman,” speaks of “our English use of it” as “convertible with no bilis,”

and describes in connection ‘with it the forms of ennobling in various European countries. William Harrison, writing a century

124

GENTLEMAN

earlier, says “gentlemen be those whom their race and blood, or at the least their virtues, do make noble and known.”

is ‘Robert Erdeswyke of Stafford, gentilman,’” who had serve;

But for among the men-at-arms of Lord Talbot at Agincourt (ibd, note),

He is typical of his class, “Fortunately—for the gentle reade

the complete gentleman the possession of a coat of arms was in his time considered necessary; and Harrison gives the following

will no doubt be anxious to follow in his footsteps—some partie

the university, giving his mind to his book, or professeth physic

with intent to kill, and procuring the murder of one Thoma

lars of his life may be gleaned from the public records. He was account of how gentlemen were made in Shakespeare’s day: “Who soever studieth the laws of the realm, who so abideth in charged at the Staffordshire Assizes with housebreaking, wounding and the liberal sciences, or beside his service in the room of a cap-

tain in the wars, or good counsel given at home, whereby his commonwealth is benefited, can live without manual labour, and thereto is able and will bear the port, charge and countenance of a gentleman, he shall for money have a coat and arms bestowed upon him by heralds (who in the charter of the same do of custom pretend antiquity and service, and many gay things) and thereunto being made so good cheap be called master, which is the title that men give to esquires and gentlemen, and reputed for a gentleman ever after, No man hath hurt by it but himself, who peradven-

Page, who was cut to pieces while on his knees begging for his life,” If any earlier claimant to the title of “gentleman” be dis: covered, Sir George Sitwell predicts that it will be within the same

year (1414) and in connection with some similar disreputahly

proceedings.

eae

From these unpromising beginnings

k

the separate order of

“gentlemen” was very slowly evolved. The first “gentleman” con, memorated on an existing monument was John Daundelyon of Margate (d. c. 1445); the first gentleman to enter the House of

Commons, hitherto composed mainly of “valets,” was “William

ture will go in wider buskins than his legs will bear, or as our Wesṣtoọn, gentylman”; but even in the latter half of the zsth cep.

proverb saith, now and then bear a bigger sail than his boat is tury the order was not clearly established. As to the connection ¢f “gentilesse” with the official grant or recognition of coat-armoy, able to sustain,” In this way Shakespeare himself was turned, by the grant of that is a profitable fiction invented and upheld by the heralds; fo a coat of arms, fram a “vagabond” into a gentleman. coat-armour was but the badge assumed by gentlemen to distiy, The fundamental idea of “gentry,” symbolized in this grant of coat-armour, had come to be that of the essential superiority

of the fighting man; and, as Selden points out (p. 707), the fiction was usually maintained in the granting of arms “to an ennobled person though of the long Robe wherein he hath little use of them as they mean a shield.” At the last the wearing of a sword on all occasions was the outward and visible sign of a “gentleman”; and the custom survives in the sword worn with “court dress.” This idea that a gentleman must have a coat of arms, and that no one is a “gentleman” without one is, however, of com-

paratively late growth, the outcome of the natural desire of the

guish them in battle, and many gentlemen of long descent never

had occasion to assume it, and never did. This fiction, however, had its effect; and by the 16th century, as has been already

pointed out, the official view had become clearly established that “gentlemen” constituted a distinct order, and that the badge of

this distinction was the heralds’ recognition of the right to bear

arms. It is unfortunate that this view, which is quite unhistorical, has of late years heen given a wide currency in popular manuals

of heraldry. 7 In this narrow sense, however, the word “gentleman” has lop

since become obsolete. The idea of “gentry” in the continents

heralds to magnify their office and collect fees for registering sense of noblesse is extinct in England, and is likely to remain ṣo, coats; and the same is true of the conception of “gentlemen” as in spite of the efforts of certain enthusiasts to revive it (see A, ¢: a separate class, That a distinct order of “gentry” existed in Fox-Davies, Armorial Families, Edinburgh, 1895). That it once England very early has, indeed, been often assumed, and is sup- existed has been sufficiently shown; but the whole spirit and tend‘ported by weighty authorities. Thus, the late Professor Freeman ency of English constitutional and social development tended tg (Ency. Brit. xvii. p. 540 b, oth ed.) said: “Early in the 11th cen- its early destruction. The comparative good order of England was tury the order of ‘gentlemen’ as a separate class seems to be form- not favourable to the continuance of a class, developed during the ing as something new. By the time of the conquest of England foreign and civil wars of the 14th and rsth centuries, for whom the distinction seems to have been fully established.” Stubbs fighting was the sole honourable occupation. The younger sons of (Const. Hist., ed. 1878, ii. 544, 548) takes the same view. Sir noble families became apprentices in the cities, and there grew up4 George Sitwell, however, has.conclusively proved that this opinion new aristocracy of trade. Merchants are still “citizens” tọ William is based on a wrong conception of the conditions of mediaeval so- Harrison; but he adds “they often change estate with gentlemen,

ciety, and that it is wholly opposed to the documentary evidence,

Even so late as 1400 the word “gentleman” still only had the sense of generosus, and could not be used as a personal description denoting renk or quality, or as the title of a class. Yet after 1413

as gentlemen do with them, by mutual conversion of the one into the other,” A frontier line between classes so indefinite could net be maintained, especially as in England there was never a “nobil

we find it increasingly so used; and the list of landowners in 1431,

lary prefix” to stamp a person as a gentleman by his surname, as In France or Germany. The process was hastened, moreover, by

and husbandmen, a fair number who are classed as “gentilman.” Sir George Sitwell gives a lucid explanation of this develop-

coats of arms could be assumed without a shadow of claims which tended to bring the “science of armory” into contempt,

printed in Feudal Aids, contains, besides knights, esquires, yeomen

ment. The immediate cause was the statute r Henry V. cap. v. of

the corruption of the Heralds’ College and by the ease with whic

The word “gentleman” as an index of rank had already become of 1423, which laid down that in all original writs of action, per- doubtful value before the great political and social changes of the sonal appeals and indictments, in which process of outlawry lies, roth century gave to it a wider and essentially higher significance, the “estate, degree or mystery” of the defendant must be stated, The change is well illustrated in the definitions given in the succes as well as his present or former domicile. Now the Black Death sive editions of the Encyclopedia Britannica. In the sth edition

(1349) had put the traditional social organization out of gear.

Before that the younger sons of the mobiles had received their

share of the farm stock, bought or hired land, and settled down as agriculturists in their native villages. Under the new conditions this became increasingly impossible, and they were forced to seek

their fortunes abroad in the French wars, or at home as hangers-

on of the great nobles, These men, under the old system, had no

(1815) “a gentleman is one, who without any title, bears a coat

of arms, or whose ancestors have been freemen.” In the 7th edir.

tion (1845) it still implies a definite social status: “AIl above the rank of yeomen.” In the 8th edition (1856) this is still its “most

extended sense”; “in a more limited sense” it is defined in the same’

words as those quoted above from the sth edition; but the writer’ adds, “By courtesy this title is generally accorded to all person$"’ above the rank of common tradesmen when their manners arẹ’ Indicative of a certain amount of refinement and intelligence% ,

definite status; but they were generosi, men of birth, and, heing now forced to describe themselves, they disdained to be classed with cerca ae one ene sce core still more with The Reform Bill of 1832 has done its work; the “middle classes” yeamen or husbandmen; they chose, therefore, to be described “gentlemen.” On the character of these earliest “gentlemen” ihe have come into their own; and the word “gentleman” has come i; common use tq signify not a distinction of blood but a distinction; vecords throw a lurid light. According to Six George Sitwell (p; of position, education and manners.

76}, “the premier gentleman of England, as the matter now stands,

The test is no longer gog.

birth, or the right to bear arms, but the capacity to mingle om

Si

4

GENTLEMEN’S

AGREEMENTS—GENTZ

shall charge or what areas they shall serve or what goods they will or will not handle, the arrangement is known as a Gentlemen’s Agreement or honourable understanding. Such arrangements have always been a common feature of local trade. Coal dealers

equal terms in good society. In its best use, moreover, “gentleman” involves a certain superior standard of conduct, due, to

quote the 8th edition once more, to “that self-respect and intellec-

tual refinement which manifest themselves in unrestrained yet del-

icate manners.” The word “gentle,” originally implying a certain

will meet and agree not to cut below a certain price, or arrange

that one shall confine his canvassing to the north side of the town The grocer and the greengrocer

social status, had very early come to be associated with the standard of manners expected from that status. Thus by a sort of punning process the “gentleman” becomes a “gentle-man.” Chaucer in the Meliboeus (c. 1386) says: ‘‘Certes he sholde not be called a gentil man, that . . . ne dooth his diligence and bisynesse, to kepen his good name”; and in the Wife of Bath’s Tale:

and the other to the south.

will agree, the one not to sell oranges if the other will not sell packet peas. At the other end of the economic scale steel or shipping magnates will meet and come to an understanding as to tonnage, prices, markets, freights or routes. Such arrangements are essentially informal and temporary; there are no documents, there is no association, there is no bond except that of good faith; but they are not on that account of negligible importance; they are, indeed, a particularly insidious and undetectable form of trade combination. They do not necessarily make

Loke who that is most vertuous alway Prive and apert, and most entendeth ay To do the gentil dedes that he can And take him for the gretest gentilman,

and in the Romance of the Rose (c. 1400) we find “he is gentil bycause he doth as longeth to a gentilman.” This use develops through the centuries, until in 1714 we have Steele, in the Tatler (No. 207), laying down that “the appellation of Gentleman is never to be affixed to a man’s circumstances, but to his Behaviour in them,” a limitation over-narrow even for the present day. In this connection, too, may be quoted the old story, told by some— very improbably—of James II., of the monarch who replied to a lady petitioning him to make her son a gentleman, “T could make him a nobleman, but God Almighty could not make him a gentleman.” Selden, however, in referring to similar stories “that no Charter can make a Gentleman, which is cited as out of the mouth of some great Princes that have said it,” adds that “they without question understood Gentlemen for Generosus in the ancient sense, or as if it came from Gentilis in that sense, as Gentilis denotes one of a noble Family, or indeed for a Gentleman by birth.” For “no creation could make a man of another blood than he is.” The word “gentleman,” used in the wide sense with which birth and circumstances have nothing to do, is necessarily incapable of

strict definition. For “‘to behave like a gentleman” may mean little

or much, according to the person by whom the phrase is used; “to spend money like a gentleman” may even be no great praise; but “to conduct a business like a gentleman” implies a standard at least as high as that involved in the phrase “noblesse oblige.” In this sense of a person of culture, character and good manners the word “gentleman” has supplied a gap in more than one foreign language.

125

for ill; they may serve a useful purpose in restraining vicious competition and in avoiding the overlapping of services; but because they are secret they lend themselves the more easily to the exploitation of the buying public. In the United Kingdom such arrangements are not illegal unless they involve an illegal act, in which case they constitute a breach of the common Jaw. In the United States they are forbidden under the Sherman Law, which declares illegal “every .. . Conspiracy in restraint of trade or commerce,” but thé detection and penalising of “honourable understandings” has proved to be one of the most difficult of all the applications of that law. The most notable example of the Gentlemen’s Agreement in industrial history is the “Gary Dinners” which the president of the United States Steel Corporation gave to presidents of other American steel companies from Nov. 1907 to Jan. toir. At these dinners “honourable understandings” were reached bėtween persons controlling some 90% of the entire steel output of the country. At one stage of the development of the “Open Price Association” movement in the United States (see Association, INDUSTRIAL) the plan was tried of regular meetings of Association members at which the prices quoted by members were openly announced and discussed without any agreement being reached as to what prices ought to be and would be charged; but this was held in the courts to have the effect in practice of establishing a concerted price on the ground that members conformed,

The evolution of this meaning of “gentleman” reflects very accurately that of English society; and there are not wanting signs that the process of evolution, in the one as in the other, is not

complete. The indefinableness of the word mirrors the indefinite character of “society” in England; and the use by “the masses” of “gentleman” as a mere synonym for “man” has spread part passu with the growth of democracy. It is a protest against implied inferiority, and is cherished as the modern French bourgeois cherishes his right of dueling with swords, under the ancien régime a prerogative of the noblesse. Nor is there much justification for the denunciation by purists of the “vulgarization” and “abuse” of the “grand old name of gentleman.” Its strict meaning has now fallen completely obsolete. Its current meaning varies

by an honourable understanding, to the conclusions reached in

the course of the discussion. (See Trusts and COMBINATION for an account of other forms of trade combination.) (J. H.)

GENTZ, FRIEDRICH VON (1764-1832), German pub-

licist and statesman, was born at Breslau on May 2, 1764. His

father was an official, his mother an Ancillon, distantly related to the Prussian minister of that name. On his father’s transference to Berlin, as director of the mint, the boy was sent to the Joachimsthal gymnasium there; his brilliant talents, however, did

not develop until, at the university of Königsberg, he fell under the influence of Kant. But though his intellect was sharpened and his zeal for learning quickened by the greater thinker’s influence, Kant’s “categorical imperative” did not prevent him from

yielding to the taste for wine, women and high play which pursued sort of excellency of manners or morals, It may by courtesy be him through life, In 1785 he received the appointment of secret

with every class of society that uses it. But it always implies some

over-loosely applied by one common man to another; but the common man would understand the reproach conveyed in “You're no gentleman.”

BrsrrocrapHy.—Selden, Titles of Honor (London, 1672); William Harrison, Description of England, ed. G. F. J. Furnivall for the New Shakspere Soc. (London, 1877~78) ; Sir George Sitwell, “The English Gentleman,” in the Ancestor, No. x (Westminster, April 1902); Peacham’s Compleat Gentleman (1634); With ah introduction by G. S. Gordon (Oxford, 1906); A. Smythe-Palmer, D.D., The Ideal

secretary to the royal Generaldirectorium in Berlin.

His interest in public affairs was first aroused. by the outbreak of the French Revolution, which he greeted at first with enthusiasm; but its subsequent developments cooled his ardour and

he was converted to more conservative counsels by Burke’s Essay on the French Revolution, a translation of which into German (1794) was his first literary venture. This was followed, next year, by translations of works on the Revolution by Mallet du Pan and of a Gentleman, or a Mirror for Gentlefolk: A Portrayal in Literature Mounier. He also founded and edited a monthly journal, the from the Earliest Times (London, 1908), a very exhaustive collection Neue deutsche Monatsschrift, in which for five years he wrote, of extracts from authors so wide apart as Ptah-hotep (3300 B.C.) mainly on historical and political questions, maintaining the prin-

and William Watson, arranged under headings: “The Historical Idea ae osa Gentleman,” “The Herald’s Gentleman,” “The De c. . A. P.

GENTLEMEN’S AGREEMENTS.

France, The knowledge he displayed of the principles and prac-

Where two or more tice of finance was especially remarkable. His literary output at

rivals in business meet privately and agree.as to what prices they FRR Te rere ~

ciples of British constitutionalism against those of revolutionary

this time, all Inspired by a moderate Liberalism, included an essay

GENTZ

126

the first time actively employed by the on the results of the discovery of America, and another, written in Gentz was for Stadion; he drafted the proclamation under government Vadde Pétat sur French, on the English financial system (Essai ing the of war (April 15), and during declaration 1800). London, retagne, Grande-B la de finances tion des ministra his pen was ceaselessly employed. hostilities of tinuance issive M or ift Denkschr the Especially noteworthy, however, was addressed by him to King Frederick William IIT.on his accession

4a,

Austrian

announe.

the con.

But the

peace of 1810 and the fall of Stadion once more dashed his hopes,

(1797), in which, inter alia, he urged upon the king the necessity and he once more retired to Prague. It was not till 1812 that thera for granting freedom to the press and to commerce. Opposition to sprang up between him and Metternich the close relations that France was the inspiring principle of the Historisches J ournal were to ripen into life-long friendship. But when Gentz returned founded by him in 1799-1800, which once more held up English to Vienna as Metternich’s adviser and henchman, he was no longer institutions as the model, and became in Germany the mouthpiece the fiery patriot who had sympathized and corresponded with Stein of British policy towards the revolutionary aggressions of the in the darkest days of German depression and in fiery periods rule. Disil French republic. In 1801 he ceased the publication of the Journal, called upon all Europe to free itself from foreign and issued instead, under the title Beiträge zur Geschichte, etc., a lusioned and cynical, though clear-sighted as ever, he was hence series of essays on contemporary politics. The first of these was forth before all things an Austrian, more Austrian on occasion Uber den Ursprung und Charakter des Krieges gegen die französ- even than Metternich; as, e.g., when, during the final stages of the ische Revolution (1801), by many regarded as Gentz’s master- campaign of 1814, he expressed the hope that Metternich would substitute “Austria” for “Europe” in his diplomacy and secure e. P This activity brought him reputation and gifts of money from an Austro-French alliance by maintaining the husband of Marie the British and Austrian governments; but it made his position as Louise on the throne of France. For ten years, from 1812 onward, Gentz was in closest touch an official in Berlin impossible, for the Prussian government had no mind to abandon its attitude of cautious neutrality. A separa- with all the great affairs of European history, the assistant, contion from his wife also made it desirable for Gentz to leave the fidant, and adviser of Metternich. He accompanied the chancellor Prussian service. In May 1802, accordingly, he took leave of his on all his journeys; was present at all the conferences that prewife and left with his friend Adam Miiller for Vienna. In Berlin ceded and followed the war; no political secrets were hidden from he had been intimate with the Austrian ambassador, Count Sta- him; and his hand drafted all important diplomatic documents. dion, whose good offices procured him an introduction to the em- He was secretary to the congress of Vienna (1814-1815) and to peror Francis. The immediate result was the title of imperial all the congresses and conferences that followed, up to that of councillor, with a yearly salary of 4,000 gulden (December 6th, Verona (1822), and in all his vast knowledge of men and affairs 802}; but he was not actively employed until 1809. Before re- made him a power. He was under no illusion as to their achieveturning to Berlin to make arrangements for transferring himself ments; his memoir on the work of the congress of Vienna is ‘at finally to Vienna, Gentz paid a visit to London, where he made once an incisive piece of criticism and a monument of his own disthe acquaintance of Pitt and Granville, who guaranteed him an illusionment. But the liberalism of his early years was gone fot annual pension by the British government in recognition of the ever, and he had become reconciled to Metternich’s view that, in value of his writings against Bonaparte. From this time forward an age of decay, the sole function of a statesman was to “‘prop up he was engaged in a ceaseless polemic against every fresh advance mouldering institutions.” It was the hand of the author of that of the Napoleonic power and pretensions; he denounced the recog- offensive Missive to Frederick William III., on the liberty nition of Napoleon’s imperial title, and drew up a manifesto of of the press, that drafted the Carlsbad decrees; it was he who Louis XVIII. against it. The formation of the coalition and the inspired the policy of repressing the freedom of the universities; outbreak of war for a while raised his hopes, in spite of his lively and he noted in bis diary as “a day more important than that of distrust of the competence of Austrian ministers; but the hopes Leipzig” the session of the Vienna conference of 1819, in which were speedily dashed by Austerlitz and its results. Gentz used his it was decided to make the convocation of representative assemenforced leisure to write a brilliant essay on “The relations be- blies in the German states impossible, by enforcing the letter’ of tween England and Spain before the outbreak of war between the Article XIII. of the Act of Confederation. two powers” (Leipzig, 1806); and shortly afterwards appeared As to Gentz’s private life there is not much to be said. His love Fragmente aus der neuesten Geschichte des politischen Gleichge- affairs are too numerous to record. Passion tormented him to the wichis in Europa (trans. Fragments on the Balance of Power in end, and his infatuation for Fanny Elssler, the celebrated danseuse, Europe, London, 1806). This latter, the last of Gentz’s works as forms the subject of some remarkable letters to his friend Rahel, an independent publicist, was a masterly exposé of the actual the wife of Varnhagen von Ense (1830-1831). He died on June 9, political situation, and at the same time prophetic in its sugges- 1832. ; tions “as to how this should be retrieved: “Through Germany Gentz has been described as a mercenary of the pen, but he was Europe has perished, through Germany it must rise again.” more than the “wretched scribe” sneered at by Napoleon. Though. He realized that the dominance of France could only be broken by birth belonging to the middle class in a country of hide-bound by the union of Austria and Prussia, acting in concert with Great aristocracy, he lived to move on equal terms in the society df Britam. He watched with interest the Prussian military prepara- princes and statesmen; which would never have been the case had tions, end, at tbe invitation of Count Haugwitz, he went at the he been notoriously “bought and sold.” Yet that he was in thé outset of the campaign to the Prussian headquarters at Erfurt, habit of receiving gifts from all and sundry who hoped for his. where be drafted the king’s proclamation and his letter to Napo- backing is beyond dispute. He notes that at the congress of Vienna leon. The writer was known, ‘and it was in this connection that he received 22,000 florins through Talleyrand from Louis XVIII, Napoleon referred to him as “a wretched scribe named Gentz, while Castlereagh gave him £600, accompanied by les plus one ofthose men without honour who sell themselves for money.” promesses; and his diary is full of such entries. Yet he folles nevet In this mission Gentz had no official mandate from the Austrian made any secret of these gifts; Metternich was aware of them, government, and whatever hopes he may have cherished of and he never suspected Gentz of writing or acting in consequence. privately influencing the situation in the direction of an alliance against his convictions. No man was more free or outspoken id. powers were dashed by the campaign his criticism of the policy of his employers than this apparently: of Jena. venal writer. a | S ok

| : The downfall of Prussia left Austria the sole hope of German

Indeed, the very impartiality

y and objectivity of his and Europe. Gentz, who from the winter of 1806 onwards make the writings of Gentz such documents divided ‘his time between Prague and the Bohemian watering- period. Allowance must of course illuminating be made for his point bes a = pagal daar of essays on the future of but less so perhaps than in the case of any other writer

fcostria

est means of

the balance of Europe.

liberating Germany

and redressin

os

In 809, on the outbreak of war between Austria and France,

attitude, for thé

of view’ so ñi

mately concerned with the policies which he criticizes. And, apart

from their historical value, Gentz’s writings are literary mont

ments, classical examples of nervous and luminous German prose,

GEODESY

127

or of French which is a model for diplomatic style.

Caelo to a defence of the doctrine. He even gives an estimate of the size of the Earth, saying: “Moreover those mathematicians who try to compute the cirin 5 vols. and Mémoires et lettres inédites (Stuttgart, 1841) were edited by G. Schlesier. Subsequently there have appeared Briefe an cumference of the Earth say that it is 400,000 stadia, which indiChr. Garve (Breslau, 1857); correspondence (Briefwechsel) with| cates not only that the earth’s mass is spherical in shape but also Adam Müller (Stuttgart, 1857); Briefe an Pilat (2 vols, Leipzig, that it is of no great size as compared with the heavenly bodies.” 1868); Aus dem Nachlass Friedrichs von Gentz (2 vols.), ed. Count (De Caelo, Book II., Chap. 14.) Anton Prokesch-Osten (Vienna, 1867); Aus der alien Registratur der This passage follows a long argument in favour of the sphericity Staats-Kanzlei: Briefe politischen Inhalts von und an Friedrich von Gentz, edited by C. von Klinckowstrém (Vienna, 1870); Dépêches of the earth. Some of the arguments sound modern enough; inédites du chev. de Gentz aux Hospodars de Valachie 1813—1828 others seem strange to our present ways of thinking. This seems (a correspondence on current affairs commissioned by the Austrian to represent the first scientifc attempt now on record to determine government), ed. Count Anton von Prokesch-Osten the younger (3 the size of the Earth. Even the unit has been supplied by the comvols., Paris, 1876), incomplete, but partly supplemented in Oesterreichs Teiinahme an den Befreiungskriegen (Vienna, 1887), a collection of mentators, the word stadia not occurring in the best texts. How documents of the greatest value; Zur Geschichte der orientalischen this figure of 400,000 stadia was attained we do not know. It may Frage: Briefe aus dem Nachlass Friedrichs von Gentz (Vienna, 1877), have been by a process such as that used by Eratosthenes, who ed. Count Prokesch-Osten the younger; Briefe von und an Friedrichs will’ next be mentioned, or it may have been by crude measures von Gentz, ed. F. C. Wittichen (4 vols., 1909-13). Finally Gentz’s diaries, from 1800 to 1828, an invaluable mine of authentic material, of the depression of objects at sea. If we take Aristotle’s stadion were edited by Varnhagen von Ense and published after his death to be the Attic stadion of 185 meters (607 ft.), then this figure under the title Tagebücher, etc. (Leipzig, 1861; new ed., 4 vols., ib. represents a considerable over-estimate, but is of the right order 1873). For the biography of Gentz see K. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Friedrich von Gentz (1867); E. Guglia, Friedrich von Gentz (1x901); of magnitude, as a mathematician would say. Eratosthenes of Alexandria (c. 276—-c. 195 B.C.) is the first M. Pflüger, Friedrich von Gentz als Widersacher Napoleons (1904). E. Guglia, Friedrich von Gentz (Vienna, 1901). known writer to describe and apply a method for determining GEODESY, in modern English usage is the science of survey- the size of the Earth. He assumed that Syene (the modern Asing tracts of country so large that the curvature of the earth must suan on the Nile) lay on the Tropic of Cancer so that the sun be allowed for; also the determination of the figure of the Earth, at the summer solstice was exactly overhead. Eratosthenes obincluding the various geophysical problems most intimately con- serving at Alexandria at the solstice found the sun to be 1/50 of nected therewith. Sometimes in modern languages other than a circumference away from the zenith, that is, the difference of English the word cognate to geodesy may mean hardly more than latitude between the two places he took to be 1/50 of 360° =7° x2’, He assumed that Alexandria and Syene lie on the same the original Greek (Gr. yewdarcia, the art or science of mensuration, from yf, Earth, and ale, to divide), that is, it may meridian, which is not exactly true, and that the distance between mean merely accurate land surveying, and some epithet, such as them is 5,000 stadia. On the principle of the exact correspondence between angular higher, must be added to make the phrase coextensive with the distances in the heavens and distances measured on the terrestrial English word geodesy. globe it follows that 1/50 of the circumference represents 5,000 (1.) THE FIGURE OF THE EARTH—HISTORICAL stadia, or that the whole circumference is 250,000 stadia. With The earliest geodesy (in the English sense) was concerned any plausible modern equivalent of that stadion this is much almost exclusively with determining the figure of the Earth, a nearer the truth than Aristotle’s figure. We have reports of two other Greek attempts to determine problem then chiefly of speculative interest, for the need of accurate maps, in which the figure of the Earth must be taken into the circumference of the Earth, but there is no reason to suppose account, was hardly felt until the time of Columbus.! The naive the results to be any better than that found by Eratosthenes. Ptolview of primitive man, still held by the backward and uneducated, emy in his Geography gives the length of a degree as 500 stadia, was that the Earth is a flat plane, or a circular disk, diversified which makes the circumference 180,000 stadia. These results by seas, rivers and mountains. It might seem as if some notion are all clouded by the uncertainty as to the modern equivalent of the approximate sphericity, or at least of the curvature, of the of the stadion, and it may well be that the stadion used by differEarth might have originated with those earlier peoples, such as ent writers was different. The same uncertainty affects a deterthe Babylonians, who cultivated the science of astronomy, and mination on principles similar to those of Eratosthenes made on who must have noticed that when an observer travelled south the the plains of Shinar in Mesopotamia under the orders of the aspect of the heavens changed, as stars hitherto never seen came Caliph Abdullah al Mamun (a.D. 786-833), although the disinto view over the southern horizon and the number of northern tances were actually measured instead of being estimated. No refinement of theory over Eratosthenes was made until the circumpolar stars always on view became smaller, the phenomena being reversed as the observer journeyed northward. But oblateness of the Earth came into question during the late 17th no record of any explanation of all this based on the curvature and the first half of the 18th centuries. For determining disof the Earth has come down to us from any pre-Hellenic source. tances on the Earth, Willebrord Snell (1591-1626) substituted Or it might seem as if any seafaring people, observing a vessel a chain of triangles in Holland for direct measurement. In 1669 Picard (g.v.) first used the telescope both in the dego “hull down, down and under,” as the observer’s distance from it increased, might have conceived the idea of a spherical or at least termination of latitude and in the measurement of angles of triof a rotund Earth. But again we have no record of any such doc- angulation, a device whereby the accuracy of both operations was increased. Picard’s results for the length of a degree were used by trine emanating from any of the earlier maritime peoples. The earliest enunciation of the doctrine of a spherical Earth Newton in his calculations to prove that the attraction of the comes from Pythagoras or from his school of philosophy, and Earth is the principal force governing the motion of the Moon even then the doctrine may have been based quite as much on in its orbit. With Newton and his contemporary Huyghens a new era in metaphysical as on physical considerations. By the time of Aristotle, however, the doctrine of a spherical Earth had at least geodesy begins. The physical proofs of the sphericity of the Earth a respectable amount of support among the more learned of his had so far been proofs of its general rotundity. In the Ptolemaic contemporary Greeks. Aristotle devotes a part of his book De astronomy it had seemed natural to assume—for reasons usually

A selection of Gentz’s works (Ausgewählte Schriften) was published by Weick in 5 vols. (1836-38) ; his lesser works (Mannheim, 1838-40)

_ 'This does not mean that until about this time there were no maps in which places were located by their.latitude and longitude; there had been such at least as early as the time of the Greco-Egyptian astronomer, Claudius Ptolemy, although they’ were extremely inaccurate. Nor does it mean that fairly. accurate charts did not exist before. the time of Columbus, for the mediaeval seamen’s charts, or

portolani, had then long been known, but these made little or no use

of latitude and longitude.

T

l

of a metaphysical sort—the earth to be an exact sphere; but

with the growing conviction that the Copernican system is true and that the earth rotates about its axis, and with the advance in mechanical knowledge due chiefly to Newten.and Huyghens,

it seemed natural to conceive the earth as an oblate spheroid flattened at the poles. There was also ‘the experimental evidence of the astronomer Jean Richer, who found that his clock, regulated

GEODESY

128

to keep time at Paris, lost two and a half minutes a day at Cayenne in South America, where he had been sent to make observations. But the arguments from theory and the evidence of Richer’s clock, confirmed by the experience of other observers, seemed to be contradicted by the work of the Cassinis in France. If the Earth is an oblate spheroid, the length of a degree of latitude must increase from the equator to the pole!, but the Cassinis, continuing Picard’s work, found a small difference in the opposite direction; the length of a degree seemed to decrease as the pole was approached, as if the Earth were a prolate ellipsoid instead of an oblate one. The difference was small because the range of latitude available in France was comparatively small, and might conceivably be due to observational error; nevertheless many accepted it as real and there ensued a lively controversy between the Earth-flatteners and the Earth-elongators. To settle the matter the Paris Academy of Sciences sent two expeditions to places whose difference of latitude was as great as was reasonably possible, one to “Peru”? and the other to Lapland. The northern party measured an arc ex-

tending from Tornea at the upper end of the Gulf of Bothnia to Kittis, not quite a degree to the northward, and finished its work before the Peruvian expedition did. This latter expedition left France in 1735 and did not return till 1743. The result of a comparison of the Peruvian with the Lapland arc was a vindication of the theory of an earth flattened at the poles, but it was realized that the inevitable errors made the exact amount of the flattening uncertain. By taking the two measure-

ments as exact the flattening found was s+; the modern value

is

. During the century that followed there were numerous measurements of arc that in this brief sketch cannot even be mentioned by name. The trigonometrical survey of England was begun in 1783, in the first place to establish a geodetic connection between Greenwich and Paris; and Méchain and Delambre undertook operations in France to determine the length of the meter.’ Gradually of course methods and instruments improved and standards of precision became more exacting. Gauss devised the method of least squares, a method that diminished the arbitrary element that had hitherto entered into thé adjustment of conflicting observations. This method was used extensively by thé German astronomer Bessel in the Prussian arc of 1830-35. In geodesy, as in astronomy, Bessel was a leader in the introduction of refined methods of observation and higher standards of accuracy.

(2.) GEODETIC SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS OF OBSERVATION In a sketch of this sort it would not be desirable to enter inta details about the design, construction and use of the instruments

It may seem as if just the reverse would be true, but this is be-

cause the reader may be thinking of the length of a degree of géeocentric latitude, that is the length of an elliptical arc subtending an angle of one degree at the center of the Earth. The latitude meant, however, is not the geocentric latitude, which is not susceptible of

direct observation, but the astronomic latitude (see Latirope) , which is angle between the plumb-line and the plane of the equator. The plumb-line is assumed to be normal to the metidian section through the place of observation. The ratio of the change in latitude to the change in lineat distance from the equator is obviously a

measure of

the curvature, and the curvature of an ellipse (which may

be taken as typical of all ymm

ovals) is obviously greatest at

the verter, which corresponds to the end of the major axis or to the

equator, and least at the end of the minor axis, that is, at the poles.

The iben

| province of Peru included what is now Ecuador,

where all the PRAAT work was done. The word “Peru” has become

mpeparably attached to this expedition. The measuring har used was

called the “toise of Peru” and because it was made with special care

it became the stahdard of length on whith much later geodetic work was based. A toise consisted of six French feet, equivalent to a little

than 6 feet g inches English meas t was intended that the meter should à be one tef-millionth of the length of the quidrant of 2 meridian, as ás could be determined, With the meter established, however, as a efined by = certain standard bar, this bar serves as the definition, and later

inations pc of the figure of the Earth ha i ia eager ;

kaeh

employed in geodesy. The instruments used in the astronomical part of the work for determining latitude and longitude are simply the ordinary astronomical instruments for those purposes. For longitudes the transit instrument is, and has been for a long time,

in general use. Nowadays it is ordinarily provided with a selfrecording micrometer and is used in connection with a chronograph. For latitude determinations the zenith telescope and the broken-telescope transit are in almost universal use. For the determination of azimuths and for the measurement of the angles öf triangulation, theodolites are used, of a type more accurate than those needed in ordinary surveying but not differing from

them in principle. As an additional means to secure greater accuracy a large number of measurements are taken, the pointings

on any given object being evenly distributed around the horizontal circle of the instrument, in order to eliminate errors of graduation as far as possible. The sides of the triangles are of any convenient length up ta the maximum length of intervisibility between stations. Exceptidnally this may be 200 miles or more in mountainous regions, and

too miles is by no means unusual. At the other extreme, it is not desirable to make the sides of the principal triangles too short, for then errors in centering both the instrument and the object sighted on play too large a part. Moreover, too many triangles, each subject to etror, are then required for a given amount of linear progress. The practical lower limit for the best work is now considered to be about 2 miles. Theoretically, one measured base connected with the triangulation and taken in conjunction with the measured angles would suffice to determine the lengths of all the sides of the triangles, but in practice directly measured bases are connected with the triangulation at frequent intervals. The accuracy of a base directly measured is much greater than that of the length of the same line computed by mieans of angular measurements from another measured base, though the two bases may be separated by only a few intervening triangles. The direct measurement of frequent bases serves therefore as a check on the measurements of angle. Formerly bases: were measured with bars or rods. Great care was necessary in making contacts between the ends of the bars and in determining their temperature, which might not be the same as the temperature of the surrounding air, because the expansion of the bars by heat made a very appreciable difference in their lengths. Nowadays bases are measured with tapes or wires made of invar alloy. The coefficient of the thermal expansion of this alloy is so low that the temperatures need not be determined with any great accuracy. The wires or tapes are always used at a standard tension maintained with weights and pulleys, or with spring balances, and their lengths are accurately determined in a standardizing laboratory—-under conditions similar to those in the field—both before and after a campaign in the field. In this way the accuracy of a base measured with invar tapes or wires is quite as great in practice as that obtainable with the more

elaborate and cumbrous base-bar apparatus used during the roth century. Roughly speaking, an accuracy of one part in 500,000 or even one part in 1,000,000 may be obtained in base measurements.

The instruments for precise leveling are in principle the same as

the usual engineering instruments for spirit leveling, but various refinements have been introduced into the design, and special precautions to secure accuracy are adopted.

(3.) FUNDAMENTAL

PRINCIPLES AND DEFINITIONS

The gradual increase in the accuracy of geodetic observations

has been accompanied by an increasing precision in definition of the quantities sought and an increasing attention to details of

theory. When we say that we are endeavouring to determine the figure of the Earth, we are not concerned with the exact contours of the hills, valleys and ocean basins. Thesé are matters for the topographer and hydrographer. The forms of these superficial features are specified with reference to a surface that defines the figure of the Earth. Over thé sea this surface is mean sea level; and beneath the land it is an imaginary sea-level surface defined by spirit leveling. If small sea-level canals were dug into thé

GEODESY interior

of the

continents

or

open-ended

pipes like inverted

siphons were run from the land out into the ocean, the surface

sought would be defined physically at various points by the level of

the water in these canals or pipes. But even this physical definition lacks mathematical precision. Sea level is affected by winds, salinity, barometric pressure and temperature. What is really sought is the form of what is known mathematically as an equipotential surface or level surface, characterized by the fact that over its entire extent the so-called potential function is constant. This potential function is due to the effect of the gravitational attraction of the matter composing the Earth, as it is and where

it is, combined with the effect due to the rotation of the earth about its axis. Any shifting of mass such as would be implied in the digging of the supposed sea-level canals would change slightly the form of these equipotential surfaces; and so, to be accurate, we must resort to the mathematical fiction that these canals are to be infinitesimal. There is an indefinite number of equipotential surfaces all characterized by the property that they are everywhere perpendicular to the direction of the apparent gravity’. What is sought: is the form of the particular equipotential surface that most nearly

coincides with the mean level of the ocean.

The figure of this

surface is by definition the figure of the Earth, and the surface is termed the Geoid, a term invented to avoid any commitment

in advance of exact knowledge as to the exact shape of the Earth, for the use of this non-committal term merely means that the Earth is Earth-shaped. We know of course that it is approxi-

129

ences of latitude, but later in connection with what may be called the area method or the deflection method of determining the figure of the geoid*, in contradistinction ta the arc method, or method involving only unconnected arcs of meridians and parallels. The area or deflection method supposes a considerable extent of territory more or less covered by connected chains of triangulation. Somewhere in the midst of this triangulation a point is taken as the origin, a latitude and a longitude are assigned to this point, an azimuth is also assigned to a side of one of the triangles passing through this point. The latitude, longitude and azimuth are to a certain extent arbitrary, but it would not be usual or convenient to assign to them values differing greatly from the astronomic values of those quantities. Besides these, dimensions of the terrestrial ellipsoid are assumed. These five quantities, the latitude and longitude of the initial point, the azimuth of a line through the point, and the two parameters necessary to specify the dimensions of the terrestrial ellipsoid of revolution, constitute a geodetic datum for the area covered by the triangulation. For instance, for the triangulation of the United States the initial point is Meades Ranch in Kansas, latitude 39° 13’ 26.686 longitude 98° 32’ 30.506, azimuth to Waldo 75° 28’ 14.52. The dimensions of the terrestrial spheroid used in computing the triangulation are those known as the Clarke Spheraid of 1866 expressed in meters,

namely

semi-major

axis 6,378,206-4

meters

and semi-

minor axis 6,356,583-8 meters. The triangles are assumed to lie on the assumed ellipsoid and

from the assumed values for the origin and the known sides and

not with respect to the terrestrial ellipsoid. For mapping purposes it is customary to use an ellipsoid of revolution as an adequate and convenient substitute for the geoid.

angles of the triangulation the latitude and longitude of every vertex of every triangle and the azimuth of every side may be computed, all without reference to the astronomic values of those quantities. The quantities so computed are termed the geodetic latitude, west longitude and azimuth. If we denote these quantities

geoid as a whole, or they may represent an attempt to fit only a

differences hetween the astronomic and geodetic verticals are:

mately an ellipsoid of revolution flattened at the poles.

Spirit

leveling gives the elevation of points with respect to the geoid?,

The dimensions and orientation of the assumed ellipsoid may by ¢, A and œ, affecting them with subscript A or G to denote rerepresent an attempt to find the ellipsoid that most nearly fits the spectively the astronomic or geodetic values, the deflections or

particular part of the geoid without regard to the rest of it. When we speak of the figure of the Earth we usually mean sions of the ellipsoid most nearly representing the whole. If the Earth is assumed to be a sphere, the single meridional arc with the difference of latitude

the dimengegid as a length of a of its end

In the meridian ¢4—¢g, in the prime vertical (A4—Ag) cos , or — (aa — æa) coté.

Stations at which observations of both longitude and azimuth are points suffices to determine its size. If it is assumed to be an available are called Laplace stations; at such stations there are ellipsoid of revolution, at least two meridional arcs and the lati- two determinations of the deflection in the prime vertical. These tudes of all end points must be determined. If we have more than should be made consistent; in doing this the geodetic azimuth two such arcs, various combinations of them two and two will not give precisely the same result because the geoid is not exactly an ellipsoid. The accepted way down to the middle of the roth century was to take as many meridional arcs as might be available, rejecting perhaps those whose end latitudes were judged abnormal

because of marked topographical relief in the vicinity, and reconcile them as well as might be by some arbitrary procedure or

later by a least-squares adjustment.

It is obvious that if differences of longitude could.be obtained

as accurately as differences of latitude, measured arcs of parallel would serve as well as measured meridional arcs to determine the

figure of the Earth. There were methods of determining astronomi-

cal differences of longitude before the invention of the electric

generally receives most of the correction, as it is much more subject to an accumulation of error than the geodetic longitude. The deflections obtained in this way obviously depend on the geodetic datum used. It is usual to assume, in accordance with the principle of least squares, that the best geodetic datum is that which makes the sum of the squares of the deflections (weighted, perhaps, according to some principle) a minimum. The dimensions of the ellipsoid constituting part of this geodetic datum then represent the figure of the Earth for this territory.

Tt should be noted that geodetic latitudes, longitudes and

azimuths, as previously defined, are quantities dependent partly

on convention, that is, on the assumed geodetic datum, and partly on 4 series of observed quantities, that is, the angles and sides of

telegraph, and arcs of parallel were measured, but little weight was the triangles; a least-squares adjustment may also be involved.

given to them because of the inaccuracy of the astronomic longi-

The geodetic latitude, longitude and azimuth at a station are then

longitude began to be used, at first in much the same way as differ-

spot as the corresponding astronomic quantities are, except of course that the longitude must be referred to the prime meridian.

tudes. With the invention of the electric telegraph’ differences of not capable of immediate verification by direct observation on the

1Gravity, as attraction and "Except of assumed mean

here used, means the combined effect of gravitational the centrifugal force of rotation. course in so far as the relation of the geoid to the sea level on which the leveling operations are based

may be uncertain for reasons already given. Strictly speaking, a knowledge of gravity at points along the level line is also needed, but

this is a refinement that need not be here considered.

*Recently radiotelegraphy has been used with great success in the determination of longitudes. By this method it is easier to determine

the longitude of a large number of points than when the electric telegraph is used, and it is possible to select, if desired, points remote

from towns. There is no difference in principle, geodetically speaking, tween the two methods but only differences in technical detail.

The difference between an astronomic latitude, longitude or

azimuth and the corresponding geodetic quantity is usually small. The average value is only a few seconds of arc and differences of

aver 10” of arc are rare except in mountainous regions. There is, howeyer, a classic instance of large deflections of contrary sign at stations no great distance apart in the midst of a plain near

Moscow. Some mass of abnormally lew density must lie beneath

4The word geoid is used advisedly rather than Earth, because it may be the purpose to determine by the deflection method the figure of a portion of the geoid in the given area rather than to determine the figure of the Earth as a whole.

GEODESY

130

the surface. It might seem as if the astronomic values of the latitude and longitude would be the ones used for mapping purposes; but this is not the case. Where the geodetic values are available they are invariably used in preference to the astronomic values, in spite of the conventional and derivative character of the former. This is because astronomic latitude and longitude depend on the direction of the plumb line and are therefore so affected by local topographic conditions as to render inaccurate any determinations of distance and direction based on the astronomic values. For instance, if we used the astronomic latitudes of two points one on the north coast of Porto Rico and one on the south coast, and computed the distance between them from these latitudes and from the known size of the Earth, the distance would come out about a mile in error, or about one part in 50, as against an accuracy of one part in 100,000, or better, obtainable from direct measurement by triangulation. Again, the western part of the boundary between the United States and Canada is the 4gth parallel of latitude; for reasons of convenience this parallel was defined astronomically, and the result is that in one instance one bounding station is about 8” north of where a geodetic determination would have put it, and another station less than 100 miles away is some 6” south. The greatest relative error between two adjacent stations is about 7” in a distance of 20 miles, which

density of the crust is less and under the oceans greater.

It is convenient for mathematical reasons and is in fair agree-

ment with the observed facts to assume that the excess or de-

ficiency of mass, as shown by surface conformation, is exactly compensated by the subterranean deficiency or excess of density. This

compensation is called isostatic compensation and the correspond-

ing state of affairs isostasy, a name

invented by C. E. Dutton.

To state the matter differently: assume unit areas at some depth to be specified later and called the depth of compensation in different regions, and compare the total mass standing upon the various unit areas. The hypothesis of isostasy states that the amount of matter standing upon a unit area will be the same regardless of whether it is under highlands or lowlands, continents

or ocean deeps. It is not to be supposed that the unit area may

be taken indefinitely small, or that the state of isostasy is perfect. A circle with a radius of 100 miles is almost certainly large enough

to serve aS a unit area, and a much smaller circle might be large

enough in most cases. There are two competing hypotheses as to the way in which isostatic compensation is effected; to these the names of Pratt and of Sir George Biddell Airy, former Astronomer Royal, have been attached. According to the Pratt hypothesis there is a definite depth of compensation, the crustal material underneath the higher parts of the surface being less dense and under lower would mean an error in the direction from one station to the other, parts more dense, so that the total mass standing on any unit area is the same. The Airy theory is, roughly speaking, a flotation as inferred from the latitudes, of about 35 ft. to the mile. theory, the blocks of lighter crust floating in a denser plastic (4.) ISOSTASY material, which Airy called the ava, but which modern geologists These irregular deflections of the plumb line have plagued prefer to call magma!. The deficiency of density corresponding geodesists from the beginning; they far exceed the errors in to a height of land is secured, not in the upper part of the crust, either the astronomical or geodetic determinations, and even for but in the “root” which projects down into the denser magma a comparatively small region they cannot be greatly reduced by and displaces it. Just as a tall iceberg means one that extends changing the geodetic datum. If the region covered is large or far below the surface, so a high mountain or plateau has its if the same dimensions of the terrestrial ellipsoid are used for roots dipping deep into the magma. On the Pratt hypothesis the depth of compensation is perhaps 60 miles (roo km.), according several separate regions, the deflections are still larger. At first the only feasible procedure for determining the figure to investigations of Bowie and others, but this is merely an of the Earth as a whole was to reject those arcs where the average figure. On the Airy hypothesis the lighter crust extends ruggedness of the topography seemed likely to introduce ab- down to an average depth of perhaps half this, say 30 miles or less; normally large deflections, treat the remaining deflections like less under the oceans, more under the continents and highlands. accidental errors, and hope that their effects would more or less As a rule geologists prefer the Airy hypothesis, as more in balance out in the final result. As better topographic maps be- accordance with their way of thinking, but most of the existing came available and geodetic surveys became better organized, it computations have been made according to the Pratt hypothesis. began to seem feasible to calculate by some sort of mechanical For geodetic purposes there is not much to choose between the integration the effects of the visible topography—mountains, two hypotheses. When the deflections are applied to determine the ellipsoid that plateaus, valleys, ocean basins, etc—on the direction of the plumb line, that is, on the deflections. J. H. Pratt, archdeacon of best fits a comparatively small region, the deflections that are to Calcutta, was the first one to try calculations of this sort on a be minimized by the method of least squares should be the actual large scale with some attempt to make the calculations apply deflections for which formulas have previously been given. But

with fair approximation, even at the expense of considerable labour, to the actual topography instead of to highly conventionalized geometrical substitutes for it.

Pratt found, what had already been suspected, that although

the plumb line was in general deflected toward a hill, a range of mountains, ot the interior of a continent, and away from a hollow, a. valley, or the ocean deeps, nevertheless the amount of such

if it is desired to make the region to which the deflections apply representative of the earth as a whole in order to determine the

figure of the earth, then the deflections should be corrected for the visible surface topography and its presumed isostatic compensation. This isostatic method was first applied by Hayford to observations extending over the United States. In spite of the limited

eflection was in general considerably less than the amount computed by taking these topographic features at what might be

extent of the territory covered—in comparison with the land surface of the. globe—the figure of the Earth deduced by him was

termed their full face value. The most satisfactory way of obtaining approximate agreement between the observed and the computed deflections was found to be the assumption that apparent excesses of matter protruding above the geoid, such as hilis, mountain ranges and continents, and apparent deficiencies

adopted in 1924 by the Section of Geodesy of the International

the Earth as a whole. This terrestrial ellipsoid thus determined

of matter where the Earth’s surface is depressed below the level of the surrounding country, or indeed below the level of the geoid, such as valleys and ocean basins, are not real excesses or

Europe and found results agreeing substantially with Hayford’s. The dimensions of the International Ellipsoid are given in a later section. The conclusions regarding isostasy derived from 4

Geodetic and Geophysical Union as the best available figure of

is known as the International Ellipsoid of Reference. Heiskanen applied the isostatic method

to deflections

of the vertical in

deficiencies of matter, but that these apparent excesses or de- study of the vertical are in general supported by a study of the observations of .gravity discussed. in the next section... 7

ficienicies are compensated. That is, beneath each apparent excess

as tepresented by the surface form there is somewhere a de-

ficiehcy of density, so that there is little or no real excess of matier; similarly, below each apparent deficiency of matter as

revealed by surface configuration there is a compensating excess of density.

In short, under mountain ranges and plateaus the

at Re

oe

(3.) OBSERVATIONS WITH THE PENDULUM

WW

‘Tf the Earth were composed ofa series of homogeneous conlOr sima in, the language of the.Wegener hypothesis of continental

drift.

The crust corresponds to Wiegoet a Siler aks 5°

i

3

GEODESY centric spherical shells, its attraction would be uniform all over its surface and would be directed towards the common centre. For the sake of simplicity, let us imagine that the Earth had this

spherical form at the start and then acquired its present rotation

about its axis. Even if the Earth were absolutely rigid and unyielding the “centrifugal” force of rotation, being zero at the poles and a maximum at the equator, would introduce a variation into the apparent gravity, a variation dependent on the latitude. The substance of which the Earth is composed is, however, not unyielding, but gives way under the “centrifugal force” so that the Earth has approximately the form that it would have if it were fluid and in equilibrium under the combined forces of its own attraction and the “centrifugal force” of rotation;! its form is nearly that of an ellipsoid of revolution flattened at the poles. This departure from the spherical form is a further cause of a change of apparent gravity between poles and equator. The intensity of gravity can be measured very accurately by means of the oscillations of a pendulum? and from the variation

in gravity between equator and pole the flattening or ellipticity of the earth may be determined. The process is as follows: From theoretical considerations it is known that the gravity on the surface of an ellipsoid of revolution,

this surface being at the same time an equipotential surface, may

be written in the form go= £u(1+bsin? 6—hsin? 2¢). Here go is gravity at the surface in geographic latitude $, gp is gravity at the equator, b and b4 are constant coeficients, depend-

ing on the flattening. The coefficient b4 is small and the flattening is sufficiently well known so that its value may be set adyance as o-oo0006 for an exact ellipsoid. This leaves efficients, gz and b, to be determined by observation. ically, two values of g in different latitudes would suffice

down in two coTheoretfor this.

In practice as many gravity stations as are available are used, the discordances being adjusted by the method of least squares. These discordances arise from the fact that the earth is not an exact ellipsoid of revolution, as is assumed in the formula, and

furthermore that local topographic and geological conditions, that

is, the existence of mountains, valleys, oceans, and abnormally high or low densities in the neighbourhood of a gravity station, cause deviations from any theoretical formula that can be devised. These deviations are called gravity anomalies. When the best obtainable values of the coefficients gw and b have been found the flattening f is found from the relation|

b= 2

wa 17 wa ia are $r I4 r

Here a is the equatorial radius of the ellipsoid, which must be known in advance and & is the angular velocity of the Earth’s rotation. This formula is due in substance to Clairaut (g.v.), who, however, did not push his approximations far enough to include

the term e = f. This term is correct only when, as stated, the

Earth’s alaca is assumed to be exactly that of an ellipsoid of revolution. The observations of gravity are generally taken at or near the surface of the Earth, though occasional observations have been made in mines. The formulas given refer to the ideal level sur-

face of the spheroid or ellipsoid. The observed values of gravity Mountains, plateaus and ocean deeps are obvious exceptions; they are supported by the stiffness of the outer crust, but the general conformation of the Earth is as stated. On the subject of fluid

equilibrium see in this article under the subhead Isostasy.

"If the same pendulum is swung at two different places and the periods of an oscillation there are found to be tı and te, the values

of gravity gı and gz at the two places are connected by the relation

I3I

could be reduced to this level surface by adding

28a s f Ea t = +f r (sf(af 53 oeMO) )sinine $ |z, where H is the height of the point of observation above the level surface in question.! But we do not know our elevations with respect to the ellipsoid or spheroid of reference. The best available approximation is the elevation with respect to the geoid. Observations of gravity are then reduced to the geoid, which is treated as if it were a regular surface. The coefficients gz and b are found by a least squares adjustment, b, being so small that a very approximate value of the flattening determines it with more than sufficient accuracy, and from these the value of the flattening fis obtained. Theoretically it is possible to determine a also, but the determination is so poor as to be valueless. Gravity observations thus determine the shape but not the size of the terrestrial ellipsoid. The preceding formula for the correction for the elevation of the station is derived on the supposition that there is no matter intervening between the station and the level surface to which the observation is reduced, a method based on a supposition manifestly false and yet found to work better on the whole in practice than the method of computing the effect of all visible surface irregularities either in the neighbourhood of the station only or over the entire globe and taking this effect at its full face value. This fact is another manifestation of isostasy. The effect of the visible irregularities of the surface is largely counteracted by effects of contrary nature in the crust beneath them. This was noticed very early. In the expedition of the Paris Academy to Peru Bouguer swung his crude pendulums at sea-level and then at Quito in about the same latitude but over 9,000 feet above sealevel. He found to his surprise that the land masses below the level of Quito seemed to have much less effect than they apparently should. Later writers commented on this and speculated on the possibility of extensive cavities, but it was not until over a century later that Pratt undertook the extensive computations that established isostasy on a comparatively secure basis. Gravity observations may be used not only, as has been stated, to determine the flattening of the terrestrial ellipsoid but also to determine the deviations of the geoid from this assumed ellipsoid. The practical possibility of this was shown by Sir George Gabriel Stokes (g.v.) in 1849, but the requisite observations seemed then unobtainable, for Stokes’ theory required that gravity be observed at fairly close intervals over the entire globe, including the sea, and there seemed no way to do this with the requisite accuracy.? Various devices were tried for measuring gravity at sea, the most successful, until very recently, being a method due to Hecker based on the comparison of the atmospheric pressure obtained by a determination of the boiling point of water with that obtained by a direct reading of the mercury barometer. Hecker’s method was accurate enough to prove that in a general way isostasy prevailed over the oceans as well as over the land, but the accuracy obtained by great labour and complication was far inferior to that easily obtainable on land with the pendulum. Finally, a Dutch geodesist, Vening Meinesz, in seeking to overcome the difficulties of the unstable support of the pendulum apparatus in a country like Holland where the land itself is none too stable, hit on the idea of eliminating the horizontal acceleration of the pendulum, which was found to be the principal cause of the difficulty, by swinging two pendulums in the same vertical plane and therefore subject to the same horizontal acceleration. By using a certain hypothetical pendulum, the phase of which at any instant is the difference between the phases of the two

pendulums at that instant, the effect of the horizontal acceleration was eliminated. The idea was found capable of. adaptation to

even more trying conditions than those. presented, by the unstable soil of Holland. By.using an improved form of, the-apparatus in relative ;gravity at two places. Relgtive gravity may be determined a submarine, vessel submerged deep enough to escape most of the wi one or two parts in a million. The absolute value of the motion on the surface of the sea, and by supporting the apparatus acceleration of Ẹravity at any given place is found from the formula

g2/gi==(t1/t2)2. The ‘modern process of determining the figure of earth from gravity observations depends on this formula for the The accurate deterg=2*(I/); I being the length of ‘the pendulum.

mination of absolute gravity is much more /difficult, on aecount of

the complications arising.im measuring Z. ., ,

'

2,

+!

a

eh

A

lThe factor of H is nearly constant and corresponds to a variation

im’gtavity of about one part in 1,000,000 for each three meters (or

ro ft.) of elevation,

|., en nal) dye

GEODESY

132

on gimbals, it was found possible to get gravity observations on the open ocean. The accuracy obtainable is not quite as great as on solid land but the results are nevertheless yery gratifying. In this way Meinesz has observed gravity at 250 ocean stations mostly in low or middle latitudes. It is to be hoped that, soon, enough ocean gravity stations will be observed over all oceanic areas so that when taken in conjunction with the numerous sta-

tions on land they will enable the bumps and hollows of the geoid to be determined by Stokes’ method, that is, bumps and hollows when compared with the regular mathematical surface of the terrestrial ellipsoid. Enough has already been learned to raise interesting questions. In regard to the perfectness of the isostatic condition over ocean areas there seem to be two opposite tendencies toward imperfection. On the one hand, stations over great ocean deeps show a tendency toward abnormally small gravity—from the point of view of perfect isostasy—as if the hollows in the sea bottom represented real uncompensated, or only partly compensated, deficits of matter. On the other hand, there seems to be a slight though definite tendency toward an excess of gravity-~still from the point of view of perfect isostasy—over ocean areas in general. Some indication of this state of affairs had previously been given by gravity observations on land. The theory of isostasy would predict slight hollows in the geoid over oceanic areas. The fact seems to be that there are slight bumps. It is well, however, to be cautious in drawing conclusions as the observational evidence is

invariable but undergoes a displacement due to seasonal variatigns in barometric pressure, snow-load, etc. The period of thege

seasonal changes is obviously one year, The amplitudes of both the annual and the fourteen-month

variations are of the order of magnitude of 0:1. The quantities sought are small and difficult to measure, but it appears that both components of the polar motion are subject to unpredictable

changes. Since the maximum deviation of the pole from its mea

position is about o”-3, which is small in comparison with the usual deflections of the vertical, the reduction of the observed astro,

nomical latitudes to some more or Jess conventional mean valuejs not a very vital matter in ordinary geodetic work. (It should be noted that the motion of the pole affects longitudes and azimuths also.) The interest of the subject is more on the astronomical ang geophysical side. Many interesting problems into which we cannot here enter are raised by this phenomenon and still await complete solution.

The International Geodetic Association (see § 10 of this article} organized in 1899 an International Latitude Service with six special latitude observatories, all on the parallel of 39° 08’, three of which have remained in continuous operation. The advantage of having them all in the same latitude is that the same stars

may be used at all of them and uncertainties in the star places do not affect the conclusions.

The observations may in fact be

used to correct the star places.

still rather meager and no consensus of opinion has been reached in regard to the interpretation of it.

(7.) ASTRONOMICAL METHODS OF DETERMINING THE FIGURE OF THE EARTH

(6,) THE VARIATION OF LATITUDE

There are several astronomical methods of determining the flattening of the Earth. For the most part they determine the flattening by means of the observed mechanical effects produced

The deflections of the vertical in the meridian depend on hoth the astronomical latitude and the geodetic latitude. The latter, as has been noted, involves a certain convention, that is, the assumed geodetic datum, and moreover depends upon surveying operations to connect the initial point of the datum with the point whose geodetic latitude is sought. The astronomic latitude, though depending on observation at the place in question, is not absolutely invariable. The variability is due to a displacement of the axis of rotation in the body of the Earth. There is in every body, however irregular in shape, an axis of figure, the axis about which

hy the Earth’s equatorial protuberance.

These effects are most

noticeable in connection with the Earth’s nearest neighbour, the

Moon.

The equatorial bulge produces periodic perturbations in

the Moon’s celestial longitude and latitude, and secular changes

in the motion of the Moon’s perigee and of the node of its orbit on the ecliptic. The Moon in turn acting on the equatorial bulge

of the Earth produces the greater part of the slow displacement of the equinoxes known as precession; the Sun contributes a fairly large part of the observed precession and the planets a

the moment of inertia is a maximum. If for any reason the small remainder. From any one of the effects mentioned above thé axis of figure and the axis of rotation do not coincide, the pole flattening of the Earth may be deduced. There are theoretical of the axis of rotation will describe in the body a closed curve difficulties in all of the methods. Perhaps the flattening deduced about the pole of the axis figure. For a nearly spherical body like from the precession is as satisfactory as any; it agrees substanthe Earth, the axis of rotation will retain i space a nearly invariable direction. The laws of these phenomena were first stated for a rigid rotating body by Leonhard Euler (¢.v.). With Euler’s theorems in mind astronomers sought to detect by observation a possible variation in latitude, but succeeded only in reaching the conclu-

sion that if any such existed, it must be small.

Finally S. C.

Chandler undertook a careful study apart from any preconceived theory, basing it both on observations of his own and a study of old records, notably those of Greenwich Observatory. At about

the same time, the reality of a change in latitude due to a motion of the pole was proved by simultaneous latitude observations in

Berlin and Honolulu, places differing in longitude by nearly 180°.

It was found that an increase in latitude in one occurred simultaneously with an approximately equal decrease at the other, This could not have been due to local conditions ner te defective star

places, but it must have been due to a motion of the pole of rotation which in approaching one place receded from the other.

| Chandler found that the motion of the pole of rotation about

the pole of figure required about 14 months where Euler’s theory had led astronomers to expect a ten-month period. The longer period was soon explained by Newcomb as due to the fact that ` Euler's theory was based om an ideal body absolutely unyielding ae

hs Ean!

and unchangeable in shape, a thing unknown

in nature.

The

elastic yielding of the earth and the mobility of the ocean water

te 14. lengthen the period from 10 months

tially with the flattening of the International Ellipsoid of Reference, namely 1/297. The tendency of the flattening deduced by the other lunar methods is to come out a trifle greater than this. These methods all deal with the average flattening without reference to local irregularities. The flattening or the equatorial radius—one or the other—may also be deduced by a calculation essentially similar in principle to that used by Newton to show

that terrestrial gravitation and the force controlling the Moon’s

orbital motion are one and the same. The result, however, is affected by the fact that the geoid is not a perfect ellipsoid of

revolution.

(8.) THE EÖTVÖS TORSION BALANCE If we think of the elevation of the geoid above the terrestrial ellipsoid, or depression below it, as the case may be, as a mathe-

matical function of the geographical coordinates

(latitude and longitude) of a point on the ellipsoid, then this mathematical function itself may in theory be found by the application of

Stokes’ formula to gravity observations. Observations of the deflections of the vertical obviously give us the first derivatives of this function and enable us to build up the function itself by ¢

process of integration. The next, stage in this line of thought is obviously a consideration of the second derivatives, quantitiés

intimately connected with the curvature of the geoid. It is pgssble to determine certain quantities connected with the curvature by means of the Hétvis torsion balance devised by the late Baron

There is also a motion of the pole of rotation imthe body Roland Eötvös of Budapest. ef the Earth due to the fact that the. pole of figure itself is not The Eötvös balance is simple in principle, being merely a red

i

GEODESY

133

As has been remarked, the mean figure for the Earth as a whole suspended at the middle by a very delicate fiber. In one form of the balance the principal masses are concentrated at the ends of is not necessarily the figure best adapted to a particular region. the rod. In another form, more used in practice, the mass at one The following table gives some of the ellipsoids actually in use. end is at a different level from the mass at the other. If we consider only the general conformation of the geoid, it

seems to differ in vertical elevation from an exact ellipsoid only by small and slowly changing amounts. If we look, however, at the directions of the tangents to this surface as disclosed by a study of the deflections of the vertical, we find considerable irregularity; if we look to the curvatures as disclosed by the Eoétvés balance,

we find apparently wild irregularity. This irregularity is due to

Spheroids Used for Geographic Purposes.

Author and date

Semimajor axis (a)

Reciprocal of flattening

Countries using

294°98

United States, Canada, Mexico. France, South Africa. India.

(/f)

spheroid

Kilometers

Clarke, 1866

6,378- 206

Clarke, 1880 6,378° 249 293°47 the fact that the geoid (or any equipotential surface studied in Everest, 1830 6,377°253 “Bo practice by the balance) cuts into discontinuities of density, France (mapping). Plessis 6,376°523 such as in the sides of hills, walls of buildings, irregularities in Germany, Austria, Bessel, 1841 6,377°397 subsurface geologic structure, etc. We know that the second Dutch East Indies. Holland. Kraijenhof . . derivatives, about which the balance gives us information and 6,376°950 Denmark. Danish Survey . 6,377°O19 on which the curvature of the equipotential surfaces depends, is discontinuous at such discontinuities in density. Near them the A spheroid with a flattening equal to that of the Bessel Spheroid, second derivative and the curvature, although not actually disbut with its major axis greater than the major axis of the Bessel continuous, appear extremely irregular.

The surface of the geoid has been compared to that of a withered apple. This is something of an exaggeration, for actual concavities in the geoid, such as would be found in the apple, though possible are probably quite rare. Moreover, the wrinkles, er more properly irregular undulations, in the geoid are so fine and change character so quickly that in the aggregate they mean comparatively little in the way of actual rise or fall of the geoid as compared with the terrestrial ellipsoid; nevertheless the com-

parison is suggestive. The details of all the wrinkles in the geoid, as the torsion balance gives them, are really too fine for the purpose of the geodesist. They simply confuse him. (9.) NUMERICAL DATA CONNECTED WITH THE FIGURE OF THE EARTH

The following table gives the principal determinations of the mean figure of the Earth, beginning with the work of Méchain and Delambre undertaken to establish a basis for the metric system. The table was taken chiefly from “La figure de la Terre” (Revue de géographie annuelle—Tome 11., 1968) by Capt. (now Gen.) Georges Perrier. Other, somewhat different, numerical values may sometimes be found if other sources of information are used. The

discrepancies will usually be due to the use of relations between the foot, toise and meter different from those used in this table:

sates]

Elements of the Earth's Mean Figure. Author

Dateé

Commission générale des poids et mesures (for the metric rë.

o.

Walbeck Everest

Schmidt Bessel,

334°29

I8ro

368-6

N

6,376428

1819 1830

6,376°895 6,377°253

1847

neee

arke

©...

.

ET

Pratt .

Clarke Fischer

Clarke Harkness

1799 | 6375-739

6,370523

1831 | 6,376:959 1841 | 6,377397

Everest

James and Clark

; a

1849

1856

| x888 1863

Helmert Hayford Haytord (ny Hayford 2)1

RE

302° 3 300-00

297-65 299°15

6,376°634

31T+04

6,377°936

ara

6,377°491 6,378294

6,378288

299°32 294° 26 20436

1863 | 6,378245

295-26

1880 1891

6,378°240 6,377°972

293°47 300-20

6,378-062

298-2

1866 1868 .

A

6,378: 207 6,378°338

1907 | 6,378-200 1907 | 6,378-283 1909 | 6,378-388 1909

294°98 288-50

298-3 297°8 297°0

_ “Using deflections of the vertical corrected for topography and

static compensation.

fUsing deflections of the vertical left uncorrected and the spheroid

termined to fit as nearly as possible to the uncorrected deflections.

geodetic calculations relating to Europe. This choicé was made because many tables to facilitate computation have been based on the Bessel Spheroid, and these can be adapted to the increased major axis with comparative ease, whereas a change in the flattening would require a recomputation of the whole set of tables. The following table may be useful for reference: Fundamental Elements of the International Ellipsoid of Reference. a=semi-major axis (equatorial radius) =6,378,388 meters ©

s ð

à

+b

f=ellipticity (fattening)= — = 1/297 =0.003, 367, 0034 Derived Quantities

b=semi-minor axis (polar radius) = 6,356, 911.946 meters e =square of eccentricity= . a =0.006, 722, 6700 Length of quadrant of the equator=10,019,148.4 meters Length of quadrant of the meridian= 10,002, 288.3 meters Area of the ellipsoid= 510,100,934 sq. km.

Volume of the ellipsoid= 1,083,319,780,000 cu. km. Radius of sphere having same area as ellipsoid =6,371,227.7 meters

Radius of sphere having same volumé as ellipsoid =6,371,221.3 meters Mass of the ellipsoid*= 5.988 10 metric tonnes

*Mean density taken as 5-527, the value found by both Boys, Phil. Trans. A.vol. 186 (1895) p. x, and Braun, “Denkschrifien der Akademie der Wissenschaften

the flat-

Kilometers

system) . 4

Ye the

emi-major | of àxis (a)

Spheroid by 1 part in 10,000 has been extensively used by the Central Bureau of the International Geodetic Association for

zu Wien,’

Mathematisch-natwrwissenschaftliche

Klasse, 64, 1896, p. 187.

The range of uncertainty in these quantities is largely a matter of opinion. Probably thé semi-major axis is correct within 50 meters and the reciprocal of the flattening within half a unit or less. But the question of how closely the adopted ellipsoid of reference represents the actual geoid is by no means exhausted even when we have stated to our own satisfaction the probable range óf error of the parameters that determine the ellipsoid. It is also of interest to know how far the geoid and the ellipsoid may

deviate from one another. To take an ideal case, let us suppose a perfectly ellipsoidal mass as large as the earth, its outer physical surface and the surfaces of equal density within being also equipotential surfaces. Then let us suppose that the outer crust down to a certain depth shrinks and swells here and there so as to form oceans, continents and mountains like the existing ones, but with perfect isostatic adjustment always maintained. The geoid, which formerly coincided with the outer surface, would go up with the continents and mountains and down with the ocean bottoms, but to a much less extent, the exact amount depending on the law of isostatic compensation. For existing areas of elevation and depression and a depth of compensation of roo km., the distance between the geoid and the ideal ellipsoid of closest fit (which need not be exactly our international ellipsoid) would be 50 meters or iso- less. If, however, isostatic compensation is imperfect to the de- extent of 10 or 15% of the total excess or deficiency of load, which is about the generally accepted estimate, and over wide

134

GEOFFREY

areas, the so meters might be more than doubled. We should expect, however, these extreme figures of roo or 150 meters to occur only very exceptionally, say in the Himalayan region or near the great ocean deeps. Geoid contours were constructed by Hayford in connection with his earlier investigation of his figures of the Earth. Within the United States he found a variation in the elevation of the geoid above the Clarke spheroid of 1866 amounting to 38 meters. Similar investigations by others give results of the same order of magnitude. This is somewhat greater than would be inferred from known differences of elevation and perfect isostasy with a depth of compensation of roo km. but is by no means more than might be expected in view of ignorance of the real depth of compensation and the known imperfectness of isostatic adjustment. The following are recent formulas for theoretical gravity at the surface of the earth, and the flattening derived from them. In these formulas@ is the geographic latitude and A the East longitude reckoned from Greenwich. The unit is dynes per gram, or cm/sec?, The date of publication of the formula is given in parentheses.

Helmert (1915) Zo= 978-052 [1-+0-005285 sin? 6 —0-000007 Sin? 2¢ -+-0-000018 cos? cos 2{A-+17°)], 1/206+7

Bowie (1917) £0= 978-039 [r-+0-005294 sin? 6 —0-000007 sin? 29], 1/297-4 Heiskanen (1928) 20= 978-049 [1-+0-005 293 —0-000007 sin? o -+-0-000019 cos? ¢ cos 2(A—0°)], 1/297°3 The fact that the coefficient of sin?2 @ is 0-000007 rather than o-000006 means that the spheroid on which these formulas are based is depressed a very little in middle latitudes below an exact ellipsoid having the same axes. The longitude term has the effect of turning this spheroid of revolution into a spheroid (approximately an ellipsoid) of three unequal axes. The longest semiaxis of the equator, according to Heiskanen, lies in the meridian plane of Greenwich and is 121 meters longer than the mean. The least equatorial semi-axis is in longitude -:90° and is 121 meters shorter than the mean. The validity of these longitude terms is closely connected with the apparent tendency of gravity at sea to be greater than that on land. Geodesists are not yet agreed as to their validity or their geophysical interpretation, if real. If they are accepted, the conception of isostasy must be modified and the geoid instead of being in general below the mean ellipsoid over the ocean would be above it. Lf we take the International Ellipsoid as the basis of a gravity

formula and in addition adopt 978-050 cm/sec? for gravity at the equator, we get

,

Sa= 978-050 [1 +-0-005288 sin? 6—0-000006 sin? 29].

(10.) INTERNATIONAL GEODETIC ORGANIZATIONS

tributions from the member nations. At the beginning of the same year F. R. Helmert became director of the Prussian Geo. detic Institute. He reorganized it in the years that followed, and exerted a powerful and beneficent influence on the work of the International Association, the headquarters of which remained

associated with the Prussian

Geodetic

Institute.

The general

conference of 1912 at Hamburg was the last held under this organization. The outbreak of the World War prevented the holding of the general conference planned for 1915. | After the World War the International Geodetic and Geo.

physical Union was organized in connection with the newly created International Research Council. The International Geodetic and Geophysical Union consists of various semi-independent sections, one of which, the section of Geodesy, took over the work

of the former International Geodetic Association. The new type of organization emphasizes the fact that geodesy is really a branch of geophysics. The work of the International Latitude Service was taken over jointly by the Section of Geodesy and the newly formed International Astronomical Union, since the subject was of interest to both organizations. Germany and Austria have so far remained outside the new organization, but there has been organized a Baltic Geodetic Commission, which includes representatives of Germany and of other nations border: ing on the Baltic and deals with geodetic problems of common interest to them. Some of the Baltic nations are members both of the Baltic Commission and of the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union. For further information see r. Bibliographies of Geodesy.—Bérsch, Otto, Geodatische Literatur auf Wunsch der Permanenten Commis-

sion im Centralbureau zusammengestellt (Berlin, 1889) ; Gore, James Howard, A Bibliography of Geodesy; see also Appendix No. 8 to Report of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey for 1902 (Washington, 1903). 2. History of Geodesy.—Beazley, C. R., The Dawn of Modern Geography, 3 vol. (London, 1897-1906); Butterfield, A. D, A History of the Determination of the Figure of the Earth from Arc Measurements (Worcester, Mass., 1906) ; Delambre, J. B. J., Grandeur

et figure de la Terre (posthumous work ed. by G. Bigourdan, Paris, 1912}; Delambre, J. B. J., Histoire de l'astronomie ancienne, 2 vol. (Paris, 1817) ; Miller, Quodvultdeus, Geschichte der Breitgradmessungen bis zur peruanischen Gradmessung (Doctoral thesis, Rostock, 1871); Todhunter, Isaac, A History of the Mathematical Theories of Attraction and the Figure of the Earth from the time of Newton ie that of Laplace, 2 vol. (London, 1873). 3. General Works.—Clark¢,

A. R., Geodesy (Oxford, 1880) ; Helmert, F. R., Die mathematischen und physikalischen Theorieen der khöheren Geodäsie, 2 vol. (Leipzig, 1880-84) ; Hosmer, George L., Geodesy, including Astronomical Ob: servations, Gravity Measurements and the Method of Least Squares (New York, 1919); Jordan, Wilhelm, Handbuch der Vermessungskunde, vol. 3, 4th ed, 1897; Perrier, Georges, “La Figure de la Terre,” being vol. ii. (1908) of the Revue de Géographie annuelle. 4. Books on special subjects——Bowie. William, Jsostasy (New York, 1927)} Messerschmidt, J. B., Die Schwerebestimmung an der Erdoberfiacht (Brunswick, 1908). §. Serial Publications—Verhandlungen der Inter-

nationalen Erdmessung

(Comptes-Rendus de I’Association géodésique

internationale), Berlin, G. Reimer, various dates to 1914; Travaux de la. Section de Géodésie de PUnion géodésique et géophysique internetionale (Paris, 1924— ); Bulletin Géodésique (Paris, 1924- ); Gerlands Beiträge sut Geophysik. Stuttgart (Vols. I. and II.), and Leipzig (Vol. ITI. and following); Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronom

Geodesy is essentially an international science. This was real- cal Society; Geophysical Supplement (London, 1922- — ); Zeitschrij (W. D. La.) ized when in 1862 a Central European Geodetic Association (Mit- für Geophysik (Brunswick, 1925telenropdische Gradmessung) was organized on the initiative of GEOFFREY (c. 1152-1212), archbishop of York, was & Lieutenant-General Baeyer of Prussia. The first general con- bastard son of Henry IL., king of England. He was distinguished ference of the organization was held in 1864 with representatives from his legitimate half-brothers by his consistent attachment and of 13 States or countries, many of them being German States fidelity to his father. He was made bishop of Lincoln at the age later united into the German Empire.

Generál conferences at

intervals of three years were arranged for with a permanent

committee directing the affairs of the organization between conferences. At the next conference, in 1867, in recognition of widenmg scope the name was changed to European Geodetic AssociaGon (Europaische Gmdmessung). _At the general conference in 1883 representatives of England nad the United States were present. This conference discussed

of twenty-one (1173); but though he enjoyed the temporalities he was never consecrated and resigned the see, under papal pressure,

in 1182. He then became his father’s chancellor, holding a large number of lucrative benefices in plurality. Richard nominated him archbishop of ‘York in 1189, but he was not consecrated til

IIgr, or enthroned till 1194. Geoffrey’s history is chiefly oneof quarrels, with the see of Canterbury, with the chancellor William

Longchamp, with his half-brothers Richard and Jobn, apd especially with his canons at York. This last dispute kept and an international time system. At the next conference in in litigation before Richard and the pope for many years.,, He: F586.ibe name International Geodetic Association (Internationale led the clergy in their refusal to be taxed by John, and. we Erdrntasung) was adopted to indicate a still wider scope, and a forced to fly the kingdom in 1207. He-died in Normandy on definite international convention was adopted providing for con- Dec. 12, 1212.,. ey aa a Eoia

matters of world-wide interest, such as a common prime meridian

a

E

tbh

GEOFFREY—GEOFFREY see Giraldus Cambrensis, Vita Galfridi; Stubbs’s prefaces to Roger

OF MONMOUTH

135

the English king Henry II. and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine,

12th century by Jean, a monk of Marmoutier, Historia Gaufredi, ducis Normannorum et comitis Andegavorum, published by Marchegay et Salmon; “Chroniques des comtes d'Anjou” (Société de Phistoire de France, 1856), Dp. 229-310.

In July 1181 his marriage with

ing the Normans to victory; and at William’s coronation it was he

de Hoveden, vols. ïi. and iv. (Rolls Series.) GEOFFREY (1158-1186), duke of Brittany, fourth son of

GEOFFREY DE MONTBRAY (d. 1093), bishop of was born on Sept. 23, 1158. In 1167 Henry suggested a marriage between Geoffrey and Constance (d. 1201), daughter and heiress Coutances (Constantiensis), a right-hand man of William the Conof Conan IV., duke of Brittany (d. 1171). Conan assented, per- queror, was a type of the great feudal prelate, warrior and adhaps under compulsion, to this proposal but surrendered the ministrator at need. He knew, says Orderic, more about margreater part of his unruly duchy to the English king. Having re- shalling mailed knights than edifying psalm-singing clerks. Obceived the homage of the Breton nobles, Geoffrey joined his taining, as a young man, in 1048, the see of Coutances, by his brothers, Henry and Richard, who, in alliance with Louis VII. brother’s influence (see Mowsray), be raised from his fellow of France, were in revolt against their father; but he made his nobles and from their Sicilian spoils funds for completing his peace in 1174, afterwards helping to restore order in Brittany cathedral, which was consecrated in 1056. With bishop Odo, a and Normandy, and aiding the new French king, Philip Augustus, warrior like himself, he was on the battle-field of Hastings, exhortto crush some rebellious vassals.

Constance was celebrated, and practically the whole of his subsequent life was spent in warfare with his brother Richard. In 1183 he made peace with his father, who had come to Richard’s assistance; but a fresh struggle soon broke out for the possession of Anjou, and Geoffrey was in Paris treating for aid with Philip Augustus, when he died on Aug. 19, 1186. He left a daughter, Eleanor, and his wife bore a posthumous son, the unfortunate

who called on them to acclaim their duke as king. His reward in England was a mighty fief scattered over twelve counties.

He ac-

companied William on his visit to Normandy (1067), but, returning, led a royal force to the relief of Montacute in September yo69. In 1075 he again took the field, leading with bishop Odo a vast host against the rebel earl of Norfolk, whose stronghold at Norwich they besieged and captured.

Arthur (q.v.). GEOFFREY, surnamed Martet (1006-1060), count of Anjou, son of the count Fulk Nerra (qg.v.) and of the countess Hilde-

Meanwhile the Conqueror had invested him with judicial functions. In 1072 he had presided over Kentish suit between the primate and bishop Odo, and During his same time over those between the abbot of Ely and his

important the great about the despoilers, and between the bishop of Worcester and the abbot of Ely, and

(“the Gosling”), count of Vendôme, the son of his half-sister Adela. Fulk having revolted, he confiscated the countship, which

On Jan. 1, 1032, he married Agnes,

there is some reason to think that he acted as a Domesday commissioner (1086), and was placed about the same time in charge of Northumberland. The bishop, who attended the Conqueror’s

widow of William the Great, duke of Aquitaine, and taking arms

against William the Fat, eldest son and successor of William the Great, defeated him and took him prisoner at Mont-Couér (Sept. 20, 1033). He then tried to win recognition as dukes of Aquitaine

funeral, joined in the great rising against William Rufus next year (1088), making Bristol, with which (as Domesday shows) he was closely connected and where he had built a strong castle, his base of operations. He burned Bath and ravaged Somerset, but had

garde or Audegarde, was born on Oct. 14, 1006. father’s lifetime he was recognized as suzerain by Fulk l’Oison he did not restore till roso.

for the sons of his wife Agnes by William the Great, who were still minors, but Fulk Nerra promptly took up arms to defend his suzerain William the Fat, from whom he held the Loudunois and Saintonge in fief against his son. In 1036 Geoffrey Martel had to liberate William the Fat, on payment of a heavy ransom,

but the latter having died in 1038, and the second son of William the Great, Odo, duke of Gascony, having fallen in his turn at the siege of Mauzé (March 10, 1039) Geoffrey made peace with his father, and had his wife’s two sons recognized as dukes. He had interfered in the affairs of Maine, though without much result; for having sided against Gervais, bishop of Le Mans, who was trying to make himself guardian of the young count of Maine, Hugh, he had been beaten and forced to make terms with Gervais im 1038. In 1040 he succeeded his father in Anjou and was able

to conquer Touraine (1044) and assert his authority over Maine

(see Anjou). He was four times married, but left no children,

submitted to the king before the end of the year. He appears to have been at Dover with William in January 1090, but, withdrawing to Normandy, died at Coutances three years later. In: his fidelity to Duke Robert he seems to have there held out for him

against his brother Henry, when the latter obtained the Cotentin. See E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest and William Rufus; J. H. Round, Feudal England; and, for original authorities, the works of Orderic Vitalis and Wiliam of Poitiers, and of Florence of Worcester; the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle; William of Malmesbury’s Gesta pontificum, and Lanfranc’s works, ed. Giles; Domesday Book. (J. H. R.)

GEOFFREY

OF MONMOUTH

(d. 1154), bishop of St.

Asaph and creator of the Arthurian legend, was born about the year 1100. He received a liberal education under his paternal uncle, Uchtryd, at that time archdeacon, and subsequently bishop,

of Llandaff. In 1129 Geoffrey appears at Oxford among the wit-

nesses of an Oseney charter.

He subscribes himself “‘Geoffrey

Arturus.” A first edition of his Historie Britonum was in circuand was succeeded in the: countship of Anjou by Geoffrey the lation by the year 1139, although the text which we possess apBearded, the eldest of his nephews. He died at Angers on Nov. pears to date from 1147. This famous work professes to be a ” 14, ro6o. translation from a Celtic source; “a very old book in the British See Louis Halphen, Le Comté d’Anjou au XI¢ siécle (1906). tongue” which Walter, archdeacon of Oxford, had brought from A summary biography is given by Célestin Port, Dictionnaire histoWalter the archdeacon is a historical personage; rique, géographique et biographique de Maine-et-Loire (3 vols., Paris- Brittany. rs, 1874-78), vol. ii., pp. 252-253, and a sketch of the wars by whether his book has any real existence may be fairly questioned. te Norgate, England under the Angevin Kings (2 vols. 1887), There is nothing in the matter or the style of the Historia to vol. i. chs. iii. iv. preclude us from supposing that Geoffrey drew partly upon con-

GEOFFREY,

surnamed PLANTAGENET

(or PLANTEGENET)

(1r13-1151), count of Anjou, was the son of Count Fulk the

Young and of Eremburge (or Arembourg) of La Flèche; he was born on Aug. 24, 1113. He is also called “le bel” or “the hand-

fused traditions, partly on his own

powers of invention,

and

to a very slight degree upon the accepted authorities for early

British history. The romancer achieved an immediate success.

He was patronized by Robert, earl of Gloucester, and by two

some,” and received the surname of Plantagenet from the habit bishops of Lincoln; he obtained, about 1140, the archdeaconry of which he is said to have had of wearing in his cap a sprig of Llandaff “on account of his learning’; and in 1151 was promoted

bròom (genêt). He married (June 2, 1129) Matilda, daughter

of Henry I. of England, and widow of the emperor Henry V. He died on, Sept. 7,1151, and was buried in.the cathedral of Le

Mans: By his wife Matilda he had three sons: Henry Plantagenet (see Henry II.), Geoffrey, and William. (See also ANJOU.)

to the see of St. Asaph.

,

,

Before his death the Historia Britonum had already become a

model and a quarry for poets aid chroniclers. The list of imitators begins with Geoffrey Gaimar, the author. of the Estorie

des Engles (c. 1147), and Wace, whose Roman de Brut (1155) is partly a translation and partly a free paraphrase of the Historia. In the next century the influence of Geoffrey appears in the Brut 1874~78), Paris-Angers, vols., (3 Maine-et-Loire de et biographique vol. ii. pp. 254-236. There is a biography of Geoffrey written in ‘the of Layamon, and in the rhyming English chronicle of Robert of

See:Kate Norgate, England under the Angevin Kings. (2 vols., 1887),

vol, i.chs, v.-viii.; Célestin Port, Dictionnaire historique, géographique

136

GEOFFREY

OF PARIS—GEOFFROY

Gloucester. Among later historians who were deceived by the Historia Britonum it is only needful to mention Higden, Hardyng, Fabyan (1512), Holinshed (1580) and John Milton. Still greater

was the influence of Geoffrey upon Warner in Albion’s England (1586), and Drayton in Polyolbion (1613). The Historia Britonum provided the material for the earliest English tragedy, Gorboduc (1565), the Mirror for Magistrates (15387), and Shakespeare’s Lear.

But in the work of expanding and elaborating this theme the successors of Geoffrey went as far beyond him as he had gone beyond Nennius; but he retains the credit due to the founder of a great school, For the development of the tradition see ARTHU-

RIAN LEGEND. Of the twelve books into which it is divided only three (Bks. IX., X., XI.) are concerned with Arthur. Earlier in the work, however, we have the adventures of Brutus; of his follower Corineus, the vanquisher of the Cornish giant Goemagol (Gogmagog); of Locrinus and his daughter Sabre (immortalized in Milton’s Comus); of Bladud the builder of Bath; of Lear and his daughters; of the three pairs of brothers, Ferrex and Porrex,

Brennius and Belinus, Elidure and Peridure. The story of Vor-

tigern and Rowena takes its final form in the Historia Britonum,

and Merlin makes his first appearance in the prelude to the Arthur legend. Besides the Historia Britonum Geoffrey is alsa credited with a Life of Merlin composed in Latin verse. The authorship of this work has, however, been disputed, on the ground that the style is distinctly superior to that of the Wisteria, A minor composition, the Prophecies of Merlin, was written before 1136, and afterwards incorporated with the Historia, of which it forms the seventh book. For a discussion of the manuscripts of Geoffrey’s work, see T. D,

Hardy, Descriptive Catalogue (Rolls Series, No. 26. vol. i., 1862) ; for those in the British Museum, H. L. D. Ward, Catalogue of Romances

(vol. i, 1883), and those in Leyden, L. V. Delisle, Bibliothéque de PEcole de Chartes (LXX1,, 1910) ; A. Griscom (Speculum vol, i., Mediaeval Academy of America, 1 26) has studied some of the mss. The Latin text of the Historia (ed. San Marte [A. Schulz] Halle, 1854) follows J. A. Giles, Galfredi Monumentensis Historia Britonum (Caxton Society, 1844) which is based on 16th century editions. Eng. trans., History of the Kings of Britain, ed. L, Paton (Everyman Series, 1912), For biography, see W, L. Jones, “Geoffrey of Monmouth” in the Transactions of the Cymmrodorion Society (1899). See also A. de la Borderie, Études historiques bretonnes (1883); W. E. Mead, Outlines of the History of the Legend of Merlin (1899); G. Heeger, Trojanersaga der Britten (1886); F. Lot, Etudes sur Merlin (Rennes, 1900);

Thompson

SAINT-HILAIRE

as the Chronicon

(Oxford, 1889).

Galfridi le Baker

oe

de Swynebroke

GEOFFRIN, MARIE THERESE, née RODET (16991777), French hostess, was born in Paris on June 2, 1699. She married, on July 19, 1713, Pierre Francois Geoffrin, a rich manufacturer and lieutenant-colonel of the National Guard, who died in 1750. It was not till 1748, when Mme. Geoffrin was nearly 50, that she became a power in Parisian society and started her two

dinners a week, one on Monday for artists, and one on Wednesday for her friends the encyclopaedists and other men of letters. She received many foreigners of distinction, Hume and Horace Wal. pole among others. Walpole spent much time in her society be. fore he was finally attached to Mme. du Deffand, and speaks of her in his letters as a model of common sense. She was indeed somewhat of a smail tyrant in her circle. She had adopted the pose of an old woman earlier than necessary, and her coquetry, if such it can be called, took the form of being mother and mentor to her guests, many of whom were indebted to her generosity for

substantial help. Although her aim appears to have been to have the Encyclopédie in conversation and action around her, her advanced views did not prevent her from observing the forms of religion, and she was extremely displeased with any of her friends

who were so rash as to incur open disgrace, Marmontel, for jn-

stance, losing her favour after the official A devoted Parisian, Mme. Geoffrin rarely her journey to Poland in 1766 to visit the towski, whom she had known in his early

censure of Bélisatre. left the city, so that king, Stanislas Poniadays in Paris, was a experiences induced a sensible

great event in her life. Her gratitude that she had been born “Francaise” and “particulière.” She died in Paris on Oct. 6, 1777.

See Correspondance inédite du rot Stanislas Auguste Poniatowski et de Madame Geoffrin, edited by the comte de Mouy (1875); P. de Ségur, Le Royaume de la rue Saint-Honoré, Madame Geoffrin et sa

flle (1897); A, Tornezy, Un Bureau d’esprit ay XVIIIe siècle: le salon de Madame Geoffrin (1895) ; and Janet Aldis, Madame Geoffrin,

her Salon and her Times, 1750-1777 (1908).

GEOFFROY,

ETIENNE

FRANCOIS

(1672-1732),

French chemist, born in Paris on Feb. 13, 1672, was first an apothecary and afterwards practised medicine. After studying at

Montpellier he accompanied Marshal Tallard on his embassy to

London in 1698 and thence travelled to Holland and Italy. Returning to Paris he became professor of chemistry at the Jardin R. H., Fletcher, “Two Notes on the Historia,” in the Publications of the Modern Languages Association of America (Baltimore, T1901) ; and du Roi and of pharmacy and medicine at the Collége de France, The Arthurian Material in the Chronicles (Harvard Studies and Notes, 1906); Vita Merlini (ed. J. J. Parry, Illinois Studies, 1925). The subject has been dealt with exhaustively by E. K. Chambers, Arthur

and dean of the faculty of medicine. He died in Paris on Jan.

Bel, or Chronique rimée de Geofroi de Paris. deals with the history of France from 1300 7,918 verses. Various short historical poems tributed to Geoffrey, but there is no certain

analogous bodies for different reagents, and they retained their vogue for the rest of the century, until displaced by the profounder conceptions introduced by C. L. Berthollet. Another of his papers dealt with the delusions of the philosopher’s stone, but nevertheless he believed that iron could be artificially formed in

6, 1731. His name is best known in connection with his tables of affinities (tables des rapports), which he presented to the of Britain, with bibliography (1927). (H. W. C. D.; X3 French Academy in 1718 and 1720. These were lists, prepared GEOFFREY OF PARIS (d. c. 1320), French chronicler, by collating observations on the actions of substances one upon was probably the author of the Chronique métrique de Philippe le another, showing the varying degrees of affinity exhibited by

either his life or his writings,

This work, which to 1316, contains have also been atinformation about

The Chronique was re, tome ix,

published by F. A. Buchon in his Collection des (Paris, 1827), and it has also been printed in tome xxii. of the Recueil des hissstortens des Gatiles et de la France

bee Oi See G. Paris, Histoire de la littérature francaise au moyen is, 1890) ; and A. Molinier, Les Sources de Phistoire de France, tome ii, (Paris, 1903).

GEOFFREY THE BAKER (4. c. 1360), English chronicler, is also called Walter of Swinbroke, and was probably a secular clerk at Swinbrook in Oxfordshire. He wrote a Chronicon has bus Edwordi IT, et Edwardi IIT., which deals with

the combustion of vegetable matter.

His Tractatus de materie

medica, published posthumously in 1741, was long celebrated. His brother Cravpe Joseru, known as Geoffroy the younger (1685~1752), was also an apothecary and chemist who, having 4

considerable knowledge of botany, devoted himself especially to

the study of the essential oils in plants.

GEOFFROY, JULIEN LOUIS (1743-1814), French critic, a native of Rennes, Brittany, was editor of L’Année litté-

raire from 1776 to 1792 and was abitter critic of Voltaire. During

the history of England from 1303 to 1356, From the beginning the Terror he went into hiding, anly returning to Paris in 1799, until about 1324 this work is based upon Adam Murimuth’s Con- when he became dramatic critic of the Journal des Débats. He twmmatio chronicarum, byt after this date it contains information died in Paris on Feb, 27, 1814.

not found elsewhere, and closes with a good account of the battle of Poitiers, The author obtained his knowledge about the last days of Edward II. from William Bisschop, a companion of the King’s murderers, Thomas Gurney and John Maltravers, Geoffrey wrote a Chroniculwes from the creation of the world until 1356. His writings have been edited with notes by Sir E. M,

GEOFFROY

SAINT-HILAIRE, ÉTIENNE

(1777

1844), French naturalist, was the son of Jean Gèrard Geoffroy,

procurator aud magistrate of Étampes, Seine-et-Oise, where hẹ

was bom on April 15, 1772.

Destined for the church he en-

tered the college of Navarre, in Paris, where he studied natural

philosophy under M. J. Brisson; and in 1788 he obtained one-of

GEOFFROY

137

the canonicates of the chapter of Sainte Croix at Etampes, and also a benefice. Science, however, offered him a more congenial

Geoffroy returned to his accustomed labours in Paris. He was elected a member of the academy of sciences of that city in career, and he gained from his father permission to remain in September 1807. In March of the following year the emperor, Paris, and to attend the lectures at the Collége de France and the who had already recognized his national services by the award Jardin des Plantes, on the condition that he should also read of the Cross of the Legion of Honour, selected him to visit the law. He accordingly took up his residence at Cardinal Le- museums of Portugal, for the purpose of procuring collections moine’s college, and there became the pupil and soon the esteemed from them, and in the face of considerable opposition from the associate of Brisson’s friend, the abbé Hatiy, the mineralogist. British he eventually was successful in retaining them as a perHaving, before the close of the year 1790, taken the degree of manent possession for his country. In 1809, the year after his bachelor in law, he became a student of medicine, and attended return to France, he was made professor of zoology at the faculty the lectures of A. F. de Fourcroy at the Jardin des Plantes, and of of sciences at Paris, and from that period he devoted himself L. J. M. Daubenton at the Collége de France. His studies at Paris more exclusively than before to anatomical study. In 1818 he were at length suddenly interrupted, for, in August 1792, Haüy gave to the world the first part of his celebrated Philosophie and the other professors of Lemoine’s college, as also those of the anatomique, the second volume of which, published in 1822, and college of Navarre, were arrested by the revolutionists as priests, subsequent memoirs account for the formation of monstrosities and confined in the prison of St. Firmin. Through the influence of on the principle of arrest of development, and of the attraction of Daubenton and some others Geoffroy on August 14 obtained similar parts. When, in 1830, Geoffroy proceeded to apply to the an order for the release of Hatiy in the name of the Academy; invertebrata his views as to the unity of animal composition, he still the other professors of the two colleges, save C. F. Lhomond, found a vigorous opponent in Georges Cuvier, and the discussion

who had been rescued by his pupil J. L. Tallien, remained in between therm, continued up to the time of the death of the latter, confinement. Geoffroy, foreseeing their certain destruction if they remained in the hands of the revolutionists, determined if possible

to secure their liberty by stratagem. By bribing one of the officials at St. Firmin, and disguising himself as 4 commissioner of prisons,

he gained admission to his friends, and eéntreated them to effect their escape by following him. All, however, dreading lest their deliverance should render the doom of their fellow-captives the more certain, refused the offer, and one priest only, who was

unknown to Geoffroy, left the prison. Already on the night of September 2 the massacre of the proscribed had begun, when

Geoffroy, yet intent on saving the lives of his friends and teachers,

repaired to St. Firmin. At 4 o’clock on the morning of September 3, after eight hours’ waiting, he by means of a ladder assisted the escape of twelve ecclesiastics, not of the number of

his acquaintance, and then the approach of dawn and the discharge of a gun directed at him warned him, his chief purpose unaccomplished, to return to his lodgings. Leaving Paris he retired to Etampes, where, in consequence of the anxieties of which he had lately been the prey, and the horrors which he had witnessed, he was for some time seriously ill. At the beginning of the winter of 1792 he returned to his studies in Paris, and in March of the following year Daubenton, through the interest of Bernardin de Saint Pierre, procured him the office of sub-keeper and assistant demonstrator of the cabinet of natural history, vacant by the resignation of B. G. E. Lacépéde.

By a law passed in June 1793,

Geoffroy was appointed one of the twelve professors of the newly constituted museum of natural history, being assigned the chair

of zoology. In the same year he busied himself with the formation of a menagerie at that institution. In 1794 through the introduction of A. H. Tessier he entered Into correspondence with Georges Cuvier, to whom, after the perusal of some of his manuscripts, he wrote: “Venez jouer parmi nous le rôle de Liñné, d'un autre législateur de l'histoire naturelle.”

soon attracted the attention of the scientific throughout Europe. Geoffroy, a synthesist, contended, in accordance with his theory of unity of plan in organic composition, that all animals are formed of the same elements, in the same number, and with the same connections: homologous parts, however they differ in form and size, must remain associated in the same invariable order. With Goethe he held that there is in nature a law of compénsation or balancing of growth, so that if one organ take on an excess of development, it is at the expense of some other part; and he maintained that, since nature takes no sudden leaps, even organs

which are superfluous in any given species, if they have played an important part in other spécies of the same family, are retained as rudiments, which testify to the permanence of the general plan

of creation. It was his conviction that, owing to the conditions of life, the same forms had not been perpetuated since the origin of all things, although it was not his belief that existing species are becoming modified. Cuvier, who was an analytical observer of facts, admitted only the prevalence of “laws of co-existence” or “harmony” in animal organs, and maintained the absolute invariability of species, which he declared had been created with a regard to the circumistances in which they were placed, each organ contrived with a view to the function it had to fulfil, thus putting, in Geoffroy’s considerations, the effect for the cause. In July 1840 Geoffroy became blind, and some months later he had a paralytic attack. From that time his strength gradually failed him. He resigned his chair at the museum in 1841, and died at Paris on June 19, 1844. Geoffroy wrote: Catalogue des mammifères du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle (1813), not quité completed; Philosophie anatomique—t. i., Des organes respiratoives (i818), and t. ii., Des monstruo-

sités humaines (x822); Système dentaire des mammifères et dës oiseaux (rst pt. 1824); Sur le principe de Vunité de composition

organique (1828); Cours de Vhistoire naturelle des mammifères (1829) ; Princtpes de philosophie zoologique (1830); Etudes progresWun naturaliste (1835); Fragments biographiques (1832); Shortly after the appointment of Cuvier as assistant at the sives Notions synthétiques, historiques et physiologiques de philosaphie Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, Geoffroy received him into his naturelle (1838), and other works; also part of the Description de house. The two friends wrote together five memoirs on natural LÉgypte par la commission des sciences (1821-1830); and, with history, one of which, on the classification of mammals, puts Frédéric Cuvier (1773-1838), a younger brother of G. Cuvier, Histoire forward the idea of the subordination of characters upon which naturelle des mammifères (4 vols., 1820-1842); besidés numerous on such subjects as the anatomy of marsupials, ruminants Cuvier based his zoological system. It was in a paper entitled papers and electrical fishes, the vertebrate theory of the skull, the opercula “Histoire des Makis, ou singes de Madagascar,” written in 1795, of fishes, teratology, palatontology and the influence of surrounding that Geoffroy first gave expression to his views on “the unity of conditions in modifying animal forms. See Vie, travaux, et docirine scientifique d’Etienne Geoffroy Saintorganic composition,” the influence of which is perceptible in all par son fils M. Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (Paris and his subsequent writings; nature, he observes, presents us with only Hilaire, Strasburg, 1847), to which is appended a list of Geoffroy’s works; one plan of construction, the same in principle, but varied in its and Joly, in Biog. univérselle, t. xvi. (1856).

accessory parts. In 1798 Geoffroy was chosen a member of the great scientific

GEOFFROY

SAINT-HILAIRE,

ISIDORE

(:805-

1861), French zoologist, son of the preceding, was born in Paris

expedition to Egypt, and on the capitulation of Alexandria in on Dec. 16, 1805. He received his M.D, in 1824, and from 1830~ August 1801, he took part in resisting the claim made by the 33 taught zoology at the Athénée, In 1832 was published his British general to the collections of the expedition, declaring that,

were that demand persisted in, history would have to record that

‘ healso had burnt a library in Alexandria.

Early in January 1802

great teratological work, Histoire générale et particulidre des anomalies de l'organisation ches Vhomme et les animaux (3 vols.). He was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences in Paris

GEOGRAPHICAL

138

ARTICLES—GEOGRAPHICAL

in 1833, was in 1837 appointed to act as deputy for his father at the Faculty of Sciences in Paris, and in the following year was sent to Bordeaux to organize a similar faculty there. He became successively inspector of the Academy of Paris (1840), professor of the museum on the retirement of his father (1841), inspectorgeneral of the university (1844), a member of the royal council for public instruction (1845) and professor of zoology at the Faculty of Sciences (1850). He died in Paris on Nov. 10, 186r. Besides

the above works,

he wrote:

Essais de zoologie générale

(1841); Vie . . . d'Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1847); Acclimatation et domestication des animaux utiles (1849); Lettres sur les substances alimentaires (1856) and Histoire naturelle générale des règnes organiques (3 vols., 1854—62), and various papers on zoology, comparative anatomy and palaeontology.

GEOGRAPHICAL ARTICLES. The articles on the various territories in this Encyclopedia are prefaced by a geographical sketch giving the chief characteristics of the area in question. This, in the case of the continents, is general, and for particular details the reader is referred to some article of more restricted scope. In the case of countries the geography is given first and references made to later sections where Geology and Archaeology and Antiquities may add something of importance to

the understanding of the territory. In the British Isles each county has its own heading and the important cities and towns have likewise separate entries. In the United States the main article is concerned with the general geography, etc.; and each State is treated separately. The chief towns also have entries as in the case of other countries. Where divisions or special districts of continents had, before the World War, a well-established name which has since been officially changed, the old name is given a place with a crossreference to the new designation. Changes of government and administration, mandates and changes of territorial allocation have been dealt with in the same way. In addition to the articles to be found under well-known geo-

graphical names attention may be drawn to such comprehensive

articles as ARCTIC REGIONS, METEOROLOGY, STEREOGRAPHY, and Tmes. Articles on natural phenomena such as Monsoon, EarTHQUAKE, HURRICANE, etc., carty cross-references to articles on the territories and waters where they are commonly found. Mountain ranges have, in some instances, their own articles (Arps, HIMALAYA, etc.), as is also the case with the world’s chief rivers, , Every subdivision of geographical study has been treated, either wader its own head or that of a related subject. In every case where confusion might possibly arise cross-references have been

inserted, The many archipelagos of the Pacific, have, for example, been treated comprehensively in the article Pacreic isLanps but each group (and the main islands separately) has its own heading where the geography and physical features are given,

with a cross-reference to the regional article. GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETIES. The Congrés Interna-

bs SOCIETIES

Journ. CANADA: Quebec, Soc. de Géogr. de Quebec (1877), Bull, Inp1A: Bombay, Roy. Asiatic Soc., Bombay Br. (1871). Ecyer:

Cairo, Soc. Khédiviale de Géogr. (1875), Bull. (1876 seq,),

changed to Soc. Roy. de Géogr. de’Egypte (1917), Bull., Mem.

Unitep States: Chicago, Geogr. Soc. (1898), Bull. (1898 seq.), Assoc. of Amer. Geographers (1904), Annals. New York, Amer. Geogr. Soc. of New York (1851), Bull. (1852-57); Journ,

(1859 seg.), later Bull. (1901-15),

continued

as The Geogr.

Rev. (1916~20); Proc. (1862-65) and 137 separate publications Philadelphia, Geogr. Soc. (1893), Bull. Washington, Nat. Geogr, Soc. (1888), Nat. Geogr. Magazine (1888 seqg.); Soc. of Women

Geographers (1925), Bull. Austria: Vienna, Geogr. Ges. Mitteil, (1857 seq.), Abhandl. Verein der Geographen Univ. (1874), Jahresber.; D. u. Österreich. Alpen Ver. Ztschr. u. Jahrb. (1869 seq.); Ver. f. Landeskunde, etc.

(1856), a. der (1869), (1864),

Jahrb., Monatsblatt. BerLcIium: Antwerp, Soc. Roy. de Géogr, (1876), Bull. Brussels, Soc. Roy. belge de Géogr. (1876), Bull: Bursar: Sofia, Bargarsko Geografsko Družestvo (1918), Geograjska Biblioteka. CZECHOSLOVAKIA: Prague, Ceskoslov. spole-

čnost zeměpisná (1894), Sbornik. DENMARK: Copenhagen, Kng. Danske Geogr. Selskab (1876), Geogr. Tidsskrift (1876 seg), FINLAND: Helsinki, Suomen Maantieteellinen Seura-Geogr. Sëllskapet i. Finland (1888), Jahrbuch, now Terra (1922 seg.), Fennia (1889 seqg.), Acta Geogr. (1927). France: Bordeaux, Soe, de Géogr. Commerciale (1874), Bull., Revue (1911 seg.). Lyons, Soc. de Géogr. (1873), Bull. (1875 seg.). Marseilles, Soc. de Géogr. (1876), Bull. (1877 seg.). Montpellier, Soc. languedecienne de Géogr. (1875), Bull. (1878 seg.). Nancy, Soc. de Géogr, de Est (1878), Bull. (1878 seg.). Paris, Soc. de Géogr. (1821; 1827), Bull, (1900 seg.), La Géographie; Soc. de Géogr. Commerciale (1873), Bull., Revue Econ. française; Assoc. de Géogr. francais (1920), Bull., Bibl. géogr. ann.; Assoc. des Amis, etc., de Géogr. Physique (1922), Cahiers. Toulouse, Soc. de Géogr. (1882), Bull. Branches of the Soc. de Géogr. are also at Bar-le-Duc, Béthune, Douai, Lille and Tours. Algiers, Soc. de Géogr., etc. (1896), Bull. (1896 seg.). GERMANY: Berlin, Ges, Jür Erdkunde (1828), Monatsber. (1839-53), Zischr. (1853 seq.}, Verhandl. (1873-1901), Ztschr. (1866 seg.), Bibl. Geogr. (1891~ 1912), D. Geographentag (1881), Verhandl., Central Ver. f. Handelsgeogr., etc. (1878). Bremen, Geogr. Ges. (1876), D, Geogr. Blätter. Dresden, Ver. f. Erdkunde (1863), Jahresber. (1865—1901), Mitteil. (1905 seg.). Frankfort, Ver. f. Geogr., ete. (1835), Jahresber. Freiburg i. B., Geogr. Ges. (1925). Giessen Ges. f. Erd u. Völkerkunde (1896), Geogr. Mitteil. Gotha, Verband D. Schulgeographen (1912), Geogr. Anzeiger.

Pommersche

Greifswald,

Geogr. Ges. (1882), Jahresber., Jahrbuch

(1924

seq.). Halle, Ver. f. Erdkunde (1873), Mitteil. Hamburg, Geogr. Ges. (1873), Mitteil., Jakresber. Hanover, Geogr. Ges. (1878), Jahresber. Jena, Geogr. Ges. (1882), Mitteil. Karlsruhe, Ba-

dische Geogr. Ges. (1880-96; 1925), Verhandl. (1880-86). Kiel,

tional Dour les Progrés des Sciences Géographiques first met in Ver. zur Pflege der Landeskunde (1890), Heimat (1890 seq.) r87t.' The Royal Geographical Society of London, founded in Leipzig, Ges. f. Erdk. (1861), Jahresber., continued as Mitteil, 1830, had joined fo it in the following year the African Associa- (1861 seg.—-1g11 seg.), Veréfentlichungen, Ver. Geographen der tion (4788), the successor of the Saturday Club ; the Palestine Univ, Liibeck, Geogr. Ges. (1882), Mitteil, (1882 seq.). Magdeissaciation (1805) became merged with it in 1834. It publishes burg, Geogr. Ges. (1927), Mitte. Munich, Geogr. Ges. (1869), irmad (1832-80), Proceedings (1857-92) and Geogr. Journal Jahresber., Mitteil. (1904 seg.), Landeskundl. Forschungen, Ges.

(1893 seg.). The Hakluyt Society (1846) has printed more than

136 volumes of rare voyages and travels. The Alpine Club (18 58), whose publications are Peaks, Passes and Glaciers (1859—62) and Foursab (1863 seg.), meets in London. The Royal Scottish Geographical Society (1884) has its centre at Edinburgh and issues the Scottish Geographical Magazine. Newcastle has the Tynesida Geographical Society and Manchester also has a Geographi-

f. bayerische Landeskunde

(1920), Veröf., Deutsch u. Öster-

reichischer Alpenverein (1g01). Nuremberg, Geogr. Ges. (1920), Msiteil., Jahresber. Rostock, Geogr. Ges. (1909), Mitteil. (1930 seq.), with branches at Wismar (1921), Schwerin (1922), Gis trow (1923). Stuttgart, Wirtt, Ver. f. Handelsgeogr. (1882),

Jahresber., Wiirtt. Schwarzwald Ver. (1884), Aus dem Schwart

wald. Wiirzburg, Geogr. Ges. (1925), Mitteil. Greece: Athens,

cal Socisty (1884). Aberystwyth, Wales, has a Geographical Greek Geogr. Soc. (1919). Huncary: Budapest, Magyar Föl Society {1900),and publishes Geography. AUSTRALIA: Adelaide, drajzt Tarsasdg (1872), Féldrajzi Kézlemények. ITALY: FlorRpp, Geogr. Sö of Austrolasié TS , S$. Ausiral. Br. (1885), Proc. ence, Soc. di Studi geogr. e colon. (1884), Rivista Geogr. Italians. Btitbene, Roy. Geogr. Sac. of Australasia, Queensland (1885), Milan, Soc, Ital. di Geogr. Commerciale (1879), L’Esplorazione | Qaeatsidud: Geogr `Journal. . Melbourne, Roy. Geogr. Soc. of Commerciale (1879 seg.). Rome, Soc. Geogr. Ital. (1867), Bok 5 aasiraiées, SES OIN Victoria Br. (1883), incorporated with The Hist. Soc. (1868 seg.), Memorie, Latvia: Riga, Latvijas Geogr. Biedriba z

E

*

y

as

+

T

if Pietieia: {2921}, Victorias Geogr. Journ, Sydney, Geogr. Soc. (1923). NETHERLANDS: Amsterdam, Kng. Nederl, Aardrijkskun ef ew 5. Wales, Austral. Geographer (1928). Sorta AFRICA: dig ‘Génbot. (1873), Tijdschrift (1874 seq.). The Hague, Nederl. Re sas hnësbuig Geogr. Sec: of 5S.’ Africa €z927), S. Afr. Geogr. Ver. vor Econ. Geogr. (1909), Tijdschrift. Norway: Oslo, Det.

PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY]

GEOGRAPHY

139

norske geogr. Selskab (1889), Norsk Geogr. Tidsskrift. PoLanp: | as well as in the objectives of exploration. Warsaw, Polskie Towarzystwo Geograficzne (1918), Przeglad Widening the Mediterranean Horizon.—The Egyptians Geogr. Portucat: Lisbon, Soc. de Geogr. (1875), Bol. (1876 had explored and conquered large tracts of land before the 14th seq.). RUMANIA: Bucharest, Soc. Regală Română de Geogr. century B.c., both southward up the Nile and northeastward to (1875), Bul., Dic. geogr., Marele Dict. geogr. al Rom. (1898- the borders of Assyria, but the first sea-going explorers seem to 1902 seg.). SPAIN: Madrid, R. Soc. Geogr. (1876), Bol. (1876 have been the Phoenicians who made Sidon a commercial port as seg.), Revista, Coleccién Geogr. SWEDEN: Stockholm, Svenska early as 1400 B.c. and later raised Tyre to equal fame. The Sällskapet f. Antrop. och Geogr. (1873), Tidskrift (1873—77), merchant adventurers of Tyre and Sidon explored the whole coast Geogr. Sekt. tidskrift (1878-80), Ymer (1881 seq.), Annaler, of the Mediterranean, founding the colony of Carthage before (1919 seq.); Geografiska förbundet. Göteborg, Geogr. Foreningen (1908), Meddelanden. SwITzerLAND: Basel, Geogr.-ethnol. Ges. (1923). Berne, Geogr. Ges. (1873), Jahresber. (1879 seq.). Geneva, Soc. de Géogr. (1858), Le Globe, Bull. et Mém., etc. Neuchâtel, Soc. de Géogr. (1885), Bull. St. Gall, Ostschweiz. Geogr.-

Kom. Ges. (1879), Mitteil., Verband Schweiz. Geogr. Ges. Turxey: Constantinople, Geog. Soc. U.S.S.R.: Leningrad, Russk. geografič. obšč. (1845), Izvestija R.G.O., etc., Bull. (1865 seq.).

Branches of R.G.O. are at Irkutsk (East Siberian Br.), Yakutsk,

Omsk, Orenburg, Tiflis, Geogr. Soc. of Georgia, Geogr. Review, and Vladivostok. Moscow, Obščestvo Ljubitelej Estestvoznanija (1863), Division for Geogr. (1892 seg.), Zemlevedenie, discontinued temporarily. YucosLavra: Belgrade, Geografsko Društvo

(1916), Glasntk. ALGERIA: Algiers, Soc. de Géogr. d’Alger et de PAfrique du blanca, Soc. Geogr. Soc. Estad., Bol.

Nord (1896), Bull. (1896 seg.). Morocco: Casade Géogr. de Maroc*({1915), Bull. Japan: Tokyo, (1879), Journ. of Geogr. Mexico: Soc. de Geogr. y

(1839 seq.). Cusa: Havana, Soc. Geogr. de Cuba

(1928), Revista. Costa Rica: San José, Soc. de Geogr. e Hist. (1925). ARGENTINA: Buenos Aires, Soc. Argentina de Estudios Geogr. Gaea (1921), Gaea. Boxrvia: La Paz, Soc. Geogr. (1889), Bol. Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Soc. de Estudios Geogr. e Hist. (1903), Bol. Sucre, Soc. Geogr. Braziu: Rio de Janeiro, Soc. de Geogr., Revista (1883). Cotompia: Bogota, Soc. Geogr. (1903), Bol. Ecuapor: Quito, Soc. Geogr. (1922). Peru: Lima, Soc. Geogr. (1888), Bol.

‘GEOGRAPHY, the exact and organised knowledge of the

distribution of phenomena on the surface of the Earth (y7, the Earth, and ypadew, to write). It deals with the form and motion of the planet so far as a knowledge of these is necessary for fixing positions on the surface and explaining the incidence of solar

radiation, more fully with the forms of the lithosphere or stony crust of the Earth, the extent of the water envelope or hydrosphere, the movements of the water and of the all-surrounding atmosphere, the distribution of plants and animals and very fully with that of the human race, and with all the interactions and relationships between these distributions. Geography is a synthetic science, largely dependent for its data on the results of specialized sciences such as astronomy, physics, geology, oceanography, meteorology, biology and anthropology and always having respect to the natural regions of the world. The characteristic task of geography is to investigate the control exercised by the forms and vertical relief of the surface of the

lithosphere directly or indirectly on the various mobile distributions. Viewed in this light geography is a unified and definite Science of wide outlook and comprehensive grasp. It is essential to classify its subject matter so as to give prominence to facts in their relationships and to the natural order in which they occur. This article first sketches the progress of geographical discovery, then deals with the growth of geographical theory and finally indicates the general principles of geography as they are understood at the present time.

I. PROGRESS

OF GEOGRAPHICAL

DISCOVERY

Although geographical discovery must have started from every isolated centre of ancient civilization it is only possible to deal here with the stream of exploration which, starting 3,000 years ago in the eastern Mediterranean where a wedge of Asia unites

Africa with Europe, has sptead down the ages until to-day it has reached almost to every part of the Earth’s surface on land and sea. This sketch touches only the main’ outlines of the progress of discovery, its object being to’ indicate the changes which have oectrred through the centuries in the motives'and the methods

800 B.c. They and other colonizers on the shores of the Iberian peninsula sailed northward along the Atlantic coast, probably trading direct with Cornwall for tin, and to the south going far along the west coast of Africa. They certainly reached the Azores as Carthaginian coins of the 4th century s.c. have been found on the island of Corvo. With the support of Egypt they traded also on the Red Sea reaching lands yielding gold and ivory probably on the coast of Africa or Arabia. It is probable that they also reached India from the Red Sea. Herodotus heard in Egypt that in the days of King Nicho (600 B.c.) a Phoenician fleet sent from the Red Sea southward along the African coast had returned to Egypt by the Pillars of Hercules. Herodotus was the earliest of the Greek travellers to give a full and trustworthy narrative of his peregrinations in Asia as far as Persia, in Egypt and north Africa, on the Black Sea coasts as far as the Caucasus

and in Italy (480-440 B.c.). The maritime trade of the Greek City States and their colonies became more important than that of the Phoenicians soon after the fifth century B.C. Greek ships sailed beyond the Mediterranean, opening up the Black Sea on the east and the borders of the Atlantic on the west. Massilia (on the site of the modern Marseille) was a colony of Greeks from Phocaea and thence a voyage of great importance was made by Pytheas about 330 B.C. His own narrative is lost and the facts have to be gathered from references by Strabo 300 years later to criticisms of the voyage in lost books of the Greek geographers. Pytheas was probably the first navigator to fix the position of the lands he reached by crude astronomical observations and he seems to have been a keen observer of places and people. He coasted the Bay of Biscay, and the east of Britain as far as Orkney where he heard a report of Thule, a more northern land, and a confused hint of the Arctic regions. On a later voyage he coasted the east side of the North Sea and probably entered the Baltic. During the same years the conquests of Alexander the Great opened to the Greek world a knowledge of the continent of Asia as far as the northern plain of India, and his general Nearchus conducted a fleet from . the mouth of the Indus to the Persian Gulf, the first voyage in the Indian Ocean to be described in a manner comparable with

the record of the land journey of Xenophon a century earlier when after the death of Cyrus he led the 10,000 from Mesopotamia across the plateau of Armenia to the Black sea. In the following centuries the Ptolemies, Greek kings of Egypt, encouraged exploration and about 115 B.c. Eudoxus under their auspices explored the Arabian sea, and planned to circumnavigate Africa, but could not get support for so daring a project. The rise and extension of the Roman Empire involved scouting expeditions before and surveys after the conquest of each province of the lands bordering on the Mediterranean in Europe, Asia and Africa. Conquering generals described the tribes they. subdued and the regions they occupied and Julius Caesar won renown as a writer no less than as a fighter. Each province of the empire was bound to Rome by the imperishable causeways which still form the skeleton of the road map of Europe. Pliny and Seneca say that Nero (about A.D. 6o) sent two centurions to follow up the Nile from Egypt, and they were stopped by great marshes, probably those of the Sudan about 19° N.’ The prac-

tical advantages of discovery appealed to the Roman mentality more powerfully than the abstract theories which fascinated the Greeks and Hippalus who about a.p. 79, learnmg from the Arabs of the regular seasonal changes of the monsoons, made these winds serve himn'as the means of establishing'a trade route between the Red: Sea and India across the open ocean instead of hugging the coast as of yore. This trade continued 'to develop and a century

140

GEOGRAPHY

later Pausanias makes it appear that direct communication had even been opened up with China. In the time of Justinian (483565) two Nestorian monks made the journey from Constantinople overland to China and succeeded in introducing the frst silkworms into the Mediterranean lands. After the fall of the Roman Empire and the incursion of barbarians from the north a wave of Arab domination surged over the Asiatic and African provinces and swept far into the southern

peninsulas of Europe. The geographical learning of the Greeks and Romans enshrined in the writings of Ptolemy of Alexandria (A.D. 150) passed to the Arabs and was forgotten in Christian

Europe where the conception of the globe degenerated to that of a flat disc with Jerusalem at the centre. The Arabs trading with India, China and the east coast of Africa acquired a sound knowledge of the Indian Ocean and a fair idea of the interior of Africa before the year 1000. Among the well-known geographical writers of this period were Abu Zaid, Masudi, Istakhri and Idrisi. Meanwhile the Northmen from the fjords of Scandinavia were harrying the coasts of northern Europe and even making their way into the Mediterranean. Most of the vikings pushed southwards for plunder and conquest, but some turned northward to hunt the fur and ivory yielding animals of the northern seas. Othar of Helgeland discovered the North Cape and rounding it proceeded as far as the White Sea in the middle of the 9th century. Later he visited the court of Alfred the Great and it was the English king who first reduced to writing the discoveries of the earliest Polar explorer and introduced to literature the midnight sun of the Arctic summer. The commerce of the Arabs and of the less warlike of the Northmen interlaced at several points and their trade routes ran overland between the Black Sea and the Baltic. Late in the gth century Iceland was colonized from Norway and in 985 Eric the Red, sailing westward, discovered Greenland and soon afterwards his son Leif Ericsson sailing thence to the southwest came on a new land which he named Vinland, and was thus

the first European to reach America. If news of this event percolated southwards the distracted Europe of the Middle Ages had

other things to think of and only vggue legends or the scribbling of fanciful islands on the vacant Atlantic margins of the mediaeval maps justify the suggestion that it did. A horror of the unknown territories, still more of unknown oceans, settled on the mind of

[PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY

visited the east African coast as far south as Mombasa and Kilwa and crossed the desert fron the Red sea to Syene on the Nile: finally he explored west Africa by land reaching Timbuktu and the Niger. COMMERCE AND EXPLORATION Many travellers in the early part of the r5th century made

notable journeys throughout the mainland of Asia and the Eastern

archipelago impelled by the growing demand for the silks, spices and other valuable products of the tropics. From Spain Ruy Gon- ` zalez de Clavijo journeyed to the court of Timur at Samarkand; from Italy Nicolo Conti later in the century spent 25 years in the Far East reaching China, Java and Sumatra. The Opening of the Oceans.—In the 15th century the use of the magnetic compass became general amongst the Mediter.

ranean mariners giving them for the first time confidence in navigation out of sight of lard or when the stars were hidden, and leading to the introduction of the portulani or compass charts of the coasts. Latitude at sea began to be measured by the astrolabe or other cumbrous instrument for observing the altitude of the sun, but longitude was long destined to remain a matter of guesswork. The Italian merchants continued to foster trade with the east through the land routes controlled by the Muslim nations though the rise of the Turks made this increasingly difficult. In the west the Portuguese took the lead in developing maritime en-

terprise in the hope of perhaps finding a route to the Indies by the south of Africa and with the more immediate object of founding a great Portuguese overseas empire. Prince Henry of Portugal with the spirit of a crusader determined to overcome the Muslim power in North Africa and explore the coast southward in order to find a way by which to get in touch with Abyssinia

the half mythical Christian kingdom of Prester John, behind the country of the Moors. The Portuguese missionary Covilham (g.v.) succeeded in reaching Abyssinia in 1487 from Egypt but was not allowed to return. Effective contact with that country had

to wait for some years. Meanwhile the Order of Christ, of which

Prince Henry was the head, received a papal grant of lands to be discovered, and funds were raised for the good work by trading in slaves captured on the coast. The Azores, 800 miles out in the open Atlantic, had been mediaeval Europe. The church, not yet roused to missionary vaguely known before, but were rediscovered and settled in 1432, effort, was keen in the encouragement of the Crusaders who were while successive expeditions stimulated by the Prince crept by recruited from every country of Europe to drive the Infidels from degrees along the Sahara coast to the fertile lands beyond; in 1462, the Holy City. In this way the culture and graceful luxury of the after his death, they reached Sierra Leone and a few years later ealiphs became known to the rough courts of the western kings, explored the whole Guinea coast. Then discovery became rapid. In and the attention of the merchants of the growing Italian city- 1481 the equator was crossed, in 1484 Diago Cam passed the states, Genoa and Venice in particular, was concentrated on the mouth of the Congo and in 1486 Bartholomew Diaz (g.v.) by a Far East as the source of all wealth. splendid effort fetched a wide sweep far out of sight of land and The domination of Central Asia from the Caspian to the Pacific reached Mossel Bay. In returning he saw the southern point of by thé Mongol emperors made very long overland journeys prac- Africa and named the Cape of Storms. This was the greatest tieable at the close of the middle ages and Venetian merchants landmark in the history of exploration. The King of Portugal had thus established contact with China before Marco Polo set seeing the wealth of the Indies within his grasp changed the name owt in x265 for Peking, the capital of Kubla Khan. The story of to Cape of Good Hope and Vasco da Gama (g.v.) realized thé his seventeen years’ sojourn in the Far East and of his journeyings hope in 1498 by sailing round the Cape to the Arab port of Mom-

by: land and ses in cenital Asia, China, the Malay Archipelago, and India was the greatest work of travel of the middle ages and for the first time it made the venerable civilization and the rich products of the Orient familiar to the people of Europe. Many ef his statements: were derided by contemporaries but his substantial veracity and remarkable powers of observation have been

vindicated by modern, travellers and students. Missionaries, whose

activity increased ab that of the crusaders diminished, pushed far

abeld inAsia and their records contain some grains of geographical

value amongst a vast quantity of superstitious ahd ignorant chaff, Que only need be mentioned here; Friar Oderic of Pordonone

who, early in the r4th cebtury, visited India, the Malay Archi-

pedago, China and Tibet where he was the first European to enter Lhesh, not yet a forbidden city. A Moslem contemporary Ibn Patuta was the greatest of the Arabian travellers who left accounts of their journeys. Between 1325 abd 1353 he explored Arabia and Persia end spent eight years inthe service of the Mogul rulet

wi-Beibi, going on to China and the Malay Archipelago. He also

basa whence with the aid of local pilots he reached India and fulfilled the dream of, ages. Camoens, who himself made the voyage 70 years later, celebrated the achievement in his great poem the Lusiad.

Toscanelli as early as 1474 had pointed out from Ptolemy’s maps that the east coast of Asia might be reached more easily by sailing due west than by going south and then east and north. Christopher Columbus (g.v.), a native of Genoa who had much experience of navigating the Atlantic and had sailed to Iceland, became possessed with the idea of making this voyage. He spent mahy years in the endéavour to find a patron, and in 1492 had

almost persuaded the King of England and the King of Spain to embark on the enterprise; the King of England hesitated the longer arid Columbus with Spanish ships made an easy passage

frony the Azores to the islatds which he named the West Indies:

Following 4 suggestion of the Pope à meridian line running down

the middle of the Atlantic was fixed by treaty between Spain atid Portugal, the fermer country agreeing to restrict exploration to '

PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY]

I41

GEOGRAPHY

the western hemisphere so marked out and the latter country to the eastern hemisphere. Columbus after other voyages to the West Indies died in 1506 in the belief that he had reached the islands off the coast of Asia. The merchants of Bristol had often sent out their ships some week’s sail to the westward into the Atlantic in search of legendary islands and in 1497 John Cabot, no doubt inspired by the success of Columbus, persevered until he found the coast of Labrador and Newfoundland, thus repeating

continent similar compilations such as those of the Italian Ramusio (1583—1613) and the splendidly illustrated Dutch volumes of De Bry (1590-1634) played a similar stimulating part. In England as elsewhere at first the object was to find a westward route to the Far East. Richard Chancellor tried for a North East Passage and though he got no farther than the White Sea he went on by land to Moscow and opened up direct trade with Russia,

was not then pursued, pegging out a claim to England’s oldest

Martin Frobisher (g.v.) made a spirited attempt to find a North West Passage to China and reached the coast of Labrador at its northern extremity. John Davis (g.v.) one of the greatest Arctic explorers who ever lived, took up the quest in 1585, and in successive years he navigated the broad strait which bears his name to 72° N. finding open sea to the northward and hope of an ultimate passage westward. Francis Drake, setting out to trace a route from the other side, made the second circumnavigation of the world in 1577-80. He went by Magellan’s Strait, after passing which he was blown southward to 56° S., and satisfied himself that the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans met south of Tierra del Fuego. Drake proceeded northward and explored the Pacific coast of North America to 48° in vain search of a passage to the east. Eventually he returned by the Philippines and the Cape of Good Hope. Cavendish repeated this voyage in 1586-88, adding to the confidence with which long voyages were undertaken and John Hawkins, though less fortunate, again showed the flag in the

the old Norse discovery of North America and, though the quest

leading to the formation of the Muscovy Company, the first of many chartered companies for exploration and trade. In 1576

colony. The companions of Columbus continued to cruise among

the West Indies and quickly traced out the shores of the Spanish

Main to the south, and the limits of the Caribbean Sea to west

and north, Jn 1513 Balboa caught the first glimpse of an inaccessible ocean to the west from “a peak in Darien” and recognized that Asia was still far off. In 1500 Vicente Pinzon (q.v.)

sent from Spain to explore the coast southward from the Orinoco, first sighted land near Pernambuco and following it northward round Cape San Roque discovered the mouth of the Amazon. His shipmate, Amerigo Vespucci (¢.v.), a clever man who took part in several voyages of discovery, described this voyage and

by a curious chance his Christian name in its latinized form was attached for ever to the continents of America. By making a westward sweep in a voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, Cabral lit on the coast of Brazil in the same year and this accounts for

the presence of the Portuguese-speaking Brazilians in the midst

of the Spanish-speaking republics of South America, The Spaniards realizing that America was a solid obstacle between Europe and Asia pushed forward to discover a passage by the south. In ists de Solis reached the River Plate which seemed to offer a

way through. Ferdinand Magellan (q.v.) five years later showed that it was only an estuary and, proceeding southward he found

and passed through the tortuous strait which bears his name, so

piercing the barrier of America. Persevering in face of every

difficulty which could befall an explorer he pushed on across the awful and incredible breadth of the Pacific. Although he met his death in the Philippine Islands in 1521, his ship the “Victoria” under Sebastian del Cano with a handful of survivors returned to Spain in 1522 by the Cape of Good Hope after the greatest

voyage that ever was, for it accomplished the first circumnavigation, Amongst his rewards Del Cano received the world as his crest with the proud motto Primus circumdedisti me. The

Spanish and Portuguese between them soon completed the rough outlines of Africa and the two Americas; but the sixteenth cen-

tury saw their maritime power challenged by the enterprise of France and the Protestant Powers of England and Holland whose

sailors disregarded alike Papal Bulls and the private agreements between Spain and Portugal. The northern peoples claimed their share in the new world and in the sea routes to the east. French fishermen following in the track of Cabot early began to frequent the Grand Banks of New-

foundland and the king of France in 1524 sent out Verazzano, a

Florentine, whe explored the coast of North America between the lands discovered by Cabot in the north and by the Spaniards in

the South. He found no way through, and ten years later a French expedition under Jacques Cartier set out to search the

Gulf of St. Lawrence for a way to the Far East. In a second

voyage in 1535 he ascended the St. Lawrence to the present site

of Montreal and, although only the name of Lachine Rapids re-

mains of this attempt to reach China that way, he spent two years in the effort to start the French colony of Canada.

Queen Elizabeth saw a wave of enthusiasm for discovery sweep

over England, rousing sailors, soldiers, merchants, parsons, phil-

osophers, poets and politigjans to vie with each other in promoting own expeditions overseas for the glory of their country and their

fame and profit. The gallants of the court were ever ready to

command the expeditions for which the shrewd city merchants found the means, while quiet scholars like Richard Hakluyt promoted the work by recording the great deeds of earlier as well as contemporary adventurers. His Principoll Navigations frst published in 1589 are tg this day delightful reading and, supplemented by Hakluytus Posthumus or Purchase kis Pilgrimes published in 1625, form the only record of many great expeditions.

On the

Pacific before the end of the century.

Walter Raleigh, Humphrey Gilbert and many more took part in exploring the North American Atlantic coast and in 1599 Queen Elizabeth granted a charter to the East India Company which

initiated direct trade with India and prepared the way for the

British Empire in the east. Spanish exploration from the Pacific ports of their American possessions was renewed, partly no doubt in order to anticipate English discoveries. In 1577 Alvarez de Mendana sailing from Callao crossed the Pacific and discovered the Solomon islands. Pedro Sarmiento in 1579 went south from Callao and surveyed the Strait of Magellan with a view to fortifying it and so holding for the Spaniards what they then supposed to be the only entry to the Pacific. The Dutch made many attempts to find a northern passage to China in the last decade of the sixteenth century. Willem Barents, after discovering Spitsbergen, was wrecked on the north coast of Novaya Zemlya and after wintering there made a heroic journey by boat along the coast, on which he died, but his crew returned safely in 1596. In the 17th century the search for a northern passage to the Far Rast still went on, The work of Davis was followed by that of Henry Hudson who in 1607 reached a latitude of 81° N. in the Spitzbergen region and in 1610 he discovered the inland sea now known as Hudson Bay. Baffin came later reaching 78° N. in 1616, and naming Smith Sound to the north of the great bay called after him at the end of Davis Strait. A charter for the Hudson’s Bay company was granted in 1670. THE SEARCH FOR THE SOUTH LAND

A belief in a southern continent surrounding the pole and

extending into temperate and tropical latitudes had found expression in the maps of European cartographers since the time of Magellan whose Tierra del Fuego was held to be part of it. Many explorers were drawn by the magnet of this illusion into the unknown parts of the great oceans. Pedro Fernandes de Quifios and Luiz Vares de Torres were sent out in 1605 by the Viceroy of Peru to take possession of the supposed Southern continent and on reaching the New Hebrides Quifios believed he had gained his goal and took possession with great ceremony of “Australia del Espiritu Santo,” the first appearance of the name Australia on the map. In returning Torres passed through the Strait which bears his name discovering the northern end of Australia and exploring part of the coast of New Guinea. The great period of Dutch voyages began with the formation of the Dutch East India Company in 1692 though Dutch merchant adventurers, sailing by the Cape of Good Hope, were active on the coast af Japan by 1600 and soon after. were successful rivals to

the Portuguese already established in India and the Malay Archi-

GEOGRAPHY

14.2

F

[PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY

pelago. The Company in 1614 determined to find a way into the | question of the Southern Continent and Cook set out again in the Pacific south of Magellan Strait and sent out Jacob Lemaire in “Resolution” and “Adventure” in 1772. The voyage lasted until the “Eendracht” and Willem Schouten in the “Hoorn.” These 1775: Cook penetrated far to the south of the Antarctic Circle at ships passed south of Tierra del Fuego proving that it was no several points proving beyond question that there was no habitable part of a southern continent, named Staten Land (not recognising land, save a few sterile islands south of the known continents, but it as an island), and navigating Strait Lemaire saw and named his most important discovery was that scurvy was preventible by Cape Horn on January 31, 1615. Lemaire and Schouten crossed proper diet and care. Immediately on his return a third great the Pacific, sailed along the north coast of New Guinea and voyage was planned to endeavour to find a passage by sea from reached the Moluccas. Other Dutch mariners working from the the North Pacific to the Atlantic; the old ghost of a North West north discovered the west coast of Australia, still supposed to Passage still walked. Cook sailed in 1776, visited Kerguelen Island be a projection of a vast southern continent, Dirk Hartog reach- in the South Indian Ocean which had been discovered three years ing 26° S. on that coast in 1616. Anthony Van Diemen, governor before and proceeded to survey the northern extremity of the of the Dutch East Indies, resolved in 1642 to explore the coast west coast of North America passing through Bering Strait until of the Southern Continent and sent out Abel Janszoon Tasman stopped by the ice in 70° N. Thus Cook had spanned the earth to carry out the task. The voyage was the greatest contribution through more than 140 degrees of latitude as well as through all to maritime exploration since Magellan. He sailed westward longitudes. On retiring to Hawaii for the winter Cook was killed across the Indian Ocean to Mauritius, then in a great sweep south- by the natives in 1779, but Edward Clarke his second in command ward and eastward he came on high land which he named after spent another season in the effort to penetrate the Arctic Sea from Van Diemen though it is now known as Tasmania. Sailing farther Bering Strait and returned to England in 1780. Cook’s voyage

| |

east he came ou the west coast of another lofty land which he round the Antarctic continent was supplemented by a great Rusaamed Staten Land, believing it to be part of the Southern Con- sian expedition under Bellingshausen in 1819-1821; and by a tinent continuous with Schouten’s Staten Land off South America. ‘group of hardy American and British sealers in the first third It was really New Zealand. He sailed on to the Fiji Islands and of the nineteenth century, chief among them Weddell who in returned along the north coast of New Britain and New Guinea 1823 reached 73° S. in the sea named after him, and Biscoe in to Batavia. In 1643 he went out again with three ships when he 1831-32 who made a complete circumnavigation discovering the explored in some detail the south coast of New Guinea and the most southerly land so far known. Port Jackson, the present Sydney, was founded as the first north and west coasts of Australia which he called New Holland. In 1699 William Dampier, a noted buccaneer in his early days, settlement in Australia in 1788 and the coasts were explored by made an important voyage on H.M.S. “Roebuck” along the west such daring boat-travellers as Flinders and Bass, the latter provand north of Australia and the north of New Guinea, rediscovering ing that Tasmania was an island in 1795. Cook was followed on and naming New Britain. His voyages were remarkable for his the west coast of North America in 1792-1794 by Vancouver who extraordinarily keen observations of natural phenomena: in some extended northward from Cape Mendocino the work of Spanish respects he was the pioneer of scientific exploration. The Dutch- explorers and made exact surveys along the coast. The French man Roggeveen in 1721 and the Frenchman Bouvet in 1738 set expedition of La Pérouse in two ships spent the years 1785 to out expressly to discover and annex the South Land and the latter 1788 in crossing and recrossing the widest part of the Pacific but took an ice-clad islet of the South Atlantic to be part of it. never returned and many efforts were made to discover its fate, By the middle of the eighteenth century the methods of naviga- the most extensive being that made by Entrecasteaux in 1791tien bad greatly Improved and the introduction of the quadrant 1793. gave new precision to determinations of latitude. The great bugThe 18th century saw the completion of the great task of outbear of long voyages was scurvy, supposed to be an inevitable lining the continental shores; even those of the Arctic Sea had result of life on board the small craft of those days and often been traced out by Russian travellers like Bering (by birth a fatal to the larger part of the crew. In the second half of the Dane), Dezhneff and Chelyuskin, whose name remains on the eighteenth century scientific geographers in Europe secured a most northerly cape of the old world. The Spaniards had made more systematic system of exploration in which adventure, though known the broad lines of the geography of South America, Central still encountered, was subordinated to research. Already in the America and the southern part of North America, the central and first year of the century the astronomer Halley had been sent in northern portions of which had been penetrated in all directions command of a British war-ship to the South Atlantic in order to by French and British pioneers. The interior of Australia restudy the variation of the compass. In 1764 John Byron was sent mained totally unknown as were the Arctic regions north of 80° on-a eircumnavigation for discovery and on his return a larger N. and the Antarctic south of the Polar Circle. In the Old World axpection was: Gespatched under Samuel Wallis and Philip Car- Asia had been traversed in all directions although large areas re teret) ‘and was absent from 1766 to 1769 discovering Tahiti and mained unvisited between the trade routes and the tracks of exmany other islands in the Pacific. A French expedition under plorers. China was mapped by Jesuit missionaries in the early Bougainville followed and for half a century there was keen years of the century, and the accurate mapping of India was in wivalry between France and Great Britain in the Pacific. Mean- full swing before its close. Africa was the least known of the conwhile- theRoyat Society had planned an expedition to observe the tinents and the French geographer D’Anville despairing of recontransit: ef Venus ef 1769 from some point in the Pacific and ap- ciling the conflicting accounts of the interior drawn from tradition proached the Admiralty to obtain a ship to be placed under the and the stories.of Arab traders, who had undoubtedly penetrated command of Alexander Dalrymple 2 civilian and a fervent be- far mto the interior, swept the map clear of all features which Hewex inthe existence ofa vast temperate southern continent. had not been seen by European travellers and left a blank of '; SBhevexpedition.was sanctioned in to mstruct Wallis to look “Unexplored Territory” within the coast line from Morocco and out for a suitable position in the Pacific; but the Admiralty by a Abyssinia on the north to Cape Colony and Natal on the south. stroke of unconscious genius gave the command to James Cook James Bruce explored the Blue Nile from its source in Abyssinia and thereby created a new era în exploration and raised the fame to its junction with the White Nile and before his death a strong of British maritime enterprise to a unique place in the esteem of effort was made in England by the feunding of the African As

he world. Cook was accompanied by the great naturalist Joseph

sociatton which enabled. John Ledyard to make a great journey

TBS. The expedition, which was absent frm 1767 to 1770, did

much of the course of the Niger. Scientific geography was power

Jidd groups in thePacific, sailed round New Zealand proving

earth by the measurement of arcs of the meridian near Quito où.

Benks, D. C. Solander (a'student of Linnaeus) and two astrono-

“wi that wes required of it and much more. It discovered many

acress the: Sudan from east to west and Mungo Park to trace fully advanced by the determination of the size and figure of the:

‘tebene part ofthe Southern Continent and surveyed much of the equator by a Frerich commission under C. M. de la Condaminé in! '3735-43'and another m the far north under P. L. M.-d a evaneninle.:* A, second voyage Wt enst gast of Australia so accurately that thechartsarestil

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AMERICA GIRL SCOUTS LEARNING TO COOK OVER A FIRE BUILT IN THE OPEN

N.Y.,

where

the older

girl scouts from throughout the

entire country come to learn the best camping methods. A leaders’ training camp, where courses are given in leadership, treop management and psychology of the adolescent girl, is also established at Briarcliff Manor. The Girl Scouts were founded in America by Mrs. Juliette Low of Savannah, Ga. She had lived for many years in England, where she was a friend of Sir Robert Baden-Powell and of his sister, Miss Agnes Baden-Powell, who originally helped him to adapt the scout idea to the needs of English girls. The first American troop was organized in Savannah in rgr2. (See GIRL GUIDES.)

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GIRLS’ FRIENDLY SOCIETY, THE, a girls’ club of a

religious nature, providing for mental and industrial training and promise which every girl scout takes is, “On my honor, I will try recreation as well. The society started in England in 1875 with a to do my duty to God and my country, to help other people at all small group of girls and spread rapidly. The movement spread THE KITCHEN SECTION

OF A GIRL SCOUT’S CAMP NEAR MEALTIME

times, to obey the Scout laws.”

The first of the ten simple laws

is “A girl scout’s honor is to be trusted.” The girl scouts learn by making their own plans and working them out. To-day the troop is off for a hike, next week they are taking a course in baby care;

to the United States in 1886, when a central council was formed at Grace church, New York city, with representatives from the various States. The organization of the society follows as much

as possible that of the Protestant Episcopal Church, being diocesan and parochial, Any girl 12 years of age or over, of good wnitten and costumed themselves, under leadership as indirect as character, may become a member, regardless of religious faith;

they adopt a needy family; they give a play which they have

Possible, of an older girl or woman.

By such means they learn

responsibility and initiative and the actual application of their

younger girls may join as candidates or probationers, working under the supervision of the older girls. The work of the society

379

GIRNAR—GIRTIN

is preventive rather than reformatory, offering wholesome recreations in the form of outdoor sports and providing for outings in summer at reasonable rates. Classes in cooking, sewing, dancing and singing are formed, under the proper instruction. Besides these interests, the girls enter into church and missionary work. The Girls’ Friendly Society may be found to-day in every English-speaking country.

bank of the Garonne from near Bordeaux to Barsac. The Say ternes country lies south-east of the Graves. The Côtes lie on the right bank of Dordogne and Gironde between Dordogne and Garonne, and on the left bank of the Garonne. The produce of

Kathiawar, tom. E. of Junagarh. Five peaks rise about 3,500 ft. above the sea; on them are numerous Jain temples, frequented by pilgrims. At the foot of the hill is a rock, with an inscription of Asoka (2nd century B.c.), and also two other inscriptions (dated A.D. r50 and 455). GIRODET DE ROUSSY, ANNE LOUIS (1767-1824), French painter, better known as Girodet-Trioson, was born at Montargis on Jan. 29, 1767. He lost his parents in early youth, and the care of his education fell to his guardian, M. Trioson. Girodet entered the school of David, and at the age of 22 he successfully competed for the Prix de Rome. At Rome he executed his “Hippocrate refusant les présents d’Artaxerxés” and “Endymion dormant” (Louvre), exhibited at the Salon of 1792. The firm-set forms, the grey cold colour, the hardness of the execution proper to one trained in the school of David, harmonize ill with the literary, sentimental and picturesque suggestions which the painter has sought to render. The same incongruity marks Girodet’s “Danaë” and his “Quatre Saisons,” executed for the king of Spain (repeated for Compiègne), and shows itself to a ludicrous extent in his “Fingal” (Leningrad, Leuchtenberg collection), executed for Napoleon I. in 1802. In 1806 he exhibited “Scène de Déluge” (Louvre), to which (in competition with the “Sabines” of David) was awarded the decennial prize. This success was followed up in 1808 by the production of the “Reddition de Vienne” and “Atala au Tombeau.” He executed a quantity of illustrations, amongst which may be cited those to the Didot, Virgil (1798) and to the Louvre, Racine (1801-05). His designs for Anacreon were engraved by M. Chatillon. He died on Dec. 9,

the Bordelais breed of milch cows are well known.

the Palus, the alluvial land of the valleys, and of the Entre-dew. Mers, on the left bank of the Dordogne, is inferior. Fruits and vegetables are largely grown, peaches and pears being especially

GIRNAR, a sacred hill in western India, in the peninsula of fine. The Médoc breed of horses, the Bazadais breed of oxen and ing is on a large scale in the Bay of Arcachon.

Oyster-breed.

Resin, pitch and

turpentine are obtained from the pine woods, which also supply

vine-props,

and

there are

well-known

quarries

of limestone

Manufactures and trade are chiefly carried on at Bordeaux (q.1), the chief town, and the third port of France. Pauillac, Blaye,

Libourne and Arcachon are minor ports. Gironde is divided into the arrondissements of Bordeaux, Biaye, Langon and Libourne, and has 50 cantons and 554 communes. The department is served chiefly by the Orléans and South. ern companies. It forms part of the circumscription of the archbishopric, the appeal-court and the académie (educational di,

vision) of Bordeaux, and of the region of the XVIII. army corps (Bordeaux). Besides Bordeaux, Libourne, La Réole, Bazas, Blaye, Arcachon, St. Emilion and St. Macaire are the most noteworthy towns. Among other places of interest the chief are Cadillac, on

the right bank of the Garonne, where there is a 16th century castle, surrounded by fortifications of the 14th century; Labréde.

with a feudal chateau in which Montesquieu was born and lived: Villandraut, where there is a ruined castle of the 11th century; Uzeste, which has a church begun in 1310 by Pope Clement V.: Mazères with an imposing 14th century castle; La Sauve, which has a church (13th cent.) and other remains of a Benedictine abbey; and Ste. Foy-la-Grande, a bastide created in 1255 and afterwards a centre of Protestantism, which is still strong there. La

Teste, pop. (1926) 5,331, was the capital, in the middle ages, of the famous lords of Buch.

GIRONDISTS,

the name given to a political party in the

Legislative Assembly and National Convention during the French Revolution (1791-93) (Fr. Girondins). The name was first given them because the most brilliant exponents of their point of view— Vergniaud, Gensonné, Guadet—were deputies from the Gironde. Louis David et son temps, has also a brief life of Girodet. (1855). In the Legislative Assembly these represented a compact body of GIRONDE, a maritime department of south-western France, opinion which, though not as yet definitely republican, was conformed from parts of the old province of Guyenne, viz., Bordelais, siderably more advanced than the moderate royalism of the Bazadais, and parts of Périgord and Agenais. Area, 4,140 sq.m. majority of the Parisian deputies. Associated with these views Pop. (1926) 827,973. Itis bounded north by the department of was a group of deputies from other parts of France, of whom Charente-Inférieure, east by those of Dordogne and Lot-et-Gar- the most notable were Condorcet, Jacques Pierre Brissot, Roland onne, south by that of Landes, and west by the Bay of Biscay. and Pétion. On the policy of the Girondists Madame Roland, The department lies on the east and the west sides of the Gironde whose salon became their gathering-place, exercised a powerful estuary formed by union of Garonne and Dordogne. On the influence (see RoLanp); but such party cohesion as they poswest, the Landes consist chiefly of morass or sandy plain, divided sessed they owed to the energy of Brissot (g.v.) who came to be from the sea by dunes planted with pines which bind the sand to- regarded as their mouthpiece. Hence the name Brissotins, coined gether and prevent it from drifting inland. On the east the dunes by Camille Desmoulins. As strictly party designations these first are fringed for some distance by large lakes, Hourtin, Carcans came into use after the assembling of the National Convention

1824. Girodet’s poem Le Peintre and essays on Le Génie and La Grâce, were published after his death (1829), with a biographical notice by his friend M. Coupin de la Couperie; and M. Delécluze, in his

and Lacanau, communicating with each other. The Bay of Arcachon forms a vast shallow lagoon, a large part of which has been converted into arable land. The estuary of the Gironde, about 45 m. in length, widens northwards from 2 to 6 miles. Islands and mud banks divide it into east and west channels and make navigation difficult. It is, however, well buoyed and lighted, and has a mean depth of 21 feet. There are wide marshes on the right bank north of Blaye, and on the left low-lying polders protected by dikes and composed of fertile salt marshes. At the mouth of the Gironde stands one of the finest French lighthouses, the tower of Cordouan built 1585-1611, and extended in the late 18th century.

The climate is humid and mild and very hot in summer, Wheat, rye, maize, oats and tobacco are largely grown, but the culture of the vine is by far the most important industry carried on (see Wine), the six vine-growing districts occuping about one-seventh of the surface of the department. The Médoc is a region so m.

long by about 6 m. broad, along the left banks of the Garonne and Gironde. The Graves country is a zone 30 m. long, along the left

(Sept. 20, 1792), to which a large proportion of the deputies from the Gironde who had sat in the Legislative Assembly were

returned. For the struggle of the Girondists with the Montagnards and their ultimate downfall, see France: History. BIBLIOGRAPHY .—Of the special works on the Girondists, Lamartine’s Histoire des Girondins (1847, new ed. 1902) is rhetoric rather than

history, and is untrustworthy; the Histoire des Girondins, by A. Gramier de Cassignac (1860) led to the publication of a Protestahes

by J. Guadet, a nephew of the Girondist orator, which was followed by his Les Girondins, leur vie privée, leur vie publique, leur proscription et leur mort

(1861, new ed. 1890); with which

cf. Alary, Las

Girondins par Guadet (Bordeaux, 1863) ; also Charles Vatel, Charlotlt

de Corday et les Girondins: pièces classées et annotées (1864-72);

Recherches historiques sur les Girondins (1873); Ducos, Les Trou Girondines (Madame Roland, Charlotte Corday, Madame Bouquey)

et les Girondins

(1896); Edmond

(1881, new ed. 1806).

Se oland.

Biré, La Légende des Girondin

Memoirs or fragments of memoirs by partit-

eee also exist; ¢.g., Barbaroux, Pétion, Louvet,

(1775-1802), English painter and GIRTIN, THOMAS etcher, born on Feb. 18, 1775. He was apprenticed to Dayes, the mezzotint engraver, and soon made J. M. W. Turnets

GIRVAN—GIUDICI

oT

acquaintance. His architectural and topographical sketches and | which is specially valuable for the latter part of the 12th century, drawings soon established his reputation, his use of water-colour

|and for the life and times of Baldwin V.

for landscapes being such as to give him the credit of having : _ The chronicle is published in Band xxi. of the Monumenta Germaniae

created modern water-colour painting, as opposed to mere “tint- | histerica (Hanover, 1826); and separately with introduction by W.

ing.” His etchings also were characteristic of his artistic genius. |Arndt (Hanover, 1869), and by L. Vanderkindere in the Recueil de

| Lextes pour servir a Vétude de histoire de Belgique (1904). His early death from consumption on Nov. 9, 1802 led indeed ' See W. Meyer, Das Werk des Kanslers Gislebert von Mons als verto Turner saying that “had Tom Girtin lived I should have 1 Jassungsgeschichtliche Quelle (Königsberg, 1888); K. Huygens, Sur da starved.” From 1794 to his death he was an exhibitor at the | valeur historique de la chronique Gislebert de Mons (Ghent, 1889); Royal Academy; and some fine examples of his work have been and W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen, Band ii. (1894).

bequeathed by private owners to the British Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum.

See L. Binyon, Thomas Girtin—His Life and Works (1900).

GISORS, a town of France, in the department of Eure, in the i pleasant valley of the Epte, 44 m. N.W. of Paris on the railway to

|Dieppe. Pop. (1926) 4,953. In the middle ages Gisors was capital

GIRVAN, police burgh, parish and fishing town, Ayrshire, |of the Vexin. Its position on the frontier of Normandy caused its Scotland, at the mouth of the Girvan, 21 m. S.W. of Ayr, and | possession to be hotly contested by the kings of England and

63 m. S.W. of Glasgow by the L.M.S.R. Pop. (1931) 5,292. The | France during the 12th century, when with the fortresses of Neauprincipal industry was formerly weaving, but is now fishing, cod | fles and Dangu it was ceded by Richard Coeur de Lion to Philip and oysters forming the most important catches; there is export | Augustus. During the wars of religion of the 16th century it was

of grain and coal. The harbour has been enlarged and protected į occupied by the duke of Mayenne on behalf of the League, and by piers and a breakwater. Moreover, the town is in repute for | in the 17th century, during the Fronde, by the duke of Longueville.

sea-bathing and golf, its situation being very fine. The vale of Gisors was made a duchy in 1742 and afterwards came into the Girvan is one of the most fertile tracts in the shire. Girvan is possession of the count of Eu and the duke of Penthiévre. the point of communication with Ailsa Craig. Gisors is dominated by an rrth and r2th cent. stronghold of GIRY (Jean Marre JoserH), ARTHUR (1848-1899), the kings of England. The central tower, the choir and parts of French historian, was born at Trévoux (Ain). He studied at the the aisles of the church of St. Gervais dates from the middle of Ecole des Chartes under J. Quicherat, and at the newly estab- the 13th century, and the rest from the Renaissance. Gothic and lished Ecole des Hautes Etudes, where he became assistant lec- Renaissance styles mingle in the west facade, adorned with a proturer and afterwards full lecturer. His first important work was fusion of sculptures; the fine carving on the wooden doors of the Histoire de la ville de Saint-Omer et de ses institutions jusqu’au north and west portals is particularly noticeable. Among the inXIV® siécle (1877). His lectures led to a great revival of interest dustries of Gisors are felt manufacture, bleaching, dyeing and in the origins and significance of the urban communities in France. leather-dressing. Giry himself published Les Etablissements de Rouen (1883-85), GISSING, GEORGE ROBERT (1857-1903), English a study, based on very minute researches, of the charter granted novelist, was born at Wakefield on Nov. 22, 1857. He was eduto the capital of Normandy by Henry II., king of England, and cated at the Quaker boarding-school of Alderley Edge and at of similar charters throughout the French dominions of the Owens College, Manchester. His life, especially its earlier period, Plantagenets; a collection of Documents sur les relations de la was spent in great poverty, mainly in London, though he was for royauté avec les villes de France de r180 à 1314 (1885); and a time also in the United States, supporting himself chiefly by private teaching. He published his first novel, Workers in the Etude sur les origines de la commune de Saint-Quentin (1887). As assistant (1883) and successor (1885) to Louis de Mas Dawn, in 1880. The Unclassed (1884) and Isabel Clarendon (1886) Latrie, Giry restored the study of diplomatic, which had been followed. Demos (1886), a novel dealing with socialistic ideas, founded in France by Dom Jean Mabillon, to its legitimate im- was, however, the first to attract attention. Gissing’s own experiportance. In 1894 he published his Manuel de diplomatique, ences had preoccupied him with poverty and its brutalizing effects which contained the fruits of his long experience of archives, on character. He made no attempt at popular writing, and for a original documents and textual criticism. With the collaboration long time the sincerity of his work was appreciated only by the of his pupils he undertook the preparation of an inventory and, few. But his unflinching realism, and the minute care of his subsequently, of a critical edition of the Carolingian diplomas descriptions of the sordid milieu of shabby London streets left for the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Simultaneously with their mark on the English novel. Among his more characteristic this work he carried on the publication of the annals of the novels are: Thyrza (1887), A Life’s Morning (1888), The Nether Carolingian epoch on the model of the German Jahrbücher, re- World (1889), New Grub Street (1891), Born in Exile (1892), serving for himself the reign of Charles the Bald. The preliminary The Odd Women (1893), in the Year of Jubilee (1894), The work on the Carolingian diplomas involved such lengthy and Whirlpool (1897). Others, e.g., The Town Traveller (1901), indicostly researches that the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles- cate a humorous faculty, but his novels are mainly concerned with the life of the poorer middle classes, with lonely men and women Lettres took over the expenses after Giry’s death. _ For details of Giry’s life and works see the funeral orations pub- engaged in a generally hopeless struggle with fate and with the lished in the Bibliothèque de l'Ecole des Chartes, and afterwards in a conflict between education and circumstances. The quasi-autobiopamphlet (1899). See also the biography by Ferdinand Lot in the graphical Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft (1903) reflects GisAnnuaire de l'Ecole des Hautes Etudes for 1901; and the bibliography of his works by Henry Maistre in the Correspondance historique et sing’s studious and retiring tastes. He was a good classical scholar and had a minute acquaintance with the late Latin historians, and archéologique (1899 and 1900). GISBORNE, a seaport of New Zealand, in Cook county, with Italian antiquities; his posthumous Veranilda (1904), a hisprovincial district of Hawke’s bay, on Poverty bay of the east torical romance of Italy in the time of Theodoric the Goth, was coast of North island. Pop. (1926) 14,834. Wool, frozen mutton the outcome of his favourite studies. He died at St. Jean de Luz and agricultural produce are exported from the surrounding dis- in the Pyrenees on Dec. 28, 1903. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—F. Swinnerton, George Gissing (1912); Morley trict. Petroleum has been discovered in the neighbourhood. Near Roberts, The Private Life of Henry Maitland (1912); M. Yates, the site of Gisborne Captain Cook landed in 1769, and gave George Gissing (1922) ; M. L. Cazamian, Roman et idées en Angleterre Poverty bay its name from his inability to obtain supplies owing (1923); Letters of George Gissing to Members of his Family, collected to the hostility of the natives. & arr. by A. & E. Gissing (1927); see also introductory essay by T. cme ree a Ae

GISLEBERT or GILBERT

OF MONS

(c. 1150-1225),

Flemish chronicler, was provost of the churches of St. Germanus

at Mons and St. Alban at Namur. In official documents he is described as chaplain, chancellor or notary, of Baldwin V., count of Hainaut (d, 1195), who employed him on important business.

fter 3200 Gislebert wrote the Chronicon Hanoniense, a history

of Hainaut and the neighbouring lands from about 1050 to 1195,

Seccombe to The House of Gissing’s short stories.

of Cobwebs (1906), a posthumous volume

GITSCHIN: see Jrcr. GIUDICI, PAOLO EMILIANO

(1812-1872),

Italian

writer, was born at Mussomeli, Sicily, on June 13, 1812. For a short time in 1848 he was professor of Italian literature at Pisa, but was deprived on account of his liberal views. Later he became

GIULIANI— GIURGIU

a7 professor of aesthetics

(resigning

1862) and secretary of the

Academy of Fine Arts at Florence, and in 1867 was elected to the chamber of deputies. His works include Storia della littera-

tura italiana (1844), Storia del teatro (1860), and Storia dei comuni italiani (1861). He died at Tonbridge, England, on Sept. 8, 1872.

GIULIANI,

GIAMBATTISTA

(1818-1884),

an Italian

Dante scholar, was born at Canelli, near Asti, on June 4, 1818. He was originally a professor of mathematics, but from 1843 onwards devoted himself exclusively to the study of Dante. In 1860 he became professor of literature at Florence, where he gave a famous series of lectures on Dante. He completed a critical text of the Convito (2 vols., 1875), and of the Latin works (2 vols., 1878-82) of Dante, but his great commentary was left incomplete. He died at Florence on Jan. rr, 1884. GIULIO ROMANO or GIULIO PIPPI (1499-1546), the head of the Roman school of painting in succession to Raphael. This prolific painter, modeller, architect and engineer receives his common appellation from the place of his birth—Rome. His name in full was Giulio di Pietro di Filippo de’ Giannuzzi. Giulio was quite youthful when he first became the pupil of Raphael, who loved him as a son, and employed him in some leading works, especially in the Loggie of the Vatican, in the saloon of the “Incendio del Borgo” and probably also in the Villa Farnesina. It would appear that in subjects of this kind Raphael simply furnished the design, and committed the execution of it to some assistant, such as Giulio—taking heed, however, to bring it up, by final retouching, to his own standard of style and type. Amid the multitude of Raphael’s pupils, Giulio showed universal aptitude; he did, among other things, a large amount of architectural planning for his chief. Raphael died when Giulio was 21 years old and bequeathed to him, and to his fellow-pupil Gianfrancesco Penni, his implements and works of art; and upon them it devolved to bring to completion the vast fresco-work of the “Hall of Constantine” in the Vatican—consisting, along with much minor matter, of the four large subjects, the “Battle of Constantine,” the ‘Apparition of the Cross,” the “Baptism of Constantine” and the “Donation of Rome to the Pope.” The whole of this onerous undertaking was completed within a period of only three years. By this time Giulio was regarded as one of the first artists in Rome. Among his architectural works is the Villa Madama, with a fresco of Polyphemus, and boys and satyrs; the Tonic fagade of this building may have been sketched out by Raphael; and the Villa Lante, where he painted frescoes which are now in the Palazzo Buccari. Towards the end of 1524 his friend the celebrated writer Baldassar Castiglione seconded with success the urgent request of the duke of Mantua, Federigo Gonzaga, that Giulio should migrate to that city, and enter the duke’s service for the purpose of carrying out his projects in architecture and pictorial decoration. The duke treated his painter munificently. In Giulio’s multifarious work in Mantua three principal undertakings should be noted. (1) In the Castello he painted the “History of Troy,” along with other subjects. (2) In the suburban ducal residence named the Palazzo del Te he rapidly carried out a rebuilding on a vastly enlarged scale in the Doric order—the materials being brick and terra-cotta, as there is no local stone—and decorated the rooms with his most celebrated works in oil and fresco painting—the story of Psyche, Icarus, the fall of the Titans, and the

portraits of the ducal horses and hounds.

The foreground figures

of Titans are from 12 to 14ft. high; the room, even in its structural details, 1s made to subserve the general artistic purpose. The whole of the work on the Palazzo del Te occupied about five

years.

(3) Giulio recast and almost rebuilt Mantua cathedral;

erected his own mansion, reconstructed the street architecture to a considerable extent, and made the city, sapped as it is by the shallows of the Mincio, comparatively healthy: and at Marmirolo, some 5m. distant from Mantua, he worked out other important buildings and paintings. He was in fact, for nearly a quarter of a century, a sort of Demiurgus of the arts of design in the Mantuan territory. Giulio’s activity was interrupted but not terminated by the death of Duke Federigo. The duke’s brother, a cardinal who

became regent, retained him in full employment.

He was after-

wards invited to succeed Antonio Sangallo as architect of $t Peter’s in Rome—a splendid appointment, which he had almos

resolved to accept, when a fever overtook him and caused his death on Nov. 1, 1546. He was buried in the church of Barnaba in Mantua.

Wide and solid knowledge of design, combined with a prompti-

tude of composition that was never at fault, formed the chief

motive power and merit of Giulio Romano’s art. It would be

difficult to name any other artist who, working as an architect, and as the plastic and pictorial embellisher of his architecture, pro. duced a total of work so fully and homogeneously his own; hence he has been named “the prince of decorators.” He had great knowledge of the human frame, and represented it with force and

truth; he was also learned in other matters, especially in medals, and in the plans of ancient buildings. As a general rule, his draw. ings are finer and freer than his paintings; his colouring is marked by an excess of blackish and heavy tints. Giulio Romano established at Mantua a school of art. Very many engravings were made contemporaneously from his works, not only in Italy, but in France and Flanders as well. Like Raphael he entrusted princi. pally to assistants the pictorial execution of his cartoons. Primaticcio was one of the leading coadjutors. Among the oil pictures of Giulio Romano are the “Martyrdom of Stephen,” in the church of that saint in Genoa, a “Holy Family” in the Dresden Gallery and a “St. Margaret” in the Vienna gallery. Vasari gives a pleasing impression of the character of Giulio. He was very loving to his friends, genial, affable, liking fine apparel and a handsome scale of living. His portrait, painted by

himself, is in the Uffizi, Florence. Besides Vasari,

works

may

Lanzi and

be consulted:

other historians

of art, the following

C. D. Arco, Vita di G. Pippi (1843);

G. C. von Murr, Notice sur les estampes gravées après dessins de Jules

Romain (1865); J. P. Richter, La collezione Heviz e gli affreschi di Giulio Romano al palazzo Zuciart (1928).

GIUNTA PISANO, Italian painter of the 13th century, a native of Pisa. He died between 1255 and 1267. It is said that he painted in the upper church of Assisi, notably a “Crucifixion” dated 1236, with a figure of Father Elias, the general of the Franciscans, embracing the cross. This painting no longer exists. Three large Crucifixions are ascribed to the same master, whose signature can be traced on them. One is in S.S. Raineri e Leonardo in Pisa and was formerly in the convent of St. Anna; the other, which has been moved from the Ospedale of S. Chiara to the Museo Civico at Pisa, is completely overpainted; the third is in S. Maria degli Angeli at Assisi. In these paintings Christ is represented with his head leaning on one side with an expression of pain, and his body bending forward in agony—a conception differing from “the triumphant Christ” of the preceding age. Some recent art critics see in Giunta Pisano a pioneer who, coming from Tuscany to Assisi, influenced the development of Umbrian art.

GIURGIU,

the capital of the department of Vlashca, Ru-

mania; situated amid mud-flats and marshes on the left bank of the Danube. Pop. (1928) 25,000. Three small islands face the town, and a larger one shelters its port, Smarda, 24 m. east. A railway runs north to Bucharest and north-west to Blejesci and steamers ply to Ruschuk, 24 m. south-west on the Bulgarian shore, whence railways run to Varna, Sofia and South Bulgaria. Thus Giurgiu, besides having a considerable trade with the home ports

lower down the Danube, is the headquarters of commerce between Bulgaria and Rumania. It exports timber, grain, salt and petro leum; importing coal, iron and textiles. There are also large saw mills, and pipe-lines for oil run to Baicoi-Bucharest.

Giurgiu occupies the site of Theodorapolis, a city built by the Roman emperor Justinian (A.D. 483-565). It was founded in the

14th century by Genoese merchants who called the town, after

the patron saint of Genoa, San Giorgio (St. George). As a fort

fied town, Giurgiu figured often in the wars for the conquest of the lower Danube; especi lly in the struggle of Michael the Bravé (1593-1601)

against the Turks, and in the later Russo-Tur

Wars. It was burned in 1659. In 1829, its fortifications wer finally razed, the only defence left being a castle on the! of Slobosia, united to the shore by a bridge.

GIUSTI—GIVORS GIUSTI, GIUSEPPE

(1809-1850), Tuscan satirical poet,

was born at Monsummano, a small village of the Valdinievole, on May 12, 1809. In 1826 he went to study law at Pisa; he spent

eight years in the course, instead of the customary four. He lived gaily, and learned to know the world, its vices and follies. The experience thus gained he turned to account in his satires. With the poem called La Ghigliottina a vapore (1833) Giusti

revealed his genius. From this time he showed himself the Italian

Béranger. In 1834 Giusti began nominally to practice as an advocate in Florence. To this period belong the Dies Irae (1835) on the death of the emperor Francis I. and many of his finest verses which for some years passed from hand to hand. His poems were published clandestinely at Lugano, at some risk, as

the work was destined to undermine the Austrian rule in Italy. Giusti thoroughly established his fame by his Gingillino, exposing the vileness of the treasury officials, and the base means

they used to conceal the necessities of the state. The Gingillino

has all the characteristics of a classic satire. His Delenda Carthago (1846), Alli spettri del 4 Settembre (1847), La Republica (1848), furthered the revolution. Giusti entered heart and soul into the political movements of 1847 and 1848, served in the national guard, sat in the parliament for Tuscany; but finding that there

was more talk than action, that to the tyranny of princes had succeeded the tyranny of demagogues, he expressed his opinions freely and in 1848 was regarded as a reactionary. His friendship for the marquis Gino Capponi, who had taken him into his house during the last years of his life, was enough to compromise him in

the eyes of Guerrazzi, Montanelli and Niccolini. On May 31, 1850 he died at Florence in the palace of his friend, the marquis Gino Capponi. The best of the many editions of Giusti’s poems are those of Carducci (1859; 3rd ed., 1879), G. Fioretti-Donati (1913 and 1926), and F, Martini (1914). For translations see W. D. Howells, Modern

Italian Poets (1887). See his letters, Epistolario, ed. G. Frassi (1859), and F. Martini (3 vols., Florence, 1904) ; and Memoire inédite 1845—40, ed. F. Martini (3 vols., Milan, 1890, 1904).

GIUSTINIANI,

the name

of a prominent Italian family

which originally belonged to Venice, but established itself subsequently in Genoa also, and at various times had representatives in Naples, Corsica and several of the islands of the Archipelago. In the Venetian line the following are most worthy of mention :— I. Lorenzo (1380-1456), the Laurentius Justinianus of the

Roman calendar, entered the congregation of the canons of St. George in Alga, and in 1433 became general of that order. About the same time he was made by Eugenius IV. bishop of Venice; and on the removal of the patriarchate from Grado to Venice by Nicholas V. in 1451, he was promoted to that dignity, which he held for fourteen years. He died on Jan. 8, 1456, and was canonized by Alexander VIII., his festival being kept on Sept. 5. The best edition of his works is that of the Benedictine, P. N. A. Giustiniani (Venice, 2 vols., 1751). 2. LEONARDO (1388-1446), brother of the preceding, was for years a senator of Venice, and in 1443 was chosen procurator of St. Mark. He translated into Italian Plutarch’s Lives of Cinna and Lucullus, and was the author of some poetical pieces, amatory and religious—strambotti and canzonetti—as well as of rhetorical prose compositions. The popular songs set to music by him be-

came known as Giustiniani. (See Poésie inédite di Leonardo Giustiniani, ed. Wiese [Bologna, 1883].) 3. BERNARDO (1408-1489), son of Leonardo, entered the Venetian senate, and served on diplomatic missions to France and Rome, and about 1485 became one of the Council of Ten. He wrote a history of Venice, De origine urbis Venetarum rebusque ab ipsa gestis historia (1492; Ital. trans. 1545). It is to be found m vol. i. of the Thesaurus of Graevius. 4. Prerro, also a senator, lived in the 16th century, and wrote a Historia rerum Venetarum in continuation of Bernardo. He also Wrote chronicles De gestis Petri Mocenigi and De bello Venetorum

cum Carolo VIII. (Script, rer. Ital. vol. xxi.). Of the Genoese branch of the family the most prominent members were the following :— 5. AGOSTINO (1470-1536) was born at Genoa, and after joining

the Dominicans in 1487, studied Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee and

373

Arabic, and in 1514 began the preparation of a polyglot edition of the Bible. As bishop of Nebbio, Corsica, he took part in the earlier sittings of the Lateran council (1516-17), but, in consequence of party complications, withdrew to his diocese, and ultimately to France, where he became a pensioner of Francis I., and was the first to occupy a chair of Hebrew and Arabic in the University of Paris. He became acquainted with Erasmus and More and returned to Nebbio, about 1522. He bequeathed his fine library to the republic of Genoa. Of his projected polyglot only the Psalter was published (Psalterium Hebraeum, Graecum,

Arabicum, et Chaldaicum, Genoa, 1616). Besides the Hebrew text, the LAX. translation, the Chaldee paraphrase and an Arabic version, it contains the Vulgate translation, a new Latin translation by the editor, a Latin translation of the Chaldee and a collection of scholia. Guistiniani printed 2,000 copies at his own expense, including 50 in vellum for presentation to the sovereigns of Europe and Asia. Besides an edition of Job, containing the original text, the Vulgate and a new translation, he published a Latin version of the Moreh Nevochim of Maimonides (Director dubitantium aut perplexorum, 1520), and also edited in Latin the Aureus libellus of Aeneas Platonicus, and the Timaeus of Chalcidius. His annals of Genoa (Castigatissimi annali di Genova) were published posthumously in 1537. 6. Pompero (1569-1616), a native of Corsica, who served under Alessandro Farnese and the marquis of Spinola in the Low Countries, where he lost an arm, and was known by the sobriquet Bras de Fer. He defended Crete against the Turks, and subsequently was killed at Friuli. He left in Italian a personal narrative of the war in Flanders, repeatedly published in Latin (Bellum Belgicum, Antwerp, 1609). 7. GIOVANNI (1513-1556), born in Candia, was the translator of Terence’s Andria and Eunuchus, of Cicero’s In Verrem, and of Virgil’s Aeneid, viii. 8. ORSATTO (1538-1603), Venetian senator, translator of the Oedipus Tyrannus of Sophocles and author of a collection of Rime, in imitation of Petrarch, was one of the latest representatives of the classic Italian school. Q. GERONIMO, a Genoese (16th century), translated the Alcestis of Euripides and three of the plays of Sophocles, and wrote two original tragedies, Jephte and Christo in Passione. 10, VINCENZO, who in the beginning of the 17th century built the Roman palace, made the art collection associated with his name. The collection was removed in 1807 to Paris, and in 1815 all that remained of it, about 170 pictures, was purchased by the king of Prussia and removed to the Berlin royal museum.

GIVET, town of northern France, in the department of Ar-

dennes, 40m. N. by E. of Méziéres on the Eastern railway between the town and Namur. Pop. (1926) 5,553; commune, 6,803. Givet lies on the Meuse near the Belgian frontier, and was formerly an important fortress. It is divided into three portions—the citadel called Charlemont and Grand Givet on the left bank of the river, and on the opposite bank Petit Givet. The fortress, the only survival of the fortifications, at the top of a precipitous rock 705 ft. high, was founded by the emperor Charles V. in the 16th century, and further fortified by Vauban at the end of the 17th century; it is the only survival of the fortifications of the town, the rest of which were destroyed in 1892. In Grand Givet there are a church and a town-hall built by Vauban, and a statue of the

composer, Etienne Méhul, stands in the fine square named after him. Petit Givet, the industrial quarter, is traversed by tanneries and glue factories. Pencils and tobacco-pipes are also manufactured. The town has considerable river traffic, consisting chiefly of coal, copper and stone. There is a chamber of arts and manufactures.

GIVORS, manufacturing town, south-eastern France, department of Rhône, on the railway between Lyons and St. Etienne, 14m. S. of Lyons. Pop. (1926) 14,213. It stands on the bank of the Rhine, here crossed by a suspension bridge, at its confluence with the Gier and the canal of Givors. The chief industries are metal-working, engineering-construction, glass-working, brickmaking, rope-making, and the manufacture of glue and earthenware. There are coal mines near. On the hill above the town are

GJALLAR—GLACIAL

374

the ruins of the chateau of St. Gerald and of the convent of St. Ferréol, remains of the old town destroyed in 1594.

GJALLAR, in Scandinavian mythology, the horn which, when a stranger approached, had to be blown by Heimdal.

stances conspired to delay its acceptance in Britain, the chief perhaps, being that British geologists were less familiar with the action of glaciers. Another reason is to be found in the fact that

GJELLERUP, KARL (1857-1919), Danish poet and novelist, was born on July 2, 1857, at Roholte, Zealand. His early works, written under the influence of Georg Brandes, were strongly optimistic in character; the best of these is Te Disciple of the Teutons (1882). But a prolonged journey in southern and eastern Europe brought out other aspects of his many-sided genius, and he wrote dramas and novels showing a deeper comprehension of the spiritual and ethical problems of life. In his later years he took up classical, Gothic and Eastern subjects as the basis of his work. Of a series of these—Die Opferfeuer (1903), Das Weib der Vollendeten (1907), Der Pilger Kamanota (1906), Die Weltwanderer

(1g10)—the scene is laid in later works in German. From near Dresden, where he died the Nobel prize for literature

GLABRIO.

India. Gjellerup wrote many of his 1892 onwards he lived at Klotzsche, on Oct. 11, 1919. He had received in 1917.

1. Manrus Acizrus GLABRIO, Roman statesman

and general, member of a plebeian family. When consul in ror B.C. he defeated Antiochus the Great of Syria at Thermopylae, and compelled him to leave Greece. Flamininus interceded to save the Aetolians. In 189 Glabrio was a candidate for the censorship, but was opposed by the nobles. See Censorinus, De die natali, xx.; Macrobius, index to Livy; Appian, Syr. 17-21.

PERIOD

Saturnalia, i. 13;

2. Mantus Acrzrus Giasrio, Roman statesman and general, grandson of the famous jurist P. Mucius Scaevola. When praetor urbanus (70 B.c.) he presided at the trial of Verres. When consul with L. Calpurnius Piso in 67 he brought forward a law (Lex Acilia Calpurnia) against illegal canvassing at elections. In the same year he was appointed to supersede L. Lucullus in the government of Cilicia and the command of the war against Mithridates, but he did nothing, and was in turn superseded by Pompey. See Dio Cassius xxxvi. 14, 16. 24; Cicero, Pro. lege Manilia, 2. 9; Appian, Mithrid. 90.

GLACE BAY, a city and port of entry of Cape Breton county, Nova Scotia, Canada, on the Atlantic ocean, 14 m. E. of Sydney, with which it is connected by railway. It is the centre of a coal-producing district. Though it has a fair harbour, most of the shipping is done from Sydney in summer and from Louisburg in winter. Pop. (1931) 20,706. It is a transatlantic wireless station. GLACIAL PERIOD or PLEISTOCENE ICE AGE, in geology, is the name given to a geological period, probably within the duration of man’s occupancy of Europe, characterized, according to the now universal interpretation, by cold conditions approaching arctic severity, the evidence of which is contained in superficial deposits extending over 8,000,000 sq.m. of Europe and North America, and great areas of Asia, and the southern Hemisphere. The attention of geologists of the 18th and early roth centuries was directed to the existence of a series of deposits—clays, gravels, brickearths, sands and the like—that seemed to be an exception to the general orderly arrangement of the geological strata, associated as they were with strangely scored blocks of stone foreign to the districts In which they were found, and with scorings and “dressings” of rock surfaces, and seemed to indicate the operation of agencies different from those to which ordinary

geological phenomena were attributed. It thus came about that the ideas involved in the Mosaic cosmogony and the Noachian deluge were readily seized upon and an explanation seemingly adequate was found ready to hand. The deposits were styled Diluvium, a term long since abandoned by British and American

geologists, but still used by some writers on the Continent. The earliest notes of dissent were sounded by Schimper, Venetz and Charpentier, who recognized in the action of Alpine glaciers forces productive of effects generally comparable with those attributed to a universal deluge, allowance being made for differences of physiographic conditions, Though many workers on the Continent adopted and developed this hypothesis, circum- |

as the general direction of transport seemed to be from north ig

south and many unfamiliar types of crystalline rocks had a parently been transported by a hill-and-valley ignoring agency, a great “wave of translation” seemed to be the only agency ade. quate to explain the facts. This view found its last advocate ip the late Sir Henry Howorth. This hypothesis was followed by one admitting the agency of ice but with the corollary, to which the facts seemed to point, of a great ice-sheet extending in all direc-

tions from the North Pole. This in turn was modified when it was discovered that in certain parts of Britain marine shells were contained in the deposits. This fact was brought to the knowledge of geologists in 1831 by Joshua Trimmer who found shell frag. ments, not only on the low grounds in many places, but also at altitudes up to 1,350 ft. above the sea at Moel Tryfaen near

Snowdon.

Smith of Jordanhill about the same time recognized

that shells found in Till (boulder-clay) of Scotland included species whose present habitat is in the Arctic seas. Speculation now took the form of a marine submergence sufficient to cover all the country up to 1,400-1,500 ft. with a sea cumbered with icebergs and floe-ice, and from the melting of these their burden of rock-materials, the boulder-clays, etc., were

produced. In 1838 Buckland, who had only a few years before published his Religuiae Diluvianae (1823), while on a tour in Switzerland made the acquaintance of Louis Agassiz who, though

at first sceptical, had been converted to the views of Charpentier

and Venetz that the boulders found across the plain of Switzerland and on the flanks of the Jura had been transported by glacier-

ice, of which the existing glaciers of the Alps were the dwindled

representatives. Buckland was at first no less sceptical, but with characteristic open-mindedness he fully accepted Agassiz’s conclusions and induced the great Swiss to visit Britain. The product of a joint tour was to confirm Buckland in the belief that the diluvial phenomena were attributable to the action of land-ice, All the phenomena of glacier-action were recognized—terminal and lateral moraines, ice-worn surfaces (one of which in the Blackford hills has been preserved and its significance recorded on a tablet), roches moutonnées, striated and far carried blocks, Agassiz described the famous parallel roads of Glen Roy as the strand-lines of a temporary glacier-dammed lake of the type of the Marjelen See, though its full story was not deciphered until Jamieson’s demonstration in 1863. Buckland’s paper marked a new departure in glacial geology in

Britain.

It was followed by Lyell’s memoirs on the Drift of

Norfolk, and on the geological evidences of glaciers in Forfarshire. It has already been remarked that the older views still found advocates, and even in the 2oth century, the marine origin of boulder-clay has found some support. It may, however, be safely asserted that the postulate of a great ice-sheet having its radiant-point near the head of the Gulf of Bothnia is the starting point for all modern work on the glaciation of northern Europe.

Geological Evidences.—The geological evidences of ice-action in low latitudes cover, in fact, substantially all the phenomene observed in or about modern glaciers and ice-sheets. Of the direct effects of ice upon the subjacent rocks, the most conspicuous must always be the production by the action of the stone-laden basal layers of scratched and abraded rock-surfaces, striated sur faces and roches moutonnées, The form and direction of the striae are often valuable indications of the direction of the last

movement of the ice, though, as has been remarked, “the last stroke of the joiner’s plane removes the evidence of all the previous movements.” Roches moutonnées, the smoothed 2 rounded hammocks of rock compared by de Saussure to the í on a wig, have commonly acquired a curved outline which is h characteristic especially taken in conjunction with the hard

unweathered condition in which they occur. Their surfaces uf usually well striated and, when freshly exposed, are poll In many instances they exhibit a tendency to stream-line forms though this may be modified by “plucking” or the rending 8wey of blocks from the lee-side (downstream) by the dragging of

GLACIAL

PERIOD

375

ice. “Plucking” may also operate by snatching out crescentic or | a stone of large size will often serve to indicate the direction of

semicircular flakes from the surfaces both of striated floors and | travel, the longer axis being in line of movement and if there is of roches moutonnees. Bch oa a sharp and a blunt end, the sharp end will be foremost. It is Rocky hills or abrupt declivities in the path of a glacier may |hardly an exaggeration to say that there is no limit to the size

be moutonnées, and the effect of “plucking” cause a retreat of the face upstream at the blocks detached will contribute to the burden the base of the glacier. Where a boss of rock ness stands in the path of an ice-stream the

on the lee-side will | of boulders: at Birkenwald near Berlin there is a transported same time that the |mass of chalk of an estimated volume of 2,000,000 cu. metres, of stones carried by | which is believed to have travelled 15 km., and an erratic of of exceptional hard- | chalk at Great Catworth, Huntingdon, though not quite equalling lower layers of the | it in magnitude, must have been carried not less than 70 miles.

ice cleave round it and it is usual to find a gully eroded across | Composite erratics of a succession

of secondary rocks such as

the front and along the two sides becoming evanescent towards , the Roswell erratic near Ely—long used as a quarry—may perthe rear. The lowland valley of Scotland is replete with examples, | haps have been originally outliers from an escarpment which have such as the Castle rock at Edinburgh, and North Berwick Law. | been pushed off their bases. Boulder-clay occasionally assumes In the former case the long slope of the High street has been | the form of semi-ovoid mounds to which the name of “drumlins” found to consist of a protected mass of soft coal measure rock | has been given. These may have been built up near the melting forming a characteristic illustration of “crag and tail,” but the “tail” in many instances is formed by accumulation of sand, gravel or the like in the “slack-water’’ in the rear of the crag. The erosion-effects of ice-streams exhibit themselves in other forms and a great controversy without at present a decisive issue

| end of an ice-stream by the accretions of englacial materials, but | they may owe their form to the erosion of a belt of boulder-clay transverse to the front of an over-riding ice-sheet or glacier: they | may be compared with roches moutonnées, and, like them, have | taken on a form stable, at least temporarily, under moving ice.

has arisen as to the limit of the scale of magnitude of these effects. | Water-borne or Fluvio-glacial Deposits.—Every glacier at Whether, for example, it being admitted that grooves and shallow | its termination, whether on land or in water, discharges its melt-

hollows can be produced, the production of lake-basins and the | water not merely by tricklets coursing down its sloping front but characteristics of valley contours on a large scale can be ascribed | at some points by the emergence of a subglacial stream of turbid to glacial erosion. Ramsay, James Geikie, Alfred Russel Wallace, | water charged with sand and stones. When the glacier is of steep Penck, Prof. W. M. Davis and others have held the opinion that | gradient the stream will have the force of a torrent and will carry they can. Prof. Collet in 1922 remarked “of all the Swiss | its load forward to be deposited in order of magnitude of geographers and geologists, Heim is the only one who will not | materials—first the coarse, then finer, and last of all the imadmit that the great lakes at the foot of the Alps were formed | palpable mud, as the velocity of the stream diminishes, hence in by the action of glaciers.” On the other side can be quoted also | Alpine valleys the river channels may come to be mere stony Bonney, Garwood and Gregory. wildernesses like the floor of the Rhone valley near its deThe Glacial Deposits.—Two principal types of deposits are | bouchure into the Lake of Geneva at Villeneuve. Where, as in recognizable—those which have been directly released from the | that instance, the stream discharges into a lake, or, as in Greenice upon its melting, without any sorting by the agency of the| land, into a sea or fjord, the turbid water deposits its load as a water, and those which, though transported in part by ice, have | species of cone or delta, the finest materials forming in deeper been finally sorted and distributed by water. To the first category | water a deposit of stratified or laminated mud, each pair of will belong many moraines, the long ridges of materials cast down | layers, finer or coarser, representing a period of melting, alternatalong the margins of glaciers, generally from the superficial, | ing with one of diminished flow. In a glacier of small dimensions “rock-trains,” of valley glaciers in mountainous regions, and the | the cycle will be diurnal and when the feeder comes from one of terminal ridges which may be produced either from the super- | larger size the cycle may be an annual one, which is probably ficial burden or from englacżtal rock-débris carried in the lower | the case with the great ice-lobes descending into the Greenlandic layers of the ice. Terminal moraines in the case of valley glaciers | fjords. There is thus a criterion by which the laminated muds commonly form crescentic ramparts across the valleys or horse- | deposited from a glacier-fed stream can be distinguished from shoe shaped mounds where a valley debouches in the plain. The | those derived from an ice-sheet. These will demand further dismagnitude of these ridges may vary between small mounds of a | cussions when considering the date of the Ice age. foot or two in height and colossal ramparts, like La Serra at the Intimately connected with outwash plains are the Kames or mouth of the Val d’Aosta, 2,000 ft. in height. Some terminal | Eskers (Scandinavian Asar). These two terms were in their moraines, like the one just mentioned, may be a single even- | original significance applied in Ireland and Scotland respectively crested ridge, but in the case of the moraines of the great ice- | to phenomena of the same type, but American geologists employ sheets they may take the form of a congeries of lumps and | them to designate structures different in form and geological rehollows. lations. Fairchild defines them in the following terms: “The term Moraines, as regards their structure, commonly show a con- | ‘kame’ is here used .. . as designating deposits, chiefly sand and fused intermingling of rock-materials of every grade from the| gravel, having a general knob and basin topography and formed minutest of mud-particles up through sand-grains and stones to | at the margin or periphery of an icessheet. The term ‘esker’. . . giant rock-masses of such dimensions that it is difficult to realize | is employed to denote distinct ridges, chiefly gravel, believed to that they are not part of the solid fabric of the country; these | have been deposited in the beds of subglacial streams, being will be further mentioned later. Where the clayey element is | phenomena of radial drainage.” The distinction is fundamental

very abundant a moraine may be said to consist of true boulder- | —a kame, to an American geologist, is an accumulation parallel clay (the Scottish “Til”). Boulder-clay occurs, however, in | to the ice-front; an esker is radial to it. As understood by British other forms than as moraines. Its most common aspect is as | geologists, “eskers are winding ridges or strings of mounds comsheets of greater or less extent spread over the land, sometimes | posed of water-worn sand and gravel. . . . They frequently show

in undulating relief, but, more

commonly,

forming

extensive | in their course across country a distinct disregard for the present

plateaux like, for example, that expanse between Manchester and| surface gradient, thus proving that the streams which deposited

Liverpool or much of Suffolk and north Essex, or the north Ger- | them could not have flowed entirely on the surface, or else must man plain. This type of boulder-clay is usually tough and hard, | have been under sufficient hydrostatic pressure to flow uphill” indeed in some of the excavations it is necessary to blast it with (Wright). Sollas favours the idea that they were formed in the explosives; but the texture will naturally depend primarily on | channels of subglacial streams; but Gregory attributes a morainic e nature of the constituents, and in a secondary degree as| origin to them, in which opinion Charlesworth concurs, and he

Sorby showed, upon the pressure to which it has been exposed. | applies the term dsar to those disposed radially to the ice-front.

The stones in boulder-clay assume in many cases characteristic The surface beneath the glacial deposits has in general the attitudes—in one known as the “forced arrangement,” the for- | characteristics of a land-surface: H. B. Woodward has described ward end of the boulder is uptilted (Hinde). The orientation of ` examples of “piping” of chalk in such situations which he

376

GLACIAL

regarded as evidence of sub-aerial erosion. The evidence outside the glaciated areas of the existence of ice-sheets and glaciers or of cold conditions are no less significant than those direct proofs of ice-action, and they have in recent years received a large amount of attention. When a glacier or ice-sheet obstructs the natural drainage of the ice-free country a lake will be formed, but will usually drain away on the removal of the ice barrier, leaving, however, certain signs by which its former existence may be recognized and which may furnish valuable corroboration, not otherwise obtainable, of the position and fluctuations of the icefront. The criteria relied on for their identification are mainly four: (1) strand lines; (2) floor deposits; (3) deltas, and (4) drainage channels cutting spurs or watersheds. The earliest example to be recognized in Britain was the famous parallel roads of Glen Roy. The channels cut by water overflowing from such lakes furnish some of the most picturesque features of a glaciated country—many thousands have been recognized in the British Isles. Biological Evidence.—The biological evidences of a cold episode in recent geological history are no less patent than the physical. Reference has already been made to Smith of Jordanhill’s recognition in the Drift deposits of shells whose modern equivalents now live in boreal or even arctic seas. Mammals such as the musk ox and reindeer, whose modern representatives are restricted to high latitudes, had already been identified. It is necessary to amplify a little the allusion to the occurrence of marine shells—a few whole and many more fragments—in the glacial deposits, which retarded for more than half a century the recognition of the true explanation of our glacial phenomena. The shelly Drift can, with few exceptions, be shown to occupy positions shown by independent evidence to have been invaded by ice that had crossed the sea-bed in its progress and thus had an opportunity of incorporating in its lower layers such relics of marine life. It was objected by advocates of the submergence hypothesis that even if the ice could pick up such shells it would inevitably grind them to powder. This objection has been met by Garwood and Gregory’s discovery of perfect shells on the surface of the Ivory glacier in Spitzbergen at a higher elevation than the raised beach from which the glacier had rifled them. Later, Lamplugh and others have described the moraine of the Sefström glacier, also in Spitzbergen, in which vast numbers of marine shells in perfect condition have been thrust out of the fjord entangled in boulder-clay. Another way in which marine organisms can be uplifted has been described by Debenham. He found on the surface of two of the antarctic glaciers which are partially afloat marine muds with delicate organisms. He attributed their occurrence to the freezing of the glacier on to the sea floor, and melting at its upper surface causing the gradual emergence of the entangled mud. Glacial Epochs in Older Geological Periods.—It was once

the general opinion (shared by the present writer) that the Pleistocene Ice age was a unique episode in the history of the earth, but so long ago as 1848 Cumming, in his Geology of the Isle of Man, surmised on very insufficient evidence that the Basement Conglomerate of the Carboniferous might be of glacial origin. A few years later Ramsay (1855) made a similar suggestion regarding conglomerates of Permian age in the midlands. It was probably as hazardous a speculation as Cumming’s, but, by a strange coincidence, within four years, a true glacial Till of nearly equivalent geological age was discovered by the Blandfords in India. Shortly after this Sutherland (1870) described an ancient boulder-clay in Natal of Permo-Carboniferous age, and Stow followed in the same year with a fuller account. Thus on two continents deposits of approximately the same geological date were found to bear evidence of glacial origin; not only this, but in both countries the beds were associated with others containing a new and strange flora of ferns (Glossopteris) of types not recognized in European rocks of the same age. The glacial deposits of South Africa have now been traced over: an area of many thousands of square miles and in places may be seen to rest on true roches moutonnées, as for example at the junction of the Vaal and Orange rivers Similar deposits have been recognized

PERIOD

`

in Australia, with some doubt in New Zealand, Tasmania, the

Falkland Islands, Brazil, Bolivia and the Argentine, in most case accompanied by Glossopteris. Some doubt attaches to the geological age of Tillites (the name

given to the ancient indurated boulder-clays)

in localities jp

North America, e.g., Alaska, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward's island. At Squantum near Boston (U.S.A.), however, though some doubt exists as to geological age, the deposit is avouched by Coleman to be a typical ancient boulder-clay. After elimina.

ing all doubtful records there remains a body of unchallengeable evidence of glaciation in Permo-Carboniferous times on a scale even vaster than that of the Pleistocene period, extending over enormous areas, and approaching in Africa, India, Australia and Brazil so near to the present position. of the Equator as to con-

stitute a most baffling problem and which finds at present only partial solution in the speculations of Wegener. Glacial deposits have now been recognized in rocks of many geological ages from the indubitable Tillites of the pre-Cambrian rocks of Canada and India to the great glacial series of Cambrian

age in South Australia and the Silurian Tillites of Alaska. No authentic signs of glacial conditions can be recognized in the Devonian rocks; the Permo-Carboniferous have been mentioned above. Sporadic signs of glacial conditions have been recognized in rocks of Mesozoic and Cainozoic age, but nothing that could bear comparison with the earlier or with Pleistocene Ice ages, The Quaternary Ice Age.—The traces of a great ice-sheet in Europe having its radiant point, not, as might be expected a priori, on the mountains of the Jotunheim but in the low grounds at the head of the Gulf of Bothnia, are to be found over an area of about two million square miles. It spread across northern Russia as far as the Urals and a sinuous margin passes across to the Car-

pathians, with two great lobes descending the valleys of the Don and the Dnieper. In its further course it abutted against the opposing slopes of the Riesengebirge, Thüringer Wald and Hars and covered the north German plain. The edge in Holland is marked by a low moraine ridge charged with erratics. Its ex-

tension in the southern part of the North sea is largely conjectural, but it must have coalesced with native British streams that invaded the eastern and midland counties at one time, leaving deposits spread over part of the London area and traceable thence into Buckinghamshire, Oxfordshire and Warwickshire. Along its western margin it influenced the flow of ice-streams pouring off the mountain and hill centres of the British Isles, though it is doubtful if it actually invaded Britain, saving perhaps parts of Lincolnshire and East Anglia. A second great ice-sheet was constituted by the glaciers of the Alps, which spread in all directions, filling the great valleys and debouching on the plains. The whole area between the Alps and the Jura was filled with ice which left its deposits and erratics at high levels upon the confronting slope, in a few instances thrusting lobes through the passes. To the south it invaded the plains of Lombardy, excavated, as some would say, the great

Italian lake-basins, and cast down the colossal moraines of the Dora Baltea and Dora Riparia. The lesser mountain chains al Europe had their own glacier systems, and great extensions of the glaciers of the Himalayas and probably every other mountain

chain of Asia have been recognized. It is of interest to note thal

the famous cedars of Lebanon are growing on morainic material

In North America three ice-sheets have been identified. The

Labradorean on the north-east had its centre, or radiant point

in northern Quebec, whence it spread in every direction. Its southerly flow covered most of eastern Canada and reached 3 far as New York and Cincinnati. The Keewatin sheet, radiating from relatively low ground to the west of Hudson bay, expand in all directions so as to come on the one hand into confluence

with the Labradorean sheet and on the other to meet the third

sheet. The Cordilleran diverges from an axis west of the Rocky mountains, and when it was at its full development lobes wert thrust through some of the passes and may have come in contact with the Keewatin ice. In a south-westerly direction it react

Vancouver island and Queen Charlotte’s islands and the Paciát ocean.

Three

hundred

miles within

the lobate front of the

GLACIAL Keewatin-Labradorean sheet lies the Driftless area of Wisconsin —an area several hundred miles in extent left untouched between the two sheets. These three ice-sheets are computed to have

PERIOD

377

and freshwater deposits in the boulder-clays of the southern Baltic coasts.

3rd Glacial epoch, Polandian, glacial and fluvio-glacial formations of the minor Scandinavian ice-sheet; and the “upper boulderglaciers from some of the other mountainous centres of North clay” of northern and western Europe. 2nd Inierglacial epoch, Helvetian, interglacial beds of Britain America, Greenland was at some stage of the glacial period covered with ice to a greater extent than at present, and con- and lignites of Switzerland. 2nd Glacial epoch, Saxonian, deposits of the period of maximum tributed with other areas of arctic America to a total of icecovered land in the Old and New World of the Northern Hemis- glaciation when the northern ice-sheet reached the low ground of Saxony, and the Alpine glaciers formed the outermost moraines. phere of about 8,000,000 sq. miles. 1st Interglactal epoch, Norfolkian, the forest-bed series of In the Southern Hemisphere evidence exists of a greater development of glaciers than at the present time. Thus in Australia, Norfolk. 1st Glacial epoch, Scanian, represented only in the south of New Zealand and Tasmania, glaciers extended much below existing limits, in some cases, and in others to areas where no glaciers Sweden, which was overridden by a large Baltic glacier. The are now found. In British East Africa Gregory found moraines Chillesford clay and Weybourne crag of Norfolk and the oldest 5,400 ft. below the present limits. In South America the same moraines and fluvio-glacial gravels of the Arctic lands may belong facts of greater glacier extension are disclosed. It must be ob- to this epoch. This classification was subjected to a searching criticism by served, however, that no proof has yet been adduced that the glaciers of the Southern Hemisphere were at a maximum simul- Lamplugh in 1906. He pointed out that by the method adopted, taneously with those of the Northern Hemisphere, and it would except as regards the uppermost members, the sequence involved be in agreement with some speculations regarding the cause of a continual change of locus—thus, for relics of the rst Glacial Ice ages if the northern and southern glaciations were alternate. epoch it was necessary to go to Sweden, where no trace of the Nor does it follow that temperature is the only factor governing Norfolkian 1st Interglacial epoch, is found, and so on through the growth of glaciers; on the contrary the pole of greatest cold the series. Lamplugh could further quote geologists of each in the Northern Hemisphere, near Verkojansk, has no perennial country in turn who disclaimed belief in the order or position in snow though the subsoil is frozen probably to a depth exceeding the sequence of each member. He ascribed the assumed sequences to the temporary oscillations of an ice-sheet, but disputed the roo ft. as at Irkutsk. suggestion of complete, or even of considerable, deglaciation. It CLASSIFICATION may also be remarked that differences of alimentation of different Correlation of the Glacial Deposits.—The question of suc- portions of an ice-sheet having an area of 2,000,000 sq.m. must cession of glacial deposits in such a country as Great Britain has have caused large fluctuations in the extension of the ice. Charlespresented a problem of great complexity: not only is there worth has shown in a recent discussion of the glaciation of the great lithological diversity, but the deposition has been gov- northwest of Ireland how variations of pressure brought first one erned so largely by local conditions of relief and drainage then another of contending ice-streams over the same spot. that, even now, after the deposits over the greater part of the Geikie’s 4th Interglacial, 5th Glacial, sth Interglacial and 6th country have been carefully mapped by the official surveyors, Glacial stages are all based on variations in the plant constituents correlation between, e.g., Lancashire and Norfolk has hardly of the peat beds of Scotland and the north of England, and been attempted. One contributory cause has been the fact that whatever may be the value of this evidence it would seem quite the ice-streams have, in the cases chosen for illustration, come inadequate to sustain the burden of two glacial and two interfrom widely separated sources and nowhere come into unmistak- glacial epochs, which, if Croll’s astronomical theory of the Ice able contact. The presence of organic remains can be used only age were accepted, would comprise in all four periods of 10,500 after careful elimination of such as are remaniés (i.¢., mere years each, The beautiful methods of de Geer, to be mentioned erratics) and when this is done their testimony is still equivocal. later, give an approximation to an actual chronology of the time, For some purposes the provenance of the erratics characterizing in years, that has elapsed since the Yoldia beds of Scandinavia the respective deposits may be utilized. were laid down. It is 12,500 years and into that brief space must James Geikie in the 2nd edition of his Great Ice Age (1877) be crowded Geikie’s four climatic phases, as well as the first 18 was probably the first geologist to attempt a general classification centuries of the present era, which can hardly be regarded as part of British deposits and their correlation with those of the Con- of the 6th Glacial epoch, and will therefore constitute a ‘6th covered an area

Of 4,000,000

sq. miles.

Besides extensions

of

tinent, but his views were largely coloured by Croll’s splendid exposition of an astronomical theory of the Ice age with its

necessary implication of glacial alternating with interglacial periods, and, further, by the doctrine of the great submergence which then dominated British geology, and to which he appeared to have adhered with some modification to the end. Geikie was content, In the work cited, to specify one composite “Great suc~cession of Glacial and Interglacial periods,” a “Last Interglacial period,” and “Last Glacial period,” but in his last publication he differentiated the following:

6th Glacial epoch, Upper Turbarian, indicated by the deposits of peat which underlie the lower raised beaches. 5th Interglacial epoch, Upper Forestian.

5th Glacial epoch, Lower Turbarian, indicated by peat deposits overlying the lower forest-bed, by the raised beaches and carseClays of Scotland, and in part by the Littorina-clays of Scandinavia. 4th Interglacial epoch, Lower Forestian, the lower forests under peat beds, the Ancylus-beds of the great freshwater Baltic lake and the Littorina-clays of Scandinavia. 4th Glacial epoch, Mecklenburgian, represented by the moraines

of the last great Baltic glacier, which reach their southern limit in Mecklenburg; the roo ft. terrace of Scotland and the Yoldia-beds

of Scandinavia. 3rd Interglacial epoch, Neudeckian, intercalations of marine

Interglacial epoch.”

Penck and Brickner’s Classification.—A classification which, unlike Geikie’s, has the merit of a more limited range of locality, and of being based on the observations of a pair of geologists working in concert, is that of Penck and Briickner (Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter). To accord with the stratigraphical succession their table is inverted—the oldest at the bottom: Daun Stadium, snowline 300 metres lower than at present.

Geschnitz Stadium, snowline 60om. lower than at present. Buhl Stadium, snowline goom. lower than at present. 4th Wiirm Glaciation (divided by Achen interstadial), snowline 1,200m. lower than at present. Riss-Wiirm Interglacial, brief period warmer than at present.

3rd Riss Glaciation, maximum glaciation of France, Switzerland, Po and Rhine valley, snowline about 1,300m. below present. Mindel-Riss Interglacial, period of uplift, very long duration. 2nd Mindel Glaciation, maximum glaciation of eastern, northeastern and south-eastern Alps, snowline 1,300m. below present. Giinz-Mindel Interglacial, doubtful. rst Gimz Glaciation, net well represented—snowline probably 1,200 m. lower than at present. There are here four recognized glacial periods, and, with some doubt, three, or with the Achen interstadial dividing the Wiinz period, four interglacial. This classification, though designed only for the Alpine region, has been applied by many geologists to

GLACIAL PERIOD

378

ether districts, or even continents, and with some degree of probability has been adopted as a standard to which other classifications are made to conform. British Glacial Deposits.—These

have not been reduced to

a general scheme of classification and the reason for the failure is clear: instead of the comparatively simple advances and retreats of a single ice-front, the British glaciation was effected by a number of ice-streams of moderate magnitude originating, some in one hill or mountain centre, and some in another, and influenced by reason of their relatively small size and mutual interference and by minor features of relief. Added to their internecine conflicts there was at all times the influence of the Scandinavian icesheet to obstruct free access to the coasts of the North sea, and to shift the lines of ice-flow to more westerly courses. In the basin of the Irish sea only two boulder-clays separated by “Middle sands” are commonly observed, except where an oscillating ice-margin abutted on the hills, when the boulderclays may interdigitate with many repetitions of sands and gravels due probably to the sorting action of water near the melting edge, or to the intercalation of hill-wash. In Yorkshire, while inland there are an older and newer boulderclay, never seen either in superposition, or even in the same district, on the coast three, or possibly four, boulder-clays can be identified, not only by the test of superposition, but by characteristics of colour and the assemblages of the far transported erratics which they contain. In ascending or chronological order they are: (1) Basement clay; (2) Purple clay, sometimes in two divisions separated by sands and gravels; (3) Hessle clay. The first of these is a leaden-coloured clay with occasional included patches of sea-bottom. It contains a few Scandinavian rocks, and rocks from the Lake District and the Pennine chain. The Purple clay is characterized by a redder colour and by the presence of numerous large blocks of Shap granite and Carboniferous limestones. The Hessle clay is by far the best characterized, as it contains in great profusion rocks from the Tweed valley and the Cheviots. Between the Purple clay and the Hessle clay, that normally succeeds it, there is found at one locality in Lincolnshire at an elevation of about 8o0ft. above sea-level a bed of estuarine silt with marsh plants and brackish-water shells. This is the only

mitted by all American geologists.

Each Till sheet overlaps its

predecessor from north to south, but the Kansan is considered to have been laid down by the Keewatin ice, which was confined to the states on the western side of the Driftless area of Wisconsip viz., Nebraska, Iowa, Kansas and Missouri, and to have retreated

in a northerly direction, before the advance of the Labradorean ice, which in parts of Illinois and Wisconsin overrode the Kansan

drift. Between these two sheets of Till, beds of peat and other subaerial deposits are traceable over an area indicating an advance of the Labradorean ice for not less than 150 years over the country laid bare by the Kansan retreat. The Iowan marks a re. advance of the Keewatin ice but its relations to the Labrador

ice is not definitely settled. The so-called Iowan Till is in some

places separated from the Illinoian bya terrestrial surface upon

the weathered LIllinoian Till, of which the Iowan is by some considered to be an upper division. The Wisconsin Till, whether a

single sheet or in two stages is still uncertain, is underlain by g weathered terrestrial surface in many sections. It is evident that many and extensive fluctuations of the icemargins must have taken place but there is no means of deciding

whether this amounted to a complete deglaciation or only a partial shrinkage.

Coleman has described sections near Toronto,

discovered by Hinde, which give support to the supposition of complete disappearance of the ice, or at least its withdrawal from the area of the Great Lakes and subsequent re-advance in great force. At the Scarboro Heights sections show three beds of boulder-clay separated by sedimentary beds. Fossiliferous silts

intervening between the older boulder-clay and the next have yielded a large suite of freshwater shells, and an abundant flora comprising many timber-trees such as oaks, elms and maples, some of which are now extinct, while others are limited to latitudes four or five degrees south of Toronto. It is unfortunate that the associated boulder-clays cannot be referred to equivalents south of the Great Lakes. Coleman is of the opinion that these deposits are unmistakable evidence of, at the least, one complete removal of the ice from the Labradorean centre. Methods of Correlation.—The question may now be ap proached: In what way may the glacial succession in discontinuous areas be correlated, e.g., can the glacial deposits of Britain be equated with those studies in the Alpine field by Penck and “interglacial” bed in Britain that is beyond challenge. The ice of the Hessle-clay phase at its maximum failed to cross Briickner, on the one hand, and those of America on the other? the Cleveland hills, but the comparative obstruction of its move- The answer of most geologists would, probably, be yes; and ments in the North sea, by the opposition of the Scandinavian Sollas, Wright, Brooks and Osborne, to name a few authors, have ice-sheet, deflected much of its flow into the Vale of York and a made the attempt, though not always on exactly the same bases. great moraine at Escrick, 5m. S. of the city of York, seems to The method most generally adopted has been to take the Alpine mark its utmost extension. Beyond that line scattered shreds of succession of Penck and Briickner with its several stages of a much older, greatly denuded, boulder-clay are found. The glaciation and deglaciation and to place in parallelism the secontrast between the two glaciations is very striking and the dif- quence observed in other areas. This process receives support ference between the sharp and well-preserved topography of the from the consideration that if these large scale advances and later (Hessle) and the almost complete obliteration of that pro- recessions are due to other than merely local causes, other areas duced by the earlier glaciation gives a measure of their relative must have been similarly affected. There are, however, defects arising from the fact that each advance of the ice may not extend ages. The same contrast will be seen in America.

American Glacial Deposits.—The glacial deposits of North

as far as its immediate, or any predecessor, and consequently in

America, like those of Europe, increase in complexity as the a peripheral region, such for example as the east of England, distance from the ice-radiants increases. This might be attributed, though it may show a corresponding number of fluctuations, they either to the fact that though the ice front retreated it never may not record the same episodes as those recognizable in areas wholly disappeared; or that, though it might entirely disappear, nearer to the source of the ice. When the comparison is between any traces of interglacial conditions would be less likely to be Europe and America the meteorological arguments advanced by preserved beneath a new ice-sheet. Both opinions are held by Harmer to show that these two continents could not have been simultaneously glaciated must also be considered. American geologists. The use of biological and anthropological data stands on 4 The most complete succession of deposits is naturally to be found in the peripheral areas and the classification of deposits in different footing from these and is, in fact, the application of the geological test of “characteristic fossils.” It is in many ways mor the Mississippi valley is as follows: trustworthy, though it too has its limitations, for latitude and the Illinoian Till Sheet.

Wisconsin Till Sheet. Peorian Interglacial.

Sangamon

Interglacial.

Kansan Till Sheet.

Iowan Till Sheet. Yarmouth Interglacial.

Aftonian Interglacial. Nebraskan Till Sheet.

The Nebraskan

Till and Aftonian Interglacial are not ad-

distribution of land and sea no less than the character of the

vegetation and conditions of the terrain, have had their influence upon the distribution of the Pleistocene mammalia which are adopted as criteria of age. Some of the same factors must also

have operated to control the dispersal of early man. To cite but a single instance—Magdalenian man who hunted the reindeet in southern Europe during the closing stages of the Ice age ® represented to-day by the Eskimo.

GLACIAL

PERIOD

379

Using the two classes of evidence separately, or conjointly | different class of evidence. Allusion has been made to deposits where possible, a sequence of human culture and in some cases of laminated mud thrown down from the turbid melt-waters of glaciers and ice-sheets, and to the rhythmical succession of layers of race, can be correlated with the contemporary mammalian fauna and these in turn with the more or less direct products of corresponding to the diurnal or annual melting. These muds or the ice, or of the deglaciated land, and with deposits of rivers “varves” have proved a means—thanks to de Geer—of establishing a chronology in terms of years for the closing stages of the outside the glaciated areas. Culture Stages.—The culture stages that are of most value Ice age when the great Scandinavian ice-sheet was shrinking for this purpose are—the oldest being at the bottom of the table: back to its source in the mountains. The melting-edge retreated stage by stage across southern Sweden, which was then covered Neit Neolithic (Mayet, 1919) by sea, with occasional halts marked by terminal moraines. De Geer argued that each pair of laminae—a dark and a light— (Glaciation, neo Wiirmian) Magdalenian (late) would represent a season of melting and of cessation. By Postglacial Magdalenian (Fourth period of regression of glaciers)

TV. Glaciation of Würm (Fourth period of extension of glaciers) Third Interglaciation Riss-Würm

(Third period of regression of glaciers) III. Glaciation of Riss (Third period of extension of glaciers) Second Interglaciation Mindel Riss

(Second period of regression of glaciers)

Magdalenian (early) Solutrian Aurignacian (late) Aurignacian Aurignacian (early)

Mousterian (late) Mousterian

Mousterian (early) Close of Acheulian

Acheulian Close of Chellean

Chellean

pre-Chellean?

TI. Glaciation of Mindel

(First Interglaciation Gtinz Mindel)

careful measurement of the layers and their representation as a

graph it was possible to recognize sequences many miles apart. When a moraine intervened between the sections the duration of the halt could be discovered by noting the number of layers which were lacking on the inner side of the moraine. De Geer with the assistance of a willing corps of helpers traversed the whole country from the extreme south of Scania to the place where the ice-sheet broke up into a detail of smaller glaciers.

The drainage of Lake Ragunda exposed a series completed the series down to the year 1796. demonstration, which has been endorsed by all who the evidence gives a definite chronology for the

of muds that This beautiful have examined retreat of the ice from the first uncovering of the site of Stockholm, viz., 9,000 years. De Geer and his followers believe they can recognize the Same sequence of layers not only in Iceland, but also in North America. If this is established it will dispose finally of the idea of alternate glaciations on opposite sides of the Atlantic, and the close general agreement between this measurement and the calculations based upon the recession of the Falls of Niagara seems to show that there is no grave error.

I. Glaciation of Günz

Minor modifications have been proposed by Obermaier, Boule and others. It will be seen from the table that Mayet would refer relics of Chellean man to a warm period anterior to the Riss glaciation. The Acheulian he includes in the Riss glacial stage but with an overlap into the milder Riss-Wiirm interglacial when it linked on to the Mousterian, which in its turn extended in its latest stages into the Wiirm glacial stage, and that embracing the greater part of the Aurignacian, though the latest Aurignacian overlapped into a fourth period of glacial retreat which covered the Solutrian, and a part of the Magdalenian. The main Magdalenian period, however, was marked by a recrudescence of glaciation that Mayet styles the Neo Würmian. A mere enumeration of the mammalia associated with these stages of culture would furnish an imperfect basis for classification of the deposits apart from the implements and weapons of man, but one decisive contrast is afforded between the Chellean and later faunas, viz., the presence in Chellean deposits of the straight-tusked elephant (Elephas antiquus) which does not occur in Acheulian or later deposits being replaced by the mammoth (E. primigenius) which survived in Europe till the close of the Magdalenian period. Similarly the soft-nosed rhinoceros (R. leptorhinus) gives place to the woolly rhinoceros (R. tichorhinus) A hippopotamus closely related to the existing Nilotic species is characteristic of Chellean deposits in this country. The Chellean fauna has a distinctly warm aspect and it furnishes perhaps the best indication of geological age of any of the Pleistocene faunas. It is fortunate that where the cultural criteria are Jacking, the mammalian evidence may fix the age of deposits and vice versa: thus the mammalian remains are the sole evidences in the north of England, while in the south many river-terraces, though lack-

ing the mammalia, rarely fail to reward prolonged search for

implements. The terraces of rivers in the country beyond the glaciated area can be brought into relation with the phases of the Ice age by these means. Evidence of Laminated Muds.—These

: criteria, valuable as

they are in Europe, are entirely without application to the problem of correlating European and North American deposits, but there is a sanguine hope entertained by some geologists that a part at least of the difficulty may be removed by using an entirely

CAUSE OF THE ICE AGE The special instance of the cause of the Ice age is but a special aspect of the general question of climates in geological time—genial conditions as well as frigid—and it is possible that the explanation, whatever it may be, has not yet been formulated though speculation has engaged the minds of astronomers, geologists and meteorologists for more than a century. W. B. Wright has discussed with great perspicuity a number of proposals and his work (The Quaternary Ice Age) and C. E. P. Brooks’ Evolution of Climate must be consulted by all interested in the question. The causes suggested by various authors arranged themselves roughly in the two categories of Astronomical and Telluric. Disregarding the chronological order of their enunciation there is convenience in considering, if only to dismiss, one or two of the first. One cause suggested was the variation of solar radiation. The sun has been considered to be a variable star, and the Ir-year Sun-spot period gives some countenance to this as a possible cause of variation of the intensity of solar radiation of longer period, but as it Is unsupported by definite evidence it cannot be fruitfully discussed. Another explanation is based on the supposition that there are cold regions in space; this cause, however, 1s manifestly insufficient; the amount of radiant heat received from star-shine is entirely inadequate to produce an

appreciable change in the climate of the earth. A third is based on changes in the position of the earth’s axis of rotation. Sir G. H. Darwin has examined this question and on the hypothesis of an absolutely rigid earth he concluded that the maximum displacement possible was 3°, but on the assumption of some degree of plasticity tt was possible for the pole to wander ro° to 15°, an amount disproportionate to the observed climatic effects. The Astronomical Theory.—The theory that now holds the field owed its inception to Herschel’s Outlines of Astronomy and is based upon the fact that the form of the earth’s orbit varies in the degree of its departure from a circle. When the eccentricity is at a maximum, the effect of the precession of the equinoxes will be to give each hemisphere in turn for a period of 10,500 years a short hot summer and a long cold winter; and this will be followed by another equal period of long mild ; summers and short winters of moderate intensity. Sir Robert

GLACIAL

380

Ball puts the contrasts in this way: the year will be unequally divided into seasons of 166 days and 199 days respectively, but the solar radiation will be in the ratios 63:37. He puts the results as follows: Glacial

229 heat measures spread over 166 days. 136 heat measures spread over 199 days. Interglacial 229 heat measures spread over 199 days. 136 heat measures spread over 166 days.

E. P. Culverwell exposes the fallacy of taking an entire hemisphere as a unit, and presents the maximum effects of winter in Aphelion at maximum eccentricity by comparing latitudes which at present receive a corresponding amount of sun-heat. A single illustration will suffice: Oxford, under the extremest conditions, would receive the same amount of sun-heat as Edinburgh receives now. A further objection to the astronomical theory consists in the fact that for each glacial and each interglacial period it provides only 10,500 years, which is certainly inadequate for the growth of an ice-sheet which shall extend from the Gulf of Bothnia to Norfolk—a distance of about 1,400 miles. Croll, who first elaborated Herschel’s proposition, admitted the insufficiency of the hypothesis which would not diminish the total amount of sun-heat received annually by the hemisphere having its winter in Aphelion, and proposed several ways in which the effects of winter cold could be accentuated by fogs generated in summer over the snowfields by the chilling of moisture-laden winds. It is true that fogs do occur in the Arctic regions but, as has been pointed out by Wright, the heat thereby liberated raises the temperature of the snow and thus tends to neutralize the argument. Wallace, however, made the valuable suggestion that heat cannot be stored in the same way that cold in the form of snow can be stored, and that a snow field or ice-sheet tends to perpetuate itself and so to carry over the effects from one precessional period to another though with fluctuations of the margins. Croll and others have attempted to explain the Ice age or to supplement Croll’s argument by modification of ocean currents, especially by the severance of the Isthmus of Panama, whereby the Gulf Stream would be deflected into the Pacific. To this hypothesis many objections can be urged, one of them quite fundamental, viz., that while it is true that the lowest part of the ridge dividing the two oceans is only r54ft. high, there is no evidence that it has ever been submerged since the Miocene period; on the contrary, the existing marine faunas of the two shores are so different as to indicate that there can have been no communication since about the middle of the Tertiary period. J. W. Gregory concludes that there is “no evidence, afforded either by stratigraphy or zoology, to show that the Atlantic and Pacific oceans have been united across Central America in postMiocene times.” Even if a free communication had existed during the Glacial period it could bave affected only that part of the Gulf Stream which emerges through the Straits of Florida, and not the equally important part which sweeps outside the Antilles. Another agency invoked to reinforce Croll’s argument was that the chilling of high latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere would increase the strength of the northern trade winds and cause a general displacement to the south of the equatorial current which feeds the Gulf Stream, whereby less warm water would pass into the north Atlantic circulation. This and other expedients seem necessary to supplement the astronomical theory, and when all is said, there remain strong grounds for doubting its sufficiency. Telluric Causes.—Turning now to telluric causes—geographical and other—the first and simplest is the suggestion of Arrhenius that a decrease in the amount of carbonic dioxide in the atmosphere would cause a fall of temperature sufficient to produce a glacial period. Chamberlin has with a wealth of geological detail

elaborated this hypothesis, but Angstrém has shown that the quantity of COs now present in the atmosphere absorbs all the radiations the gas is capable of intercepting. Two hypotheses have been advanced having this in common that both would invoke elevation of the land as the primary cause of the Ice age, but they differ in that one would require epeirogenic uplift, że., uplift on a continental scale, while the other would find more local elevation sufficient. It is generally admitted

PERIOD that the chilling effect of altitude, other things being equal, wiz

induce the formation of snow fields and glaciers so that no cues. tion of adequacy need be raised, and discussion is confined tg

that of evidence. Both explanations derive some support from the existence of submarine prolongations of fjords or river vq).

leys extending to great depths across the continental shelf. Th have been recognized on many coasts not only in high latitudes

as off the coast of Norway, but at the mouth of the Adour, and at

the entrance to the Straits of Gibraltar. Similar features charac. terize the west coast of Africa where a submerged groove of

great depth prolongs the course of the Congo. The Lightning channel, between the Faeroes and Iceland, furnishes another example and the whole Atlantic coast of North America from Labrador to the Gulf of Mexico, typically illustrated by the submerged troughs of the Delaware and Hudson traceable to a depth of 3,500ft., have been cited as evidence of an uplift tg

nearly that amount in glacial times. No proof has been produced connecting this uplift, if it ever occurred, with the date of the

Ice age, and Dana and other geologists have referred the erosion of these valleys to the Mesozoic period. The occurrence of dead shells of shallow water Mollusca over wide areas of sea-floor of the west coast of Norway down to 2,600 metres has been regarded by Nansen as proving an uplift of, at the least 8,oooft., but the facts would bear a quite different construction and may be inter. preted as evidence of transport by floating ice. Pre-glacial Land Levels.—It is useful in this connection to examine the evidence of preglacial land levels, and the records

of events preceding the first indications of ice-action in the British Islands. Wright remarks that throughout the southern half of the British isles and the north of France the level of the sea in pre-glacial times was practically the same as at the present day. The shallow North sea, the English Channel, the Irish sea and many of the minor indentations, such as the Clyde and the Moray firth, existed then, much as they are to-day. A pre-glacial cliff with, in some instances, a beach at the foot, can be traced at

intervals from Flamborough head southward to both sides of the Straits of Dover and along the south coast of England far up the coast of Wales, and along the south of Ireland. The Flamborough section is of particular importance, for on the beach which lies at its foot, a few erratics have been found, showing that some transport, perhaps by floating ice, was already taking place, An extensive denuded plain of marine erosion, having about the same slope as the existing sea floor, fronts the beach, and is traceable almost to the Wash. The sea, however, withdrew from the beach, which then became covered with landwash and blown sand, containing mammalian remains including hippopotamus, and Elephes antiquus, animals very characteristic, as already remarked, of the Chellean stage. After an interval, so brief that little or no erosion of the cliff took place, the whole was buried beneath the oldest of the three or four boulder-clays of the Yorkshire coast region. At the other side of the headland, a deposit with estuarine shells underlies the boulder-clay. Before its full significance can be discussed, however, it is necessary to make a cast back to the immediately preceding geo logical period, the Pliocene. Of this period the geological record in

the southern part of the North sea is singularly complete. It opens with the Coralline crag a rather shallow water accumulation containing a fauna bearing a strong resemblance to that found at present on the coast of Spain and in the Mediterranean, but with a large infusion of elements at present found in the British sea and a very few forms now restricted to higher latitudes. Indications of floating ice are not wholly wanting. A slight upheaval brought this deposit above the sea, but it was again depressed to receive the Red crag, a series of beach or inshore deposits forming a succession of beaches of a sea that retreated from south te north. The oldest of these deposits is at Walton-on-the-Nax where it occupies a position about 4oft. above sea-level. |

newest is near Aldeburgh. the gradual substitution Coralline crag, with its which, along with many

In this series can be readily recognized of a fauna very near to that of the

marked southern affinities, by one of the shells now found in the British

seas, there is a large infusion of shells of high northern and some

GLACIER even of Arctic range.

During all this period the delta of the

Rhine on the opposite coast in Holland and Belgium was steadily sinking. Harmer has argued that the profusion of shells found in the beaches of the Red crag and the comparative scarcity on the east was the result of prevalent on shore easterly winds, and as an indication “that the climate of regions to the north of Great Britain had . . . by that time become considerably colder than now, and therefore frequently anticyclonic in winter, an ice-sheet

having permanently established itself on the Scandinavian highlands.” The further Pliocene history of the North sea is a story of steadily accentuating cold, subject to the qualification that a freshwater bed, the Forest bed proper, brings an anomalous warm flora and fauna into the midst of a series in which plants and

animals alike bespeak a climate of great severity. The next member of the sequence on the coast of Norfolk is the Cromer Till—a mass of boulder-clay of pronounced type, con-

taining, iter alza, erratics from the Oslo district of Norway. This Pliocene and Early Pleistocene record of progressive and appar-

ently uninterrupted refrigeration is a fact which decisively the hypothesis that the glaciation was tinental uplift, and equally opposes the view that of those astronomical causes invoked by Croll.

seems to refute caused by conit was the effect The duration of

381

date of this stage of retreat, but many complications are introduced into the problem by the fact that at one stage an alternative route for much of the drainage was opened by way of the Mattawa, a tributary of the Ottawa river. There is a general agreement between the results obtained and those given by de Geer’s measurements of the seasonal clays in Sweden.

(P. F. K.)

GLACIER, a mass of compacted ice originating in a snow-

feld (French, glace, ice, Lat. glacies). Glaciers occur in those portions of the globe where the rate of precipitation is greater than the rate of melting of the snow. These conditions are fulfilled in high mountain tracts and in the Polar regions. The lower limit of a snow-field, above which the snow lies throughout the whole of the year, is known as the szow-line. The altitude of the snow-line, changes locally as well as at different latitudes, varying from 15,000 to 18,000 ft. in the tropics to sea level in the Polar regions. The main features of the type of glaciation of a region depend upon the topography, the geographical position and the elevation above sea level. Apart from the Polar ice-sheets, four distinct types of glaciation have been recognized:—the Alpine, Piedmont, Spitzbergen and Greenland types, but as many of the fundamental facts were first studied in regions where the Alpine type occurs, this will be described first. Alpine Types.——In mountain regions snow accumulates on gentle slopes, in high mountain valleys, in hollows and depressions and on the summits of dome-like peaks. Owing to the weight of accumulated snow, the lower layers become compacted together into dense clear ice with a granular structure throughout. This is known as névé or firn. The ice thus formed is more or less stratified as the result of successive falls of snow and of melting between falls, and by the accumulation, between successive falls, of films of dust from the air or from the snow which has melted. Wind causes the drifting of the snow, produces a rippled surface on the névé and carries loose snow to lower altitudes. The névé is comparatively easy to cross on foot; very little debris cumbers its surface but concealed crevasses

Pliocene time must have greatly exceeded the possible duration of any progressive change of climate postulated by the theory. Continental Uplift—The hypothesis of continental uplift has received a new impulse in recent years by the recognition by La Mothe and Depéret of four successive raised beaches and river terraces at altitudes ranging from 300ft. down to about 6oft. above the respective present levels of the Mediterranean, and the rivers discharging into it. The lower three of these have been considered to correspond with the last three interglacial episodes, but geological opinion is sharply divided as to the connection. It is to be deprecated that in allusion to the events of the Iceage or to discoveries connected with the successive stages of (cracks in the ice) are a source of danger. The most important primitive cultures free use is made of time scales for which little crevasse in this part is the bergschrund which has the form justification exists. The only definite measure at present available of a great symmetrical arc at the head of the névé. It lies is that of de Geer and the various estimates of the age of the but a short distance from the exposed rock surface and the rock Falls of Niagara which give measures so far accordant as to wall is exposed to disintegration by frost action, and the debris make it fairly safe to assume that the glaciation of North thus formed drops to the bottom of the crevasse. Frost action America and Northern Europe was simultaneous. The hypothesis also affects all exposed rocks in these high mountain tracts, prothat would explain the great extensions of glaciers in almost every ducing sharp pointed pinnacles (aiguilles), arétes and precipitous mountain centre in the world in recent geological time by sup- crags, snow capped peaks being protected from frost action. The posing them to have been uplifted so as to produce a lowering of disintegrated rock falls downward and much of it finally comes the snow line involves a series of coincidences not easy of accept- to rest upon the edge of the névé where it forms a moraine. ance, especially when synchronized in their advances and retreats. Glaciers creep down the mountain side. The greatest moveThe final disappearance of the ice-sheets of northern Europe ment naturally takes place in the summer when the average temand North America was attended by a rise of the centres whence perature is above freezing point. The rate of movement also they respectively emanated. The Scandinavian region, as is depends upon the mass of snow and ice, the slope and smoothshown by raised beaches which on all the coasts show a steady ness of the valley floor and the slope of the upper surface of the increase of elevation as they are. traced up the fjords, has risen ice. The rate and direction of movement can be determined by since the departure of the ice to a maximum of over 80oft. which driving stakes into the ice which it is found does not move as one is attained, as according to the doctrine of isostasy it should be, block but yields under the pressure of its own weight by cracking not at the mountainous axis of the Scandinavian peninsula, but and regelation and moves slowly. The movement can be comjust where by other evidence it was proved that the maximum pared to that of a river, the greatest rates being in the centre, Weight of ice rested. Near the outer margin of the ice sheet the upper layers and in restricted paris of its channel. Because Scotland had been pressed down to an extent proportional to the of its higher rigidity, however, shearing of one mass upon another weight imposed, and the recovery recorded in raised beaches is takes place producing foliation within the mass. correspondingly less, whereas Scandinavia has not yet completed The character of the ice changes as it passes down to lower its recovery. altitudes and at a point where in summer the melting is in excess In North America, the shrinking Labrador sheet gradually of the precipitation, the granular ice appears beneath the snow. withdrew behind the watershed between the Mississippi and the This point is taken as the lower limit of the névé and below it St. Lawrence drainage basins, and great lakes came into existence the valléy glacier commences. It is known as the frn-line but it between the watershed and the retreating ice front. The strand- does not necessarily coincide in altitude with the snow-line on lines or beaches rise towards the site of the ice-radiant in a manner adjoining mountains. Below the firn-line, boulders and other Go EAT ECT OP PTT EE LF LLL CC IL LT CAL CL TT NE NT SN a

analogous to the rise of the Scandinavian beaches. When the ice teached in its retreat to the north of Niagara the lake drainage

fell over the steep escarpment and the famous Falls thus came

ito existence. The gorge of Niagara, 7m. in length, was produced

hy the cutting back of the Falls and estimates of the lengths of time occupied in the operation have furnished a measure of the

debris: occur on the surface of the ice. Some of the boulders sink to the bottom but flat varieties do not sink, they protect the ice beneath them from the rays of the sun, so that they remain perched (as ice-tables) on a column of ice as the surrounding ice is melted. Dust and small particles of rock absorb heat from the sun's rays quicker than does ice and therefore they melt

et Nea eden mmeran a enn epee ten reece nnn ere YF I ET OE e n e a ae aa a a E

382

GLACIER

the ice beneath them and sink into shallow pits known as dustwells, the action ceasing when the rays can no lunger reach them. The moraines increase in size by the addition of material as they pass to lower altitudes. At the confluence of the main glacier with a tributary glacier, the two adjacent lateral moraines meet and pass into the middle of the lower combined glacier producing a median moraine. The lower reaches of a valley glacier may contain several median moraines. Ground moraines are formed by attrition along the bed of a glacier and they are augmented by debris falling down crevasses. At the lower end of a glacier the melting ice dumps a large portion of its rock burden in the form of mounds, generally crescent-shaped, across the valley producing a terminal moraine. (See MORAINE.)

moraines and form rounded mounds, elongated parallel to the direction of the valley. They are known as drumlins. Similar ridges transverse to the valley are termed kames. Drumlins and kames are more frequently associated with ice-sheets than Valley glaciers, as also are eskers, osars and serpentine kames, which are long narrow ridges supposed to have been formed by deposition directly from en-glacial and sub-glacial streams. The water of effluent streams is dirty grey in colour, due to a large amount of clayey matter suspended in the water in a colloidal state. Piedmont Type, etc—The Piedmont type of glaciation is characteristic of Alaska and consists of great valley glaciers meeting to form a large sheet of nearly stagnant ice. The Mah. spina glacier, 1,500 sq.m. in extent, is the best example of this

type. It has an almost level surface covered with a great amount of debris, sufficient to support dense forests. There is approximate Over an uneven surface, or round sharp bends or by differential equilibrium between the supply of ice and the loss by melting movement due to other causes. They may be transverse or longi- The glaciation of Greenland is very different. Here the greater tudinal and may be covered by fresh snow thus producing ice- part of the country is covered by an ice-sheet which slopes toward bridges across them. When a glacier passes over a very steep the coast.at a. very Tow angle. Valley glaciers occur “only in-the slope the crevasses open wide and produce wedges and pinnacles coastal regions where also rocky peaks, nunataks, project through of ice known as seracs. Frequently the slope may be so steep the ice-sheet. Nunataks vary much in size, are sometimes coythat the glacier breaks completely along the crevasses and the ered by Arctic vegetation and are frequently fringed by crescentmasses of ice fall to lower levels, where they are moulded again shaped moraines, formed by the driving upward of the ground into a solid mass as a reconstructed or recemented glacier. Gla- moraine. The latter is not so large as in the Alpine type of glaCrevasses are more obvious in the valley glacier than in the

névé. They are due to strain set up in the glacier by movement

ciers in hanging valleys and on cliff faces, which end in ice-falls are known as glacierets, hanging glaciers or cliff glaciers. These names are also applied to accumulations of névé which are not large enough to produce a valley glacier. Water from surface melting and water which flows on to the glacier from the surrounding rocks forms lakes or surface streams on the glacier. such lakes are not of a permanent character, the colour of the water in them is clear blue and they may lie partly upon the ice and partly upon the solid rock. Lakes frequently occur at the confluence of two surface streams. In the majority of cases surface water ultimately finds its way down a crevasse and so are initiated em-glacial and sub-glacial streams. These streams are laden with sediment. Some surface streams disappear down

ciation, for the greater part consists of material torn off from the rock surface beneath the ice-sheet. For long stretches along

the coast the ice forms vertical or overhanging cliffs, known as Chinese Wall fronts, their steepness being due to the fact that the lower layers contain more debris and in consequence melt more quickly. The Greenland ice-cap, as well as the great Polar icecaps, sends into the sea a large number of icebergs during the

summer.

These drift to lower latitudes and gradually disappear

by melting. In Spitzbergen there is a central ice-cap on a high plateau, the sides of which are deeply trenched by radial valleys containing valley glaciers. Some of the latter have Chinese Wall fronts when they reach the sea, but others have normal “Alpine” fronts. In the former case the movement of the glacier js .a moulin, which is a cylindrical hole through the ice, the posi- comparatively rapid. In some parts of the Himalayas, the glaciers tion of which is often fairly permanent and in which the stream are retreating as they are in North America. Evidences of Past Glaciation.—As already pointed out, the sets up a swirling motion so that it bores out a deep pot-hole, topography and drainage of a region may be considerably modified known as a giant’s kettle (g.v.) in the rock beneath. The lower end of a valley glacier may advance or retreat. by glaciation. Glaciers, assisted by frost action upon exposed This is regulated by a variety of factors, such as the amount of rock surfaces, are important eroding agents, but authorities snow which falls in the catchment area, the rate of movement, are not agreed upon the extent of such erosion. Cirques, with and the rate of melting. Observations have been carried out for their steep walls and backward-graded floors, arêtes and pyramida number of years on various Alpine and other glaciers in order shaped mountain peaks çan all be traced to the eroding action to obtain accurate information relative to the movement and at- of frost: hanging valleys, U-shaped valleys, truncated spurs and tempts have been made to ascertain the relation that it bears steps in a valley floor to the deepening action of valley glaciers: to variations in meteorological conditions. It appears that in a roche moutonnées, rounded, striated, grooved and polished rock period of between 35 and 4o years many glaciers pass through surfaces, and striated and polished erratics to the smoothing action of moving ice: and the scratching power of rocks frozen a cycle of advancing and retreating. Glaciers which extend well down below the snow-line may into the glacier: the occurrence of erratics and perched blocks affect to a considerable extent the. drainage of the surrounding to the transporting power of moving ice. Giant’s kettles, overcountry. In such cases tributary streams may be dammed back flow channels and old lake terraces (e.g., the Parallel Roads of to form lakes, e.g., Lake Marjelen, and the level of the water Glenroy) are evidences of water action associated with glaciers. may be high enough to cause the effluent to escape over a low Boulder clay is the deposit left behind by a retreating ice sheet. lateral col, thus forming an overflow channel, the level of which Lateral and terminal moraines, with* associated “kettles” are may ultimately be lowered to permit the draining of the lake formed by the melting of a valley glacier: drumlins, kames and and so divert the stream. There is clear evidence of the exist- outwash plains by fluvio-glacial action: eskers, osars and serpenence of such lakes during and at the close of the Great Ice Age, tine kames by deposition by en-glacial and sub-glacial streams. and the effects of them are seen in the occurrence of overflow Icebergs breaking away from the Polar ice-sheets transport machannels, lake terraces, permanently modified drainage and in terial for a considerable distance. A large number of the lakes in higher latitudes are of glacial origin. (See LAKE.) hills of sands and gravels representing lacustrine deltas. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Among the older works the following must be menA large part of the morainic material carried by a glacier is dumped at its lower end, forming a terminal moraine. The tioned: J. Tyndall, The Glaciers of the Alps (1896); T. G. Bonney, Past and Present (1896); H. Hess, Die Gletscher (1904); streams which emerge are heavily laden with sediment, much of Ice-Work, in addition there are: W. H. Hobbs, Characteristics of existing Glactrs which is quickly unloaded forming debris strewn valleys and (r911); W. M. Davis, The Sculpture of Mountains by Glaciers (Seat. outwash plains or frontal aprons. Such deposits are rudely strati- Geog. Mag. 1906); A. Penck and E. Bruckner, Die Alpen im Eissatfied and among them large depressions known as kettles some- alter (1909); W. B. Wright, The Quarternary Ice Age (1914); A. P.

times occur and these probably mark the sites of large blocks of ice enclosed for a time in the debris. Sands and gravels from the effiuent streams are deposited in the rear of the terminal

Coleman, Ice Ages (1926); the two latter books contain good bhi: ographies. In addition mention must be made of the descriptions ©

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GLACIER PLATE I

Pare II

GLACIER we é

BY

COURTESY

OF

(5)

W.

S.

BARCLAY,

(4,

8)

THE

E. M. NEWMAN, FROM PUBLISHERS PHOTO SERVICE, COMPANY, INC., (10) EWING GALLOWAY

CANADIAN

NATIONAL

(7) WILSE,

RAILWAYS,

BY COURTESY

VARIOUS

(11)

THE

TYPES

L. Hallett Glacier, Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado. Glacier of the Alpine type, showing lake 2. Monte Rosa Glacier from Gornergrat, Switzerland. The dark rock on the

right is hundreds of feet in height 3. Crest of Mount

Hood from the Eliot Glacier, Oregon.

OF

ZEALAND

HIGH

COMMISSIONER;

STATE RAILWAYS,

PHOTOGRAPHS,

(3) ELMENDORF,

FROM

4. Mendenhall Glacier near Juneau, Alaska. This glacier is of the piedmont type, a large nearly stagnant ice sheet 5. La Romanche Glacier, Beagle Channel, Tierra del Fuego, at the southern

(1)

THE

UNION

PACIFIC

SYSTEM,

(2, 6)

EWING GALLOWAY, (9) THE KEYSTONE VIEW

GLACIERS

6. Upper Rhône Glacier near Gletsch, the Alpine type with crevasses . Svartisen Glacier, Norway

Taku Glacier, south-eastern Alaska. Below and to the

left a portion of the glacier Is visible

extremity of South America

NEW

OF THE NORWEGIAN

. Balmaceda ony

Glacier,

Last

Hope

Switzerland.

A valley

glacier of

Piedmont type

Sound,

Chile,

South

America.

Huge

blocks of ice stand above the glacier’s surface

10. Tschierva Glacier. View from Alp Ota, near Pontresina, Alpine type, showing valley formation 11. Franz Josef Glacier and Castle Rock, Westland, South

Zealand.

Switzerland. Island,

New

Crevasses and jagged ice formations show on the surface

GLACIER

BAY

NATIONAL

MONUMENT—GLADIATORS

333

GLACIER BAY NATIONAL MONUMENT, a reserva- | days; and Trajan, in celebration of his triumph over Decebalus,

tion (1,820 sq.m. in area) in south-eastern Alaska, extends inland from Glacier bay to include Muir and Brady glaciers and icecovered peaks of the first rank, among which are Mts. Fairweather, Lituya, La Perouse and several others. Besides containing tidewater glaciers of first rank, the region is also valuable as a field of scientific study of glacier behaviour, of resulting movements and the development of flora and fauna after glacial retreat.

GLADBACH,

the name of two towns in Germany distin-

guished as Bergisch-Gladbach and Miinchen-Gladbach. 1, BERGISCH-GLADBACH is in Rhenish Prussia, 8 m. N.E. of Cologne by rail.

Pop.

(1925)

18,140.

It possesses

four large

paper-mills and among its other industries are percussion caps, nets, machinery, iron founding, and fire-clay. Ironstone, peat and

lime are found in the vicinity. Near Gladbach is Altenberg, with a remarkably fine church, built for the Cistercian abbey at this place.

exhibited 5,000 pairs of gladiators. Domitian at the Saturnalia of A.D. gO arranged a battle between dwarfs and women. Even women of high birth fought in the arena, and it was not till A.D. 200 that the practice was forbidden by edict. How widely the taste for these sanguinary spectacles extended throughout the Roman provinces is attested by monuments, inscriptions and the remains of vast amphitheatres. From Britain to Syria there was o BATO g4 | not a town of any size that could not boast

[MVALERIO aaam

rman

ara

its arena and annual games.

After Italy,

Gaul, North Africa and Spain were most famous for their amphitheatres; and C MVZIO Greece was the only Roman province where the institution never thoroughly took root. A GLADIATOR'S TESSERA ¢ Gladiators ak: aug drawn either rom prisoners of war, or slaves or crim-

a. MUNCHEN-GLADBACH, also in Rhenish Prussia, 16 m. W.S.W. of Düsseldorf on the main line of railway to Aix-la-Chapelle. Pop. (1885) 44,230; (1925) 114,236. Its industries are the spinning and weaving of cotton, the manufacture of silks, velvet, ribbon and

Aas Pie pare es otte

for his aedileship that his political opponents took fright and carried a decree of the senate imposing a certain limit of numbers, but notwithstanding this restriction he was able to exhibit no less than 300 pairs. During the later days of the republic the gladiators were a constant element of danger to the public peace. The more turbulent spirits among the nobility had each his band of gladiators to act as a bodyguard, and the armed troops of Clodius, Milo and Catiline played the same part in Roman history as the armed retainers of the feudal barons or the condottieri of the Italian republics. Under the empire, notwithstanding sumptuary enactments, the passion for the arena steadily increased. Augustus, indeed, limited the shows to two a year, and forbade a praetor to exhibit more than x20 gladiators, yet allusions in Horace (Sat. ii. 3. 85) and Persius (vi. 48) show that roo pairs was the fashionable number for private entertainments; and in the Marmor Ancyranum the emperor states that more than 10,000 men had fought during his reign. Claudius was devoted to this pastime, and would sit from morning till night in his chair of state, descending now and then to the arena to coax or force the reluctant gladiators to resume their bloody work. Under Nero

hard as was the gladiators’ lot (so hard that special precautions had to be taken to prevent suicide) it had its consolations. A successful gladiator enjoyed far greater fame than any modern prize-hghter or athlete. He was presented with broad pieces,

stono

and inals condemned to death. Thus in the first Dieis class we read of tattooed Britons in their

Staos tastened

war chariots, Thracians with their peculiar

A ARTON ARIS bucklers and scimitars, Moors from the vildamasks, and dyeing and bleaching. There are also tanneries, lages round Atlas and negroes from central Africa, exhibited in machine works and foundries. The beautiful minster has a Gothic the Colosseum. Down to the time of the empire only greater choir (1250), a nave (early 13th cent.) and a crypt of the 8th malefactors, such as brigands and incendiaries, were condemned century. The town is the headquarters of important insurance to the arena; but by Caligula, Claudius and Nero this punishsocieties. A Benedictine monastery was founded near Gladbach in ment was extended to minor offences, such as fraud and pecula793, and so it was called Miinchen-Gladbach (Monks’ Gladbach). tion, in order to supply the growing demand for victims. For The monastery was suppressed in 1802. It became a town in 1336; the first century of the empire it was lawful for masters to sell weaving was introduced here towards the end of the 18th century, their slaves as gladiators, but this was forbidden by Hadrian and and, having belonged for a long time to the duchy of Julich, it Marcus Aurelius. Besides these three regular classes, the ranks were recruited by a considerable number of freedmen and Roman came into the possession of Prussia in 18x15. GLADIATORS (from Lat. gladius, sword), professional com- citizens who had squandered their estates and voluntarily took batants who fought to the death in Roman public shows. That the auctoramentum gladiatorium, by which for a stated time they this form of spectacle, which is almost peculiar to Rome and the bound themselves to the lanista. Even men of birth and fortune Roman provinces, was originally borrowed from Etruria is shown not seldom entered the lists, either for the pure love of fighting by various indications. On an Etruscan tomb discovered at Tar- or to gratify the whim of some dissolute emperor; and one emquinii there is a representation of gladiatorial games; the slaves peror, Commodus, actually appeared in person in the arena. Gladiators were trained in schools (Judi) owned either by the employed to carry off the dead bodies from the arena wore masks representing the Etruscan Charon; and we learn from Isidore of state or by private citizens, and though the trade of a Janista Seville (Origines, x.) that the name for a trainer of gladiators was considered disgraceful, to own gladiators and let them out (Jenista) is an Etruscan word meaning butcher or executioner. for hire was reckoned a legitimate branch of commerce. Thus Cicero, in his letters to Atticus, congratulates his friend on the The older Roman name for the fighters was bustuarii. The first gladiators are said, on the authority of Valerius Max- good bargain he has made in purchasing a band, and urges that imus (ii. 4. 7.), to have been exhibited at Rome in the Forum he might easily recoup himself by consenting to let them out Boarium in 264 B.c. by Marcus and Decimus Brutus at the fu- twice. Men recruited mainly from slaves and criminals, whose neral of their father. On this occasion only three pairs fought, lives hung on a thread, must have been more dangerous characbut the taste for these games spread rapidly, and the number of ters than modern galley slaves or convicts; and, though highly combatants grew apace. In 174 B.C. Titus Flamininus celebrated fed and carefully tended, they were of necessity subject to an his father’s obsequies by a three-days’ fight, in which 74 gladia- iron discipline. In the school of gladiators discovered at Pompeii. tors took part. Julius Caesar engaged such extravagant numbers of the 63 skeletons buried in the cells many were in irons. But

senators and even well-born women appeared as combatants. Even the emperor Titus ordered a show which lasted 100

chains and at Naples; multiplied tended for

jewelled helmets, such as may be seen in the museum poets like Martial sang his prowess; his portrait was on vases, lamps and gems; and high-born ladies conhis favours.

There were various classes of gladiators, distinguished by their arms or modes of fighting. The Samnites fought with the national weapons—a large oblong shield, a vizor, a plumed helmet and a short sword. The Thraces had a small round buckler and a dagger curved like a scythe; they were generally pitted against the Mirmillones, who were armed in Gallic fashion with helmet, sword and shield, and were so called from the fish (uopybdos or wopytpos) which served as the crest of their helmet. In like manner the

Retiarius was matched with the Secutor; the former had nothing on but a short tunic or apron, and sought to entangle his pursuer, who was fully armed, with the cast-net (icculum) that he carried in his right hand; and if successful, he despatched him with the trident (tridens, fuscina) that he carried in his left. We may also mention the Andabatae who are believed ta have fought on horse-

GLADIOLUS—GLADSTONE

384

back and wore helmets with closed vizors; the Dimachaeri of the later empire, who carried a short sword in each hand; the Essedarii, who fought from chariots like the ancient Britons; the Hoplomachi, who wore a complete suit of armour; and the Laquearii, who tried to lasso their antagonists. The shows were announced some days before they took place by bills affixed to the walls of houses and public buildings, copies of which were also sold in the streets. These bills gave the names of the chief pairs of competitors, the date of the show, the name of the giver and the different kinds of combats. The spectacle began with a procession of the gladiators through the arena, after which their swords were examined by the giver of the show. The proceedings opened with a sham fight (praelusio, prolusio) with wooden swords and javelins. The signal for real fighting was given by the sound of the trumpet, those who showed fear being driven on to the arena with whips and red-hot irons. When a gladiator was wounded, the spectators shouted “kabet” (he is wounded); if he was at the mercy of his adversary, he lifted up his forefinger to implore the clemency of the people, with whom (in the later times of the republic) the giver left the decision as to his life or death. If the spectators were in favour of mercy, they waved their handkerchiefs; if they desired the death of the conquered gladiator, they turned their thumbs downwards. (A different account is given by Mayor on Juvenal iii. 36, who says: “Those who wished the death of the conquered gladiator turned

the natural species out of gardens, except in botanical collections.

The most gorgeous groups—in addition to the gandavensis type— are those known under the names of Lemoinei, Childsi, nNanceianys

and brenchleyensis.

The last-named, owing to the brilliant scarlet

colour of the flowers, was always a great favourite for planting in beds. The flowers of the best varieties of the Childsz type are of great size and substance, often measuring 7 to gin. across, while the range of colour is marvellous, with shades of grey, purple, scar. let, salmon, crimson, rose, white, pink, yellow, etc., often beaujfully mottled and blotched in the throat. The plants are vigorous in growth, often reaching a height of 4 to 5 feet. A deep and rather stiff sandy loam is the best soil for the gladiolus, and this should be trenched up in October and enriched with well-decomposed manure, consisting partly of cow dung, the manure being disposed altogether below the corms, a layer at the bottom of the upper trench, say gin. from the surface, and another layer at double that depth. The corms should be planted in suc. cession at intervals of two or three weeks through the months of March, April and May; about 3 to sin. deep and at least rft. apart, The gladiolus is easily raised from seeds, which should be sown in March or April in pots of rich soil placed in slight heat, the pots being kept near the glass after they begin to grow, and the plants being gradually hardened to permit their being placed outof-doors in a sheltered spot for the summer. The time occupied from the sowing of the seed until the plant attains its full strength is from three to four years. The approved sorts are multiplied by secondary corms or offsets or “spawn,” which form around the principal corm; but in this they vary greatly, some kinds furnishing abundant increase, while others persistently refuse to yield offsets. The stately habit and rich glowing colours of the modem gladioli render them exceedingly valuable as decorative plants during the late summer months. They are, moreover, very desirable

their thumbs towards their breasts, as a signal to his opponents to stab him; those who wished him to be spared turned their thumbs downwards as a signal for dropping the sword.”) The reward of victory consisted of branches of palm, sometimes of money. Gladiators who had exercised their calling for a long time, or such as displayed special skill and bravery, were presented with a wooden sword (rudis), and discharged from service. The first Christian emperor was persuaded to issue an edict abol- and useful flowers for room decoration, for while the blossoms ishing gladiatorial games (325), yet in 404 we read of an exhi- themselves last fresh for some days if cut either early in the mombition of gladiators to celebrate the triumph of Honorius over ing or late in the evening, the undeveloped buds open in succesthe Goths, and it is said that they were not totally extinct in the sion, if the stalks are kept in water, so that a cut spike will go on blooming for some time. West till the time of Theodoric. GLADSHEIM, in Scandinavian mythology, the region of joy, The attention of archaeologists has been recently directed to the tesserae of gladiators. These tesserae, of which about 6o exist home of Odin and Valhalla (g.v.). GLADSTONE, HERBERT JOHN GLADSTONE, ist in various museums, are small oblong tablets of ivory or bone, with an inscription on each of the four sides. The first line con- Viscount (G.C.M.G., cr. 1910) (1854-1930), English statestains a name in the nominative case, presumably that of the man, son of W. E. Gladstone (g.v.), was born in London on Jan. gladiator; the second line a name in the genitive, that of the 7, 1854, and educated at Eton and at University college, Oxford. patronus or dominus ; the third line begins with the letters SP (for He lectured on history at Keble college for three years (1877-80) spectatus=approved), which shows that the gladiator had passed and then entered on a parliamentary career, representing Leeds his preliminary trials; this is followed by a day of a Roman from 1880-1910. From 1880 to 1881 he acted as private secretary month; and in the fourth line are the names of the consuls of to his father, and in 188r became a lord of the treasury. His other political offices were financial secretary to the War Office a particular year. (1886) ; under-secretary at the Home Office (1892-94) ; first comBIBLIOGRAPHY.—L. Friedlander, Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms (part ii., 6th ed., 1889), and the section by him on “The Games” in Marquardt’s Rdmische Staatsverwaltung, iii. (1885) p. 554; G. Lafaye in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquités. See also F. W. Ritschl, Tesserae gladiatoriae (1864) and P. J. Meier, De gladiatura

Romana

quaestiones

selectae

(1881).

The

articles

by

Lipsius on the Saturnalia and amphitheatrum in Graevius, Thesaurus antiquitatum Romanarum, ix., may still be consulted with advantage.

GLADIOLUS,

a numerous group (genus) of showy plants

belonging to the iris family (Iridaceae). They are herbaceous plants growing from a solid fibrous-coated corm, with long narrow plaited leaves and a terminal one-sided spike of generally brightcoloured irregular flowers. The segments of the limb of the perianth are very unequal, the perianth tube is curved, funnel-shaped and widening upwards, the segments equalling or exceeding the tube in length. There are about 150 known species, a large number of which are South African, but the genus extends into tropical Africa, forming a characteristic feature of the mountain vegetation, and as far north as central Europe and western Asia. One species G. illyricus, though very rare, is found wild in England, in the New Forest and the Isle of Wight. Some of the species have long been cultivated in flower-gardens, where both the introduced species and the modern varieties bred from them are very ornamental and popular. ‘The modern varieties of gladioli have almost completely driven

missioner of works (1894-95); chief whip to the Liberal party (1899-1906) and secretary of State for home affairs (1905-10). In rg9ro he was

created

a viscount,

was

appointed the first

governor-general and high commissioner for South Africa, a post which he held until July, 1914. He was made G.C.B. in 1914. He wrote W. E. Gladstone (1918) and After Thirty Years (1928).

Lord Gladstone died at Dane End, near Ware, Herts., on March 6, 1930.

GLADSTONE, JOHN HALL (1827-1902), English chem-

ist, was born at Hackney, London, on March 7, 1827. He studied under Thomas Graham at University College, London, and Liebig

at Giessen, where he graduated as Ph.D. in 1847. In 1850 he became chemical lecturer at St. Thomas’s hospital, and in 1853 was

elected F.R.S. From 1874 to 1877 he was Fullerian professor of chemistry at the Royal Institution, in 1874 he was first president

of the Physical Society, and in 1877-1879 president of the Chemical Society. In 1897 the Royal Society recognized his 50 years of scientific work by awarding him the Davy medal. Gladstone is particularly known for his work on optical refractivily (partly in conjunction with Dale), for his investigations into the

chemistry of the lead-accumulator (with A. Tribe and W. Hibbert)

and for his use (with Tribe) of the “zinc-copper couple” in the preparation of organic compounds.

As early as 1856 he showed the

GLADSTONE

385

importance of the spectroscope in chemical research, and he was | to one religion, and plead for the political supremacy and spiritual one of the first to notice that the Fraunhofer spectrum at sunrise | independence of the Church. “Oxford had not taught me,” he said

and sunset differs from that at midday. Gladstone always took a ! later, “nor had any other place or person, the value of liberty as great interest in educational questions, and from 1873 to 1894 he | an essential condition of excellence in human things.’ Macaulay was a member of the London School Board. He died in London |' reviewed the treatise. Many praised it. But Peel expressed neither on Oct. 6, 1902. | sympathy nor respect. In 1840 its author followed it up by a

GLADSTONE,

WILLIAM

EWART

(1809-1898), Brit-

ish statesman, was born in Liverpool on Dec. 29, 1809.

volume

on Church

Principles, which made

less mark.

A year

The | previously the young controversialist had married Miss Catherine

Gledstanes were an ancient Border stock who held lands in the | Glynne of Hawarden, a marriage which brought him long-enduring Douglas country. William Gledstanes, of the branch from whom | happiness as well as a historic and delightful home, A year later

Gladstone descended, was laird of Arthurshiel in Lanarkshire in | he was drawn back into the full current of politics by the Tory

1gs1; but the lands were lost and the 18th century found the | triumph of 1841. Gladstone returned to office with Peel as vice-president of the became a corn-merchant at Leith. His son, John Gladstone, be- ' Board of Trade. It was not the office which he wished for. He came a merchant-prince at Liverpool, a member of parliament, | was called to new and unfamiliar problems. But again his readia friend of Canning, a baronet and a Scottish landlord: and Sir ' ness to learn and his rare power of concentration prepared the John’s second wife drew Highland blood from the Robertsons of way for great administrative success. He had the chief share Inshes and the Mackenzies of Coul. Their famous son recalled in drawing up the revised tariff of 1842, with its masterly rehis mother as “a beautiful and admirable woman,” and bore wit- arrangement and reduction of duties—a long step towards free ness to his father’s large, strong nature and deep sense of duty. trade. His industry in that laborious task, his incessant speeches, his gifts of exposition, his intimate knowledge of a complicated William was sent to Eton in 1821, and spoke later of his own slow development there. But under Hawtrey and Keate he learned subject impressed and delighted the house. Next year, at the to work well. His contemporaries recalled his good looks, his age of 33, he joined the cabinet as president of his department, growing scholarship, his contributions to the Eton Miscellany, his and soon carried his reform of the tariff further. He still supearly and remarkable contributions to debate and, above all, the ported duties on corn: but his daily study of business had begun fine influence of his character: Arthur Hallam was not the only to “beat like a battering ram” on hbis protectionist armour. Meanfriend who noted that. while he carried through parliament the great Railway Bill of In 1828 Gladstone went up to Christ Church, Oxford, serious- 1844. When he resigned in 1845 on the question of Maynooth, the unbending Oxford churchman, “Oxford on the surface but minded, deeply interested in religion and in politics, an unbending Tory in his fear of revolution, but always generous in his feel- Liverpool below,” was renowned already as a commercial minister, if thought a little fastidious in his scruples. And the four ing for the poor. He read classics, philosophy and mathematics. He was offered a Christ Church studentship. But he tried for the hours’ speech on the sugar question, with which he soon after Ireland and the Newdigate in vain. He took long and vigorous came to the defemce of the Government, proved him again a walks. He talked, no doubt, as vigorously. He brooded upon master of detail. At 36 Gladstone was one of the most striking poetry and religion. Neither Pusey nor Newman had as yet much figures in the House of Commons. His superb health, his astoninfluence on his mind. He attended sermons and taught in Sun- ishing powers of work—he could do in four hours, said Graham, day school. He founded a college debating society, called after what took any other man 16, and he worked 16 hours a day— him the “W.E.G.” He shone with splendour at the Union, where his never-failing intrepidity of spirit, his combination of impetuManning and the Wilberforces were already famous, and where osity and ardour with easy self-command, his rich imagination other friends were making names. He became secretary and tamed and disciplined by study, and the sense that he breathed president of that young, renowned society, and in May 1831, in a something of “an ampler ether, a diviner air,’’ profoundly imdebate on Lord Grey’s Government and parliamentary reform, he pressed all who knew him. His contemporaries noted his fine apdelivered a speech regarded by competent judges as the most elo- pearance and fine manners. The pale, expressive, intellectual face, quent and impressive ever heard within its walls. Before the the deep-set, flashing eyes, the strongly-marked features, the erect end of that year he had secured a double first at Oxford. Before and dignified bearing, the free and graceful gestures, the voice of another year was over, the duke of Newcastle, who had heard from incomparable flexibility and strength, gave him a natural equiphis son, Lord Lincoln, of young Gladstone’s achievements as an ment such as few orators have possessed. And to this he added a opponent of -reform, invited him to stand for Newark, and in rare mastery of the subjects which he spoke on and a rare capacity January 1833 he took his seat in the assembly which he was to for moving, persuading and inspiring men. In Dec. 1845, when Peel re-formed his Government to repeal charm, to move, to dominate for 60 memorable years. It was his father’s counsel which made him a statesman. His the Corn Laws, Gladstone became colonial secretary and thereby own choice would have been the Church. But he soon began to vacated his seat at Newark. The duke of Newcastle, a protecjustify his father’s wisdom, and it was in defence of the system tionist, could not support his re-election, and he remained a cabof slave labour as administered on his father’s estate in Demerara inet minister outside parliament all through the memorable session that he made, in June 1833, his maiden speech. He was soon of 1846. At the general election of 1847 he became member for speaking again, on the Irish Church and on university questions, the University of Oxford, an honour which Peel and he both realways with notable success. He became a lord of the Treasury garded as one of the dearest prizes of their lives. Years followed in Peel’s Government of 1834, under-secretary for the colonies a of steady, if unconscious, development on Liberal lines, years, toa, year later, and he at once concentrated on his task. He was al- of great parliamentary achievements, notably his opposition to ready keenly interested in colonial questions, and no politician was Palmerston in the Don Pacifico debate, and his tribute in July ever readier to learn. Before long he was recognized as one of 1859 to the chief whom he always regarded, as on the whole, the

Gledstanes maltsters in the town of Biggar. One of them, Thomas, |

es

the few members of parliament who understood colonial interests. greatest man that he had ever known. In 1851, after wintering He gradually convinced himself that it was in local autonomy in Italy, he startled Europe by his famous letters to Lord Aberthat the real solution of the imperial problem would be found. deen, impeaching the tyranny of the Government of Naples, the But Peel’s Government could not stand. Gladstone was soon re- first occasion on which he appeared as the spokesman of opleased from his labours, free to devote himself to every kind of pressed and suffering nations. In the political crises of that year reading, and free also to prepare his famous book on The State the Peelites received evertures from both sides. But when Lord in tts Relations with the Church (1838). Old friends, among Derby formed an unstable Government in 1852 it was not poswhom James Hope and Henry Manning were conspicuous, linked sible for Gladstone to join it. He remained outside and tore im sympathy with the Oxford movement.

He could not follow

them or Newman to the goal they found, but he could believe still in the duty of the State to give active and exclusive support

Disraeli’s budget to pieces in one of the greatest unpremeditated

speeches of his life. The coalition under Lord Aberdeen came into power, and Gladstone took the place at the Exchequer which

386

GLADSTONE

he was to make, for the first time, one of the greatest offices of State, and to illumine with a genius such as no finance minister, not even Peel or Pitt, had shown before.

in 1864, asserting the moral right of every Englishman “to come within the pale of the constitution,” frankly delighted Liberal opinion.

Lord Palmerston

was

not alone in understanding the

Lord Aberdeen’s administration, though overshadowed by the Crimean War, gave Gladstone the opportunity of proposing a memorable budget and of carrying through parliament a great scheme of university reform. The budget of 1853, introduced in a five hours’ speech which he perhaps never surpassed, reviewed and examined the whole system of the income-tax, and arranged for its gradual reduction and its extinction in seven years’ time. It established a succession duty on real estate, reduced the tea

phrase to assert the moral right of every man to a vote. The dissolution, however, in July 1865, found Gladstone rejected a Oxford, “‘unmuzzled” as he told his friends in Lancashire, where he was immediately provided with a seat. Palmerston died in October, and Gladstone, who had strong claims on the first place readily agreed to serve under Lord Russell. As leader of the Com.

duty, abolished the duty on soap, and, continuing Peel’s policy of enfranchising business and lowering the price of food, it swept away nearly 140 duties and diminished nearly 150 more. The Crimean War broke in upon these projects, and in 1854 the in-

Lowe and a Palmerstonian House of Commons. When the Coy. ernment were defeated a great crowd of Londoners marched to cheer Gladstone in his home. Lord Derby and Disraeli came into

come-tax had to be increased. Gladstone insisted on meeting war expenditure, as far as possible, out of income. For the war he shared responsibility, but he shared also the misgivings of his chief. And he turned with relief to university reform. A typical Oxford man, brought reluctantly to realize the necessity of change, he had special qualifications for this task. And his conduct of the Bill of 1854 revealed again his mastery of his subject and his ascendancy in the house. But in Jan. 1855 the widespread dissatisfaction with the conduct of the war destroyed Lord Aberdeen’s administration, and Gladstone and other Peelites, after some hesitation, withdrew from the Government, of which Lord Palmerston became the head. Then for a time he reserved himself for criticism—criticism of Cornewall Lewis’s finance, criticism of Palmerston’s high-handed policy in China, criticism of the act which established the divorce court, criticism of Palmerston’s Conspiracy Bill after the Orsini plot. On Palmerston’s fall Gladstone was pressed to take office under Lord Derby. But he preferred to stand apart, devoting himself to: Homeric studies— the three volumes of 1858 showed characteristic enthusiasm and industry—visiting Corfu on a mission which resulted in the ultimate union of the Ionian islands with Greece, and finally returning to criticize with detachment Disraeli’s first Reform Bill in the House of Commons. The general election of 1859 brought Palmerston back to office, and Gladstone, who had voted with the Tories in the division which turned Lord Derby out, caused some surprise by joining Palmerston as chancellor of the Exchequer. But he believed the country needed his services. He had proved himself no office-seeker, and he may scarcely have realized that his action meant his permanent enlistment in the Liberal party. The 15 years which followed were years of brilliant effort and almost uninterrupted power. A succession of great budgets, introduced in wonderful speeches and reflecting a period of great prosperity, made Gladstone the most conspicuous figure in the Government from 1859-65. The budget of 1860, combined with Cobden’s commercial treaty with France, carried the policy of free trade still further, and brought the number of dutiable articles down to 48. The proposal to repeal the paper duty, a proposal which created the cheap press, was defeated by the House of Lords, and Gladstone frankly warned the peers that he would not flinch from asserting the rights of the Commons over taxation. In 186r he made good his warning by including all his financial proposals, including the repeal of the paper duty, in a single Money Bill, which the peers could only accept or reject as a whole. In 1863 he had a substantial surplus and was able to reduce the income-tax to sevenpence again. He reduced it. further to sixpence in 1864 and to fourpence in 1865. He would not abandon the hope of getting rid of it altogether. Sugar and tea

mons he introduced the modest Reform Bill of 1866, and defended it undauntedly in a series of speeches which proved too strong for

power, and promptly introduced a wider Reform Bill: and Glag. stone, in spite of the factious groups around him, remodelled i as it passed through the house. At Christmas, Lord Russell’s re.

tirement left him undisputed leader of the Liberal party, and in 1868 he carried, over the heads of the Government, his famous resolutions for the disestablishment of the Irish Church. The

general election of that autumn ended in his return to power, as

prime minister—unseated indeed in Lancashire, but elected for Greenwich—at the head of the strongest and most strenuous Gov-

ernment of those times. The great measures of Gladstone’s first administration have long since passed into history. The disestablishment of the Irish Church was carried by an admirable mixture of firmness and con-

ciliation through the House of Lords. The Irish Land Act of 1870

did much to give security to Irish tenants. The same year saw the passing of Forster’s Education Act, the establishment of competitive examinations for the civil service, the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, and a new pact to protect the neutrality of Belgium. Army reform followed and the abolition of the purchase of commissions, which Gladstone enforced by royal warrant when the House of Lords refused assent. University tests were swept away; it had taken years to bring the old member for Oxford to agree to this. The ballot was adopted after some resistance from the peers. The settlement of the Alabama claims afforded a striking and significant example of the value of international arbitration as a method of avoiding war; and Gladstone’s own power over popular feeling was illustrated afresh by an astonishing meeting at Blackheath, where he spoke for two hours in the open air to many thousands of people and completely conquered an audience disposed to be unsympathetic and disorderly at first. But the Government’s difficulties increased. Their proposals for a university in Ireland were defeated. They were weakened by resuming office when Disraeli refused to come in. Tiresome points

of judicial and ecclesiastical patronage led to decisions in which the prime minister was accused of evading the law. On Lowe's removal to the Home Office, Gladstone reluctantly took over the Exchequer, and the question arose whether he had not thereby vacated his seat. In Jan. 1874 he suddenly dissolved parliament and held out hopes of abolishing the income-tax, now reduced to threepence, which he had always regarded as a possibility to be kept in view. The election resulted in a Tory majority. The prime minister travelled down to Windsor, taking The Merchant

of Venice‘and Thomas 4 Kempis with him. Disraeli returned both to office and to power. Gladstone, now aged 64, with a long record of service and activity behind him, reserved the right to with draw from parliament, though he took a prominent part in Of posing Archbishop Tait’s Bill for regulating public worship. Early

duties came down too. The country saw with delight the minister

in 1875 he laid down the leadership of the Liberal party and Lord

taking off tax after tax, and yet announcing a larger surplus every year. And these financial triumphs were accompanied by votes and speeches which showed his ever-widening Liberal outlook, his ever-growing dissatisfaction with the military expenditure and other characteristic actions of his chief. Against increasing armaments he fought to his last day. One famous utterance of these days, when, in 1862, he described jefferson Davis as having made a nation, Gladstone himself after-

Hartington was elected leader in his place. Sunshine, men said, had gone out of politics. But the eyes of the country were on Gladstone still. His health was unimpaired:

wards condemned as a mistake “of incredible grossness.” Another,

his doctor laughed at misgivings on the subject. His public terests, his powers of work, his zest for life, for literature, for politics, were as inexhaustible as ever, and he had hardly made his mind to retire before the Eastern Question (g.v.) called him

back. When the iniquities of Turkish misrule began to stir tht heart of Europe, Gladstone inevitably became the spokesman

GLADSTONE the indignation aroused. back; Lord Beaconsfield

Parliamentary colleagues might hang might profess himself

indifferent

to

“coffee-house babble”; fears of Russian influence might obscure the issue and enable rash politicians to beat up a “jingo” spirit and to bring the country within sight of war. But as the public realized

387

deeply-stirred emotions of the nation did not always remember that the abandonment of the Sudan was recommended by Sir Evelyn Baring and by Gordon himself, and that Gordon went there with explicit instructions not to hold, but to evacuate the country.

Events abroad, however, were only a part of the difficulties of Gladstone’s second administration. He spoke of it afterwards the more readily to a statesman whose ripe experience and for- as “a wild romance of politics,” a succession of accidents and midable arguments gave his warnings an unusual weight. In 1879 hairbreadth escapes. There was a grave crisis over the Franchise Gladstone entered on an electoral campaign which became a Bill of 1884. But the fine temper shown by the prime minister, rallying-point for Liberals all over the country: and the series of helped by the queen’s influence, brought it safely into port. speeches in which he unfolded to vast Scottish audiences which There was, all through, a rising tide of troubles in Ireland, an hung upon his words, the principles which, as he conceived, should alarming increase of disorder, a demand for new and exceptional govern the policy of this country, seemed to many to sound a legislation to settle the land question and to put down crime. new note of equity in the conduct of international affairs. Stu- The great Land Act of 1881, with its obvious benefits for Irish dents of his career have regarded these speeches, the maxims of tenants, virtually broke the Land League agitation. But the foreign policy laid down in Midlothian and reiterated elsewhere, Coercion Act which accompanied it roused a storm of defiance in as Gladstone’s greatest contribution to the public life of Europe. the country, and was followed by a startling increase in serious Friends of peace and arbitration have found in him the first crime. Forster’s methods failed, and their failure deeply impressed statesman of high rank to plead, in a world still ruled by obsolete his chief. Parnell’s arrest was followed by the Kilmainham Treaty, traditions of diplomacy, for a finer and truer conception of na- by the “black act” in Phoenix Park, by angry reproaches from the Government’s critics. But Gladstone’s conviction of the impostional duty, dignity and greatness. Gladstone had roused the country almost single-handed. When sibility of governing Ireland without the support of Irish reprethe battle was won and Lord Beaconsfield swept from office, all sentatives grew. When in June 1885 a sudden combination be-

the growing danger of the Government’s adventurous policies in Europe, in South Africa and in Afghanistan, British opinion turned

attempts to form a Liberal Government under any other leader yanished like mists before the sun. Queen Victoria, over whom Lord Beaconsfield had acquired an unrivalled personal ascendancy, had, unhappily, learned to regard Lord Beaconsfield'’s great opponent as a “violent, mischievous and dangerous” politician. Her letters leave no doubt of the lasting prejudice excited against a statesman who had enjoyed her high regard until Lord Beaconsfield’s influence became supreme. And her attitude towards her prime minister from 1880 onwards, though eased at times by her fine manners, unquestionably added to the difficulties of his task. On this subject it is characteristic that Gladstone never allowed a word of complaint to escape him. But he felt keenly the growing alienation of a sovereign whom he served through life with a tender and considerate loyalty not often surpassed. At 70 he took up again with undiminished vigour the burden of the State, and the years of his second administration, from 1880 to 1885, were some of the most strenuous and eventful of his life. The troubles bequeathed by Lord Beaconsfield were dealt with, though not without leaving seeds of further trouble in the future. But the call of Ireland was, from the first, insistent, and even Gladstone found it difficult to watch at each step the widespread negotiations of his colleagues. When the hope of federation in South Africa failed and the Boers protested against annexation, delays and mistakes at the Colonial Office undoubtedly aggravated a diffcult situation. The Boers rose in arms. Military mistakes then followed; and the chapter of accidents ended in a grave setback at Majuba Hill. Ministers refused, with unusual moral courage. to treat that setback as sufficient reason for abandoning their policy of conciliation or for stopping negotiations already begun. But to some their action gave the impression of weakness, and party critics not unnaturally accused them of surrendering to

tween Conservatives and Parnellites threw him out of office, he was already contemplating new departures. A brief Conservative administration was followed by a general election which returned 333 Liberals, 251 Conservatives and 86 Parnellites to the House of Commons. Gladstone came back to power for the third time at the age of 76, and entered with unquenchable ardour on the

most astonishing period of his career. Of all the many interests which engrossed him from the days of his earliest speeches in parliament, Irish questions, the Irish Church, Irish land, Irish university education, the whole difficult problem of Irish government, had again and again occupied his mind. To those who knew him best and watched his utterances closely, his declaration for Home Rule was scarcely a surprise. Months before, a critic so acute as Healy had pointed out in

public the movement of Gladstone’s mind. But a new departure so momentous startled many of his followers, and not even the skill with which the great measure was drafted, and the consummate gifts employed to recommend it to the House of Commons, could avert the defeat of the Home Rule Bill of 1886. Six years of vigorous opposition followed, marked by a Liberal recovery in the country, by the Parnell triumph before the special commission, by the Parnell tragedy which stemmed “the flowing tide.” Gladstone's fourth premiership was chiefly remarkable for a fresh attempt to carry a Home Rule Bill in 1893. The Liberal majority was too small for success. But the power, the vitality, the astonishing resources of argument and eloquence, dexterity and understanding with which the prime minister of 83 fought every detail of his bill fascinated opponents hardly less than friends. The opposition of the House of Lords to the measures of the Liberal Government provoked a warning of the coming

issue between the peers and the democracy, which proved to be Gladstone’s last speech in parliament, his last appearance in Even greater difficulties arose in Egypt, when Arabi Pasha’s the House of Commons. But the refusal of some trusted coloutbreak and the refusal of France and Turkey to co-operate, leagues to support him in his life-long determination to keep down forced an unwelcome responsibility upon Britain. The difficulties expenditure on armaments was the immediate cause of a resignawere never adequately grasped, the consequences of the action tion for which age and failing sight and hearing supplied untaken never perhaps sufficiently examined. The determination answerable pleas. His chief political opponent declared that the of Gladstone and his cabinet to avoid, as far as possible, any country lost by his withdrawal the most brilliant intellect ever policy of annexation did not prevent very serious commitments. devoted to the public service since parliamentary government In much that followed Gladstone’s share was less than that of began. CLOSING YEARS some of his colleagues. He declared strongly in 1882 against eleat.

the policy of restoring order in the Sudan. He was the only member of the cabinet who objected to despatching troops to Suakin in 1883. He was absent from London when the decision to send out Gordon was taken. He would have been the last indeed to deny his responsibility for that or for any other episode in the wibappy series of miscalculations which ended in the tragedy at Khartoum, But the critics who, after the disaster, voiced the

Such men cannot retire, can rarely rest. Yet, if there could be no complete relief from activities, there was a serene and noble dignity about the closing years. Gladstone’s career had stirred men’s passions deeply and some political ill-will survived, to break

out again in foolish malice even after death, when a miserable libel based on his work in reclaiming women of bad character, was revived, repeated and disposed of in the law courts for ever.

388

GLADSTONE

In his charities he had no fear of misconstruction and was generous to excess.

There was

much

in him, no

doubt, which

Gladstone’s place in the long line of British statesmen only

the | the future can decide.

Walpole and Palmerston had few rivals

average Englishman failed to understand. He was sometimes | in the art of managing parliaments. Chatham had no superior quite indifferent to opinion. A certain simplicity and modesty | in eloquence, Fox in the instinct for debating, Burke in the rich. of nature made him perhaps too literal and unsuspecting; and | ness of his mind. Pitt may have had more mastery of his fol. the contrast between this genuine simplicity and his reserves, | lowers, Peel a sense of public duty as unwavering and as fryjt. refinements and ambiguities of expression bewildered his critics | ful in results. But in the combination of intellectual powers ang and provoked accusations of bad faith. But as party feelings | physical resources, in range of genius, character, achievement. cooled such accusations died away. Men looked back upon his | Gladstone stands second to no English public man. The length 60 years of public service and saw a life “set up on high,” not | and fullness of his record are astonishing. Where else can 6g free, indeed, from errors and miscalculations, but lived from first | years of such activities be shown? And in every field of politics to last among ideals as pure and standards as exalted as any | there is the same rare power of concentration, the same untiring

English statesman ever sought. The habits of mind, the scholar- | industry, the same

mastery

of administrative

and legislative

ship, the theology, the views of science might seem to some old- | details, the same passion for the public interest, the same ever. fashioned or mistaken. But even in science there was always an | deepening love of human freedom. The greatest financier and extraordinary readiness to learn. Outside parliament he was | practical economist who ever gave life to the commerce of this essentially a student, a book-lover, a prolific writer. He could | country, he was also one of the first members of parliament to revel in Dante, in Aristotle or Augustine, in Don Quixote and | give serious study to colonial problems, to set himself to solve Byron, in Blackstone, Chillingworth and Jewel. “Usual occu- | and settle the endless complexities of Irish government, to make pations . . . Bible, Alfieri, Wallenstein, Plato, Gifford's Pitt, Bto- | British foreign policy an example to the world. Right with him graphia Literaria,” is a note of 1833. Devoted to Wordsworth, | was might. He did more than any man of his generation to ad. he was a fine critic of Tennyson. Scott was a life-long favourite, | vance the cause of peace and arbitration, to plead for humanity but Robert Elsmere engrossed him in 1888. Homer, like Dante, | in the government of States. His last words in politics, in 1896was a constant and familiar companion. He lectured on Homer to | 97, were appeals on behalf of Armenia and Greece. Is it any the Oxford Union when over 80. He completed his translation of | wonder that his name became a household word in southern the Odes of Horace on the day of his final retirement in 1894. | Europe, that in Italy and Rumania, Bulgaria and Macedonia, He was devoted to theology. In 1895 he was editing Bishop | men mourned his passing as the passing of a friend? Butler and establishing a library at St. Deiniol’s to promote! It is strange, perhaps, that this great worker should have been churchmanship and divine learning. Hawarden, a home to him | also the greatest speaker of his age. Several of his predecessors

for nearly 60 years—the management

and restoration of the | had been masters of the House of Commons, but he was a master

Hawarden property taught him many a lesson in finance—became | on the platform also, unrivalled by virtue of his own intense a centre of all kinds of studies as well as a storehouse of docu- | conviction in his power of convincing multitudes of men. It is ments of high value to the State. stranger still that this outspoken leader of democracy should At Hawarden Gladstone was engrossed in literature, in writing | have been to the last one of the courtliest of courtiers, one of the and in correspondence. Only his rigid method and economy of| loyalest of churchmen, one of the most inveterate lovers of the

time enabled him to keep his correspondence down. He was | past. To Oxford, as the shadows closed, “the God-fearing and visited by many friends who delighted in his conversation. The | God-sustaining university of Oxford,” he sent a touching message Lyttelton family stood for much in kinship. Lord Acton stood | of farewell. The fires of life were dying. The “vulnerable temper” for much in literature. Lord Granville and Lord Spencer, Lord | had long since been exquisitely disciplined; but the old intimate

Rosebery and John Morley stood out latterly as intimate col- | interests and affections survived. Health broke at last completely.

leagues.

As time passed the people of England flocked in multi- | Pain was added to his trials, pain very nobly borne.

In May

tudes to see him. But he was happiest of all in his home life; in | 1898 the end arrived. A vast procession of mourners passed a marriage which brought him over 58 years of intimate com- | beside his bier at Westminster. He was laid to rest in the Abbey panionship; in a family whose affection was touched indeed with | with every honour that his countrymen could pay. Friends and awe and admiration, but inseparable from enjoyment, playful- | opponents joined in eulogy, but Lord Salisbury’s tribute to “a ness and fun; in children who could remember nothing master- | great Christian statesman” touched perhaps the central truth, ful or dictatorial about him, only the gentlest and kindliest of | Far more than genius or renown, or political achievement, it was teachers, a lover of truth and of every form of industry, a hater | the sense of Gladstone’s moral grandeur which won the final (C. E. M.) of every form of waste, an example not of religion thrust upon | homage of mankind. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—T. C. Hansard, Parliamentary Debates (June 3, them, but of religion made unconsciously the basis of ordinary

life. Of these children one son, William Henry, served for many i

18331, ieee ea

7893) i

ee

oo yh Moree

eee

teliament. Another, Herbert, Viscount Gladstone, be- Morley), Life of Gladstone (ofical biography, 3 vols., ie abridged

came prominent in public life. A grandson, William, succeeded | eq. 192 7); Barnett Smith, Life of Gladstone (1879) ; E. W. Hamilton, to Hawarden and fell in the World War. And others of the family | Mr. Gladstone: a Monograph (1898); Lord Rosebery, Gladstone:

have maintained in different callings the great traditions inherited | 4 Speech (1902); Life of W. E. Gladstone, edit. by T. Wemyss Reid from their home. The religion which Gladstone taught them (1899) ; L. J. Jennings, Mr. Gladstone, A Study (1887); G. W. : knew Evangelical, TE (1895); ee caters bot) 5 HW.TalksLucy, W> C tenets. At first : an earnest € no narrow ca withREMr.HonGladston 1g , he A becam © | Gladstone L. A. Tollemache, a life-long friend of Tractarian opinions, of Bishop Wilberforce, | (1898); A. West, Recollections (1899); H. Paul, Life of W. E. Glad-

of Dr. Pusey, of Keble college. He pleaded for tolerance for | stone (1901); Mary Drew, Mr. Gladstone’s Library (1906) and ritualist developments, for the authority and spiritual freedom a Soe eee aa a ee of the Church. His sympathies with the Greek Church, too, were 28): D. C. Lathbury, Mr. Gladstone (1910) ; Tston Strachey, Queen strong. But he separated himself decisively from Newman and | Victoria (1921). Sze also R. H. Gretton, Modern History of tke Manning. He spoke vigorously against the tendencies of Vati- | English People 1880-1898 (1913); Cambridge Modern History (edit.

canism and the dangerous claims of Rome. He nominated Dr. | A. W. Ward, 1o10; Bk. XII., ch. ifi., iv. xiv. xv.; P. Knaplund Temple to a bishopric; Church patronage gave him many anxious | @/@@stome and Britain’s Imperial Policy (1927).

a city of Delta county, Michigan, i GLADSTONE, hours. He won the love and trust of Nonconformists. His defence of the Affirmation Bill of 1883 was among his noblest | the upper Peninsula, at the head of Little Bay de Noc, an inlet of

speeches.

It was the spirit, not the form, of religion which | Green bay (Lake Michigan). It is on Federal highways 2 and 41,

dominated and inspired his life. From that he drew his rare | and is served by the Soo Line railway. The population was 4,953 seli-mastery, his conviction of right, his assurance of duty and, | in 1920 and was 5,170 in 1930. It is a division headquarters m great issues of statesmanship or conduct, his fine fearlessness | of the railroad: has a deep-water harbour, with coal and flow

im leading men.

docks and a grain elevator; is a receiving and distributing centre

GLAGOLITIC—GLAMORGANSHIRE for automobiles shipped across the lake and consigned to places farther west; and manufactures sporting goods, firearms, hardwood flooring, veneer and other articles. The city was founded in 1880 and incorporated in 1889. Since 1923 it has had a council-

manager form of government. GLAGOLITIC, an early Slavonic alphabet in which is written an early liturgy still used among

Catholic Montenegrins

ALPHABET.)

the Dalmatians and Roman

by special licence of the Pope.

(See

GLAIR, the white of an egg, and hence a term for a preparation made of this, used in bookbinding and in gilding to retain the gold and as a varnish. The adjective “glairy” is used of substances having the viscous and transparent consistency of the white of an egg.

its thick, hard grit bands WALEs.) The body of the county the rivers Taff and Neath. these rivers is the loftiest

standing out as bold uplands.

389 (See

forms a sort of quarter-circle between Near the apex of the angle formed by peak in the county, the great Pennant

scarp of Craig y Llyn or Carn Moesyn (1,970 ft.). To the south

and south-east extends a great coalfield, its surface forming an

irregular plateau with an average elevation of 600 to 1,200 [t., but with numerous peaks about 1,500 ft. or more; Mynydd y

Caerau, being 1.823 ft. Out of this plateau have been carved,

to the depth of 500 to 800 ft. below its general level, three distinct series of narrow valleys, those in each series being more or less parallel. The Cynon, the Great and Lesser Rhondda (tributaries of the Taif) and the Ely flow to the S.E., the Ogwr GLAISHER, JAMES (1809-1903), English meteorologist or Ogmore (with its tributaries the Garw and Llynfi) flow south and aeronaut, was born in London on April 7, 1809. After serving through Bridgend, and the Avan brings the waters of the Corwg for a few years on the ordnance survey of Ireland, he acted as an and Gwynfi to the south-west into Swansea Bay at Aberavon. To assistant at the Cambridge and Greenwich observatories succes- the east of this high ground and divided from it by a spur of sively, and when the department of meteorology and magnetism the Brecknock mountains culminating in Carn Bugail (1,570 ft.}, was formed at the latter, he was entrusted with its superintend- is the Rhymney, which forms the county’s eastern boundary. On ence, which he continued to exercise for thirty-four years, until the west other spurs of the Beacons divide the Neath from the his retirement from the public service. In 1845 he published his Tawe and the Tawe from the Loughor, which, with its tributary well-known dew-point tables, which have gone through many the Amman, separates the county on the north-west from Careditions. In 1850 he established the Meteorological Society, act- marthenshire. The rivers are all comparatively short, the Taff, ing as its secretary for many years, and in 1866 he assisted in the the chief river, being only 33 m. long. foundation of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain. He made To the south of this central hill country, which is wet, cold a series of balloon ascents between 1862 and 1866, mostly in and sterile, and whose slopes form the coal-field’s southern edge, company with Henry Tracey Coxwell, with the object of carrying there stretches out to the sea an undulating plain. Geologically it vut observations on the temperature, humidity, etc., of the at- is a deeply eroded anticlinorium of Old Red Sandstone largely mosphere at high elevations. He died on Feb. 7, 1903, at Croydon. concealed by Trias and Lias. Silurian rocks form a small inlier GLAMIS, village and parish, Forfarshire, Scotland, s4 m. W. about 2 sq.m. in area at Rumney and Penylan, north of Cardiff by S. of Forfar by the L.M.S. railway. Pop. (1931) 98s. The and consist of mudstones and sandstones of Wenlock and Ludlow name 1s sometimes spelled Glammis and the i is mute: it is de- age. The Old Red Sandstone, which forms the “ground-work” of rived from the Gaelic, glamhus, “a wide gap,” “a vale.” In the the vale, consists in the lower parts of red marls and sandstones, village is a sculptured stone, supposed to be a memorial of Mal- while the upper beds are quartzitic and pebbly, and form bold colm II., although Fordun’s statement that the king was slain scarps which dominate the low ground formed by the softer beds in the castle is now rejected. About a mile from the station stands below, Cefn-y-bryn, another anticline of Old Red Sandstone Glamis castle, the seat of the earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne, (including small exposures of Silurian rocks), forms the promia fine example of the Scottish Baronial style, enriched with certain nent backbone of the Gower peninsula. The next formation is features of the French chateau. In its present form it dates the Carboniferous Limestone which encircles and underlies the mostly from the 17th century, but the original structure was as coal-field, on the south of which, west of Cardiff, it forms a old as the 1th century, for Macbeth was thane of Glamis. Robert bold escarpment of steeply-dipping beds surroundin g the Old Red I] bestowed the thanedom on John Lyon, who had married the Sandstone. It shows up through the Trias and Lias in extensive king's second daughter by Elizabeth Mure and was thus the inliers near Bridgend, while in Gower it dips away from the Old founder of the existing family. Patrick Lyon became hostage to Red Sandstone of Cefn-y-bryn. On the north of the coalfield England for James I. in 1424, When, in 1 537, Janet Douglas, it is just reached near Merthyr Tydfil. The Millstone Grit crops widow of the 6th Lord Glamis, was burned at Edinburgh as a out above the limestone. witch, for conspiring to procure James V.’s death, Glamis was After the Coal Measures forming the north of the county (see torfeited to the crown, but it was restored to her son six years above) had been deposited, the southern part of the region was later when her innocence had been established. The 3rd earl of subjected to powerful folding; the resulting anticlines were worn Strathmore entertained the Old Chevalier in 1715 and fell on the down, and then submerged slowly beneath a Triassic lake in which battlefield at Sheriffmuir. Sir Walter Scott spent a night in the accumulated the Keuper conglomerates and marls which spread “hoary old pile” when he was about twenty years old, and gives a over the district west of Cardiff and are traceable on the coast striking relation of his experiences in his Demonology and Witch- of Gower. The succeeding Rhaetic and Lias which form most of craft. The hall has several historical portraits, including those of the coastal plain (the fertile Vale of Glamorgan) from Penarth Claverhouse, Charles IT. and James II. of England. At Cossans, to near Bridgend were laid down by the Jurassic sea. The coast in the parish of Glamis, there is a remarkable sculptured monolith, of south Glamorgan ends in low cliffs notched by little streams. ‘nd other examples occur at the Hunters’ hill and in the old A well-marked raised beach is traceable in Gower. Sand-dunes kirkyard of Eassie. are present locally around Swansea Bay, and between the rivers GLAMORGANSHIRE (Welsh M orgonwg), a maritime Ogmore and Neath where Kenfig town lies buried. Moraines, county occupying the south-east corner of Wales, and bounded chiefly formed of gravel and clay, occupy many of the Glamorgan north-west by Carmarthenshire, north by Carmarthenshire and valleys; and these, together with the striated surfaces which may Breconshire, east by Monmouthshire and south and south-west be observed at higher levels, are clearly glacial in origin. by the Bristol Channel and Carmarthen Bay. Area 520,456 Down to the middle of the 19th century most of the Glamorgan acs. Pop. (1931) 1,225,713. Its extreme breadth from the sea valleys were famous for their scenery, but industrial operations inland is 29 m., while its greatest length from east to west is have completely destroyed this in the valleys of the north. The 53 m.

Structurally and physically it may be considered in two sec-

tions—-(1) the northern upland section forming a part of the

South Wales coal-field; (2) the lower section or Vale of Gla-

Morgan—a region in which old rocks much worn down are cov-

ered by newer deposits. The coal-field is a geological basin with

rainfall varies from an average of about 25 in. at Porthcawl and other parts of the Vale of Glamorgan to about 37 in. at Cardiff, 40 in. at Swansea and to upwards of 70 in. in the northern part of the county.

Early Settlement.—The earliest known traces of man within the county are the remains found in the caves of the south coast

390

GLAMORGANSHIRE

of Gower (g.v.). These are of Palaeolithic date. Many flint implements have been found on the south coast particularly at the mouth of the Ogmore river. There are many cairns and tumuli on the hills of the north such as those on Garth mountain near Cardiff, Crug-yr-avan and a number east of the Tawe. There is little evidence of a strong megalithic culture, although there is a well-preserved stone circle at Carn Llecharth near Pontardawe, and fine dolmens at Cefn Bryn in Gower and at St. Nicholas and St. Lythan’s, near Cardiff. Several prehistoric beakerpots have been found in the vale of Glamorgan and the valley ways. especially that of the Taff, have yielded socketed axes of the late Bronze Age. Important sites on the coast and along the inland valleys are guarded by indigenous hill-top forts occupied probably in Romano-British times. In Roman times the country from the Neath to the Wye was occupied by the Silures. There are Ogham stones at Loughor and Kenfig. The conquest of the Silures by the Romans began about a.D. 50 by Ostorius Scapula and was continued by Julius Frontinus. The important station of Gaer on the Usk near Brecon was connected by two branch roads, one running from Cardiff through Gelligaer (where there was a strong hill fort} and Penydarren, and another from Neath through Coelbren. An important Roman road ran along the Vale from Caerleon through Cardiff to Neath (Nidum). Glamorgan was an important centre of Celtic Christianity. Llandaff is associated with St. Dubricius and St. Teilo (6th century). To this period also belongs the establishment of the great monastic settlements of Llancarvan, Llandough and Llantwit Major (Llanilltyd Fawr). After the withdrawal of the Romans, the coasts were raided by Saxons. The Scandinavians

who came in the oth and succeeding centuries left more abundant traces both in the place-names of the coastal areas and in such

camps as that on Sully. Island, the Bulwarks at Porthkerry and Hardings Down in Gower. Meanwhile the native tribes had been reorganized into a principality known as Glywyssing, till about the end of the roth century when it acquired the name of Morganwg (the territory of Morgan), a prince who died in A.D. 980. Morganwg then comprised the whole country from the Neath to the Wye. The Norman conquest was effected at the end of the 1rth century by Robert Fitzhamon, lord of Gloucester. His followers settled in the “Vale,” which became known as the “body” of the

shire, while in the hill country the Welsh retained their customary laws and much of their independence. Glamorgan, whose bounds were contracted between the Neath and the Rhymney, then became a lordship marcher, its status and organization being that of a county palatine. The inhabitants of Cardiff, the caput baroniae, were granted municipal privileges, and in time Cowbridge, Kenfig, Llantrisant, Aberavon and Neath also became chartered market-towns. The manorial system was introduced throughout the “Vale,” the manor in many cases becoming the parish. The distinction between the compact villages with English tenure on the lowlands and the Welsh scattered farms with tribal customs on the highlands, was very marked in this county. The distinction is often preserved in the parish names, e.g., Coity Anglia and Coity Wallia near Bridgend. The religious houses included the Cistercian abbeys of Neath and Margam founded in 1129 and 1147, respectively, the Benedictine priory of Ewenny (1r41) and tbat of Cardif (1147). Dominican and Franciscan

houses were also founded at Cardiff in the following century. Gower (with Kilvey) or the country west of the morass between Neath and Swansea had a separate history (see Gower). For the first two centuries after Fitzhamon’s time the lordship

of Glamorgan was held by the earls of Gloucester, who acquired it originally through marriage. The first earl built Cardiff Castle and was patron of Geoffrey of Monmouth. The lordship passed by descent through the families of Clare (who held it from 1217 to 1317), Despenser, Beauchamp and Neville to Richard III., on whose fall it escheated to the crown. Raids from the hills were

frequent. Cardiff Castle was seized by the Welsh about 1153.

who besieged the castle.

In 1316 Llewelyn Bren headed a revolt

in the same district. In 1404 Owain Glyn Dwr swept through the county, burning castles and carrying all before him. By the Act of Union of 1535 the county of Glamorgan was incorporated as it now exists, by the addition to the old county of the lord. ship of Gower and Kilvey, west of the Neath.

The lordship of Glamorgan, shorn of its quasi-regal status,

was granted

by Edward

VI. to William

Herbert, afterwards

ist earl of Pembroke, from whom it has descended to the present

marquess of Bute. The rule of the Tudors promoted the rapid assimilation of the

inhabitants of the county, and by the reign of Elizabeth even

the descendants of the Norman knights had largely became Welsh both in speech and sentiment. Welsh continued to be the prevalent speech, except in the peninsular part of Gower and perhaps Cardiff, till the last quarter of the roth century. Since then it has lost ground in the maritime towns and the south-east corner of the county generally, while it is failing to hold its own even in the industrial districts of the north. In common with the rest of Wales the county was mainly Royalist in the Civil War, but later dissatisfaction made the county declare for Parliament. There was, however, a subse. quent Royalist revolt in Glamorgan in 1648, but it was crushed

by Colonel Horton at the battle of St. Fagan’s. Industrial Development.—Down to the middle of the 18th

century the county had no industry of importance except agri. culture. The coal which underlies practically the whole surface except the Vale of Glamorgan and West Gower was little worked

till about 1755, when it began to be used instead of charcoal for the smelting of iron. The iron works were mostly on the northern outcrop of the coal-field and by 1811 there were 25 blast furnaces in the county, among them those of Aberdare, Dowlais and Merthyr Tydfil. Down to about 1850, if not later, the chief collieries were owned by the ironmasters and were worked for their own requirements, but when the suitability of the lower seams in the district north of Cardiff for steam purposes was realized, an export trade sprang up and soon assumed enormous proportions, so that “the port of Cardiff” (including Barry and Penarth), from which the bulk of the steam coal was shipped, became the first port in the world for the shipment of coal. This remarkable development coincided with the ever increasing demand for railway construction, steam ships and navies. The rapid opening up of the deeper seams in the southern section of the industrial region meant a great influx of population which settled around the pit-heads. The steep sides of the valleys would not allow of town:’development and so the workmen's houses grew up in the Rhondda and some other valleys in long straggling rows in the valley bottoms. The mining villages therefore, while lacking all traditions of settlement from the past. offered few facilities for the development of a new corporate civic life. Large numbers of small colliery companies exploited these valleys from which the coal was rushed to the coast for export as long as the demand lasted. There was little or no development of by-product trade in the valleys—a factor that caused serious difficulties for the east of the county when the general demand for steam coal fell considerably after the war of r914—r8.

The evolution of the south-west of the county where the coalfield reaches nearest the sea was different. The triangle formed by Port Talbot, Ystalyfera and Loughor has concentrated on the metallurgical industries which have focused on Swansea “the metallurgical capital of Wales.” ,

The manufacture of iron and steel is carried on at Dowlais,

Merthyr Tydfil and at Port Talbot, Briton Ferry, Pontardawe, Swansea, Gorseinon and Gowerton. During the last quarter of the roth century the use of the native ironstone was almost

wholly given up, and the necessary ore is now imported, mainly from Spain. As a result several of the older inland works, such as those of Aberdare, Ystalyfera and Brynaman were abandoned, and new works established on or near the sea-board; e.g., the

At last Caerphilly Castle was built to keep them in check, but Dowlais comparty in 1891 opened large works at Cardiff. The this provoked an invasion in 1270 by Prince Llewelyn ap Griffith, | tin-plate industry is mainly in the Swansea-Llanelly area, though

GLANDERS

391

there are works near Llantrisant and at Melin Griffith near Car- tt have been drawn from a much wider field. diff, the latter being the oldest in the county. Copper-smelting ' The county is divided into seven parliamentary divisions, each is carried on on a large scale in the west of the county, at Port t returning one member. These divisions are Aberavon, Caerphilly, Talbot, Cwmavon, Neath and Swansea, and on a small scale at i Gower, Llandaff and Barry, Neath, Ogmore and Pontypridd. In Cardiff, the earliest works having been established at Neath in addition there are three members for Cardiff, and two each for 1384 and at Swansea in 1717. There are nickel works at Clydach Merthyr, Swansea and the Rhondda Urban District. There are near Swansea. Swansea has almost a monopoly of the manufac- i six municipal boroughs, Port Talbot, Cardiff, Cowbridge, Merthyr ture of spelter or zinc. Lead, silver and other metals or their Tydfil, Neath and Swansea. Cardiff, Merthyr Tydfil and Swanby-products are treated in or near Swansea. Limestone and silica sea are county boroughs. Glamorgan is in the south Wales circuit, and both assizes and quarries are worked, while sandstone and clay are also raised. Swansea and Nantgarw were formerly famous for their china, quarter sessions are held at Cardiff and Swansea alternately. All i

J

i

? t

t

1

$ a

i

N i

,

i

5

and coarse ware is still made at Ewenny.

The development of the anthracite coalfield lying to the north

and west of Swansea (from which port it is mostly shipped)

dates mainly from the closing years of the roth century when the demand for this coal grew rapidly. Its extended use in modern more

and more

in the

The low-lying land on the south from Caerphilly to Margam is very fertile, and here the standard of agriculture is fairly high. Everywhere on the Coal Measures the soil is poor, while yegetation is also injured by the smoke and rubbish tips. Leland

(c. 1535) describes the lowlands as growing good corn and grass

but little wood, while the mountains

4 i 1 a 1

t

! BIBLIOGRAPHY. —A collection of records edited by G. T. Clark under south-western ||the title Cartue et alic munimenta quae ad dominium de Glamorgan | pertinent was privately printed by him in four volumes (1885~93). A

industry together with the organization provided for its international marketing tends to concentrate the industrial develop-

ment of Glamorganshire ction.

the municipal boroughs have separate commissions of the peace, and Cardiff and Swansea have also separate courts of quarter sessions. The county has 13 other petty sessional divisions; | Cardiff, the Rhondda and the Merthyr and Aberdare district have stipendiary magistrates. The county is in the dioceses of Llandaff and Swansea and Brecon. 3

had ‘‘redde dere, kiddes

plenty, oxen and sheep.” The land even in the “Vale” seems to have been open and unenclosed till the end of the 1sth or beginning of the 16th century, while enclosure spread to the uplands still later. About one-fifth of the total area is still com-

mon land, more than half of which is unsuitable for cultivation.

The total area under cultivation in 1926 was 223,620 acres, under half of the total area of the county. The chief crops raised are oats, turnips and swedes, barley, wheat, potatoes and mangolds.

Dairying has been largely abandoned for stock-raising. Good sheep and ponies are reared in the hill-country. Pig-keeping is much neglected, and despite the mild climate very little fruit is own. " Coama dons he physical features are well suited for communication purposes. The coal trains could run easily from the high ground of the coalfield to the “Vale” and thence to the coal exporting ports on the coast, the uphill return journey being done with empty wagons. Thus a large number of small private lines ran down from the coal valleys focusing on Cardiff, Barry, Port Talbot and Swansea, which are well supplied with dock accommodation. Gradually the smaller railway lines became amalgemated and since 1923 they have all been run by the G.W.R. The G.W.R. main line runs between the highland and the sea, serves Cardiff, Bridgend, Port Talbot, Neath, Swansea and

f } f

Descriptive Catalogue of the Penrice and Margam Abbey MSS. (6 vols.) was privately issued (1893~1903) under the editorship of Dr. de Gray Birch. The Book of Lian Daf (edited by Dr. Gwenogvryn Evans, 1903) contains documents illustrative of the early history of the diocese

of Llandaff. Cardiff has published its Records in 5 vols. G. T, Clark, Genealogies of Glamorgan (1886) and Mediaeval Military Architecture ! (1884); Royal Commission on Industrial Unrest (1917), Report on i | Region VII—South Wales; W. Rees, South Wales and the March (923); A. E. Trueman, “Population Changes on the South Wales Coalfield,” Geogr. Journal, 1919.

GLANDERS or FARCY

(eguinia), a specific infective and

contagious disease prevailing in most parts of the world. Caused by Bacillus mallei, it affects chiefly the horse, ass, and mule but is communicable to man. In Equidae it is one of the most serious of maladies, and specially affects the lungs, respiratory mucous membrane, and the lymphatic system. It occurs particularly among horses kept in foul, crowded, badly ventilated stables or such as are over-worked, badly fed, or debilitated. It may be contracted by inhalation of the bacilli, ingestion of the virus with food or water, or inoculation of a wound of the skin or a mucous membrane.

Carnivorous animals—lions, tigers, dogs,

and cats—have become infected through eating the flesh of glandered horses; and men attending diseased horses are liable to be infected (see below). Sometimes a distinction is made between glanders with nasal ulcers and other symptoms of respiratory disease, and glanders of the skin, or farcy, but there is no essential difference. Both are due to the same organism, and both may be acute or chronic. Acute glanders is always rapidly fatal, and chronic glanders may become acute or terminate by apparent recovery. The symptoms of acute glanders are initial fever, thirst, loss Loughor. It sends numerous branches up the northern valleys. of appetite, hurried pulse and respiration, emaciation, languor, Swansea is connected with Brecon and with Mid Wales and and disinclination to move. Sometimes the legs or joints are Shrewsbury by L.M.S. lines. The canals of the county are the swollen; but the characteristic symptoms are a greyish-yellow Glamorgan canal from Cardiff to Merthyr Tydfil (254 m.), with viscid discharge from one or both nostrils, a peculiar enlarged and a branch (7 m.) to Aberdare, the Neath canal (13 m.) from nodulated condition of one or both submaxillary lymphatic glands, Briton Ferry to Abernant, Glyn Neath, the Tennant canal con- which though they may be painful very rarely suppurate, and on necting the rivers Neath and Tawe, and the Swansea canal the nasal membrane small yellow pimples or pustules, running (165 m.), running up the Swansea Valley from Swansea to into deep, ragged-edged ulcers, and sometimes on the septum Abercrave in Breconshire. Comparatively little use is now made large patches of deep ulceration. The discharge from the nose of ae canals, excepting the lower portions of the Glamorgan adheres to the nostrils and upper lip, and causes snuffling and canal. frequent snorting. The lymphatic vessels of the face often appear Population and Administration.—The rapid rise of popu- as painful subcutaneous ‘‘cords” passing across the cheek. These lation with the development of its industries and coal-mining is vessels sometimes present nodules which break and discharge a one of the most remarkable features in the social life of Wales glutinous pus. As the disease progresses, the ulcers on the nose during the last century. In the three decades between 1831 and increase in number, enlarge or become confluent, extend in depth, #861 the population increased 35-2, 35-4 and 37-r per cent. re- and may perforate the septum. The nasal discharge, now more spectively, and from 1881-91, 34-4 per cent. The average in- abundant and tenacious, is streaked with blood and offensive, crease in the decennial periods subsequent to 1861 were about the respiration is noisy or roaring, and there may be coughing with

25% until r90r when the population stood at 859,931. In 1931 it had reached 1,225,713. It has been shown that before the railway’s advent this increase

in population was derived mainly from the neighbouring counties

of Ceermarthen, Brecon and Cardigan, but subsequent immigrants

bleeding from the nose. Painful oedematous swellings appear on the muzzle, throat, between the fore legs, at the flank or on the limbs, and “farcy buds” may form on some of the swollen parts. Pneumonia and pleurisy, with extreme prostration, and diarrhoea precede death, which is due to asphyxia or to exhaustion.

392

GLANDS

Cauterization should be resorted to if the point of Chronic or latent glanders generally presents few definite symp- strength. early known. infection is toms. The suspected animal may have a discharge from the nose, in anatomy, are composite masses of tissue varyGLANDS, unbroken small and both, or or an enlarged submaxillary gland, in and size but agreeing in the formation widely complexity ing visible nodules may exist on the septum, but usually there is no is formed by an ingrowth from an gland Every secretion. a of of suspicion horses some In membrane. ulceration of the nasal epithelial surface. This ingrowth may from | a of swelling glanders may be excited by lameness and sudden the beginning possess a tubular structure, | or condition of loss general sluggishness, staling, joint, by profuse but in other instances may start as a solid by refusal of food, rise of temperature, swollen fetlocks, with| column of cells which subsequently be. dry hacking cough, nasal catarrh, and other symptoms of a comcomes tubulated. As growth proceeds, the a but improves, horse the stable the in mon cold. With rest column of cells may divide or give off oifone-sided nasal discharge continues, the submaxillary gland enshoots, in which case a compound gland is larges, and, after an interval, ulcers appear in the nose or “farcy formed. In many glands the number of may horse the glanders buds” form on a swollen leg. In occult branches is limited, in others (salivary, appear to be in good health and be able to perform ordinary work. pancreas) a very large structure is finally ed discover be only can glanders of In these cases the existence formed by repeated growth and sub-diviby resorting to the mallein test. 1

In cutaneous glanders, or farcy, symptoms occur on the skin of a limb, usually a hind one, or on the body, where the lym-

phatics become inflamed and ulcerated. The limb is much swollen, and the animal moves with pain and difficulty. The lymphatic vessels appear as prominent “cords,” hard and painful on manip-

compound gland is produced. In compound glands the more typical or secretory epithelium forms the terminal portion of ulation, and along their course arise nodular swellings—the each branch, and the uniting portions form discharge and break so-called “farcy buds.” These small abscesses ducts and are lined with a less modiñed a yellow, glutinous, blood-stained pus, leaving sores which heal F1G. 1.—A COMPOUND type of epithelial cell. TUBULAR GLAND, HIGHLY very slowly. Glands are classified according to their MAGNIFIED, ONE OF THE Medical treatment of glanders or farcy should not be attempted. PYLORIC GLANDS OF THE shape. If the gland retains its shape asa (animals) diseases us contagio the under with dealt The disease is tube throughout it is termed a tubular |STOMACH OF THE DOG acts. Horses which present suspicious symptoms, or those which gland, simple tubular if there is no division (large intestine), comhave been in contact with glandered horses, should be isolated pound tubular (fig. 1) if branching occurs (pyloric glands of stomand tested with mallein. Animals which are found affected should ach). In the simple tubular glands the gland may be coiled without immediately be destroyed, and their harness, clothing, and the losing its tubular form, e.g., in utensils employed with them thoroughly cleansed, while the stalls, SMALL DUCT OF GLAND sweat glands. In the second main should ed frequent SUBDIVIDING INTO BRANCHES horse-boxes, and, places which the horses have variety of gland the secretory be disinfected. Forage left by glandered horses should be burned. portion is enlarged and the lumen 1888 in ed discover was Mallein, the toxin formed by B. mallez, variously increased in size. These by Helman, a Russian military veterinary surgeon, and the first are termed alveolar or saccular complete demonstration of its diagnostic value was given in 1891 glands. They are again subdifh filtered and by Kalning, also of Russia. It is present in a sterilized vided into simple or compound broth culture of glanders bacilli. Subcutaneously injected in a alveolar glands, as in the case of TERMINAL TUBULAR ALVEOLI and ure temperat of OF GLAND glandered horse, mallein causes a marked rise the tubular glands (fig. 2). A FIG. 2.—DIAGRAM OF A TUBULO- further complication in the case an extensive painful swelling at the seat of injection. In man, glanders is relatively a rare disease. It occurs chiefly ALVEOLAR GLAND of the alveolar glands may occur among those who are much in contact with horses, such as grooms, in the form of still smaller saccular diverticula growing out from coachmen, cavalry soldiers, veterinary surgeons, etc., but has the main sacculi (fig. 3). These are termed alveoli. caused the death of several bacteriologists who were carrying The typical secretory cells of the glands are found lining the on researches with B. mallei. Usually the bacillus is communicated terminal portions of the ramifications and from a glandered animal either through a wound or scratch or extend upwards to varying degrees. Thus or through application to the mucous membrane of the nose in a typical acinous gland the cells are mouth. After an incubation period of three or four days, or restricted to the final alveoli. The remainlonger in some cases, there is a general feeling of illness, with ing tubes are to be considered mainly as pains in the limbs and joints like those of acute rheumatism. ducts. In tubulo-alveolar glands the secretIf the disease has been introduced through an abrasion, local pain ing epithelium lines the alveolus as well as and inflammation occur and extend up the lymphatics. An ulcer the terminal tubule. with offensive discharge is formed, and blebs appear in the inThe gland cells are all placed upon may now flamed skin, along with diffuse abscesses. The disease nt membrane. In many instances baseme a stop short, but more commonly rapidly grows worse. Anywhere ane is formed of very thin membr this in the body cutaneous and subcutaneous foci appear which ultiin other instances it is ap cells, ed flatten mately open and become extensive sloughing ulcers. The conneous membrane, and homoge a y parentl dition is then a specialized variety of pyaemia or blood-poisoning. observers 1s simply a some to ng accordi FIG. 3.—-A COMPOUND The mucous membranes suffer like the skin, and this is particu- ALVEOLAR GLAND basal surface of the of part d modifie larly the case with the interior of the nose, where in many in- One of the terminal lobules the cell, while according to others it 18 showing stances the disease first shows itself. Not infrequently the bronchi | of the pancreas, t from the spherical shape of the 2 definite structure distinc portion af ry become affected, and abscesses form in the lungs. In the acute the secreto the In ium. epithel alveoli form the case generally terminates fatally in from two or three the gland and in the smaller ducts the epithelial layer is one days to as many weeks. layers of cell thick only. In the larger ducts there are two a thinnedA chronic form of glanders and farcy is occasionally met with, by extends usually but even here the surface cell charin which the symptoms advance much more slowly, and cause cells, down to the basement membrane. The detailed stalk out form this from Recovery e. disturbanc less urgent constitutional the of glands nt of the epithelium of the differe is recorded: but in general the disease proves fatal by exhaustion acters in a separate article (see ALIMENTARY CANAL, etc.). It given are other the On acute. becoming suddenly by or of the patient, nt here to give the more general characters posse sufficie be will chronic. hand, acute glanders is never observed to become

The sole treatment available is maintenance of the patient’s

i

sion. As a rule the branches do not unite with one another, but in one instance, the liver, this does occur when a reticulated

9 by these cells. They are cubical or conical cells with distinct

GLANVILL—GLARUS nuclei and granular protoplasm. Within the protoplasm

cumulated a large number

of spherical granules

is ac-

arranged in

diverse manners in different cells. The granules vary much in se in different glands, and in chemical composition, but in all

cases represent a store of material ready to be discharged from the cell as its secretion. Hence the general appearance of the cell is found to vary according to the previous degree of activity of the cell. If it has been at rest for some time the cell contains

very many granules which swell it out and increase its size. The nucleus is then largely hidden by the granules. In the opposite

condition, że., when the cell has been actively secreting, the protoplasm is much clearer, the nucleus obvious and the cell shrunken in size, all these changes being due to the extrusion of the

granules. GLANVILL (or Granvit), JOSEPH (1636-1680), English

philosopher, was born at Plymouth and educated at Oxford. Afrer the Restoration he was successively rector of Wimbush, Essex, vicar of Frome Selwood, Somersetshire, rector of Streat and Wal-

ton. In 1666 he was appointed to the abbey church, Bath; in

1678 he became prebendary of Worcester Cathedral, and acted as chaplain in ordinary to Charles Il. from 1672. He died at

Bath Nov. 4, 1680. Glanvill’s first work (a passage in which suggested the theme of Matthew Arnold’s Scholar Gipsy), The Vanity of Dogmatizing, etc. (1661), shows how philosophical scepticism might be employed as a bulwark for faith. The endeavour to cognize the whole system of things by referring all events to their causes appears to him to be doomed to failure from the outset.

We know isolated facts, but we cannot perceive any such connection between them as that the one should give rise to the other. In the words of Hume, “they seem conjoined but never connected.” All causes then are merely the occasions on which the one first cause operates. Glanvill rejected the scholasticism and Aristotelianism of his own university for the Platonism of Cambridge, writing in 1662 the Lux Orientalis which reproduced Henry More’s theory of the pre-existence of the soul. In spite of his admission of the defects of our knowledge, Glanvill yielded to vulgar superstitions, and actually endeavoured to accredit them both in his revised edition of the Vanity of Dogmatizing, pub-

lished as Scepsis scientifica (1665), and in his Philosophical Con-

siderations concerning the existence of Sorcerers and Sorcery (1666). The latter work was based on the story of the drum alleged to have been heard every night in a house in Wiltshire (Tedworth, belonging to a Mr. Mompesson), a story which made much noise in the year 1663, and which is supposed to have furnished Addison with the idea of his comedy The Drummer. Glanvill’s Sadducismus Triumphatus, printed posthumously in 1681, also defends witchcraft; but he supported a more honourable cause in his defence of the Royal Society of London, as Plus Ultra, or the Progress and Advancement of Science since the time of Aristotle (1668), a work showing his empirical tendencies. See F. Greenslet, J. Glanvill (New York, 1900).

GLANVILL,

RANULF

DE

(or Granvit, GLANVILLE)

393

Glanvill was a man of great energy and versatile talent, and

was on many occasions useful to Henry II. as a diplomatic agent.

His chief importance lies, however, in his part in the legal changes of Henry's reign, including the re-establishment of the curia regis. The whole administration of justice was greatly facilitated by the institution of the circuit of judges, and by simplified methods of procedure. In this reign also the first steps were taken to limit the scope of canon law, by bringing under the common law large numbers of persons who had benefited by so-called clerical immunities. Perhaps at the king’s suggestion, Glanvill wrote, or superintended the writing of, the Tractatus de legibus et consuetudinibus regni Angliae, a practical treatise on the forms of procedure in the king's court. first printed in 1554. This was the first coherent code of law compiled in England, and paved the way for plaintiffs who had hitherto been tried by local or feudal courts, to formulate a case before the curia regis, in which the procedure was uniform, and the judgments aimed at consistency. An English translation of Glanvill’s treatise, with notes and introduction by John Beames, was published in London in 1812. A French ver-

sion is found in various mss. but has not yet been printed. Excuse Law, HISTORY oF).

GLAPTHORNE,

HENRY

(See also

(f. 1635-1642), English poet

and dramatist, published Poëms (1639), many of them in praise of an unidentifed “Lucinda”; a poem in honour of his friend Thomas Beedome, whose Poems Divine and Humane he edited in r641; and Whitekall (1642), dedicated to his “noble friend and Argalus and Parthenta gossip, Captain Richard Lovelace.”

(1639), his best work, is a pastoral tragedy founded on an episode in Sidney’s Arcadia; Albertus Wallenstein (1639), his only attempt at historical tragedy, represents Wallenstein as a monster of pride and cruelty. Glapthorne’s other plays, though they hardly rise above the level of contemporary productions, contain many felicitous isolated passages.

GLAREOLIDAE: see PRATINCOLE.

GLARUS, one of the Swiss cantons, the name being taken

from that of its chief town. Its area is 264 square m., of which 173-1 sq.m. are classed as “productive” (forests covering 41 sq.m.). It is composed of the upper valley of the Linth which rises in the glaciers of the Tédi, 11,887 ft., and has carved out for itself a deep valley, with comparatively level floor, occupied by a number of villages. Glacier passes lead from its head to the Grisons, also the rough footpath over the Kisten Pass, but a carriage road over the Klausen Pass gives access to the canton of Uri. The Sernf valley or Kleinthal, which joins the Linth at Schwanden, a little above Glarus itself, has a track leading to the Grisons over the Panixer Pass and the Segnes Pass. Just below Glarus town, another glen (coming from the south-west and leading by the Pragel Pass to Schwyz) joins the main valley, and is watered by the Kon.

It is separated from the main glen by Glarnisch (9.580 ft.), while the Sernf valley is similarly cut off from the Grossthal by the

high ridge running northwards from the Hausstock (10,342 ft.) over the Karpfstock (9,177 ft.). In the east the Riesetenpass leads to the valley of Weisstannen, and the Widersteinerfurkel leads to

the Murgtal, both being valleys of the St. Galler Oberland. There is a sulphur spring at Stachelberg, near Linthal village, and an iron have possessed a considerable estate, and founded the priory of spring at Elm, while in the Sernf valley there are the Plattenberg Butley, the abbey of Leiston, and a hospital at Somerton. He slate quarries, and just south of Elm those of the Tschingelberg. first comes to the front as sheriff of Yorkshire, from 1163 to A railway runs through the whole canton from north to south past 1170, when all sheriffs were dismissed by Henry II.’s orders. Glarus to Linthal village. while from Schwanden there is an elecIn 1174 he became sheriff of Lancashire, and custodian of the tric line (opened in 1905) up to Elm. honour of Richmond. In 1174 he was one of the English leaders In 1926 the population of the canton was 34,200, five-sevenths of in the battle of Alnwick, where William the Lion, king of the which are Protestants and two-sevenths Catholics, all GermanScots, surrendered to him, and from that time he comes into speaking. The density per square m. was 127. After the capital, Prominence. He was re-appointed sheriff of Yorkshire in 1175, Glarus (g.v.), the largest villages are Nafels, Ennenda (opposite holding this post until the end of Henry II.’s reign. In 1176 he Glarus, of which it is practically a suburb), Netstal, Mollis and became justice of the king’s court and justice itinerant in the Linthal. The slate industry existing since the beginning of the 17th northern circuit, and in rz80 chief justiciar of England. In century, the cotton spinning introduced in 1714, the cotton printenry’s frequent absences he became, in effect, viceroy of Eng- ing established in 1740 and the weaving are the most important

(d. 1190), chief justiciar of England, was born at Stratford, Suffolk, but the date of his birth is not known. He appears to

d. He was removed from office by Richard I. on his accession, and imprisoned until he had paid a ransom, according to one authority of £rs,o0o0.

He accompanied

Richard, however, to

the crusade in July 1x90, and died at Acre, probably before Oct. 21 of that year.

manufactures. There is little agriculture, while the breeding of cattle is important, for it is a region of mountain pastures which can support thousands of cows. The canton produces green cheese made of skim milk, whether of goats or cows, mixed with butter-

milk and coloured with powdered Melilotus caerulea. The curds

394

GLARUS—GLASGOW

are brought down from the huts on the pastures, and, after being mixed with the dried powder, are ground in a mill, then put into shapes and pressed. The canton forms a single administrative district and contains 28 communes. It sends representatives elected by the Landsgemeinde to the Federal Standerat and Nationalrat. The canton still keeps its primitive democratic assembly or Landsgemeinde (meeting annually in the open air at Glarus on the first Sunday in May), composed of all male citizens of 20 years of age or more. It acts as the sovereign body, so that no “referendum”? is required, while any citizen can submit a proposal. It names the executive of 6 members, besides the Landammann or president, all holding office for three years. The communes (forming 18 electoral circles) elect for three years the Landrat, a standing committee of members in the proportion of 1 for every 500 inhabitants or fraction over 250. The present constitution dates from the year 1887.

GLARUS

killed. The survivors, including Mrs. and Miss Glas, escaped to Teneriffe. In October following, Glas was released from prison and, with his wife and child, he set sail for England on board the

(Fr. Glaris), the capital of the Swiss canton of the

same name 424 m. S.E. by rail from Zürich, is connected by rail with Elm and Linthal. It is built on the left bank of the Linth (opposite it is the industrial suburb of Ennenda on the right bank), at the north-eastern foot the Vorder Glarnisch (7,648 ft.), while on the east rises the Schild (7,501 ft.). In May 1861 practically the whole town was destroyed by a fire fanned by a violent Féhn wind, rushing down the Linth valley. The town is 1,578 ft. above the sea-level, and in 1920 had a population of 5,027, almost all German-speaking, while 1,431 were Roman Catholics. The District oF GLARUS is said to have been converted to Christianity in the 6th century by the Irish monk, Fridolin, who was the founder of the Benedictine nunnery of Säckingen, on the Rhine between Constance and Basel, that about the gth century became the owner of the district. The Habsburgs gradually drew to themselves the exercise of all the rights of the nuns, so that in 1352 Glarus joined the Swiss Confederation, and gained complete freedom after the battle of Nafels (1388). Zwingli the Reformer was priest here 1506-16 and Glarus early adopted Protestantism, but there were many struggles between the two parties, and to secure peace it was arranged that, besides the common Landsgemeinde, each party should have its separate Lands gemeinde

(1623) and tribunals (1683). The parish church is used by both

Roman Catholics and Protestants. The slate-quarrying industry appeared early in the 17th century, while cotton-spinning was introduced about 1714, and calico-printing by 1750. In 1798, in consequence of the resistance of Glarus to the French invaders, the canton was united to other districts under the name of canton of the Linth. The old system of government was restored in 1814, but in 1836 by the new Liberal constitution one Landsgemeinde only was retained.

GLAS, GEORGE (1725-1765), Scottish seaman and merchant adventurer in West Africa, son of John Glas (g.v.), was born at Dundee in 1725. He commanded a ship which traded between Brazil, the north-west coasts of Africa and the Canary islands. During his voyages he discovered on the Sahara seaboard

a river navigable for some distance inland, and here he proposed to found a trading station. The spot is plausibly identified with Gueder, a place in about 29° 10’ N., possibly the haven where the

Spaniards had in the 15th and 16th centuries a fort called Santa Cruz de Mar Pequefia. Glas made an arrangement with the Lords

of Trade whereby he was granted £15,000 if he obtained free cession of the port he had discovered to the British Crown; the proposal was to be laid before parliament in the session of 1765. Having chartered a vessel, Glas, with his wife and daughter, sailed for Africa in 1764, reached his destination, made a treaty with the Moors of the district, and named his settlement Port Hillsborough.

In Nov. 1764 Glas and some companions, leaving his ship behind, went in the longboat to Lanzarote, intending to buy a small barque. From Lanzarote he forwarded to London the treaty he

had concluded for the acquisition of Port Hillsborough. A few days later he was seized by the Spaniards, taken to Teneriffe and

imprisoned at Santa Cruz. (See Calendar of Home Office Papers

barque “Earl of Sandwich.” On Nov. 30 Spanish and Portuguese

members of the crew mutinied, killing the captain and passengers, Glas was stabbed to death, and his wife and daughter thrown overboard. (The murderers were afterwards captured and hanged at

Dublin.) After the death of Glas the British Government appears to have taken no steps to carry out his project. In 1764 Glas published Conquest of the Canary of an Andalusian monk discovered at Palma. To

GLAS, JOHN

in London, The History of the Discovery and from th e ms. Islands, which he had translated } named Juan Abreu de Galindo, then recently this Glas added a description of the islands,

(1695-1773), Scottish divine, founder of the

Glasite church, was born at Auchtermuchty, Fife, where his father was parish minister, on Oct. 5, 1695. He became minister of Tealing, Dundee, and in 1725, in a letter to Francis Archibald, minister of Guthrie, Forfarshire, he repudiated the obligation of national covenants. In the same year his views found expression in the formation of a society “separate from the multitude” num-

bering nearly a hundred, and drawn from his own and neighbour-

ing parishes. Its members pledged themselves to follow Glas’s doctrine. From the scriptural doctrine of the essentially spiritual nature of the kingdom of Christ, Glas in his public teaching drew

the conclusions: (1) that there is no warrant in the New Testament for a national church; (2) that the magistrate as such has no function in the church; (3) that national covenants are without scriptural grounds; (4) that the true Reformation cannot be carried out by political and secular weapons but by the word and spirit of Christ only. This argument is most fully exhibited in

Glas’s treatise entitled The Testimony of the King of Martyrs

(1729).

Glas was summoned (1726) before his presbytery, and he was in 1728 suspended from the discharge of ministerial functions,

and finally deposed in 1730. The members of his society for the

most part continued to adhere to him, thus constituting the first

“Classite” or “Glasite” church. The seat of this congregation was shortly afterwards transferred to Dundee (whence Glas subsequently removed to Edinburgh), where he officiated for some time as an “elder.” He next laboured in Perth for a few years, where he was joined by Robert Sandeman (see Grasrres), who became his son-in-law, and eventually was recognized as the leader and principal exponent of Glas’s views; these he developed in a direction which laid them open to the charge of antinomianism. Ultimately in 1730 Glas returned to Dundee, where the remainder of his life was spent. In 1739 the General Assembly removed the sentence of deposition which had been passed against him, and restored him to the character and function of a minister of the gospel of Christ, but not that of a minister of the Established Church of Scotland. He died in 1773.

A collected edition of his works was published at Edinburgh in

176r (4 vols., 8vo), and again at Perth in 1782 (5 vols., 8vo). Glas’s True Discourse of Celsus (1783), from Origen’s reply to it, is a competent and learned piece of work. The Testimony of the King of Martyrs concerning His Kingdom (1729) is a classic repudiation

of erastianism and defence of the spiritual autonomy of the church

under Jesus Christ.

GLASGOW, city, county, royal burgh and port, Lanarkshire, Scotland, situated on both banks of the Clyde, 4013 m. N.W. of

London by the West Coast railway route, and 47 m. W.S.W. of Edinburgh by the L.N.E.R. The valley of the Clyde is closely confined by hills, and the city extends far over these. The com-

mercial centre of Glasgow, with the majority of important public the buildings, lies on the north bank of the river, which traverses 4 by crossed is and h-east, city from west-south-west to east-nort number of bridges. The uppermost is Dalmarnock Bridge, dating from 1891, and next below it is Rutherglen Bridge, rebuiltm 1896, superseding a structure of 1775. St. Andrew’s suspension

bridge gives access to the Green to the inhabitants of Hutchesontown, a district which is approached also by Albert Bridge, leading from the Saltmarket. Above this bridge is the tidal dam and wel. Victoria Bridge (1856) took the place of a bridge erected by

1847. Then follows a sus1760-65.) In March 1765 the ship’s company at Port Hills- Bishop Rae in 1345, and demolished in sengers from the south foot-pas which by (1853) borough was attacked by the natives and several members of it pension bridge

GLASGOW side obtain access to St. Enoch Square and, finally, the bridge variously known

as Glasgow,

Jamaica

Street, or Broomielaw

Bridge (1835). Towards the close of the century it was recon-

structed and reopened in 1899, but owing to its inadequacy to cope with the constantly increasing traffic George V. bridge, a short distance downstream, was opened in 1927. Between the two road-bridges is a bridge belonging to the L.M.S.R. Buildings.—The municipal buildings (1889) stand on the east-

ern side of George Square, the heart of the city, and several additional blocks have been built or rented for the municipal staff. A sanitary department was opened in 1897, including a bacteriological and chemical laboratory. Added buildings, connected with

the older ones by two bridges, were completed in 1923. Up till 1810 the town council met in a hall adjoining the old tolbooth. It then moved to the structure at the foot of the Saltmarket, now used as court-houses, and, after two further moves, the present quarters were occupied. On the south side of George Square is the General Post Office. On the west side stand the Bank of Scotland

395 |

Excepting the cathedral, no Glasgow church possesses historical interest. This is due largely to the long survival of the severe sentiment of the Covenanters. There are several fine modern churches. St. Enoch’s (1780) has a good spire (the saint’s name is said to be a corruption of Tanew, mother of Kentigern). EDUCATION

University.—The university, founded in 1450 by Bishop Turnbull under a bull of Pope Nicholas V., survived in its old quarters till far in the roth century. The paedagogium, or college of arts, was at first housed in Rottenrow, but was moved in 1460 toa site in High Street, where Sir James Hamilton of Cadzow, first Lord Hamilton (d. 1479), gave it four acres of land and some buildings. Queen Mary bestowed upon it thirteen acres of contiguous ground, and her son granted it a new charter and enlarged the endowments. Before the Revolution its fortunes fluctuated, but in the r8th century it became very famous. By the middle of the roth century, however, its surroundings had deteriorated, and in 1860 it was decided to rebuild it elsewhere.

The ground had enormously

and the Merchants’ House, the head of which (the dean of gild), increased in value and a railway company purchased it for £100,along with the head of the Trades’ House (the deacon-convener of ooo. In 1864 the university bought the Gilmore Hill estate and trades) has been de facto member of the town council since 1711, an arrangement

devised with a view to adjusting the frequent

disputes between the two gilds. The Royal Exchange is a fine Corinthian building. Argyll Street, the busiest thoroughfare, leads to Trongate, where a few remains of the old town are now care-

fully preserved. On the south side of the street, spanning the pavement, stands the Tron Steeple, a stunted spire dating from

1637, all that is left of St. Mary’s church, burned down in 1793. On the opposite side, at the corner of High Street, stood the ancient tolbooth, or prison, a turreted building, five storeys high, with a fine Jacobean crown tower. The only remnant of the structure is the tower known as the Cross Steeple. St. Mungo’s Cathedral—The cathedral stands in the northeast quarter of the city 104 ft. above the Clyde. It is a beautiful example of Early English work, impressive in its simplicity. Its form is that of a Latin cross, with imperfect transepts. At the centre rises a fine tower, with a short octagonal spire. The choir, locally known as the High Church, serves as one of the city churches, and the extreme east end of it forms the Lady chapel. The chapter-house, which projects from the north-eastern corner, was built in the r5th century and has a groined roof supported by a pillar. The crypt beneath the choir is borne on 65 pillars and lighted by 4x windows. The sculpture of the capitals of the columns and bosses of the groined vaulting is exquisite and the Whole is in excellent preservation. Strictly speaking, it is not a crypt, but a lower church adapted to the sloping ground of the right bank of the Molendinar burn. The dripping aisle is so named from the constant dropping of water from the roof. St. Mungo’s Well in the south-eastern corner was considered to possess therapeutic virtues, and in the crypt a recumbent effigy, headless and handless, is faithfully accepted as the tomb of Kentigern. In 1115 an investigation was ordered by David, prince of Cumbria, into the lands and churches belonging to the bishopric, and from the deed then drawn up it is clear that at that date a cathedral had already been endowed. When David ascended the throne in 1124 he gave to the see of Glasgow the lands of Partick besides restoring many possessions of which it had been deprived. Jocelin

adjacent property and the new buildings (1870) were placed on the ridge of Gilmore Hill—the finest situation in Glasgow. On the south the ground falls in a series of terraces towards Kelvingrove Park and the Kelvin. On the west stand the houses of the principal and professors. The third marquess of Bute (1847— 1900) gave £40,000 to provide the Bute or common hall, divided by a screen from the Randolph hall, named after another benefactor, Charles Randolph (1809-1878). The library includes the collection of Sir William Hamilton, and the Hunterian museum, bequeathed by William Hunter, the anatomist, is particularly rich in coins, medals, black-letter books and anatomical preparations. The observatory on Dowan Hill is attached to the chair of astronomy. Exhibitions were founded by John Snell (1629-1679), a native of Colmonell in Ayrshire, for the purpose of enabling students of distinction to continue their career at Balliol College, Oxford. The governing body includes the chancellor, elected for life by the general council, the principal, also elected for life, and the lord rector elected triennially by the students voting in “nations” according to their birthplace (Glottana, natives of Lanarkshire; Transforthana, of Scotland north of the Forth; Rothseiana, of the shires of Bute, Renfrew and Ayr; and Loudonta, all others). ‘There are 50 professors and some 4,500 students. The universities of St. Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh unite to return three members to parliament. Queen Margaret College for women, which occupies a handsome building close to the botanic gardens, was incorporated with the university

in 1893. Muirhead College is another institution for the education

of women. A number of new chairs have been founded and lectureships instituted in branches of medicine, chemistry, physics, literature and history. Extensions have been built, including a zoology building and a west wing with a War Memorial chapel, which cost about £122,000. The students’ welfare scheme has been assisted by grants from the Government and the Carnegie Trust, and some £12,000 has been spent on the erection of a pavilion on the athletic ground at Westerlands. There are two educational endowments boards which apply a (d. 1199), made bishop in 1174, was the first great bishop, and is revenue of about £10,000 a year mainly to the foundation of burmemorable for his efforts to replace the cathedral built in 1136 by saries. The Royal Technical College in George Street originated Bishop John Achaius, which had been destroyed by fire. The crypt in the foundation by John Anderson (1726-1796), professor of is his work, and he began the choir, Lady chapel, and central tower. natural philosophy in the university, who opened a class in physics The new structure was sufficiently advanced to be dedicated in for working men, provided for the instruction of artisans and 1197. James Beaton or Bethune (1517-1603), the last Roman others unable to attend the university. In 1799 Dr. George BirkCatholic archbishop, fled to France at the Reformation in 1560, beck (1776-1841) succeeded Garnett and began those lectures on and took with him the treasures and records of the see, including mechanics and applied science which, continued elsewhere, ultithe Red Book of Glasgow dating from the reign of Robert III. mately led to the foundation of mechanics’ institutes in many The documents were deposited in the Scots College in Paris, were towns. In later years the college was further endowed and its sent at the outbreak of the Revolution for safety to St. Omer, and curriculum enlarged by the inclusion of literature and languages. Were never recovered. This loss explains the paucity of the earlier but the scope of its work is now limited to medicine (physics, annals of the city. The Reformers threatened to mutilate the chemistry and botany also). The medical school is housed in cathedral, but the prompt defence of the craftsmen was the Anderson’s Medical College, in Dumbarton Road. The Glasgow means of saving it. and West of Scotland Technical College, formed in 1886 out of a

GLASGOW

396

combination of the arts side of Anderson College with three other colleges, is subsidized by the corporation and the endowments board, and is especially concerned with students desirous of following an industrial career. St. Mungo’s College, which has developed from an extra-mural school in connection with the Royal Infirmary, was incorporated in 1889, with faculties of medicine and law. The United Free Church College, finely situated near Kelvingrove Park, the School of Art and Design, and the normal schools for the training of teachers, are institutions with distinctly specialized objects. The High school in Elmbank is the successor of the grammar school (long housed in John Street) which was founded in the r4th century as an appanage of the cathedral. Other secondary schools include Glasgow Academy, Kelvinside Academy and the girls’ and boys’ schools endowed by the Hutcheson and other educational trusts. Art Galleries, Libraries and Museums.—Glasgow merchants and manufacturers have been constant patrons of art, and their liberality may have had some influence on the younger painters who towards the close of the rgth century, broke away from tradition and, stimulated by training in the studios of Paris, became known as the “Glasgow school.” The art gallery and museum is in Kelvingrove Park. Opposite it is the huge Kelvin Hall, burnt down in 1926, but rebuilt in the following year. The Institute of Fine Arts, in Sauchiehall Street, is mostly devoted to periodical exhibitions of modern art. There are also pictures on exhibition in the People’s Palace on Glasgow Green, and in the museum at Camphill. The faculty of procurators possess a valuable library which is housed in their hall in West George Street. In Bath Street there are the Mechanics’ and the Philosophical Society’s libraries, and the Physicians’ is in St. Vincent Street. The Mitchell library, was moved to North Street in rorz. It is governed by the city council. Another building in this street accommodates both the Stirling and Baillie libraries; the Stirling is particularly rich in tracts of the 16th and 17th centuries. The Athenaeum in St. George’s Place, largely concerned with evening classes contains a library and reading-room. Charities.—The old Royal Infirmary, designed by Robert Adam and opened in 1794, adjoining the cathedral, occupied the site of the archiepiscopal palace, the last portion of which was removed towards the close of the 18th century. It was rebuilt in 1gi2, and recent extensions have demolished the block containing the ward in which Lord Lister first applied his discovery of antisepsis. On the northern side are the buildings of the medical school attached to the institution. Hutcheson’s Hospital, founded by George and Thomas Hutcheson in the 17th century for poor old men and orphan boys, and adorned with statues of the founders, is situated in Ingram Street, and by the increase in the value of its lands has become a very wealthy body; it is able to subsidize schools apart from the charity. ADMINISTRATION AND FINANCE

Parks and Open Spaces.—The oldest open space is the Green (140 acres), on the right bank of the river, adjoining a denselypopulated district. It once extended farther west, but a portion was built over at a time when public rights were not vigilantly guarded. It is a favourite area for popular demonstrations. The Kelvin burn flows through Kelvingrove Park, in the west end, and the ground is naturally terraced, while the situation is beautified by the adjoining Gilmore Hill with the university on its summit. The park contains the Stewart fountain erected to commemorate the labours of Lord Provost Stewart and his colleagues in the promotion of the Loch Katrine water scheme, statues of Lord Lister, Lord Roberts and Carlyle, and a war memorial. The other parks on the right bank are, in the north, Ruchill, acquired in 1891, and Springburn, acquired in 1892, and, in the east, Alexandra Park, in which is laid down a nine-hole golfcourse, and Tollcross, acquired in 1897. On the left bank Queen’s Park, occupying a commanding site, was considerably enlarged in 1894 by the enclosure of the grounds of Camphill. The other southern parks are Richmond, acquired in 1898, Maxwell, which was taken over on the annexation of Pollokshields in 1891; |

Bellahouston, acquired in 1895; and Cathkin Braes, presented to

the city in 1886 by James Dick, a manufacturer, containing “Queen Mary’s stone,” a point which commands a view of the lower valley of the Clyde.

In the north-western district of the town 40 acres

between Great Western Road and the Kelvin are devoted to the

Royal Botanic Gardens.

More recent acquisitions include 200 ac

of the Balloch Castle estate (Loch Lomond park); the Rouken

Glen, Linn, Newlands, Glenconner, Dawsholm, Ruchill and Frank. field parks. Communications——The L.N.E.R. terminus is situated in Queen Street, and consists of a high-level station (main line) and a low-level station for Balloch, etc., used in connection with the City and District line, largely underground, serving the northerm side of the town. The Central terminus of the L.MS.R. for Carlisle, Edinburgh, etc., in Gordon Street, comprises a high-level station and a low-level station for Balloch and the Cathcart Dis.

trict railway, and also for the connection between Maryhill and Rutherglen, which is mostly underground. Both the underground lines communicate with certain branches of the main line, either directly or by change of carriage. The older terminus of the L.M.S.R. in Buchanan Street now takes the northern and eastern trafic and the station in St. Enoch Square serves the south-west

of Scotland and Carlisle. The Glasgow Subway—an underground cable passenger line, 64 m. long, worked in two tunnels and passing below the Clyde twice—was opened in 1896. There are at certain points free steam ferry boats or floating bridges for conveying vehicles across the harbour, and there are three tunnels under the river. Steamers, carrying both goods and passengers, constantly leave the Broomielaw quay for the piers and ports on the river and firth, and the islands and sea lochs of Argyllshire. Trade.—Natural causes, such as proximity to the richest field of coal and ironstone in Scotland and the vicinity of hill streams of pure water, account for much of the great development of trade in Glasgow. It was in textiles that the city showed its earliest predominance, which, however, has not been maintained, though several cotton mills are still worked. The leading feature in the trade has always been the manufacture of light textures. Thread is made on a considerable scale, but jute and silk are of comparatively little importance. Carpets are woven and some factories are exclusively devoted to the making of lace curtains. The allied industries of bleaching, printing and dyeing have prospered. The use of chlorine in bleaching was first introduced in Great Britain at Glasgow in 1787, on the suggestion of James Watt, whose father-in-law was a bleacher; and it was a Glasgow bleacher, Charles Tennant, who first discovered and made bleaching powder (chloride of lime). Turkey-red dyeing was begun at Glasgow by David Dale and George M’Intosh, and the colour was long known locally as Dale’s red. A large quantity of grey cloth continues to be sent from Lancashire and other mills to be bleached and printed in Scottish works. These industries gave a powerful impetus to the manufacture of chemicals, and the works at St. Rollox developed rapidly. Various chemical industries are prominent. Glass-making and paper-making are carried on, and there are several breweries and distilleries. Many miscellaneous industries are carried on such as clothing, confectionery, cabinet-making, biscuit making, boot and shoe making, saw mills, pottery and rubber goods. Since the

days of the brothers Robert Foulis (1712-1775), printing, been identified with Glasgow, The discovery of the value of

Foulis (1705-1776) and Andrew both letterpress and colour, has though less than with Edinburgh. blackband ironstone, till then re-

garded as useless “wild coal,” by David Mushet (1772-1847), and Neilson’s invention of the hot-air blast threw the control of the Scottish iron trade into the hands of Glasgow ironmasters, although the furnaces themselves were mostly erected in Lanarkshire and Ayrshire. The expansion of the industry was such that, in 1859, one-third of the total output in the United Kingdom was Scottish. Mild steel is manufactured and some crucible cast steel

is made. In addition to brass foundries there are works for extraction of copper and smelting of lead and zinc. Locomotive engines are built, all kinds of builder’s ironwork is forged, and the sewing-

machine factories in the neighbourhood are important. Boilermaking and marine engine works, in many cases in direct connection

GLASGOW with the shipbuilding yards, are numerous. is the greatest of the industries of Glasgow.

Shipbuilding, indeed, Excepting a trifling

proportion of wooden ships, the Clyde-built vessels are made of steel, the trade having owed its immense expansion to prompt adoption of this material. Every variety of craft is turned out, from battleships and great liners to dredging-plant and hopper rges. The Port.—The Clyde Navigation trustees are responsible for 13 m. of the river Clyde, from Port Glasgow to Glasgow. The harbour occupies 206 acres. For the most part it is lined by quays and wharves, which have a total length of 84 m., and from the harbour to the sea vessels drawing 26 ft. can go up or down on one tide. In the middle of the 18th century the river was fordable on foot at Dumbuck, 12 m. below Glasgow and 14 m. S.E. of Dumbarton. The earliest shipping-port of Glasgow was Irvine in Ayr-

shire, but lighterage was tedious and land carriage costly, and in 1658 the civic authorities endeavoured to purchase a site for a spacious harbour at Dumbarton. Being thwarted by the magistrates of that burgh, however, in 1662 they secured 13 acres on the southern bank at a spot some 2 m. above Greenock, which became known as Port Glasgow, where they built harbours and the first graving dock in Scotland. Sixteen years later the Broomielaw quay was built, but it was not until the tobacco merchants appreciated the necessity of bringing their wares into the heart

397

provost holding the office) and a court of quarter sessions, which is the appeal court from the magistrates sitting as licensing authority. Under the corporation municipal ownership has reached a remarkable development, the corporation owning the supplies of water, gas and electric power, tramways and municipal lodginghouses. In 1859 water was conveyed by aqueducts and tunnels from Loch Katrine to the reservoir at Mugdock, a distance of 27 m., whence after filtration it was distributed by pipes to Glasgow. In 1914 works were completed to raise Loch Katrine 5 ft.

and to connect with it by tunnel Loch Arklet (455 ft. above the sea), with storage for 2,050,000,000 gallons. The two lochs together possess a capacity of twelve thousand million gallons. The entire works between the loch and the city were duplicated over a distance of 234 m., and an additional reservoir, holding 694,000,ooo gallons, was constructed and a dam built 14 m. west of the lower end of Loch Arklet, designed to create a sheet of water 24 m. long and to increase the water-supply of the city by ten million gallons a day. The water committee supplies hydraulic power to

manufacturers and merchants. Huge gas works were opened at Govan in 1921, and a large electric generating station at Dalmar-

nock Bridge in 1920. By lapse of time and congestion of population, certain quarters of the city, in old Glasgow especially, were slums and rookeries of the worst description. The municipality obtained parliamentary powers in 1866 to condemn for of the city that serious consideration was paid to schemes for purchase over-crowded districts, to borrow money and levy rates. deepening the waterway. In 1768 John Golborne advised the The work was carried out, and when the act expired in 1881 whole narrowing of the river and the increasing of the scour. By the localities had been recreated. Under the amending act of 1881 building of numerous jetties, the constant use of steam dredgers, the corporation began in 1888 to build tenement houses and and the blasting of rock, the channel was gradually deepened, and lodging-houses. The powers of the improvement trustees were much land reclaimed. By 1900 it had a minimum depth of 22 ft., practically exhausted in 1896, when it appeared that the funds and, as already indicated, the largest vessels make the open sea showed a deficiency of £423,050. Assessment of ratepayers for in one tide, whereas in 1840 it took ships drawing only 15 ft. two the purposes of the trust had yielded £593,000, and it was estiand even three tides to reach the sea. From 1812 to 1820 Henry mated that these operations had cost the citizens £24,000 a year. Bell’s “Comet,” 30 tons, driven by an engine of 3 horse-power, In 1897 an act was obtained for dealing in similar fashion with inplied between Glasgow and Greenock, until she was wrecked, being sanitary and congested areas in the centre of the city, and on the the first steamer to run regularly on any river in the Old World. south side of the river. The drainage system was entirely reWhen the quays and wharves ceased to be able to accommodate modelled, the area being divided into three sections, each distinct, the growing traffic, the construction of docks became imperative. with separate works for the disposal of its own sewage. Housing In 1867 Kingston Dock on the south side, of 54 acres, was opened, conditions and unemployment were again very bad after the World but soon proved inadequate, and in 1880 Queen’s Dock (two War, and led to a “rent strike.” The position became very diffibasins) at Stobcross, on the north side, of 30 acres, was completed. cult in 1925 and a Rent Commission was appointed. Among other In 1897 Prince’s Dock (three basins) on the opposite side, of 72 works in which the Corporation has interests there may be menacres, was opened, fully equipped with hydraulic and steam cranes tioned its representation on the board of the Clyde Navigation

and all the other latest appliances. The Rothesay dock (20 ac.) at Clydebank, opened in 1907, and the warf at Renfrew, are included in the harbour. The L.M.S.R. has access to the harbour

Trust and the governing body of the West of Scotland Technical College. Since 1918 Glasgow has returned 15 members to Parliament,

for goods and minerals at Terminus Quay to the west of Kingston Dock, and a mineral dock has been constructed by the Trust at Clydebank, about 34 m. below the harbour. In 1924 the provision of further dock accommodation on land acquired by the Trust between Shieldhall and Renfrew was begun. It is connected by railway lines and a road joining the new trunk road of the Glasgow corporation scheme. The shipping attains to colossal proportions. The imports consist chiefly of grain and flour, leather, tobacco, timber, oil, iron-ore, bacon and other foodstuffs; and the exports principally of cotton, jute and linen goods, yarn, coal, machinery and spirits.

Throughout the roth century the population grew prodigiously. Only 77,385 in 1801, it was nearly doubled in twenty years, being 147,043 in 1821, already outstripping Edinburgh. In 1901 it stood at 761,709 and in 1931 at 1,088,417.

Government.—By the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889, the city was placed entirely in the county of Lanark, the districts then transferred having previously belonged to the shires of

green spot” (glas, green; cu or ghu, dear), supposed to have been the name of the settlement that Kentigern found here when he came to convert the Britons of Strathclyde. Kentigern or Mungo

Dumbarton and Renfrew. In 1891 the boundaries were enlarged to include six suburban burghs and a number of suburban districts, the area being increased from 6,111 acres to 11,861 acres. In i1912 Govan, Partick, Pollokshaws and several suburban districts Were included in the city, making the total area 19,183 acres and

(“dear one”) became the patron-saint of Glasgow, and the motto and arms of the city are identified with him—‘Let Glasgow

giving Glasgow again its position as 2nd city of Great Britain in point of size. In r925 the burgh was further enlarged by the acquisition of parts of Renfrewshire, Dumbartonshire and Lanark-

shire, including the Yoker district. In 1893 the municipal burgh Was constituted a county. Glasgow is governed by a corporation

Consisting of 113 members, including 14 bailies and the lord provost. As a county Glasgow has a lieutenancy (successive lords

HISTORY

Some historians hold that the name of Glasgow Gaelic words meaning “dark glen,’ descriptive of ravine through which the Molendinar flowed to the the more generally accepted version is that the word

comes from the narrow Clyde. But is the Celtic

Cleschu, afterwards written Glesco or Glasghu, meaning “dear

Flourish by the Preaching of the Word,” usually shortened to “Let Glasgow Flourish.” It is not till the 12th century, however, that the history of the city becomes clear. About 1178 William the Lion made the town by charter a burgh of barony, and gave it a market with freedom and customs. At the battle of the Bell o’ the Brae, on the site of High Street, Wallace routed the English under Percy in 1300; he was betrayed to the English in 1305 in Robroyston. Plague ravaged the burgh in 1350 and thirty years later; the regent Arran, in 1544, besieged the bishop’s castle, and there was a subsequent fight at the Butts (now the Gallowgate).

398

GLASITES—GLASS

Most of the inhabitants were opposed to Queen Mary and many actively supported Murray in the battle of Langside—the site now occupied by the Queen’s Park—on May 13, 1568, in which she lost crown and kingdom. Under James VI. the town became a royal burgh in 1636, with freedom of the river from the Broomielaw to the Cloch. The people made common cause with the Covenanters to the end of their long struggle. Montrose mulcted the citizens heavily after the battle of Kilsyth in 1645, and three years later the provost and bailies were deposed for contumacy to their sovereign lord. Plague and famine devastated the town in 1649, and in 1652 a conflagration laid a third of the burgh in ashes. Even after the restoration its sufferings were acute. It was the headquarters of the Whiggamores of the west and its prisons were constantly filled with rebels for conscience’ sake. The government scourged the townsfolk with an army of Highlanders,

whose brutality only served to strengthen the resistance at the battles of Drumclog and Bothwell Brig. The Union was hotly resented, but marked the dawn of almost unbroken prosperity. By the treaty of Union Scottish ports were placed, in respect of trade, on the same footing as English ports, and the situation of Glasgow enabled it to acquire a full share of the ever-increasing Atlantic-trade. Its commerce was already considerable and in population it was now the second town in Scotland. It enjoyed a practical monopoly of the sale of raw and refined sugars, had the right to distil spirits from molasses free of duty, dealt largely in cured herring and salmon, sent hides to English tanners and manufactured soap and linen. It challenged the supremacy of Bristol in the tobacco trade—fetching cargoes from Virginia, Maryland and Carolina in its own fleet—so that by 1772 its importations of tobacco amounted to more than half of the whole quantity brought into the United Kingdom. The tobacco merchants built handsome mansions and the town rapidly extended westwards. With the surplus profits new industries were created, which helped the city through the period of the American War. Most, though not all, of the manufactures in which Glasgow has always held a foremost place date from this period. It was in 1764 that James Watt succeeded in repairing a hitherto unworkable model of Newcomen’s fire (steam) engine in his small workshop within the college precincts. Shipbuilding on a colossal scale and the enormous developments in the iron industries and engineering were practically the growth of the roth century. See The Scottish Geographical Magazine (Jan. 1921).

GLASITES, a Christian sect, founded in Scotland by John Glas (qg.v.). It spread: into England and America, but is now practically extinct. The name Glasites or Glassites was generally used in Scotland; in England and America the name Sandemanians was more common. Glas dissented from the Westminster Confession only in his views as to the spiritual nature of the church and the functions of the civil magistrate. But his son-in. law Robert Sandeman added a distinctive doctrine as to the nature of faith which is thus stated on his tombstone: “That the bare death of Jesus Christ without a thought or deed on the part of man is sufficient to present the chief of sinners spotless before God.” In their practice the Glasite churches aimed at a strict conformity with the primitive type of Christianity as understood by them. Each congregation had a plurality of elders, pastors or bishops, who were chosen according to what were believed to be the instructions of Paul, without regard to previous education or present occupation, and who enjoy a perfect equality in office. In all the action of the church unanimity was considered to be necessary; if any member differed in opinion from the rest, he must either surrender his judgment to that of the church, or be shut out from its communion. The Lord’s Supper was observed weekly; and between forenoon and afternoon service every Sunday a love feast was held at which every member was required to be present. Mutual exhortation was practised at all the meetings for divine service, when any member who had the gift of speech (ydpioya) was allowed to speak. The practice of washing one another’s feet was at one time observed; and it was for a long time customary

member considered his property as liable to be called upon a any time to meet the wants of the poor and the necessities of the

church.

Churches of this order were founded in Paisley, Glasgow,

Edinburgh, Leith, Arbroath, Montrose, Aberdeen, Dunkeld, Cupar, Galashiels, Liverpool and London, where Michael Faraday was long an elder. Their exclusiveness in practice, neglect of education

for the ministry, and the antinomian tendency of their doctrine

contributed to their dissolution. Many Glasites joined the general

body of Scottish Congregationalists, and the sect may now be con. sidered extinct. The last of the Sandemanian churches in America

ceased to exist In 1890. See James Ross, History of Congregational Independency in Sco}. land (Glasgow, 1900). D.M

GLASS, CARTER (1858- ), American politician, was bom at Lynchburg, Va., on Jan. 4, 1858. He received his education in the Lynchburg schools and learned the printer’s trade, which he followed for several years, eventually becoming proprietor of the Lynchburg Daily News and Daily Advance.

He was elected to

the Virginia State senate for two terms (1899-1903) and was a member of the Constitutional Convention in 1901. He was elected in r902 to the national House of Representatives, and thereafter

was continuously re-elected until his resignation in 1918. As chairman of the House banking committee he was active in framing and passing the Federal Reserve Bank law. In 1918 he entered President Wilson’s cabinet as secretary of the Treasury.

Under

his guidance the fifth Liberty Loan was floated in April, rgrg. In Nov. 1919 he resigned after his appointment to the United States Senate. In 1924 he was elected for the term 1925-31.

GLASS, a hard substance, usually transparent or translucent,

which from a fluid condition at a high temperature has passed to a solid condition with sufficient rapidity to prevent the formation of visible crystals. Glass consists primarily of a combination of

silicic acid with an alkali (potassium or sodium). The combination of the raw materials was from the earliest times subject to considerable variations. As a general rule the silicic acid was prepared from sand, as pure as possible and free from iron; this sand was calcined and sprinkled with water until it became friable, and was then pulverized; in some places flint, in others quartz, was also used. The potassium is in the form of potash, ż.e., charcoal washed in lye; beech charcoal was always preferred. The sodium is obtained, under the name of soda ash, from seaweed ash. Glass may be divided into two main classes according to which of these alkaline ingredients is used. In well-wooded countries, particularly Germany, potassium glass has been made almost exclusively, while in coast-lands (Egypt, Syria, Spain, Venice) sodium glass was naturally preferred. As early as the middle ages, soda ash (rocchetta, salicor), as a costly product obtained by a secret process, was an export in great demand, particularly from Egypt and Spain (Alicante). Apart from certain admixtures—sometimes accidental, sometimes intentional—such as tartaric acid,

saltpetre, etc., silicic acid and one of these two alkalis formed the chief ingredients of all the glass made up to the r7th century. Not till then was calcium, particularly in the form of chalk, used to any great extent; it produced greater clarity and purity in the

metal, the best examples being found in the Bohemian “crystal glass,” which, owing to these properties, very quickly conquered the world market. The addition of lead, an English discovery of the 17th century, further largely accentuates these superior qualities in the metal, and adds high refractive power, great lustre and a full ringing tone, but the weight is increased and the toughness diminished. Great importance has always attached to decolorizing agents, known as glass-maker’s soaps. ‘The necessary ingredients of glass

are seldom found in a pure state; the iron particles commonly

found in sand are particularly active in preventing complete absence of colour in the metal being obtained. For decolorizing, i.e., for neutralizing such impurities, manganese and arsenic have proved the most satisfactory agents. For producing coloured glass, metallic oxides are chiefly used.

for each brother and sister to receive new members, on admission,

Cobaltic oxide produces blue glass, cupric oxide green and red,

with a holy kiss. The lot was regarded as sacred; the accumulation of wealth they held to be unscriptural and improper, and each

glass; red ruby-glass is obtained by the addition of gold; and 50

chromic oxide yellow-green; stannic oxide makes opaque white

PLATE I

Pp

See

BY COURTESY

OF

THE

METROPOLITAN

ROMAN

MUSEUM

OF

ART,

NEW

YORK

a

x

Cl aril,

,

CITY

VASE, TYPICAL OF BLOWN BEFORE THE

GLASS-WORK PRODUCED CHRISTIAN ERA

IN EUROPE

This vase was unearthed from a grave where it had lain for almost two thousand years. The disintegration of the glass, due to the action of the soil in which it was buried, produced an uneven surface, causing brilliant iridescence. This iridescence is not pigment, but refraction of light

PLATE II

TEE ETT D aT A LALIE. Lig e.

BipA

ee

i

A

AES

PR aa

w

Bish

7"

G

r

+

BY COURTESY

OF THE

STAATLICHE

MUSEEN,

BERLIN

EARLY 1. Mosaic glass bowl (see text) 2. Sidonian relief glass, Ist century 3. Net glass, so-called Diatreton, 3rd century

4. Flask in the form of a negro’s head (see text)

CONTINENTAL

GLASS

5. Bowl engraved with Poseidon (see text) 6. Flask with thread decoration (see text). Schloss Museum, 7 & 8. Frankish glass, 5th—-8th century

9. Printed beaker, Frankish, 7th-Sth century

Berlin

Prate Lil

eo am

z

BY COURTESY MUSEUM

OF (f, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8) THE STAATLICHE

EASTERN

AND

MUSEEN,

BERLIN,

CONTINENTAL

(3) THE DIRECTOR

GLASS

OF THE RIJKSMUSEUM,

OF THE

VIII. TO

AMSTERDAM,

THE

THE

(5)

XVIII.

me

DIRECTOR

73

OF

CENTURIES

5. Mosque lamp of glass, enamelled.

THE

VICTORIA AND ALBERT

A.D.

Syrian, 14th century.

6. Blue Persian

1. Jug with decoration blown into mould; Egyptian, mediaeval. 2. Bowl with applied stamps; Eastern origin (Egyptian) Sth—9th centuries. 3. Beaker, cut in relief; an example of the so-called “Hedwig” glass, Egypt,

flask of the 16th or 17th century. 7. Spanish (Catalonian) enamelled glass bowl of the 16th century. &. French blue jug enamelled in colours. 16th

llth or 12th century.

century

4. South Spanish glass of the 17th or 18th century.

GLASS on. The colouring varies with the quantities of the oxides used, the method of admixture, the temperature, and the time during which they are heated, so that several tints can be produced with

the same metal. All the treatises on glass-making written up to the 1th century consist mainly of recipes of this kind for colouring glass; great importance was attached to this process, because endeavours were constantly directed towards the production of

first-rate imitation gems.

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bulb is drawn out lengthwise, and its lower end, which is to form the bottom, is “pricked,” i.e., the bottom is pushed in with a blunt iron. In the cavity thus formed the “punt” is fastened with a drop of molten glass. When the bottle is thus resting on the punt, a drop of water is applied, and with a slight tap it is detached from the blowing-iron; the neck is then shaped as desired by welding a thread of glass round it, or in some other way. Another slight tap suffices to detach the finished bottle from the punt.

To make a wine-glass, a quantity of glass is welded on to the lower end of a bulb, and by continued rotation of the blowingiron the stem is wrought out of this mass with a pair of tongs. Meanwhile another man has made a small bulb, which is now welded on to the lower end of the stem and knocked off from its own blowing-iron. By the action of centrifugal force aided by the “pressing-iron” (“Auftreibeisen”), this small bulb, under continued rotation, spreads and straightens out into a more or less flat disc, the edge of which is smoothed off with scissors. The punt is now again made fast to the underside of this foot, and the large bulb which forms the cup of the glass is knocked off from the blowing-iron. After this the bulb is broadened out with the pressing-iron, and the cup of the glass is shaped as desired with the “smoothing-iron.” Finally the lip of the glass is cut with the scissors and fused all round. The glass is then knocked off the punt. During all these processes the material has to be frequently reheated. The glass can be moulded into any shape if the bulbs are blown into hollow moulds of stone, wood or metal, or, in the case of thick bowls, for example, if the glass-metal is pressed from within against the walls of such moulds. Coloured ornament in the metal is produced by pressing coloured glass threads into the still ductile surface of the vessel (e.g., Egyptian unguent jars), or by mixing glass of different colours on a definite plan or at random. In many ancient mosaicglasses, for instance, and in the Venetian jasper-glass, there is no plan; a colour-sequence, often very strictly followed, is to be seen principally in spun glass and “millefiori” glass. The method of making “millefiori” glass is this: glass threads of various colours are fused together into a bundle in such a manner that the

S

ens

399

rio ATI I

Pes UU LET EQN Cp atc RL

cross-section shows a certain pattern—say a rosette, a geometrical

orev

ornament or a figure. This bundle is heated and drawn out longer, so that, while its diameter is reduced, the pattern in the crosssection remains unchanged, though diminished in size. The bundle of threads is then cut up into small discs (cf. Plate V., No.

FROM

GEORGE

AGRICOLA,

“DE

RE

METALLICA”

A LATE 16TH CENTURY GERMAN CONTEMPORARY DRAWING

(PUB.

GLASS

In the centre fs the main oven, where

BY

FROBEN

FURNACE,

IN

1556)

REPRODUCED

glass was melted

AFTER

A

in pots behind each

working hole. In the right foreground is a large wooden case packed with vessels of various shapes, and in the rear one of the workmen Is shown “‘blowing” hot glass Into the desired shape, after its removal from the oven

In addition to these raw materials, to produce a good, easily-

fusible metal a large percentage of old broken glass (cullet) is required. Even in the middle ages, fragments of antique glass were much in demand among glass-workers; as early as the 13th

century there was a treaty between Venice and Antioch dealing

with the importation of cullet, and its acquisition has played an mportant part in the history of many glass-works. METHODS AND PROCESSES _ Glass-blowing.—In the manufacture of hollow-glass the most mportant process is blowing. For this an iron tube about 5 ft. long, called the blowing-iron or pipe, is used. One end, which is D-shaped, is' dipped into the viscous mass of glass, a portion of h remains hanging from it. If the blower now blows through

1). They are worked into vessels by being placed side by side on an iron slab and having a bulb of colourless transparent glass rolled over them; they become embedded in this, and it then undergoes other processes like any ordinary glass bulb. Any irregularities that may be left on the outer side are removed by gentle heating or by grinding. Spun Glass.—This is a Venetian invention and involves a highly complicated process. The threads are made as follows: a certain quantity of coloured glass-metal, e.g., milk-glass (opal-glass) whitened with stannic oxide, is taken out of the crucible with an iron rod and rolled backwards and forwards on the “marver,” or slab, until it adheres to the outside of the iron in the form of a thin tube. The iron is then dipped into colourless glass-metal, which now forms a coating round the tube of milk-glass. The cylinder thus composed—white inside and colourless outside—is heated and pulled out until it becomes a long thread of about 3 to 6 mm. diameter. From the threads thus prepared, bundles of

a large number of threads are then made. This is an exceedingly delicate operation. Round the inside of a short earthenware cylinder, threads of milk-glass of the kind abové describéd ‘are

arranged alternately with small rods of colourless glass in a definite symmetrical order (fig. A, r and 2). The hollow left in the centre

the tube from the other end into the pendent mass, a hollow bulb

is filled up with colourless glass-metal, so that the whole ‘fuses

process, of course, the wall of the bulb becomes

circumference of which there are of course parallel white threads at equal intervals, is pulled out until its diameter has shrimk to almost nothing; and simultaneously the rod is‘ twisted in both directions, with the result that the threads of ‘white glass, which had previously been parallel, are now twisted round one another,

orms in it, and ẹxpands as more air is blown in. During this

continually

mner, By swinging, by putting on the “marver” (a flat marble sab) or on the arms of an armchair in which the blower sits and

by rolling and by manipulation with simple tools, the bulb

can now be given any shape desired.

If a bottle is to be made, the

together into a single compact rod of glass. This rod, on the

GLASS

400

like the strands of a rope (fig. A3). Innumerable variations can be obtained by altering the arrangement of the white threads. If, for example, we put seven of them all together on the side of the earthenware cylinder (fig. Br) and fill up all the remaining space with uncoloured glass, by pulling out and twisting we get a wide spiral consisting of seven parallel strands (fig. B2); if we put four white threads on each of two opposite parts of the cylinder, in the finished rod we shall find two four-stranded spirals crossing (fig. Cr and 2). If we carry one thread into the middle of the cylinder, it will form a white central column with spirals twining round it; and if we shift it slightly out of the centre, the central thread itself will

produce a corkscrew effect inside the spirals (fig. Dr and 2). By other complicated arrangements of the white threads a great number of most attractive intricate patterns can be obtained. Vessels made in this way are called vas? a ritort. In making a vaso a ritorti a cylindrical mould is again employed. The rods are again arranged in any desired order, with or without uncoloured rods between them, on the inside of the cylinder. They are then gently heated, and into the hollow cylinder which they form a bulb of colourless glass is blown from above; they adhere to this bulb, and on further heating and expansion they fuse completely with its surface. They are then pinched together just above the end of the bulb, so that they all meet at one point, while the intervals between them on the surface of the spherical bulb increase as it expands. As the bulb is blown out still more, its walls become thinner, and the rods are naturally pressed flat, so that the patterns inside them are squeezed out wide. The bulb is now subjected to the usual further processes. If it is not rotated, the rods run together like meridians on a globe; but if it is rotated while the other processes are going on, they form rhythmical spirals which cover the entire vase with their symmetrical whirling curves (figs. E and F).

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the same time, so that the threads now run spirally round it, 4 second bulb is produced in the same manner, but is rotated in the opposite sense during the process of elongation, so that the spiral twists run in the opposite direction to those on the first bulb. Both

bulbs are then cut open, fitted one inside the other in the form of open cylinders, and fused by heating. The spiral threads now

cross one another in a network, and as the separate raised rods

leave small hollowed-out

trough-shaped grooves between them

nothing remains inside the meshes of the network but little air. bubbles. The same result can also be obtained by making only one bulb and denting it in, like an india-rubber ball, until the two poles in which the threads meet, touch. The kind of double-walled basir thus produced is then again shaped into a bulb and undergoes further processes. Thus reticulated glass shows an astonishin; structure of interwoven spiral threads with small air-bubble embedded between them. Additional coloured superficial ornament is obtained by paint ing with cold colours, by burning-in enamel colours painted on, o by the process of gilding (g.v.); coloured plastic ornament br welding on threads, knobs, beads, etc.

Grinding and Cutting.—The chief field for subsequent plas tic decoration of the finished vessel lies in the grinding and cut

ting processes, with which may be counted the processes o scratching with a diamond and hammering small dents with diamond-point—“‘dotting” or “stippling.” Lastly, ornamentatio can also be etched into the glass. Grinding and cutting both depend on the same fundament: process. The glass is held against a rapidly-rotating metal dis (the “wheel”), which removes parts of the surface. The roughe work—removing only good-sized pieces with a simple outline— called “grinding.” It is done on comparatively large iron disc The grinder’s work consists principally in smoothing off unever nesses, €.g., on the attachment to the blowing-iron or the pu (the “cap”), with the foot, and in faceting and incising spherics olive-shaped, lancet-shaped and other ornaments—more or le coarse mechanical operations requiring no artistry. On the oth hand, glass-cutting, a process based on the same technical pri ciple, calls for a certain artistic capacity. The glass-cutier « engraver has to cut into the sides of a glass vessel ornament designs and figures, script, coats~of-arms, landscapes and the lik His chief tool, the cutting-lathe, is simply a finer variety of t! grinding-lathe; instead of the large iron disc a small copper dis placed vertically, revolves and the glass is held against it. F polishing, emery-powder is used. Discs of different sizes a employed according to the size of the piece to be cut, and it is their correct application that the workman’s technical skill shown. The execution of ornaments and other designs depends, course, on his artistic talent. Sometimes ground or cut glass left with the dull, unpolished surface produced by the lath sometimes the piece is polished up with small discs of lead, | or wood (“burnishing”). The commoner and simpler method glass-cutting is “intaglio cutting,” the ornament being cut ir the surface; in “relief cutting,” which is more difficult, the om ment is left standing out and the surface of the glass is cut aw round it (e.g., the Portland vase [Pl. V., No. 5], the Hed glasses [P1. III., No. 3], and Gundelach’s work [PI. VI., No. 6 ORIGIN AND EARLY MOVEMENTS Antiquity and the Early Mediaeval Period.—We can

FROM LABARTE, “HISTOIRE DES ARTS INDUSTRIELS” (COPR. BONNAIRE) SPECIMENS OF GLASS WORK. FOR PARTICULARS

SEE

TEXT

A simpler method of combining the rods with the bulb has obtained latterly at Murano. The rods are laid in the desired order on a metal plate and are then heated, whereupon the hot glass bulb is rolled over them and they adhere to it.

A type of spun glass that differs from the others is reticulated glass (vasi a reticelli). It is made as follows: a considerable number of rods containing only one strand of milk-glass are welded on to the glass bulb at equal intervals, in such a way that the rods are not completely fused with the bulb, but take the form of

xibs standing slightly out. The bulb is elongated and rotated at

state with any certainty when and where glass was invent Probably, however, it originated in Egypt (see EcyrT; Anch Art and Archaeology) for the oldest examples of glass-work kno

to us come from Egyptian tombs of the 4th millennium ».c. T are, however, merely pastes, generally of opaque coloured gl

which were worked into beads, amulets, and the like; and first glass vessels to which any date can be ascribed belong the 18th dynasty (c. 1500 B.c.). Even these vessels, howe’ most of which are very small vases or ointment-jars such as balsam-pots shown in plate V., fig. 2 with particoloured enclo threads on an opaque coloured ground, are made’entirely by h out of a viscous glass-paste. The invention of glass-blowing, wi

gt

a4 ot aE 1

Ale

PLATE IV

BY COURTESY

OF

THE

STAATLICHE

MUSEEN

3

BERLIN

> Lu = Lu H 1. 2, 5. 6,

=

= O -l r

CHEQUERS OF

INLET GAS FLUE

FIG. 1.—PLANS

OF TWO

TYPES

A, Plan of cross flame furnace.

OF

TANK

FURNACES

FOR

MELTING

B. Plan of horseshoe flame furnace.

GLASS

C. Cross-

section of cross flame furnace

of (c), (d) and (e); namely (a) fundamental materials (sand,

The raw materials are weighed out; the decolourizing or colourThe chief materials may be mixed either by hand, or mechanically.

constitutes from 20 to as much as 80% of the total mixture charged into the furnace. Melting the Glass.—The batch mixture is melted either in pot or in tank furnaces. In the former the pots or crucibles constitute individual containers of which any number between three and 18 may be set in a single furnace; whilst in the latter the tank serves as one huge receptacle. The pots are built of fireclay, usually by hand, are cylindrical, oval or egg-shape in crosssection according to circumstances, and may hold from 4 cwt. to 30 cwt. of glass, the small sizes being used mainly for supplies of coloured glasses. The pots are, if possible, stored for 12 months, slowly drying and “maturing” before use. Open pots are universally used for plate glass melting and in Europe, outside Great Britain, are also used for general purposes. In Great Britain and U.S.A. covered pots are most frequently employed. A 30 cwt. pot will have a bottom thickness of about 5 in. and walls tapering to about 3 in. at the shoulder, smaller pots having proportionate thicknesses. It is necessary to preheat them carefully to 1,000°—1,300° C in a subsidiary furnace (a pot-arch), a process taking 5-12 days, after which they are transferred with all speed to the melting furnace, fired hard for 12-36 hours, glazed inside with a little molten glass and then charged with the mixture. When melting is complete, the fluid glass is “refined,” that is, made homogeneous and free from bubbles of gas, an abundance of which is evolved during the melting. One method is to plunge the glass with blocks of wood soaked in water, the large steam bubbles sweeping out small gas bubbles. Subsequently the temperature is slowly lowered until the consistency of the glass is suitable for commencing to work it into articles. The complete melting (melting, refining and cooling off) time depends on the nature of the glass and the furnace temperature, the normal range of melting temperature being 1,300°— 1,500° C. By using medium size pots and high melting temperatures many factories on the Continent and some in Great Britain are able to melt overnight (about 12 hours) but often 36-48 hours are required. In tank furnaces, charging-in of raw materials at one end, usually through a trough or “dog-house,” and removal of glass from the working end are continuous, night and day. Figs. ra, tb and rc illustrate general principles. The heating flames may flow across the furnace (ra and rc) or round the furnace (horseshoe flame) (1b) in furnaces with regenerative preheating of gas and air; or straight down the tank with recuperative preheating

soda ash, red lead, lime, etc.); (b) waste glass from a previous melting known as cullet; (c) oxidizing agents such as sodium or

potassium nitrate, or reducing agents such as carbon; (d) decoiourizing materials; (e) colouring or opacifying materials. Waste glass or cullet is invariably added, first for economy, secondly because it assists in the melting. Oxidizing agents are employed under certain special conditions, as, for example, in glasses containing lead oxide in order to prevent reduction of this material to metallic lead by the action of furnace gases; whilst reducing materials are added such as for the purpose of decomposing more rapidly sodium sulphate or saltcake when

this forms part of the mixture.

Decolourizing agents are em-

ployed to produce the appearance of colourless glass in cases where otherwise the glass would have a faint green tint due to the presence of iron oxide. The decolourizing agents commonly wed in glassmaking are manganese dioxide and nickel oxide (for glass melted in pots) and selenium (for glass melted in tank furnaces), arsenious oxide, in itself a mild decolourizing agent, ing an almost invariable accompaniment of one of the foregoing decolourizers. Arsenious oxide produces no colour, but each of the others when present in a glass containing no iron oxide, or, m any case, when present in excess, produces a shade of colour, 4 purple or pink, which within limits covers the green or yellowgreen due to iron oxide. The amount of iron oxide which can

satisfactorily be so covered is not greater than 0-09%.

FIG. 2.—-CROSS-SECTIONAL ING GLASS IN POTS

PLAN

OF A REGENERATIVE

FURNACE

MELT-

of air or in small oil-fired furnaces. Small tanks (“day tanks”) without dividing bridge, are sometimes used like pots, being charged with batch which is melted overnight and worked out during the day. Glass Melting Furnaces.—These vary in design and capacity. Fig. 2 illustrates, in principle, a modern opéen-pot furnace with re-

generative preheating of fuel gas and the air for combustion. Producer gas is most frequently used for firing. The gas and the

preheated air emerge and burn above the “eye,” the flame spreads over the “crown” and the waste gases are drawn down through

416

GLASS

MANUFACTURE

flues at the sides of the pot and away to the chimney by way of

the recuperator channels or through the brick checker work in the care of regenerator chambers. Glass tank furnaces are constructed, the glass-containing bath of thick (3 in—1r5 in.) fireclay blocks for sides and bottom, the upper walls of fireclay bricks and the crown of silica bricks. They average 100-200 tons in deadweight capacity for bottle glass and about 500 for window glass, with actual limits of a few cwt. to 1,000 tons for bottle and up to 1,500 tons or more for window glass. Owing to increased efficiency of operation the tendency now (1928) is to diminish tank furnace size. A bottle or domestic ware glass tank of average capacity will be 4 ft. deep when used for colourless glass and 2 ft. 6 in. to 3 ft. 3 in. for coloured, a window glass tank 5 feet. The working end is usually divided from the melting end by a double-walled bridge, the glass flowing into the working end through a passage (called the “throat” or “dog-hole”) near or at the tank bottom. The refining zone lies immediately in front of the bridge and in window glass tanks may be divided from the melting zone by a floating fireclay barrier or bridge.

Conversion of the Glass into Articles.—The glass industry is one of high skill since, unlike many of the metal making industries, not only is the glass melted, but it is also converted on the spot into innumerable forms. Factories making table glassware or ornamental hollow-ware usually cut, engrave, etch, enamel or paint the articles made in the “glasshouse” where the melting and shaping occur. The greatest variety of glass articles can be made at factories employing pot furnaces and hand manipulation. Glass tank furnaces, introduced commercially subsequent to 1860, have been displacing pot furnaces rapidly within the past decade and, combined with mechanical

methods, have led to specialization. The methods for the conversion of molten glass into articles include: (1) Free-hand work, (2) blowing in moulds, (3) pressing in moulds, (4) drawing, (5) rolling. Examples of each type follow. Free-hand Work.—We may conveniently classify both general manipulation at the furnace and the lampworking industry under this heading. The former is the oldest existing system

of glassworking and is responsible for most of the finest artistic glass creations in the form of vessels, as well as a considerable, though now decreasing, variety of utilitarian articles, such as tumblers. Some of the tools required are shown in figs. 3 and 4, BY COURTESY OF THE POTTERY AND GLASS comprising blowpipes, at the TRADERS* BENEVOLENT INSTITUTION wider end of which the necessary Figs. 3 and 4.—Blowpipes. Figs. 5 to S.—Tools for opening out and quantity of glass is obtained by shaping hollow ware. Figs 9 and 10. dipping into the pot; a smooth —Pallets or flattening tools. Figs. 11 iron plate called a “marver” (or, and 12.—Calipers. Figs. 13 and 14.— as an alternative or an adjunct Shears for cutting the soft glass a wooden shaping block), on which the gathered glass is rolled to produce regularity of shape, pincers and shaping tongs (figs. 5, 6, 7, 8), flattening boards (figs. 9 and io), calipers (fig. 11), compasses (fig. 12) and shears (figs. 13 and 14).

The glassmaker sits at a chair (fig. 15) having projecting arms

shod with strips of iron across which he rolls the blowpipe backwards and forwards when engaged in shaping the body of any

glass article of circular cross section.

Figs. 16—20 illustrate the

process of making a wine glass with a drawn-out stem and blown

foot. The partly shaped and blown gathering (fig. 16) is further

blown into the shape of the bowl and a knob, formed by pinchi (fig. 17) is drawn out into a stem (fig. 18) to the end of vith small bulb, blown by an assistant, is stuck (fig. 19) and eee

out and flattened (fig. 20). The blowpipe is then cracked awa by a wet tool, the wine glass held by the foot in a holder Gs

“gadget”) and after being reheated at the mouth of the furnace until soft, the excess glass is sheared away, and, if desired the

rim pressed back to form a flange (fg

` 21). Casing, inlaid enamelling, threaded ang

millefiori work are all done at the furnace

Iridescent surface effects are produced by

FIG. CHAIR

treating the hot glass article by the vapours

1S GEASSMAKER'S of salts (tin chloride, ferric chloride, ete.)

The handmaking of window glass, in which

cylinders 5 ft. 6 in. to 6 ft. long and 12 in. diameter are blown

split and flattened out, is another example of freehand working.

It is dying out except for stained glass and special types like those made by the ancient craftsmen. The lampworking industry converts glass tubing and glass rod

into innumerable articles. A piece of glass tubing is rotated in the flame of a blowpipe (usually coal gas and compressed air but for very hard glasses coal gas and oxygen or even hydrogen or acetylene and oxygen) and softened, after which the tube may be drawn out, the ends sealed, bulbs may be blown in various

ways or joints made. The following are branches of the lampworking industry: (A) Electric filament lamp and radio-valye manufacture, although the sealing-in processes are now done almost entirely by automatic machines. (B) Light-blown scientifc and surgical apparatus; test-tubes, ampoules, glass condensers, absorption bulbs, X-ray tubes, thermometers, etc. (C) Glass

eyes. (D) Beads, artificial gems and fancy goods. Mould Blown Glass— Moulds are almost always of cast iron, although on the continent of Europe wooden moulds are frequently employed when only small quantities of an article are needed. The mould is hinged to open and shut, and angular shaped articles may require moulds with two or more hinges. The interior surface of a mould may be covered with a lubricating paste to prevent scratching of the glass and is known as a paste BY COURTESY OF THE POTTERY AND GLASS mould. If used dry, it is often TRADERS’ BENEVOLENT INSTITUTION described as a hot mould. The FIG. 16.——MAKING A WINE GLASS BY requisite amount of glass, if hand HARD MOLTEN GLASS ON BLOWPIPE operation is in question, is FORMED INTO HOLLOW BALL OR PEAR. FIG. 17.——BALL DISTENDED gathered on a blow pipe, marv- BY BLOWING AND KNOB JOINED BY ered into shape, partially blown PINCERS. FIG. 18.—-KNOB OF GLASS up and then lowered into the DRAWN INTO PINCERS ROD ON STEM. mould which is afterwards tightly FIG. 19.—-HOLLOW BALL ATTACHED 20.-—BALL closed and the final blowing TO END OF STEM. FIG. FLATTENED OUT AND THEN given. When an article of circu- OPENED FIG. 21. THE FOOT, TO FORM lar cross section is to be made it BLOWPIPE CRACKED OFF; FOOT is usually rotated as it is blown. CLAMPED IN HOLDER, UPPER PART Blowing machines carry one or OF BULB REHEATED UNTIL SOFT

more moulds.

(For glass bottle

AND OPENED OUT TO FORM A LIP

blowing see the article on Bortte MANUFACTURE.) The Westlake machine for making electric light bulbs carries 24 moulds and blowing heads. The glass is gathered by a ram which projects forward into a trough containing the molten glass, and obtains the charge which is conveyed to the mould. The operation of this particular machine has steadily been improved so that 18 the latest types as many as 120,000 bulbs per day have beat made (1928). . Pressed Glass.—Pressing is used for a great variety of thick walled articles such as dishes of all kinds, thick-walled tumbles

GLASS

MANUFACTURE

jars, reflectors, pavement lights, pressed lenses, tiles and elecA charge of glass is poured into a mould and a

trical insulators.

plunger brought down into the mass, pressing it into all parts

of the mould. A glass which is soft and not too quick in setting must be used for this process. The moulds may be blank or may hear a more

or less intricate

pattern.

Pressed

glass tumblers

are now made in large quantities by pressing machines carrying eight or more moulds on a rotating table. |PULLEY ROPE SLIDING FRAMEWORK

JOINT. WHICH ows FINISHED CYLINDER TO BE LOWERED INTO HORIZONTAL POSITION

line of flow of the glass from the melting tank (fig. 24). The glass oozes through a slit in a fireclay floater, is drawn upwards and immediately chilled by water coolers before it reaches the asbestos rollers which propel it up through the annealing chamber which is only about 20 ft. long. By this process glass up to about 6 ft. wide may be drawn (usually 4 ft. to 5 ft. wide) and from four to ten machines may be fed from one melting furnace. Glass tubing and glass rod may BAFFLE PLATES be obtained by drawing out the glass from a cylindrically shaped mass, hollow in the case of tubing, solid in the case of rod. ASBESTOS COVERED ROLLERS The process is now carried out mechanically and continuously by the Danner (American) tube-

drawing machine (known also as the Libbey-Owens tube-drawing machine) and by the Philips (Holland) machine. In the former fluid glass falls on and spreads over an inclined tapered

BLOWING HEAD OR BAIT.

fireclay mandrel through which air under slight pressure is blown if tubing is required, and the glass as it flows from the end is FIG. 24.—PRINCIPLE OF THE FOUR- drawn away by a machine, the CAULT SHEET-GLASS DRAWING PRO- tubing in between the mandrel CESS and the machine passing over pulleys (fig. 25). From 100 to soo ft. per minute may be drawn.

FIXED FRAMEWORK

LADLE

REVERSIBLE DRAWING POT

LOWER SIDE

OF POT BEING HEATED AND DRAINED

BURNER

Rolling of Glass.—This process is employed for the manu-

BLOWING HEAD

CHARGING THE DRAW POT

FURNACE-

417

OR

BAIT

LOWERED IN POSITION

DRAWING

AND

BLOWING COMMENCED

COMPLETION OF DRAW

FIG, 22.—DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE MACHINE CYLINDER (LUBBERS’) PROCESS FOR DRAWING WINDOW GLASS The Drawing of Glass.—This process is exemplified by the manufacture of window glass and of glass tubing. The manufacture of ordinary window glass by hand has disappeared from the U.S.A. and from Belgium, and is rapidly being displaced in other countries. The machine cylinder process, due to Lubbers, is still operated in America, England and France. The requisite quantity of glass (about 550 lb.) is ladled from a tank furnace into a hot shallow fireclay pot and a blowing head let down into it, and after establishing contact, is drawn up steadily as may be seen in fig. 22. Cylinders up to 4o ft. long and 36 in, to 40 in. diameter are thus drawn. They are cut into sections, each is split, placed in a flattening furnace on smooth stone, and when suff-r T ey

ah

at ey jr Oe AD come

of

CONTINUOUS GLASS SHEET PASSING INTO

ANNEALING CHAMBER

BLOWING AIR

TES

eee!poo

facture of plate glass, figured sheet glass and reinforced or wire glass. Glass is melted in open pots and when ready, the pot is transferred by a crane to a casting table of iron and distributed in front of a massive iron roller which traverses the table from end to end, rolling it out into a sheet, usually about 4 in. thick. The lower surface is roughened by the adherence of sand scattered over the table to prevent sticking and the upper surface is marked either by, groovings or other markings in the roller designed to prevent sticking of this implement. The large rolled sheet passes down an annealing furnace about 4oo ft. long and after being discharged is cut into suitable pieces, set in plaster of Pdris on circular grinding tables (up to 36 ft. diameter) and ground by iron-shod runners using a mixture of water and sand as abrasive. After grinding both faces the glass is reset on similar tables and polished with similar runners, but shod with felt and using water and rouge instead of sand. In the Bicheroux process, the glass is cast between two rollers, enabling thin plate to be rolled and saving much of the time and cost of grinding.

BENDING ROLLER

GLASS SHEET BEING DRAWN FROM FURNACE

ROTA TING FIRECLAY MANDREL

DRAWING TROUGH

MELTING FURNACE

FiG. 23.—PRINCIPLE OF THE COLBURN

(OR LIBBEY-OWENS)

SHEET-

FIG. 25.—DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE DANNER AUTOMATIC METHOD OF DRAWING GLASS TUBING AND GLASS ROD For figured glass the rollers bear a pattern. (For wire glass see REINFORCED GLASS.) led from the main tank furnace, the sheet passing over a roller Optical Glass.—The term is usually regarded as applying to (fig. 23) and being drawn horizontally through the annealing fur- the highest qualities of glass used for telescopes, microscopes, hace which is 200 ft. long. Two such machines can be operated camera lenses and scientific instruments of precision and not to ya single glass melting furnace. The rate of drawing is from spectacle lenses and pressed lenses for which inferior glass is used. about 26 in. to 72 in. per minute, and is continuous night and Optical glass is always purchased on specification and must be day, In the Fourcault process (Belgium) the sheet is drawn supplied as having definite refractive index (that for the D-line, vertically upwards from drawing chambers fed from the melting np) dispersion and dispersion constant (v). These are the proplank, The line of the drawing chambers forms a T-piece with the erties on which the optician bases his calculations of achromaGLASS DRAWING

PROCESS

cently hot and soft, smoothed out by a block of wood. Processes for drawing the sheet direct are now in widespread use. The Libbey-Owens process draws the glass from a trough

GLASS

418

MANUFACTURE

tizing two or more lenses, that is, of building up lens systems in instruments without colour fringes. The importance of high quality optical glass is out of all proportion to the quantity made and the manufacture is seldom a profit-making venture. Three firms in Great Britain, one in Germany and one in France make it; the Bureau of Standards (Department of Commerce), U.S.A., makes all that is produced in America. Messrs. Chance Bros. make some 120 varieties and the following six from their list are selected to illustrate the range of optical properties:

| Glass NT No. 646 605 8894 407 7972 665

Type | | | | | |

Boro-silicate crown . Hard crown ‘ Dense barium crown Light flint. . . Very dense flint Light barium flint .

DisperSP sion

np 1°5087 1°S§I75 1*6r00 . 4 31-5787 . | 1-7566 . | 13-5677

Dens.

(nF—nc) | | | | | |

0°00793 0°00856 o-orr4s o-org20 o-02754 o-ot2g1

tty | | | | | |

64°r Gos 53°3 40-8 27°5 44:0

| | | | | |

2°46 2:49 3°53 3-26 4°82 3°08

The “crowns” were originally confined to alkali-lime-silica, and the “flints” to alkali-lead oxide-silica glasses. Partial substitution of silica in the former by boric oxide gives boro-silicate crowns; and by phosphoric oxide or fluorine, phosphate crowns and fluorcrowns, respectively. Substitution of lime by barium oxide or zinc oxide in crown glass gives barium crowns or zinc crowns; lead oxide by barium oxide in flints gives barium flints. “Light,” “medium” and “dense” refer to density. Lead oxide tends to produce high refractive index (np ), high dispersion and low value of y. Barium oxide leads to moderately high np and dispersion and still fairly high v. The effect of each 1% of the oxides soda, potash, lime, lead oxide, barium oxide has been systematically worked out, so that the approximate composition of a glass required to fulfil certain optical conditions can be calculated (although this does not imply that it can successfully

be melted). The essentials ‘of manufacture are (1) fireclay pots of low iron oxide content and as resistant as possible to corrosion by the glass, (2) sand and other raw materials as free as possible from iron oxide. After being melted the glass is stirred for some hours to obtain homogeneity and freedom from bubbles and then

methods, by the heat of the newly formed article, is the upper

limit of the annealing range because the time required for anneal ing is greatly reduced thereby. For lead oxide glasses this temperature may range, according to composition, from 450° to 490°; bottle glass 540°-600°; for window glass 550° to 590°: whilst for chemical glasses it often exceeds 600°. Thin-walled articles, such as electric light bulbs, may be rapidly annealed in a few minutes; the thicker the article the longer the time. Slabs of optical glass are often annealed at a temperature towards the

lower end of the annealing range and the time may be upwards of ten days. A disc for a reflecting telescope 70 in. diameter and r2 in. thick made in U.S.A. (1927) was given ten months to cool. After-treatment and Decoration of Glass.—Mould blown ware usually has a shoulder and a heavy glass piece which cop. nects it to the blow pipe, as, for example, with tumblers, beakers, blown dishes, etc. 1. Cracking-of and Edge Melting—The shoulder is cracked off by mounting the article on a small rotating table and bring; a diamond point to bear on the side of the article at the height

at which the top of the vessel is to be. After making a deep scratch the article is transferred to another small rotating table and small, horizontal, sharp-pointed gas flames impinge on it at

the level of the scratch from which point a crack starts and pro-

ceeds in a horizontal direction right round the article (unless annealing has been very faulty). The edges of the article are then heated by a gas flame in order to round them off. With tumblers

having walls of medium thickness it may be necessary to grind the edges flat by means of carborundum wheels before smoothing the edges in a flame. Wine glasses and tumblers can be treated in mass in a melting machine by mounting them on a continuous belt and allowing them to pass between sets of burners. 2. Glass Cutting.—Decorative glass cutting such as is employed on drinking glasses, vases, dishes, etc., is carried out in several stages. The pattern is traced in chalk and then cut out roughly by a rotating iron wheel with a triangular edge on which a continuous stream of sand and water is fed from an overhead hopper. The actual cutting is done by the sand under pressure from the

iron wheel. The rough cutting is then smoothed by a stone wheel, Craigleith stone being much used in England, as well as artificial

stone wheels. Polishing is now frequently done by dipping in a slowly cooled, still stirring until too stiff to continue. The pot mixture of concentrated hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids. (PI. of glass is cooled in several days to ordinary temperature and TI.) cracks irregularly into variously shaped and sized pieces which are 3. Engraving —Engraving is done by rotating copper wheels carefully selected, softened sufficiently to be moulded into slabs, mounted in the chuck of a small lathe. The wheels, which vary the ends of which are polished to examine the glass for striae in diameter from 7, in. to 4 in., according to the size of the and bubbles, and sold in block form. Large discs for telescope work to be done, are fed at their edges with oil containing fine refractors or reflectors are cast into a mould. emery powder. Annealing Classware.—Glass is a poor conductor of heat. 4. Etching—Electric lamp bulbs are now given an opal ap Hence, when cooling down and setting, the outer layers set hard pearance by frosting them internally, the process depending on prior to the inner, the contraction of which is retarded by the treatment with a solution of which the essential constituent is byrigid outer layer. Stresses are thus set up in the glass. Thus, drofluoric acid. Glass decoration may also be carried out by a the outer layer may be in compression and the adjacent layer in similar etching solution. For deep line etching a solution contension. The working of glassware by tools or in metal moulds taining one part of concentrated hydrofluoric acid to four or five must naturally produce a rigid outer layer before the inner layers of water is employed. When a matt or dulled surface is to be are set. A piece of hot glassware in which stresses are small or produced a mixture such as the following is employed: Ammonegligible can be prevented from developing stresses by retarding nium fluoride, 5; hydrofluoric acid, 2; water, 5. This mixture its rate of cooling appropriately, especially over what is known best applied with a brush. Parts of the article which are not as the annealing range; whilst glassware which is stressed can to be etched are protected by a resisting medium made up from a be rendered relatively free from stress by maintenance for a mixture of asphalt, resin, beeswax, Venetian turpentine andrectisuitable time at a temperature within the annealing range. Once fied turpentine, one such mixture containing these materials m the temperature falls outside this range the cooling can be rapid the respective proportions 500, 300, 150, 100, 1,000. without modifying the distribution of stresses or setting up per5. Sand Blasting—A matt but rather rough surface is pro manent stresses if they have previously been removed. duced by the process of blowing a stream of sand at considerable Arrangements for annealing, therefore, consist essentially of velocity against the glass surface to be decorated or marked ( some hot chamber maintained at a temperature within the an- as in badging with a number or other device) the parts of the nealing range for a specified time and some means for cooling glass to be marked being exposed through a metal stencil plate. the glass at a controllable rate. This may be done in kilns or in Historical_—Much of the earliest glass known has been found

lebrs. The latter consists of a hot chamber followed by a long in Egypt and has suggested that country as having given birth to funnel in which cooling off occurs, a conveyor belt carrying the the art. Sir W. M. Flinders Petrie, however, regards objects

glassware traversing the hot chamber and the tunnel. For commercial articles the temperature maintained in the hot chamber, either by gas or oil burners or other firing, or, again, in the latest

earlier than about 1400 3.c. found in Egypt as of foreign iw

portation, the products of an earlier development in Syria. Glass has been found in the Euphrates region of date 2500 B.C.

GLASS MANUFACTURE

PHOTOGRAPHS,

(1, 2, 3) EWING

GALLOWAY,

(4) PUBLISHERS

CRAFTSMEN

PHOTO

CUTTING

Prare II

SERVICE

AND

ETCHING

l. Glass cutting: decorating a vase with a geometric combination of incised grooves cut in the surface of the piece. Work Is done by means of a power driven stone or iron wheel having a sharp edge, upon which

trickles a thin stream of water mixed with fine sand 2. Etching glass: producing designs on the glass surface by means of acids (hydrofluoric and sulphuric). The object to be decorated Is covered with protective wax in which the design Is traced with a needle.

The

plece is then placed in the etching bath until fluid has penetrated to

ORNAMENTAL

DESIGNS

the depth desired.

ON

GLASS

Finally the wax or “resist”

the surface of the object shown tracing design

decorated

with

the

is removed, design.

leaving

Craftsman

is

3. Polishing the design cut on a large glass vase. Operator uses a disc of wood, cork or leather to remove rough surface in design left by the cutting wheel shown in fig. 1 4. Cutting

the scalloped

edge on a glass bowl.

Considerable

skill

is re-

quired in cutting the facets to the proper depth and placing the designs

GLASS MANUFACTURE

419

earliest known factory was that discovered by Petrie at Tell el ful in form and embodiments of the highest skill ever attained. Amarna in Egypt of date 1400 B.c. From this time onwards the The art of decoration attained a high standard and included lace art of glassmaking began to flourish in Egypt, the influence of pattern, filigree work, gilt and enamelled work and crackled glass. foreign glass craftsmen being assigned by Petrie as the cause of

the comparatively rapid development. Until shortly before the Christian era, the use of the blowpipe appears to have been unknown, the glass being first worked into rods or threads, and these in turn being softened and worked round a core of sand and

welded together into the shape of the vessel. The analysis (B. Neumann, 1926) of a sample of the colourless Tell el Amarna

plass was Silica 63-86, lime 7-86, magnesia 4-18, soda 22-66, potash >80, alumina 0-66, ferric oxide 0-67%. The use of the oxides of copper, of iron and of manganese for colouring glass was known at this very early date. The manufacture of vases, coloured

and decorated with Chevron patterns, and of beads, spread rapidly. About 1200 B.C. glass pressing in moulds was begun by the

Egyptians. Of early Assyrian glass-making we have no extensive knowl-

edge, but R. Campbell Thompson by his translations of inscriptions on tablets of the reign of Ashur-banipal (668-626 B.c.) has provided us with much information about the materials used and methods of manufacture.

Egyptian glassmaking continued through the Greek and Roman

occupations and received impetus from the existence of a big demand in the Roman market. Probably this demand led to the

establishment of the art in Rome in the rst century B.C. Certain + is that under the Romans the art made such strides that from

the point of view of form and of manipulative skill their highest

attainments have scarcely been surpassed.

The Portland vase,

preserved in the Gold Room of the British Museum, is a mag-

nificent example of this skill. It was found in 1550 in a tomb of the 3rd century A.D., but the vase itself is probably of the rst century A.D. It consists of a dark blue body surmounted by an opal outer layer which has been chiselled or cut to form groups of figures in relief. Glass cutting and engraving, glass mosaics (the latter already developed by the Egyptians) cameos, millefiori and filigree work were all the product of the Roman art, whilst bottles and jars were extensively made. Glassmaking was carried on in many parts of the Roman empire, in Gaul, in Spain

and on the Rhine. On the break-up of the Roman empire the art was carried on most actively in the Eastern empire. The Greek workmen were largely preoccupied with the use of coloured glass as mosaics and

their services for church decoration were in such request that they travelled far and wide plying their craft. In Syria glassmaking appears to have been widespread and in the early centuries A.D., Jewish craftsmen were engaged in working imitation gems. Tyre, in the 12th century, contained many Jews engaged in glassmaking. The Mohammedans became interested in the art. We have definite records of the product of a factory at Sammara, in Mesopotamia, of the middle of the gth century A.D., whilst in the 1rth to the r4th centuries another peak of development was reached in the Arabian enamelled glass, applied to vases and goblets and particularly to lamps for lighting mosques. _ The next great epoch of glassmaking was the Venetian, extending from the beginning of the 13th to the 18th century. It had

Copper aventurine glass was discovered in the ryth century. Window glass, ships lanterns and spectacle lenses were all made in the 13th and r4th centuries, whilst mirror making, particularly in the 16th and 17th centuries, became a lucrative trade. Of the development of glassmaking in France, Germany and England subsequent to Roman and Greek influences our knowledge is fragmentary only. A German worker, Theophilus, writing in the r2th century regarded the art of making stained glass windows as essentially French and there are records of skilled glassmakers in Normandy for several centuries from the toth onwards, a band of whom at the end of the 11th century migrated to L’Altare on the Italian coast. Glassmakers from Lorraine, a district which produced much window glass in the r6th century, migrated to England during the 16th century and eventually established themselves at Stourbridge and at Newcastle at the beginning of the 17th century, opening up those important cen-

tres. The casting of plate glass was developed in 1691 by Louis Lucas de Nehou from an initial invention of Perrault in 1687. Very noteworthy, since the middle of the r9th century, have been the artistic glass productions of Rousseau, Gallé, Lalique Despres and Marinot. Well-defined knowledge of German glass begins with the writings of Agricola at the middie of the 16th century, but the industry had been carried on for some centuries in the forests of Saxony and Bohemia. In the 16th century, Italian influence began greatly to stimulate the industry. Enamelling, gilding, paint-

ing and engraving were brought to a high level of attainment during the two following centuries. In England much patient research has led to the discovery of a number of details about glassmaking operations in the early 18th century at Chiddingfold, in Surrey. There is little doubt that bands of roving glassmakers plied their craft for some centuries in the forests of Sussex and Surrey, and probably elsewhere prior to the big development, beginning about the middle of the 16th century, when in 1547 a band of Venetian workmen came to London to carry on their craft and to teach it. Various other bands followed and workmen from Lorraine, as already referred to, settled eventually in Stourbridge and in Newcastle. The efforts of Sir Robert Mansell, in particular, at the beginning of the 17th century helped to establish the industry. The English were the first to use coal for glass furnaces. They also introduced covered crucibles and about 1670 began to employ a lead glass which soon became established as “English crystal” glass, composed of potash, lead oxide and silica. Hitherto, including all glasses from the early Egyptian to the Venetian, a soda-lime (including magnesia) -silica basis had been universal, except that in the forests of Bohemia and south Germany potash instead of soda provided an improved variant on the older glass. The new English glass could be made in thick articles suitable for cutting and engraving, and attained such popularity by the second half of the 18th century as to oust Venetian glass from favour. The chief contribution of America to glassmaking has been the invention and application of wonderful automatic machinery be-

ginning with the Owens bottle machine

(1899-1904)

and fol-

its origin probably in the live contact of the Venetian trade with lowed by other types for bottles and jars, electric bulbs, tubing Syrian ports. Early in the 13th century there is evidence of a and rod, window and plate glass. These inventions have placed

gild of glassmakers in Venice. Owing to the risk of fire within

the city, the major operations of glassmaking were, towards the end of the 13th century, transferred to Murano and there greatly developed. During the 14th century, the craft was so important

that separate gilds were formed and finally well established in the 15th. Membership carried important privileges, but involved vy responsibilities and various severe penalties were imposed

by enactments between the 13th and 16th centuries on Venetian

workmen who travelled abroad and divulged the art of glass-

making. Groups of them, however, and groups also from a rival establishment at L’Altare, travelled through western Europe, at-

tracted by considerable reward and gave fresh impetus to the art

i the Low Countries, in England, France and Germany. The metian productions, especially of the 16th century, were grace-

America in the leading world position for quantity of glass produced and in recent years have made possible the manufacture

of the articles named in countries such as South America, Japan, Australia and China, where skilled workers were unavailable. Scientific Development.—The basis of existing technique for

making optical glass was developed by P. L. Guinand, a Swiss, between 1774 and 1805. The method was brought from France to England in 1848 by G. Bontemps. Faraday spent several years (1824-30) in improving optical glass manufacture and Rev. V. Harcourt, working in the period 1834-65, in the latter years jointly with G. G. Stokes, was the pioneer in correlating the optical properties with the composition of glass, O. Schott and R. Abbé, in Germany, began their collaboration in 1879. ‘The famous Jena works (1882) sprang from their efforts and a mass of sci

GLASS-PAPER—GLASS PRINTS

gis

entific information about glass was published. The World War opened a new scientific era. The Department of Glass Technology, University of Sheffield, was founded in 1915; the Society of Glass Technology in r916. In America a Glass Division of the Ceramic Society was set up in 1918. The Deutsche Glastechnische Gesellschaft was founded in 1922 in Germany and several laboraJapan

tories for research have subsequently been opened there. has made a number of contributions to glass research.

Industrial—Only in the United States, Canada and Great Britain are censuses taken of production. The unofficial statistics are often uncertain and contradictory, and the data in the following tables must, therefore, be regarded as approximate for countries other than U.S.A., Great Britain and Canada: TABLE I. Number of Establishments

j

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32/

8

3

HH ee

PA ace

par

Year}

Country

Se

:

:

se

Creat Ba 27 reat Britain.

tt | E924 j 355 =. | 1927 | 143 .

Sa Beli:

ory ir +g eT

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8

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Belgium . O

Japan

. | 1926

France

. | 1926

ý a

51993999

#50009

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£1,430,800Tf

.

.-

£4,080,0008

Canada . | 1925 | 2,778

of

Value

DS

imports

ees ü t BE

6,943,879" §l

rea Britain. | 1924 | 37,713 | 13,260,c00# | 2,261,495* j Rbi. f Rbi.

s

Hebing, Praktische Anleitung zur Ausführung der Glasätzung in ihren Verschiedenen Arten (1928). Physical Properties and Theory: H Hovestadt, Jena Glass and its Scientific and Industrial Applications (edit. and trans. by J. D. and A. Everitt, 1902); H. Schulz, Das Gles (Munich, 1923); E. Zschimmer, Theorie der Glasschmelzkunst als

physikalisch-chemische Technik (Jena and Berlin, 1923) ; The Consti-

tution of Glass: A series of papers reprinted from the Journal of the

Society of Glass Technology, publ. by the Soc. of Glass Technology (edit. W. E. S. Turner, Sheffield, 1927). History and Art: GE Pazaurek, Moderne Glaser in J. L. Sponsel’s Monographien des Kunstgewerbes, No. 2 (1909), and Kunstgläser der Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1925); E. Dillon, Glass (1907); W. M. Flinders Petrie, The Arts and Crafts of Ancient Egypt (1909) ; H. Arnold and L. B. Saint, Stained Glass of the Middle Ages in England and France (1913, 2nd ed. 1925); J. L. Fischer, Handbuch der Glasmalerei in K. W. Hiersemann’s Handbücher (1914); M. S. D. Westropp, Zrish Glass: An Account of glass. making in Ireland from the XVIth century, (1920); H. J. Powell, lish Glass aa A Assyrians (1925) ; W.

of the Ancient Mace On ef N Glass 1926); J. D. Le ConLuropean Buckley,

teur, English Mediaeval Painted Glass, publ. by the S.PS.K. (1926);

W. A. Thorpe, English and Irish Glass, publ. by the Medici Soc. Ans (1927); L. Rosenthal, La Vere Proma e depuis Cinquante Society, Transactions (5 numptical (1927). Scientific Periodicals: bere per annum, 1899, etc.); Society of Glass Technology, Journal (Quarterly, Sheffield, 1917, etc.) ; American Ceramic Society, Journal (Columbus, U.S.A. 1918, etc.); Glastechnische Berichte (Frankfurt, 1923, etc.). Commercial and Technical Periodicals: Céramigue et Verrerie (monthly, Paris, 1880, etc.) ; Spechsaal (Coburg, 1915, etc.)(a; The Glass Industry, publ. by the Glass Industry Publishing Company monthly, New York, 1920, etc.) ; Le Verre (monthly, Charleroi, 1921, nology, Directory for the British Glass Industry Adressbuch der Glasindustrie (Coburg, 1928).

;

(W.E. 5S. T,)

;

GLASS-PAPER. An abrasive material much used for smooth-

ing the surface of wood manufactures. It consists of thick cartridge paper coated with powdered glass. The paper is coated with liquid glue and the glass particles powdered over the surface before

the glue has set. (See also SAND-PAPER and EMERY.) GLASSPORT, a borough of Allegheny county, Pa., U.S.A,

93npg9

£1,368,000t

GLASS PRINTS, or, as the French call them, clichés-verres,

f Rbl.

Glassport was settled about 1900.

mn

and steel foundry work.

.

were an imitation of etchings in the making of which the Barbizon group of artists, Daubigny, Rousseau, Millet and Corot, would amuse their leisure during the years between 1855 and 1860. On a blackened piece of glass, covered with a white opaque varnish,

The number of employees is no longer a true measure of the glass producing power of a country. Commencing with the

U.S.A. there bas been in the last decade some diminution in the number of establishments and a check to increase of workpeople employed as the result of the invention of mechanical appliances. This process has spread to Great Britain and is now being felt on the continent of Europe. In 1927, Germany was the biggest exporter of glass; but, relative to production, the two most important exporting countries are Czechoslovakia and Belgium. The former exported (1927) approximately 80% of its glass production. Window glass and plate glass constitute Belgium’s chief glass exports. Of polished plate, Belgium was Europe’s biggest producer, with 37,660 thousand sq.ft. in 1926, less than one-third, however, of that of U.S.A. in the same year (128,857,875 sq.ft.). ULTRA VIOLET RADIATION.)

of Glass Blowing (1923) ; F. W. Hodkin and A. Cousen, A Textbook oj Glass Technology (1925); C. J. Peddle, Defects in Glass (1927). ¢

rom. S.E. of Pittsburgh, on the Monongahela river and the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie railroad. The population was 6,959 in 1920 (25% foreign-born white) and was 8,390 in 1930 by the Federal census. The leading industries are glass-making, copper welding

5,160,226*

*For year 1927. {Calculated at $4.87 per fr. §Calculated at 20 marks to £r. #Calculated at pre-war prices. lCalculated at 165 crowns per £r. tłEor year 1926. Calculated at ro yen per £I. Calculated at 124 francs to £r.

(See also BOTTLE Manuracrure;

R. Hohlbaum, Zeitmasse Herstellung: Bearbeitung und Verzierung des feinen Hohlglases (Vienna and Leipzig, 1910); H. P. Waran, Elemente

of Glass TechGlass Factory Directory (Pittsburgh, annual) ; Society (Sheffield, 1928);

Employment, Production and Exports in the Glass Industry Value of z

Glass Technology: R

etc.); Glass, publ. by Glass Publications, Ltd. (monthly, London, 1924, etc.). Directories: Office of the National Glass Budget, USA,

TABLE II.

No. of | Total value Country | Year | em- | of produc-

and General

Glass-Making in England (1923) ; F. Buckley, A History of Old Eng.

2

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BrstiocrapHy.——Manufacture

Dralle, Die Glasfabrikation, which was edited by G. Keppeler "val. i. (Munich, 1926); A. L. Duthie, Decorative Glass Processes (1908) :

Guass [Sarety]; Gass:

they would draw their subjects with an etching-needle, as on a copper-plate, then they would take an impression on a sensitized

paper exposed to the light behind the glass. The effect was curiously like an etching, though the print was really rather in the nature of a photograph, for no pressure had been used to crush the paper into bitten lines which did not exist. Daubigny was, we fancy, the most successful maker of these clichés-verres, though the needling of his lines, not being subjected to any mordant process, looked rather like lines drawn with a pen and ink, as in Le Bouquet d’Aunes, for instance, which, of course, has not at all the essential character of etching. There was another form of glass prints popular in England in the later decades of the 18th century, which transferred to glass many contemporary mezzo

tint and stipple colour-prints, mostly of the cruder kind, but occasionally some of a more pretentious artistic order. The glass, cut

to the size of the print, was covered with a thin coating turpentine, then the print, well damped, was laid on this, face downwards. The paper was most carefully rubbed away with the with us finger, until only the veriest film of the print was left

design on the turpentine-covered glass. When this was dry, the

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PRINTS

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GROUP

Glass prints or clichés verres were an imitation of etchings made by artists of the Barbizon group between 1855 and 1860. The print was made was then taken on a by covering a blackened glass with white opaque varnish, and drawing the subject on it with an etching needle. An impression an etching in effect

sensitized paper exposed to the light through the glass. The print was in reality a kind of photograph, though resembling l. Le Bouquet d'Aunes, by Charles François Daubigny (1817-78) 2. La Plaine de la Plante & Biau, by Théodore (Etienne Pierre) Rousseau (1812-67). Scene at Barbizon, near the Forest of Fontainebleau 3. Le Grand Cavalier sous bois, by Jean Baptiste Camille Corot (1796~—

1875). Landscape with a human figure characteristic of Corot’s mood and style; in reversed form 4, Femme vidant un seau, by Jean François Millet (1814-74). Country scene and subject typical of Millet’s work; in reversed form

GLASSWORT—GLASTONBURY impression was painted on the back, sometimes richly, sometimes simply, even crudely, but often with a brilliancy of colouring

superior to that of the original print on paper. These glass colgured prints enjoyed a brief contemporary vogue, but they died

out with the old coloured stipple and mezzotint.

Some 25 years

ago there was a fashion in collecting them, but the field, it appears,

was soon exhausted, and the actual old prints are valued too highly for it to be extended.

GLASSWORT,

(M. C. S.)

Salicornia herbacea (also known as marsh

samphire), a salt-marsh herb, widely distributed in the northern hemisphere, with succulent, jointed, leafless stems, in reference to its former use in glass-making, when it was burnt for barilla.

Salsola Kali, an allied plant with rigid, fleshy, spinous-pointed leaves, which

was

prickly glasswort.

used

for the same

purpose,

was

known

as

Both plants belong to the family Cheno-

podiaceae.

GLASTONBURY, a market town and municipal borough of

Somerset, England, 6 m. S. of Wells, on the main road from Lon-

don to Exeter, and on the Somerset and Dorset railway.

Pop.

(1931) 4,515. The town lies in the midst of orchards and water-

meadows reclaimed from the fens which surround the Tor, a conical height of some 500 ft., which rises abruptly from the moor and is crowned by the ruins of St. Michael’s.chapel. The chief

buildings, apart from the abbey, are the churches of St. John the Baptist, Perpendicular in style, with a fine tower and some xsth century monuments; and St. Benignus, commonly called St. Benedict’s, dating from 1493—1524; St. John’s hospital, founded 1246; the Tribunal, and the George inn. The Antiquarian museum, in Magdalene street has a good collection of objects discovered in the Glastonbury lake village in 1892 and consisting of sixty mounds within a space of five acres. There is a Roman Catholic missionaries’ college. In the 16th century the woollen industry was introduced by the duke of Somerset; and silk manufacture was carried on in the 18th century. Tanning and tile-making, and the manufacture of boots and sheep-skin rugs are practised. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Near the museum is the Abbey gateway, the restored Gatehouse of which was until lately the Red Lion inn. The Lake Village—Near Glastonbury, in the Brue district of the Somersetshire lowland, which is about 14-16 m. long and 2-5 m. wide, has been found a lake village in what is now meadow land, but was, in the 16th and 17th century maps, a pool, “Meare Pool.” Most of the Brue lowland is floored by peat, varying from a foot to several yards in thickness, near the lake village it is 13-15 ft. thick. The site is some 18 ft. above present sea-level, and Bulleid thinks that about the time the British village site was first occupied the country was a maze of meres and broads, with branches of the Brue still influenced by inroads of the sea. The village site lay west of a water channel which is the boundary between the parishes of Glastonbury and Meare, and was probably navigable in mediaeval times. The village was built on a timber sub-structure resting on the swamp and including piles of logs laid across one another, as well as mortised timbers. On this substructure were laid mounds of clay, and on these again were built

421

finger rings have been collected as well as various other ornaments and a bronze mirror. Three bronze terret-rings or loops for harness have been recovered, as well as a large variety of

other bronze objects;

32 objects in lead and

18 in tin are

accounted for by Gray and armlets and other objects in Kim-

meridge shale are a feature, as in many other places in the west of England. Long-handled weaving-combs are specially important finds, and 89 have been found in the lake village, nearly all made of red-deer antler, with a few of bone. The situation of the village has led to the preservation of a number of wooden objects which give many clues to the skill of the people. Remains of two boats, a loom, an axle-box and a ladder, etc., have been identified. Of iron objects, 109, some with wooden handles, have been catalogued. One piece of tin-money of the earlier part of the first century A.D. and a number of currency-bars are a further link between Glastonbury and the La Téne IIT. civilization of the regions further north-east and south-east. The quantity of pottery discovered was very large, but only a very few fragments, on the flood soil above the village, could be conjecturally connected with Roman influence. The pottery obviously belongs to the Late Celtic period, but is mostly of rather coarse paste. Reid found remains of peas, beans, wheat, barley, etc., while the domestic animals included a small breed of horse, an ox (Bos longifrons), two breeds of sheep, a goat, a small type of pig and a dog. Fortyfour human remains have been found, and are thought by Boyd Dawkins to indicate a massacre. The crania which could be examined had breadth-length indices about 76-5 to 78. The general conclusion is that the village was the abode of cultivators and craftsmen, probably not entirely cut off from the sea via the meres, and that the place was occupied in the last century B.c. and part of the rst century av. This valuable work furnishes the best indication so far available of the life of the British people at the

time of the Roman invasion. British earthworks and Roman roads and relics prove later occupation. The name of Glastonbury, however, is of much later origin, being a corruption of the Saxon Glesiyngabyrig. By the Britons the spot seems to have been called Ynys yr Afalon (latinized as Avallonia) or Ynysvitrin (see AVALON), and it became the local habitation of various fragments of Celtic romance. ew

See Arthur Bulleid and H. St. George Gray, The Glastonbury Lake Village (1911 and 1917). The Benedictine Abbey of St. Mary.—The earliest account

we have of the beginnings of this famous monastery comes from William of Malmesbury, who wrote (c. 1125) a book, Om the Antiquity of the Church of Glastonbury. He says that “annals of good authority” tell us that a little wattle church, dedicated to the Blessed Virgin, had been built there by missionaries whom the pope sent from Rome at the request of King Lucius in the year 166. He was aware of a still earlier story, but he would not commit himself to it. After his death his work was re-edited, and details were added to show that the missionaries were not the builders, but merely the restorers of the old wattle church which had been built a century before by companions of St. Philip the the dwellings, with a border palisade surrounding the whole village; Apostle, who had placed Joseph of Arimathea at their head. We coarse wattle work bound the upper parts of the palisades to- may fairly assume that Malmesbury really saw this ancient gether and they enclosed a space of about 10,530 sq. yards. There church while he was staying at Glastonbury from 1125 until about were 89 clay mounds, most with one to four dwelling floors, but 1130 or a little later. In his Gesta Regum he states that King Ina a few with larger numbers (one had ten). Each dwelling floor (c. 700) built from the foundations the Church of the Blessed was circular, the diameter ranging from 14 to 40 ft., or more Apostles, as an appendix to the old church. This church, too, we commonly 18-28 ft. The wall was a line of posts (3-9 in. may be sure existed, as it is mentioned in a roth century Saxon diameter), 6-15 in. apart, set around a circle. The roofs seem to genealogy. From the decadent state into which English monashave been of reed thatch. A few rectangular dwellings probably ticism had fallen after the Danish invasions, Glastonbury was existed. Most of the hearths in the houses were baked clay, but rescued by Dunstan, who had been educated within its walls and some were of stone. A pivoted door has been found, as well as afterwards became its abbot, about 942. Ina’s church, which may have been partly ruinous, St. Dunstan doorsteps and pathways. A very considerable collection of fibulae is made up entirely restored. He lengthened it considerably by. the addition of a of late Celtic types, they were probably made on the spot as tower and made it square with its length by adding aisles. That crucibles, bronze wire, dross, slag, etc., have been found. They this church was standing while Malmesbury was at Glastonbury almost all belong to the La Tène III. type, though two are earlier. would appear to be certain from the careful: description he gives Ten penannular brooches, very late Celtic or almost Romano- of the position of certain tombs of Saxon abbots. and bishops

ritish, were also found, as was a fine bronze bowl. Thirty-five

within it. The first Norman abbot, Turstin, had begun a new

a2

GLASTONBURY

church on Norman lines, probably leaving the Saxon church of Dunstan alone. His successor, Herlewin, pulled down all that Turstin had put up, and started afresh, as he did not consider the building was sufficiently dignified for so important an abbey. Whether this Norman church obliterated or incorporated St. Dunstan's church we do not at present know, for the excavations that have been carried out by the Society of Antiquaries of London jointly with the Somerset Archaeological Society during 1927-28, while they appear to have revealed the remains of Ina’s

church and the additions made to it by St. Dunstan, have not

gone far enough te show the relation of the later Norman building to these earlier structures. . On May 25, 1184, this great church, all the monastic buildings, and, most serious of all, the venerable old wattle church, were consumed in a terrible fire. Four years previously the abbot had died, and his successor had not been appointed as the king was glad to keep the revenues in his hands. Henry II. now did bis part with unusual generosity, placing the whole of the revenues at the disposal of Ralph Fitz Stephen, to whom the king entrusted the work of rebuilding after the fire. First the Lady chapel was built on the site the old church had once occupied for so many centuries. This was finished and consecrated within three years. The foundation for the main church, the ruins of which are now standing, were put in on a magnificent scale, but the progress of the work was checked by the death of Henry II. and the con-

flict of the monks with Savary, bishop of Bath, who had succeeded in making himself abbot. Of the various additions made under successive abbots, one of considerable interest was the building of a Galilee to join the west end of the great church to the Lady chapel. This was effected during the time that John of Taunton was abbot, between 1274 and 1291. The east wall of the Lady chapel was removed, an open arch substituted, and then a building of the same width and length as the chapel itself filled

the space between it and the west wall of the new church. As the Lady chapel was said to record by its length the exact size of the original wattle church, now that it had been added to it was feared that this celebrated measurement would in time be lost. To guard against this, a cross or pillar was built at a later date outside the chapel, 48 ft. northwards from the original easternmost buttress, so that the length from east to west could be easily calculated. A bronze plate, giving the story of St. Joseph’s wattle church was fixed to the monument. In Aug. 1921, the foundations of this pillar, about 7 ft. in diameter, were uncovered. Another important alteration also affected the Lady chapel. Abbot

Richard Bere, the last abbot but one (1493-1524) hollowed out a crypt under the floor of this chapel and the adjoining Galilee under-pinning the walls for the purpose. It was this crypt chapel that was dedicated to St. Joseph of Arimathea, and that contained his statue. Of the monastic buildings themselves nothing remains standing except the Abbot’s Kitchen, as it is popularly called, a solid and substantial building, square in plan, but rendered octagonal interiorly by great fireplaces which are planted across the angles. The central ventilating shaft is a fine and ingenious piece of work and leads the roof up to a decorated octagon in which it finishes. Of other parts of the monastery nothing can now be seen except the undercroft of the refectory, excavated in rorr, under the direction of Bligh Blond, and the line taken by the cloisters leading to the church. The foundations of the rest of the monastery remain to be uncovered in time. The dissolution of the abbey commenced on Aug. 25, 1539, when Dr. Layton visited the place. The venerable abbot, Richard Whiting, was taken at his manor at Sharpham, and sent up to London and lodged in the Tower, on account of “divers and sundry treasons.” Cromwell, in his Remembrances writes, “Item, the abbot of Glaston to be tryed at Glaston and also executed there with his complycys” (Cott. mss.

Titus B. 1, fol. 41). The abbot was sent down to Wells, where he was “arraigned and next day (Nov. 15, 1539) put to execution for robbing of Glastonbury church.” The execution took place on Glastonbury Tor. His body was quartered and his head fixed on the abbey gate. A darker passage does not occur in the annals

of the English Reformation than this murder of an able and high-

spirited man, whose worst offence was that he defended as be he could from the hand of the spoiler the property in his char;

In 1907 the site of the abbey, with the remains of the bu} ings, which had been in private hands since the granting of t estate to Sir Peter Carew by Elizabeth in 1559, was bought Mr. Ernest Jardine for the purpose of transferring it to t Church of England. Bishop Kennion of Bath and Wells enter

into an agreement to raise a sum of £31,000, the cost of the pi

chase; this was completed, and the site and buildings we formally transferred at a dedicatory service in 1909 to t Diocesan Trustees of Bath and Wells, who are to hold and m;

age the property according to a deed of trust. This deed provid

for the appointment of an advisory council, consisting of t archbishop of Canterbury, the bishop of Bath and Wells and fc other bishops, each with power to nominate one clerical and o

lay member. The council has the duty of deciding the purp for which the property is to be used “in connection with and | the benefit of the Church of England.” To give time for furt} collection of funds and deliberation, the property was re-let : five years to the original purchaser. The Abbot’s Kitchen y

purchased in 1921 and has been added to the original trust. The two legends most closely connected with the story of | abbey are those of King Arthur and St. Joseph of Arimathea. was claimed that the former was buried there and that the lat was the builder of the original wattle church. These legends *; truly venerable traditions, which greatly influenced the story the past and have left an abiding mark on the nomenclature of 1 present. They are not very ancient, when the long life of | abbey is taken into account. From first to last they occupied o; the last three centuries and a half of its history. They were | known to William of Malmesbury when he wrote his book, On, Antiquity of the Church of Glastonbury, about the year rr although he had free access to all the abbey’s records before Great Fire, and made, as we know, excellent use of his opportu ties of investigation. Our earliest date for any of them is 1

(Two Glastonbury Legends, p. 50, by the Very Rev. J. Ammit: Robinson). The Glastonbury thorn (Crataegus praecox), wh flowers at Christmas as well as in the spring, a late legend asser sprang from the staff of Joseph of Arimathea. It is proba nothing more than a perpetuated sport from the common th obtained by grafting. Trees raised from seeds of C. proe revert to the ordinary type. The abbey was overlord of the town of Glastonbury until Dissolution. Henry II. granted a charter by which the men Glastonbury were exempted from the jurisdiction of royal offici and this exemption was recognized by Edward I. when on a v to the abbey in 1278, he yielded to the abbot’s plea and held court of justice at the chapel of St. Gildas at Street, which ' just outside “the Twelve Hides.” The borough was incorpora by Anne in 1706, and the corporation was reformed by the of 1835. In 1319 Glastonbury received a writ of summons parliament, but made no return, and has not since been rey sented. A fair on the 8th of September was granted in 11 another on the 29th of May was held under a charter of 1:

Fairs known as Torr fair and Michaelmas fair are now held the second Mondays in September and October and are chi important for the sale of horses and cattle. The market every other Monday is noted for the sale of cheese. Glastonh

owed its medieval importance to its connection with the abl At the Dissolution, a number of foreign weavers, chiefly Flemt were introduced to check the decay of the town, and some set among the ruins of the abbey. The cloth trade flourished ic century and was replaced by silk-weaving, stocking-knitting glove-making, all of which have died out. Brsriocrapyy.—sSee “W. of Malmesbury,” De antiq. Glaston. ei siae (best edition in Hearne’s Adam of Domerham, 1727); Hea

Chron. of John of Glastonbury

(1726); Stubbs, Memorials of

Dunstan (Rolls ser., 1874); Warner, Hist. of the Abbey and T

(1826); Willis, Architectural Hist. of Glastonbury

Abbey (18

Abbot (now Card.) Gasquet, Hen. VIII. and the English Monast (1906), and The Last Abbot of Glastonbury (1895 and 1908)

Bligh Bond, Archit. Handbook

to Gl. Abbey

(4th ed., 1928),

“Reports on Excavations” in Proceedings of Som. Arch. Soc. È onwards); J. Armitage Robinson, W. of Malmesbury’s “De Ai

423

GLATIGNY—GLAUCOUS Gi,” and Saxon Abbots of Glastonbury (Somerset Hist. Essays, 1921), and Two Glastonbury Legends (1926). (D. E. H.)

GLATIGNY,

JOSEPH

ALBERT

ALEXANDRE

(1839-1873); French poet, was born at Lillebonne

(Seine In-

férieure), received an elementary education at Bernay, was apprenticed to a printer at Pont Audemer, where he produced a

three-act play, and joined a travelling company of actors to whom he acted as prompter. Inspired primarily by the study of Théodore de Banville, he published his Vignes folles in 1857; his best

collection of lyrics, Les Fléches d’or, appeared in 1864; and a third volume, Gilles et pasquins, in 1872. After Glatigny settled in Paris he improvised at café concerts and wrote several one-act

plays. On an expedition to Corsica with a travelling company of

actors he was on ome occasion arrested and put in irons for a week through being mistaken by the police for a notorious crim-

inal. His marriage with Emma Dennie brought him great happiness, but the hardships of his life weakened his health and he died at Sévres on April 16, 1873. See Catulle Mendés, Légende du Parnasse contemporain (1884), and

Glatigny, drame funambulesque (1906).

GLATZ (Slav. Kladsko), a town in the Prussian province of Silesia, on the left bank of the Neisse, 58 m. S.W. from Breslau by rail. Pop. (1925) 16,558. lne town with its narrow streets winds up the fortiñed hill which is crowned by the old citadel. Across the river, on the Schäferberg, lies a fortress built by the Prussians about 1750. Before the town on both banks of the river there is a fortified camp by which bombardment from the neighbouring heights can be hindered and which affords accommodation for 10,000 men. The inner ceinture of walls was razed

in 1891 and their site is now occupied by new streets. There are a Lutheran and two Roman Catholic churches, one of which, the

parish church, contains the monuments of seven Silesian dukes.

=

Among the other buildings the principal are the Royal Catholic gymnasium and the military hospital. Glatz existed as early as the roth century, and received German settlers about 1250. It was besieged several times during the Thirty Years’ War and during the Seven Years’ War and came into the possession of Prussia in 1742. In 1821 and 1883

uent of the blood. (See ALKALI MANUFACTURE.) àGlauber’s salt is decahydrated sodium sulphate, Naz,SOz.,10H2O (see Hyprate); it separates from cold aqueous solutions of sodium sulphate in colourless monoclinic prisms which effloresce in dry air and at 32-38° C melt in their water of crystallization. Its maximum solubility in water is at 32-38° C, and above that temperature it no longer exists as decahydrate but changes to anhydrous salt, which becomes decreasingly soluble as the temperature rises. Glauber’s salt readily forms supersaturated solutions in

which crystallization is induced by adding a particle of the salt. In medicine it is employed as an aperient, being one of the safest and most innocuous. For children or patients who refuse other drugs it may be mixed with common salt.

GLAUCHAU, a town of Germany, in the republic of Saxony, on the right bank of the Mulde, 7 m. N. of Zwickau and 17 m. W. of Chemnitz by rail. Pop. (1925) 27,318. It has important manufactures of woollen and half-woollen goods. There are also dye-works, print-works, and manufactories of paper, aluminium, thread and machinery. Glauchau possesses a weaving school. Some portions of the old castle date from the r2th century; the Gottesacker church contains objects of this period. Glauchau was founded by a colony of Sorbs and Wends, and belonged to the lords of Schönburg as early as the 12th century.

GLAUCONITE,

a green mineral, a hydrous silicate of iron

with potassium. It especially occurs in the green sands and muds which are gathering at the present time on the sea bottom at many different places. The wide extension of these sands and muds was first made known by the naturalists of the “Challenger,” and it is now found that they occur in the Mediterranean as well as in the open ocean, but they have not been found in the Black sea or in any freshwater lakes. These deposits are not in a true sense abyssal, but are of terrigenous origin, the mud

and sand being derived from the wear of the continents, trans-

ported by marine currents. The depth in which they accumulate varies a good deal, viz., from 200 up to 2,000 fathoms, but as a rule is less than 1,000 fathoms, and it is believed that the most common situations are where the continental shores slope rather steeply into moderate depths of water. great devastation was caused here by floods. The county o1 The glauconites, though crystalline, never occur well crystalGlatz was long contended for by the kingdoms of Poland and of lized but only as dense clusters of very minute particles which Bohemia. Eventually it became part of the latter country, and react feebly on polarized light. They have one well-marked charin 1534 was sold to the house of: Habsburg, from whom it was acteristic, inasmuch as they often form rounded lumps. In many taken by Frederick the Great during his attack on Silesia. cases it is certain that these are casts, which fill up the interior of GLAUBER, JOHANN RUDOLF (1604-68), German empty shells of Foraminifera. It is now believed that glauconite chemist, was born at Karlstadt, Bavaria. He resided successively is essentially the same as the green iron silicate that forms the in Vienna, Salzburg, Frankfurt and Cologne before settling in primary substance of so many iron ores of marine origin, and Holland, where he made his living chiefly by the sale of secret that the presence of potash is merely due to colloidal adsorption; chemical and medicinal preparations. Though his writings abound the source of the potash is, however, by no means clear. in universal solvents and other devices of the alchemists, he made In a small number of Tertiary and older rocks glauconite occurs some real contributions to chemical knowledge. Thus he clearly as an essential component. It is found in the Pliocene sands of described the preparation of hydrochloric acid by the action of Holland, the Eocene sands of Paris and the “Molasse” of Switsulphuric acid on common salt, the manifold virtues of sodium zerland, but is much more abundant in the Lower Cretaceous sulphate—sal mirabile, Glauber’s salt—formed in the process be- rocks of northern Europe, especially in the subdivision known as ing one of the chief themes of his Miraculum mundi; and he the Greensand. Rounded lumps and casts like those of the green noticed that nitric acid was formed when nitre was substituted sands of the present day are plentiful in these rocks, and it is for the common salt. Further he prepared a large number of obvious that the mode of formation was in all respects the same. substances, including the chlorides and other salts of lead, tin, The green sand when weathered is brown or rusty coloured, the iron, zinc, copper, antimony and arsenic, and he even noted some glauconite being oxidized to limonite. Calcareous sands or impure of the phenomena of double decomposition; he also made a num- limestones with glauconite are also by no means rare, an example ber of useful observations on dyeing and gave a clear description being the well-known Kentish Rag. In the chalk-rock and chalkof the preparation of tartar-emetic. One of his most notable marl of some parts of England glauconite is rather frequent, and works was his Teutschlands W ohlfarth in which he urged that the glauconitic chalk is known also in the north of France. Among the natural resources of Germany should be developed for the profit oldest rocks which contain this mineral are the Ordovician of

of the country, giving various instances of how this might be done.

His treatises, about 30 in number, were collected and published M Frankfort in 1658-59, at Amsterdam in 1661, and, in an English on by Packe, at London in 1689.

the Leningrad district and southern Sweden, as well as the basal Cambrian quartzite in Shropshire, but it is very rare in the Palaeozoic formations, possibly because it undergoes crystalline change and is also liable to be oxidized and converted into other

GLAUBER’S SALT, first described by J. R. Glauber, ferruginous minerals. It has been suggested that certain deposits accs native as the mineral mirabilite in Spain, the western of iron ores may owe then origin to deposits of glauconite, as of North America, and the Caucasus. Sodium sulphate is for example those of the Mesabi range, Minnesota. (J. S. F}

the active principle of many mineral waters, ¢.¢., Friedrichshall, Carlsbad waters. It occurs in sea water and is a normal constit-

GLAUCOUS, a word meaning of a sea-green colour, in betan

covered with bloom, like a plum or a cabbage-leaf.

:

GLAUCUS—GLAZING

424

GLAUCUS, a word meaning “bright,” and the name of sev-

eral figures in Greek mythology, the most important of which are the following: t. GLAUCUS, surnamed Pontius, a sea divinity. Originally a fisherman and diver of Anthedon in Boeotia, having eaten a certain magical herb, he leaped into the sea, where he was changed into a god, and endowed with the gift of unerring prophecy. According to others he sprang into the sea for love of the sea-god Melicertes, with whom he was often identified. He was worshipped in most parts of the Greek world by fishermen and sailors. In art he is depicted as a merman covered with shells and seaweed. Various legends, none very important, connect him with the saga of the Argonauts and other cycles. He was famous for his amours, especially those with Scylla and Circe. See especially Athenaeus, 296, 297. 2. GLaucus, of Potniae near Thebes, son of Sisyphus by Merope and father of Bellerophon. According to the legend he was torn to pieces by his own mares (Virgil, Georgics, iii. 267; Hyginus, Fab., 250, 273). 3. GLaucus, the son of Minos and Pasiphaë. When a child, while playing at ball or pursuing a mouse, he fell into a jar of honey and was smothered. His father, after a vain search for him, consulted the oracle, and was referred to the person who should suggest the aptest comparison for one of the cows of Minos which had the power of assuming three different colours. Polyidus of Argos, who had likened it to a mulberry (or bramble), which changes from white to red and then to black, soon afterwards discovered the child; but on his confessing his inability to restore him to life, he was shut up in a vault with the corpse. Here he killed a serpent which was revived by a companion, which laid a certain herb upon it. With the same herb Polyidus brought the dead Glaucus back to life. According to others, he owed his recovery to Asklepios. 4. GLAuCcUS, son of Hippolochus, and grandson of Bellerophon, mythical progenitor of the kings of Ionia. He was a Lycian prince who, along with his cousin Sarpedon, assisted Priam in the Trojan War. When he found himself opposed to Diomedes, his guestfriend, they ceased fighting and exchanged armour. Since the equipment of Glaucus was golden and that of Diomedes bronze, the expression “gold for bronze” (Jizad, vi. 236) came to be used proverbially for a had exchange. Glaucus was afterwards slain hy Ajax, son of Telamon. See further Roscher’s Lexikon, s.v.

GLAZE: see GLAZING; POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. GLAZEBROOK, SIR RICHARD TETLEY (1854), K.C.B. (1920), Kt. (1917), C.B. (r9ro), was born on Sept. 18, 1854, and educated at Liverpool college and at Trinity college, Cambridge, where he became a fellow in 1877. In 1898 he was appointed principal of University college, Liverpool, and

a thin coat of paint with a small amount of red lead in it. In the majority of cases after the sashes for the windows are fitted they are sent to the glazier’s and primed and glazed and then returned to the job and hung in their proper positions. When priming sashes it is important that the rebates be thoroughly primed, else the putty will not adhere. All wood that is to be painted requires be.

fore being primed to have the knots coated with knotting. When the priming is dry, the glass is cut and fitted into its place; each pane should fit

easily with about „41n. play all round. The glazier runs the putty round the rebates with his hands, and then beds the glass in it, pushing it down tight, and then further secures it by knocking in small nails, called

glaziers’ sprigs, on the rebate side. He then trims up the edges of the protruding putty and bevels off the putty on the rebate or outside of the sash with a putty knife.

The sash is then ready for painting. Large squares and plate glass are usually inserted i when the sashes are hung to avoid risks of

breakage. For inside work the panes of glass are generally secured with beads (not with putty), and in the best work these beads are fixed with brass screws and caps

Fig. 1--PRISM winpow tO allow of easy removal without breaking GLASS, SHOWING INTER. the beads and damaging the paint, etc. In NAL ARRANGEMENT oF the case of glass in door panels where PRISMS GIVING MOST there is much vibration and slamming, EFFICIENT DIFFUSION the glass is bedded in wash-leather or india-rubber and secured with beads as before mentioned. The most common glass and that generally used is clear sheet in varying thicknesses, ranging in weight from 15 to 30 oz. per sq. ft., ie,

from yg to 3% in. thick.

Lead Lights.—Lead light glazing is the glazing of frames with small squares of glass, which are held together by strips of lead; these are secured by means of copper wire to iron saddle-bars, which are let into mortices in the wood frames or stone jambs. The strips of lead are soldered at the angles, the glass is placed

between the strips, and the lead is flattened over the edges to

secure it. Lead lights originated in days when glass could only be made in small pieces, and when, therefore, it was necessary to join the small pieces together to glaze a window of any size. In modern days the method is used only to obtain a picturesque effect. To look really well, the lead “cames” or strips should be Sin. wide. In modern lead lights the lead strips are often reinforced with steel to make saddle-bars unnecessary. In a patent “copper-

in 1899 director of the National Physical laboratory, a post which he held until 1919. In 1908 he became chairman of the Aeronautical Research committee, and from 1920 to 1923 was Zaharoff professor of aviation and director of the department of aeronautics at the imperial college of technology. He is the author of many scientific textbooks, and papers on scientific subjects, and the editor of the Dictionary of Applied Physics.

GLAZING.

The business of the glazier is confined to the

mere fitting and setting of glass, even the cutting up of the plates into squares being generally an independent art, requiring a degree of skill and judgment not necessarily possessed by the building artificer, The tools generally used by the glazier are the diamond for cutting, laths or straight edges, tee square, measuring rule, glazing knife, hacking knife and hammer, duster, sash tool, two-foot rule and a glazier’s cradle for carrying the glass. Glazier’s materials are glass, putty, priming or paint, sprigs, wash-leather or indiarubber for door panels, size, black. The glass is supplied by the manufacturer and cut to the sizes required for the particular work to be executed. Putty is made of whiting and lmseed oil, and is generally bought in iron kegs of 4 or 1 cwt.; the putty should always be kept covered over, and when found to be getting hard in the keg a little oi} should be put on it to keep it soft. Priming is

FIG.

2.—SECTION

OF PRISM

PAVEMENT

USED TO LIGHT

BASEMENTS

The thick glass prisms are set in square iron frames, and serve to diffuse the light as indicated by arrows

lite” glazing, thin connecting strips of copper are substituted for lead by a method which produces a rigid panel of small squares.

Wired Glass—Wired rolled plate or wired cast plate, usually

tin. thick, has wire netting embedded in it to prevent the glass from falling in case of fire; its use is obligatory in London for all lantern- and sky-lights, and for screens and doors on the stair

cases of public and warehouse buildings, in accordance with the

London Building Act. It is also used for the decks of ships and

for port and cabin lights, as it is much stronger than plain glass, and if fractured is held together by the wire. Patent prismatic

GLAZUNOV—GLEIG rolled glass, or “refrax” (fig. I), consists of an effective application of the well-known properties of the prism; it absorbs all the light that strikes the window opening, and diffuses it in the most efficient manner possible through the darkest parts of the room. It

can be fixed in the ordinary way or placed over the existing glass. Pavement lights (fig. 2) and stallboard lights are constructed with iron frames in small squares and glazed with thick prismatic glass, and are used to light basements. They are placed on the pave-

owner’s district annexed; and even in that case, when there are

two ministers, it is only the first who has a claim.

See H. W. Cripps Law of Church and Clergy (sth ed. enlarged, 1869); Sir R. J. Phillimore Ecclesiastical Law of England (2nd ed. 1895) ; G. P. Leach Tithe Acts (6th ed. 1896) ; J. H. Dart Vendors and Purchasers (7th ed. 1905).

ment and under shop fronts in the portion called the stallboard,

and are also inserted in iron coal plates. Roof Glazing—tThe

glazing

of roofs demands

metal sashes; wood is only used in inferior work.

the use

of

The fixing of

pieces of glass to metal bars raises technical points which are met

in many different ways, covered by a host of patents. Usually a bar of T section is employed, and the edges of the glass secured with strips of lead. It is not difficult to devise systems of this sort in which allowance is made for the effects of heat upon the

metal, and for condensation.

In one method the steel is entirely

covered with lead to make painting unnecessary. GLAZUNOV, ALEXANDER CONSTANTINOVICH

(186s-

), Russian

composer,

was born in St. Petersburg

(Leningrad) Aug. 10, 1865, the son of a publisher and bookseller. He showed an early talent for music, and studied, on the advice of Ralakirev, with Rimsky-Korsakov. At the age of sixteen he com-

posed a symphony (afterwards elaborated and published as op. 5), but his opus 1 was a quartet in D, followed by a pianoforte suite on S-a-c-4-a, the diminutive of his name Alexander. In 1884, helped to some extent by Liszt, he began to make a name outside Russia. His frst symphony was played that year at Weimar, and

he appeared as a conductor at the Paris exhibition in 1889. In 1897 he conducted his fourth and fifth symphonies in London. In 1900 he became professor at the St. Petersburg conservatoire, and in 1906 director. Glazunov is a leading representative of the modern Russian school, and a master of orchestration though his tendency as compared with most contemporary Russian com-

posers is towards classical form. Nevertheless his music is full of colour, and, on occasion, descriptive. His fine ballet, Raymonda, shows that he also shares to the full the Russian love for oriental splendour and movement. In short if his leanings are classical he is a classicist 4 la Russe, and in any event, a great master of his art and craft. Of his many compositions, the most famous are perhaps, among the orchestral works, the noble sixth symphony, in C minor (op. 58); among those for solo instruments, the theme and variations for pianoforte (op. 72), and the fine violin concerto in A minor (op. 73); and among those for the stage (very few in number) the ballet Raymonda (op. 57), already mentioned.

425

gift of glebe lands. In Scots ecclesiastical law, the manse now signifies the minister’s dwelling-house, the glebe being the land to which he is entitled in addition to his stipend. All parish ministers appear to be entitled to a glebe, except the ministers in royal burghs proper, who cannot claim a glebe unless there be a land-

a

GLEDITSIA, a genus of thorny shrubs and trees of the pea

family (Leguminosae), containing 11 species, found chiefly in subtropical America and Asia. Some are used for hedges and some supply useful timber, as the honey locust (G. triacanthos)

and the water locust (G. aguatica), of the eastern and southern United States.

GLEE, a musical term signifying, broadly speaking, a piece

of concerted vocal music, generally unaccompanied, and for male voices, though exceptions are found to the last two restrictions. The number of voices ought not to be less than three. As regards musical form, the glee is little distinguished from the catch (q.v.) — the two terms being often used indiscriminately for the same work; but there is a distinct difference between it and the madrigal

(g.v.)—one of the earliest forms of concerted music known in England. While the madrigal does not show a distinction of contrasted movements, this feature is absolutely necessary in the glee. The originator of the glee in its modern form was Dr. Arne, born in 1710. GLEICHEN, LORD EDWARD (Albert Edward Wilfred) (1863— ), British major-general, was born on Jan. 15, 1863, eldest son of Admiral Prince Victor of Hohenlohe-Langenburg and Laura, daughter of Admiral Sir George Seymour. He was educated at Charterhouse, and passed through Sandhurst into the Grenadier Guards in 1881. He saw service in Egypt (1884-85), was attached first to the War Office intelligence department and then to special missions in the Sudan and in Abyssinia. He served in the South African War, where he won the D.S.O. Later he was military attaché at Berlin and at Washington. During the

World War returned to retired with of several employed.

he commanded the 37th Division (r915—16), and then the intelligence department of the War Office. He the rank of major-general in 1916. He is the author books on the various missions in which he was

GLEICHEN, two groups of castles in Germany, thus named

from their resemblance to each other (Ger. gleich=like). The GLEBE, in ecclesiastical law the land devoted to the main- first is a group of three, each situated on a hill in Thuringia betenance of the incumbent of a church. Burn (Ecclesiastical Law, tween Gotha and Erfurt. One of these called Gleichen, the sv. “Glebe Lands”) says: “Every church of common right is Wanderslebener Gleiche (1,221 ft. above the sea), was besieged entitled to house and glebe, and the assigning of them at the unsuccessfully by the emperor Henry IV. in 1088. After belongfirst was of such absolute necessity that without them no church ing to the elector of Mainz the castle became the property of could be regularly consecrated. The house and glebe are both com-

Prussia in 1803.

prehended under the word manse, of which the rule of the canon The second castle is called Miihlburg (1,309 ft. above the sea). law is, sancitum est ut unicuique ecclesiae unus mansus integer This existed as early as 704 and was besieged by Henry IV. in absque ullo servitio tribuatur.” In the technical language of 1087. It came into the hands of Prussia in 1803. The third English law the fee-simple of the glebe is said to be in abeyance, castle, Wachsenburg (1,358 ft.), is still inhabited and contains that is, it exists “only in the remembrance, expectation and in- a collection of weapons and pictures collected by the former tendment of the law.” But the freehold is in the parson, although duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, whose family obtained possession at common law he could alienate the same only with the consent of it in 1368. It was built about 935 (see Beyer, Die drei of the bishop and patron. The disabling statutes of Elizabeth Gleichen, Erfurt, 1898). The other group consists of two castles, (Alienation by bishops, 1559, and Dilapidations, etc., 1571) made Neuen-Gleichen and Alten-Gleichen. Both are in ruins and void all alienations by ecclesiastical persons, except leases for crown two hills about 2 m. S.E. from Göttingen. the term of 21 years or three lives. By an Act of 1842 (s and 6 GLEIG, GEORGE ROBERT (1796-1888), British divine Vict. c. 27, Ecclesiastical Leases) glebe land and buildings may and author, son of George Gleig, bishop of Brechin (1753—1840), be let on lease for farming purposes for I4 years or on an im- was born at Stirling, and educated at Glasgow University and proving lease for 20 years. But the parsonage house and ten acres Balliol College, Oxford. He served with distinction in the Peninaf glebe situate most conveniently for occupation must not be sular War (1813-14), and in the American War, in which he was leased. By the Ecclesiastical Leasing Acts of 1842 (5 and 6 Vict. c, thrice wounded. Resuming his studies at Oxford, he was ordained

108) and 1858 glebe lands may be let on building leases for not

more than ọọ years and on mining leases for not more than 60

years. The Tithe Act 1842, the Glebe Lands Act 1888 and various other Acts make provision for the sale, purchase, exchange and

priest in 1820, was chaplain-general of the forces (1844-75) and inspector-general of military schools (1846-57). From 1848 till his death he was prebend of Willesden in St. Paul’s cathedral, During the last sixty years of his life he was a prolific, if not

GLEIM—-GLENDOWER

426

very scientific, historical writer. Those of his works which deal with contemporary campaigns have historical value. They include: Life of Sir Thomas Munro (3 vols., 1830); The Leipsic Campaign

(1831); Story of the Batile of Waterloo (1847); Sale’s Brigade in Afghanistan (1847); biographies of Lord Clive (1848), the duke of Wellington (1862), and Warren Hastings (1848). GLEIM, JOHANN WILHELM LUDWIG (1719-1803), German poet, was born on April 2, 1719 at Ermsleben, near Halberstadt. He studied law at Halle, where he founded the so-called Anacreontik, with other young poets. He was successively secretary to Prince William of Brandenburg-Schwedt at Berlin, to Prince Leopold of Dessau, and secretary (1747), of the cathedral chapter at Halberstadt. “Father Gleim” was the title accorded to him throughout all literary Germany on account of his generosity to young poets. He looked with some suspicion on their revolutionary tendencies, but helped them none the less. Gleim himself wrote feeble imitations of Anacreon, Horace and the minnesingers, a dull didactic poem entitled Halladat oder das rote Buch (1774), and collections of fables and romances. Of higher merit are his Preussische Kriegslieder von einem Grenadier (1758), inspired by the campaigns of Frederick II. Gleim died at Halberstadt on Feb. 18, 1803. Gleim’s Saémiliche Werke appeared in 7 vols. in the years 1811~—13.

GLEIWITZ, a town in the Prussian province of Silesia, on the

Klodnitz, and the railway between Oppeln and Cracow, 40 m. S.E. of the former town. Pop. (1875) 14,156; (1925) 81,571. Gleiwitz is the centre of the mining industry of Upper Silesia. There are also foundries with which are connected machine manufactories and boiler-works, and manufactories of wire, chemicals, glass, cement and paper. The town is rather more than a mile north of the new frontier between Germany and Poland.

GLENALMOND,

a glen of Perthshire, Scotland, south-east

of Loch Tay. It comprises the upper two-thirds of the course of the Almond, or a distance of 20 m. For the greater part it follows a direction east by south, but at Newton Bridge it inclines sharply to the south-east for 3 m., and narrows to such a degree that this portion is known as the Small (or Sma’) Glen. At the end of this pass the glen expands and runs eastwards as far as the well-known public school of Trinity college, where it may be considered to terminate. The most interesting spot in the glen is that tradition-

ally known as the grave of Ossian.

GLENCAIRN,

EARLS OF. The tst earl of Glencairn in

failure he was betrayed and imprisoned; when Charles II. was restored he became lord chancellor of Scotland. He died q Belton, Haddingtonshire on May 30, 1664.

GLENCOE, a glen in Scotland, situated in the north of Argylishire. Beginning at the north-eastern base of Buchaille Etive it takes a gentle north-westerly trend for to m. to its mouth on Loch Leven, a salt-water arm of Loch Linnhe. On both sides it

is shut in by wild and precipitous mountains and its bed is swept by the Coe—Ossian’s “dark Cona,” —which rises in the hills at its eastern end. About half-way down the glen the stream forms the tiny Loch Triochatan. Towards Invercoe the landscape acquires a softer beauty. The late Lord Strathcona, in r894, purchased the heritage of the Macdonalds of Glencoe. The prin.

cipal mountains on the south side are the various peaks of Buachaille Etive, Stob Dearg (3,345 ft.), Bidean nam Bian and Meall Mor, and on the northern side the Pap of Glencoe, Sgor nam Fiannaidh and Meall Dearg. Points of interest are the Devil's Staircase, a steep, boulder-strewn “cut” across the hills to Fort William; the Study; the cave of Ossian, where tradition says that he was born, and the Iona cross erected in 1883 by a Macdonald in memory of his clansmen who perished in the massacre of 1692,

About 1 m. beyond the head of the glen is Kingshouse inn,arelic of the old coaching days. Now the Glencoe excursion is usually made from Oban. One mile to the west of the Glen lies the village of BALLACHULISH, celebrated for slate quarries, worked since

1760. Ballachulish is a station on the L.M.S.R. The pier and ferry are some 2 m. W. of the village.

GLEN COVE, a city of Nassau county, New York, on the north shore of Long Island, 22 m. N.E. of the Brooklyn borough hall. It is served by the Long Island railroad. The population in 1930 was 11,430. Glen Cove was settled in 1668: chartered as a

city in 1918; and has a commission form of government.

GLENDALE, a rapidly growing city of Los Angeles county,

Calif., U.S.A., 6 m. from the heart of Los Angeles, at the southern extremity of the San Fernando valley. It is served by the Pacific Electric, the Southern Pacific and the Union Pacific railways. The population was 2,746 in 1910; 13,536 in 1920 (87% native white); and was 62,736 in 1930 by the Federal census. The elevation of the city varies from 400 to 2,000 ft. It is a popular residential suburb, and is also developing rapidly as an industrial centre. There are large potteries, and sundry other manufacturing industries, with an aggregate factory output in 1927 valued at $6,308,797.

Glendale was incorporated in 1906.

the Scottish peerage was ALEXANDER CUNNINGHAM (d. 1488), a son of Sir Robert Cunningham of Kilmaurs in Ayrshire. Made a lord of the Scottish parliament as Lord Kilmaurs not later than 1469, Cunningham was created earl of Glencairn in 1488; and a few weeks later he was killed at the battle of Sauchieburn whilst fighting for King James ITI. against his rebellious son, afterwards James IV. His son and successor, Ropert (d. c. 1490), was deprived of his earldom by James IV., but before 1505 this had been revived in favour of Robert’s son, CUTHBERT (d. c. 1540), who became 3rd earl of Glencairn, and whose son WILLIAM (€. 1490-1547) was the 4th earl. This noble, an early adherent of the Reformation, was during his public life frequently in the pay and service of England. William’s son, ALEXANDER, the sth earl (d. 1574), was a more pronounced reformer than his father, whose English sympathies he shared, and was among the intimate friends of John Knox. He anticipated Lord James Stewart, afterwards the regent Murray, in taking up arms against the regent, Mary of Guise, in 1558. When in Aug. 1561 Mary queen of Scots returned to Scotland,

GLENDALOUGH, VALE OF, 83 m. N.N.W. of Rathdrum, Co. Wicklow, Ireland, noted for its ecclesiastical ruins. Here, early in the 6th century, Kevin lived as a hermit for four years and later founded a monastery which, despite many Danish raids, remained for some centuries an important ecclesiastical and educational centre. There was a succession of bishops until r214 when the see was united to that of Dublin. In close proximity are a round tower, rio ft. high and 52 in circumference, St. Kevin’s kitchen or church which measures 25 ft. by 15, with a high pitched roof and round belfry, the cathedral, about 73 ft. in total length by 51 in width, a Lady chapel, chiefly remarkable for its doorway of wrought granite, a priest’s house (restored), and slight remains of St. Chiaran’s church. Here is also St. Kevin’s cross, a granite monolith never completed; and the enclosure is entered by a fine though dilapidated gateway. Other remains are Trinity or the Ivy Church, towards Laragh, and St. Saviour’s monastery. while on the upper lough are Reefert Church, the burial-place of

more than once, berry Hill and at died on Nov. 23, Friars is printed

1415), the last independent prince of Wales, more correctly de-

Glencairn was made a member of her council; he changed sides and was found fighting against Mary at CarLangside. The earl, who was a violent iconoclast, 1574. His short satirical poem against the Grey by Knox in his History of the Reformation.

James, the 7th earl (d. ¢. 1622), took part in the seizure of James VI., called the raid of Ruthven in 1582. Writram, the gth earl (c. 1610-64), was a somewhat lukewarm Royalist during the Civil War. In March 1653 Charles II. gave him temporary comnyand of the Royalist forces in Scotland, and the insurrection

the O’Toole family, and Teampull-na-skellig, the church of the rock. St. Kevin’s bed is a cave above the lough, to which attaches the legend of St. Kevin’s hermitage.

GLENDOWER,

OWEN

[Owarn

Giyn Dwr]

(1359?

scribed as Owain ab Gruffydd, lord of Glyndyvrdwy in Merioneth, was a man of good family, with two great houses, Sycharth and Glyndyvrdwy in the north, besides smaller estates in south Wales. His father was called Gruffydd Vychan, and his mother Helen;

on both sides he had pretensions to be descended from the old

Welsh princes, Owen was probably born about 1359, studied law

Of this -year is generally known as Glencairn’s rising. After its at Westminster, was squire to the earl of Arundel, and a witness

GLENELG—GLENS

FALLS

427

lawsuit in | ment for the Inverness burghs in 1807. He was a lord of the treasfor Grosvenor in the famous Scrope and Grosvenor 1386. Afterwards he was in the service of Henry of Bolingbroke, ury (1813-19), secretary to the lord lieutenant of Ireland (1819), the future king. Welsh sympathies were, however, on the side of vice-president of the board of trade (1823-27), and president in Richard II., and combined with a personal quarrel to make Owen 1828. Joining the Whigs, he was president of the board of control the leader of a national revolt. under Earl Grey and Lord Melbourne from Nov. 1830 to Nov. The lords of Glyndyvrdwy had an ancient feud with their Eng- 1834. At the board of control Grant was primarily responsible lish neighbours, the Greys of Ruthin. Reginald Grey neglected for the act of 1833, which altered the constitution of the Governto summon Owen, as was his duty, for the Scottish expedition of ment of India. In April 1835 he became secretary for war and

1400, and then charged him with treason for failing to appear.

the colonies, and was created Baron Glenelg. His differences with

Owen thereupon took up arms, and when Henry

Sir Benjamin d’Urban (g.v.), governor of Cape Colony, were serious; but more so were those with King William IV. and others

IV. returned

from Scotland in September he found north Wales ablaze. A hurried campaign under the king’s personal command was ineffectual. In the spring of t40r1 Owen was raiding in south Wales. A second campaign by the king in the autumn was defeated, through bad weather and the Fabian tactics of the Welsh. Owen had already been intriguing with Henry Percy (Hotspur), who during 1402 held command in north Wales, and with Percy’s brother-in-law, Sir Edmund Mortimer. During the winter of 401-1402 he treated with the rebel Irish, the Scots and the French. In the spring he attacked Ruthin, and took Grey prisoner. In the summer he defeated the men of Hereford under Edmund

over the administration of Canada.

He was still secretary when

the Canadian rebellion broke out in 1837; his wavering and feeble policy was fiercely attacked in parliament; he became involved in disputes with the earl of Durham, and the movement for his supersession found supporters even among his colleagues in the

cabinet. In Feb. 1839 he resigned. Grant has been called “the last of the Canningites.” He died at Cannes on April 23, 1866, when his title became extinct.

GLENELG, a municipal town and watering place of Adelaide county, South Australia, 64 m. by rail S.S.W. of the city of Ade-

was taken prisoner and treated with such friendliness as to make

laide. It is connected with Adelaide by two lines of railway. In the vicinity is the “Old Gum Tree” under which South Australia

the English doubt his loyalty; within a few months he married

was proclaimed British territory by Governor Hindmarsh in 1836.

Mortimer at Pilleth, near Brynglas, in Radnorshire.

Mortimer

Qwen’s daughter. In the autumn the English king was for the third time driven “bootless home and weather-beaten back.” In May 1403 Henry of Monmouth was allowed to sack Sycharth and Glyndyvrdwy unopposed. Owen had a greater plot in hand. The Percies were to rise in arms, and meeting Owen at Shrewsbury, overwhelm the prince before help could arrive. But Owen was defeated near Carmarthen on July 12, and Percy was crushed at Shrewsbury ten days later. But the Welsh revolt was still formidable. Owen styled himself openly prince of Wales, established a regular government, and called a parliament at Machynlleth. As aresult of a formal alliance the French sent troops to his aid, and in the course of 1404 the great castles of Harlech and Aberystwith fell into his hands. In the spring of 1405 the tide turned. Prince Henry defeated the Welsh at Grosmont in March, and twice again in May. Scrope’s rebellion in the North prevented the English from following up their success. The earl of Northumberland took refuge in Wales, and the tripartite alliance of Owen with Percy and Mortimer (transferred by Shakespeare to an earlier occasion) threatened a renewal of danger. But the English under Prince Henry gained ground steadily, and the recovery of Aberystwith, after a long siege (1408), marked the end of serious warfare. In February 1409 Harlech was recaptured, and Owen’s wife, daughter and grandchildren were taken prisoners. According to Adam of Usk Owen died in 1415. Welsh legend represents him as spending a peaceful old age with his sons-in-law at Ewyas and Monington mm Herefordshire, till his death and burial at the latter place. The dream of an independent and united Wales was never nearer realization than under Owen’s leadership. The disturbed state of England helped him, but he was indeed a remarkable personality, and has become a national hero. Sentiment and tradition have magnified his achievements, and confused his career with tales of portents and magical powers. Owen left many bastard children;

his legitimate representative in 1433 was his daughter Alice, wife of Sir John Scudamore of Ewyas.

The facts of Owen’s life must be pieced together from scattered references in contemporary chronicles and documents; perhaps the most ttant are Adam of Usk’s Chronicle and Ellis’s Original Letters. On the Welsh side something is given by the bards Iolo Goch and Glyn Cothi. For modern accounts consult J. H. Wylie’s History

of England under Henry IV. (4 vols., 1884-1898); A. C. Bradley,

Glyndwr (1904) ; and Professor Tout’s article in the Dictionary af National Biography. For further references see the Bibliography

(3915) compiled by D. Rhys Phillips.

GLENELG,

GLENGARRIFF

or GLENGARIFF,

a tourist resort in

Co. Cork, Ireland, on an inlet of Bantry bay, 11 m. from Bantry. A mountain road from Macroom, and a branch line from the north, facilitate tourist traffic. The harbour has been described by Thackeray.

GLEN GREY, a division of the Cape province south of the Stormberg, adjoining on the east the Transkeian Territories. Pop. (1926), c. 65,800. Chief town, Lady Frere, 32 m. N.E. of Queenstown. The district is well watered and fertile, and large quantities of cereals are grown. Over 96% of the inhabitants are of the Zulu-Xosa (Kafir) race, and a considerable part of the district was settled during the Kafir wars of Cape Colony by Tembu (Tambookies) who were granted a location by the colonial Government in recognition of their loyalty to the British. Act No. 25 of 1894 of the Cape parliament, passed at the instance of Cecil Rhodes, which laid down the basis upon which is effected the change.of land tenure by natives from communal to individual holdings, and also dealt with native local self-government and the labour question, applied in the first instance to this division, and is known as the Glen Grey Act (see Cape Cotony: History). The provisions of the Act respecting individual land tenure and local self-government were in 1898 applied, with certain modifications, to the Transkeian Territories. The division is named after Sir George Grey, governor of Cape Colony 1854-61.

GLEN RIDGE, a residential borough of Essex county, New Jersey, U.S.A., 6 m. N. of Newark; served by the Erie and the Lackawanna railways. The population in 1930 was 7,365.

GLENS FALLS, a city of Warren county, New York, U.S.A., on the Hudson river, 6o m. above Albany. It is on Federal highways 4 and 9; has an airport; and is served by the Delaware and Hudson railway. The population was 16,638 in 1920 (89% native white) and was 18,531 in 1930 by the Federal census. The principal residence streets are arched with superb elms. It is a busy manufacturing city, making especially shirts and collars, cement, pulp and paper, dresses and blouses, wall paper and pigments. The aggregate output of its factories in 1927 was valued at $r7,261,658. There are valuable quarries of black marble and limestone in the vicinity. In the river bank, under a beautiful concrete bridge, is the entrance to the cave which figures in J. Fenimore Cooper’s The Last of the Mohicans. Glens Falls was settled

in 1763, by a group of Quakers under the leadership of Abraham Wing. At first it was called Wing’s Falls, but in 1788 the name was changed to satisfy a debt of honour (so the story goes) owed

CHARLES GRANT, Baron (1778-1866), by Wing to Colonel Johannes Glen of Schnectady. During the t son of Charles Grant (q.v.), chairman of the directors of Revolution the village suffered from the armies of Burgoyne, East India Company, was born in India on Oct. 26, 1778, and Schuyler and Gates, and was vurned to the ground in 1780, but was educated at Magdalene college, Cambridge, of which he be- because of the valuable water-power amd advantageous location ‘it tame a fellow in 1802. Called to the bar in 1807, he entered parlia- was seon rebuilt. It was chartered as a city in 1968 :

4.28

GLENTILT—GLIDING

GLENTILT, a glen in the extreme north of Perthshire, Scot-

united by a framework to which a seat was suspended, and pro-

land, following a south-westerly direction excepting for the last 4 m., when it runs due south to Blair Atholl. It is watered by the Tilt. Carn nan Gabhar (3,671 ft.) is the highest hill in the Beinna-Ghlo range which dominates the glen from the east side. Marble of good quality is occasionally quarried.

vided with a horizontal tail which could be elevated or depressed

GLIDING, the art of flying a heavier than air craft similar to an aeroplane but not provided with an engine. The history of American gliding is mainly a record of the scientific achievements of the great pioneers, Chanute, Montgomery, Wilbur and

Orville Wright. In the first half of the roth century the English pioneers, Cayley, Henson and Stringfellow, made valuable theoretical investigations and model flight experiments. It is this group of workers who may be said to have “invented” the aeroplane. But their invention would never have been reduced to practice without the subsequent effort of the early exponents of gliding. Captain Le Bris, a French sailor, carried: out the first significant glider work in the ’7os, building gliders with wings shaped like

those of an albatross and with a boat-shaped body. Le Bris made many remarkable glides, but he succeeded more by instinct than by scientific skill, and did not make any substantial contribution to the science of flight. The most famous exponent of gliding was undoubtedly Otto Lilienthal, who with his brother Gustav began to make experiments in 1867. Lilienthal realized that data were needed for success and accumulated much information from a study of the flight of birds. He was perhaps the first man to understand the superiority of the cambered or curved surface over the flat plate. Lilienthal insisted however that practice should go hand in hand with theoretical study and in 1891 he built his first man-carrying glider, with a framework of peeled willow rods covered with tough cotton fabric. Lilienthal in both his monoplane and biplane machines attached himself to the glider by thrusting his arms through padded tubes and holding on to a cross-bar. He sailed through the air with his body and legs below the machine and was convinced that stability and control could be best achieved by movements of the flier’s body. While Percy Pilcher made many interesting flights in England, his sole addition to the structure of the glider was a horizontal plane. Both Lilienthal and Pilcher lost their lives in their experiments. Octave Chanute, of greater engineering ability than Pilcher or Lilienthal, brought the Lilienthal tradition to the United States. In 1896, then in his 64th year, he began to make gliding flights. Chanute was sure that Lilienthal was not on the right track in seeking control mainly by the shifting of the pilot’s body. The first original design made by Chanute was a glider with five superposed surfaces, well trussed together. The pilot was still placed below the glider, and the rudder was in the rear. But the wings on either side could be swerved fore and aft, so as to

provide both longitudinal and lateral control. With the five-deck glider Chanute found tractability in winds as high as 20 m. an hour, and in a wind of 13 m. per hour obtained a gliding slope of one in four.

The five-deck glider was succeeded by a three-decker, soon to be followed by the famous Chanute biplane. In this glider, Chanute braced the two wings of the biplane together with vertical posts and diagonal wires forming a Pratt truss. This has been

by pulleys. The wings were curved or cambered, and also arched

sidewise like those of a gull, with a total surface of 90 square feet Lateral balance was achieved by motion in the seat. The weight of the apparatus was 40 lb., and that of the rider some 130 Jb, more. Montgomery took this apparatus to the top of a hill nearly a mile long which gradually sloped at an angle of about 10°. On

his first glide he faced a sea breeze steadily blowing from 8 to 12 m. an hour and jumped into the air without previous running

He found himself at once launched upon the wind and executed a glide of 600 feet. This experiment led Montgomery to build a second glider, in which (probably to increase stability) flat surfaces were employed. To secure lateral control he endeavoured to relieve undue pressure upon either side by providing a diagonal hinge in each wing, along which the rear triangle might fold back against the restraining action of a spring and yield to 3 wind gust. In addition to the spring, he arranged a saddle which was so constructed that by leaning to one side or the other the

rear portion of that wing would yield. The lateral control was

greatly improved, but the lifting power was diminished because of the flat plane. In a third glider, the wings were made like those of a soaring vulture. To give lateral control, the wing was so

built and braced as to allow rotation in a socket at the front end of the frame which supported the seat. The machine was perfectly controllable but was inferior in lifting power even to the second glider. Montgomery then undertook experiment to determine the proper form of wing surface. In 1903 he stretched a cable between two mountains 150 ft. above the valley and liberated various models. In 1904, at San Juan he extended experiments on this principle with a man-carrying glider, and made observations on the effects of wind currents. In 1905, while the Wright brothers were making their most successful private flights, Montgomery built his last and largest glider, the Santa Clara, weighing 45 Ib. and patterned largely after

his first glider. He conceived the idea that the most interesting way of using gliders was to launch them from a balloon. On April 29, 1905, Daniel Maloney, an experienced parachute jumper, rose 4,000 ft. from the college grounds in a hot-air balloon and let his glider loose. One of Montgomery’s pupils described the event: “In the course of the descent, the most extraordinary and complex manoeuvres were accomplished—spiral and circling turns being executed with an ease and grace almost beyond description, level travel accomplished with the wind and against it, figure-eight revolutions performed without difficulty, and hair-raising dives were terminated by abrupt checking of the movement by changing the angles of the wing surfaces. At times the speed as estimated by eye-witnesses, was over 68 m. an hour, and yet after a flight of approximately 8 m. in 20 min., the machine was brought to rest upon a previously designated spot. $m. from the place where the balloon had been released, so lightly that the aviator was not even jarred, despite the fact that he was compelled to land on his feet, not on a special alighting gear.” Subsequent exhibitions with other hot-air balloons, other gliders, and two other pilots, Wilkie and Defolco, gave equally striking results.

The next great American exponents of gliding were the Wright

used frequently by biplane designers. The biplane glider weighed

brothers.

23 lb., had a wing area of 135 sq.ft. and carried a total weight of 178 lb. at 23 m. per hour. It had a double rudder in addition to the horizontal control. It could navigate in a wind as high as 40 m. per hour, and glided on a path of between 7-5° to 11° to the horizontal. Chanute did a great deal to achieve strong and light construction, and to increase stability and efficiency. So stable were his gliders that his 2,000 flights were without a single accident. Chanute was the first American to make a large number of successful glides, but the first American exponent of this art as a means of aerodynamic study was John J. Montgomery. Between 1883 and 1894 he was almost continuously engaged in fruitful experimentation. His first glider, built about 1884, consisted of two wings placed in tandem, each ro ft. long and 4} ft. in width,

and gliders, though they were also great exponents of the wind

The Wrights from the first experimented with kites

tunnel method, and used a small wind tunnel to carry out scientific tests on a variety of wing surfaces. Their first plan was to construct a glider which could be used as a man-carrying kite in @ steady breeze. Their calculations indicated that a glider with 200 sq.ft. of wing area would be sufficient for their purpose in 4 steady wind of some 20 m. per hour. For their flights they selected the Kill Devil sand hills near Kitty Hawk, N.C., which provided strong and steady sea breezes. Through some errors in calculations, their first man-carrying glider, tried out in the summer of 1900,

proved a failure as a kite and they soon turned to gliding. The

glider of 1900, though a biplane, differed in many respects from the Chanute glider. To decrease the air resistance the pilot was placed prone above the lower wing. They discarded the vertical

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GLIDING rudder, and placed the horizontal rudder forward.

To secure

lateral balance they warped the wings on either side, so as to

vary the angle of attack and hence the lift on either side. For

launching and landing they used sled runners. With a surface of 165 sq.ft. they could glide down a slope of 9-5° at a speed

of 25 to 30 m. per hour. The front horizontal rudder and the

warping wings gave adequate control.

The Wrights’ most successful glider was built in 1902.

a result of their previous

experiments,

As

they decided to use a

vertical rudder, which was subsequently made adjustable.

The

1902 machine had two main surfaces, measuring 32 ft. by 15 ft.

each, a front horizontal rudder measuring 15 sq.ft. and the vertical rudder measuring 12 sq.ft., later reduced to six. This glider

showed greater efficiency than previous models.

In Sept. and

Oct. 1902, nearly 1,000 gliding flights were made, several of which covered distances of over 600 feet. Some were made in perfect safety against a wind of 36 m. an hour and gave an

extraordinary demonstration of the control achieved.

The great

glider achievement of the Wright brothers was in securing complete control by combining the horizontal rudder, with an adjustable vertical rudder, and the warping wings. It was this perfect control which made their gliding so safe, and which enabled them to proceed to the building of the first successful power-

driven aeroplane. While the Wrights from 1903 onwards devoted the greater part of their energies to power-driven craft, they never lost their interest in gliding. With much more powerful controls, and the horizontal rudder in the rear, many very long glides were made, the longest being of a duration of 9 min. 45 seconds. This remained the record until Hentzen, a German, in Aug. 1922, remained soaring aloft in the Rhine valley for 3 hr. and 6 minutes, For many years after the Wrights’ duration record of 1911, no gliding experiments were made in the United States. In 1922 the remarkable gliding endurance flights in the Rhine valley in-

duced another famous pioneer, Glenn Curtiss, to try his hand at glider construction. A biplane glider with a flying boat hull, and outriggers carrying the tail surface, was built by the Curtiss Company. It weighed only 150 Ib. without the pilot, had a wing area of 310 sq.ft., and was remarkable as being the first flyingboat glider ever constructed, Tests were made in the waters of Long Island sound near Ft. Washington. The glider when towed behind a high speed motor boat rose readily in the air and, cast adrift, performed admirably. In Germany gliding had reached a high degree of popularity

mainly for two reasons. First, the Versailles treaty prevented the construction of large aeroplanes, and the Germans turned to

gliding as a patriotic method of maintaining and increasing their skill in the matter of heavier-than-air craft. Second, the meteorological conditions in the Rhine valley, providing continuous upward currents of air, were most favourable to soaring flight. In the United States, on the other hand, full sway was given to the construction of powered craft, and meteorologically suitable localities such as Kitty Hawk were found to be difficult of access from large centres of population. As a result, while the German glider experiments were followed with great interest both in the technical and the daily press, attempts at popularization of this art in America were difficult. In 1922 Nordman, a young aeronautical engineer of College

Point, L.I., built a neat monoplane glider, which was towed behind

a motor cycle and behaved well when released in the air.

An excellent glider was built by the students of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and entered in a French contest at

Clermont-Ferrand (1923), with E. T. Allen as the pilot. This was a high wing cantilever monoplane with a non-covered fuselage.

The machine crashed during one of its flights in the meet at a

time when it had a higher score than any other competitor. Under the direction of Prof. A. A. Merrill, two students of the California Institute of Technology built a glider (1922) of the cantilever monoplane type with a span of 40 ft. and a chord of 44 feet. In this glider the vertical rudder and fin were discarded. Progress was rapid and continuous. On May 3. 1927, at Rossitten, E, Prussia, Ferdinand Schultz made a record of 14 hours, 7 minutes,

429

On May 30, 1928, three German glider pilots, Capt. Paul Roebre, Dr. Paul Laubenthal and Peter Hesselbach, arrived in the United States bringing with them three German gliders, including the Darmstadt which held many German records. The expedition arrived under the auspices of the American Motorless Aviation club. Cornhill, near Provincetown, Mass., was the locality selected for the first American flights of these gliders. With headquarters in Detroit, the Evans Glider clubs were being organized to promote national glider contests to be held annually and thus popularize a sport both exhilarating and scientific. Breriocrapay.—O. Chanute, Aerial Navigation (1894) ; Gliding Experiments, presented before the Western Society of Engineers, Oct. 20,

1897; and Recent Progress in Aviation, presented before the Western Society of Engineers, Oct. 20, 1909; J. J. Montgomery, “Discussion on the Various Papers on Soaring Flight,” in Proceedings of the International Conference on Aerial Navigation held in Chicago, Aug. 1893, and the Aeronautical Society, New York, April 21, 1910; O. Wright, “‘Possibilities of Soaring Flight,” U.S. Air Service (Dec. 1922). (A. KL.)

How to Glide—In order to glide successfully, four things are required: (1) a properly designed machine; (2) proper terrain; (3) the man power to give the glider its initial impetus in the air: and (4) the necessary experience on the part of the pilot in manipulating the controls of the machine so as to preserve the proper equilibrium. A properly designed plane should have high aspect ratio, low parasite resistance and great torsion rigidity. The modern gliders are equipped with controls for ailerons, rudder and tail surfaces the same as an ordinary aeroplane, and are very carefully stream-lined. The length of wing is

usually 25 to so ft., the cord from 4 to 5 feet. Specifications can be

obtained from the National Advisory Committee of Aeronautics, Washington, D.C., or from various glider clubs in the United States. For elementary gliding, which means the more or less rapid descent either in circles or in a straight line from the top of a hill to its base, the requirements are simple. But where soaring is desired, the requirements are much more exacting. First there should be chosen a hill from roo to 300 ft. high which slopes up from a level plain first slowly and then more abruptly to a rounded crest. The hill should face toward prevailing winds and, preferably, should be several miles long. The length is necessary in order to permit the glider to perform figure eights, so as to keep always

on the top of the current of air flowing up and over the hill. There should be no fences, trees or shrubbery on the hillside or the plain at its foot, as these might cause disaster at time of landing. Attached to the nose of the glider is a ring with two ropes leading therefrom, which can be used to pull the glider rapidly along until it has reached the necessary speed to carry it into the air, from the crest of the hill. Preferably, these ropes should be made of rubber, which being stretched to their limit before the glider leaves the ground, will give a snap to the motion of the glider. The ring which holds the ropes is detachable by the pilot, and should be released as soon as the glider leaves the hill) There should always be enough men pulling the glider so that it can move with ease and quickness, as a sluggish start will often cause an accident. In attempting to glide, the pilot should first learn the elements of the sport by using gliders of the simpler type. As he improves in circling and gliding downward, he can then graduate to gliders of a less simple type, which will permit him to do soaring in a strong up current of air. After graduating from this type of machine he will then be equipped to use the intricate type described above, with controls like an aeroplane. During this period of training, a pilot learns a great deal about air currents and perfects his technique in handling his plane so as to maintain its equilibrium. He is now prepared to actually fy. He seats himself in the glider which is facing the wind. His helpers, pulling on the ropes, run at full speed down the hill pulling him off the crest and he soars into the air. All that now remains is a careful

manipulation of the controls to maintain his elevation while

gliding parallel to the hill, doubling back and forth as long as the air currents permit him to remain aloft. When finally he has to land, he should nose the glider into the wind and descend slowly

and gently to the ground.

(E. S. E}

430

GLINKA—GLOGAU

GLINKA, FEDOR NIKOLAYEVICH (1788-1880), Russian poet and author, a cousin of the composer, was born at Smolensk in 1788. He was educated for the army, and served in the Austrian campaign of 1805. He then retired to his estate, but served again in the campaigns of 1812-14. For some time he commanded a regiment under Count Miloradovich, military governor of St. Petersburg. Under suspicion of revolutionary tendencies he was, in 1820, banished to Petrozavodsk, but was after a time allowed to return to St. Petersburg. Glinka was an independent and original writer, whose work was never fully appreciated during his life-time. He is one of the few Russian poets who have chosen principally biblical subjects; he was something of a mystic, and his verse has been compared with that of Vaughan and Herbert.

GLOBE, a city of Arizona, U.S.A., 75m. E. by S. of Phoeniy

on Federal highway 180 and the Southern Pacific railway: the county seat of Gila county. The population was 7,044 in 1920 and was 7,157 in 1930 Federal census. It is the centre of a cattle. raising and copper-mining region. In recent years the Globe.

Miami district has outranked the Bisbee district in production of

copper (175,272,000lb. in 1925), and has stood third in the United States. Silver, gold, asbestos and cinnabar also are mined and there are coal fields and quicksilver properties in the vicinity, Roosevelt dam and reservoir are 25m. north-west. Coolidge an (under construction 1928) is 30m. south. Globe was founded about 1874, and was incorporated as a city in 1907.

GLOBE: see Map.

GLOBE-FISH

or SEA-HEDGEHOG,

the name of some

His works include martial songs, the descriptive poem Kareliya (Carelia, or the Captivity of Martha Joanovna, 1830), and a metrical paraphrase of the book of Job. Some translations are published in C. T. Wilson’s Russian Lyrics (1887).

sea-fishes of the families Diodontidae and Tetrodontidae, which

(Oct. 9, N.S.), 1836, his opera A Life for the Tsar (the libretto

ooze” and are preserved thus in the chalk. Hastigerina only differs in the “flat” spiral.

have the faculty of inflating their stomachs with air or water. Their jaws resemble the beak of a parrot, the bones and teeth he. ing coalesced into one sharp-edged mass. By means of these they GLINKA, MICHAEL IVANOVICH (1803-1857), Russian composer, was born at Novospassky, Smolensk, on June 2, are able to break off branches of corals, and to masticate other 1803. The folk-music of his native province made a deep im- hard substances on which they feed. Usually they are of a short, pression on the child, and he himself said that perhaps the songs thick, cylindrical shape, with powerful fins. Their body is covered with tough skin, without scales, but provided with variously he heard in his early days suggested the idea to him of making use of the national music in his compositions. At 13 he was sent to formed spines. When they inflate their capacious stomachs they assume a globular form, and the spines protrude, forming a de. an aristocratic school at St. Petersburg, the Blagorodrey Pension, where he studied music under Carl Maier and John Field, the fensive armour. A fish thus blown out turns over and floats belly upwards, driving before the wind and waves. Many of these Irish composer and pianist, who had settled in Russia. In his ryth year he had already begun to compose romances and songs. From fishes are highly poisonous when eaten. They are most numerous 1824 to 1828 he held a post in the civil service in St. Petersburg, in the tropics; a few species live in large rivers, as, for instance, and mixed in the literary and scientific society of the capital, where Tetrodon fahaka, of the Nile. Nearly roo species are known. GLOBEFLOWER, a genus of Ranunculaceae (g.v.), which he had the reputation of being a good mathematician and something of a scientist. His thorough musical training began in 1830, takes it name from the special shape and formation of the flower, when he spent three years in Italy studying the works of old There are several species including the spreading globeflower and modern Italan masters. His thorough knowledge of the re- (Trollius lazus), native to certain parts of America, especially quirements of the voice may be connected with this course of the Rocky mountains, and the common globeflower (T. europeus) study, but the study of Italian music did not wean him from his Which is extensively cultivated in England. GLOBIGERINA, a genus of perforate Foraminifera (q.v) early passion for Russian national melody. His training as a composer was finished under the contrapuntist Dehn, with whom of pelagic habit, and formed of a conical spiral aggregate of he stayed for several months at Berlin. In 1833 he returned to spheroidal chambers with a crescentic mouth. The shells accumuRussia, and devoted himself to operatic composition. On Sept. 27 late at the bottom of moderately deep seas to form “Globigerina

by Baron de Rosen) was produced at St. Petersburg. This was the turning-point in Glinka’s life, and in Russian music, for the production marks the beginning of a Russian school of national music. The story is taken from the invasion of Russia by the Poles early in the 17th century, and the hero, Ivan Susanin, is a peasant. Glinka has wedded this patriotic theme to inspiring music. His melodies, moreover, show distinct affinity to the popular songs of the Russians, so that the term “national” may justly be applied to them, His appointment as imperial chapelmaster and conductor of the opera of St. Petersburg followed. His second opera Russ-

lan and Ludmila, founded on Pushkin’s poem, did not appear till 1842,

Musically it was a great advance on A Life for the Tsar,

but it had less popular success. Just as in his first opera he had contrasted Russian and Polish music, so in the second, Oriental themes were set over against Russian melodies. An overture and four entre-actes to Kukolnik’s drama Prince Kholmsky followed. In 1844 Glinka went to Paris, where he made the acquaintance of Berlioz, and a mutual admiration sprang up between the two composers. Glinka’s Jota Aragonesa (1847), and the symphonic work on Spanish themes, Une Nuit à Madrid, reflect the musical results

of two years’ sojourn in Spain. On bis return to St. Petersburg he wrote and arranged several pieces for the orchestra, amongst which the so-called Kamarinskaya achieved popularity beyond the limits of Russia. He also composed numerous songs and romances. In 1852 he went abroad for the third time; he now wrote his auto-

biography, orchestrated Weber’s Invitation à la valse, and began tọ consider a plan for a symphonic work on Gogol’s Taras-Bulba. But he now developed a passion for ecclesiastical music, and went

to Berlin to study the ancient church modes. Here he died suddenly on Feb. 2, 1857. See. H, Berlioz, Michael Glinka (Milan, 1874); M. D. Cal

“Glinka,” Les Musiciens Célebres (Pari?

P

eee

i

GLOCKENSPIEL, or OrcaestTRAL Betts, an instrument of percussion of definite musical pitch, used in the orchestra, and

made in two or three different styles. The oldest form of glockenspiel consisted of a set of bells of graduated size mounted pyramid-fashion on a frame and played by one performer by means of steel hammers. The lyre-shaped glockenspiel, or steel AA AN harmonica (Staklkarmonika), is a newer model, which has instead of bells 12 or more bars of steel, graduating in size according to

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THE GLOCKENSPIEL CONSISTED ORIGINALLY OF A SET OF TUNED BELLS, WHICH WERE STRUCK WITH A HAMMER, BUT LATER, BARS OF STEEL OF VARYING LENGTH, ATTACHED TO A FRAME WERE SUBSTITUTED

pitch.

These

bars

are

fastened horizontally across two bars of steel set perpendicularly in a steel frame. Wagner has used the glockenspiel with exquisite effect in the fire scene of the last act of Die Walküre and in the peasants’ waltz in the last scene of Die Meistersinger. When chords are written for the gloch-

erspiel, as in Mozart’s Magic Flute, the keyed harmonica is used. Tt consists of a keyboard having a little hammer attached to each key, which strikes a bar of glass or steel when the key is depressed. GLOGAU, a town in the Prussian province of Silesia, 59 ™

N.W. from Breslau by rail. Pop. (1925) 25,968. Early in the rth century it withstood a siege by the emperor Henry V.; and i 1157 it was set on fire. In 1252 the town, restored by Henry L,

became the capital of a principality of Glogau, and in 1482 town

GLORIA—GLOSS and district were united to the Bohemian

crown.

During the

Thirty Years’ War Glogau suffered greatly. In 1741 the Prussians took it by storm and utilized it as a base during the Seven Years’ War. After the battle of Jena (1806) it fell to the French; and was held against Russian and Prussian besiegers after the

hattle of Katzbach in 1813, for many months.

Glogau is built

ly on an island and partly on the left bank of the Oder.

The

cathedral, in the Gothic, and a castle (now used as a courthouse), in the Renaissance style, are notable. Glogau carries on extensive trade by river and rail. Industries include iron founding, machinery-building, tobacco, starch and sugar.

It has also lithographic

works and its book trade is celebrated.

GLORIA, in general a doxology or ascription of praise, specifically two ancient Latin hymns Gloria in excelsis and Gloria Patri, referred to sometimes as the Greater and the Lesser Doxology respectively, and employed in the services of the Catholic Church. The former, known as the angelic hymn, on the strength

of a passage in Luke (ii. 14), is an important part of the Or-

dinary of the Mass; the latter is appended to the singing of the

psalms. For further particulars and for discussion of the Gloria in music, see Mass; also Lirurcy, Missat and Eucrrartst.

GLORIOSA, in botany, a small genus of plants of the family Liliaceae, natives of tropical Asia and Africa. They are bulbous plants, the slender stems of which support themselves by tendrillike prolongations of the tips of some of the narrow generally lanceolate leaves. The flowers, which are borne in the leaf-axils at the ends of the stem, are very handsome, the six, generally nar-

row, petals are bent back and stand erect, and are a rich orange yellow or red in colour; the six stamens project more or less horizontally from the place of insertion of the petals. They are

grown in cultivation as stove or greenhouse plants, and often called climbing-lily.

GLOSS

AND

GLOSSARY.

The

Greek word yi\Sccoa

(gléssa), meaning originally a tongue, then a language or dialect, gradually came to denote any obsolete, foreign, provincial, technical or otherwise peculiar word or use of a word (see Arist. Rhet. iii. 3, 2). The making of collections and explanations of such yA@ooa. was at a comparatively early date a well-recognized form of literary activity. Even in the 5th century B.c., among the many writings of Abdera was included a treatise entitled [eps ‘Ounpou 4 opboereins xal yNwocéwy. It was not, however, until the Alexandrian period that the yAwocoypdadou, glossographers (writers of glosses), or glossators, became numerous. Of many of these perhaps even the names have perished; but Athenaeus the grammarian (c. A.D. 250) alone alludes to no fewer than 35. Among the earliest was Philetas of Cos (d. c. 290 B.C.), the elegiac poet, who was the compiler of a lexicographical work entitled “Araxra or TASooar (sometimes “Araxrot

yheooat). Next came his disciple Zenodotus of Ephesus (early 3rd century B.c.), the compiler of TA@coas ‘Ounpixat (uncommon

words in Homer); he was succeeded by his greater pupil Aristophanes of Byzantium (c. 260-180 B.c.), whose great compilation Hepl A€Eewr (still partially preserved in that of Pollux), is known to have included ’Arrixal Aé~ers, Aaxwrixal yAGooa:, and the ike, From the school of Aristophanes issued more than one glossographer of name,—Diodorus, Artemidorus (TAéocoa, and a collection of Aékers éWaprurixat), Nicander of Colophon (Taccan, of which some 26 fragments still survive) and Aristarchus (c. 210 8.C.), the famous critic, whose numerous labours included an arrangement of the Homeric vocabulary (étes) in the order of the

books. Contemporary with the last named was Crates of Mallus,

who, besides making some new contributions to Greek lexicog-

raphy and dialectology, was the first to create at Rome a taste for similar investigations in connection with the Latin idioms. From his school proceeded Zenodotus of Mallus, the compiler of Uvucat éEets or yAGooas, a work said to have been designed

chiefly to support the views of the school of Pergamum as to the

orical interpretation of Homer. Of later date were Didymus (Chalcenterus, rst cent. B.c.), who made collections of Méfers Tpaywooupevar Kwptxal, etc.; Apollonus Sophista (c. 20 B.c.), whose Homeric Lexicon has come down modern times; and Neoptolemus, known distinctively as 6

AND GLOSSARY

431

YAwocoypados. In the beginning of the rst century of the Christian era Apion, a grammarian and rhetorician at Rome during the reigns of Tiberius and Claudius, followed up the labours of Aristarchus and other predecessors with TA@ooar ‘Ounprxai, and a treatise [epi ris ‘Pwyatkxis Seadéxrou ; Heliodorus or Herodorus was another almost contemporary glossographer; Erotian also, during the reign of Nero, prepared a special glossary for the writings of Hippocrates. To this period also Pamphilus, the author of the Aesuwy, from which Diogenianus and Julius Vestinus afterwards drew so largely, most probably belonged. In the following century one of the most prominent workers in this department of literature was Aelius Herodianus, whose treatise [epi Movypous défews has been edited in modern times, and whose "Emcpeptopot we still possess in an abridgment; also Pollux, Diogenianus (Aé&is rarrodar4), Julius Vestinus CErirou) rôv Tayditov yAwooSv) and especially Phrynichus, who flourished towards the close of the 2nd century, and whose Eclogae nominum et verborum Atticorum has frequently been edited. To the 4th century belong Ammonius of Alexandria (c. 389), who wrote Ilepi duolwr cal diaddpwry Néfewv, a dictionary of words used in senses different from those employed by older and approved writers; Hesychius, whose Aefixév, has come down only in a r5th-century recension. From the sth century date, Cyril, the celebrated patriarch of Alexandria (one form of his work is the basis of Zuvaywyn ékewr xpndiuwy); Orus of Miletus (Hlept rodAvonudavrwv Aékewy), and Orion of Egyptian Thebes who flourished in Alexandria, c. 425. The Compilations of Justinian.—To a special category of technical glossaries belongs a large and important class of works relating to the law-compilations of Justinian. Although the emperor forbade under severe penalties all commentaries (ùrournuara) on his legislation, yet indices (tvéuxes) and references (rapatıra), as well as translations (épunvetar xara róa) and paraphrases (épunvetar eis mAáTos)}, were expressly permitted, and lavishly produced. Among the numerous compilers of alphabetically arranged defers “Pwyatkai or Aaraexal, and yAdcoat voutxal (glossae nomicae), Cyril and Philoxenus are particularly noted; but the authors of rapaypadat, or anuerwoes, whether č£wber or ower xeiuevas are too numerous to mention. A collection of these rapaypadail rv radatGv, combined with véar rapaypadat on the revised code called ra PagtArKd, was made about the middle of the r2th century by a disciple of Michael Hagiotheodorita. The collection of these glossaries is known as the Glossa ordinaria rTÕv BasiMurkõv. In Italy, also, during the period of the Byzantine ascendancy, and later, after the total extinction of Byzantine sway in the West, various glossae (glosae) and scholia on the Justinian code and various legal treatises were produced. The series of legal glossators was closed by Accursius (g.v.) with the compilation known as the Glossa ordinaria or magistralis, the authority of which soon became very great. For some account of the glossators on the canon law, see CANoN Law. Latin, like Greek glossography, had its origin chiefly in the practical wants of students and teachers, of whose names we only know a few. No doubt even in classical times collections of glosses (“glossaries”) were compiled, to which allusion seems to be made by Varro (De ling. Lat. vii. 10, “tesca, aiunt sancta esse qui glossas scripserunt”) and Verrius-Festus (1665. 6 “naucum . . . glossematorum . . . scriptores fabae grani quod baereat in fabulo”}. The scriptores glossematorum were distinguished from the learned glossographers like Aurelius Opihus. Servius Clodius, Aelius Stilo, L. Ateius Philol, whose Ziber gloss-

ee ae e e e EAP ES SEPSIS ES PSP rent Baca ara i eaa i tonetteslr RANA e e ~a aei

ematorum Festus mentions (18r*, 18). Verrius Flaccus (who died under Tiberius), and his epitomists, Festus and Paulus, have preserved many treasures of early glossog-

raphers who are now lost ta us. He copied Aelius Stilo, author of De verborum significatu, Aurelius Opilius, Ateius Philologus, the treatise De obscuris Catonis. Fie often made use of Varro and was also acquainted with later glossographers. Perhaps we owe to him the glossee asbestos. Festus was used by Pseudo-Philoxenus (see below).

In late classical and mediaeval Latin, glose was the vulgar and

432

GLOSS

AND

romanic, glossa the learned form. The diminutive glossula occurs in Diomedes (426. 26) and elsewhere. The same meaning is borne by glossarium, which also occurs in the modern sense of “glossary,” as do the words glossa, glossae, glossulae, glossemata, expressed in later times by dictionarium, dictionarius, vocabularium, vocabularius (see DICTIONARY). Glossa and glossema are synonyms, signi-

fying (a) the word which requires explanation; or (b) such a word (called lemma) together with the interpretation (interpretamentum); or (c) the interpretation alone. The Bilingual Glossaries.—The bilingual (Gr.-Lat., Lat.Gr.} glossaries also point to an early period, and were used by the

grammarians (1) to explain the peculiarities (idiomatic) of the Latin language by comparison with the Greek, and (2) for instruction in the two languages. The most important remains of bilingual glossaries are two well-known lexica; one (Latin-Greek), formerly attributed, but wrongly, to Philoxenus (consul A.D. 525), clearly consists of two, closely allied glossaries (containing glosses to Latin authors, as Horace, Cicero, Juvenal, Virgil, the Jurists, and excerpts from Festus), worked into one by some Greek grammarian, or a person who worked under Greek influence (his

alphabet runs A, B, G, D, E, etc.); the other (Greek-Latin) is ascribed to Cyril (Stephanus says it was found at the end of some of his writings), and is considered to be a compilation of not later than the 6th century. Furthermore, the bilingual medicobotanic glossaries had their origin in old lists of plants, as PseudoApuleius in the treatise De herbarum virtutibus, and PseudoDioscorides; the glossary, entitled Hermeneuma, printed from the Cod. Vatic. reg. Christ. 1260, contains names of diseases. Of Latin glossaries of the first five or six centuries of the Roman emperors few traces are left, if we except Verrius-Festus. Of this early period we know by name only Fulgentius and Placidus. All that we know of the second of these tends to show that he lived in north Africa in the 6th century, from whence his glosses came to Spain, and were used by Isidore and the compiler of the Liber glossarum (see below). These glosses we know from (1) Codices Romani (rsth and 16th centuries); (2) the Liber glassarum; (3) the Cod. Paris. nov. acquis. 1298 (11th century), a collection of glossaries, in which the Placidus-glosses are kept separate from the others. (Fabius Planciades) Fulgentius (c. AD. 468-533) wrote Expositio sermonum antiquorum in 62 paragraphs, each containing a lemma (sometimes two or three) with an explanation giving quotations and names of authors. Next to him come the glossae Nontanae, which arose from the contents of the various paragraphs in Nonius Marcellus’ work being written in the margin without the words of the text;

these epitomized glosses were alphabetized and afterwards copied for other collections. In a similar way arose the glossae Eucherit or glossae spiritales secundum Eucherium episcopum found in many mss., which are an alphabetical extract from the formulae spiritalis intelligentiae of ‘St. Eucherius, bishop of Lyons, c. 434-450. The so-called Afalberg glosses, found in various texts af the Lex Salica, are not glosses in the ordinary sense of the word, but precious remains of the parent of the present literary Dutch, namely, the Low German dialect spoken by the Salian Franks who conquered Gaul from the Romans at the end of the sth century. The antiquity and the philological importance of these glosses may be realized from the fact that the Latin translation of the Lex Salica probably dates from the end of the sth century. See Jac. Grimm’s preface to Joh. Merkel’s ed. (1850),

and H. Kern’s notes to J. H. Hessels’s ed. (1880) of the Lex Salica. The Middle Ages.—During the 6th, 7th and 8th centuries glossography developed in various ways; old glossaries were worked up into new forms, or amalgamated with more recent ones. It ceased, moreover, to be exclusively Latin-Latin, and in-

terpretations in Germanic (Old High German, Anglo-Saxon) and Romanic dialects took the place of or were used side by side with earlier Latin ones. Among Celtic glosses the most important are Old Irish, and of these Bishop Cormac’s and O’Davoren’s have

been edited by Whitley Stokes, the former also by Kuno Meyer. The origin and development of the late classic and mediaeval glossaries preserved to us can be traced with certainty. While

GLOSSARY reading the manuscript texts of classical authors, the Bible or early Christian and profane writers, students and teachers, on meeting with any obscure or out-of-the-way words which they considered difficult to remember or to require elucidation, wrote above them, or in the margins, interpretations

or explanations

in more easy or better-known words. The interpretations written above the line are called “interlinear,’’ those written in the margins of the mss. “marginal glosses.” Again, mss. of the Bible were often provided with interlinear literal translations. (i.) From these glossed mss. and interlinear versions glossaries were compiled:

that is, the obscure and difficult Latin words, together with the interpretations, were excerpted and collected in separate lists, in the order in which they appeared in the mss., with the names of the authors or the titles of the books whence they were taken or

placed at the head of each separate collection.

In this arrange.

ment each article by itself is called a gloss; when reference is

made only to the word explained it is called the lemma, while the explanation is termed the interpretamentum. In most cases the form of the lemma was retained just as it stood in its source, and explained by a single word, so that we meet with lemmata in the accusative, dative and genitive, explained by words in the same

cases, €.g., the forms of verbs being treated in the same way. Of this first stage in the making of glossaries, many traces are preserved, in the late 8th century Leyden Glossary (ed. J. H. Hessels), where chapter iii. contains words or glosses excerpted from the Life of St. Martin by Sulpicius Severus; chs. iv., v. and xxxv. glosses from Rufinus, and so forth. (ii.) By a second operation the glosses came to be arranged in. alphabetical order according

to the first letter of the lemma, but still retained in separate chapters.

Of this second stage the Leyden Glossary contains traces

also. (iii.) The third operation collected all the accessible glosses

in alphabetical order, in the first instance according to the first

letters of the lemmata.

Here the names of the authors or the

titles could no longer be preserved, and consequently the sources of the glosses became uncertain. Civ.) A fourth arrangement collected the glosses according to the first two letters of the lemmata, as in the Corpus Glossary and in the still earlier Cod. Vat. 3321 (Goetz, Corp. iv. 1 sqg.), where even many attempts were made to arrange them according to the first three letters of the alphabet. A peculiar arrangement is seen in the Glossae affatim (Goetz, Corp. iv. 471 sqgq.), where all words are alphabetized, first according to the initial letter of the word and then further according to

the first vowel in the word (a, e, i, o, u.) No date or period can be assigned to any of the above stages or arrangements. For instance, the first and second are both found in the Leyden Glossary (end of 8th century) whereas the Corpus Glossary (beginning of 8th century) represents already the fourth stage. For the purpose of identification titles have been given te

the various nameless collections of glosses, derived partly from

their first lemma, partly from other characteristics, as glossae abstrusae; glossae abavus major and minor; g. afatim; g. ab absens; g. abactor; g. Abba Pater; g. a, a; g. Vergtlianae; g. nominum ; g. Sangallenses.

Isidore and His Successors.—A chief landmark in glossography is represented by the Origines (Etymologiae) of Isidore

(d. 636), an encyclopaedia in which he, like Cassiodorus, mixed human and divine subjects together, and the etymological part of which (book x.) became a great mine for later glossographers.

His principal source is Servius, the fathers of the church, and

Donatus. Next comes the Liber glossarum, chiefly compiled from Isidore, but with all articles arranged alphabetically; its author lived in Spain c. A.D. 690-750; he has been called Ansileubus, but

this name may be merely that of some owner of a copy of the

book, Here come, in regard to time, some Latin glossaries already

largely mixed with Germanic, more especially Anglo-Saxon inter-

pretations: (1) the Corpus Glossary (ed. J. H. Hessels, W. M. Lindsay), of the beginning of the 8th century, in Corpus Chnst college, Cambridge; (2) the Leyden Glossary (end of 8th century, ed. Hessels, Plac. Glogger), in Leyden ms. Voss. Q°® Lat. 69; (3) the Epinal Glossary, written in the beginning of the gth century and published in facsimile by the London Philol. Society from the ms. at Epinal; (4) the Glossae Amplonianae, i.e., three gloss-

GLOSSOP—GLOUCESTER aries preserved in the Amplonian library at Erfurt, known

as

Erfurt!, Erfurt? and Erfurt®, which are arranged alphabetically

according to the first or the first two letters of the lemmata. The first great glossary or collection of various glosses and

glossaries is that of Salomon, bishop of Constance, who died ap.

gig. An edition of it was printed z. 1475 at Augsburg as Salemonis ecclesie Constantiensis episcopi glosse ex illustrissimis collecte auctoribus. Its sources are the Liber glossarum, the glossary preserved in the 9th-century ms. Lat Monac. 14429, and the Abavus major Gloss. The Liber glossarum has also been the chief

source for the important (but not original) glossary of Papias,

of A.D. 1053, Who also wrote a grammar

chiefly compiled from

derived from Scaliger.

433 In 1606 Carolus and Petrus Labbaeus published,

with the help of Scaliger, another collection of glossaries, republished, in 1679, by Du Cange, after which the 17th and 18th centuries produced no further glossaries, though glosses were constantly used or referred to by scholars at Leyden, where a rich collection of glossaries had been obtained by the acquisition of the Vossius library. In the rgth century came Osann’s Glossarit Latini specimen (1826); the glossographical publications of Angelo Mai (Classéct auctores, vols. iii., Vi., vii., viii., 1831-36, containing Osbern’s Panormia, Placidus and various glosses from Vatican mss.) ; Fr. Oehler’s treatise (1847) on the Codex Ambplonianus of Osbern, and his edition of the three Erfurt glossaries, so important for Anglo-Saxon philology; in 1854 G. F. Hildebrand’s Glossarium Latinum (an extract from Abavus minor), preserved in a Cod. Paris. lat. 7690; 1857, Thomas Wright’s vol. of Anglo-Saxon glosses, which were republished with others in 1884 by R. Paul Wiilcker under the title Anglo-Saxon and Old English Vocabularies; L. Diefenbach’s supplement to Du Cange, entitled Glossarium

Priscian. It is also the source of (1) the Abba Pater Glossary, published by G. M. Thomas (Sitz. Ber. Akad. Münch., 1868, ii. 369 sgg.) ; (2) the Greek glossary Absida lucida; and (3) the Lat.- Latino-Germanicum mediae et infimae aetatis; Ritschl’s treatise (1870) on Placidus, which called forth an edition (1875) of Placidus by Arab. glossary in the Cod. Leid. Scal. Orient. No. 231 (published Deuerling; G. Loewe’s Prodomus Corporis Glossariorum Latinorum by Seybold in Semit. Studien, Heft xv.—xvii., 1900). The Paulus- (1876), and other treatises by him, published after his death by G. Glossary is compiled from the second Salomon-Glossary (abacti Goetz (Leipzig, 1884); 1888, the second volume of Goetz’s own great magistratus), the Abavus major and the Liber glossarum, with a mixture of Hebraica. Osbern of Gloucester (¢. 1123-1200) compiled the glossary en-

titled Panormia (ed. Angelo Mai as Thesaurus novus Latinitatis, from Cod. Vatic. reg. Christ. 1392), giving derivations, etymologies, testimonia collected from Paulus, Priscian, Plautus, Horace,

Virgil, Ovid, Mart. Capella, Macrobius, Ambrose, Sidonius, Prudentius, Josephus, Jerome, etc. Osbern’s material was also used by Hugucio, whose compendium was still more extensively used

(Goetz enumerates 103 mss. of his treatise).

Johannes de Janua.—The great work of Johannes de Janua,

Corpus glossarium Latinorum, of which seven volumes (except the first) had seen the light by 1907, the last two being separately entitled Thesaurus glossarum emendatarum, containing many emendations and corrections of earlier glossaries by the author and other scholars; 1885, H. Sweet, Latin-Anglo-Saxon glossaries in Oldest English Texts; 1890, J. H. Hessels, apograph of the Corpus Glossary, 1906 of the Leyden Glossary; 1900, Arthur S. Napier, Old English Glosses, collected chiefly from Aldhelm mss.; 1921, W. M. Lindsay, Corpus Glossary and The Corpus, Epinal, Erfurt, and Leyden Glossaries; 1922, Lindsay, Palaeographia Latina. Among encyclopaedic articles the chief are Tolkiehn’s article *‘Lexicographie” and G. Goetz’s article “Lateinische Glossographie” in Pauly’s Realencyklopddie. By the side of Goetz’s Corpus stands the great collection of Steinmeyer and Sievers, Die althochdeutschen Glossen (4 vols., 1879—98), containing a vast number of glosses culled from Bible mss. and mss. of classical Christian authors. Besides the works of the editors of, or writers on, glosses, already mentioned, we refer here to a few others: De-Vit (at end of Forcellini’s Lexicon) ; J. H. Gallée (Altsächs. Sprachdenkm., 1894) ; K. Gruber (Hauptquellen des Corpus, Epin. u. Erfurt Gloss., Erlangen, 1904) ; W. Heraeus (Die

entitled Summa quae vocatur catholicon, dates from the year 1286, and mostly uses Hugucio and Papias; its classical quotations are limited, except from Horace; it quotes the Vulgate by preference; it excerpts Priscianus, Donatus, Isidore, the fathers of the church; it borrows many Hebrew glosses, especially from Jerome; it mentions the Graecitsmus of Eberhardus Bethuniensis, the works of Sprache des Petronius und die Glossen, Leipzig, 1899); W. MeyerHrabanus Maurus, the Doctrinale of Alexander de Villa Dei, Lübke (“Zu den latein. Glossen” in Wiener Stud. xxv. 90 sqq.) ; Henry Nettleship, Lectures and Essays; R. Reitzenstein, Geschichte der and the Aurora of Petrus de Riga. Griechischen Etymologika (1897) ; on the three Philemons, see L. Cohen The gloss mss. of the 9th and roth centuries are numerous, but in Philologus 87 (N.F. ii.),353-67; (many important articles in Anglia, a diminution becomes visible towards the 11th. A peculiar feature Englische Studien, Archiv f. latein. Lexicographie, Romania, Zeitschr. of the late middle ages are the medico-botanical glossaries based für deutsches Alierthum, Journal of English and Germanic Philology, on earlier ones. The additions consisted in Arabic words with American Journal of Philology, Classical Review. Lindsay and J. H. Thomson, Ancient Lore in Mediaeval Latin Glossaries (1921) is an Latin explanations, while Greek, Latin, Hebrew and Arabic, . Important guide to the problem of gloss-derivation. interchange with English, French, Italian and German forms. Of (J. H. Hes.; C. T. O.) glossaries of this kind we have (1) the Glossae alphita; (2) GLOSSOP, market town, municipal borough, High Peak parSinonoma Bartholomei, of the end of the 14th century, ed. J. L. G. liamentary division, Derbyshire, England, 13 m. E. of Manchester Mowat; (3) the compilations of Simon de Janua (Clavis sana- by the L.N.E. railway. Pop. (1931) 19,510. It is the chief seat of tionis, end of 13th century), and of Matthaeus Silvaticus (Pan- the cotton manufacture in Derbyshire, and has also woollen and dectae medicinae, 14th century). paper mills, dye, print and bleaching works. The town consists of Of biblical glossaries we have a large number, mostly mixed three main divisions, the Old Town (or Glossop proper), Howard with glosses on other, even profane, subjects, as Hebrew and Town (or Glossop Dale) and Mill Town. An older parish church other biblical proper names, and explanations of the text of the was replaced by that of All Saints in 1830. In the neighbourhood Vulgate in general, and the prologues of Hieronymus. So we have is Glossop hall, the seat of Lord Howard, lord of the manor. On the Glossae veteris ac novi testamenti (beginning “Prologus graece a hill near the town is Melandra castle, the site of a Roman fort latine praelocutio sive praefatio”) in numerous mss. of the gth guarding Longdendale and the way into the hills of the Peak to r4th centuries, mostly retaining the various books under sep- District. To the north, in Longdendale, there are five reservoirs arate headings. Special mention should be made of Guil. Brito, belonging to the water-supply system of Manchester, formed by who lived about 1250, and compiled a Summa (beginning “‘diff- damming the Etherow, a stream which descends from the high ciles studeo partes quas Biblia gestat Pandere”) which gave rise moors north-east of Glossop. Area, 3.052 acres. Glossop was to the Mammotrectus of Joh. Marchesinus, about 1300, of which granted by Henry I. to William Peverel but later it reverted to we have editions of 1470, etc. the crown. : Finally we may mention such compilations as the Summa GLOUCESTER, GILBERT DE CLARE, Eart or (1243Heinrici (the Breviloquus, which drew its chief material from 1295), 8th earl of Gloucester and gth earl of Clare, was born at Papias, Hugucio, Brito, etc.); the Vocabularium Ex quo; the Christchurch, Hampshire, on Sept. 2, 1243. He married Alice of various Gemmae and Vocabularia rerum. Angoulême, niece of king Henry III., succeeded his father in July BretiocrapHy.—The modern historical interest in glosses and gloss- 1262, and joined the baronial party led by Simon de Montfort. anes began with J. Scalicer (1540-1609), who in his edition of Festus With Simon Gloucester was at the battle of Lewes in May 1264, made great use of Ps.-Philoxenus, which enabled O. Miiller, the later editor of Festus, to follow in his footsteps. Scaliger also planned the when the king himself surrendered to him, and after this victory publication of a Corpus glossarum, and left behind a collection of he was one of the three persons selected to nominate a council. known as glossae Isidori, The study of glosses was greatly Soon, however, he quarrelled with Simon. Leaving London for his furthered through the publication, in 1 573, of the bilingual glossaries lands on the Welsh border he met Prince Edward, afterwards king enri Stephanus (Estienne). In 1600 Bonay. Vulcanius republished same glossaries, adding (x) the glossae Isidori, which now appeared Edward I., at Ludlow, just after his escape from captivity, and “or the first time; (2) the Qnomasticon; (3) notae and castigationes, contributed largely to the prince’s victory at Evesham in August

GLOUCESTER

4-34

1265. But this alliance was as transitory as the one with Leicester. | Albans, Capgrave the historian, Lydgate and Gilbert Kymer, who

Gloucester championed the barons who had surrendered at Kenil- |was his physician and chancellor of Oxford university. A popular worth in November and December 1266, and after putting his error found Humphrey a fictitious tomb in St. Paul’s Cathedral demands before the king, secured possession of London (April The adjoining aisle, called Duke Humphrey’s Walk, was fre. 1267). The earl quickly made his peace with Henry ITI. and with quented by beggars and needy adventurers. Hence the 16th-cenPrince Edward. Under Edward I. he spent several years in fighting tury proverb “to dine with Duke Humphrey,” used of those who in Wales, or on the Welsh border; in 1289 when the barons were loitered there dinnerless. The most important contemporary sources are Stevenson’s Wars asked for a subsidy he replied on their behalf that they would grant nothing until they saw the king in person (nisi prius perso- of the English in France, Whethamstead’s Register, and Beckington’s (all in Rolls Ser.), with the various London Chronicles, and naliter viderent in Anglia faciem regis), and in 1291 he was fined Letters the works of Waurin and Monstrelet. For his relations with Jacque. and imprisoned on account of levying private war on Humphrey line see F. von Loéher’s Jacobdéa von Bayern und ihre Zeit (2 vols, de Bohun, earl of Hereford. Having divorced his wife Alice, he Nördlingen, 1869). For other modern authorities consult W. Stubbe’s married in 1290 Edward’s daughter Joan, or Johanna (d. 1307). Constitutional History; J. H. Ramsay’s Lancaster and York; Political History of England, vol. iv.; R. Pauli, Pictures of Old England, pp. The “Red Earl,” as he is sometimes called, died at Monmouth on Dec. 7, 1295, leaving in addition to three daughters a son, Gilbert, earl of Gloucester and Clare, killed at Bannockburn. See references under MONTEORT, SIMON DE.

GLOUCESTER,

HUMPHREY,

Duke

or (1391-1447),

the fourth son of Henry IV. by Mary de Bohun, was born in 1391. He was created duke of Gloucester by Henry V. at Leicester on May 16, 1414. He served in the war next year, and was wounded at Agincourt, where he owed his life to his brother’s valour. In the second invasion of France Humphrey commanded the force which during 1418 reduced the Cotentin and captured Cherbourg. Afterwards he joined the main army before Rouen, and took part in subsequent campaigns till January 1420. He then went home to replace Bedford as regent in England, and held office till Henry’s own return in February 1421. He was again regent for his brother from May to September 1422. Henry V. measured Humphrey's capacity, and by his will named him merely deputy for Bedford in England. Humphrey at once claimed the full position of regent, but the parliament and council allowed him only the title of protector during Bedford’s absence, with limited powers. He married (1422) Jacqueline of Bavaria, heiress of Holland, to whose lands Philip of Burgundy had claims. In October 1424 Humphrey took up arms in his wife’s behalf, but after a short campaign in Hainault went home, and left Jacqueline to be overwhelmed by Burgundy. His marriage was annulled in 1428. Returning to England in April 1425 he entangled himself in a quarrel with the council and his uncle Henry Beaufort, and stirred up a tumult in London. Open war was averted only by Beaufort’s prudence, and Bedford’s hurried return. With some difficulty Bedford effected a formal reconciliation at Leicester in March 1426. To check his indiscretion the council, in November 1429, had the king crowned, and so put an end to Humphrey’s protectorate, but during Henry VI.’s absence in France he acted as warden in England. The defection of Burgundy roused English feeling, and Humphrey won popularity as leader of the war party. In 1436 he commanded in a short invasion of Flanders. In 1441 Eleanor Cobham, his former mistress, whom he had married (about 1430), was charged with practising sorcery against the king, and Humphrey had to submit to see her condemned, and her accomplices executed. Nevertheless, he continued to thwart Suffolk, who was now taking Beaufort’s place in the council, by opposing the king’s marriage to Margaret of Anjou. Under Suffolk’s influence Henry VI. grew to distrust his uncle altogether. The crisis came in the parliament of Bury St. Edmunds in February 1447. Immediately on his arrival there Humphrey was arrested, and four days later, on Feb. 23, he died. Humphrey was buried at St. Albans Abbey, in a fine tomb, which still exists. He was long remembered, in spite of his bad political record, as the good Duke Humphrey, on account of his liberal patronage of scholars and of learning. He had been a great collector of books, many of which he presented to the university of Oxford. He contributed also to the building of the Divinity School, and of the room still called Duke Humphrey’s library. His books were dispersed at the Reformation and only three volumes of his donation now remain in the Bodleian library. Titus Livius, an Italian in Humphrey’s service, wrote a life of Henry V.

at his patron’s bidding.

Other Italian scholars, as Leonardo

Aretino, benefited by his patronage.

Amongst English men of

letters he befriended Reginald Pecock, Whethamstead

of St.

373-401 (1907).

(1861); and

K. H. Viekers, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester

For Humphrey’s correspondence with Piero Candido Decem-

brio see the English Historical Review, vols. X., Xix., XX.

GLOUCESTER, RICHARD DE CLARE, Ear or (1222—1262), 7th earl of Gloucester and 8th earl of Clare, was born on Aug. 4, 1222. He succeeded his father in October 1230, About 1258 Gloucester became a leader of the barons in their resistance to the king, and he was prominent during the proceedings which followed the Mad Parliament at Oxford in 1258. In 1259, however, he quarrelled with Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester;

the dispute, begun in England, was renewed in France and he was again in the confidence and company of the king. This attitude, too, was only temporary, and in 1261 Gloucester and Leicester were again working in concord. Gloucester died on July 15, 1262,

GLOUCESTER, ROBERT, Ear. or (d. 1147), was a natural son of Henry I. of England. He was born, before his father’s accession, at Caen in Normandy; but the exact date of his birth, and his mother’s name are unknown. His father married

him to a daughter of Robert Fitz Hamon, heiress of the lordships

of Gloucester and Glamorgan. About 1121 the earldom of Gloucester was created for his benefit. After his father’s death, he was sedulously courted by the rival parties of his half-sister

the empress Matilda and of Stephen. He tendered his homage to Stephen upon strict conditions, the breach of which should be held to invalidate the contract. But in 1137 Robert left England for Normandy, renewed his relations with the Angevin party, and in 1138 sent a formal defiance to the king. Returning to England in 1139, he revolted, and won the greater part of western England and the south Welsh marches for the empress. By the battle of Lincoln (Feb. 2, 1141), in which Stephen was taken prisoner, the earl made good Matilda’s claim to the whole kingdom. He accompanied her to Winchester and London; but was captured by the king’s supporters after the siege of Winchester. He was exchanged for Stephen, and after his release continued to fight for Matilda until his death on Oct. 31, 1147. Robert hardly deserves the extravagant praise which is lavished upon him by William of Malmesbury. The sympathies of the chronicler are too obviously influenced by the earl’s munificence towards literary men. See the Historia novella by William of Malmesbury (Rolls edition); the Historia Anglorum by Henry of Huntingdon (Rolls edition); J. H. Round, Geoffrey de Mandeville (1892) ; and O. Rössler, Kaiserin Mathilde (1897).

GLOUCESTER,

THOMAS

OF WOODSTOCK,

DURE

oF (1355-1397), seventh and youngest son of the English king Edward IIL., was born at Woodstock on Jan. 7, 1355. Having married Eleanor (d. 1399), daughter and co-heiress of Humphrey de Bohun, earl of Hereford, Essex and Northampton (d. 1373), Thomas became constable of England, and was made earl

Buckingham by his nephew, Richard II., at the coronation in July 1377. He helped to defend the English coasts against the attacks of the French and Castilians, led an army through northern and central France, and unsuccessfully besieged Nantes. Returning to England early in 1381, Buckingham found that his brother, John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, had married wife’s sister, Mary Bohun, to his own son, Henry, afterwards

King Henry IV. The relations between the brothers, already somewhat strained, were not improved by this proceeding.

Alter

taking some part in crushing the rising of the peasants in 138%,

Buckingham became more friendly with John of Gaunt; and while

GLOUCESTER

435

marching with the king into Scotland in 1385 was created duke | first Christian church in Britain; St. Mary de Crypt is a cruciof Gloucester. Lancaster having left the country, Gloucester form structure of the 12th century, the church of St. Michael is headed the party opposed to the royal advisers, Michael de la Pole, said to have been connected with the ancient abbey of St. Peter; earl of Suffolk and Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, whose recent and St. Nicholas church, originally of Norman erection. In the levation to the dignity of duke of Ireland had aroused profound neighbourhood of St. Mary de Crypt are remains of Greyfriars discontent. Gloucester forced on the dismissal and impeachment and Blackfriars monasteries, and also of the city wall. Early of Suffolk; was a member of the commission appointed in 1386 to vaulted cellars remain under the Fleece and Saracen’s Head inns. There are three endowed schools: the College school, refounded reform the kingdom and the royal household; and took up arms when Richard began proceedings against the commissioners. After by Henry VIII; the school of St. Mary de Crypt, founded by defeating Vere at Radcot in December 1387 the duke and his Dame Joan Cooke and Sir Thomas Rich’s Blue Coat hospital associates entered London to find the king powerless in their (1666). The first Sunday school was held in Gloucester, being hands. Gloucester was restrained by his colleagues from deposing the king; but, as the leader of the “lords appellant” in the “Merci-

less Parliament,” (February 1388), he took a savage revenge upon his enemies. In 1396 uncle and nephew were again at variance. Gloucester disliked the peace with France and Richard’s second marriage

with Isabella of France; it was asserted that the duke was plotting to seize the king. On July 11, 1397 he was arrested by the king himself at his residence, Pleshey castle, Essex. He was taken at once to Calais, and it is probable that he was murdered by order of the king on Sept. 9 following.

Gloucester had one son, Hum-

phrey (c. 1381-1399), who died unmarried, and four daughters, the most notable of whom was Anne (c. 1380-1438), who was successively the wife of Thomas, 3rd earl of Stafford, Edmund, sth earl of Stafford and William Bourchier, count of Eu. Gloucester

originated by Robert Raikes, in 1780. A park in the south has a spa, a chalybeate spring having been discovered in 1814. West of this are the remains of Llanthony Priory. Gloucester possesses match works, foundries, marble and slate works, saw-mills, chemical works, rope works, flour-mills, engines and agricultural implements, and boat and ship-building yards. Gloucester was declared a port in 1882. The Gloucester-Berkeley

ship canal (opened 1827) has a depth of water of 18 ft. Principal imports are timber and grain; and exports, coal, salt, iron, manufactured articles and bricks. The salmon and lamprey fisheries in the Severn are valuable. The tidal bore in the river attains its extreme height just below the city, and sometimes surmounts the weir in the western branch of the river.

History.—Gloucester (Caer Glow, Gleawecastre, Gleucestre)

is supposed to have written L’Ordonnance d’Angleterre pour le was the Roman municipality or colonia of Glevum, founded by Nerva a.p. 96-98. Its situation and the foundation in 681 of the camp à loutrance, ou gaige de bataille.

abbey of St. Peter by Aethelred favoured the growth of the town; and before the Conquest Gloucester was a borough with a royal residence and a mint. Numerous charters have been granted to don, 1846); J. Froissart, Chroniques, edited by S. Luce and G. Ray- the town. Gloucester was incorporated by Richard III. in 1483, naud (Paris, 1869—1897); W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol. ii. the town being made a county in itself. The chartered port of (Oxiord, 1896); J. Tait in Owens College Historical Essays and S. Gloucester dates from 1580. Numerous fairs have been granted. Armitage-Smith, John of Gaynt (London, 1904). The iron trade of Gloucester dates from before the Conquest, tanGLOUCESTER (abbreviated as pronounced Glo’ster), city, ning was carried on before the reign of Richard III., pin-making port and county town, Gloucestershire, England, on the river and bell-founding were introduced in the r6th, and the longSevern, 114 m. W. of London. Pop. (1931) 52.937. It is served existing coal trade became important in the 18th century. The by the G. W. and L.M.S. railways, while the Berkeley Ship Canal cloth trade flourished from the rath to the 16th century. The searuns south-west to Sharpness Docks in the Severn estuary (164 borne trade in corn and wine existed before the reign of Richard I. GLOUCESTER, a city of Essex county, Massachusetts, 28 m.). Gloucester is sheltered by the Cotswolds on the east and the m. N.E. of Boston, occupying 3r sq.m. on Cape Ann; a port of Forest of Dean on the west. The cathedral originates in the foundation of an abbey in 681, entry, a summer resort, and the greatest salt-fishing port of the the present church being founded (1072-1104) and its first mitred country. it is served by the Boston and Maine railroad and by abbot being appointed in 1381. Gloucester lay in the see of Wor- steamers to Boston. The resident population was 24,204 In 1930 cester until 1541 when the separate see was constituted, with and is increased by 20,000 in summer. Rock-bound coasts, bald John Wakeman, last abbot of Tewkesbury, as first bishop. The hills, bold and precipitous ledges, acres of boulders, interspersed diocese covers the greater part of Gloucestershire, with small by small tracts of vegetation, quaint old village streets, houses parts of Herefordshire and Wiltshire. The cathedral consists of a dating from the 18th and even the ryth centuries and luxurious Norman nucleus, with additions in every style of Gothic architec- modern estates, combine to make a picturesque region. Within the ture. It is 420 ft. long, and 144 ft. broad, with a beautiful rsth city limits are the summer resorts of Magnolia, Annisquam, Bass century pinnacled tower rising 225 feet. The nave is massive Rocks and East Gloucester. The assessed valuation of property Norman with Early English roof; the crypt, aisles and chapels in 1925 was $33,742,331, of which about 25% represents summer are Norman, as is the chapter-house. The crypt is one of the four homes. Non-resident tax-payers are listed from every city and apsidal cathedral crypts in England. The south porch is Perpen- 14r towns of Massachusetts, 32 other States, and two foreign dicular, with fan-tracery roof, as also is the north transept, the countries. On the coast at Magnolia is Rafe’s chasm, a fissure south being transitional Decorated. The choir has Perpendicular 60 ft. deep and ó to ro ft. wide, cut into the rock ledge for a tracery over Norman work, with an apsidal chapel on each side. distance of 200 ft.; and near its entrance is the reef of Norman’s The splendid late Decorated east window is partly filled with Woe, celebrated in Longfellow’s “Wreck of the Hesperus.” The BIBLIOGRAPHY .— See T, Walsingham, Historia Anglicana, edited by H. T. Riley (London, 1863-1864) ; The Monk of Evesham, Historia vitae et regni Ricardi II., edited by T. Hearne (Oxford, 1729) ; Chrosique de la traison et mort de Richard II., edited by B. Williams (Lon-

ancient glass. Between the apsidal chapels is a cross Lady chapel, and north of the nave are the cloisters, a very early example of

fan-tracery, the carols or stalls for the monks’ study and writing lying to the south. There are shrines of Edward II., Robert Curt-

hose (eldest son of the Conqueror), Bishop Warburton, Dr. Jenner and others. The Festival of the Three Choirs is held TR

in this cathedral and those of Worcester and Hereford

Rm turn.

Quaint gabled and timbered houses preserve the ancient aspect

the city. None of the old public buildings is left, but the New

harbour is deep and commodious.

Its commerce in 1925 amounted

to 91,739 tons, valued at $4,698,968, of which $730,381 represented foreign trade. While the aggregate amount of freight received by the city has increased since the World War, the traffic of the port has declined to about 4 of its former volume, as part of the coal now comes in by rail, and much of the general

merchandise by motor truck. Fishing for cod, mackerel, haddock and halibut is still, as it has been for three centuries, the principal occupation, engaging 5,000 men. In 1925 the catch by Gloucester vessels totalled

150,000,000

lb., of which

80,000,000

Ib. was

Inn in Northgate Street is a beautiful timbered house, built in landed in Gloucester and the rest in other ports: The fishing i450. Of the churches St. Mary de Lode, with a Norman tower vessels range from the Capes of Virginia te Greenland and even and chancel, is on the site of a Roman temple which became the Iceland, and the length of their trips varies from a few days’ te

4.30

GLOUCESTER

CITY—GLOUCESTERSHIRE

three or four months. The curing, boning, and packing of the character. The minor rivers of the county are never long. The fish, and the making of glue and other by-products, are important vale is at no point within the county wider than 24 m., and subsidiary industries. The beautiful dark granite of the Cape is so does not permit the formation of any considerable tributary quarried at several places in Gloucester and the adjoining town to the Severn from the Dean hills on the one hand or the of Rockport. This industry, dating from 1823, has furnished Cotswolds on the other. The Leadon rises east of Hereford, ang stone for government fortifications, the Woolworth Building in joins the Severn near Gloucester. In the southern part, the New York, and the towers of the Brooklyn bridge. The aggregate Stroudwater traverses a narrow, picturesque and populous valley product of all the manufacturing industries in 1927 was valued and the Little Avon flows past the town of Berkeley, joining the Severn estuary on the left. The Frome runs southward to the at $14,098,440. In 1605 Champlain sailed around the Cape, which he called Bristol Avon at Bristol. The principal northern feeders of the Cap aux Isles, and in 1606 he mapped the harbour and named Thames are the Churn rising in the Seven Springs, above Chelten. it Le Beau Port. A settlement was made in 1623 by English ham, the Coln, a noteworthy trout-stream, the Windrush and the fishermen sent out by the Dorchester company, and in 1642 the Evenlode. The Churn and the Coln form the eastern county " town was incorporated. It was chartered as a city in 1874. boundary along parts of the course. During the 18th century and half of the 19th Gloucester had a Geology.—Gloucestershire is divided geologically into two considerable foreign trade. The fishing industry has had fluctua- distinct sections by a line passing from north to south, from the tions in prosperity; a continuous evolution of methods and types eastern side of the Malvern hills to Keynsham (east of Bristol), of craft; and a history of daring, fortitude, hardships, heroism, This divides the Mesozoic rocks on the east from the Palaeozoic and adventure. In 1923 a monument was erected to the 8,000 and older rocks on the west and is an important structural feature. men who since 1830 have lost their lives in the fisheries. In the north of the county it separates, by means of a great fault, Gloucester life has been described in many books: Rudyard the Pre-Cambrian gneisses of the Malverns from the Trias of the Kipling, Captains Courageous; Elizabeth Stuart Phelps-Ward, Severn valley. The fault passes southward between the Old Red A Singular Life and Old Maid’s Paradise; James B. Connolly, Sandstone (with some Carboniferous) and the Trias, to May Hill, Out of Gloucester (1902), The Deep Sea’s Toll (1905), The which elevation is formed of Silurian shales, grits and limestones Crested Seas (1907), and Gloucester Fishermen (1927). (with a small outcrop of Pre-Cambrian grits at Huntley). Thence GLOUCESTER CITY, a city of Camden county, New Jer- the boundary line continues southward to the Severn still being sey, on the Delaware river, opposite Philadelphia, adjoining between the two great red sandstone formations. Camden on the south. It is served by the Pennsylvania and the Rising up almost sheer from the Severn on the west is the Reading railways. The population was 12,162 in 1920; 1930 it plateau of the Forest of Dean which is a basin of Carboniferous was 13,796. Its manufactures include paper, cotton and silk rocks (limestones, shales, grits and coal-measures), resting upon fabrics, rugs, gas mantles and fixtures, and the aggregate product the Old Red Sandstone, the Carboniferous limestones forming in 1927 was valued at $6,532,726. Near the site of Gloucester scarp faces round most of the outlier. South of the Severn is City the Dutch in 1623 planted the short-lived colony of Fort the Bristol coal-field, with Silurian rocks and included volcanic Nassau. Permanent settlement dates from 1677, and a town (at rocks north and north-east of it. The Silurian occurs as inliers first called Axwamus) was laid out in 1689. During the Revolu- (e.g., Tortworth) and Old Red Sandstone rocks crop out beneath tion it was frequently occupied, and several skirmishes were the Carboniferous of the coal-field. Liassic and Triassic rocks ‘fought in the vicinity. The most important was a successful also occur, resting upon the older rocks. In the vale of the attack on a detachment of Hessians, Nov. 25, 1777, by American Severn, east of the great boundary line, the structure is comtroops commanded by Gen. Lafayette. The city was chartered in paratively simple. Between the Malvern-fault and a line from 1868. Newnham through Tewkesbury is an area of Trias and east of GLOUCESTERSHIRE, a county of the west midlands of this, stretching to the Jurassic escarpment of the Cotswolds, is England, bounded by Worcestershire, Warwickshire, Oxfordshire, a broad belt of Liassic clay with Rheatic rocks (with famous bone Berkshire, Wiltshire, Somerset, Monmouth and Herefordshire. beds) at their base. It is the soils from these two rocks which Its area is 1,255 Square miles. yield such excellent crops. With the exception of alluvial deposits, Physical Features.—The outline is very irregular, but three and glacial and fluvio-glacial drifts and gravels, there are no physical divisions are well marked—the hills, the vale and the rocks in the county newer than the Oxford clay, a small outcrop forest. (1) The first (the eastern part of the county) lies among of which occurs near Lechdale. History and Early Settlement.—The most interesting prethe uplands of the Cotswold hills (g.v.) whose westward face, the escarpment made by the Lower Oolites (Jurassic), is a line historic feature of Gloucestershire is its wealth of long Barrows of heights of an average elevation of 700 ft., but exceeding 1,000 (see O.G.S. Crawford: Ord. Survey, Professional Papers. New ft. at some points. This line bisects the county from south-west Series No. 6, 1922). Almost as striking is the absence of Beaker to north-east. The watershed between the Thames and Severn pottery so abundant in Wiltshire to the south and Oxfordshire to hes close to it, Thames Head near Cirencester and most of the the east. The lower Severn valley was apparently largely forest upper feeders of the Thames being in Gloucestershire. (2) The and swamp in early times. The Cotswolds are again remarkably “Vale” division is the rich valley of the lower Severn which can poor in brooches of the first period of La Téne though Wiltshire be separated into the vale of Gloucester and the vale of Berkeley. and Oxfordshire are again rich. In Roman times the famous Fosse This great river receives, near Tewkesbury, the Stratford Avon way from Bath to Lincoln ran east of the Cotswold ridge with which joins it on the left. The latter is to be distinguished from Corinium (Cirencester) as a station on it, and branches west to the Bristol Avon, which rises in the county as an eastward flowing Glevum (Gloucester), south-east and east. There were numerous stream of the Cotswolds, sweeps round through Wiltshire, pierces Roman villas not far from these roads. The English conquest of the Severn Valley began in 577. The the hills through a narrow valley which becomes a gorge where the Clifton suspension bridge crosses it below Bristol, and enters Hwiccas who occupied the district were a West Saxon tribe, but the Severn estuary at Avonmouth. For 17 m. from its mouth it their territory had become a dependency of Mercia in the 7th forms the boundary between Gloucestershire and Somersetshire, century, and was not brought under West Saxon dominion until and for 8 m. it is an important commercial waterway connecting the oth century. No important settlements were made by tbe the port of Bristol with the sea. The third great tributary of the Danes. Gloucestershire probably originated as a shire in the roth Severn is the Wye. From its mouth in the estuary, 8 m. north of century, and is mentioned by name in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle that of the Bristol Avon, it forms the county boundary for 16 m. in 1016. Towards the close of the rith century the boundaries northward and above this, over two short reaches of its beautiful were readjusted to include Winchcomb, and at the same time

winding course, it is again the boundary. (3) Between the Wye and the Severn lies the Forest of Dean,

which, unlike the majority of English forests, maintains its ancient

forest district between the Wye and the Severn was added to

Gloucester. The divisions of the county for a long time remained

very unsettled and Gloucestershire

formed

part of Harold's

GLOUCESTERSHIRE earldom at the time of the Norman invasion, but it offered slight resistance to the Conqueror. In the wars of Stephen’s reign the cause of the empress Maud was supported by Robert of Gloucester who had rebuilt the castle at Bristol, and the castles at Gloucester and Cirencester were also garrisoned on her behalf.

4-37

parish churches. At Deerhurst near Tewkesbury, and Cleeve near Cheltenham, there are churches of special interest on account of their pre-Norman work. The Perpendicular church at Lechlade is unusually perfect; and that at Fairford built (¢. 1500), contains a remarkable series of stained glass windows. The great decorated

Bristol and Gloucester actively supported the Yorkist cause during the Wars of the Roses. In 1643 Bristol and Cirencester were captured by the Royalists, but the latter was recovered in the

Calcot Barn is an interesting relic of the monastery of Kingswood near Tetbury. The castle at Berkeley is a splendid ex-

same year, and Bristol in 1645.

ruin. Near Cheltenham is a fine 15th century mansion of timber

Gloucester was garrisoned for

the parliament throughout the struggle.

On the sub-division of the Mercian diocese in 680 the greater part of modern Gloucestershire was included in the diocese of Worcester, and shortly after the Conquest constituted the arch-

deaconry of Gloucester.

The district west of the Severn, with

the exception of a few parishes was within the diocese of Hereford. In 1541 the diocese of Gloucester was created, its bound-

aries being identical with those of the county. On the erection of Bristol to a see In 1542 the deanery of Bristol was transferred from Gloucester to that diocese. In 1836 the sees of Gloucester and Bristol were united; but in 1897 the diocese of Bristol was recreated, and included the deaneries of Bristol, Stapleton and Bitton. After the conquest extensive lands and privileges were acquired by the church, the abbey of Cirencester alone holding

seven hundreds. The large estates held by William Fitz Osbern, earl of Hereford, escheated to the Crown in 1075. The Berkeleys have held lands in Gloucestershire from the time of the Domes-

day Survey, and the families of Basset, Tracy, Clifton, Dennis and Poyntz have figured prominently in the annals of the county. Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, and Richard of

Cornwall claimed extensive lands and privileges in the shire of

the 13th century, and Simon de Montfort owned Minsterworth and Rodley.

In the Cotswold region the churches typically show

Romanesque work and Perpendicular work thus illustrating two special periods of economic development in the county related to

the manors and the wool trade respectively. Bristol was made a county in 1425, and in 1483 Richard III. created Gloucester an independent county, and both have continued to rank as independent counties, with separate jurisdiction, county rate and assizes. The chief offcer of the Forest of Dean was the warden, who was generally also constable of St. Briavel castle. The first justice-seat for the forest was held at Gloucester castle in 1282, the last in 1635. Iron was worked in the county in Roman times and later, and the forest district was one of the chief sources of iron in the country until the 16th century. The Cotswolds became famous for their sheep flocks and wool in the 15th century, which witnessed the expansion of such interesting towns as Chipping Campden which retains many interesting features. Many of the forests had tanneries, and boat building was carried on thanks to the timber available. Silk weaving was introduced in the 17th century and prospered in the Stroud valley. These varied indus-

trial developments promoted the building of an interesting type of stone house specially characteristic around the Cotswolds. The abundance of clay on the edges of the plains promoted industries of bricks, tiles and potteries. Accessory industries, such as the making of pins, buttons, lace, stockings, rope and sailcloth grew up in the 17th and 18th centuries and a good deal of flax was grown. The advent of coal and steam machinery ended the modified and somewhat reduced woollen industry, but the presence of water power and of fullers’ earth led the district (especially Stroud) to specialize in the manufacture of broadcloth.

Gloucester was a port of some consequence and Bristol (g.v.) very important. The Cotswold area, especially Cheltenham, is become a residential area in modern times and the advent of the motor-car has contributed to this development.

Antiquities—At Chedworth, near Cirencester, there are well preserved remains

of Roman

baths.

The cathedrals of Glou-

cester and Bristol, the magnificent abbey church of Tewkesbury, and the church of Cirencester with its great Perpendicular porch, are described under their separate headings. Of the abbey of

yles near Winchcomb, founded in 1246, little more than the foundations are left. Most of the old market towns have fine

ample of feudal stronghold.

Thornbury

castle is a fine Tudor

and stone, which contains a tiled floor from Hayles abbey. Near Winchcomb is Sudeley castle, dating from the 15th century. At Great Badminton is the mansion and vast domain of the Beauforts. Agriculture, Industries and Communications.—About three-quarters of the total area is under cultivation, and of this about 429 is in permanent pasture. Wheat is the chief grain crop, but oats and barley are also important. In the vale, the deep rich black (Lias) or red (Trias) loamy soil is well adapted for pasturage, and a moist mild climate favours the growth of grasses and root crops. The cattle, save on the frontier of Herefordshire, are mostly shorthorns, of which many are fed for distant markets, and many reared and kept for dairy purposes. The rich grazing tract of the vale of Berkeley produces butter and the “double Gloucester” cheeses, and the vale of Gloucester is the chief grain growing district. Turnips, etc., occupy about three-quarters of the green crop acreage, potatoes occupying only about a tenth. A feature of the county is its apple and pear orchards, chiefly for the manufacture of cider and perry, which are attached to every farm. The Cotswold district is comparatively barren except in the valleys, but it has been famous since the rsth century for the breed of sheep named after it. Oats and barley are here the chief crops.

The most important industrial centre of the county is Bristol. As a port and with an extensive trade with the West Indies, such industries as the manufacture of tobacco, cocoa and chocolate, sugar refining, soap and tanning have become important. There are also iron foundries, chemical and engineering works, shipbuilding yards, breweries and factories making glass, earthenware and furniture. The district around Stroud has long been, and still is, famous for the manufacture of woollen cloth. a type known as broadcloth. Hardware is also made in this neighbourhood, Gloucester manufactures cutlery, agricultural implements, and being a port has foundries, ship building yards, chemical works and rope factories. In other scattered parts of the county, gloves and silk manufactures and engineering are carried on. Coal is mined in the Forest of Dean and the Bristol coal-fields. limestone and freestone are quarried in the Cotswolds, bricks and tiles manufactured from the Lias clays, and haematite in the Forest of Dean. Strontianite and barytes are also obtained in the county. There are a number of important public schools and colleges in the county and Bristol is the seat of a university. Railway communications are provided by the G.W. and L.M.S. companies. Of the G.W. railway, the main line serves Bristol from London. It divides at Bristol, one section serving the southwestern counties, another via the Severn Tunnel, south Wales. A more direct route by this tunnel, between London and southWales, is provided by a line from Wootton Bassett on the main

line, running north of Bristol by Badminton and Chipping Sodbury. Other G.W. lines are that from Swindon on the main line, by the Stroud valley to Gloucester, crossing the Severn-there, and continuing into Wales, with branches into Herefordshire;

the Oxford and Worcester trunk line, crossing the north-east of the county, connected with Cheltenham and Gloucester by a branch through the Cotswolds from Chipping Norton junction and also by a branch from Andoversford with Cirencester. A line from Cheltenham runs by Broadway to Honeybourne. The East Gloucester line of the G.W. railway from Oxford terminates at Fairford. The west-and-north line of the L.M.S. railway follows the vale from Bristol by Gloucester and Cheltenham with a branch into the Forest of Dean by Berkeley, crassing the Severn at Sharpness by a great bridge 1,387 yd. in length, with 22 arches. The coal-field’ of the Forest of Dean is served by several branch

438

GLOVE—GLOVE

lines. In the north Tewkesbury is served by a L.M.S. branch from Ashchurch to Malvern. The Thames and Severn canal, rising to a summit level in the tunnel through the Cotswolds at Sapperton, is continued from Wallbridge (Stroud) by the Stroudwater

canal, and gives communication between the two great rivers. The Berkeley Ship canal (164 m.) connects the port of Gloucester with its outport of Sharpness on Severn. Population and Administration.—The area of the ancient county is 795,709 ac. and the administrative county and associated county boroughs, 804,638 acres. The population in 1931 was 785,656. The county contains 28 hundreds; is divided into four parliamentary divisions; contains two cities, Bristol and Gloucester; four municipal boroughs, Bristol (county borough) Gloucester (county borough), Cheltenham and Tewkesbury; and 12 urban districts, Cirencester, Stow-on-the-Wold, Tetbury, Awre,

Coleford, Newnham, Westbury-on-Severn, Charlton Kings, Nailsworth, Stroud, Kingswood and Mangotsfield. There are several old small ancient market towns. Gloucestershire is principally in the diocese of Gloucester, but part is in that of Bristol and small parts in those of Worcester and Oxford. It has one court of quarter sessions and there are 27 petty sessional divisions. Bristol, Gloucester and Tewkesbury have separate courts of quarter sessions and Bristol has a separate police force. Gloucestershire was represented in parliament in 1290 and returned two members. Bristol and Gloucester acquired representation in 1295, Cirencester in 1572 and Tewkesbury in 1620. In 1832 the county returned four members in two divisions; Bristol, Gloucester, Cirencester, Stroud and Tewkesbury returned two members each, and Cheltenham returned one member. The act of 1868 reduced the representation of Cirencester and Tewkesbury to one member each. By the act of 1918, the county was divided into four divisions, viz., those of Cirencester and Tewkesbury, the forest of Dean, Stroud and Thornbury divisions each returning one member. Bristol returns five members, Cheltenham and Gloucester one each. BrBLioGraPHy.—J. D. Robertson, Glossary of Dialect and Archaic Words of Gloucester (1890); W. Bazeley and F. A. Hyett, Bibliographer’s Manual of Gloucestershire (3 vols., 1895-97) ; W. H. Hutton, By Thames and Cotswold (1903); R. H. Kinvig, “The Historical Geography of the West County Woollen Industry,” Geographical Teacher, Vol, viii. Spring & Summer (1916); U. Daubeny, Ancient Cotswold Churches (1921); O. G. S. Crawford (Ordnance Survey Professional Papers, New Series, No. 6, 1922) ; E. J. Burrow, Ancient Encampmenis and Camps of Gloucestershire (1924) ; J. C. Cox, Glowcestershire (1924); H. A. Evans, Gloucestershire (1925). See also Transactions of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological Society; Proceedings of the Cotswold Naturalists’ Field Club; Victoria County History, Gloucestershire.

GLOVE, a covering for the hand, commonly with a separate

sheath for each finger. The use of gloves is of high antiquity, and apparently was known even to the pre-historic cave dwellers. In Homer Laértes is described as wearing gloves in his garden. Herodotus tells how Leotychides filled a glove with money received as a bribe, and Xenophon records that the Persians wore fur gloves having separate sheaths for the fingers. Among the Romans also there are occasional references to the use of gloves. Varro remarks that olives gathered with the bare fingers are better than those gathered with gloves. In the northern countries the general use of gloves would be more natural than in the south, and it is not without

significance that the most common mediaeval Latin word for glove “(guantus or wanius, Mod. Fr. gent) is of Teutonic origin

(O.H.G. want). Among the Germans and Scandinavians, in the 8th and oth centuries, the use of gloves, fingerless at first, would seem to have been but universal; and in the case of kings, prelates and nobles they were often elaborately embroidered and bejewelled. This was more particularly the case with the gloves which formed part of the pontifical vestments. In war and in the chase gloves of leather, or with the backs armoured with articulated iron plates, were early worn; yet in the Bayeux tapestry

MANUFACTURE times reached to the elbow. It was, however, not till the 16th cen. tury that Queen Elizabeth set the fashion for wearing them richly embroidered and jewelled. Symbolical Uses.—Of the symbolical uses of the glove one of the most widespread during the middle ages was the practice of

tendering a folded glove as a gage for waging one’s law. The origin

of this custom is probably not far to seek. The promise to fulfil a judgment of a court of law, a promise secured by the deliy of a wed or gage, is one of the oldest of all enforceable contracts, This gage was originally a chattel of value, which had to be de posited at once by the defendant

as security into his adversary's

hand; and that the glove became the formal symbol of such de posit is doubtless due to itsbeing | | the most convenient loose object

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LEFT, A GLOVE OF MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS, 15421587. RIGHT, GLOVES OF WILLIAM OF WYKEHAM, BISHOP

Associated

with this custom

was the use of the glove in the wager of battle. The glove here was thrown down by the de

fendant in open court as security

that he would defend his cause in arms; the accuser by picki OF WINCHESTER, 1367-1404 it up accepted the challenge (seg WacerR). This form is still prescribed for the challenge of the king’s champion at the coronation of English sovereigns, and was actually followed at that of George IV. (see CHAMPION). The use of the glove as a pledge of fulfilment is exemplified also by the not infrequent practice of enfeoffing vassals by investing them with the glove; similarly the emperors symbolized by the bestowal of a glove the concession of the right to found a town or to establish markets, mints and the like. Conversely, fiefs were held by the render of presenting gloves to the sovereign. The most notable instance in England, however, is the grand serjeanty of finding for the king a glove for his right hand on coronation day, and supporting his right arm as long as he holds the sceptre.

Pontifical Gloves are liturgical ornaments peculiar to the Western Church and proper only to the pope, the cardinals and

bishops, though the right to wear them is often granted by the

Holy See to abbots, cathedral dignitaries and other prelates. According to the present use the gloves are of silk and of the liturgical colour of the day, the edge of the opening ornamented with a narrow band of embroidery or the like, and the middle of the back with a cross. They may be worn only at the celebration of mass (except masses for the dead) and only until the ablution before the canon of the mass. During the middle ages the occasions on which pontifical gloves were worn were not so carefully defined as now, the use varying in

different churches. Nor were the liturgical colours prescribed. Liturgical gloves have not been worn by Anglican bishops since the Reformation, though they are occasionally represented as wearing them on their effigies. Gloves made of thin indiarubber or of white cotton, which may be thoroughly and easily sterilized, are worn by many surgeons while performing operations.

GLOVE MANUFACTURE. Modern gloves fall naturally into two main groups: (1) leather gloves; (2) fabric and knitted gloves. The character of a leather glove depends partly upon the type of skin used, but more particularly upon the processes by which the leather is produced. Glove Skins.—A large variety of skins are used by the trade;

but the humble sheep supplies the bulk of the raw materi Apart from sheepskin, the principal skins used for grain (or glacé) glove leathers (i.6., those finished on the hair side of the

skin) are kid, goat (chevrette) and lamb.

French “national”

skins from milk-fed kids are used extensively for ladies’ high the warriors on either side fight ungloved. So far as the records. grade gloves; Tuscany, French “regord” and Kasan (Russia) go, there is no evidence to prove that gloves were in general use in lambskins are of high repute. In the grain group, also, the genuine

England until the 13th century. It was in this century that ladies began to-wear gloves as ornaments; they were of linen and some-

Cape or South African hairy sheep furnish a strong, pliant leather for men’s gloves. Many so-called “Capes,” however, are

GLOVE MANUFACTURE

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CRAFTS

SIX

PROCESSES

IN THE

MANUFACTURE

OF

GLOVES

l. Unhairing, or removing hair from raw skins. Skins are first soaked in slaked lime or treated with depilatory paste, then scraped with a dull curved blade to remove hair and wool

4. Die cutting the gloves by a pattern. Three pairs of tranks are laid in the machine and a lever is pressed which forces sharp steel die through them

2. Cleansing skins. Skins are again soaked in slaked lime to loosen sweat glands and hair roots, to separate animal grease so that it can be

5. Sewing gloves, Decorative lines on back are made first, thumb is then inserted and strips and triangles which shape fingers are attached,

removed, to plump skins and separate fibres so that the tan liquors may penetrate

3. Cutting the trank, an oblong piece of leather just large enough to fit the glove pattern. After this is done, thumbs and other small parts are stamped out with steel dies

fingers are closed and cuffs or bindings sewn in place 6. Laying off, or smoothing, gloves. Gloves are first dampened

in wet

cloths and then fitted on steam heated brass forms. Grain finished gloves are polished on a soft felt wheel, while velvet finished are brushed

GLOVE

MANUFACTURE

from Spanish, oriental or domestic sheepskins. Pig-skin and coltskin are used for gloves to some extent in America, and dog-skins are occasionally made into glove leather. For velvet finished gloves, reindeer and buckskins yield the fnest leathers, but they are expensive. The diminutive North African gazelle (a tiny creature, so small that three skins barely suffice for a single pair of gloves), the Arabian (or Mocha) sheep, and Sudanese sheep also furnish capital leather for velvet finishes.

Syede leathers (i.¢., those finished on the flesh side of the skin) are produced from kid, lamb and sheep-skins. Sheep-skins, again, furnish most of the raw material for so-called “chamois,” or wasbleather gloves, and also for what in the trade are called “doeskins.”

Many glove manufacturers dress and dye skins for their own use; others purchase glove leather ready dressed. The skins are

first partly cleansed in tanks or pits filled with water. They are then de-haired, the flesh side of the skins being painted with a solution of slaked lime and sodium sulphide or lime and red arsenic, which loosens the hair or wool and facilitates its removal

by hand or machine. Any flesh adhering to the skin is next removed by “beaming” or “fleshing.” Beaming is a hand operation, the skin being laid across a sloping beam let into the floor and the operative shaving away the flesh with a beaming knife. In the

feshing machine, which performs the same operation, the knives are mounted spirally upon a revolving cylinder, under which skins are passed as through a mangle. The cleansed skins steeped for some weeks in pits or vats containing a solution slaked lime to loosen the sweatglands and hair cells and to

the are of re-

move grease, dirt, etc. Liming also makes the skins plumper. More washing follows, and the hides are then placed in a “puer”

(or “bate”) consisting either of a solution of dog manure, or a

chemical solution of pancreatic extracts in combination with ammonium salts. “Drenching’” is the next stage, wherein the raw material of the glove is immersed in vats containing a fermenting infusion of flour, pea-meal or bran, in which the skins

swell or “rise” still more. Alternatively skins are pickled in a weak solution of sulphuric acid and salt. “Puering” and “drenching” or “pickling” complete the reduction of the hides to a soft, porous, pulpy, gelatinous condition which facilitates the entry of the dressing ingredients into the fibres of the skins. Further rinsings and cleansings follow, and the skins are then gently scraped with a scudding knife to remove the last vestige of hair or scum. Dressing.—Dressing proper follows. There are several processes which may be adopted, according to the type of leather required and the practice of the factory. Different factories use different methods to produce the same kind of leather. The “tawing” method, or white dressing, is very commonly used. A typical tawing mixture consists of 4 parts alum, 2 parts salt, 1 part egg-yolk and 5 parts flour. Sometimes a little vegetable oil is added. The mixture is dissolved in water (about 12 Ib. to 2 gal.) and is applied by means of a drum-tumbler—a vessel shaped like a drum, the inner sides of which are fitted with pegs. The drum rotates on its own axis, and the pegs knead the

mixture into the skins. Subsequently the skins are “‘stoved,” or dried in heated chambers and emerge in the “crust” stage, resembling a piece of damp washleather which has dried hard in the sun. They are softened by “staking,” a process in which the hides are drawn (flesh side downwards) over a blunt metal tool,

fixed to a short stake or post set in the floor. Machine staking is how much used, especially for strong skins. The skins are later pered to an even thickness and usually stored for long periods

before dyeing. Colour is applied either by brushing the dye on the outer surface of the leather, or by immersion in a drum tumbler. Vegetable or bark dyes are much used; but aniline and coal tar colours are suitable. The foregoing process is much used for dressing glacé leathers, such as kid, lamb, nappa (a German term used to distinguish a

drum-dyed article from a brush-dyed),

and many

so-called

“Capes.” Glacé or grain leathers are finished by polishing the grain side with a lamb’s wool pad, a glass slicker or a revolving

439

origin) is tanned by an alum and salt process, but it is finished by buffing the flesh surface on an emery wheel. Real “mochas”

are dressed with lactic acid, alum and egg yolk; but the grain is first frized (raised with a frizing knife) and the grain side finished by buffing with emery and pumice. Bark tanning (in which oak, chestnut, gambier, sumach and other barks are used) is adopted for leathers like genuine “Cape,” goat, colt, pig and similar heavy-weight skins. An oil tannage is used to produce so-called “chamois” leather and washleather. For these, “fleshers” (the flesh section of the split sheep-skins) are dressed with cod-oil in a “stocking” machine, which pummels the oil into the leather. The process is sometimes termed “samming,” and it involves repeated applications of oil,

each dressing being followed by stove drying.

Reindeer

and

buckskins are often oil-dressed, as are some “‘degrains’—leather with the grain “frized” or shaved off. These are then dyed as required. White washable leather is tanned by drumming skins in a solution of sodium carbonate and formaldehyde, later treating them with an emolient of egg-yolk and neat-foot or olive-oil. Much progress has been made since 1920 with chrome dressing, and an entirely new range of coloured washable gloves is available in consequence. This process is much used for washable grain leathers, particularly in America; but velvet finished, especially “degrains” made from frized gazelle or Cape, Spanish and Sudanese sheep are successfully treated in this way. The tannage is effected by drumming in a solution of chrome salts, after which the skins are treated with an oil emulsion. “‘Doe-skins” are usually oil-dressed sheep-skins or lamb-skins dyed with a liquid clay dye. In America, they are dressed by the formaldehyde process.

Gazelle, antelope and the various deer-skins are often ‘“‘degrained” (or frized) and dressed with a velvet finish. Sometimes the white tannage is used and sometimes the formaldehyde or chrome process.

Glove-cutting.—Glove-cutting is a twofold operation.

The

cutters first stretch and manipulate the skins, and then cut them into oblong “tranks” of leather. Several tranks are placed together in a punching press fitted with a “calibre” (knives shaped like a double thumbless hand) and the shaped glove is punched out at one operation. ‘“Fourchettes” (pieces for the sides of the fingers) and thumb pieces are punched out separately. The work of sewing is principally a cottage industry. Hand sewing is preferred for the highest class of work; but machine

sewing is general. Three special types of stitch are used:—(1) “round seam” (for light-weight gloves), in which the edges of the leather are brought together, back to back, and each stitch goes through the leather, and over the edge; (2) “prix-seam” (for heavy-weight gloves), in which the edges are brought together and the stitching goes through and through, parallel to the edge; and (3) “pique,” in which one edge is lapped over the other, and the stitches sewn through. When sewn, the gloves are dressed on heated metal “hands” and ironed and polished ready for boxing. Fur gloves are made In much the same way, except that the fur is cut by hand. The annual production of leather gloves fluctuates considerably; fashion and the severity of winter weather have an important bearing on demand. The principal centres of manufacture are France, the United States, Italy, Germany, Czechoslovakia, England, Belgium, Luxemburg and Canada. The French industry dates from the 11th century. It is carried on at Grenoble, Millau, St. Junien and Niort, and there are large dressing yards at Annonay in the Ardeche. Though France is the largest glove manufacturing country in the world, no figures of the annual production are available. The output is chiefly in kids, lambs and light-weight suedes and washables, and more than 75% of the output is exported. The glove industry of the United States dates from 1760, when Sir William Johnson introduced a colony of Scottish glovers from Perth. These founded the town of Gloversville, Fulton county (N.Y.), the chief seat of the industry. Production (chiefly .of heavier types) has increased very rapidly since the World War, and has reached 3,500,000 ‘dozen pairs annually. The majority

felt wheel. Suede (named after Sweden, the country of its are sold in the home market.

440

GLOVER—GLOZEL

Czechoslovakia (Bohemia) manufactures mainly kid, nappa and chamois gloves. Annual output exceeds 1,250,000 dozen pairs, and the bulk are exported. Prague is the chief centre, and Kaadan (or Caadan) is famous for cheap washables. The German industry is centred in Bavaria, Munich being the principal centre; and there are factories in Berlin. A large part of the output (kid, suede, nappa and lined gloves) is exported, shipments totalling over 500,000 dozen annually. The output of leather gloves is about 1,500,000 dozen pairs. The chief Italian glove town is Naples (where cheap kid and lamb gloves are made); Milan, Turin and Genoa are smaller centres producing better quality gloves. Over 50% of production is exported, and annual shipments increased from 200,000 dozen pairs in 1921 to 750,000 dozen in 1925, but fell to 500,000 dozen in 1926. The British leather glove industry is centred mainly at Worcester and Yeovil; but it is carried on in many scattered hamlets in the west country and in Oxfordshire. Annual output fluctuates between 750,000 and 1,000,000 dozen pairs; large quantities of lined and heavy-weight gloves being made. Fabric Gloves.—Fabric gloves are of two kinds: (1) gloves cut from knitted cotton or silk fabric; and (2) knitted woollen

gloves or “Ringwoods.” The fabric for the former is knitted on warp-knitting machines of the Atlas or Milanese type, bleached or dyed and sometimes finished to simulate suede or washable or any other velvet-finished leather by treatment on an emery or other buffing wheel, or by teazles. The fabric glove is cut out and sewn much in the same way as a leather glove. Germany manufactures the bulk of the world's supplies, about 7,000,000 dozen pairs. The industry is centred around Chemnitz (Saxony). The annual production is largely exported, the value of the annual shipments fluctuating between 40,000,000 and 70,000,000 marks. Fabric gloves are also made in France at Paris and Lyons and in

the English glove centres.

Superfine silk gloves are made in

New Jersey, U.S.A. Woollen gloves are made in hosiery mills. The seamless type is produced, partly on circular knitting machines (wrist and hand)

and partly on flat hand-operated machines (thumbs and fingers). Wrought gloves are usually knitted on straight bar machines, which enable various designs to be worked. The gloves are seamed on a cup-seaming machine. Leicester, Nottingham and Scottish border towns are the main centres of manufacture.

the

BiBpLioGRAPHY.—W. Hull, History of the Glove Trade (1834); S. W. Beck, Gloves, their Annals and Associations (1883); Cote, L’Industrie gantiére a@ Grenoble (1903); Pfliieer, Die Lederhandschuh Industrie Deutschlands (Heidelberg, 1908) ; Willard M. Smith, Gloves, Past and Present (1918); B. E. Ellis, Gloves and the Glove Trade (1921) ; Daniel Hays Co., A Manual of Retail Glove Selling (Gloversville, [N.¥.] 1926). (B. E. E.)

tries. The total factory output in 1927 was valued at $31,741,146, Gloversville, Johnstown and the adjacent country districts make a considerable part of all the gloves manufactured in the United States. The industry was introduced by a colony of Perthshire

families who were settled in the region by Sir William Johnson about 1760. By 1809 their goods had begun to find markets be. yond the neighbourhood, and by 1825 the industry was firmly

established.

The settlement of Gloversville began about 1770,

Until 1828, when the present name was adopted, it was called Stump City. The village was incorporated in 1851, and in 1890 it became a city.

GLOW-WORM,

the wingless female of the beetle Lampyris

noctiluca, whose power of emitting a greenish-white light has been familiar for many centuries. The luminous organs of the glow-

worm consist of cells similar to those of the fat-body, grouped into paired masses in the ventral region of the hinder abdominal segments. The light given out by the wingless female insect is believed to attract the flying male, whose luminous organs are rudimentary. The common glow-worm is a widespread European and Siberian insect, generally distributed in England and ranging in Scotland northwards to the Tay, but unknown in Ireland, Exotic species of Lampyris are similarly luminous, and light-giving organs are present in many genera of the family Lampyridae from various parts of the world. Frequently—as in the south European Luciola italica—both sexes are provided with wings, and both emit light. These luminous, winged Lampyrids are generally known as “fire-flies.” In correspondence with their power of emitting light, the insects are nocturnal. Elongate centipedes of the family Geophilidae, certain species of which are luminous, are sometimes mistaken for the true glow-worm.

GLOXINIA, a charming decorative plant, Sinningia speciosa a member of the family Gesneraceae and a native of Brazil. The species has given rise under cultivation to numerous forms showing a wonderful variety of colour, and hybrid forms have also been obtained between these and other species of Sinningia. A good strain of seed will produce many superb and charmingly coloured varieties. The plants are usually propagated, however, by planting the leaves on soil, when as in Begonia a new plant develops, arising from the base of the petiole. Gloxinia is also the proper botanical name of six tropical American plants of the same family.

GLOZEL.

The hamlet of Glozel is 20 km. south-east of

Vichy, department of Allier.

On March

r, 1924, the son of

a local farmer named Fradin discovered the remains of a glass furnace of some antiquity of a type not uncommon in that region. In April 1925 Dr. Morlet, in consulting practice at Vichy, got into touch with Fradin, whose excavations continued. These

GLOVER, RICHARD (1712-1785), English poet, son of included three bricks engraved before baking with alphabetic form Richard Glover, a Hamburg merchant, was born in London and signs, and the complete apparatus of a glass manufactory. Details educated at Cheam in Surrey. In 1737 he published an epic poem were published by Dr. Morlet and Fradin. By the beginning of in praise of liberty, Leonidas, which was thought to have a special 1926 twenty-one inscribed tablets had been found. Nine further reference to the politics of the time; and being warmly com- tablets with new characters were found. In August 1926 M. Salomended by the prince of Wales and his court, it soon passed mon Reinach, the distinguished scholar, visited Glozel and has through several editions. In 1761 he entered parliament as mem- given the weight of his authority in support of the authenticity of ber for Weymouth. He died on Nov. 25, 1785. Glover was one the objects thus discovered. The attention of the learned world was drawn to Glozel by of the reputed authors of Junius; but his claims—which were advocated in an Inquiry concerning the author of the Letters of a letter from M. Reinach published in the London Times, He pointed out that the discoveries included objects akin to the Junius (1815), by R. Duppa—rest on very slight grounds. Glover’s other works include London (1739), a poem; Hosier’s Neolithic cultures of the Aegean, one of them being an idol In Ghost (1739), a ballad directed against the Spaniards; Athenaid the shape of a violin, inscriptions closely related to those found 1787), an epic; and his diary, Memoirs . . . from 1742 to 1757 in 1894 in an early Portuguese dolman and numerous engravings of animals on pebbles, in a degenerate Magdalenian style. Ob1813). ; GLOVERSVILLE, a city of Fulton county, New York, in viously, the most surprising objects were the inscribed clay tabthe foot-hills of the Adirondacks, 45m. N.W. of Albany. It is lets. If genuine and if datable to a remote period, many theories served by the Fonda, Johnstown and Gloversville railroad, con- of the origin of the alphabet would need revision and the whole necting at Fonda, 7m. S., with the New York Central. The popu- question of the content and scope of Neolithic civilization would lation was 22,075 in 1920 (82% native white) and 23,099 in 1930. The dominating industry, as the name suggests, is the making of

gloves. There are many factories making silk and leather gloves

and mittens, supplemented by many home-workers, as well as tanneries, leather-finishing plants and other subsidiary indus-

have to be considered. It is the peculiar virtue of archaeology

that it offers us from time to time discoveries which produce 4 revolution of hypotheses based on earlier, less accurate, less ample, data. Every science, too, demands periodic revision of its fundemental hypotheses.

It is necessary, therefore, that discoveries

GLUCINUM—GLUCK of this nature should be completely free from doubt in order that their value as keys to accurate knowledge may be utilised. The authenticity of these discoveries was criticised by the Abbé Breuil in Anthropologie xxxvi. 1926, pp. 543-558. Reinach contributed an article to The Antiquary’s Journal supporting his views. In June, 1927, Mr. O. G. S. Crawford, the editor of An-

figuity published an article in which, profiting bya visit to Glozel, he concluded that the majority of the objects were certainly

forgeries. Some there were which, in his opinion, were genuine

antiquities though not prehistoric and his emphatic opinion is that the inscriptions, engravings and the majority of the other finds are forgeries and that those who believe in their authenticity have been the victims of a hoax (Antiquity March and June, 1927). In September 1927 the International Institute of Anthropology at its meeting in Amsterdam appointed a Commission to visit Glozel to examine the site and the objects found therein and to pronounce their opinion upon the authenticity of the discoveries.

By this time the French government had taken official action to recognize the site as one of scientific importance meriting the protection of the law. The Commission consisted of eight members from Spain, France, Alsace, Great Britain, Belgium, Switzer-

land and Czecho

Slovakia, one

of whom

part in its investigations and deliberations.

was

unable to take

In November 1927

the Commission visited Glozel, examined and tested the site and

the objects already found and reported unanimously the antiquity of the material discovered at Glozel had not been proved. It was admitted that authentic material of an early date may have been introduced by natural methods.

In a series of articles in the

Mercure de France Dr, Morlet maintained the authenticity of the discoveries, hotly repudiated the suggestion that the scientific world had been hoaxed, and vigorously criticized the methods and findings of the Commission. A remarkable degree of acrimony characterizes

the controversy

which

has

arisen and reference

to the Law Courts has been made. See Revue Anthropologique, Supplement No. 10-12, 1927.

GLUCINUM, an alternative name for the metal beryllium

(g.v.). When L. N. Vauquelin in 1798 published in the Annales

de chimie an account of a new earth obtained by him from beryl he refrained from giving the substance a name, but in a note to his paper the editors suggested glucine, from ‘yAukts, sweet, in reference to the alleged taste of its salts, whence the name glucinum or glucinium (symbol Gl. or sometimes G}. GLUCK, CHRISTOPH WILLIBALD (1714-1787), operatic composer, German by birth, French by his place in art, was born at Weidenwang, near Neumarkt, in the upper Palatinate, on July 2, 1714. His father was gamekeeper to Prince Lobkowitz; and from his 12th to his 18th year he received a good general education, including music lessons, at the Jesuit school of Kommatan, near Prince Lobkowitz’s estate in Bohemia. At the age of 18 he went to Prague, where he studied under Czernohorsky, and maintained himself by hand-to-mouth musical jobs, sometimes at village fairs and dances. Prince Lobkowitz introduced him to the best families of the Austrian nobility; and when in 1736 he proceeded to Vienna he was hospitably received at his protector’s palace. Here he met Prince Melzi, an ardent lover of music, whom he accompanied to Milan, continuing his education under Giovanni Battista San

Martini (or Sammartini), a great musical historian and contra-

puntist, whose al fresco style of chamber-music was an imporlant if unconscious step towards the dramatic orchestration of the future. Gluck soon becomes a fluent writer, producing nine operas at various Italian theatres between 1741 and 1745. Unmportant as they are in the light of his mature art, they were 60 well received that in 1745 he was invited to London to com-

441

nary producer of Italian opera. Handel said that Gluck “knows no more counterpoint than my cook,” which was probably true, seeing that that cook was an excellent bass singer who performed

In many of Handel’s own operas. Mausiċal cookery demands more counterpoint than Gluck ever mastered; and, if Gluck did not as yet see any connection between counterpoint and drama, he learnt much from the surprising discovery that arias which in their original setting had been much applauded lost all effect when adapted to new words in the pasticcio. Handel’s criticism was by no means irrelevant. The use of counterpoint is independent of contrapuntal display; its real and final cause is a certain depth of harmonic

expression which Gluck attained only

in his most inspired moments, and for want of which many of his subtle details are dangerously like oversights. And in later years his own mature view of the importance of harmony, which

he upheld in long arguments with Grétry, who believed only in melody, shows that he knew that the dramatic expression of music must strike below the surface. At this early period he was simply producing operas on Handel's, or rather Hasse’s lines without a sign of mastery. Yet the failure of his pasticcio is profoundly significant, since it shows that already the effect of his music depended upon its characteristic treatment of dramatic situations. This characterizing power was as yet only thus indirectly evident, and the art of music needed all the new resources of the rising sonata-forms (g.v.) before it could break through its architectural and decorative restraints and enter into

dramatic regions at all.

.

The chamber music of Sammartini had already indicated to Gluck a style incompatible with the older art, and a short trip to Paris brought him into contact with the classic traditions and the declamatory style of the French opera—things which an intelligent prophet might have foreseen to be of immense importance to a pupil of Sammartini. Little change, however, is to be found in the works produced by Gluck with varying success during the 15 years after his return from England. His first

opera written for Vienna, La Semiramide riconosciuta, is again a fashionable opera seria, and little more can be said of Telemacco, although 30 years later Gluck was able to use most of its overture and an energetic duet in one of his greatest works, Armide, and to adapt another number to the sublime purposes of a still greater work, [phigénie en Tauride. Gluck settled permanently at Vienna in 1756, having two years previously been appointed court chapel-master, with a salary of 2,000 florins, by the empress

Maria Theresa.

He had already

received the order of knighthood from the pope after the success of two of his works in Rome. During the long interval from 1756 to 1762 Gluck seems to have been meditating his plans for the reform of the opera, producing little more than the ballet Don Giovanni and some French airs nouveaux with pianoforte. Several later pieces d'occasion, such as Jl Trinofo di Clelia (1763), are still written in the old manner. But already in 1762 Orfeo ed Euridice had revolutionized the whole art of music. Gluck had for the first time deserted Metastasio for Raniero Calzabigi, who, as Vernon Lee suggests, was in all probability the immediate cause of the formation of Gluck’s new ideas. He was a hot-headed dramatic theorist with a violent dislike for Metastasio, who had hitherto dominated the whole sphere of operatic libretto. Calzabigi reduced the operatic scheme from a complicated plot designed for working in three arias in each act for each of seven expensive singers, to the simplest possible means of expressing and concentrating the obvious emotions aroused by a Classical myth.

In Orfeo there are only three characters besides the chorus. The chorus itself has to play a different part in each scene;

bose for the Haymarket, where he produced La Caduta dei human mourners in the first act; Furies in the first part of the Vani: and followed it by a revised version of an earlier opera. He also appeared in London as a performer on the musical glasses

(see HARMONICA).

n€ poor success of his two operas, as well as that of a

basticcio entitled Piramo e Tisbe, shortened his London visit.

uthis stay in England was not without important consequences for his future. Gluck at this time was rather less than an ordi-

second act, Elysian shades in the second part, and a rejoicing human crowd when, as in Monteverde’s pioneer work of 150 years earlier, the pathos of the story becomes intolerable to the poet, the composer, and the audience, so that Eurydice has to

be galvanized back into hfe and received with Orpheus and the thaumaturgic Amor by a triumphant chorus and a long series

of ballets.

For the rest, the pathos of the music is among the

44.2

GLUCK

greater experiences of the art. Even in the first act. which is himself asserted the merits and possibilities of French music, he occupied, until the sudden entry of Eros (Amor), entirely with acknowledged his genius, although he did not always understang the chorus of mourners and the lament of Orpheus at Eurydice’s it, as for example when he suggested that in Alceste, “Divinités tomb, there is no feeling of monotony, no lack of dramatic du Styx,” perhaps the most majestic of all Gluck’s arias, ought power, and no lapse from the highest activity of the composer’s to have been set as a rondo. But in a letter, written shortly imagination. Nothing like it had been dreamt of before, and before his death, to Dr. Burney, Rousseau gives a close and apone of its most interesting features is that it is neither histrionic preciative analysis of Alceste, the first Italian version of which nor realistic. The echoes of Orpheus’s cadences by a cor anglais Gluck had submitted to him for suggestions; and when after the behind the scene are sheer gratuitous poetry as far transcending first performance of the French version the composer exclaimed, real echoes as Shelley’s skylark transcends a real bird. The “Alceste est tombée,” Rousseau replied, “Ouwz, mais elle es: central feature of Orfeo is, of course, his conquest of the Furies tombée du ciel.” The contest turned to fresh issues when Piccinni, a celebrated who would bar his way to Eurydice. Gluck lived to master more complex situations, but neither he nor anyone else ever achieved, and by no means incapable composer, came to Paris as the even with Wagner’s resources, a more perfect and touching piece champion of the Italian party at the invitation of Madame dy of music-drama. From the cavernous reverberations of the first Barry, who held a rival court to that of the young princess (see chords of the orchestra, interrupted by the approaching sounds Opera). It is a mistake to see in the war of Gluckists and Piccinof Orpheus’s harp, to the last subdued assent of the vanquished nists a foreshadowing of the Wagnerian controversy; the issues Furies, the dramatic and musical power are of the highest order. were merely those of cliques, and anybody who has the patience to read Piccinni’s music will be amused at his pathetic attempts The Furies sing throughout in the rhythm d a j d.d) to copy Gluck in every point where public applause had justified chi mai nel| Erebo the shocking risks Gluck was always taking. Gluck was by until they are reduced to interrupting Orpheus’s gathering flow far the better musician, but contemporaries could see the weakof melody by “No:—No,” at first thunderous, then softer. For nesses of his technique as easily as they could see the vaguely the later productions in Paris, Gluck had to rewrite the castrato- different weaknesses of Piccinni’s. Gluck’s gift of melody was alto part of Orpheus for a tenor, with transpositions ruinous sublime, and Piccinni’s was by no means contemptible; and both to the key-system of the whole; but this did not impair the composers had the gift of making incorrect music sound agreewonderful power of.Orpheus’s declamation. The inspiration is able. Gluck’s indisputable dramatic power did not concern upfully maintained in the following Elysian scene, an even greater holders of music for music’s sake, and was no ground of oppositest of the composer’s depth of feeling. tion to the Piccinnists as far as they could understand it. The No surprise should be felt that Orpheus was followed by work rivalry between the two composers was soon skilfully engineered of no importance. Even reformers of opera must live; and into a quarrel. In 1777 Piccinni was given a libretto by MarmonGluck’s five great reform-operas were enough to occupy him tel on the subject of Roland, to Gluck’s intense disgust, as he but not enough to support him for the remaining 25 years of his had already begun an opera on that subject himself. This, and life. Besides, he constantly drew upon his inferior works for the failure of attempts in a lighter style furbished up from earlier whole movements in his greatest. In 1767 Gluck and Calzabigi works at the instigation of Marie Antoinette, inspired Gluck to followed up Orfeo by a similar work on a larger scale. Gluck’s produce his Armide, which appeared four months before Picdedication of the score to the grand-duke of Tuscany is the cinni’s Roland was ready, and raised a storm of controversy, Magna Charta of opera. “I have tried,” he wrote, “to reduce admiration and abuse. Gluck did not anticipate Wagner more music to its real function, that of seconding poetry by intensi- clearly in his dramatic reforms than in his caustic temper; and, fying the expression of sentiments and the interest of situations as in Gluck’s own estimation, the difference between Armide and without interrupting the action by needless ornament. I have Alceste is that “lun (Alceste) doit faire pleurer et lautre faire accordingly taken care not to interrupt the singer in the heat of éprouver une voluptueuse sensation,” it was extremely annoying the dialogue, to wait for a tedious ritornel, nor do I allow him for him to be told by Laharpe that he had made Armide a sorto stop on a sonorous vowel, in the middle of a phrase, in order ceress instead of an enchantress, and that her part was “une to show the nimbleness of a beautiful voice in a long cadenza.” criaillerie monotone et fatiguante.” He replied to Laharpe in a Less obvious and far more important is his principle that the long public letter worthy of Wagner in its venom and its effect orchestral instruments shall be “combined in accordance with in immortalizing its recipient. the passions represented,” an epitome of the whole difference Gluck’s next work was Iphigénie en Tauride, the success of between symphonic (or dramatic) orchestration and the deco- which finally disposed of Piccinni, who produced a work on the rative schemes of the continuo period. (See CHAMBER MUSIC same subject at the same time and who is said to have acknowland INSTRUMENTATION.) edged Gluck’s victory. It was followed by Echo et Narcisse, Vienna was no easy town to conquer by principles apparently the comparative failure of which greatly disappointed Gluck; so hostile to music for music’s sake; and neither Alceste nor Paris and during the composition of another opera, Les Damnaides, an and Helena (1769) was received as cordially as Gluck had hoped. attack of apoplexy compelled him to give up work. He left Paris He therefore eagerly accepted the chance of bringing his art for Vienna, where he lived for several years in dignified leisure, into contact with the encyclopaedists and dramaturgists of Paris, disturbed only by failing health which ended in his death on where his enthusiastic admirer, the bażi: Le Blanc du Roullet, Nov. 15, 1787. Burney gives a charming account of a day with attaché of the French embassy at Vienna, set in motion the Gluck, whom he visited in the same week as he visited project of an opera for the Paris stage. Racine’s Iphigénie en Metastasio. Aulide was the subject chosen. Obstacles, usual and unusual, The dramatic importance of Gluck’s reforms is apt both to were removed chiefly by the intervention of Gluck’s former overshadow and to idealize his merit as a musician. Where Gluck pupil, the dauphiness Marie Antoinette, and the opera was even- differs from the greatest musicians is in his absolute dependence

tually performed at the Académie de Musique, on April 19, 1774. on literature for his inspiration. Where his librettist failed him Heated controversy immediately emphasized the importance (as often in his last complete work, Echo et Narcisse), he bad of the new work, both in its musical and in its literary aspects. no first-rate routine to lean upon; and, even in the finest works of At first the upholders of French music were no more favourable his French period, the less emotional situations are sometimes set to Gluck than the connoisseurs of Italian singing; they forgot to music which has little but historic interest. A mere inab that Luli was no more a Frenchman than Gluck, and they could to set a bad text to good music might be a sign rather of good see only that Gluck was no Rameau. Marmontel, La Harpe and literary sense than of poor musicianship. But it points to a cerD’Alembert were his opponents, the Abbé Arnaud and others his tain weakness as a musician that Gluck could not be inspired enthusiastic friends. Rousseau had the sense to change his mind. except by the more emotional features of his libretti. When be

Beginning as a violent partisan of Italian music, when Gluck | was inspired he was unquestionably the first and only esse

GLUCKSBURG—GLUCKSTADT

443

tially dramatic composer before Mozart, except the miraculous | power. and untimely born Purcell.

To begin with, he could invent | sublime melodies;

The stiffness of Gossec’s rhythm reveals the immense ; distance Gluck had traveiled from all contemporaries as well as and his | from the old ways; and the comparison between the Italian and

power of producing great musical effects by the simplest means |French Alceste measures the pace of Gluck’s development be-

was nothing short of Handelian. Moreover, if Haydn is the father of modern orchestration, the writer of the preface to Alceste is its godfather. He was by no means the first to use the timbre of instruments with a sense of emotional effect, for Bach and Handel well knew how to give a whole aria or whole

chorus an appropriate tone by means of a definite scheme of instrumentation. But it is just such definite schemes that impeded the progress of music-drama. Gluck did not treat instruments as part of a decorative design, any more than he so treated musical forms. His instrumentation changes with every shade of feeling in the dramatic situation. Strings, oboes and flutes were an ordinary accompaniment for an aria; nor was there anything unusual in making the wind instruments play in unison with the strings for the first part of the aria, and writing a passage for one or more of them in the middle section. But it was an unheard-of thing to make this passage consist of isolated

long appoggiaturas once every two bars in rising sequence on the frst oboe, answered by deep pizzicato bass notes, while Aga-

memnon in despair cries: “J’entends retentir dans mon sein le cri plaintif de la nature.” Gluck is a master of tragic irony and subconscious

confession.

When,

for instance,

in Iphigénie

en

Tauride, Orestes gasps “Le calme rentre dans mon coeur,” the agitated rhythms of the strings belie him. Again, the power of orchestral climax shown in the oracle scene in Alceste was a

thing inconceivable in older music and on that plane of absojute masterpieces that no later music can supersede. Its influence in Mozart’s Idomeneo is obvious at a first glance. The capacity for broad melody always implies a true sense of form, whether that be developed by skill or not; and Gluck’s form is inspired not merely by melody but by a magnificent sense of free phrase-rhythm, worthy of the mature sonata-style of Mozart. And his power in persistent quantitative rhythms is Wagnerian. Hence he had plenty of resource for replacing by better things the civilization he destroyed. Moreover he, in con-

sultation with his librettist, achieved great skill in holding together entire scenes, or even entire acts, by dramatically apposite repetitions of short arias and choruses. And thus in large portions of his finest works the music, in spite of frequent full closes, seems to move pari passu with the drama in a manner which for naturalness and continuity is surpassed only by the fnales of Mozart and the entire operas of Wagner. This continuity is most impressive in both scenes of the second act of Orfeo. The damage done to the key-system of these perfectly unified scenes by the Parisian transposition of Orpheus’s part is, as previously noted, dreadful, but easily remedied by transposing Orpheus’s part back again; and in a suitable compromise between the two versions Orfeo remains Gluck’s most perfect and inspired work. The emotional power of the music is such that the ruin of the story by a happy ending is a real relief from tension; it is like the gesture of Shakespeare’s last works, where we know all about the tragic issues and may as well dismiss them with fairy-tales. Moreover, Gluck’s genius was of that high order Which is as great in happiness as in grief. He failed only in the business capacities of artistic technique; and there is less busihess In Orfeo than in any other music-drama. It was Gluck’s frst great inspiration, and his theories had not had time to bemo doctrinaire, though Calzabigi was disposed to magnify his ce, Alceste contains Gluck’s grandest music and is also very free from weak pages; but in its original Italian version the third act

had no adequate climax, a defect wholly inadmissible in Paris, where, after continual retouchings a part for Hercules was, in Gluck’s absence, added by Gossec; and three pages of Gluck’s music, dealing with the supreme crisis where Alceste is rescued

tween 1767 and 1775. It would have been far easier for Gluck to write a new opera if he had not been so justly attached to his second Italian masterpiece. So radical are the differences that in retranslating the French libretto into Italian for performance with the French music not one line of Calzabigi’s original text can be retained. In lphigénie en Aulide and Iphigénie en Tauride, Gluck shows signs that the doctrinaire is beginning to gain on the spontaneous artist. This, at least, is the general impression left in a reflective memory, though one indignantly denies it on renewing acquaintance with the works in performance. Gluck had not, in Orfeo, gone out of his way to avoid rondos, or we should have had no “Che fard senza Euridice.” We read with a respectful smile his assurance to the buazllz Le Blanc du Roullet that “you would not

believe Armide to be by the same composer” as Alceste. But there is no question that Armide is a very great work, full of melody, colour and dramatic point; and that Gluck has availed himself of every suggestion that his libretto afforded for orchestral and emotional effects of type almost entirely new to him. He has been absurdly blamed for his inability to write erotic music. The intention of the work is no more erotic than that of Tasso’s Gierusalemme liberata. Love is a baleful enchantment, viewed through the eves of crusading knights. Even so, the conflict of passions, where Armide summons the demons of Hate to exorcise love from her heart, and her courage fails her as soon as they begin, has never, even in Alceste, been treated with more dramatic musical power. The work as a whole is unequal, partly because Quinault’s 90-year-old poem had far too much action in it to suit Gluck’s methods, but it shows, as does no other opera until Mozart’s Donz Giovanni, a sense of the development of characters, as distinguished from the mere presentation of them as fixed types. In Ipkigénie en Aulide and Iphigénie en Tauride, the very subtlety of the finest features reveals a self-consciousness which, when inspiration is lacking, becomes mannerism. Moreover, in both cases the libretti, though skilfully derived from Racine and Corneille, are more complicated than those of Gluck’s first masterpieces; and where inspiration fails, the awkward technique bas lost its earlier naïveté. Still, these works are immortal, and their greatest passages are equal to anything in Alceste and Orfeo. Iphigénie en Tauride is indeed, as realized by Gluck, an amazingly spiritual work to find its way to the operatic stage and prove itself so effective there. We must agree with Gluck’s contemporaries to call Ecko et Narcisse a failure. As in Orfeo, the pathetic story is ruined by a violent happy ending, but here this artistic disaster takes place before the pathos has begun to move us. Prettiness was the highest possibility of the subject; and with Gluck beauty, without emotional impulses, was less than skindeep. The great Pelletan-Damcke édition de luxe of Gluck’s French operas includes this work, gives only the French version of Orphée, and excludes Paride e Elena which was never given in Paris. A modern full score of Paride e Elena is a desideratum to complete the study of Gluck’s work with Calzabigi, to whom. he owed more than he owed to France. Perhaps this may be given in the miniature scores Inaugurated in 1927 by that of

Iphigénie en Tauride with an excellent revision by H. Abert (Eulenburg).

preface and critical ‘ (D. F. T.)

GLUCKSBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, on the Flensburg Fjord, 6 m, N.E. from Flensburg by rail. Pop. (1925) 1,788. It is a sea-bathing resort. The castle occupies the site of a former Cistercian monastery.

GLUCKSTADT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, on the right bank of the Elbe, 28 m.

from Hades (either by Apollo or by Hercules} were no longer

N.W. of Altona, by rail. Pop. (1925) 6,830. It was founded by

required in performance and have been lost. The Italian version fannot help us to restore this passage, in which Gluck’s music Row stops short just where we realize the full height of his

Christian IV. of Denmark in 1617, fortified in 1620, and soon became an important trading centre. In 1627-28 it was besieged unsuccessfully by the Imperialists under Tilly. In 31814 it was

44.4

GLUCOSE—GLUCOSIDES

blockaded and its fortifications were demolished. In 1830 it was made a free port. It came into the possession of Prussia with the rest of Schleswig-Holstein in 1866. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in herring fishery, but have suffered frequent losses from inundations.

GLUCOSE occurs abundantly in animals and plants, either alone or in combination, combined with fructose (fruit-sugar or

laevulose) as sucrose (cane-sugar), with galactose as lactose (milksugar), with itself as maltose (malt-sugar), and so on. It is an aldose (aldehyde-alcohol) of the hexose class, having the formula CeH Og, and is also known as grape sugar or dextrose. The latter name refers to the fact that its solutions rotate the plane of

ee! Ae Sekai seer

the mustard-oil group, found in something like a thousand genera of the natural

order cruciferae,

national condiment, mustard

supply Englishmen

with their

(g.v.). Nor can the highly toxic

glucosides, digitoxin, digitalin, strophanthin and ouabain, which with other similar substances form the group of “cardiac glucosides,” be omitted, since they are indispensable in medicine whether used as such, or as the drugs digitalis (g.v.), strophanthys

(g.v.) or acokanthera.

amount

The two latter also retain a certain

of anthropological interest, being still popular as arrow

poisons in some of the more remote parts of Africa. Glucosides

also minister to man’s aesthetic needs, since most of the yellow red, and blue floral and other pigments occur in plants in the polarized light to the right. (See CARBOHYDRATES.) When pure, form of “flavonol” and “anthocyan” glucosides; thus the beaut. it is a white, crystalline powder, but it is more often seen as a yel- ful blue tint of the pansy is due to a rhamnoside of the pigment lowish, highly concentrated syrup of a sickly sweet taste; it is delphinidin, and the red of the scarlet geranium to a diglucoside also obtainable as warty masses of its hydrate, CeH1206-H20. of the pigment pelargonidin. (See ANTHOCYANINS AND ANTHOoxGlucose is readily prepared from starch or from cane sugar by the ANTHINS.)

action of dilute acids, and is easily fermented by yeast to give alcohol. It is excreted in considerable quantities by persons suffering from diabetes mellitus. It has very many uses in the food industries, as a sweetening agent and as a substitute for canesugar in various processes where fermentation plays an essential rôle, and to a lesser extent in pharmacy. (See DEXTRIN.)

GLUCOSIDES, NATURAL.

The term glucoside is applied

Much sides by that is, Organic

light has been thrown on the structure of natural glucothe study of the synthetic a and -methyl glucosides

the monomethyl

and Sucars)

ethers

of dextrose

(see CHEMISTRY:

particularly in their specific relationship

to enzymes (g.v.); and it is now known that most natural gluco-

sides can be regarded as #-glucosides, and that the enzymes, such as emulsin, which accompany them in plants and are capable of either decomposing or recomposing the glucosides, depending

to a large number of substances present in plants, which on hydrolysis by acids furnish a sugar and a second product. The upon the conditions obtaining at the moment, are §-enzymes, sugar is usually dextrose, alone or mixed with other sugars such as This reversible activity of the enzymes towards glucosides conrhamnose. The second product may be anything which can occur sists in the addition or withdrawal of the elements of water at in a plant, from methyl alcohol to a complex alkaloid, so long vulnerable points. Thus, using the conventional signs and symbols as it contains a hydroxyl group capable of forming an ether of the chemist, the decomposition of amygdalin, one of the oldest linkage (see CHEMISTRY: Organic) with either a simple or a and best known of the glucosides, can be represented thus:— complex sugar. The complex sugars (polysaccharides) may them1. Unregulated decomposition of amygdalin by acids or emulsin. selves be regarded as glucosides since they consist of ethers formed OH H HOH from two or more simple sugars. It is probable that the formation of glucosides provides the C.Hs- CHYN )4 . CHOO ‘CsHnOs (Amyegdalin) plant with a means of storing in a harmless form, materials such as prussic acid and reactive aldehydes, required for future use CeHs‘CHO HCN CeHwOg CoHi20¢ a~ ee and capable by means of enzymes of liberation in small quantiOil of bitter Prussic Dextrose ties as required. Further, glucosides are usually at least sparingly almonds acid (Two molecules). soluble in water, and since only soluble substances are transportable in a plant, by movements of sap, it is at least a useful 2. Regulated decomposition of amygdalin by acids or emulsin (Amygdalase-+prunase). working hypothesis to assume that the plant converts into glucosides (a) harmful or useless substances, which must be transported me to the barks, fruit rinds, seed coats, etc., where they can do no Stage 1. CsHs-CH(CN)-O-CsHj004-0-CsHi.05 (Amygdalin), harm and will eventually be shed; (b) necessary but harmful substances, which may be useful later on; (c) decorative subare T CHO; (Dextrose). stances, such as floral pigments, formed in the leaves and transported at the proper season to the flowers, fruits, etc. Stage 2. CsH;-CH(CN)-O-CsHi0; (Mandelonitrile glucoside). This hypothesis at least accounts for the extraordinary variety } of the second, non-saccharine, hydrolytic products of glucosides. Stage 3. C.Hs-CHO HCN C3H120¢ Among them are to be found a large number of phenolic gluco———__ yt Cn peel sides, such as arbutin and phloridzin, yielding on hydrolysis the Oil of bitter Prussic Dextrose phenols, hydroquinone and phloretin; aromatic alcohol glucosides, almonds acid (One molecule). like salicin, a much-valued analgesic in medicine, which on hydrol3. Decomposition of amygdalin by a cold aqueous extract (amygdaysis furnishes dextrose and saligenin (o-hydroxybenzyl alcohol); lase) of yeast. an interesting group of acid-glucosides represented by gaultherin, age the form in which winter-green oil (methyl salicylate) is stored in the plant from which this popular American flavouring agent CeHs-CH(CN)-O- CeHOs-O-CeHOs (Amygdalin). was formerly drawn, though now largely replaced by synthetic CsHs-CH(CN) 0-CsHi0; CeHi20s5 methyl salicylate. Less popular, but probably more useful are (Mandelonitrile glucoside) (Dextrose. One molecule). convolvulin and jalapin, the active principles of the purgative 4. Action of alkalis or strong acids on amygdalin. drugs, scammony and jalap (qg.v,). These on hydrolysis yield acids

somewhat similar to those found in castor oil, where they are (a) (6) CsHs-CH(CN)-O-CgHi004-0-CeH0s (Amygdalin). combined with glycerine instead of dextrose. Mention must also be made of the saponins, an extensive and widely distributed CsHs-CH(COOH)-O-CsH0O4-CeHO; (Amygdalinic acid). series of glucosides, which subserve the purposes of man in such (a) =ether linkage (mandelonitrile to the biose of amygdalin). __ diverse ways as providing beer with a good “head” when it is (b) =ether linkage of dextrose to dextrose to form the biose of not of the quality to acquire one naturally, forming the basis amygdalin. of detergent materials for delicate fabrics, assisting the suspension of oily fluids so that they become “miscible” with water, In this diagram, line x represents the complex unregulated as in many well-known disinfectants, and finally in the manufac- action of acids or emulsin upon amygdalin, the latter being deture of “foaming” fire extinguishers. Another class of glucosides,

composed

into one molecule each of benzaldehyde and prussi¢

GLUE acid, which together constitute oil of bitter almonds, and two

molecules of dextrose.

Line 2 shows that the apparently simple reaction represented

by line 1 really consists of two reactions, the complex sugar (biose) of amygdalin being split up first, yielding one molecule each of

dextrose and a new and simpler substance, dextromandelonitrile glucoside, found in the form of prunasin in the wild cherry bark (Prunus serotina) and in Cerasus padus. In the second stage,

dextromandelonitrile glucoside is decomposed into one molecule each of dextrose, benzaldehyde and prussic acid. The demonstration of these two stages is possible because

the two

reactions

progress at different rates and by stopping at a certain point d-

44.5

proposed; the greatest commercial success appears to attend Scot-

tish shale oil and natural petroleum (Russian or American) boil-

ing at about 100° C. The vessels in which the extraction is carried out consist of upright cylindrical boilers, provided with manholes for charging, a false bottom on which the bones rest; and with two steam coils—one for heating only, the other for leading in “live” steam. There is a pipe from the top of the vessel leading to a condensing plant. The vessels are arranged in batteries. In the actual operation the boiler is charged with bones, solvent is run in, and the mixture gradually heated by means of the dry coil; the spirit distils over, carrying with it the water present in the bones; and after a time the extracted fat is run off from discharge

mandelonitrile glucoside can be isolated. So far as the action of enzymes is concerned, the first stage alone is brought about by a cold water extract of yeast, which contains amygdalase, and the second by an enzyme, prunase, which appropriately occurs with prunasin. Prunase has no action on amygdalin itself. This demonstration also shows that emulsin must be a mixture of at least two enzymes, amygdalase and prunase. Line 3 is the first stage of line 2 repeated to represent the action of amygdalase alone. Line 4 is interesting as showing what happens when amygdalin is treated

cocks in the bottom of the extractor. A fresh charge of solvent is introduced, and the cycle repeated; this is repeated a third and fourth time, after which the bones contain only about 0-2% of fat, and a little of the solvent, which is removed by blowing in live steam under 70 to 80 lb. pressure. The de-greased bones are now cleansed from all dirt and flesh by rotation in a horizontal cylindrical drum covered with stout wire gauze. The attrition accompanying this motion suffices to remove the loosely adherent matter, which falls through the meshes of the gauze; this meal with alkalis or strong acids; the molecule remains intact and only contains a certain amount of glue-forming matter, and is generally the nitrile group (-CN) is hydrolysed producing a carboxyl group passed through a finer mesh, the residuum being worked up in (.CQOH) and liberating ammonia, in accordance with the general the glue-house, and the flour which passes through being sold as behaviour of such groups. (See CHEMISTRY: Organic.) a bone-meal, or used as a manure. The laevorotatory isomeride of mandelonitrile glucoside, and the The bones, which now contain 5 to 6% of glue-forming nitrogen racemic isomeride, also occur in nature in the form of the gluco- and about 60% of calcium phosphate, are next treated for glue. sides sambunigrin in the young branches of the elder, and prulaura- The most economical process consists in steaming the bones under sin in the leaves of the cherry laurel. These are all called ‘‘cyano- pressure (15 lb. to start with, afterwards 5 Ib.) in upright cylingenetic glucosides” because on hydrolysis they yield prussic acid; drical boilers fitted with false bottoms. The glue-liquors collect other examples are dhurrin from the tropical grass, which yields beneath the false bottoms, and when of a strength equal to about the food-grain, called “dhurra,” and linamarin or phaseolunatin, 209% dry glue they are run off to the clarifiers. The first runnings which yields acetone, prussic acid and dextrose on hydrolysis and contain about 65 to 70% of the total glue; a second steaming is widely distributed in nature. Both these have on several occa- extracts another 25 to 30%. For clarifying the solutions ordinary sions been the cause of poisoning cases in man or animals. alum is used, one part being used for 200 parts of dry glue. The clear liquors are now concentrated to a strength of about BIBLIOGRAPHY, —J. J. L. van Rijn, Die Glykoside (1900); E. F. Armstrong, The Simple Carbohydrates and the Glucosides (1924). 32% dry glue in winter and 35% in summer. This is invariably The second of these books contains an excellent bibliography. H) effected in vacuum pans—open boiling yields a dark-coloured and (T. ; inferior product. Many types of vacuum plant are in use; the GLUE, a valuable agglutinant, consisting of impure gelatin Yaryan form, invented by H. T. Yaryan, is perhaps the best, and and widely used as an adhesive medium for wood, leather, paper the double effect system is the most efficient. After concentraand similar substances. Glues and gelatins merge into one another tion the liquors are bleached by blowing in sulphur dioxide, manuby imperceptible degrees. The difference is conditioned by the factured by burning sulphur; by this means the colour can be degree of purity; the more impure form is termed glue and is lightened to any desired degree. The liquors are now run into only used as an adhesive, the purer forms, termed gelatin, have galvanized sheet-iron troughs, 2ft. long, 6in. wide and sin. deep, other applications, especially in culinary operations and confec- where they congeal to a firm jelly, which is subsequently removed tionery. (See GELATIN.) It is only necessary to state here that by cutting round the edges, or by warming with hot water, and gelatigenous or glue-forming tissues occur in the bones, skins and turning the cake out. The cake is sliced to sheets of convenient intestines of all animals, and that by extraction with hot water thickness, generally by means of a wire knife, z.e., a piece of wire these agglutinating materials are removed, and the solution on placed in a frame. Mechanical slicers acting on this principle are es and cooling yields a jelly-like substance—gelatin or in use. Instead of allowing the solution to congeal in troughs, glue. it may be “cast” on sheets of glass, the bottoms of which are Glues may be most conveniently classified according to their cooled by running water. After congealing, the tremulous jelly sources: bone glue, skin glue and fish glue; these may be regarded is dried; this is an operation of great nicety: the desiccation must as impure forms of bone gelatin, skin gelatin and isinglass. be slow and is generally effected by circulating a rapid current Bone Glue.—For the manufacture of glue the bones are sup- of air about the cakes supported on nets set in frames. plied fresh or after having been used for making soups; Indian and Skin Glue.—In the preparation of skin glue the materials used South American bones are unsuitable, since, by reason of their are the parings and cuttings of hides from tan-yards, the ears previous treatment with steam, both their fatty and glue-forming of oxen and sheep, the skins of rabbits, hares, cats, dogs and other constituents haye been already removed (to a great extent). On animals, the parings of tawed leather, parchment and old gloves, the average, fresh bones contain about 50% of mineral matter, and many other miscellaneous scraps of animal matter. Much

mainly calcium and magnesium phosphates, about 12% each of

moisture and fat, the remainder being other organic matter. The mineral matter reappears in commerce chiefly as artificial manure; the fat is employed in the candle, soap and glycerin industries, while the other organic matter supplies glue.

experience is needed in order to prepare a good glue from such heterogeneous materials; one blending may be a success and another failure. The raw material or “stock” is first steeped for

from two to ten weeks, according to its nature, in wooden vats or pits with lime water, and afterwards carefully dried and stored. The separation of the fat, or “de-greasing of the bones” is The object of the lime steeping is to remove any blood and flesh

affected (x) by boiling the bones with water in open vessels; (2)

by treatment with steam under pressure; or (3) by means of

Solvents. The last process is superseding the first two, which give & poor return of fat—a valuable consideration—and also involve loss of a certain amount of glue. Many solvents have been

which may be attached to the skin, and to form a lime soap the fatty matter present. The “‘scrows” or glue pieces, which be kept a long time without undergoing change, are washed a dilute hydrochloric acid to remove all lime, and then thoroughly with water; they are now allowed to drain and

with may with very dry.

44.6

GLUTARIC

ACID—GLUTATHIONE

The skins are then placed in hemp nets and introduced into an open boiler which has a false bottom, and a tap by which liquid may be run off. As the boiling proceeds test quantities of liquid are from time to time examined, and when a sample is found on cooling to form astiff jelly, which happens when it contains about 32% dry glue, it is ready to draw off. The solution is then run to a clarifier, in which a temperature sufficient to keep it fluid is maintained, and in this way any impurity is permitted to subside. The glue solution is then run into wooden troughs or coolers in which it sets to a firm jelly. The cakes are removed as in the case ef bone glue (see above), and, having been placed on nets, are, in the Scottish practice, dried by exposure to open air. This primitive method has many disadvantages: on a hot day the cake may become unshapely, or melt and slip through the net, or dry so rapidly as to crack; a frost may produce fissures, while a fog or mist may precipitate moisture on the surface and occasion a mouldy appearance. The surface of the cake, which is generally dull after drying, is polished by washing with water. The practice of boiling, clarification, cooling and drying, which has been already described in the case of bone glue, has been also applied to the separation of skin glue. Fish Glue.—Whereas isinglass, a very pure gelatin, is yielded by the sounds of a limited number of fish, it is found that all fish offals yield a glue possessing considerable adhesive properties. The manufacture consists in thoroughly washing the offal with water, and then discharging it into extractors with live steam. After digestion, the liquid is run off, allowed to stand, the upper oily layer removed,

and the lower gluey solution clarified with

alum. The liquid is then filtered, concentrated in open vats, and bleached with sulphur dioxide. Fish glue is a light-brown viscous liquid which has a distinctly disagreeable odour and an acrid taste; these disadvantages to its use are avoided if it be boiled with a little water and 1% of sodium phosphate, and 0-025% of saccharine added. Properties of Glue—A good quality of glue should be free from all specks and grit, have a uniform, light brownish-yellow, transparent appearance, and should break with a glassy fracture. Steeped for some time in cold water it softens and swells up without dissolving, and when again dried it ought to resume its original properties. Under the influence of heat it entirely dissolves in water, forming a thin syrupy fluid with a not disagreeable smell. The adhesiveness of different qualities of glue varies considerably; the best adhesive is formed by steeping the glue, broken in small pieces, In water until they are quite soft, and then placing them with just sufficient water to effect solution in the glue-pot. The hotter the glue, the better the joint; remelted glue is not so strong as the freshly prepared; and newly manufactured glue is inferior to that which has been long in stock. A well-prepared joint may withstand a pull of about 700 Ib. per sq. in. The following table, after Kilmarsch, shows the holding power of glued joints with various kinds of woods. : Wood Beech Maple

Oak Fir

Lb. per sq. in.

With grain 852 484

Across grain 434°5 346

605

132

704

302

Special Glues, Cements, etc—By virtue of the fact that the word “glue” is frequently used to denote many adhesives, which may or may not contain gelatin, there will now be given an account of some special preparations. These may be conventently divided into: (1) liquid glues, mixtures containing gelatin which do not jelly at ordinary temperatures but still possess adhesive properties; (2) water-proof glues, including mixtures containing gelatin, and also the “marine glues,” which contain no glue; (3) glues or cements for special purposes, e.g., for cementing glass, pottery, leather, etc., for cementing dissimilar materials, such as paper or leather to iron. Liquid Glues.—The demand for liquid glues is mainly due to the disadvantages—the necessity of dissolving and using while hot—of ordinary glue. They are generally prepared by adding

gelatinizing. The reagents in common use are acetic acid; map. nesium chloride, used for a glue employed by printers; hydro. chloric acid and zinc sulphate; nitric acid and lead sulphate: and

phosphoric acid and ammonium carbonate.

i

Water-proof Glues.—Numerous recipes for water-proof glues have been published; glue, having been swollen by soaking in

water, dissolved in four-fifths its weight. of linseed oil, furnishes

a good water-proof adhesive; linseed oil varnish and litharge added to a glue solution, is also used; resin added to a hot glue solution in water, and afterwards diluted with turpentine, is another recipe. The best glue is said to be obtained by dissolving one part of glue in one and a half parts of water, and then adding one-fiftieth part of potassium bichromate. Alcoholic solutions of various gums, and also tannic acid, confer the same property on glue solutions. The “marine glues” are solutions of indiarubber, shellac or asphaltum, or mixtures of these substances, in benzene or naphtha. Jeffrey’s marine glue is formed by dissolving india-rubber in four parts of benzene and adding two parts of shellac; it is extensively used, being easily applied and drying rapidly and hard. Another water-proof glue which contains no gelatin is obtained by heating linseed oil with five parts of quick-

lime; when cold it forms a hard mass, which melts on heating.

There are innumerable recipes for adhesives specially applicable

to certain substances and under certain conditions. For repairing glass, ivory, etc., isinglass (¢g.v.), which may be replaced by fine glue, yields valuable cements. Bookbinders employ an elastic

glue obtained from an ordinary glue solution and glycerin, the water being expelled by heating; an efficient cement for mounting photographs is obtained by dissolving glue in ten parts of alcohol and adding one part of glycerin; portable or mouth glue—so named because it melts in the mouth—is prepared by dissolving one part of sugar in a solution of four parts of glue. An indiarubber substitute is obtained by adding sodium tungstate and hydrochloric acid to a strong glue solution. See Thomas Lambert, Glue, Gelatine and their Allied Products (1905); R. L. Fernbach, Glues and Gelatine (1907); H. C. Standage, Agglutinants of all Kinds for all Purposes (1907).

GLUTARIC ACID is found in the wash water from sheep’s wool and in the unripe sap of sugar beet. It crystallizes in large monoclinic prisms which melt at 97-5° C, and distils between 302° and 304° C, practically without decomposition. It is soluble in water, alcohol and ether. Its chemical composition is CO.H-CH2-CH.-CHe-CO.H, and it is prepared synthetically by conversion of trimethylene bromide into cyanide and hydrolysis of the latter; or from acetoacetic ester (g.v.), which, in the form of its sodium derivative, condenses with f-iodopropionic ester to form acetoglutaric ester, CH;-CO-CH (CO.C2Hs ) -CHe-CHe-CO2CeHs,

from which glutaric acid is obtained by hydrolysis. It tained when sebacic, stearic and oleic acids are oxidized acid. By long heating the acid is converted into its and glutarimide is obtained by distillation of ammonium

GLUTATHIONE,

is also obwith nitric anhydride, glutarate.

in physiological chemistry, a compound

of glutamic acid and cysteine, which, by its catalytic action, promotes oxidation in living tissues. The energy required for the processes of life is mainly supplied by oxidations which occur in every living cell or tissue. The materials concerned in such oxidations are not directly attacked by the molecular oxygen with which they are in contact. Living tissues contain however certain agents which “activate” the molecules either of the oxygen or of the materials to be burnt, and by so raising the chemical potential of the systems involved induce oxidations. For the most part such results are brought about in the living

cell by substances which partake of the nature of enzymes (¢.¥.),

being easily destroyed by heat at relatively low critical temperatures. Certain oxidations in the cell are however secured by #

chemical] mechanism which cannot in any accepted sense be classed

as enzymic. It involves the properties of certain sulphur compounds which contain the ¢hiol, or -SH, group. The hydrogen of this structural group is susceptible of easy oxidation, and its

dative removal results in the formation of a disulphide group, te a warm glue solution reagent which destroys the property of -S-S-. Two molecules of the thiol compound are thus concerned

447

GLUTEN—GLYCERIDES the change as shown in the following simplified scheme: 2-X—SH + 40: —- X—S—S—X + H,0

hausen, it is a mixture of glutencasein (Liebig’s vegetable fibrin),

glutenfibrin, gliadin (Pflanzenleim), glutin or vegetable gelatin,

The disulphide form under suitable conditions may be again re-

duced to the thiol form, and the two forms may co-exist in adjustable equilibrium with a variety of oxidizing and reducing subances. : Most living cells and tissues contain a substance displaying the properties thus described. Its molecule contains linked together two of the amino-acid groupings which are present in proteins.

It is a dipeptide composed of glutamic acid.and cysteine (see ProTEINS), and has received the name of glutathione. The cysteine moiety carries the thiol (-SH) group through which the

biological influence of the substance is exerted (see Cystine).

Tt is clear from what has been already said that such a substance may assume—when respectively reduced or oxidized—two related forms which, since in what follows we have only to think of the sulphur groupings, may for simplicity’s sake be written as GSH and GSSG. In the living cell the substance (whether oxidized or reduced) is present in very low concentration, but it is not there as a source of energy. It is a permanent constituent of the cell promoting by its presence the oxidation of other substances. The nature of the influence of glutathione in the cell is suffciently indicated by the following considerations. Its reduced

form, GSH, is, in the presence of traces of iron (which are always

available in the living cell), readily oxidized by molecular oxygen. The oxidized form, GSSG, which then results is itself however freely reduced by certain other constituents in the living cell capable of yielding the necessary hydrogen. If for convenience we

denote such tissue constituents by the expression T—H;, the process involved may be thus represented: (a) 2GSH + 40O: — GSSG -+ H0, (b) GSSG + T—H, — 2GSH + T. The significance of the events thus symbolized resides in the

circumstances that cell materials‘which are not oxidized directly by molecular oxygen (or oxidized with extreme slowness) are freely, though indirectly, oxidized through the progress of the above reactions. The glutathione acts, so to speak, as a carrier of hydrogen from tissue materials to oxygen. It will be clear that by acting in this way as an intermediary a very small amount of the substance may promote the oxidation of an unlimited amount of material. Incidentally it may be noted that the mobilization of bydrogen on such lines promotes other aspects of oxidation in the cell Its removal may convert a saturated molecule into one less saturated, rendering it more prone to oxidation in general. Moreover, during the spontaneous oxidation of the SH group hydrogen peroxide may arise, and this, in the presence of cell agencies known as peroxidases, may bring about secondary oxidations. Glutathione when separated from the tissues and purified is obtained as a snow-white amorphous powder. Alike in its oxidized and reduced form it is exceedingly soluble in water. It resists the action of the hydrolytic enzymes of the tissues, but on boiling with mineral acids it is resolved into its constituent amino-acids. (F. G. H.)

GLUTEN,

a tough, tenacious,

ductile, somewhat

elastic,

nearly tasteless, and greyish-yellow albuminous substance, ob-

tained from the flour of wheat by washing in water, in which it % Insoluble. Gluten, when dried, loses about two-thirds of its

and mucedin, which are all closely allied to one another in chemical composition. It is the gliadin which confers upon gluten its capacity of cohering to form elastic masses, and of separating readily from associated starch. In the so-called gluten of the flour of barley, rye, and maize, this body is absent (H. Ritt-

hausen and U. Kreusler). The gluten yielded by wheat which has undergone fermentation or has begun to sprout is devoid of toughness and elasticity. These qualities can be restored to it by kneading with salt, lime water, or alum. Gluten is employed in the manufacture of gluten bread and biscuits for the diabetic, and of chocolate, and also in the adulteration of tea and coffee. For making bread it must be used fresh, as otherwise it decomposes and does not knead well. Granulated gluten is a kind of vermicelli, made in some starch manufactories by mizing fresh gluten with twice its weight of flour.

GLUTTON

or WOLVERINE

(Gulo luscus), a carnivor-

ous mammal of the weasel family, Mustelidae (see CARNIVORA). The legs are short, the feet large, the claws sharp and curved, and the tail thick and bushy. The fur, blackish-brown, with a broad J band of chestnut on the sides of the body, consists of an undergrowth of short woolly hair, mixed with long, straight hairs, the latter giving it a shaggy appearance. Like all Mustelidae, the glutton possesses anal glands FUR-BEARING GLUTTON OR WOLVER. secreting a foetid-smelling, yelfluid. It inhabits the INE (GULO LUSCUS); IT BELONGS lowish TO THE WEASEL FAMILY, AND IS northern regions of the world, PLENTIFUL IN CANADA, WHERE IT but is most abundant in arctic OBSTRUCTS FUR TRAPPERS BY North America. A voracious aniSTEALING FROM THEIR TRAPS mal, it feeds on small mammals,

birds and carrion, and causes great annoyance to the trapper by robbing his traps of both bait and captives. Although inquisitive, the wolverine is both cunning and cautious. It has the habit of stealing and hiding all sorts of articles. The rutting season is in March, and the female brings forth four or five young in June or July, in defence of which she is exceedingly bold. It is nocturnal in habits, spending the day in its burrow. The fur is of some commercial value.

GLYCAS, MICHAEL,

Byzantine historian (according to

some a Sicilian, according to others a Corfiote), flourished during the rath century a.D. His chief work is his Chronicle of events from the creation of the world to the death of Alexius I. Com-

nenus (1118).

Glycas was also the author of a treatise and a

number of letters on theological questions. A poem of some 600 “political” verses, written during his imprisonment on a charge of slandering a neighbour and containing an appeal to the emperor Manuel, is still extant. The exact nature of his offence is not known, but the answer to his appeal was that he was deprived of his eye-sight by the emperor’s orders. Editions: “Chronicle and Letters,” in J. P. Migne, Patrologia Graeca, clviii.; poem in E. Legrand, Bibliothéque grecque vulgaire, 1.3 see also F. Hirsch, Byzantinische Studien (1876); C. Krumbacher in Sitzungsberichte bayer. Acad., 1894; C. F. Bahr in Ersch and Gruber’s Allgemeine Encyklopdadie.

GLYCERIDES are one of Nature’s usual modes of storing heated it crackles and swells, and burns like feather or horn. It up reserves, in the vegetable or animal realms, in the form of

Weight, becoming brittle and semi-transparent; when strongly

is soluble in strong acetic acid, and in caustic alkalis, which latter may be used for the purification of starch in which it is present.

When treated with -x to -2% solution of hydrochloric acid it swells up, and at length forms a liquid resembling a solution of

albumin, and laevorotatory as regards polarized light. Moistened

with water and exposed to the air, gluten putrefies and evolves

carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and sulphuretted hydrogen, and in the

ead is almost entirely resolved into a liquid, which contains and ammonium phosphate and acetate. On analysis, gluten 3 @ composition of about 53% of carbon, 7% of hydrogen, and nitrogen r5 to 18%, besides oxygen, and about 1% of sulphur, and a small quantity of inorganic matter. According to H. Ritt-

stable compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They constitute, in fact, over 90% of the substances present In vegetable and animal oils, fats, and waxes (gq.v.), and the terms glyceride and fat are frequently, but not quite correctly, used interchangeably. All naturally occurring glycerides appear to be

associated with a small amount (4-2%) of non-glyceridic substances called non-saponifiable or unsaponifiable matter, which have little direct industrial importance, but probably a very profound physiological significance, since they include the sterol and the fat-soluble vitamins (g.v.). ie

In order to understand the modern uses of fats (see OILS AND Fats; Wax) it is necessary to have some knowledge of the chemi-

GLYCERINE

448

cal structure of the glycerides. This is fortunately very simple in at 15°C.; refractive index mp 1:4758 at 12:5°C.). It boils at genera! outline, although complicated in detail. Glycerides belong 290°C. with some decomposition at atmospheric pressure, and to the class of compounds called “esters” by the chemist. In simple is unchanged under diminished pressure (¢.g., 182°/20mm. and terms, an ester is the salt of an acid with an alcohol, just as 155°/smm.). Its melting-point is 20°C., but owing to the ease sodium chloride is the salt formed by the union of sodium hydrox- with which it exists in the supercooled state, it is rarely seen ip ide and hydrochloric acid; a simple example of an ester is ethyl the solid state. It is exceedingly hygroscopic, miscible with

acetate, from ordinary alcohol and acetic acid, a volatile liquid with a fruity smell. The glycerides are built up from the alcohol, glycerol C:H;(OH)s, and fatty acids (q.v.) of which for the moment we may take the most common, oleic acid, Ci7H33-COOH, as an example. The essential nature of a glyceride glycerol ester may therefore be grasped by the following comparison: Sodium hydroxide, NaOH. Hydrochloric acid, HCl. Sodium chloride, NaCl (salt). Ethyl alcohol, CsH;OH. Acetic acid, CH,-COOH. Ethyl acetate, CH;-COO-C.Hs (ester) Tri-olein (CirHss* Glycerol, C3Hs(OH)s. Oleic acid, CiryHss- COOH.

water or alcohol in all proportions, but less soluble in ether.’ The bacterial fermentation of many fats, especially those of

marine animals, in presence of water not infrequently causes some of the glycerine to be transformed into a related dihydric alcohol or glycol known as trimethylene glycol, CH.(OH).CH, CH.(OH); this substance can be separated from glycerine dyr. ing refining and finds application for certain of the purposes for

which glycerine itself is used. It may be added that a simpler glycol, ethylene glycol, CH.(OH)-CH.(OH), which can be produced from ethylene (in coke-oven or other gas) or alcohol, is coming to the fore as a potential competitor with glycerine.

COO)-CsHs (fat) Complications set in when it is recollected (a) that glycerol has three points at which an acid group may enter (just as, for example, iron hydroxide Fe(OH); unites with three acidic groups

Manufacture—Practically the whole of the glycerine of commerce is still derived from the fatty oils, and most of this comes

“monobasic”) and (b) that at least 20 different fatty acids are common in nature, of which from about five to 15 are generally

salted out by brine; the clear aqueous (saline) liquors contain the whole of the glycerine from the fat and the latter forms about 3 to 5% of the soap-lye (as it is termed) whilst all the added salt is also present. Other means of splitting the fats are also em. ployed, for example, by heating them in presence of alittle lime

into the hands of the glycerine refiner in the form of soap-lyes (see Soap). In the ordinary soap-pan the fats have been saponiwhilst sodium hydroxide NaOH only combines with one, 7.e., is fied by means of aqueous caustic soda and the resulting soap

present in any single natural fat. Even if, in a hypothetical case, we assume the presence of only three acids X, Y, Z in a glyceride, we can envisage the possibility of the formation of no less than 18 distinct triglycerides, of which the following are examples: CHOX CH-OX CHeOX

CHOY CH-OY CHOY

CHOX CH-OY CH0OZ

CHOX CH-OZ CHOY

CHOY CH-OX CH OZ

CHOX CH-OX CHOY

When, as in actual fact, the number of acids present is greater, the number of possible variations becomes enormous. Very little is, indeed, yet known definitely as to the actual structure of different fats, although the occurrence of any one simple triglyceride, e.g., tri-olein, or tri-palmitin, is now known to be much less common than was formerly supposed. The properties (consistency, melting-point, “drying” or “non-drying” character, etc.) of any fat are determined partly by the manner in which the different fatty acids are linked up with the glycerol, and partly, indeed mainly, by the nature of the fatty acids (q.v.) (see also Or~s AND Fats; Wax; GLYCERINE; Soap, and articles on individual oils, fats and waxes).

GLYCERINE

(GLYCEROL),

C;H;(OH):, in pharmacy

Glycerinum, was discovered by Scheele in olive oil In 1779 and named élsuss. Chevreul studied it more fully in connection with his work on the fats about 1813 and gave it its present name (Gr. yAuxis, sweet); whilst Pelouze (1836), Berthelot and others established its formula as a trihydric alcohol, C;H,(OH)s, and its connection with the fats and oils, which are formed by the replacement of the hydrogen of the OH groups in glycerine by radicals of the higher fatty acids (see GrycrriIpes). In addition to the fatty oils, which are the largest source of glycerine, the latter is combined, partly with fatty acids and at the same time with derivatives of phosphoric acid (as glycerophosphatides), in certain substances characteristic of specific animal structures, such as lecithin (eggs, various organs) and kephalin (brain, liver and other organs). Glycerine is also a normal product (about 3%) of the alcoholic fermentation of sugar by yeast, and is therefore present in wine and beer, as was originally shown by Pasteur in 1858. Neuberg (1912) and others have shown that, if the fermentation be carried out in presence of certain salts such as sodium sulphite, sugar can be made to yield as much as 25% of its weight of glycerine, and this observation was utilised on a large technical scale by the Central Powers in the World War. In effect this process means that, if the supply of glycerine from fats falls short of the demand, it may in future be supplemented by fermentation glycerine from molasses or other cheap sugar material. Properties-—Glycerol (pure glycerine) is a colourless, odour-

less, viscous liquid with an insipid sweet taste (sp. gr. 1-2647

with a current of steam at about 140°C. (120 Ibs. per sq.in, steam-pressure) in autoclaves, by heating them with water and a special chemical known as the Twitchell agent, or by fermentation with an enzyme (lipase) in presence of water. The aqueous lyes from the autoclave, Twitchell, or lipase processes will contain up to 15% of glycerine and but little saline matter. Crude glycerine is made by simple concentration of the lyes or sweet waters without distillation of the glycerine. The lyes (especially if from the soap-pan) are first of all treated with oxide of iron and/or lime to coagulate and remove traces of soap and other impurities, and the clarified liquor is then heated under a vacuum of 25-28 inches of mercury (usually in a double-effect evaporator) until the glycerine content of the residue reaches at least 80%. After removal of any solid salts which have separated from the liquor, the product forms what is technically known as “crude glycerine.” Soap-lye crude contains about ro% of salt and 80% of glycerine; autoclave, etc., crudes contain about 86% of glycerine and less than 1% of saline matter. But economic considerations on the fat-splitting side make saponification m the open soap-pan the more usual procedure. Most of the soaplye crude is distilled to give the more refined qualities of glycerine, but some of the other type finds use in printer’s inks, in “antifreeze” compositions, plastic clays, etc.

Dynamite Glycerine-——-The most important single outlet for glycerine is probably its use, after nitration, in blasting and other explosives such as dynamite, cordite, etc. (see NITROGLYCERINE). To this end it is necessary to have glycerine free from solid impurities and containing about 95% of glycerol.

This is secured by distillation of crude glycerine under much reduced pressure (28-29 inches of mercury) by the aid of a current of superheated steam. Several systems of glycerine stills are in operation, the favourite being that designed by van Ruymbeke, in which, by means of an “expansion chamber” heated by the same steam as that which heats the centre of the still, the injected steam regains the temperature lost by its expansion under vacuum and enters (in fine jets) into the heated crude glycerine

in the still at exactly the same temperature as that of the latter. The mixed glycerine and steam vapours pass over into condensers in which they are fractionally separated and the dynamite glycer-

ine is collected. In later systems, such as those of Wood or Garrigue, multiple stills are arranged in series and the distillation

process made continuous; the superheated steam may be made

to pass through a pre-heated spray of the crude glycerine. Dynamite glycerine should have a sp. gr. 1-261—1-262 and cot-

tain not more than o-o5% of mineral ash. It is usually pale ye-

GLYCOGEN—GMELIN low in colour, but can be converted into an almost white product

(“industrial white glycerine”) by treatment with charcoal.

Finally, chemically pure glycerine is produced by a further distillation of the once-distilled dynamite glycerine, followed by treatment with charcoal. Chemically pure (C.P.) glycerine should

contain no impurity other than moisture; its sp. gr. is 1-26 (97 98% glycerol) but for trade purposes it is also supplied at, for example, sp. gr. 1-25 (93%) or 1-24 (90%). Arsenic, lead and

copper must be completely absent, the mineral ash should not

exceed 001%, and the total non-volatile residue, 0.05%.

Technical Uses-—-C.P. glycerine is used very largely for medicinal and pharmaceutical purposes as a solvent for drugs, a component of emollient solutions, ointments and plasters, and in sme purgative remedies; it also finds use as a preservative against fermentation and is thus employed in preserving meat and flesh products, in anatomical preparations, in vaccine lymph, etc. It is also used in the tobacco, snuff and spirit trades. In addition

to its use in the manufacture of explosives dynamite glycerine (or the industrial white variety) is employed in various ways, for

example, in the textile industries, as a lubricant where mineral or

other oils are inadmissible, in hydraulic presses, for filling gas meters, in the preparation of plastic materials, in the paper, ink,

soap and leather industries. GLYCOGEN (IN RELATION

(T. P. H.) TO MUSCULAR CONTRACTION):

see MUSCLE. GLYCOLS, the generic name applied to dihydric alcohols on

account of their sweet taste (see CHemistry:

Organic).

The

simplest member of the series, ethylene glycol, HO.CH.-CH.-OH, is a colourless, fragrant, oily liquid boiling at 197-4° C, melting at —17-4° C and having a specific gravity of 1-125 at o° C. It resembles glycerine (glycerol) in sweetness and in being com-

pletely miscible with water.

Its importance lies mainly in the

fact that it serves as a substitute for glycerine in the production

of a high explosive, ethylene dinitrate, NO..O-CH.-CH,-O-NO,, the successive processes of manufacture being as follows:—Ethylene gas, produced by passing alcohol vapour over charcoal impregnated with phosphoric acid at 400° C, is treated with chlorine water so that the ethylene is always in excess. In these circumstances ethylene chlorohydrin, HO-CH.-CH..Cl, is produced as a liquid miscible with water (boiling point 128-132° C). When warmed with milk of lime the chlorohydrin is converted into ethylene glycol and this dihydric alcohol on treatment with nitric and sulphuric acids, as in the preparation of nitroglycerine (q.v.) from glycerine, is converted into ethylene dinitrate, an oily explosive liquid (boiling point r14—116° C, specific gravity, 1.496/15° C), which has the advantage over nitroglycerine of not freezing in cold weather (see ExpLosrves). A more complex nitro explosive may be prepared by nitrating a solution of a carbosie (g.v.) in ethylene glycol (Hibbert, U.S. Patent 1216367 1917). Higher glycols, ¢.g., a-propylene glycol, CH,-CH(OH).CH.OH, and 2:3-butylene glycol, CH,-CH(OH)-CH(CH,)-OH, are also syrupy liquids of comparatively high boiling points. They aré prepared from the corresponding propylene, CH;CH:CHh, or symmetrical butylene, CH,-CH:CH-CH;, through their chlorohydrins by treating these substances with milk of lime. Certain complex glycols, termed pinacones or more appropriately pinacols, are produced by the reduction of ketones (q.v.). For example,

acetone when reduced either electrolytically or with sodium and water furnishes the simplest pinacol, 2:3-dimethyl-2:3-butanediol,

HO-C(CH;).C(CH;)eOH, a crystalline solid melting at 38° C

449

But the commonest is ye Uv, often called simply a glyconic; this is a great favourite of Catullus and Horace, as sic fe diva potens Cypri; it may be imitated in English by immemorial harmonies. The name is from Glycon, a lyric poet.

GLYCOSE: see Sucar. GLYOXALINES owe their interest to the fact that they are degradation products of certain alkaloids (g.v.), and that a member of the group arises from the decomposition of sugars such as glucose with ammonia. They are organic compounds of carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, and contain the ring system shown in I. They are also called iminazoles.

a)

CH;-C—N

HC—N

gree CH ofS

;

at

GLYCONIC, a form of Aeolic verse, which may be de-

It has many

forms, as

Se aye

vue

or ¥—uvavt (acephalous glyconic) Nat

-a

Ws

ms

-_

Ww

=

p

or grato Pyrrha sub anteo (Pherecratic).

(IL)

The glyoxalines are generally colourless, crystalline bases, and can be produced synthetically by the condensation of glyoxal and similar ortho-diketones with ammonia and aldehydes. Glyoxaline itself (formula I.) is obtained by condensing together glyoxal, ammonia and formaldehyde; it melts at 90° C and boils at 263° C, 4(or 5)-Methylglyoxaline (formula II.) is formed by the action of zinc hydroxide and ammonia on grape

sugar (glucose) and other hexoses and pentoses. The methylation of 4-methylglyoxaline with dimethyl sulphate and alkali gives rise simultaneously

to

x:4- and

1:5-dimethylglyoxalines

indicating

that methylglyoxaline behaves during methylation as a tautomeric substance (see ISOMERISM). Glyoxaline has a marked physiological activity—substitution of methyl for hydrogen in the imino-group increases the toxic

action. The pilocarpine alkaloids, which contain the glyoxaline or iminazole nucleus and yield glyoxaline derivatives on distillation with soda lime, are substances of therapeutic interest (see

PILOCARPINE).

(G. T. M.)

GLYPH, a vertical channel in a frieze (see TRIGLYPH). GLYPTODON,

a gigantic extinct South American genus of

edentate mammals, the type of a group, the Glyptodontia or tortoise-armadillos, in which the carapace is all in one piece, composed wholly of polygonal bony plates united together without any of the movable rings of the armadillos. The skull is short, with deep jaw and fluted teeth (whence the name), the backbone is welded into a rigid tube, and a complex joint in the neck permits the head to be retracted within the shell as in tortoises. The limb bones are stout and the feet short, rounded, with hoofs instead of claws on the toes. In Glypfodon and the related Glyptotherium of North America there are four toes on each foot in front and

five behind, and the tail is encased in a series of movable rings.

Doedicurus, of the South American Pleistocene, the largest known glyptodont, has three toes on each foot in front and four behind, and a tail-tube covered by horny spikes. The pattern of the plates composing the carapace differs in each genus. The glyptodonts originated in South America where they are represented during the middle and later Tertiary by smaller and more primitive genera.

In the Upper Pliocene and Pleistocene

they invaded North America as far north as the Southern United States, but are now extinct everywhere. (W. D. M)

GLYPTOTHEK, a gallery for the exhibition of sculpture, a term first employed at Munich, where a museum so called was built to exhibit the sculptures from the temple of Aegina. GMELIN, the name of several distinguished German scientists of a Tübingen family. The first of any consequence was Johann Georg Gmelin (1674-1728), an apothecary and an ac-

and boiling at 172° C. When distilled with dilute sulphuric acid complished chemist for the times thispinacol is transformed by loss of water into pinacoline, methyl known member of the family is tertiary butyl ketone, (CH,),C-CO-CHh, a liquid boiling at 106° C great-grandson of Johann Georg. 2 insoluble in water and having an odour of peppermint. chemistry at G6ttingen, Tiibingen

scribed as a combination of one or more dactyls (or perhaps chonambi) with shorter feet.

Ss CH

H-C—NH”

=]

in which he lived. The bestLeopold Gmelin (1788-1853),

Leopold studied medicine and

and Vienna, and in 1813 began to lecture on chemistry at Heidelberg, where he was first appointed (r814) as extraordinary and later (1817) ordinary professor of chemistry and medicine. He is remembered for his discovery of

potassium ferrocyanide in 1822, and for his important work Handbuch der Chemie (1st ed. 1817-19, 4th ed. 1843-35), which was translated into English for the Cavendish society (1848—59).

| He resigned his chair in 1852 and died in the following year.

His

GMUND—GNEISS

450

father’s cousin, Christian Gottlob Gmelin (1792-1860), was one | patriotism were equally tested, and with the outbreak of the War of the first to devise a process for the artificial manufacture of | of Liberation, Gneisenau, now a major-general, became Bliicher’s ultramarine (1828); he also observed the red colouration given quartermaster-general, With Blücher, Gneisenau served to the capture of Paris; his military character was the exact complement to a flame by lithium salts.

GMUND, a town of Germany, in the republic of Wirttem-

berg,! on the Rems, 31 m. E.N.E. of Stuttgart by rail. Pop. (1925)

20,438. It was surrounded by walls early in the 12th century It received town rights from Frederick Barbarossa, and after the extinction of the Hohenstaufen became a free imperial town. In 1803 it passed to Wiirttemberg. The church of the Holy Cross, St. John’s church, dating from the time of the Hohenstaufen, and the pilgrimage church of the Saviour are notable. Clocks and watches, optical instruments and gold and silver work are the chief manufactures. Trade is in precious stones.

of Blücher’s, and under this happy guidance the young troops of Prussia, often defeated but never discouraged, fought their way into the heart of France. The plan of the march on Paris was

specifically the work of the chief-of-staff. In reward for his dis.

tinguished service he was made a count. In 1815, once more chief of Bliicher’s staff, Gneisenau played a conspicuous part in the Waterloo campaign (q.v.). When the old field marshal was disabled at Ligny, Gneisenau assumed the control of the Prussian army. The precise part taken by Gneisenau in the events which fol.

GMUNDEN, an old town in Upper Austria at the issue of the lowed is much debated. Gneisenau distrusted Wellington, who, he

considered, had left the Prussians in the lurch at Ligny, and even considered falling back on the Rhine. Blücher, however, soon recovered from his injuries, and, with Grolmann, the quarterother baths, and is an excellent centre for excursions to the Traun master-general, he managed to convince Gneisenau. The relations fall and other features of scenic interest in Salzkammergut. It of the two may be illustrated by Brigadier-General Hardinge’s

river Traum from the lake of that name. It is a favourite summer health resort, for it lies about 1,400 ft. above sea-level amidst delightful scenery and has a variety of lake, brine, pine-cone and

shares, also, in the salt industry of this region. Pop. (1923) 7,800.

report.

See F. Krackowizer, Geschichte der Stadt Gmunden in Ober@sierreich (x898-1901).

“Gneisenau has given way, and we are to march at once to your chief.”

smaller flies (see DIPTERA), including more especially mosquitoes (g.v.) and other forms with piercing mouth-parts, e.g., buffalo gnats (fam. Simuliidae).

pursuit with relentless vigour. In 1816 he was appointed to command the VIII. Prussian Corps, but soon retired. In 1818 he was

GNAT,

the common

subfamily Polioptilinae of the warblers

(Sylviidae).

Some

15

Gnatcatchers are small, slender, greyish

birds, and build beautiful lichen-covered nests. The best known species is the blue-grey gnatcatcher, Polioptila caerula, of the eastern United States, in which the male has a black forehead.

GNATIA (also GNATHIA, EGNATIA or IGNATIA), near Fasano,

an ancient city of the Pevcetii, and their frontier town towards the Sallentini (ż.e., of Apulia towards Calabria), a port on the Via Traiana when a short cut from Butunti (mod. Bitonto) joined it, 38 m. S.E. of Barium. Roman remains include part of the city walls and objects now in museums at Fasano and at Bari. See Ashby and Gardner, Papers Brit. School at Rome, viii., 161, 166, sqq.

On the field of Waterloo, however, Gneisenau was quick

English name for various kinds of to realize the magnitude of the victory, and he carried out the

GNATCATCHER, the name given to birds of the American

species are recognized.

Bliicher burst into Hardinge’s room at Wavre, saying

made governor of Berlin and member of the Staatsrat. In 1825

he became general field-marshal.

In 1831 he was appointed to the

command of the Army of Observation on the Polish frontier, with

Clausewitz as his chief-of-staff. At Posen he was struck down by

cholera and died on Aug. 24, 1831. See his Briefe 1809-15, ed. Pflugk-Harttung

(1913); also G. H.

Pertz, Das Leben des Feldmarschalls Grafen Neithardt von Gneisenau,

vols. 1~3 (1864-69); vols. 4 and 5, H. Delbrück, Das Leben des G. F. M. Grafen von Gneisenau (2 vols., 3rd ed., 1907), based on Pertz’s work, but containing much new material; W. von Unger, Gneisenau (1914).

GNEISS, in geology a term originally used by the miners of the Erzgebirge to designate the country rock in which the mineral veins occur. The word is of Slavonic origin meaning “rotted,” or “decomposed,” in allusion to the altered character of the country rock in the immediate vicinity of the ore veins. It has gradually passed into acceptance as a generic term signifying a large and varied series of rocks with a banded and usually foliated structure in which layers of minerals with a granular texture alternate with thin layers composed of lamellar or fibrous minerals, usually in parallel arrangement. The foliation may be frequently interrupted and the ease of splitting of the rock is usually much less in evidence than in the case of schists (g.v.). Gneisses, however, may also be built up wholly of granular minerals, the gneissose structure being given by the alternation of bands of different mineral composition, ¢.g., pyroxene-gneiss. As used in its widest sense, gneiss is a structural term rather than a name applied to rocks of a particular mineral composition or genesis. Thus gneisses may be of igneous or metamorphic origin, and have a great range of chemical composition. The minerals of the granular bands usually consist of quartz, felspar (orthoclase, microcline, plagioclase) or both, and the lamellar or fibrous bands are usually composed of chlorite, mica (muscovite, biotite), graphite, amphibole, sillimanite, etc. According to their origin, gneisses are sub-divided broadly into

GNEISENAU, AUGUST WILHELM ANTON, Count NEITHARDT VON (1760-1831), Prussian field marshal, son of a Saxon officer named Neithardt, was born on Oct. 27, 1760, at Schildau, near Torgau. He assumed the name of Gneisenau from the lost estates of the family in Austria. After two years’ study at Erfurt he entered the Austrian army in 1779, and transferred in 1782 to the service of the margrave of Baireuth-Anspach. With one of that prince’s mercenary regiments in English pay he fought in the War of American Independence, and returning in 1786, applied for Prussian service. Gneisenau served in Poland, 17931794, and in the next ten years devoted himself to military study, for which a quiet garrison life at Jauer gave him opportunity. In 1796 he married Caroline von Kottwitz, In 1806 he was one of Hohenlohe’s staff-officers, fought at Jena, and commanded a provisional infantry brigade which fought under Lestocq in the Lithuanian campaign. Early in 1807 Gneisenau was commandant at Colberg, which, small and ill-protected as it was, succeeded in holding out until the peace of Tilsit. For this service he received the much-prized order “pour le mérite,” and was promoted lieu- three groups: (a) Primary gneisses, (b) Ortho-gneisses and (¢) tenant-colonel. Para-gneisses. Primary gneisses are plutonic igneous rocks possessing a banded A wider sphere of work was now opened to him. As chief of engineers, and a member of the reorganizing committee, he played structure, in which a parallel arrangement of the lamellar or a great part, with Scharnhorst, in the reorganization of the Prus- fibrous minerals (if present) is evident. These rocks owe their sian army. His energy aroused the suspicion of the dominant structures to a flow movement in a magma in which crystallization French, and Stein’s fall was followed by Gneisenau’s retirement. has already progressed. Primary gneisses are often of granitic But, after visiting Russia, Sweden and England, he returned to composition and build up great areas of Archaean terranes. Much Berlin and resumed his place as a leader of the patriotic party. of the Lewisian gneiss of Scotland, the Laurentian gneiss In open military work and secret machinations his energy and Canada and the igneous gneisses of other Continental shields art _ "There are two places of this name in Austria. (1) Gmünd, a town rocks of this character. The setting up of gneissic banding m 3 fluid magma by flow movement pre-supposes a magmatic heteroin Lower Austria, (2) a town in Carinthia, with a Gothic church.

451

GNEIST

ity which in nature arises either by imperfect differentiation ! a professorial connection which ended only with his death. He or by the incorporation of foreign material within the magma. In continued his judicial career, and became successively assistant many Archaean shields the granite-gneisses are characterized by judge of the superior court and of the supreme tribunal. But to a containing numerous bands of rock, usually of the nature of mind constituted like his, the want of elasticity in the procedure of amphibolites or hornblende-schists, representing basic igneous the courts was galling. Feeling the necessity for fundamental rerocks of earlier date Incorporated in the magma during intrusion. forms in legal procedure, he published, in 1849, his Trial by Jury. These basic bands become injected kt par lit by the granitic In 1848 Gneist threw himself with ardour into the constitutional material and ultimately in places become so intimately inter- struggles of Prussia, and in 1850 resigned his judgeship. Entering mingled with the magma as to produce a gneiss of hybrid origin. the National Liberal party, he began both in writing and speeches Less advanced stages of this process where injection takes place actively to champion their cause, now busying himself pre-emialong the foliation planes of inclusions or of the country rock nently with the study of constitutional law and history. In 1853 adjacent give rise to injection gneisses. appeared his Adel und Ritterschaft in England, and in 1857 the While gneisses are most prevalent in Archaean tracts, they are Geschichte und heutige Gestalt der Ämter in England, a pamphlet by no means absent from later formations. Some of the best primarily written to combat the Prussian abuses of administration, known primary gneisses have been described from the Inner but for which the author also claimed that it had not been withHebrides (Skye and Rum). These are of Tertiary age. The banded out its effect in modifying certain views that had until then ruled gabbros of Druim an Eidhne, Skye, illustrate gneisses arising from in England itself. In 1858 Gneist was appointed ordinary profesimperfect differentiation, and the gneisses of central Rum, also of sor of Roman law, and entered the Abgeordnetenhaus of the PrusTertiary age, have been produced by an intimate commingling of sian Landtag, in which assembly he sat thenceforward until 1893. eucrite and granite. He at once became one of the leading spokesmen of the Left. His The term ortho-gneiss refers strictly to igneous rocks in which chief oratorical triumphs are associated with the early period of a gneissic structure has been superimposed by metamorphism, but his membership of the House; two noteworthy occasions being his the name is loosely used by some writers to include also primary violent attack (Sept. 1862) upon the Government budget in congneisses. Criteria for the distinction of ortho-gneisses from pri- nection with the reorganization of the Prussian army, and his demary gneisses are sometimes difficult to establish, and are chiefly fence (1864) of the Polish chiefs of the (then) grand-duchy of provided in the textural and structural relations of the rocks. They Posen, who were accused of high treason. In 1857-63 was pubmay be evidenced by signs of crushing (cataclastic structure), lished Das heutige englische Verfassungs und Verwaltungsrecht, a relict textures, or where the whole rock has been totally recrystal- work which, contrasting English and German constitutional law lized by the textural relations of the minerals. In primary gneisses and administration, aimed at exercising political pressure upon the the form-development of the crystals is largely dependent on the Government of the day. In 1868 Gneist became a member of the order in which the minerals have crystallized from the magma, North German parliament. On the establishment of German unity while in totally recrystallized ortho-gneisses the growth of the his mandate was renewed for the Reichstag, and he was an active minerals has taken place in an essentially solid environment, and and prominent member until 1884. In the Kulturkampf he sided the form-development is dependent on the crystallizing power of with the Government against the attacks of the Clericals. In the several minerals (crystalloblastic texture, see METAMOR1879, together with his colleague, von Hianel, he successfully atPHism). Some of the best known ortho-gneisses are those of the tacked the motion for the prosecution of certain Socialist mem3

grenulite districts of Saxony and the Austrian Waldviertel near Krems. ; Many gneisses are undoubtedly sedimentary rocks brought to

their present state by such agents of metamorphism as heat, movement, crushing and recrystallization. This may be demonstrated partly by their mode of occurrence; they accompany limestones, graphite-schists, quartzites and other rocks whose sedimentary origin is never in doubt. In many cases bulk chemical composition is a certain clue to their origin, since they correspond in this particular to normal sediments and not to any known igneous rocks. Structural or textural criteria, such as bedding, evidence of original pebbly or clastic character are not mfrequently to be found. The chemical composition of paragneisses is reflected in their mineralogical constitution. Gneisses derived from argillites may be rich in biotite, muscovite, cordierite, almandine-garnet, staurolite, chloritoid, kyanite and sillimanite,

some of which minerals are practically unknown in metamorphosed

igneous rocks, while gneisses derived from limestones or dolomites catry such characteristic minerals as grossularite, idocrase, wol-

lastonite, scapolite or forsterite.

Some para-gneisses are rich in

felspar (orthoclase, microcline and plagioclase) and quartz and

may show so close a resemblance to gneisses of igneous origin

at by no single character, chemical or mineralogical, can their

onginal nature be definitely established. (C. E. T.) GNEIST, HEINRICH RUDOLF HERMANN FRIEDCH VON (1816-1895), German jurist and politician, was bom at Berlin on Aug. 13, 1816, the son of a judge attached to the “Kammergericht” (court of appeal) in that city. After re-

calving his school education at the gymnasium at Eisleben in Sian Saxony, he entered the University of Berlin in 1833 as a

Sudent, of jurisprudence, and became a pupil of Savigny (g.v.).

bers. He was parliamentary reporter for the committees on all great financial and administrative questions, and his advice was frequently sought, not only in his own but also in other countries. In Prussia he largely influenced legislation, the reform of the judicial and penal systems and the new constitution of the Evangelical Church being largely his work. He was also consulted by the Japanese Government when a constitution was being introduced into that country. In 1875—77 he was a member of the supreme administrative court (Oberverwalitungsgericht) of Prussia. In 1882 was published his Englische Verfassungsgeschichte (trans. History of the English Constitution, 1886), a standard work. In 1888 one of the first acts of Frederick III., who had always, aS crown prince, shown great admiration for him, was to ennoble Gneist, and attach him as instructor in constitutional law to his son. He died in Berlin on July 22, 18935. Gneist was a jurist of a special type. To him law was not mere theory, but living force; and this conception of its power animates all his schemes of practical reform. As a teacher he exercised a magnetic influence over his pupils. He was a man of noble bearing, religious, and imbued with a stern sense of duty. He was proud of being a “Preussischer Junker” (a member of the Prussian squirearchy), and he clung loyally to monarchial institutions. A great admirer and a true friend of England, to which country he was attached by many personal ties, he sur-

passed all other Germans in his efforts to make her free ‘institutions, in which he found his ideal, the common heritage of the two

great nations of the Teutonic race.

Gneist’s other works include: Budget und Gesetz nach dem constitutionellen Staatsrecht Englands (1867); Freie Advocatur (1867); Der Rechtsstaat (1872; 2nd ed., 1879); Zur Verwaltungsreform in Preussen (Leipzig, 1880); Das engliscke Parla-

eding to the degree of doctor juris in 1838, young Gneist

ment (1886; Eng. trans. The English Parkameni, 1886; 3rd ed.

essor m 1841. He spent the next few years in Italy, France and England. On his return in 1844 he was appointed extraordinary

fassungsconfiikt von 1862 bis 1866 (1803); Die nationale Rechts-

chose the judicial branch of the legal profession, and was admitted

professor of Roman law in Berlin university, and thus began

1889); Die Militär-Vorlage von 1892 und der preussische Ver-

idee von den Stinden und das préussische Dreiklassenwahlsystem

(1895); Die verfjassungsmdssige Stellung des preussischen

452

GNESEN—GNOSTICISM

Gesammtministeriums (1895). See O. Gierke, Rudolph von Gneist, Gedachtnisrede (1895), an In Memoriam address delivered in Berlin.

GNESEN

(Polish, Gniezno), a town of Poland in the province

of Poznan, on the Wrzesnia, 30 m. E.N.E. of Posen by rail to

Thorn. Pop. (1921) 25,900. Besides the cathedral, a handsome Gothic edifice, there are eight Roman Catholic churches, a Protestant church, a synagogue, a clerical seminary and a convent of the

GNOMES, in folk-lore, the name given to the earth and mountain spirits, usually pictured as bearded dwarfs clad in brow, garments with hoods, who are supposed to guard veins of precious

metals and hidden treasures.

The word “gnome” as applied to

these is said to have been coined by Paracelsus.

GNOMON, a term originally used to mean an instrument

for allowing one to know the time (yropuwv, gndmén, from vyuyvacKey, gigndskein, to know). In its simple and primitive Franciscan nuns. Among the industries are cloth and linen weav- form it seems to have been a stick placed vertically on a plane ing, brewing and distilling. A great horse and cattle market is surface, and later upon the concave surface of a hemisphere, held here annually. Gnesen is one of the oldest towns in the This second form is seen in pocket sundials still used in certain former kingdom of Poland. Its name, Gniezno, signifes “nest,” parts of the world. That the term was at one time substanand points to early Polish traditions. The cathedral is believed tially synonymous with “vertical line” is seen in an expres. to have been founded towards the close of the oth century, and, sion of Oenopides of Chios (c. 465 8.c.), for Proclus (c. 460) having received the bones of St. Adalbert, it was visited in 1000 says that he called “the perpendicular in the archaic manner by the emperor Otto III., who made it the seat of an archbishop. ‘enomon-wise’ (Kara "yywpova), because the gnomon is also at Here, until 1320, the kings of Poland were crowned; and the right angles to the horizon.” From this early use it came to repre. archbishop, since r416 primate of Poland, acted as protector sent a figure like a carpenter’s square, but usually with equal pending the appointment of a new king. In 1821 the see of arms. Seeking, as the Pythagoreans especially did, to relate numPosen was founded and the archbishop removed his residence ber to geometric forms, the early Greek mathematicians imagined thither, though its cathedral chapter still remains at Gnesen. After squares as built up of gnomons added to unity. For example, they saw that 1+3, 1+3-+5, 1+3+5+7, and so on, are squares, and a long period of decay the town revived after 1815. that the odd numbers in a figure like this were related to the See S. Karwowski, Gniezno (Posen, 1892). GNOME, anp GNOMIC POETRY. Sententious maxims, geometric gnomon. Such numbers were, therefore, themselves put into verse for the better aid of the memory, were known by called gnomons. The early idea of a geometric gnomon was exthe Greeks as gnomes, yr@uac, from yvwpn, an opinion, A gnome tended by Euclid (g.v.; c. 300 B.C.) to include a figure consisting is defined by the Elizabethan critic Henry Peacham (1576?- of two parallelograms forming an L. Four or five centuries later 1643?) as “a saying pertaining to the manners and common prac- Heron extended the term still farther, using it to mean that which, tices of men, which declareth, with an apt brevity, what in this added to any number or figure, makes the whole similar to that ta our life ought to be done, or not done.” The Gnomic Poets of which it is added. This usage is also found in the writings of Theon Greece, who flourished in the 6th century B.c., were those who of Smyrna (c. 125) in connection with figurate numbers (g.2.). arranged series of sententious maxims in verse. These were col- For example, the pentagonal numbers are 1+4, 1-+4+7, lected in the 4th century, by Lobon of Argos, an orator, but 1+4+7+10, ..., and the gnomons in this case are 4, 7, 10, his collection has disappeared. The chief gnomic poets were . -3 Le., they constitute an arithmetical series with a common Theognis, Solon, Phocylides, Simonides of Amorgos, Demodocus, difference of 3. In the same way gnomons are developed with Xenophanes, and Euenus. With the exception of Theognis, whose respect to hexagonal and higher polygons. The gnomon with gnomes were fortunately preserved by some schoolmaster about respect to the square was used by early writers in the finding of 300 B.C., only fragments of the Gnomic Poets have come down to square roots, and may still be seen in various elementary arithus. Of the gnomic movement typified by the moral works of the metics and algebras. As to the sundial, with a gnomon as a vertical needle, this is poets named above, Prof. Gilbert Murray has remarked that it receives its special expression in the conception of the Seven Wise said to have been introduced into Greece by Anaximander (g.v.; Men, to whom such proverbs as “Know thyself” and “Nothing c. 575 B.c.), and Herodotus states that it came from the Babylontoo much” were popularly attributed. These gnomes or maxims ians. Brptiocrarpay.—aA brief historical treatment of the subject may be were extended and put into literary shape by the poets. Theognis found in Sir Thomas Heath, A History of Greek Mathematics, vol. in enshrines his moral precepts in his elegies, and this was probably pp. 77-83 (Oxford, 1921); Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie der the custom of the rest; it is improbable that there ever existed Classischen Altertumswissenschaft (Stuttgart, 1894 seq.) ; D. E. Smith, a species of poetry made up entirely of successive gnomes. But History of Mathematics, vol. ii., pp. 601, 603, 669, 67r (Boston, 1925), (D. E. S) the title “gnomic” came to be given to all poetry which dealt in and various other histọries. (or syncratism religious of movement a M, GNOSTICIS a sententious way with questions of ethics. It was, unquestionably, the source from which moral philosophy was directly developed, fusion of different and previously independent beliefs), which and theorists upon life and infinity, such as Pythagoras and Xeno- maintained itself side by side with genuine Christianity as the phanes, seem to have begun their career as gnomic poets. By the latter was gradually crystallizing into the ancient Catholic Church, very nature of things, gnomes, in their literary sense, belong and which bore the strong impress of Christian influences. The exclusively to the dawn of literature; their naïveté and their sim- movement first came into prominence in the opening years of the plicity in moralizing betray it. But it has been observed that many and century; it reached its height in the 3rd quarter of that of the ethical reflections of the great dramatists, and in particular century, after which it began to wane, and from the 2nd half of of Sophocles and Euripides, are gnomic distiches expanded. It the 3rd century was replaced by the closely-related and more would be an error to suppose that the ancient Greek gnomes are powerful Manichaean movement. Offshoots of it, however, cop all of a solemn character; some are voluptuous and some chival- tinued on into the 4th and sth centuries and many of its ideas rous: those of Demodocus of Leros had the reputation of being survived among later mystics. Gnosis as Revelation.—If we wish to grasp the peculiar droll. In modern times, the gnomic spirit has occasionally been displayed by poets of a homely philosophy, such as Francis Quarles character of the great Gnostic movement, we must take care not (1592—1644) in England and Gui de Pibrac (1529-1584) in France. to be led astray by the catchword “Gnosis.” It is a mistake to The once-celebrated Quatrains of the latter, published in 1574, regard the Gnostics as pre-eminently the representatives of intelenjoyed an immense success throughout Europe; they were com- lect among Christians, and Gnosticism as an intellectual tendency posed in deliberate imitation of the Greek gnomic writers of the chiefly concerned with philosophical speculation, the reconcills6th century B.C. These modern effusions are rarely literature tion of religion with philosophy and theology. It is true that when and perhaps never poetry. With the gnomic writings of Pibrac Gnosticism was at its height it numbered amongst its followers it was long customary to bind up those of Antoine Favre (or both theologians and men of science, but that is not its mam

Faber) (1557-1624) and of Pierre Mathieu (1563-1621). Gnomes are frequently to be found in the ancient literatures of Arabia, Persia and India. and in the Icelandic staves. (E. G.)

characteristic. Among the majority of the followers of the move ment “Gnosis” was understood not as meaning “knowledge” o “understanding,”

in our sense of the word, but “revelation.

GNOSTICISM

453

These little Gnostic sects and groups all lived in the conviction |acterized as “angels,” and are reckoned as the last and lowest that they possessed a secret and mysterious knowledge, in no way 1 emanations of the Godhead; below them—and frequently conaccessible to those outside, and not based on reflection, on sidered as derived from them—comes the world of the actually

scientific inquiry and proof, but on revelation.

directly from the times

of primitive

It was derived

Christianity;

from

the

Saviour himself and his disciples and friends, with whom they aimed to be connected by a secret tradition, or else from later

prophets, of whom many sects boasted. It was laid down in wonderful mystic writings, which were in the possession of the yarious circles (Liechtenhahn, Die Offenbarung im Gnosticismus. In short, Gnosticism, in all its various sections, its form and its character, falls under the great category of mystic religions, which were so characteristic of the religious life of decadent antiquity. All alike boast a mystic revelation and a deeply-

yelled wisdom. As in many mystical religions, so in Gnosticism, the ultimate object is individual salvation, the assurance

of a

fortunate destiny for the soul after death. As in the others, so in this the central object of worship is a redeemer-deity who has already trodden the difficult way which the faithful have to follow. Symbols.—And as in all mystical religions, so here too, holy rites and formulas, acts of initiation and consecration, all those things which we call sacraments, play a very prominent part. The Gnostic religion is full of such sacraments. Indeed, sacred formulas, names and symbols are of the highest importance among the

Gnostic sects. We constantly meet with the idea that the soul, on leaving the body, finds its path to the highest heaven opposed by the deities and demons of the lower realms of heaven, and

only when it is in possession of the names of these demons, and

can repeat the proper holy formula, or is prepared with the right

symbol, or has been anointed with the holy oil, finds its way unhindered to the heavenly home.

Hence the Gnostic must above

all things learn the names of the demons, and equip himself with the sacred formulas and symbols, in order to be certain of a good destiny after death. The expasition of the system of the Ophites given by Celsus (in Origen vi. 25 seg.), and, in connection with Celsus, by Origen, is particularly instructive on this point. It was taught that even the redeemer-god, when he once descended on to this earth, to rise from it again, availed himself of these names and formulas on his descent and ascent through the world of demons. Traces of ideas of this kind are to be met with almost everywhere. They have been most carefully collected by Anz

(Ursprung des Gnosticismus, Texte und Untersuchungen xv. 4 passim) who sees in them the central doctrine of Gnosticism. Evil and the Emanations.—The basis of the Gnostic religion and world-philosophy lies in a decided Oriental dualism. In sharp contrast are opposed the two worlds of the good and of the evil, the divine world and the material world (#\7), the worlds of light

and of darkness. The material world is believed to be the true seat of evil, full of active energies and hostile powers. Even when there is an attempt at reconciliation, it is still quite clear how strong was the original dualism which has to be overcome. A characteristic attempt is set forth in the so-called “system of emanations” in which it is assumed that from the supreme divinity emanated a somewhat lesser world, from this world a second, and 80 On, until the divine element (of life) became so far weakened and attenuated, that the genesis of a partly, or even wholly, evil world appears both possible and comprehensible, A system of emanations of this kind, in its purest form, is set forth in the expositions coming from the school of Basilides, which are handed by Irenaeus. All these efforts at reconciliation show how dearly the problem of evil was realized in these Gnostic and half-

Gnostic sects, and how deeply they meditated on the subject.

Another characteristic feature of the Gnostic conception of the

tmiverse is the réle played in almost all Gnostic systems by the seven world-creating powers. There are indeed certain exceptions; or instance, in the systems of the Valentinian schools there is the

of the one Demiurge who takes the place of the Seven. But

W widespread was the idea of seven powers, who created this material world and rule over it, has been clearly proved, ‘specially by the systematic examination of the subject by Anz

(Ursprung des Gnosticismus). These Seven, then, are in most ‘ystems half-evil, half-hostile powers; they are frequently char-

devilish powers. There can scarcely be any doubt as to the origin of these seven powers; they are the seven planetary divinities, the sun, moon and five planets. They imply a fusion of Babylonian and Persian beliefs, resulting in a degradation of the Babylonian planetary deities into half-angelic, half-demonic beings, in-

finitely remote from the supreme God of light.

The Way to Heaven.—With

this fundamental doctrine of

Gnosticism is connected, as Anz has shown, a side of their religious practices to which we have already alluded. Gnosticism is to a great extent dominated by the idea that it is in the highest degree important for the Gnostic’s soul to be enabled to find its way back through the lower worlds and spheres of heaven ruled by the Seven to the kingdom of light, of the supreme deity of heaven. Hence, a principal item in their religious practice consisted in communications about the being, nature and names of the Seven (or of any other hostile daemons barring the way to heaven), the formulas with which they must be addressed, and the symbols which must be shown to them. But names, symbols and formulas are not efficacious by themselves: the Gnostic must lead a life having no part in the lower world ruled by these spirits, and by his knowledge he must raise himself above them to the God of the world of light. Throughout this mystic religious world it was above all the influence of the late Greek religion, derived from Plato, that also continued to operate; it is filled with the echo of the song, the first note of which was sounded by the Platonists, about the heavenly home of the soul and the homeward journey of the wise to the higher world of light. The Great Mother.—We cannot here undertake to set forth and explain in detail all the complex varieties of the Gnostic systems; but it will be useful to take a nearer view of certain principal figures which have had an influence upon at least one series of Gnostic systems. In almost all systems an important

part is played by the Great Mother (ujrnp) who appears under

the most varied forms. The origin of this figure is not far to seek. It is certainly not derived from the Persian religious system, to the spirit of which it is entirely opposed. Neither would it be correct to identify her entirely with the great goddess Ishtar of the old Babylonian religion. But there can hardly be any doubt that the figure of the great mother-goddess or goddess of heaven, who was worshipped throughout Asia under various forms and names (Astarte, Beltis, Atargatis, Cybele, the Syrian Aphrodite), was the prototype of the pntnp of the Gnostics. The character of the great, goddess of heaven is still in many places fairly exactly preserved in the Gnostic speculations. Hence we are able to understand how the Gnostic unto, the Sophia, appears as the mother of the Hebdomas. The great goddess of heaven is the mother of the stars. Primal Man.—Another characteristic figure of Gnosticism is that of the Primal Man (apé&ros &v@pwros), the man who existed before the world, the prophet who goes through the world in various forms, and finally reveals himself in Christ. This figure can particularly be compared with that of the Gnostic Sophia. It represents that divine power which, whether simply owing to a fall, or as the hero who makes war on and is partly vanquished by darkness, descends into the darkness of the material world, and with whose descent begins the great drama of the world’s development. From this power are derived those portions of light exist-

ing and held prisoner in this lower world. And as he has raised himself again out of the material world, or has been set free by higher powers, so also shall the portions of light still imprisoned in matter be set free. |’ A parallel myth to that of the Primal Man are the accounts to be found in most of the Gnostic systems of the creation of the first man. In all these accounts the idea is expressed that so far as his body is concerned man is the work of the beings who created the world. And as the man thus formed was unable to move, but could only crawl like a worm, the supreme Power put into him a spark of life, and man came into existence. The Myth of Salvation.—Of the fundamental ideas of

454

GNOSTICISM

Gnosticism of which we have so far treated, it can with some Gnosticism. It was just at this point, too, that Gnosticism Started certainty be assumed that they were in existence before the rise a development which was followed later by the Catholic Church, of Christianity and the inñuence of Christian ideas on the de- In spite of the rejection of the ascetic attitude of the Gnostics a¢ velopment of Gnosticism. The main question with which we have a blasphemy against the Creator, a part of this ascetic principle now to deal is that of whether the dominant figure of the Saviour became at a later date dominant throughout all Christendom. And (Zwrhp) in Gnosticism is of specifically Christian derivation, or it is interesting to observe how, e.g., St. Augustine, though des. whether this can also be explained apart from the assumption of perately combating the dualism of the Manichaeans, yet afterChristian influence. And here it must be premised that, intimately wards introduced a number of dualistic ideas into Christianity as the conception of salvation is bound up with the Gnostic which are distinguishable from those of Manichaeism only bya religion, the idea of salvation accomplished in a definite historical very keen eye, and even then with difficulty. Gnosticism and the Church.—The Gnostic religion also ap. moment to a certain extent remained foreign to it. Indeed, nearly all the Christian Gnostic systems clearly exhibit the great difi- ticipated other tendencies. As we have seen, it is above all culty with which they had to contend in order to reconcile the things a religion of sacraments and mysteries. Through its syp. idea of an historical redeemer, actually occurring in the form of a cretic origin Gnosticism introduced for the first time into definite person, with their conceptions of salvation. In Gnosticism Christianity a whole mass of sacramental, mystical ideas, which salvation always lies at the root of all existence and all history. had hitherto existed in it only in its earliest phases. Gnosticism In fact salvation, as conceived in Gnosticism, is always a myth, a was also the pioneer of the Christian Church in the strong history of bygone events, an allegory or figure, but not an emphasis laid on the idea of salvation in religion. Finally, it was Gnosticism which gave the most decided imhistorical event. This explains the laborious and artificial way in which the person of Jesus is connected in many Gnostic systems pulse to the consolidation of the Christian Church as a church, with the original Gnostic conception of redemption. In this Gnosticism itself is a free, naturally-growing religion, the religion patchwork the joins are everywhere still clearly to be recognized. of isolated minds, of separate little circles and minute sects. The Thus the essential part of most of the conceptions of what we homogeneity of wide circles, the sense of responsibility engencall Gnosticism was already in existence and fully developed dered by it, and continuity with the past are almost entirely lackbefore the rise of Christianity. But the fundamental ideas of ing in it. It is based upon revelation, which even at the present Gnosticism and of early Christianity had a kind of magnetic time is imparted to the individual, upon the more or less convincattraction for each other. What drew these two forces together ing force of the religious imagination and speculations of a few was the energy exerted by the universal idea of salvation in both leaders, upon the voluntary and unstable grouping of the schools systems. Christian Gnosticism actually introduced only one new round the master. Its adherents feel themselves to be the isolated, figure into the already existing Gnostic theories, namely that of the few, the free and the enlightened, as opposed to the the historical Saviour Jesus Christ. This figure afforded, as it sluggish and inert masses of mankind degraded in matter, or were, a new point of crystallization for the existing Gnostic ideas, the initiated as opposed to the uninitiated, the Gnostics as opwhich now grouped themselves round this point in all their mani- posed to the “Hylici” (jArxol) 5;at most in the later and more fold diversity. Thus there came into the fluctuating mass a strong moderate schools a middle place was given to the adherents of the movement and formative impulse, and the individual systems and Church as Psychici (Wvyuxol). This freely-growing Gnostic religiosity aroused in the Church sects sprang up like mushrooms from this soil. Above all the Gnostics represented and developed the distinctly anti-Jewish an increasingly strong movement towards unity and a firm and tendency in Christianity. Paul was the apostle whom they rev- inelastic organization, towards authority and tradition. An organerenced, and his spiritual influence on them is quite unmistakable. ized hierarchy, a definitive canon of the Holy Scriptures, a conThe Gnostic Marcion has been rightly characterized as a direct fession of faith and rule of faith, and unbending doctrinal disdisciple of Paul. Paul’s battle against the law and the narrow cipline, these were the means employed. A part was also played national conception of Christianity found a willing following in a in this movement by a free theology which arose within the movement, the syncretic origin of which directed it towards a Church itself, a kind of Gnosticism which aimed at holding fast universal religion. St. Paul’s ideas were here developed to their whatever was good in the Gnostic movement, and obtaining its extremest consequences, and in an entirely one-sided fashion such | recognition within the limits of the Church (Clement of Alexas was far from his intention. In approximately all the Gnostic | andria, Origen). It must be considered as an unqualified advantage for the systems the doctrine of the seven world-creating spirits Is given an anti-Jewish tendency, the god of the Jews and of the Old | further development of Christianity, as a universal religion, that Testament appearing as the highest of the seven. The Demiurge at its very outset it prevailed against the great movement of of the Valentinians always clearly bears the features of the Old Gnosticism. In spite of the fact that in a few of its later representatives Gnosticism assumed a more refined and spiritual aspect, Testament creator-God. The attitude of Gnosticism to the Old Testament and to the and even produced blossoms of a true and beautiful piety, it is creator-God proclaimed in it had its deeper roots, as we have fundamentally and essentially an unstable religious syncretism, already seen, in the dualism by which it was dominated. With this a religion in which the determining forces were a fantastic oriental dualism and the recognition of the worthlessness and absolutely imagination and a sacramentalism which degenerated into the vicious nature of the material world is combined a decided spirit- wildest superstitions, a weak dualism fluctuating unsteadily beualism. The conception of a resurrection of the body, of a further tween asceticism and libertinism. Sects and Leaders.—For descriptions of the various sects and existence for the body after death, was unattainable by almost all of the Gnostics, with the possible exception of a few Gnostic leaders reference must be made to the works mentioned below. sects dominated by Judaeo-Christian tendencies. With the Only the briefest indication can here be given. The earlier sects dualistic philosophy is further connected an attitude of absolute are not associated with the name of any personal founders or indifference towards this lower and material world, and the prac- leading teachers. In the controversial writings of the Fathers we tice of asceticism. Marriage and sexual propagation are con- can distinguish the “Ophites,” “Naasenes,” “Peratae,” “Sethians,” sidered either as absolute Evil or as altogether worthless, and “Cainites,” “Archontics,” “Severians,” “Barbelo-gnostics,” “Jus carnal pleasure is frequently looked upon as forbidden. Then tinians,” “Nicolaitans,” and other more obscure sects. In these, again asceticism sometimes changes into wild libertinism. Here the element of imaginative and fantastic mythology pr again Gnosticism has exercised an influence on the development of dominates over Christian or philosophical speculation. On the Church by way of contrast and opposition. If here a return other hand, the sects or systems connected with the names of

was made to the old material view of the resurrection (the apostolic dvacracts ris capxés), entirely abandoning the more

spiritual conception which had been arrived at as a compromise by Paul, this is probably the result ofa reaction from the views of

personal teachers reflect the main development of Gnosticism

its alliance with Christianity, which first appears definitely m

Cerinthus (q.v.), towards the end of the first century, then m Satornilos and (with extreme antinomianism) in Carpocrates

GNU—GOA

455

and above all in the two great masters of Gnosticism, Basilides | vi. 25 seq.). Of Tertullian’s works should be mentioned: De praescrip-

(gv.) and Valentinus (q.v.). Both of these founded influential

gchools of followers who developed and altered their doctrines. Irenaeus connects with Valentinus the doctrines of Ptolemaeus, Heracleon, Bardesanes, and others.

Bardesanes, however, is an

independent and original thinker and has been called the last of

the great Gnostic teachers. Apart from all other Gnostics stands

Marcion. With him, the manifold Gnostic speculations are reduced to the one problem of the contrast of justice and love, of the God of the Old Testament and the God of the Christians. Between these Marcion affirms an irreconcilable opposition which

with him rests on a speculative basis. Through the noble simplicity and intensely religious character

of his teaching, Marcion was

able to found not only schools of followers, but a religious community which gave trouble to the Church longer than any other Gnostic movement. BrstiocrAPHY.—Of the actual writings of the Gnostics, which were extraordinarily numerous, very little has survived; they were sacrificed to the destructive zeal of their ecclesiastical opponents. Numerous fragments and extracts from Gnostic writings are to be found in the works of the Fathers who attacked Gnosticism. Most valuable of all are the long extracts in the 5th and 6th books of the Philosophumena of Hippolytus. The most accessible and best critical edition of the fragments which have been preserved word for word is to be found in Hilgenfeld’s Ketzergeschichte des Urchristentums. One of the most important of these fragments is the letter of Ptolemaeus to Flora, preserved in Epiphanius, Hoeres. xxxiii. 3-7 (see on this point Harnack in the Sitzungsberichte

der Berliner Akademie,

1902,

pp, 507-545). Gnostic fragments are certainly also preserved for us in the Acts of Thomas. Here we should especially mention the beautiful and much-discussed Song of tke Pearl, or Song of the Soul, which is generally, though without absolute clear proof, attributed to Bardesanes (till lately it was known only in the Syrian text;

edited and translated

by Bevan,

Texts and Studies, v. 3, 1897;

Hofmann, Zeitschrift für neutestamentliche Wissenschaft, iv.; for the

newly-found Greek text see Acta apostolorum, ed. Bonnet, ii. 2, c. 108, p. 219). Generally also much Gnostic matter is contained in the apocryphal histories of the Apostles. We should also mention in this connection the text on which are based the pseudo-Clementine Homilies and Recognitiones (beginning of the 3rd century). It is, of course, already permeated with the Catholic spirit, but has drawn so largely upon sources of a Judaeo-Christian Gnostic character that it comes to a great extent within the category of sources for Gnosticism. Complete original Gnostic works have unfortunately survived to us only from the period of the decadence of Gnosticism. Of these we should mention the comprehensive work called the Pistis Sophia, probably belonging to the 2nd half of the 3rd century, translated by C. Schmidt, Koptisch-gnostische Schriften, i. (1905), in the series Die griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei Jahrhunderte. The Egyptian Gnostic texts edited by C. ‘Schmidt, Texte u. Untersuchungen, vol. viii. (1892) and Koptische-gnostische Schriften, vol. i., probably represent an advanced stage in the decadénce of Gnosticism (but see also the same writer in Sitsungsberichte der Berl, Akad. for

1896, p. 839 ff.).

Dr

On the whole, then, for an exposition of Gnosticism we are thrown back upon the polemical writings of the Fathers jn their controversy with heresy. The most ancient of these is Justin, who according to

his Apol. i. 26 wrote a Syntagma against all heresies (c. AD. 150), and also, probably, a special polemic against -Marcion (fragment in Trenaeus iv. 6. 2). Both

these writings are lost.

He was followed

by Irenaeus, who, especially in the first book of his treatise Adversus eses (ehéyxou kal dvarporss ris Yevdwivpou yrdoews BiBNia errve, £. AD. 180), gives a detailed account of the Gnostic heresies. He founds his work upon that of his master Justin, but adds from his own knowledge among many other things, notably the detailed account Valentinianism at the beginning

of the book., On Irenaeus, and

probably also on Justin, Hippolytus drew for his Syntagma (beginning of the 3rd century), a work which is also lost, but can, with

Rreat certainty, be reconstructed from three recensions of it: in the

rion of Epiphanius (after 374), in Philaster of Brescia, Adversus eses, and the Pseudo-Tertullian, Liber adversus omnes haereses. second work of Hippolytus (Kara racdy alpicewr treyxos) is preserved in the so-called Philosophumena which survives under the mame of Origen. Here Hippolytus gave a second exposition supplemented by fresh Gnostic original sources with which he had become acquainted in the meanwhile. These sources quoted in Hippolytus ve lately met with very unfavourable criticisms. Very noteworthy

references to Gnosticism are also to be found scattered up and down

Stromateis of Clement of Alexandria. Especially important are Excerpta ex Theodoto, the author of which is certainty Clement, are verbally extracted from Gnostic writings, and have almost the value of original sources. The ‘writings’ of Origen also‘ contain

3 wealth of material. In the first place should be mentioned the Contru Celsum, in which the expositions of Gnosticism by beth Origen and Celsus are of interest (see éspecially’ v. 61' seg: ‘and

tione haereticorum, Adversus Marcionem, Adversus Hermogenem, and finally Adversus Valentinianos (entirely founded on Irenaeus). Here must also be mentioned the dialogue of Adamantius with the Gnostics, De recta in deum fide (beginning of 4th century). Among the followers of Hippolytus, Epiphanius in his Panarion gives much independent and valuable information from his own knowledge of contemporary Gnosticism. But Theodoret of Cyrus (d. 455) is already entirely dependent on previous works and has nothing new to add. With the 4th century both Gnosticism and the polemical literature directed against it die out. The modern literature of the subject is extensive. Here references are given to a few modern contributions where guidance to further study can be obtained. See E. F. Scott, articles “Gnosticism” and “Valentinianism” in Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, and A. S. Peake, articles “Basilides,” “Cerinthus” and “Marcion,” ibid., Harnack, Dogmengeschichte, 4th ed. (where the account of Gnosticism differs from that of the 3rd ed. from which the English translation was made); Kriiger, article “Gnosticismus” in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie; Liechtenhan, Die Offenbarung im Gnosticismus, 1901; E. de Faye,

Introd. & Vétude du Gnosticisme, 1903; W. Bousset, Hauptprobleme der Gnosis, 1911; and the works of Anz and others punoa ae

GNU, the large white-tailed South African antelope (g.v.}, known to the Boers as the black wildebeest and to naturalists as Connochaetes gnu. A second and larger species is the brindled gnu or blue wildebeest (Gorgon taurinus); and there are several East African forms related to the latter. GOA, the name of the past and present capitals of Portuguese India, and of the surrounding territory more exactly described as Goa settlement, on the western coast between 15° 44’ and 14° 53”

N., and between 73° 45’ and 74° 26’ E. Pop. (1921) 508,058, area 1,30I Sq.m.

Goa Settlement.—-With Damaun and Diu (g.v.) Goa settle-

ment forms a single administrative province ruled by a governor-general, and a single ecclesiastical province subject to the archbishop of Goa, who is primate of the East and patriarch of the East Indies. For judicial purposes the province includes

Macao in China, and Timor in the Malay Archipelago. There are

legislative and executive councils which work in collaboration with

the governor.

It is bounded on the north by the river Terakhul

or Araundem, which divides it from the Savantwadi state, east by the Western Ghats, south by Kanara district, and west by the Arabian sea. It comprises the four districts conquered early in the 16th century and therefore known as the Velhas Conquistas (Old Conquests), seven districts acquired later and known as the Novas

(New) Conquistas, and the island of Anjidiv or Anjadiva.

The

settlement, which has a coast-line of 62 m., is hilly, especially in the Novas Conquistas, including a portion of the Western Ghats

rising nearly to 4,000 ft. The two largest rivers are the Mandawvi and the Juari, which together encircle the island of Goa (Ilhas), being connected on the landward side by a creek. The island is triangular, the apex, called the cabo or cape, being a rocky headland separating the harbour of Goa into two anchorages—Agoada or Aguada at the mouth of the Mandavi, on the north, and Mormagao at the mouth of the Juari, on the south. The southern, sheltered by the promontory of Salsette is the more important.

Its trade is mostly transit trade, manganese and cotton being exported. A breakwater and quay have recently been built. A railway, managed by the Madras and Southern Mahratta company connects Mormagao, south of the Juari estuary, with Castle Rock on the Western Ghats. Goa exports coconuts, fruit, spices, fish and salt, but its trade is small, and its manufactures few. Rice is the staple product, with fruit, salt, coconuts and betelnut. The

population of the Velhas Conquistas is largely Christian, and that of the Novas Conquistas Hindu. The Christians are mostly Roman Catholics. The native population speak Konkani. Iron and manganese occur, but have been little worked recently. Cities of Goa.—z, The ancient Hindu city of Goa, of which hardly a fragment survives, was built at the southernmost point of the island, and was famous in early Hindu legend and history. In the Puranas and certain inscriptions its name appears as Gove, Govapuri, Gomant, etc.; the mediaeval Arabian geographers knew it as Sindabur or Sandabur, and the Portuguese as Goa Velha. It was ruled by the Kadamba dynasty from the and céntury A.D, to 1312, and by Mohammedan invaders of the Deccan from 1312 until about 1370. It was then annexed to the

456

GOALPARA—GOAT

Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar. 2. Old Goa, founded in 1440, is, for the most part, a city of ruins. The chief surviving buildings are the cathedral, founded by Albuquerque in 1511, rebuilt in 1623, and still used for public worship; the convent of St. Francis (1517), a converted mosque rebuilt in 1661, with a portal of carved black stone, the only relic of Portuguese architecture in India dating from the first quarter of the 16th century; the chapel of St. Catherine (1551); the fine church of Bom Jesus (1594-1603), containing the shrine of St. Francis Xavier (see XAVIER, FRANCISCO DE); and the 17th century convents of St. Monica and St. Cajetan. The college of St. Paul is in ruins. 3- Panjim, Pangim or New Goa originally a suburb of Old Goa, is built like the parent city, on the left bank of the Mandavi estuary, in 15° 30° N. and 73° 33’ E. Pop. (1921) 7,388. It is a modern port, containing the Archbishop’s palace, government house, barracks, etc. Panjim became the residence of the viceroy in 1759 and the capital of Portuguese India in 1843. It possesses a lyceum, commercial, medical and normal schools, and an experimental agricultural station. Political History.—With the subdivision of the Bahmani kingdom, after 1482, Goa passed into the power of Yusuf Adil Shah, king of Bijapur, who was its ruler when the Portuguese first reached India. At this time Goa was important as the startingpoint of pilgrims from India to Mecca, as a mart with no rival except Calicut on the west coast, and especially as the centre of the import trade in horses (Gulf Arabs) from Hormuz. It was easily defensible by any power with command of the sea, and was attacked on the roth of February 1510 by the Portuguese under Albuquerque. As a Hindu ascetic had foretold its downfall and the garrison of Ottoman mercenaries was outnumbered, the city surrendered without a struggle, and Albuquerque entered it in triumph. Three months later Yusuf Adil Shah returned with 60,000 troops, forced the passage of the ford, and blockaded the Portuguese in their ships from May to August, when the cessation of the monsoon enabled them to put to sea. In November Albuquerque returned with a larger force and after overcoming a desperate resistance, recaptured the city and massacred the entire Mohammedan population. i Goa was the first territorial possession of the Portuguese in

Asia. Albuquerque and his successors left almost untouched the

customs and constitutions of the 30 village communities on the island, only abolishing the rite of suttee. A register of these customs (Foral de usos e costumes) was published in 1526, and an abstract of it Is given in R.S. Whiteway’s Rise of the Portuguese

Empire in India (Loudon, 1898).

the work of evangelization almost alone, with such success that in 1534 Pope Paul lII. made Goa a bishopric, with spiritual jurisdiction over all Portuguese possessions between China and the Cape of Good Hope, though itself suffragan to the archbishopric of Funchal in Madeira. A Franciscan friar, João de Albuquerque came to Goa as its first bishop in 1538. In 1542 St. Francis Xavier came to Goa, and took over the Franciscan college of

Santa Fé, for the training of native missionaries; this was re.

named the College of St. Paul, and became the headquarters of

all Jesuit missions in the East, where the Jesuits were commonly

styled Paulistas. By a Bull dated the 4th of February 1557 Goa

was made an archbishopric, with jurisdiction over the sees of

Malacca and Cochin, to which were added Macao (1575), Japan (1588), Angamale or Cranganore

(1600), Meliapur (Mylapur)

(1606), Peking and Nanking (1610), together with the bishopric of Mozambique, which included the entire coast of East Africa, In 1606 the archbishop received the title of Primate of the East, and the king of Portugal was named Patron of the Catholic Mis. sions in the East; his right of patronage was limited by the Concordat of 1857 to Goa, Malacca, Macao and certain parts of

British India. The Inquisition was introduced into Goa in 1560: a vivid account of its proceedings is given by C. Dellon, Relation de inquisition de Goa (1688). Five ecclesiastical councils, which

dealt with matters of discipline, were held at Goa—in 1567, 1573, 1585, 1592 and 1606; the archbishop of Goa also presided over

the more

important synod of Diamper

(Udayamperur, about

t2m. S.E. of Cochin), which in 1599 condemned as heretical the

tenets and liturgy of the Indian Nestorians (g.v.), or Christians of St. Thomas. In 1675 Fryer described Goa as “a Rome in India, both for absoluteness and fabrics.” The Jesuits were expelled in 1759, the Inquisition was abolished in 1814 and the religious orders were secularized in 1835. BIBLIOGRAPHY —J. N. da Fonseca, An Historical and Archaeological Sketch of Goa (Bombay, 1878); The Commentaries ..., af Dalboquerque (Hakluyt Society’s translation, London, 1877), the Cartas of Albuquerque (Lisbon, 1884), the Historia ... da Indis of F. L. de Castanheda (Lisbon, 1833, written before 1552), the Lendas da India of G. Correa (Lisbon, 1860, written 1514-1566), and the Decadas da India of João de Barros and D, do Couto (Lisbon, 1778-1788, written about 1530-1616). Archivo Portugues oriental (6 parts, New Goa, 1857-1877); the travels of Varthema (c. 1505), Linschoten (c. 1580), Pyrard (1608) in the Hakluyt Society’s translations; +J. Mocquet, Voyages (Paris, 1830, written 1608-1610); P. Baldaeus, in Churchill’s Voyages, vol. 3 (London, 1732); J. Fryer, A New Account of East India and Persia (London, 1698); A. de Mandelslo, Voyages (London, 1669) ; Les Voyages de M. de Thevenot aux Indes Orientales (Amsterdam, 1779), and A. Hamilton, A New Account of the East Indies (London, 1774). For Goa in the 2oth century see The Imperial Gazetteer of India.

Goa became the capital of the whole Portuguese empire in the GOALPARA, a town and district of British India, in the East. It was granted the same civic privileges as Lisbon. In 1542 Brahmaputra valley division of Assam. The town (pop. 6,212) St. Francis Xavier mentions the architectural splendour of the overlooks the Brahmaputra. It was the frontier outpost of the city; but it reached the climax of its prosperity between 1575 and Mohammedan power, and has long been a flourishing seat of river 1625. The appearance of the Dutch in Indian waters was followed trade. The civil station is built on the summit of a small hill. The by the gradual ruin of Goa. In 1603 and 1639 the city was block- town has declined in importance since the district headquarters aded by Dutch fleets, though never captured, and in 1635 it was were removed to Dhubri in 1879. ravaged by an epidemic. Its trade was gradually monopolized The area is 3,954. square miles, Pop. (1921) 762,523. It is sttby the Jesuits.. Thevenot in 1666, Baldaeus in 1672, Fryer in uated along the Brahmaputra, at the corner where the river takes 1675 describe its ever-increasing poverty and decay. In 1683 its southerly course from Assam into Bengal. Along the banks of only the timely appearance of a Mogul army saved it from capture the river grow clumps of cane and reed; farther back stretch fields by a horde of Mahratta raiders. and in 1739 the whole territory of rice cultivation, broken only by the fruit trees surrounding the was attacked by the same enemies, and only saved by the unex- villages, and in the background rise the forest-clad hills overtopped pected arrival of a new viceroy with a fleet. This peril was al- by the white peaks of the Himalayas. The Brahmaputra annually ways imminent until 1759, when a peace with the Mahrattas was inundates vast tracts of country. Extensive forests yield valuable concluded. In the same year the proposal to remove the seat of timber; goo sq.m. are reserved forest. Wild elephants abound in government to Panjim was carried out; it had been discussed as the forests. Rice forms the staple crop. Mustard and jute are early as 1684. Between 1695 and 1775 the population dwindled also largely grown. The cultivation of tea has been introduced from 20,000 to 1,600, and in 1835 Goa was only inhabited by a but is confined to 2,000 acres. few priests, monks and nuns. Dhubri (pop. 6,707), the administrative headquarters of the Ecclesiastical History—Some Dominican friars came out to district stands on the Brahmaputra where that river takes its Goa in rsro, but no large missionary enterprise was undertaken great bend south, and has a station on the Eastern Bengal State

before the arrival of the Franciscans in 1517. From their head- railway. quarters in Goa the Franciscan preachers visited many parts of GOAT, the ruminant of the genus Capra, closely allied to the western India, and even journeyed to Ceylon, Peau and the sheep. While usually easy to distinguish the two, certain hat Malay Archipelago. For nearly twenty-five years they carried on breeds of sheep are, to the layman, only distinguishable from goals

GOAT by the direction of the tail, upward in goats, downward in sheep. Domesticated goats are descended from the pasang (Capra aega-

rus). Probably the east was its original home, the earliest records

heing Persian. C. aegagrus is probably represented in Europe by the Cretan and Cyclades races, now crossed with the common goat (C. hircus). For other wild goats, see IBEX, MARKHOR, TAHR

and Rocky MOUNTAIN GOAT.

In China, India, Egypt, Europe and North America the goat is primarily a milk-producer. By good management its limited breeding season and the conse-

quent difficulty of maintaining a level supply throughout the year

can be largely overcome.

For

large scale milk-production goats

The are inferior to cattle. Angora and Cashmere goats pro-

duce “wool”

or mohair.

The

fesh is edible, that from young

beasts being quite tender. The goat, however, does not fatten easily. Goats are also used to keep sheep spread out and on

BY COURTESY SOCIETY

OF

THE

N.Y.

ZOOLOGICAL

TAHR, OR HIMALAYAN WILD GOAT (HEMITRAGUS JEMLAICUS), LIVING IN HIGH ALTITUDES AND FREQUENT-

457

has long, shaggy hair. The colour is generally reddish black. They are good milkers and foragers but with a short lactation period. The Welsh and Scottish goats are of the Irish type. The British Goat society (founded 1879) represents some 1,500 goat-keepers. It conducts a herd-book, and by the end of 1927, had registered over

11,000 animals.

The society publishes

a monthly

journal

and a valuable Year Book, besides Herd Books. Most of the improved British goats have much imported blood, but are developing into distinct types and improving in milk-yield. The world’s record (1928) for one day’s milk-yield at 2 show is 18 Ib. 7 oz., from Didgemere Dream, a British Alpine, and for 365 days lactation is held by Wonderstrike, a Saanen, with a yield of 4.464 lb. In the United States and Canada, goats are valuable for wool, milk and as scrub removers. They are found principally in the Southern States, California and British Columbia. The wool type is the Angora, chiefly found in Texas, but also in California. The milk goats are largely Toggenburgs, Saanens and Anglo-Nubians. The principal herd-book association is the American Milk Goat Record association of Vincennes, Indiana. The Canadian Goat society is at Victoria, B.C. There are three journals published

in the United States; The Goat World (monthly), The National Bulletin of Milk Goats (bi-monthly) and The International Dairy

the move. ING THE MOST INACCESSIBLE Goat Journal. Of the wool goats there are two main types: the Angora or The chalky-white milk con- GROUND OF ALL RUMINANTS tains a higher proportion of solids than that of the cow, and is Mohair and the Cashmere or Shawl goat. The Angora, owing apparently more digestible. It is also free from tuberculosis to its likeness to the sheep, has been held by many authorities to germs. In parts of Europe it is much used for cheese-making. be descended from Capra falconeri, not from C. Aegagrus. Its Distribution and Kinds——Thete are many breeds of goat, original home wa$ Tibet. There are many varieties. Angoras have which may be roughly grouped: the prick-eared, e.g., Swiss been established in South Africa, Australia and the United States. goats; the eastern or Nubian, with long drooping ears; the dwarf About three-quarters of the mohair produced in the United States comes from Texas. The Angora is a poor milker. The soft, silky and wool goat, e.g., Angora. Of the Swiss goats, from which many of the best modern breeds hair covers the whole body and most of the legs with close matted are derived, the Toggenburg and Saanen are most important. The ringlets. If not shorn in spring the fleece drops off naturally as French breeds have much Swiss blood. On the Pyrenees the goats summer approaches. There is an undergrowth of short hair. are of very mixed origin, big but disposing of much food with- The average weight of fleece is about 2} 1b., though good speciout corresponding milk yield. In Germany there are many vari- mens yield up to r2 Ib. The Angora must have a dry climate and eties tracing to Swiss breeds. The Hartz Mountain goat is prob- then stands cold well. In the Cashmere, which is more like the common goat than ably native. There are many goats of Swiss type throughout Scandinavia. Holland goats, mostly white, hornless and of Saanen type, are in high esteem. The Maltese goat undoubtedly contains Eastern blood. Its milk is important, but is probably flavoured by the garbage feed. This goat is noteworthy as the carrier of Malta fever (g.v.). Many goats are found in Spain. Mauretania‘appears to be the home of three good types, Murcian, Grenada and La Mancha. In Italy and along the eastern Adriatic goats are fairly plentiful: a recent edict of the Italian Government against goat-keeping, owing to damage to trees, may diminish their number. “Nubians” are eastern goats, chiefly Egyptian. They are usually large, short-haired, somewhat bony goats with large lop ears and Roman noses. Their colour, frequently black and tan, varies considerably. The goats in Palestine and Syria have long

hair and large lop ears. commonest

colour.

Black, with or without white, is the

The Mamber

has the best reputation for

milk, Most Indian varieties have lop ears, the best coming from the Jumna river area. They are like the Nubian. The Surti (from Surat) is another popular Indian breed, usually white and lopeared. In proportion to the cultivated area, goats are more plentiful in Egypt than anywhere else. Their main function is milk, but the meat is also valuable. There are two distinct types, both of the lop-eared eastern variety. The dwarf goat or Guinea goat, of central and west Africa resembles a small English goat in appearance,

It is highly resistant

to trypanosomiasis. These goats are also found on the Nile and in Mauritius, Madagascar and Bourbon. In South Africa the

“Boer” goat, related to the Nubian, is principally used for meat. Angora flocks are numerous; while Swiss and English milch goats have been imported. In Britain there are native goats of two types, though their

Puty may be questioned. The original English type usually has lgpering horns, short hair and colour commonly brown or fawn,

the Angora, it is the undergrowth which is valuable. The longer the hair, the more abundant the fine undergrowth. These goats are rather small, with lop ears and twisted horns. Husbandry.—Goats are commonly supposed to be very hardy, but damp leads to many ills. There are three main methods of raising goats; by free range, by tether and by stall-feeding. In a civilised country, free range is disadvantageous, owing to the animal’s propensity for forbidden places. Unless they get a wide range, their pasture must be frequently changed; otherwise the land gets “goat-sick,” due probably to worm-infestation. Tethering is how the small man usually maintains his animals. The animals are thus always getting fresh pastures. If goats are stall-fed, they must have opportunity for exercise.

The goat demands a varied, ; rather than rich, diet. It is important that its food should not $ l W RY be soiled. Pasturage of different i types, with some coarse fodder REAU OF RECand branches will keep a range or a lft

ee Wy

’

NAN

rd

BY COURTESY LAMATION

OF

THE

U.S.

B

tethered goat in good condition, but the milkers are better for some additional concentrates. Stall-fed animals should receive good hay and plenty of green foods, as varied as possible, besides ANGORA GOATS ON A STOCK NEAR ALBANY, GEORGIA

FARM

roots. Oats are a good grain. Too much whole maize leads to inflammation of the stomach. Peas and beans are good, but wheat and barley are not properly digested. Brewers’ and distillers’ grains are good for milk goats. Oil cakes and patent foods can be recommended. Many milk goats do best if the concentrates are fed warm and wet. It is important that goats should have

often with large white patches, The Irish goat is more thickset and access to clean water and to salt. No goat should be given more

458

GOATSUCKER—GOBI

food than can be readily consumed and feeding should be at regular hours. The female goat, variously called “Nanny” or “Doe,” is ready for the male (“Billy” or “Buck”) between October and December, during which time they come on “heat” every three weeks. The gestation period is 21~22 weeks. Goats are sexually mature at six months, but it is unwise to mate females before 18 months old and a male should be used sparingly till 12 months old.

people, and through respect for their wishes. The followers of Hébert, who were then pursuing their anti-Christian policy

GOATSUCKER: see NicutTyar. GOB and GOB FIRES. Gob, gcaf (pl. Goaves), and waste

head of the firm, named Jehan (d. 1476), discovered a scarlet dyestuff, and spent so much on his establishment that it was named Ja folie Gobelin. To the dye-works there was added in the 16th century a manufactory of tapestry (qg.v.). In the third or fourth generation some of the family purchased titles of nobility. Balthasar Gobelin (d. 1603), who became successively

claimed Gobel as one of themselves.

Robespierre found him an

obstacle to his religious schemes, and involved him in the fate of

the Heébertists. Gobel was condemned to death, with Chaumette Hebert and Anacharsis Cloots, and guillotined on April 12, 1794, See “Episcopat de Gobel” in vol. iii. (1900) of M. Tourneurs Bibliographie

de lhistoire de Paris pendant

la rév. fr. for a bibliog.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. —R. Lydekker, Wild Oxen, Sheep and Goats (1898) ; raphy of documents relating to his episcopate. See also G. Gautherot, J. Crepin, La Chevre (1906); H. S. H. Pegler, The Book of the Goat Gobel, évêque métropolitain constitutionnel de Paris (1911). (1928); C. J. Davies, Goat Keeping for Milk Production (1920); S. GOBELIN, the name of a family of dyers, who probably S. C. Schreiner, Tke Angora Goat (1918); G. P. Williams, “The Angora came from Reims, and in the middle of the 15th century estabGoat,” Farmers Bulletin No. 1203, U.S. Dept. Agr. (192 ne (A. D. B. S.) lished themselves in the Faubourg Saint Marcel, Paris. The firs

are synonymous terms in coal mining, designating the worked out and abandoned portion of the underground workings. In coal mining, as practised prior to the roth century, when the pillars left for the support of the surface were very small, and only about 454% of the coal was extracted (see John Buddle on treasurer general of artillery, treasurer extraordinary of war, Mining Records 1838), the area of abandoned pillars was named councillor secretary of the king, chancellor of the exchequer, counthe waste or goaf. Under modern conditions of coal mining all cillor of State and president of the chamber of accounts, in r6or the coal is extracted, except in the case of bad coal or coal which received from Henry IV. the lands and lordship of Briecomtecannot be sold at a profit, so that the goaf or gob contains little Robert. The name of the Gobelins as dyers cannot be found later or no coal, for which reason “gob fires’ are not now, perhaps, as than the end of the 17th century. In 1662 the works in the Fau. frequent as they used to be. These fires, however, are not neces- bourg Saint Marcel were purchased by Colbert on behalf of Louis sarily restricted to the goaf or gob, for they have been known XIV., and transformed into a general upholstery manufactory, in to take place, though rarely, at the coal face, and they have which designs were executed under the superintendence of the been of frequent occurrence at the edge of shaft pillars (coal left royal painter, Le Brun. The establishment, closed in 1694, was unworked for the purpose of support in the neighbourhood of a reopened in 1697 for the manufacture of tapestry, chiefly for royal shaft where it penetrates a coal seam). use and for presentation. The industry, suspended during the A gob fire, or what is sometimes termed the “spontaneous heat- Revolution, was revived by the Bourbons, and in 1826 the manuing” of coal, is due to the rapid absorption of oxygen by the coal facture of carpets was added. The manufacture is still carried on substance which, causing heat to be generated, increases the rate under the State. of absorption until the coal bursts into flame. It was for long See Lacordaire, Notice historique sur les manufactures impériales thought that the iron pyrites which are in coal were the supreme de tapisserie des Gobelin et de tapis de la Savonnerie, précédée du catalogue des tapisseries qui y sont exposés (1853); Guiffrey, Histoire de cause of this heating; Dr. Plott gave expression to this view in la tapisserie en France (1878-85); Genspach, Répertoire détaillé des his Natural History of Staffordshire in 1686. It may be a con- tapisseries exécutées aux Gobelins, 1662—1892 (1893) ; M. Fénaille, Etat tributory cause, but that it is the sole, or indeed the chief, cause général des tapisseries de la manufacture des Gobelins, 1600-1900 was disproved by Dr. E. Richters about the year 1868 (see his (5 vols., 1903-23). paper published in Dinglers Polytechniches Journal, vol. cxc., Dec. GOBI (for which the alternative Chinese names are Sha-mo, 1868) and later by Henri Fayol in 1879 (Etudes sur P altération “sand desert” and Han-þai, “dry sea”), a term which in its widest et la combustion spontanée de la houille exposé à Pair). The significance includes the stretch of desert country extending from two royal commissions on “Ships carrying Coals” (appointed the foot of the Pamirs eastwards to the Great Khingan mowin New South Wales, 1896 to 1900) arrived at similar conclusions. tains, and from the foothills of the Altai, the Khangai and the The report of the Oberschlesische Grubenbrand commission on Yablonoi mountains on the north to the Altyn Tagh and Nan-shan spontaneous combustion in coal mines, issued in 1910, contains on the south. The western portion of this desert belt, however, results which may be studied with interest and value. The final forms part of the well-defined physiographic unit of the Tarim report made by the British departmental committee on the sub- basin and is considered separately under that head. ject (1921) decided “that some small amount of heat may be The Gobi proper occupies a broad, shallow depression in the developed by the oxidation of pyrites in coal where it occurs as wide plateau between the northern chains of the Tibetan massif an amorphous form of marcasite; but that, as pyrites is present and the Altai. It is approximately 600 miles from north to south in coal in such small proportion as compared with the coal sub- and 1,000 miles from east to west. The average relief is slight. stance proper—which is a bad conductor of heat—the effect of this There is an alternating succession of broad gravelly plains irregheat is negligible. The chief part played by pyrites when present ularly split up by low flat-topped ranges and detached residual in an unstable form is that of a disintegrator of the coal, so hills. The altitude varies from 3,000 ft. in the east to about 5,000 rendering the latter more permeable by air and exposing a greater ft. in the south and west. The relief features are chiefly the area Of coal substance to oxidation . . . that the chemical process result of warping and uplift. This sometimes gives rise to mounis mainly one of attachment of oxygen to molecules of high car- tain structure on the borders, as in the case of the Altai, formed bon content, but that subsidiary to this, and playing an important by a series of complex uplifted fault-blocks. The less prominent part in determining the actual spontaneous ignition of coal, is a hill masses mark areas of gentler warping and smaller vertical chemical interaction between the oxygen thus loosely held by displacement, while some are older fault-blocks which have been carbon-like molecules and other atoms in these molecules or other more completely worn down. Sometimes in the plains, the edges

portions of the coal conglomerate.” GOBEL, JEAN BAPTISTE

(R. R.) (1724-1794),

of the sedimentary strata are exposed to view, and these form the great fossil fields of Mongolia. There are evidences of cliFrench bishop, was born at Thann, Alsace, on Sept. 1, 1727, and matic changes in the Gobi desert in remote ages. Dry river beds, became suffragan bishop of the French part of the diocese of and strand lines on lake shores marking former higher levels of JOSEPH

Basle. As deputy to the states-general of 1789 he took the oath of the civil constitution of the clergy, and in 1791 was consecrated

archbishop of Paris. On the 17th Brumaire in the year II. (Nov.

7, 1793), he came before the bar of the Convention and resigned his episcopal fumctions, proclaiming that he did so for love of the

the lake are reported. Although the central portion of the desert can hardly have been attractive to primitive man, several culture

horizons have been distinguished in the Gobi area.

Finds have

been made of relics representing Eolithic, Upper Palaeolithic, Azilian, Neolithic and Metallic cultures. Curiously enough, 00

GOBINEAU—GOBY

459

relics of early Mongolian civilization have, as yet, been found. His earliest, strongest, and, despite many weaknesses, most Although the name Sha-mo means “sand desert” this descrip- ' characteristic work was the Essai sur l’Inégalité des races hution by no means applies to the whole of the Gobi. The actual ' maines (1853—5 5), propounding the doctrine that the different waterless desert of Gobi, including the Ordos country and the Ala-shan, is confined to the south-western portion of the plateau and covers barely one-quarter of its whole area. The Ordos desert, a southern extension of the Gobi plateau is enclosed within

the great northward bend of the Hwang-ho.

races of human-kind are innately unequal in talent, worth and ability to absorb and create culture, and change their innate character only through crossing with alien strains. The genius of a race

i

{ i

$

depends but little on conditions of climate, surroundings and period; it is therefore absurd to maintain that all men are capable of an equal degree of perfection. Only the white races are creative of culture, but are exhausted today because their racial composition is no longer pure. But Gobineau’s masterpiece is his Renaissance (1877). This is a series of historical sketches and has been compared by the author himself to a fresco painting; it is divided into five sections, each of which is dominated by a

It furnishes scanty

pasture to the flocks and herds of the Mongolian nomads who

are scattered throughout the area.

West of the Ordos, but separated from it by the mountain peninsula of the lofty Ala-shan range, which is enclosed in a northward extension of the province of Kansu, lies the Ala-shan desert. This desert owes its existence to the interception of the rainfall by the high ranges along its southern border; the Alashan range rising to 10,000 and 11,000 ft. on the south-east, and

the Richthofen range with peaks reaching 20,000 ft. on the south-

single figure: Savonarola, Caesar Borgia, Julius II, Leo X., Michelangelo. These sketches attempt to interpret the political events of the time psychologically, and to give a living picture

west. There are vast expanses of absolutely waterless desert in the Ala-shan country. No oases relieve the unbroken stretches of

means of imaginary conversat.on.

of the final motives and inward reality of the Renaissance

sand which alternate with vast areas of saline clay, or, nearer the foot of the mountains, with barren gravel. The only human inhabitants of Ala-shan are the Torgod Mongols. Trees are almost unknown in the Gobi. The vegetation comprises grass, thorns and patches of scrub in a soil varying from

by

fine gravel and sand to coarse loam. Water in the Gobi is found only at wells or in occasional small lakes and is alkaline in taste. On the south-eastern borders of the Gobi, the desert proper gives

BrslioGRaPHY.—English translations have appeared of: Tke Renaissance (1913 and 1927); the first part of the Essai (as The Inequality of Human Races, 1915); Nouvelles Asiatiques (as The Dancing Girl of Shamaka, and other Tales, 1926); Souvenirs de Voyage (as The Crimson Handkerchief and other Stories, 1927). The main works on Gobineau are: (a) French: Seilligre, Le Comte de Gobineau et Paryanisme historigue (1903), and Jmperialismes. La conception gobinienne de la race (1901); Dreyfus, La vie et les prophéties du comte de Gobineau (1905). (b) German: the many (pre-war) works

way to steppe-land. Water can be found within fifteen or twentyfive feet of the surface and the country approximates to the type represented by the Canadian prairies. Some of the moisture from the south-east monsoon reaches these borders in the summer

Flower (New York, 1924).

by Schemann, Kretzer and Friedrich must be used with caution, owing to their patriotic bias. (c) English: Dr. Oscar Levy, “The Life, work and influence of Count Arthur de Gobineau” (printed as foreword to The Renaissance); Ben Ray Redman’s introduction to The Golden

and this eastern part of the Gobi area offers a field for agriculture and for sheep and cattle breeding. Chinese influence is pushing out in a north-westerly direction and it is this south-eastern border-land (Inner Mongolia) which is being gradually formed into “provinces.” The northern and north-western borders of the Gobi also merge into grass-land and, farther north, into forest. The wide stretch of undulating land along the northern border, which is drained by the Orkhon and its tributaries, supports many Chinese colonists who cultivate the rich soil to be found in many of the valleys. These northern borders fall within the region of cyclonic rain: the average annual rainfall at Urga being 9-7 inches. The Gobi desert is crossed by several caravan routes, some of which have been in use for thousands of years. The most important are those from Kalgan, on the Chinese frontier, to Urga; oe et ir Kansu, to Hami; and from Kwei-hwa-cheng to arkul.

GOBINEAU,

JOSEPH

ARTHUR,

Comte De (1r816-

1882). French diplomat and man of letters, was born at Ville d'Avray, near Paris, on July 14, 1816, son of an officer of the Royal Guard. Alexis de Tocqueville (author of La Démocratie en Amérique), appointed Gobineau his chef de cabinet during his short term of office in 1848.

Even after Tocqueville’s fall, Go-

bineau persevered in his new profession, and, despite his legitimist convictions, served France loyally as a diplomat until 1877. After short sojourns in Berne and Hanover he was sent to Frankfort. In 1854 Gobineau went to Persia for four years. Here he drank in with delight the wonders of the east, exchanged views with the leaders of learning and spiritual life, and acquired valu-

able knowledge. After conducting a mission to Newfoundland, he returned to Teheran in 1861. In 1864 he moved to Athens, and m 1868 to Rio de Janeiro. During the war of 1870-71 Gobineau was in France. The last diplomatic post he held 1872-77 was Stockholm. He was forced

m circumstances which wounded his pride, to retire, and left

Stockholm for Rome to pass the rest of his days in writing and sculpture. He died on Oct. 13, 1882.

__Gobineau was the author of large volumes on ethnology, cuneiform writing, Persian history and literature, and also historical, political and philosophical essays, the history of his family, travel ks, novels and short stories, a tragedy, a long epic, lyric verse,

and finally The Renaissance.

GOBLET, RENE

$ i

(1828-1905), French politician, was born

at A.re-sur-la-Lys, Pas de Calais, Nov. 26, 1828, and was educated for the law. He held a minor government office in 1879, and in 1882 became minister of the interior in the Freycinet cabinet. He was minister of education, fine arts and religion in Henri Brisson’s first cabinet in 1885, and again under Freycinet in 1886. He sat in the Chamber on the extreme Left. All through his life he was frequently in conflict with his political associates, from Gambetta downwards. On the fall of the Freycinet cabinet in December he formed a cabinet in which he reserved for himself the portfolios of the interior and of religion. The Goblet cabinet was unpopular from the outset, and it was with difficulty that anybody could be found to accept the ministry of foreign affairs, which was finally given to M. Flourens. Then came what is known as the Schnaebele incident, the arrest on the German frontier of a French official named Schnaebele, which caused immense excitement in France. For some days Goblet took no definite decision, but left Flourens, who stood for peace, to fight it out with General Boulanger, then minister of war, who was for the dispatch of an ultimatum. Although he finally intervened on the side of Flourens, and peace was preserved, his weakness in face of the Boulangist agitation became a national danger. Defeated on the budget in May 1887, his government resigned. In 1888 he was foreign minister in the radical administration of Charles Floquet. He was defeated at the polls by a Boulangist candidate in 1889, and sat in the senate from 1891 to 1893, when he returned to the popular chamber. He died in Paris on Sept. I3, 1905.

GOBLET,

a large type of drinking-vessel, particularly one

shaped like a cup, without handles, and mounted on a shank with a foot. (See DRINKING VESSELS.)

GOBY.

The gobies (Gobius) are small fishes recognized by

their ventral fins being united into one, forming a suctorial disc by which these fishes are enabled to attach themselves. They are essentially coastfishes, inhabiting nearly all seas but disappearing towards the Arctic and Antarctic Oceans. Many live in fresh waters, not far from the sea. Nearly soo different kinds are known. The largest British species, Gobius capito, occurring in the rock-

pools of Cornwall, measures roin. None of the other British species exceeds half this length. The Californian Gdlichthys marabilis,

which is marine, is locally known as mudfish from its habit of mak-

GOCH—GODEFROY

460

ing excavations in the mud at low tide. The males are usually more brilliantly coloured than the females, and guard the eggs, which are quite frequently attached to a dead bivalve’s shell or to a crab’s carapace, with the convexity turned upwards and covered with sand. Close allies of the gobies are the walking fish (Periophihalmus) of which various species are found in great numbers on tropical mud flats, skipping about by means of the muscular, scaly base of their pectoral fins, with the head raised and bearing a pair of projecting eyes close together. | GOCH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province,

on the Niers, 8 m. 8. of Cleves. Pop. (1925) 11,761. In the middle ages it was the seat of a large trade in linen. It became a town in 1231, belonged to the dukes of Gelderland and later to the dukes of Cleves. It has manufactures of plush-goods, margarine, oil and leather.

GOD, the common Teutonic word for a personal object of

religious worship. It is thus, like Gr. @eds and Lat. deus, applied to all superhuman beings of heathen mythologies who exercise power over nature and man; and also to images of supernatural beings or trees, pillars, etc., used as symbols. The word “god” on the conversion of the Teutonic races to Christianity, was applied to the one Supreme Being, and to the Persons of the Trinity. Popular etymology has connected the word with “good.” This is exemplified by the corruption of “God be with you” into goodbye. In Gothic it is Guth; Dutch has the same form as English; Danish and Swedish have Gud, German Gott. According to the New English Dictionary, the original may be found in two Aryan roots, both of the form gheu, one of which means “to invoke,” the other “to pour”; the last is used of sacrificial offerings. The word would thus mean the object either of religious invocation or of religious worship by sacrifice. See RELIGION; HEBREW RELIGION; THEISM, etc.

GODALMING,

a town in Surrey, England, 34 m. S.W. of

London by the S.R. Pop. (1931) 10,400. Godalming (Godelminge) belonged to King Alfred, and was a royal manor at the time of Domesday.

The manor was held by

the see of Salisbury in the middle ages, but reverted to the crown in the time of Henry VIII. Godalming was incorporated by Elizabeth in 1574, when the borough originated. The charter was confirmed by James I. in 1620, and a fresh charter was granted by

Charles IT. in 1666. The bishop of Salisbury in 1300 received the grant of a weekly market which included a fair at the feast of St. Peter and St. Paul. Another fair at Candlemas was granted by Elizabeth. The market is still held. The making of cloth, particu-

larly Hampshire kerseys, was the staple industry of Godalming in the middle ages. Tanning, The present manufacture the 18th century. It is on London and Portsmouth.

introduced in the of fleecy hosiery the Wey, and on The church of

15th century, survives. dates from the end of the high road between SS. Peter and Paul is

principally Early English and Perpendicular. Charterhouse School, transferred frcm Charterhouse Square, London, to Godalming in 1872, has 92 ac. of grounds and spacious buildings in Gothic style. (See CHARTERHOUSE.) Godalming manufactures paper, leather, parchment and hosiery, and trades in corn, malt, bark, hoops and timber; Bargate stone, of which the parish church is built, is still quarried.

GODARD,

BENJAMIN

(1849-1895), French composer,

was born in Paris, on Aug. 18, 1849. He toire, and had already published many dramatic cantata Le Tasse won a prize instituted by the city of Paris. Godard

studied at the Conservaworks when in 1878 his in a musical competition was a prolific composer

of operas, of which one of the best known is La Vivandiere, left unfinished and partly scored by-another hand. Among his works the “Symphonie légendaire” may be singled out as being one of the most distinctive. He wrote many charming songs, and his death, which occurred at Cannes Jan. ro, 1895, was a real loss to French art. GODAVARI, district, British India, in the north-east of the Madras presidency. Part was transferred to Kistna district in 1908. Its present area is 2,545 sq.m., mainly east of the Godavari river, including the entire delta, with a long narrow strip

extending up its valley. Inland low hills, steep and forest-clad enclose the valley. The delta is flat, and the north-eastern part known as the Agency tract and occupied by spurs of the eastern Ghats, has recently been formed into a separate division with

part of Ganjam and Vizagapatam. The coast is low, sandy and swampy, so that vessels must lie 7 m. from Cocanada, the chief

port. The Sabari is the principal tributary of the Godavari Within

the district. The Godavari often rises in destructive floods. The population (including the Agency tract) in 192I was 1,470,863.

The chief towns are Cocanada, the administrative headquarters and Rajahmundry, the old capital. The population is principally occupied in agriculture, the principal crops being rice, other food

grains, pulse, oil seeds, tobacco and sugar. A number of rice-clean.

ing mills have been established. Sugar is refined, and fish is cured. The district is traversed by the main line of the East

Coast railway, with a branch to Cocanada.

The Godavari district formed part of the Andhra division of

Dravida, the north-west portion being subject to the Orissa kings,

and the south-western belonging to the Vengi kingdom. In it various chiefs fought for independence with varying success till

the beginning of the 16th century, when the whole country may

be said to have passed under Mohammedan power. At the conclusion of the struggle with the French in the Carnatic, Godavari with the Northern Circars was conquered by the English, and finally ceded in 1765.

GODAVARI, a river of central and western India. It flows across the Deccan from the Western to the Eastern Ghats: its total length is goo m. Its source is on the side of a hill behind the village of Trimbak in Nasik district, Bombay, where the water runs into a reservoir from the lips of an image. Legend brings it from the same ultimate source as the Ganges, though underground.

Its course is generally south-easterly.

Through

much of the upper part the channel varies r to 2 m. in breadth, occasionally broken by alluvial islands. Below the junction of the Sabari the channel begins to contract, and the river enters a magnificent gorge only 200 yd. wide through which it flows into the delta, about 60 m. from the sea. The head of the delta is at the village of Dowlaishweram. The river has seven mouths, the largest being the Gautami Godavari. The Godavari is regarded as peculiarly sacred, and once every twelve years the great bathing festival called Pushkaram is held on its banks at Rajahmundry. The upper waters of the Godavari are scarcely utilized for irrigation, but the entire delta has been turned into a garden of perennial crops by means of the anicut or dam construction at Dowlaishweram, constructed by Sir Arthur Cotton, from which

three main canals are drawn off. The river channel here is 34 m. wide, and is spanned by a fine railway bridge. Nearly a million acres were irrigated from the system in 1920. More recent works include a large reservoir at Lake Beale on a tributary of the Godavari, and two canals, irrigating a further 50,000 acres. In 1864 water communication was opened between the Godavari and Kistna deltas. Rocky barriers and rapids obstruct navigation

in the upper Godavari.

GODEFROY (GortHorrepvus), a French noble family, which numbered among its members several distinguished jurists and historians. The family claimed descent from Symon Godefroy, who was born at Mons about 1320 and was lord of Sapigneulx near Berry-au-bac, now in the department of Aisne. Denis Goperroy (Dionysius Gothofredus) (1549-1622), jurist, son of Léon Godefroy, lord of Guignecourt, was born in Paris on Oct. 17, 1549, and died at Strasbourg on Sept. 7, 1622. He studied law in the Low Countries and in Germany, and embraced Calvinism. This change of faith led to his residence abroad, first at Geneva, where he was professor of law, and then at Heidelberg,

where he was head of the faculty of law and was employed from time to time on diplomatic missions by the Elector Palatine. His most important work was the Corpus juris civilis, originally published at Geneva in 1583, which went through some 20 editions,

the most valuable of them being that printed by the Elzevirs at Amsterdam in 1633 and the Leipzig edition of 1740.

Lists‘ of his other learned works may be found in Senebler’s Hist

litt. de Genève. vol. ii, and in Nicéron’s Mémoires,

vol. xvii

GODESBERG—GODFREY

OF BOUILLON

461

of his correspondence with his learned friends, with his kinsman ‘dent de Thou, Isaac Casaubon, Jean Jacques Grynaeus and

Robert Green, Lawrence Hill and Henry Berry, at the instigation of Roman Catholic priests. The three men were hanged in 1679,

and Paris.

pleaded guilty to perjury. The secret of Godfrey’s death has never been solved.

others, is preserved in the libraries of the British Museum, of Basle

His eldest son, THEODORE GODEFROY (1580-1649), was born at

Geneva on July 14, 1580. He abjured Calvinism, and was called to the bar in Paris. He became historiographer of France in 1613

and was employed from time to time on diplomatic missions. He

was employed at the congress of Miinster, where he remained after the signing of peace in 1648 as chargé d'affaires until his death on Oct. 5 of the next year.

His most important work is Le Céré-

monial de France .. . (1619), a work which became a classic on the subject of royal ceremonial, and was re-edited by his son in an enlarged edition in 1649. He made vast collections

of historical material which

ms. and fills the greater part of the Godefroy

remains

collection

in

of over

soo portfolios in the Library of the Institute in Paris. These were

catalogued by Ludovic Lalanne in the Annuaire Bulletin (1865-1866

and 1892) of the Société de V’histoire de France.

The second son of Denis, Jacques GopEFroy

(1587-1652),

jurist, was born at Geneva on Sept. 13, 1587. He was educated in France but returned to Geneva, where he held various important

public offices. He died on. June 23, 1652. He worked for 30 years

on his edition of the Codex Theodosianus (Lyons, 4 vols. 166s, and Leipzig, 6 vols. 1736-45). This code formed the principal, though not the only, source of the legal systems of the countries formed from the Western Empire. Godefroy’s edition became a

standard authority on the decadent period of the Western Empire. Of his numerous other works the most important was the reconstruction of the 12 tables of early Roman law. See also the dictionary of Moreri, Nicéron’s Mémoires (vol. 17) and a notice in the Bibliothèque universelle de Genève (Dec. 1837).

Denis GopEFROY (1615-1681), eldest son of Théodore, succeeded his father as historiographer of France. For further details see Les Savants Godefroy (Paris, 1873) by the marquis de Godefroy-Ménilglaise, son of Denis Joseph Godefroy.

GODESBERG, a spa in Rhenish Prussia on the left bank of the Rhine, 4 m. S. of Bonn, on the railway to Coblenz. Pop. (1925) 20,316. It is a summer resort and has chalybeate springs. On a hill close by are the ruins of Godesberg castle. Built by Archbishop Dietrich I. of Cologne in the 13th century, it was destroyed by the Bavarians in 1583. Among its manufactures are electrical apparatus, agricultural m-chinery and toys.

but Prance’s confession was

subsequently proved false, and he

See Oates, Trrus, also R. Tuke, Memoirs of the Life and Death of Sir Edmondbury Godfrey (1682); and G. Burnet, History of my Own Time; The Reign of Charles II. ed. O. Airy (Oxford, 1900). On the question of responsibility for the murder, see J. Pollock, The Popish Plot (1903); A. Marks, Who Killed Sir E. B. Godfrey? (1905); Sir John Hall, Four Famous Mysteries (1922) and R. W. Postgate, Murder, Piracy and Treason (1928).

GODFREY

OF BOUILLON

(c. 1060-1100), a leader in

the first crusade, was the second son of Eustace II., count of Boulogne, by his marriage with Ida, daughter of Duke Godfrey II. of Lower Lorraine. He was designated by Duke Godfrey as his successor; but the emperor Henry IV. gave him only the mark of Antwerp, in which the lordship of Bouillon was included (1076).

He fought for Henry, however, both on the Elster and in the

siege of Rome; and he was invested in 1082 with the duchy of Lower Lorraine. Lorraine had been penetrated by Cluniac influences, and Godfrey would seem to have been a man of notable piety. Accordingly, though he had himself served as an imperialist, and though the Germans in general had little sympathy with the crusaders, Godfrey, nevertheless, when the call came “to follow Christ,” almost literally sold all that he had, and followed. Along with his brothers Eustace and Baldwin (the future Baldwin I. of Jerusalem) Godfrey led a German contingent, some 40,000 strong, along “(Charlemagne’s road,” through Hungary to Constantinople, starting in Aug. 1096, and arriving at Constantinople in November. He was the first of the crusading princes to arrive, and on him fell the duty of deciding what the relations of the princes to the eastern emperor Alexius were to be. Eventually he did homage to Alexius in Jan. 1097, and his example was

followed by the other princes. From this time until the begin-

ning of 1099 Godfrey appears as one of the minor princes, while men like Bohemund and Raymund, Baldwin and Tancred were determining the course of events. In 1099 he came once more to the front. The mass of the crusaders were weary of the political factions which divided some of their leaders; and Godfrey, who was more of a pilgrim

than a politician, became the natural representative of this feeling. He was thus able to force the reluctant Raymund to march

southward to Jerusalem; and he took a prominent part in the siege, his division being the first to enter when the city was captured. It was natural therefore that, when Raymund of of Neuchatel, and professor in its theological faculty. He died Provence refused the offered dignity, Godfrey should be elected tuler of Jerusalem (July 22, 1099). The new dignity proved more there on Oct. 29, 1900. Godet’s commentaries are on the Gospel of St. John (2 vols., onerous than honourable: and during his short reign of a year 1863-65; 3rd ed., 1881-88; Eng. trans. 1806, etc.); St. Luke (2 vols., Godfrey had to combat the Arabs of Egypt, and the opposition 1871; 3rd ed., 1888; Eng. trans. 1875, etc.); the Epistle to the of Raymund and the patriarch Dagobert, He was successful in Romans (2 vols., 1879-80; 2nd ed., 1883-90; Eng. trans., 1880, etc.); repelling the Egyptian attack at the battle of Ascalon (Aug. 1099) ; Corinthians (2 vols., 1886-87; Eng. trans., 1886, etc.). His other works include Études bibliques (2 vols., 1873-74; 4th ed., 1889; þut he failed, owing to Raymund’s obstinacy and greed, to acquire Eng. trans., 1875 f.), and Introduction au Nouveau Testament (1893 the town of Ascalon after the battle. f.; Eng. trans., 1894, etc.) ; Lectures in Defence of the Christian Faith Left alone, at the end of the autumn, with an army of some (Eng. trans., 4th ed., 1900). 2,000 men, Godfrey was yet able, in the spring of 1100, probably

GODET, FREDERIC LOUIS (1812-1900), Swiss Protest-

ant theologian, was born at Neuchatel on Oct. 25, 1812. In 1873 he became one of the founders of the free Evangelical Church

GODFREY, SIR EDMUND

BERRY

(1621-1678), Eng-

lish magistrate and politician, younger son of Thomas Godfrey

(1586-1664), was born on Dec.

23, 1621, and educated at

Westminster school and Christ Church, Oxford. After entering Gray’s Inn he became a prosperous dealer in wood. He was made à justice of the peace for the city of Westminster, and in Sept. 1666 was knighted as a reward for his services during the great plague. In Sept. 1678 Titus Oates and two other men appeared before him with written information about the Popish Plot, and swore to the truth of their statements. During the excitement which followed the magistrate expressed a fear that his life was

m danger, but took no precautions. On Oct. 12 he did not return

home as usual, and on the 17th his body was found on Primrose

Hill, Hampstead. The evidence proved that he had been murdered,

and the excited populace regarded the deed as the work of the

with the aid of new pilgrims, to exact tribute from towns like Acre, Ascalon, Arsuf and Caesarea. But already, at the end of 1099 Dagobert, archbishop of Pisa, had been substituted as patriarch for Arnulf (who had been acting as vicar) by the influence of Bohemund; and Dagobert, whose vassal Godfrey had at once piously acknowledged himself, seems to have forced him to an

agreement in April 1100, by which he promised Jerusalem and Jaffa to the patriarch, in case he should acquire in their place Cairo or some other town, or should die without issue. Thus were the foundations of a theocracy laid in Jerusalem; and when Godfrey died (July 1100) he left the question to be decided, whether a theocracy or a monarchy should be the government of the Holy Land. Because he had been the first ruler in Jerusalem Godfrey

was idolized in later saga.

He was depicted as the leader of

Roman Catholics. In Dec. 1678 Miles Prance, under arrest for the crusades, the king of Jerusalem, the legislator who laid down conspiracy, confessed to having murdered Godfrey, with the aid of | the assizes of Jerusalem. He was none of these things. Bohemund

462

GODFREY

OF VITERBO—GODMANCHESTER

was the leader of the crusades; Baldwin was first king; the assizes were the result of a gradual development. In reality he would seem to have been a quiet, pious, hard-fighting knight, who was chosen to rule in Jerusalem because he had no dangerous qualities, and no obvious defects Godfrey was the principal hero of two French chansons de geste

dealing with the crusade, the Chanson d’Antioche (ed. P. Paris, 2 vols., 1848) and the Chanson de Jérusalem (ed. C. Hippeau, 1868). In addition the parentage and early exploits of Godfrey were made the subject of legend. His grandfather was said to be Helias, knight of the Swan, one of the brothers whose adventures are well known, though with some variation, in the familiar fairy tale of “The Seven Swans.” Helias, drawn by the swan, one day disembarked at Nijmwegen, and reconquered her territory for the duchess of Bouillon. Marrying her daughter he exacted a promise that his wife should not enquire into his origin. The tale, which is almost identical with the Lohengrin legend, belongs to the class of the Cupid and Psyche narratives. See LOHENGRIN.

she would ride naked through the streets of the town. After

issuing a proclamation that all persons should keep within doors or shut their windows, she rode through Coventry, clothed only in her long hair. One person disobeyed her proclamation, atailor

ever afterwards known as Peeping Tom, who is said to have beer

struck blind. Her husband kept his word and abolished the obnoxious taxes. The oldest form of the legend is given in Flores historiarum by Roger of Wendover, who quoted from an earlier writer. Godiva probably died a few years before the Domesday survey (1085 86), and was buried in one of the porches of the abbey church, The Godiva procession, instituted May 31, 1678, as part of Cov.

entry fair, was celebrated at intervals until 1826. The “Peeping Tom” in Hertford street, Coventry, was perhaps an image of St. George.

GODKIN, EDWIN LAWRENCE

(1831-1902), American

publicist, was born in Moyne, county Wicklow, Ireland, Oct. 3, 1831. His father, James Godkin, was a Presbyterian minister and See also C. Hippeau, Le Chevalier au cygne (2 vols., 1874-77); a journalist, and the son, after graduating in 1851 at Queen’s colH. Pigeonneau, Le Cycle de la croisade et de la famille de Bouillon (1877). The English romance of Helyas, Knyghig of the Swanne was lege, Belfast, and studying law in London, where he was also employed by the publishing house of Cassell, was special correprinted by W. Copland about xr550.

GODFREY

OF VITERBO

(c. rr20—c. 1196), chronicler,

spondent for the London Daily News in.the Crimean War. After editorial work on the Belfast Northern Whig, late in 1856 he went

probably an Italian by birth, passed some of his early life at Viterbo, where also he spent his concluding days, but he was educated at Bamberg. About rr4o he became chaplain to the German king, Conrad III.; but the greater part of his life was spent as secretary (notarius) in the service of the emperor Frederick I., who employed him on many diplomatic errands. The only part of Godfrey’s voluminous work which is valuable is the Gesta Friderici I., verses relating events in the emperor’s career from 1155 to 1180. Concerned mainly with affairs in Italy, the poem tells of the sieges of Milan, of Frederick’s flight to Pavia in 1167, of the treaty with Pope Alexander III. at Venice, and of other episodes with which the author was intimately acquainted, and many of which he had witnessed. Attached to the Gesta Friderici is the Gesta Heinrici VI., a shorter poem which is often attributed to Godfrey, although W. Wattenbach and other authorities think it was not written by him. His other works are Speculum Regum, and the popular Memoria saeculorum, rewritten as Pantheon.

to America, writing for the London Daily News letters descriptive

for the purchase of every necessity, and a large theatre. In 1880 the whole was turned into a co-operative society, and eventually became the property of the workers.

Nevins, Tke Evening Post (1922).

Godin was the author of Solutions sociales (1871) ; Les Socialistes et les droits du travail (1874); Mutualité sociale (1880) ; La République du travail et la réforme parlementaire (1889). See Bernardot, Le Familistére de Guise et son fondateur (1887); Fischer, Die Familistere

L.N.E. railway.

of a southern tour. His connection with this journal he continued while studying law in New York. He was admitted to the bar in 1858, and because of his impaired health he and his wife, Frances Elizabeth Foote, travelled in Europe 1860-62. At about this time Godkin was offered a partnership in the New York Times by Raymond; but although attracted by the offer, he in 1865 carried out a long-cherished dream by founding the Nation. This quickly became the foremost review in the country—as Lowell put it, because of the “ability, information and unflinching integrity” of the editor. Indeed, the periodical was so superior that Charles Dudley Warner styled it the “weekly judgment day.” In 1881 Godkin sold the Nation to Henry Villard, owner of the New York Evening Post, of which paper the Nation became the weekly edition. Godkin himself became associate editor of the Post, succeeding Carl Schurz as editor-in-chief, 1883—99, and shaping the policy of that journal. Under his leadership the Post broke with the Godfrey’s works are found in the Monumenta Germaniae historica, Republican Party in the presidential campaign of 1884, when Band xxii. (Hanover, 1872). The Gesta Friderici I. et Heinrici VI. is published separately with an introduction by G. Waitz (Hanover, Godkin’s opposition to Blaine did much to create the so-called 1872). See also H. Ulmann, Gotfried von Viterbo (Gottingen, 1863), Mugwump party (see Mucwump), and his organ became comWattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen, Band ii. (Berlin, pletely independent. He consistently advocated currency reform, 1894). the gold basis, a tariff for revenue only, and civil service reform, GODHRA, a town of British India, administrative head- rendering the greatest aid to the last cause. His attacks on Tamquarters of the Panch Mahals district of Bombay, and also of. many Hall were so frequent and so fearless that he was several the Rewa Kantha political agency; 52 m. N.E. of Baroda by times sued for libel because of biographical sketches of certain rail, and on the line from Anand to Ratlam. Pop. (1921) 26,979. leaders in that organization, but the cases were dismissed. His It has a trade in timber from the neighbouring forests, and opposition to “jingoism” and to imperialism was able and forcible. tanneries. He retired from his editorial duties in 1899. Although he recovered GODIN, JEAN BAPTISTE ANDRE (1817-1888), from a cerebral haemorrhage early in ro00, his health was shatFrench socialist, was born on Jan. 26, 1817 at Esquehéries (Aisne). tered, and he died in Greenway, Devonshire, England, May 21, a In 1859 he made his castings manufactory at Guise into a Fourier- 1902. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—See Life and Letters of Edwin Lawrence Godkin, ist familistére or community settlement, which comprised, in by Rollo Ogden (1907); accounts in W Bleyer’s Main addition to the workshops, buildings to house the work-people, edited Currents in the History of American Journalism (1927); and Q. G. créches, hospital, refreshment rooms, recreation rooms, stores Villard, Some Newspapers and Newspaper-men (1926); also Allan

Godin's (1890); Lestelle, Etude sur le familistére de Guise (1904) ; D. F. P., Le Familistére ilusiré, résultats de vingt ans d’association, r880-

Igo0 (Eng. trans, Twenty-eight years of co-partnership at Guise, by A. Williams, 1908).

GODIVA

(1040-1080), a Saxon lady, was the wife of Leofric,

earl of Mercia and lord of Coventry. The people of that city suffering grievously under the earl’s oppressive taxation, Lady Godiva appealed to her husband, who refused to remit the tolls. At last, says the legend, he said be would grant her request if

GODMANCHESTER,

a municipal borough on the right

bank of the Ouse, 1 m. S.S.E. of Huntingdon, on a branch of the

Pop. (1931) 1,991. It has a beautiful Perpen-

dicular church (St. Mary’s) and an agricultural trade, with four

mills.

The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12

councillors.

Area, 4,907 acres.

A Romano-British village occupied the site of Godmanchester,

The town (Gumencestre, Gomecestre) belonged to the king before the Conquest and at the time of the Domesday survey. In 1213 King John granted the manor to the men of the town at a fee

farm of £120 yearly, and confirmation charters were granted by several succeeding kings, Richard IT. in 1391-92 adding exemption from toll, pannage, etc. James I. granted an incorporation charter in 1605 under the title of bailiffs, assistants and commos-

GODOLLO—GODUNOV alty, but under the Municipal Reform Act of 1835 the corporation

463

|

scandalous rapidity, made duke of Alcudia, and in 1792 minister was changed to a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. God- under the premiership of Aranda, whom he succeeded in dismanchester was formerly included for parliamentary purposes in | placing by the close of the year. In 1798, his unpopularity ane the borough of Huntingdon, which has ceased to be separately the intrigues of the French Government led to his temporary represented since 1885. The incorporation charter of 1605 recites retirement, without, however, any diminution of the king’s perthat the burgesses are chiefly engaged in agriculture, and grants sonal favour. In 1801 he returned to office, and until 1807 he them a fair, which still continues every year on Tuesday in Easter was the executant of the disastrous policy of the court. In the third period of his public life (1807-08), he was desperately week. z GODOLLO is a growing market town in Hungary, 23 m. striving for his place between the aggressive intervention of N.E. of Budapest, and a favourite summer resort from the capital. Napoleon on the one hand, and the growing hatred of the nation, Its royal castle and park, the latter stocked with stags and wild organized around Ferdinand, the prince of Asturias, on the other. boars, was presented to Francis Joseph I. in 1867 by the Hun-

garian nation. Near the town lies Mária-Besnyö, a famous pilimage centre with a Franciscan monastery. Pop. (1920), 10,262. GODOLPHIN,

SIDNEY

GODOLPHIN,

Eazgt or (c.

1645-1712), English statesman was a cadet of an ancient family

of Cornwall. At the Restoration he was introduced into the royal household by Charles II., with whom he had become a favourite, and at the same period he entered the House of Commons as

member for Helston. Although he very seldom addressed the House, he gradually acquired a reputation as its chief financial authority. In March 1679 he was appointed a member of the

privy council, and in the September following he was promoted, with Hyde (afterwards earl of Rochester) and Sunderland, to the chief management of affairs. Though he voted for the Exclusion

bill in 1680, he was continued in office after the dismissal of Sunderland, and in September 1684 he was created Baron Godol-

phin of Rialton, and succeeded Rochester as first lord of the treasury. After the accession of James II. he was made chamber-

lain to the queen, and, with Rochester and Sunderland, enjoyed the king’s special confidence. In 1687 Godolphin was named commissioner of the treasury. Be was one of the council of five appointed by King James to represent him in London, when he went to join the army after the landing of William, prince of Orange, in England, and was afterwards appointed a commissioner to treat with the prince. Under William ITI. he became first lord of the treasury in 1690, and, while holding this office he maintained, in conjunction with Marlborough, a treacherous intercourse with James II. Godolphin was not only a Tory by inheritance, but had a romantic admiration for the wife of James IT. After Fenwick’s confession In 1696 regarding the attempted assassination of William III., Godolphin, who, was compromised, resigned; but when the Tories came into power in 1700,.he was again appointed lord treasurer and retained office for about a. year. . Though not a favourite with Queen Anne, he was, after her accession, appointed to his old ofice, on the strong recommendation of Marlborough. In 1704 he was, knighted, and in 1706 he received an earldom. The influence of the Marlboroughs with the queen was, however, gradually supplanted by that of Mrs. Masham and Harley, earl of Oxford, and with the fortunes of the Marlboroughs those of Godolphin

A popular outbreak at Aranjuez on March 17, 1808, led to his arrest. Imprisoned by Ferdinand, he was released by order of Napoleon. He joined the royal family at Bayonne and remained with them until Charles IV. died at Rome in 1819, having survived his queen. After the death of Ferdinand VII., in 1833.

Godoy returned to Madrid, and failing to secure the restoration of his property confiscated in 1808, lived on a small pension granted him by Louis Philippe. He died in Paris on Oct 4, 1851. As a favourite Godoy is remarkable for his hold on the affection of his sovereigns. Latterly he was supported rather by the husband than by the wife. He got rid of Aranda by adopting, in order to please the king, a policy which tended to bring on war with France. When the war proved disastrous, he made the Peace of Basle, and was created Prince of the Peace for his services. Then he helped to make war with England. The disasters which followed only made him dearer to the king. The queen

endured his flagrant infidelities.

In his private life, Godoy was

profligate, profuse and chiidishly ostentatious. The policy of his Government was financially ruinous, and the best that can be said for him is that he was good-natured, and tried to restrain the Inquisition and the purely reactionary parties. See M. Godoy, Memorias criticas y apologéticas para la historia del Reynado de Carlos IV. (Madrid, 6 vols. 1836-42). (French and English translations); Abbé de Pradt, Mémoires sur la Révolution d’Espagne (1816) ; Una parte de la correspondencia de Godoy con la Reyna Maria Luisa, ed. V. Z. de V. (Madrid, 1814).

GODUNOV, BORIS FEDOROVICH, tsar of Muscovy (c. 1552—1605), the most famous member of an ancient, now extinct Russian family of Tatar origin, which migrated from the Horde to Muscovy in the r4th century. Boris’s career of service began at the court of Ivan the Terrible. He is mentioned in 1570 as taking part in the Serpeisk campaign as one of the archers of the’ guard. In 1571 he strengthened his position at court by his marriage with Maria, the daughter of Ivan’s favourite, Malyuta Skuratov. In 1580 the tsar chose Irene, the sister of Boris, to be the bride of the tsarevich Theodore, on which occasion Boris

was promoted to the rank of boyar, On his death-bed Ivan appointed Boris one of the guardians of his son and successor, Theodore, who was of somewhat weak intellect. The reign of

Theodore began with a rebellion in favour of the infant tsarevich

15, 1712,

Demetrius, the son of Ivan’s fifth wife Marie Nagaya, a rebellion resulting in the banishment of Demetrius, with his mother and her relations, to their appanage at Uglich. On the occasion of the tsar’s coronation (May 31 1584), Boris was loaded with honours and riches, yet he held but the second place in the regency during

cool, reserved and cautious.

death, in 1585, he was left without any serious rival. A conspiracy against him of all the other great boyars and the metropolitan Dionysy, which sought to break Boris’s power by divorcing the tsar from Godunov’s childless sister, only ended in the banishment or tonsuring of the malcontents.

were indissolubly united. After the Tory reaction which followed

the impeachment of Dr. Sacheverel, the queen abruptly dismissed Godolphin from office on Aug. 7, 1710. He died on Sept.

Godolphin owed his rise to power and his continuance in it uader four sovereigns chiefly to his exceptional mastery of financal matters. He received Marlborough’s support mainly because Marlborough recognized that for the prosecution of England’s foreign wars his financial abilities were indispensable. He was

Godolphin married Margaret Blagge, whose life was written

iyPM 1678.

on May 16, 1675, and married again after her death

See Hon. H. Elliott, A Life of Godolphin (1888).

GODOY, MANUEL

DE

(1767-1851), duke of Alcudia

and Prince of the Peace, Spanish royal favourite and minister. om of a noble family of Estremadura at Badajoz on May 12,

1767, he entered the Guardia de Corps in 1784. His handsome,

foolish face captivated Maria Luisa of Parma, and when King Charles ITI. died in 1788, Godoy’s fortune was soon made. By influence of the queen, he was promoted in the army with

the lifetime of his co-guardian Nikita Romanovich, on whose

Henceforth Godunov was omnipotent. The direction of affairs passed entirely into his hands, and he corresponded with foreign princes as their equal. His policy was generally pacific, but always most prudent. In 1595 he recovered from Sweden the towns lost during the former reign. Five years previously he had defeated a Tatar raid upon Moscow, for which service he received the title of slugar, an obsolete dignity even higher than that of boyar. Towards Turkey he maintained an independent attitude, supporting an anti-Turkish faction in the Crimea, and furnishing the emperor with subsidies in his war against the sultan. Godunov

encouraged English merchants to trade with Russia by exempting

GODWIN

464

them from tolls. He civilized the north-eastern and south-eastern borders of Muscovy by building numerous towns and fortresses to keep the Tatar and Finn tribes in order. Samara, Saratov, and Tsaritsyn and a whole series of lesser towns owe their existence to him. He also re-colonized Siberia, which had been slipping from the grasp of Muscovy, and formed scores of new settlements, including Tobolsk and other large centres. It was during his government that the Muscovite Church received its patriarchate, which placed it on an equality with other eastern churches and emancipated it from the influence of the metropolitan of Kiev. It was Boris’s internal policy to support the middle classes at the expense of the old nobility and the peasants, hence the ukase (1587) forbidding the peasantry to transfer themselves from one landowner to another, thus binding them to the soil, and leading to the institution of serfdom in its most grinding form. The sudden death of the tsarevich Demetrius at Uglich (May 15, 1591) has commonly been attributed to Boris. On the death of the childless tsar Theodore (Jan. 7 1598), a Zemsky Sobor, or national assembly, unanimously elected Boris tsar on Feb. 21. The Romanov family, who had been his chief tivals, were disgraced and banished. Boris was the first tsar to import foreign teachers on a great scale, the first to send young Russians abroad to be educated, the first to allow Lutheran churches to be built in Russia. He also felt the necessity of a Baltic seaboard, and attempted to obtain Livonia by diplomatic means. That Boris was one of the greatest of the Muscovite tsars there can be no doubt. But his great qualities were overbalanced by an incurable suspiciousness. He encouraged informers and persecuted suspects on their unsupported statements. The Romanov family in especial suffered severely from these delations. In 1603 a pretender appeared in Poland, who claimed to be the murdered tsarevich Demetrius, and, with the support of King Sigismund of Poland, he was leading a small army, reinforced by the Don Cossacks, into south-west Russia, when Boris died suddenly (April 13 1605), leaving one son, Theodore II., who succeeded him for

a few months and then was foully murdered by the enemies of the Godunovs. See Platon Vasilievich Pavlov, On the Historical Significance of the Reign of Boris Godunov (Rus.), (1850) ; Sergyei Mikhailivich Soloviev, History of Russia (Rus.), (2nd ed., vols. vii.—vill., 1897).

l

GODWIN, FRANCIS

$i

(R. N. B.

(1562-1633), English divine, son of

Thomas Godwin, bishop of Bath and Wells, was born at Hannington, Northamptonshire, and studied at Christ Church, Oxford. After holding two Somersetshire livings he was in 1587 appointed

subdean of Exeter, bishop of “Llandoff (1601) and of Hereford (1617). His Catalogue of the Bishops of England since the first planting of the Christian Religion in this Island (1601; 2nd ed., 1615; Latin ed., 1616) was republished, with a continuation by William Richardson, in 1743. In 1616 Godwin produced Rerum Anglicarum, Henrico VIII., Edwardo VI. et Maria regnantibus, Annales, afterwards translated and published by his son Morgan

under the title Annales of England (1630). His The Man in the

Moone, or a Discourse of a Voyage thither, by Domingo Gonsales, written apparently between 1599 and 1603 and published posthumously in 1638, was imitated in several important particulars by Cyrano de Bergerac, from whom, if not from Godwin direct, Swift borrowed in writing of Gulliver’s voyage to Laputa. Another work of Godwin’s, Nuncius inanimatus Utopiae (1629), seems to have been the prototype of John Wilkins’s Mercury, or the Secret and Swift Messenger, which appeared in 1641.

GODWIN, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT

(1759-1797),

the eldest, went in the first instance to live with her friend Fanny Blood, a girl was addicted by taking in Everina went hasty and, as

of her own age, whose father, like Wollstonecraft to drink. Mary helped Mrs. Blood to earn money needlework, while Fanny painted in water-colours to live with her brother Edward, and Eliza made a it proved, unhappy marriage with a Mr. Bishop. A

legal separation was afterwards obtained, and the sisters, together with Fanny Blood, took a house, first at Islington, afterwards at

Newington

Green, and opened a school, which was carried on

with indifferent success for nearly two years. During their residence at Newington Green, Mary was introduced to Dr. Johnson who, as Godwin tells us, “treated her with particular kindness and attention.” In 1785 Fanny Blood married Hugh Skeys, a merchant, and

went with bim to Lisbon, where she died in childbed after sending for Mary to nurse her. “The loss of Fanny,” as she said in a letter to Mrs. Skeys’ brother, George Blood, “was sufficient of itself to have cast a cloud over my brightest days. . . . I have lost all relish for pleasure, and life seems a burden almost too heavy to be endured.” Her first novel, Mary, a Fiction (1788), was intended to commemorate her friendship with Fanny. After closing the school at Newington Green, Mary became governess in the family of Lord Kingsborough, in Ireland. Her pupils were much attached to her, especially Margaret King, afterwards Lady Mountcashel; and indeed, Lady Kingsborough gave the reason for dismissing her after one year’s service that the children loved their governess better than their mother. Mary now resolved to

devote herself to literary work, and she was encouraged by Jobnson, the publisher in St. Paul’s churchyard, for whom she acted

as literary adviser. She also undertook translations, chiefly from the French. The Elements of Morality (1790) from the German of Salzmann, illustrated by Blake, an old-fashioned book for children, and Lavater’s Physiognomy were among her translations. Her Original Stories from Real Life were published in 1791, and, with illustrations by Blake, in 1796. In 1792 appeared A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, the work with which her name is always associated. It is not among the least oddities of this book that it is dedicated to M. Talleyrand Périgord, late bishop of Autun. Mary Wollstonecraft still believed him to be sincere, and working in the same direction as herself. In the dedication she states the “main argument” of the work, “built on this simple principle that, if woman be not prepared by education to become the companion of man, she will stop the progress of knowledge, for truth must be common to all, or it will be inefficacious with respect to its influence or general practice.” In carrying out this argument she used great plainness of speech, and it was this that caused all, or nearly all, the outcry. For she did not- attack the institution of marriage, nor assail orthodox religion; her book was really a plea for equality of education, passing into one for State education and for the joint education of the sexes. It was a protest against the assumption that woman was only the plaything of man, and she

asserted that intellectual companionship was the chief, as it is the lasting, happiness of marriage. She thus directly opposed the teaching of Rousseau, of whom she was in other respects an ardent disciple. Mrs. Wollstonecraft, as she now styled herself, desired to watch the progress of the Revolution in France, and went to Paris in 1792. Godwin, in his memoir of his wife, considers that the change of residence may have been prompted by the discovery that she was becoming attached to Henry Fuseli, but there 18 little to confirm this surmise; indeed, it was first proposed tbat she should go to Paris with Fuseli and his wife, nor was

English miscellaneous writer, was born probably at Hoxton, London. Her family was of Irish extraction. Her father, Edward John there any subsequent breach in their friendship. She remained Wollstonecraft, after dissipating the greater part of his patrimony, in Paris during the Reign of Terror, when communication with tried to earn a living by farming, which only plunged him into ‘England was difficult or almost impossible. Some time in the De deeper difficulties, and he led a wandering, shifty life. The family spring or summer of 1793 Capt. Gilbert Imlay, an American, roamed from Hoxton to Edmonton, to Essex, to Beverley in came acquainted with Mary—an acquaintance which ended m à more intimate connection. There was no legal ceremony of mar Yorkshire, to Lougharne, Pembrokeshire, and back to London. After Mrs. Wollstonecraft’s death in 1780, soon followed by riage, and it is doubtful whether such a marriage would bave ber husband’s second marriage, the three daughters, Mary, been valid at the time; but she passed as Imlay’s wife, and Imlay Everina and Eliza, sought to earn their own livelihood. Mary, himself terms her in a legal document, “Mary Imlay, my bes

GODWIN friend and wife.” In Aug. 1793 Imlay was called to Havre on business, and was absent for some months, during which time most of the letters published after her death by Godwin were written. Towards the end of the year she joined Imlay at Havre, and there in the spring of 1794 she gave birth to a girl, who received the name of Fanny, in memory of the dear friend of her youth. In this year she published the first volume of a never

completed Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution. Imlay became involved in a multitude of speculations, and his affection for Mary and their child was already waning.

Mary for some months at Havre.

He left

In June 1795, after joining

him in England, Mary left for Norway on business for Imlay. Her letters from Norway, divested of all personal details, were

afterwards published. She returned to England late in 1795 and found letters awaiting her from Imlay, intimating his intention to separate from her, and offering to settle an annuity on her and her child. For herself she rejected this offer with scorn: ‘From you,” she wrote, “I will not receive anything more. I am not sufficiently humbled to depend on your beneficence.” They met again, and for a short time lived together, until the discovery that he was carrying on an intrigue under her own roof drove her to despair, and she attempted to drown herself by leaping from Putney bridge, but was rescued by watermen. Imlay now completely deserted her, although she continued to bear his name. In 1796, when Mary Wollstonecraft was living in London, supporting herself and her child by working, as before, for Mr. Johnson, she met William Godwin. A friendship sprang up between them—a friendship, as he himself says, which “melted into love.” Godwin states that “ideas which he is now willing to denominate prejudices, made him by no means willing to conform to the ceremony of marriage”; but these prejudices were overcome, and they were married at St. Pancras church on March 29,

1797. And now’ Mary had a season of real calm in her stormy Godwin, for once only in his life, was stirred by passion, and his admiration for his wife equalled his affection. existence.

But their happiness was of short duration. The birth of her daughter Mary, afterwards the wife of Percy Bysshe Shelley, on Aug. 30, 1797, proved fatal, and Mrs. Godwin died on Sept. ro

following. She was buried in the churchyard of Old St. Pancras,

but her remains were afterwards removed by Sir Percy Shelley to the churchyard of St. Peter’s, Bournemouth. Her principal published works are as follows:—Thoughis on the Education of Daughters, ... (1787); Mary, a Fiction (1788); The Female Reader (selections) (1789); Ax Historical and Moral View of the Origin and Progress of the French Revolution, and the effects # has produced in Europe, vol. i. (mo more published) (1790); Original Stories from Real Life (1791); Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792); Vindication of the Rights of Man (1793); Letters written during a Short Residence in Sweden, Norway and Denmark (1796); Posthumous Works (4 vols., 1798). It is impossible to trace the many articles contributed by her to periodical literature. A memoir of her life was published by Godwin in 1798. A large portion of C. Kegan Paul’s work, William Godwin, his Friends and Contemporaries, was devoted to her, and an edition of the Letters to Imlay (1879), of which the first edition was published by Godwin, is preface

by a somewhat

Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin

fuller memoir.

See also E. R. Pennell,

(1885), in the Eminent Women

E, Dowden, The French Revolution and English Literature

Series;

(1897)

PP. 82 et seg.; E. R. Clough, A Study of Mary Wollstonecraft and tke Rights of Woman (1898); an edition of her Original Stories

(1906), with William Blake’s illustrations and an introduction by

E. V. Lucas; the Love Letters of Mary Wollstonecraft to Gilbert Imlcy (1908), with an introduction by Roger Ingpen; M. Linford, Mary Wollstonecraft (1924).

GODWIN, WILLIAM

(1756-1836), English political and

miscellaneous writer, son of a Nonconformist minister, was born on March 3, 1756, at Wisbech, Cambridgeshire. Both parents Were strict Calvinists. William Godwin was educated for his

father’s profession at Hoxton Academy, where he was under Andrew Kippis the biographer and Dr. Abraham Rees of the

Cyclopaedia, and was at first more Calvinistic than his teachers, oming a Sandemanian, or follower of John Glas (g.v.), whom he describes as “a celebrated north-country apostle who, after

Calvin had damned ninety-nine in a hundred of mankind, has contrived a scheme for damning ninety-nine in a hundred of the followers of Calvin.” He then acted as a minister at Ware, Stow-

market and Beaconsfield.

465 At Stowmarket

the teachings of the

French philosophers were brought before him by a friend, Joseph Fawcet, who held strong republican opinions. He came to London in 1782, still nominally a minister, to regenerate society with his pen—a real enthusiast, who contemplated, in theory, the complete overthrow of all existing institutions, political, social and religious. He believed, however, that calm discussion was the only thing needful to carry every change, and from the beginning to the end of his career he deprecated every approach to violence. He was a philosophic radical in the strictest sense of the term. His first published work was an anonymous Life of Lord Chatham (1783). Under the inappropriate title Sketches of History (1784) he published under his own name six sermons on the characters of Aaron, Hazael and Jesus, in which, though writing in the character of an orthodox Calvinist, he enunciates the proposition “God Himself has no right to be a tyrant.” Introduced by Andrew Kippis, he began to write in 1785 for the Annual Register and other periodicals, producing also three novels now forgotten. The “Sketches of English History” written for the Annual Register from 1785 onward still deserve study. He joined a club called the “Revolutionists,” and associated with Lord Stanhope, Horne Tooke and Holcroft. His clerical character was now completely dropped. In 1793 Godwin published his great work on political science, The Iaquiry concerning Political Justice, and its Influence on

General Virtue and Happiness, an inquiry into the principles of society, of government and of morals. For many years Godwin had been “satisfied that monarchy was a species of government unavoidably corrupt,” and from desiring a government of the simplest construction, he gradually came to consider that “government by its very nature counteracts the improvement of original mind.” Believing in the perfectibility of the race, that there are no innate principles, and therefore no original propensity to evil, he considered that “‘our virtues and our vices may be traced to the incidents which make the history of our lives, and if these incidents could be divested of every improper tendency, vice would be extirpated from the world.” All control of man by man was more or less intolerable, and the day would come when each man, doing what seems right in his own eyes, would also be doing what is in fact best for the community, because all will be guided by principles of pure reason. In a day when the penal code was still extremely severe, he argued gravely against all punishments, not only that of death. Property was to belong to him who most wanted it; accumulated property was a monstrous injustice. Hence marriage, which is law, is the worst of all laws, and as property the worst of all properties, Perhaps no one received the whole teaching of the book. But it gave cohesion and voice to philosophic radicalism. Godwin himself in after days modified his communistic views, but his strong feeling for individualism, his hatred of all restrictions on liberty, his trust in man, his faith in the power of reason remained. In May 1794 Godwin published the novel of Caleb Williams, or Things as they are, dramatized by the younger Colman as The Iron Chest. A theorist who lived mainly in his study, Godwin yet came forward boldly to stand by prisoners arraigned of high treason in that same year—1794. The danger to persons so charged was then great, and he deliberately put himself into this same danger for his friends. But when his own trial was discussed in the privy council, Pitt sensibly held that Political Justice, the work on which the charge could. best have been founded, was priced at three guineas, and could never do much harm among those who had not three shillings to spare. In 1797, the intervening years having been spent in strenuous literary labour, Godwin married Mary Wollstonecraft (see Gop-

WIN, Mary WOLLSTONECRAFT). Since both held the same views regarding the slavery of marriage, and since they only married at all for the sake of possible offspring, the marriage was con-

cealed for some time, and the happiness of the avowed married life was very brief; his wife’s death on Sept. ro left Godwin

prostrated by affliction, and with a charge for which he was wholly unfit—his infant daughter Mary, and her stepsister, Fanny Imlay,

who from that time bore the name of Godwin. His unfitness for

GODWIN-AUSTEN—GODWIT

4.66

the cares of a family, far more than love, led him to contract a} second marriage with Mary Jane Clairmont in 180r. She was a widow with two children, one of whom, Clara Mary Jane Clairmont, became the mistress of Byron. The second Mrs. Godwin was energetic and painstaking, but a harsh stepmother; and it may be doubted whether the children were not worse off under her care than they would have been under Godwin’s neglect. Godwin’s second novel, St. Leon, appeared in 1799. It is chiefly remarkable for the beautiful portrait of Marguerite, the heroine, drawn from the character of his own wife. His opinions underwent a change in the direction of theism, influenced, he says, by his acquaintance with Coleridge. Study of the Elizabethan dramatists led to the production in 1800 of the Tragedy of Antonio. Kemble brought it out at Drury Lane, but the failure of this attempt made him refuse Abbas, King of Persia, which Godwin offered him in the next year. He was more successful with his Life of Chaucer, for which he received £600. The events of Godwin’s life were few. Under the advice of the second Mrs. Godwin, and with her active co-operation, he carried on business as a bookseller under the pseudonym of Edward Baldwin, publishing several useful school books and books for children, among them Charles and Mary Lamb’s Tales from Shakespeare. But for many years Godwin struggled with constant pecuniary difficulties, for which more than one subscription was raised by the leaders of the Liberal Party and by literary men. He became bankrupt in 1822, but during the following years he accomplished one of his best pieces of work, The History of the Commonwealth, founded on pamphlets and original documents, which still retains considerable value. In 1833 the Government of Earl Grey conferred upon him the office known as yeoman usher of the exchequer, to which were attached apartments in Palace Yard, where he died on April 7, 1836. _ In his own time, by his writings and by his conversation, Godwin had a great power of influencing men, and especially young men. Though his character would seem, from much which is found in his writings, and from anecdotes told by those who still remember him, to have been cold and unsympathetic, it was not so understood by enthusiastic young people, who hung on his words as those of a prophet. The most remarkable of these was Percy Bysshe Shelley, who in the glowing dawn of his genius turned to Godwin as his teacher and guide. The last of the long series of young men who sat at Godwin’s feet was Edward Lytton Bulwer, afterwards Lord Lytton, whose early romances were formed after those of Godwin, and who, in Eugene Aram, succeeded to the story as arranged, and the plan to a considerable extent sketched out, by Godwin, whose age and failing health prevented him from completing it. Godwin’s character appears in the worst light in connection with Shelley. His early correspondence with Shelley, which began in 1811, is remarkable for its genuine good sense and kindness; but when Shelley carried out the principles of the author of Political Justice in eloping with Mary Godwin, Godwin assumed a hostile attitude that would have been unjustifiable in any case, and was ridiculous in the light of his professions. He was not, moreover, too proud to accept £1,000 from his son-in-law, and after the reconciliation following on Shelley’s marriage in 1816, he continued to demand money until Shelley’s death. His character had no doubt suffered under his long embarrassments and his unhappy marriage. BreriocrarpHy.—Godwin’s more important works are—The Enquiry

concerning Political Justice, and its Influence on General Virtue and Happiness (1793); Things as they are, or the Adventures of Caleb Williams (1794); The Enquirer, a series of Essays (1797); Memoirs of the Author of the Righis of Woman (1798); Si. Leon, a Tale of the Sixteenth Century (1799); Antonio, a Tragedy (1800); The Life of Chaucer (1803) ; Fleetwood, a Novel (1805) ; Faulkener, a Tragedy (1807); Essay on Sepulchres (1809); Lives of Edward and John Philips, the Nephews of Milton (1815); Mandeville, a Tale of the Times of Cromwell (1817); Of Population, an answer to Malthus

(r820); History of the Commonwealth (1824-1828); Cloudesly, a Tale (1830); Thoughts on Man, a series of Essays (1831); Lives of

the Necromancers (1834). A volume of essays was also collected from į earns and published in 1873, as left for publication by his

gy Be

Shefley. Many other short and anonymous works pro-

his ever

are forgotten Godwin’s.

under the title William Godwin, his Friends and Contemporaries by Kegan Paul. The best estimate of his literary position is tha given by Sir Leslie Stephen in his English Thought in the 8th Century (ii. 264-281, 3rd ed., 1902). See also the article on William

Godwin in W. Hazlitts The Spirit of the Age (1825), and “Godwin

and Shelley” in Sir L. Stephen’s Hours in a Library (vol. iii., ed. 1892). H. Roussin, William Godwin (1913) ; F. K. Brown, The Life of Wiljam Godwin (1926).

GODWIN-AUSTEN, ROBERT ALFRED CLOYNE (1808-1884), English geologist, the eldest son of Sir Henry Ẹ, Austen, was born on March 17, 1808. He was educated at Oriel College, Oxford, of which he became a fellow in 1830. He after. wards entered Lincoln’s Inn. In 1855 he brought before the Geological Society of London his paper “On the possible Exten-

sion of the Coal-Measures beneath the South-Eastern part of England.”

In this paper he supported the theory of the fresh.

water origin of the Old Red Sandstone, and discussed the rela-

tions of that formation, and of the Devonian, to the Silurian and Carboniferous. He was elected F.R.S. in 1849. He died at Shalford

House

near

Guildford

on

Nov.

25, 1884.

Mt. Godwin-

Austen (K2 or Dapsang) 28,250 ft., in the Himalayas, is named in his honour.

GODWINE

(4d. 1053), earl of the West-Saxons and the lead.

ing Englishman of his day, was the son of Wulfnoth, whose identity is uncertain.

Of Godwine’s youth, nothing is known except

that he soon became a personal favourite of Canute, who, about 1018, conferred upon him the rank of earl—probably of some

one shire in Wessex.

In 1019 Godwine accompanied the king on

his visit to Denmark, and shortly afterwards was given in mar-

riage Gytha, sister of Ulf, and raised (1020) to the dignity of earl of all Wessex.

On Canute’s death in 1035, he assisted Queen

Emma in supporting the claims of her son, Hardicanute, in opposition to those of Harold Harefoot for whom the Witan at Oxford, led by Leofric, had declared (see HarpicaANute). Meanwhile Aelfred, son of Emma by her former husband Aethelred IT., had landed in England with the hope of gaining the crown, but, falling into Godwine’s power, he was handed over to Harold and killed. On the death of Hardicanute in 1042, after a reign of less than two years, Godwine secured an English succession to the throne by his promotion of the election of Edward the Confessor, the surviving son of Emma and Aethelred. He was now the first man in the kingdom, and though he had powerful rivals in the earl Leofric of Mercia and earl Siward of Northumbria, he secured the marriage of his daughter Eadgyth to the king (1045), an earldom in the Severn valley for his son Sweyn, one in East Anglia for his son Harold, and a third in the Chilterns for his nephew Beorn. Nevertheless, his opposition to the Norman favourites of the king, particularly to Robert, abbot of Jumiéges, who in rosz became archbishop of Canterbury, and his attempt to cover up the misdeeds of his son Sweyn (d. 1052), was bring-

ing the earl into disfavour. The climax came with his refusal to punish the men of Dover for stirring up a riot amongst the retinue of Eustace, Count of Boulogne, who was on a visit to

the king in ros1. Godwine and his sons gathered their forces in Gloucestershire, and the earls of Mercia and Northumbria has-

tened to the assistance of the king. Though war was averted by

mediation, Godwine and his family were outlawed (see EDWARD THE ConFessor). In the following year, however, the suspicions

of the English thegns having been aroused by a visit of Edward's kinsman, William, duke of Normandy, Godwine was enabled to return in triumph. Some six months later, the earl was taken il while at the king’s table, and died on April 15, 1053. See authorities in Freeman’s Norman Conquest, vols. i. and ii, and Cambridge Mediaeval Hist., vol. iii.

GODWIT, the name of wading birds of the genus Limosa, much esteemed for the table. The black-tailed godwit, L. limoss,

or yarwhelp, formerly bred in the English fens. It is now only a visitor there but breeds commonly in Holland and thence across Europe to south Russia. The bird is the size of a large pigeon

but with long legs and bill, the latter slightly upturned; the winter plumage is greyish-brown but the breeding dress is marked by

ee but many are irrecoverable, and all, bright bay. The tail is white for a third of its length and was published in 1876 in two volumes, black with a white margin. As in many waders, in spring the

then

GOEBEN—“GOEBEN” circle in the air and utter a special call or song. The bar-tailed |

godwit breeds in Lapland and is a winter visitor and bird of

passage over the rest of Europe. It is smaller than the preceding

and the tail is barred with black and white throughout its length. Scientifically it is Z. lapponica. The marbled godwit (L. fedoa) is

very large; it is an American form, as is the smaller Hudsonian godwit (Z. hudsonica). Both breed in the north and migrate

south in winter, the second form reaching the Strait of Magellan.

Two forms from Asia winter in Australia and New Zealand.

GOEBEN, AUGUST KARL VON (1816-1880), Prussian general of infantry, was born at Stade, Hanover, on Dec. Io, 1816.

At seventeen he entered the Prussian army but left the service in 1836 to see actual fighting with the Carlist army in Spain. After five strenuous campaigns in which he suffered two terms of imprisonment he returned to Prussia absolutely beggared, and reentered the Prussian service. In 1848 he had the luck to be transferred to the staff of the IV. army corps, his immediate superior being Major von Moltke. The two “coming men” became fast friends, and their mutual esteem was never disturbed.

In the Baden insurrection Goeben served on the staff of Prince William the future emperor. Staff and regimental duty alternated for some years after this, till in 1863 he became majorgeneral commanding the 26th infantry brigade. In 1860 he was present with the Spanish troops in Morocco, and took part in the battle of Tetuan. In the first of Prussia’s great wars (1864) he distinguished himself at Rackebiill and Sonderburg. In the war of 1866 von Goeben commanded the 13th division and showed himself a born leader and skilful tactician. He held almost independent command

with conspicuous success in the actions of Dermbach, Laufach, Kissingen, Aschaffenburg, Gerchsheim, Tauber-Bischofsheim and Würzburg. The mobilization of 1870 placed him at the head of the VIII. (Rhineland) army corps, forming part of the First

Army under Steinmetz.

His resolute and energetic leading con-

tributed mainly to the victory of Spicheren (Aug. 6), and won the only laurels gained on the Prussian right wing at Gravelotte (Aug. 18). On Jan. 8, 1871 Goeben succeeded Manteuffel in the command of the I. Army, with which he had served throughout the campaign as a corps commander. A fortnight later he brought the war in northern France to a brilliant conclusion, by the decisive victory of St. Quentin (Jan. 18 and 19, 1871). He commanded the VIII. corps at Coblenz until his death there on Nov. 13, 1880. Goeben’s memoirs are to be found in his works Vier Jahre in Spanien (Hanover, 1841), Reise-und Lagerbriefe aus Spanien und vom spanischen Heere in Marokko (Hanover, 1863) and in the euros Allgemeine Militarzeitung. The cruiser “Goeben” bore name. See G. Zernin, Das Leben des Generals August von Goeben (2 vols., 1895797) aud A. von Goeben in Seinen Briefen (1903); H. Barth, A. von Goeben (1906) ; and for his share in the war of 1870-71; H. Kunz, Der Feldzug im N. und N.W. Frankreichs I870—I187I (1889), and the i4th Monograph of the Great General Staff (1891).

“GOEBEN” AND “BRESLAU.” The escape of the Ger-

man battle-cruiser “Goeben” and light-cruiser “Breslau” from Messina on Aug. 6, 1914; their flight to the Aegean Sea and the

bold decision to make for Constantinople, turned what was for

AND

“BRESLAU”

407

Cruisers: Six. Destroyers: Twenty four. Italian forces:

Battleships: Three Dreadnoughts, three older type. Austrian forces:

Battleships: Three Dreadnoughts, three older type. German forces under Rear-Admira Souckon:— Battle-cruiser: “Goeben.” Light-cruiser: “Breslau.” The preliminary warning sent out on July 27 to Admiral Milne, then at Alexandria, directed him to return to Malta and after completing with fuel and stores, to remain there for the purpose of watching the entrance to the Adriatic. These orders were subsequently overridden by a series of telegrams from the Admiralty. The first task given to Milne was to assist the French in transporting their African army. A lack of international co-operation is here evident, as the French Commander-in-Chief knew nothing of these plans. Then followed orders to prevent the “Goeben” entering the Adriatic; to guard British trade in the East Mediterranean and to watch any Austrian ships which emerged from the Adriatic. On July 31 the Italian Government announced its intention to remain neutral, but this important fact was not communicated to Milne until Aug. 4 when he was further instructed to observe, strictly, the neutrality and allow no British warship to approach within 6 miles of the coast of Italy. A severe handicap this to any operation in or near the Straits of Messina. “Goeben’s” Activities.—Admiral Souchon left Messina at I A.M. Aug. 3 and made a dash to the African coast where, on the following morning, he fired a few shots into the towns of Bona and Philippeville. He then made off to the eastward, and, by a stroke of luck, narrowly missed meeting the French rst Squadron, but he was sighted and followed by the “Indomitable” and “Indefatigable.” No hostile action could, however, be taken, as war with Germany had not then been declared by Great Britain. Superior speed, aided by hazy weather, enabled Souchon to evade the British ships, and he returned to Messina where our ships could not follow if Italian neutrality was to be strictly

observed. Declaration of War.—At 7.02 p.m. on Aug. 4, Milne was informed the ultimatum would expire at midnight. When hostities commenced at that hour the “Indomitable” and “Indefatigable” were between Sicily and Sardinia; the “Inflexible” was in the Malta Channel steering to join her consorts; Troubridge, with the armoured cruisers, was near Cephalonia and the “Goeben” was approaching Messina, where she arrived, with the “Breslau” at 4 Am. Aug. 5. Her presence there became known to Milne at 5.30 P.M. Aug. 5, and during that night the British battlecruisers patrolled between Bizerta and Sardinia. “Goeben’s”? Escape.~—Since Austria still hesitated to declare

war against Great Britain, Souchon was given permission to act as he thought best. About 6 p.m. Aug. 6, Milne decided to close the northern entrance of the Straits of Messina, and, when off the north-west point of Sicily, he received news from the

“Gloucester”

that the “Goeben”

Messina by the southern entrance.

and “Breslau”

were

leaving

Souchon made the bold deci-

them a desperate situation into one of material advantage to Ger-

sion to run for the Dardanelles. He steered to the northward, as

considerable influence when Turkey was hesitating whether or no to cast in her lot with the Central Powers. Position in Aug. 1914.—When the World War broke out, the

for Cape Matapan, being shadowed the next day by the “Gloucester.”

many, Their arrival at the Sublime Porte undoubtedly had a if for the Adriatic, until r p.m. and then shaped a course

naval forces of the powers concerned in the Mediterranean were as follows: : British forces under Vice-Admiral Sir A. Berkeley Milne :—

Batile-cruisers: “Inflexible,” “Indomitable,” “Indefatigable.”

Armoured cruisers under Rear-Admiral E. C. Troubridge:—

“Defence,” “Black Prince,” “Duke of Edinburgh,” “Warnor.” Light-Cruisers: “Chatham,” “Dublin,” “Gloucester,”

“Weymouth.” Destroyers: sixteen. French forces under Vice-Admiral de Lapeyrere:— Battleships: One Dreadnought, fifteen older type. Armoured

throughout

the night and

Troubridge steered north to intercept the German ships, but at midnight, realizing that their first course was only a feint, turned and proceeded south at full speed. Troubridge had decided not to risk his cruisers against the “Goeben’s” 11-inch guns in a daylight action, and finding it impossible to intercept her before daylight, he abandoned the chase. Milne took his battle-cruisers to Malta, coaled, and left again at midnight, Aug. 7, for the Aegean. A false alarm of war with Austria, sent out by the Admiralty, induced Milne to alter his

dispositions and wasted 24 hours. When the chase was resumed, it was too late to overtake the “Goeben” and “Breslau,” which ships, having coaled at the island of Denusa, reached the. Darda-

GOEDEKE—GOES

4.68 nelles at about 5 p.m. Aug. Io.

(J. E.T. H.)

BrsLrocrRargy.—Emil Ludwig, Der Fahrtender Goeben und der Breslau (1916); C. Doenetz, Die Fahrte des Breslau in Schwartzen Meer (1917); M. Farnaise, L’Aventure du Goeben (1917); Adml. Sir Berkeley Milne, Flight of “Goeben” and “Breslau” (1921); J. S. Corbett, History of the Great War, Naval Operations, vol. i. (1921). (See also Wor~tp War: BIBLIOGRAPHY.)

GOEDEKE, KARL (1814-1887), German literary historian, was born at Celle on April 15, 1814. He became professor at Göttingen in 1873, and died there on Oct. 28, 1887. His most important service to German literature was the compilation of the indispensable Grundriss sur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung (3 vols., 1857—81; new ed., ro vols., 1884-1913), a bibliography of the subject down to the death of Goethe. Goedeke published many other works, among them a critical edition of Schiller.

GOEJE, MICHAEL

JAN DE (1836-1909), Dutch orien-

talist, was born in Friesland in 1836. He devoted himself at an early age to the study of oriental languages and became especially proficient m Arabic, under the guidance of Dozy and Juynboll, to whom he was afterwards an intimate friend and colleague. He took his degree of doctor at Leyden in 1860, and then studied for a year in Oxford, where he examined and collated the Bodleian MSS. of Idrisi (part being published in 1866, in collaboration with R. P. Dozy, as Description de P Afrique et de VEspagne). About the same time he wrote Mémoires de histoire et de la géographie orientales, and edited Expugnatio regionum. In 1883, on the death of Dozy, he became Arabic professor at Leyden, retiring in 1906. He died on May 17, 1909. He wielded a great influence during his long professoriate not only over his pupils, but over theologians and eastern administrators who attended his lectures, and his many editions of Arabic texts have been of the highest value to scholars, the most important being his great edition of Tabari.

in 1790; Chronica do principe Dom Joam (1558), with subsequent editions in 1567 and 1724 in Lisbon and in 1790 and 1908 in Coimbra. Livro de Marco Tullio Ciceram chamado Catam Mayor (Venice

1538). This is a translation of Cicero’s De senectute. His Latin works

comprise: (1) Legatio magni imperatoris Presbiteri Joannis, ete (Antwerp, 1532); (2) Legatzo Davidis Ethiopiae regis, etc. (Bologna, 1533); (3) Commentarii rerum gestarum in India (Louvain, 1539): (4) Fides, religio, moresque Aethiopum (Louvain, 1540), incorporating

Nos. (1) and (2); (5) Hispania (Louvain, 1542); (6) Aliquot epistalge

Sadolett Bembi et aliorum clarissimorum virorum, etc. (Louvain 1544); (7) Damiani a Goes equitis Lusitani aliquot opuscula (Louvain, 1544); (8) Urbis Lovaniensis obsidia (Lisbon, 1546); (9) De bello

Cambaico ultimo (Louvain, 1549); (10) Urbis Olisiponensts descriptis oe

I

1554);

(11) Epistola ad Hieronymum

Cardosum

(Lisbon,

š

ee Joaquim de Vasconcellos, Goesiana (Porto, 1879-97) ; Guilherme

J. C. Henriques, Ineditos Goesianos (2 vols. 1896-98); A. P, Lopes de Mendonça, Damião de Goes e a Inquisição de Portugal (1859): Sousa Viterbo, Damião de Goes e D. Antonio Pinheiro (Coimbra

1895); M. de Lemos, “Damião de Goes,” in Revista de Historia (1920-22).

(E. P.; A. B.)

GOES, HUGO VAN DER (1440-1482), a painter of con. siderable celebrity at Ghent, was known to Vasari, as he is known to us, by a single picture in a Florentine monastery. At a period when the family of the Medici had not yet risen from the rank of

a great mercantile firm to that of a reigning dynasty, it employed as an agent at the port of Bruges Tommaso Portinari, a lineal descendant, it was said, of Folco, the father of Dante’s Beatrix. Tommaso,

at that time patron of a chapel in the hospital of

Santa Maria Nuova at Florence, ordered an altar-piece of Hugo

van der Goes, and commanded him to illustrate the sacred theme of Quem genuit adoravit. In the centre of a vast triptych, comprising numerous figures of life size, Hugo represented the

Virgin kneeling in adoration before the new-born Christ attended by Shepherds and Angels. On the wings he portrayed Tommaso and his two sons in prayer under the protection of Saint Anthony Among his chief works are Fragmenta historicorum Arabicorum and St. Matthew, and Tommaso’s wife and two daughters sup(1869-71); Diwan of Moslim-ibn-al-Wdlid (1875); Bibliotheca parted by St. Margaret and St. Mary Magdalen. The triptych, geographorum Arabicorum (1870~94) ; Annals of Tabari (1879-1901) ; edition of Ibn Qutaiba’s biographies (1904); of the travels of Ibn Jubaye (1907, 5th vol. of Gibb Memorial). He was also the chief editor of the Encyclopaedia of Islam (vols. i-iii.), and contributed many articles to periodicals, He wrote for the oth and the 11th edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica.

GOES, DAMIAO

DE (1502-1574), Portuguese humanist,

was born of a patrician family at Alenquer. Under King Jobn III. he was employed abroad for many years from 1523 on diplomatic and commercial missions, and he travelled over the greater part of Europe. He was intimate with the leading scholars of the time, was acquainted with Luther and Melanchthon, and in 1532 became the pupil and friend of Erasmus. Goes took his degree at Padua in 1538 after a four years’ course. He married in Flanders a rich and noble Dutch lady D. Joanna de Hargen, and settled at Louvain, then the literary centre of the Low Countries, where he was living In 1542 when the French besieged the town. He was taken prisoner and confined for nine months in France, till he obtained his freedom by a heavy ransom. He was rewarded, however, for his services by a grant of arms from Charles V. He finally returned to Portugal in 1545, and in 1548 he was

appointed chief keeper of the archives and royal chronicler. In 1558 he was given a commission to write a history of the reign of King Manoel and the first part of this great work appeared in 1566. Damião de Goes was a man of wide culture and genial manners, and a skilled musician. He wrote both Portuguese and Latin with classic strength and simplicity, and his style is free from affectation and rhetorical ornaments. His portrait by Albrecht

Diirer shows an open, intelligent face, and the record of his life proves him to have been upright and fearless. But his historical work gave umbrage to the great families; a denunciation to the Inquisition in 1545 was taken up later and in 157z he was arrested. He was sentenced to a term of reclusion at the monastery of Batalha. Later he was allowed to return home but died sud-

which has suffered much from decay and restoring, was for over 400 years at Santa Maria Nuova, and is now in the Uffizi Gallery. There are also pieces in public galleries which claim to have been executed by Van der Goes: The “Madonna” at Frankfurt; the diptych representing the “Fall” and the “Deposition” at Vienna. These are probably early works. To a maturer period may be ascribed the precious little triptych in the Liechtenstein collection representing the “Adoration of the Magi’; the two wings of and altar-piece fromthe Church of the Holy Trinity at Edinburgh now at Holyrood Castle; the “Death of the Virgin” at Bruges; the “Adoration of the Shepherds” at Wilton House. To his last years are ascribed two fine pictures painted on a large scale recently acquired ‘by the Berlin Gallery from Spain representing the “Nativity” and the “Adoration of the Magi.” Van der Goes, however was not only a painter of easel pieces. He made hbis reputation at Bruges by producing coloured hangings in distemper. After he settled at Ghent, and became a master of his gild in 1467, he designed cartoons for glass windows. He also made

decorations for the wedding of Charles the Bold and Margaret of

York in 1468, for the festivals of the Rhetoricians and papal jubilees on repeated occasions, for the solemn entry of Charles the Bold into Ghent in 1470-1471 and for the funeral of Philip the Good in 1474. About the year 1475 he retired to the monastery of Rouge Cloître near Ghent, where he took the cowl. There, though he still clung to his profession, he seems to have taken to

drinking, and at one time to have shown decided symptoms of insanity.

But his superiors gradually cured him of his intem-

perance, and he died in the odour of sanctity in 1482. See Joseph Destrée; H. v. d. Goes (1914); Max J. Friedländer Hugo. v. der Goes (1926) ; Sir Martin Conway, The Van Eycks and their Followers (1921).

GOES, a town in the province of Zeeland, Holland, on the island of South Beveland, 114 m. by rail Ex of Middelburg. Pop. (1925) 8,748.

The town had its origin in the castle of

denly on Jan. 30, 1574. BreriocrapHy.—His Portuguese works include Chronica do felicis-

Oostende, and received a charter early in the 15th century from the countess Jacoba of Holland, who frequently stayed at castle. It is connected by a short canal with the East Scheldt,

other editions appeared in Lisbon in 1619 and 1749 and in Coimbra

and has a good harbour (1819) defended by a fort. Thep

simo rei Dom Emanuel (parts i. and if., 1566, parts iil. and iv., 1567);

GOETHALS—GOETHE buildings are the Gothic church (1423) and the old town hall (restored 1771). It is a centre of the linen industry and a market r wheat.

GOETHALS, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1858-1928),

American engineerand major-general of the U.S. army, was born in Brooklyn, N.Y., on June 29, 1858. He graduated from West Point

military academy in 1880, From 1880-85 he served in the U.S. regular army as an engineer officer, and was at various periods

an instructor at West Point. From 1891-95 he was in charge of Tennessee river improvements, the Muscle Shoals canal and the

design and construction of the Colbert Shoals lock. He was assistant to the chief of engineers, U.S. army (1895-98), and after

serving for a few months as chief engineer of the First Army

Corps received his honourable discharge from service in the U.S.

volunteers in 1898. As a major (1900-03) he was in charge of the river and harbour works from Block island to Nantucket, and of the design and construction of Narragansett bay fortifications at New Bedford and at Newport, R.I. From 1903 to 1907 he served on the general staff of the U.S. army. In 1907 he was appointed by President Roosevelt a member of the Isthmian canal commission, at which time he became a lieutenant colonel, and afterwards became chairman and chief engineer. In r909 he was promoted to the rank of colonel. The work, hitherto in charge of civilian engineers, was reorganized and directed by army engineers subject to the control of the president of the United States. Several changes of plan, such as widening the canal, were inaugurated. On Aug. 15, 1914, Goethals completed his task and the canal was declared open to world commerce (see Panama CANAL). Col. Goethals was ap-

pointed the first civil governor of the Canal Zone by President Wilson in 1914 and in the following year was made a majorgeneral. He resigned the governorship in 1916 and at his own

request was placed on the retired list of the army. He was then appointed chairman of the board constituted to report on the Adamson eight-hour law. He served for a few months as general manager of the emergency fleet corporation, U.S. shipping board, but having little faith in the plan for a wooden fleet, resigned. He retumed to private practice until Dec. 11, 1917, when he was

recalled to active duty as acting quartermaster-general, U.S. army, becoming in 1918 chief of the division of purchase, storage and traffic. He was also a member of the war industries board. At his request he was relieved from activé service in March 19109, and became engaged in the -practice of consulting -engineering (civil and electrical) in New York city. ; After an illness of eight months, Maj.-Gen. Goethals died at his home in New York city, Jan. 21, 1928. (J. B. Br.): GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON (2749-1832),

greatest of German poets, was born at Frankfurt-on-Main.. He came, on his father’s side, of Thuringian stock, his great-grandfather, Hans Christian Goethe, having been a farrier at Artern-onthe-Unstrut, about the middle of the 17th century. Hans Chris-

hans son, Georg Friedrich, was brought up to the trade of a tailor, and in this capacity settled in Frankfurt in 1687. A second marriage, however, brought him into possession of the Frankfurt

inn, “Zum Weidenhof,” and he ended his days as a well-to-do inn-

keeper. His son, Johann Kaspar, the poet’s father (1710-1782), studied law at Leipzig, and subsequently travelled in Italy. He hoped, on his return to Frankfurt, to obtain an official position in the government of the free city, but he had not sufficient personal influence to attain this end. In his disappointment he resolved

never again to offer his services to his native town, and retired

into private life. In 1742 he acquired, as a consolation for the

lic career he had missed, the title of Raiserlicher Rat, and in

1748 married Katharina Elisabeth (1731-1808), daughter of the Schultheiss or Bürgermeister of Frankfurt, Johann Wolfgang Textor. The poet was the eldest son of this union. Of the later children only one, Cornelia (b. 1750), survived the years of child-

469

ther, whose stern, somewhat pedantic nature repelled warmer feelings on the part of the children, Goethe inherited, besides an unamiable stiffness of manner which grew on him with the years, that stability of character which brought him unscathed through temptations and passions, and held the balance to his all too powerful imagination. Unforgettable is the picture which the poet has left us of his childhood spent in the large house with its many nooks and crannies in the Grosse Hirschgraben at Frankfurt. Books, pictures, objects of art, antiquities, reminiscences of Rat Goethe’s visit to Italy, above all a marionette theatre, kindled the child’s quick intellect and imagination. His education was conducted in its early stages by his father, and was later supplemented by tutors. Meanwhile the varied and picturesque life of Frankfurt was in itself a liberal education. In 1759, during the Seven Years’ War, the French, as Maria Theresa’s allies, occupied the town, and, much to the irritation of Goethe’s father, who was a stanch partisan of Frederick the Great, a French lieutenant, Count Thoranc, was quartered on the Goethe household. The foreign occupation also led to the establishment of a French troupe of actors, and to their performances the boy, through his grandfather’s influence, had free access. One of Goethe’s most vivid memories was the picturesque coronation of the emperor Joseph II. in the Frankfurt Romer or town hall in 1764; he also dwells at some length in his autobiography on his first love affair. The object of this passion was a certain Gretchen, who seems to have taken advantage of the boy’s interest in her to further the dishonest ends of one of her

friends. The discovery of the affair and the investigation that followed cooled Goethe’s ardour and caused him to turn his attention seriously to the studies which were to prepare him for the university. Meanwhile his literary instinct had begun to show itself; we hear of a novel in letters—a kind of linguistic exercise, in which the characters carried on the correspondence in different languages—of a prose epic on the subject of Joseph, and various religious poems of which one, Die Héllenfakrt Christi, found its way in a revised form into the poet’s complete works. In Oct. 1765, Goethe, then a little over 16, left Frankfurt for Leipzig, where a wider life awaited him. He entered upon his university studies with zeal, but his education in Frankfurt had not been the best preparation for the scholastic methods which still dominated the German universities; of his professors, only Gellert seems to have won his interest, and that interest was soon exhausted. The literary beginnings he had made in Frankfurt now seemed to him worthless; he committed them to the flames;

and, under the guidance of E. W. Behrisch, a genial, if somewhat eccentric comrade, he turned over a new leaf; he acquired the art of writing those light Anacreontic lyrics which appealed to the taste of the polite Leipzig society of the day. Artificial as this poetry is, Goethe was, nevertheless, inspired by a real passion in Leipzig, namely, for Anna Katharina Schénkopf, the daughter of a wine-merchant at whose tavern he dined. She is the “Annette” after whom the collection of lyrics discovered in 1897 was named, although it must be added that neither these lyrics nor the Neue Lieder, published in 1770, let us see very much of Goethe’s

real feelings for Kathchen Schénkopf. To his Leipzig studentdays belong also two small plays in Alexandrines, Die Laune des Verliebten, a comedy in one act, which reflects the lighter side of the poet’s inve affair, and Die Mitschuldigen (published in a revised form, 1769), a more sombre production, in which comedy is incongruously mingled with tragedy. In Leipzig Goethe also

had time for what remained one of the abiding interests of his life, for art; he regarded A. F. Oeser (1717-1799), the director of the academy of painting in the Pleissenburg, who gave him lessons in drawing, as the teacher by whom he was most influenced in Leipzig. His art studies were also furthered by a short visit to Dresden. His stay in Leipzig came, however, to an abrupt conclusion;

the distractions of student life proved too much for his strength; hood; she died as the wife of Goethe’s friend, J. G, Schlosser, in a sudden haemorrhage supervened, and he lay long ill, first in 1777. The best elements in Goethe’s genius came from his Leipzig, and, after it was possible to remove him, at home in mother’s side; of a lively, impulsive disposition, and gifted with Frankfurt. These months of slow recovery were à time of serious remarkable imaginative power, Frau Rat, who was hardly 18 when introspection for Goethe. He still corresponded with his Leipzig Son was‘born, was the ideal mother of a poet. From his fa- friends, but the tone of his letters changed; life had become more

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GOETHE

serious for him. He pored over books on occult philosophy; he busied himself with alchemy and astrology. A friend of his mother’s, Susanne Katharina von Klettenberg, who belonged to pietist circles in Frankfurt, turned the boy’s thoughts to religious mysticism. On his recovery his father resolved that his legal studies should be completed at Strasbourg, a city, which although then outside the German empire, was, in respect of language and culture, wholly German. From the moment Goethe set foot in the narrow streets of the Alsatian capital, in April 1770, the whole current of his thought seemed to change. The Gothic architecture of the Strasbourg minster became to him the symbol of a national and German ideal, directly antagonistic to the French tastes and the classical and rationalistic atmosphere that prevailed in Leipzig. An event of the first importance in Goethe’s Strasbourg period was his meeting with Herder, wha spent some weeks in Strasbourg undergoing an operation. In this thinker, who was his senior by

five years, Goethe found the master he sought; Herder taught him the significance of Gothic architecture, revealed to him the beauty of nature unadorned, and inspired him with enthusiasm for Shakespeare and the Volkslied. Meanwhile Goethe’s legal studies were not neglected, amd he found time to add to his knowledge in other fields, notably medicine. Another factor of importance in Goethe’s Strasbourg life was his love for Friderike Brion, the daughter of an Alsatian village.pastor in Sesenheim. Even more than Herder’s precept and example, this passion showed Goethe how trivial and artificial had been the Anacreontic and pastoral poetry, which had occupied him in Leipzig; and the lyrics inspired by Friderike, such as Kleine Blumen, kleine Blatter and Wie herrlich leuchtet mir die Natur! mark the beginning of a new epoch in German lyric poetry. The idyll of Sesenheim, as described in Dichtung und Wahrheit, is one of the beautiful lovestories in the literature of the world. From the first, however, it was clear that Friderike Brion could never become the wife of the Frankfurt patrician’s son; an unhappy ending to the romance was unavoidable, and, as is to be seen in passionate outpourings like Wanderers Sturmlied, and in the bitter self-accusations of Clavigo, it left deep wounds on the poet’s sensitive nature. In Strasbourg Goethe probably planned his first. important drama, Götz von Berlichingen. In estimating this drama we must bear in mind Goethe’s own life, and the turbulent spirit of his age, rather than the historical facts, which the poet found in an autobiography of his hero published in 1731. The latter supplied only the rough materials; the Götz von Berlichingen whom Goethe drew, with his humane ideals of justice and his epthusiasm for freedom, is a very different personage from the unscrupulous robber-knight of the 16th century. There is no historical justification

which was this time strong enough to bring him to the brink of that suicide which forms the culmination of the novel. A visit to

the Rhine, where new interests and the attractions of Maximiliane von Laroche, a daughter of Wieland’s friend, the novelist Sophie von Laroche, brought partial healing, his intense preoccupation with literary work on his return to Frankfurt did the rest. In 177

Goethe was attracted by still another type of woman, Lili Schönemann, whose mother was the widow of a wealthy Frankfurt

banker. A formal betrothal took place, and the beauty of the lyrics which Lili inspired leaves no room for doubt that here was a passion no less genuine than that for Friderike or Charlotte.

But the gay, social world in which Lili moved was not congenial to him. A visit to Switzerland in the summer of 1775 may not

have weakened his affection for her, but he began to see that mar.

riage would impose intolerable fetters upon him, and without

tragic consequences on either side, the engagement was allowed to lapse. Goethe’s departure for Weimar in November brought about the final break. The period from 1771 to 1775 was, in literary respects, the most productive of the poet’s life. It had been inaugurated with

Götz von Berlichingen and a few months later this tragedy was

followed by another, Clavigo, peopled with equally living figures, and reflecting even more faithfully than Götz the emotional ex. perience Goethe had gone through in Strasbourg. Again poetic justice is effected on the unfortunate hero who is persuaded to choose his own personal advancement in preference to his duty to the woman he loves; more pointedly than in Götz is this moral enforced; Clavigo’s tragic end is due not so much to this defiance of moral laws, as to his vacillation and want of character. With Die Leiden des jungen Werthers (1774), the literary precipitate of the author’s own experiences in Wetzlar, Goethe succeeded in attracting, as no German had done before him, the attention of Europe. Once more it was the gospel that the world belongs to the strong in will, which lay beneath the surface of this romance, This, however, was not what Goethe’s contemporaries read out of it; nor did they appreciate the wide range of spiritual experience which the book contains. Werther was to them merely a sentimental story of a lovelorn youth whose burden becomes too great for him to bear. While Géiz inaugurated the manlier side of the Sturm und Drang literature, Werther was responsible for its sentimental excesses. In S#ella, “a drama for lovers” (1776), the poet again reproduced, if with less fidelity than in Werther, certain aspects of his own love troubles. A lighter vein is to be observed in various dramatic satires written at this time such as

Götter, Helden und Wieland (1774), Hanswursts Hochzeit, Fast-

nachisspiel,.vom Pater Brey, Satyros, and in the Singspiele, Erwin und Elmire (1775) and Claudine von Villa Bella (1776); while for the vacillating Weisslingen in whom Goethe executed poetic to the Frankfurter Gelehrte Anzeiger (1772—73); Goethe comjustice on himself as the lover of Friderike, or for the women of tributed vigorous and provocative criticism. The exuberance of the play, the gentle Maria, the heartless Adelheid. But there is the young poet’s genius is also to be seen -in the many unfinished genial, creative power in all the characters, and a vigorous dra- fragments of this period; at one time we find him occupied with matic life in the play’s action, irresistible in its appeal even to dramas on Caesar and Mahomet, at another with an epic on Der a modern audience. With Götz von Berlichingen the Shakespear- ewige Jude, and again with a tragedy on Prometheus, of which a ian form of drama was established on the German stage, and the magnificent fragment has passed into his works. Greatest of all Hterary movement known as Sturm und Drang inaugurated.. Having received his licence to practice as an advocate, Goethe returned home in Aug. 1771, and began his initiation into the routine of his profession. In the following year, in order to gain further experience in the practical side of his calling, he spent four months at Wetzlar, where the imperial law-courts were established. But Goethe’s professional duties had only a small share in

the eventful years which lay between his return from Strasbourg

and that visit to Weimar at the end of 1775, which turned the whole course of his career, and resulted in his permanent attachment to the Weimar court. Goethe’s life in Frankfurt was a round of stimulating literary intercourse; in J. H. Merck (1741-1791), an army official in the neighbouring town of Darmstadt, he found a. friend and méntor, whose irony and common sense served as a corrective to his own exuberance of spirits. Wetzlar brought new

friends and another passion; that for Charlotte Buff, the daughter

of the Amimenn there—an episode which has been immortalized in Werthers Leiden; again the young poet. was obsessed by a love

the torsos of this period, however, was his dramatization of the legend of Faust. Thanks to a manuscript copy of the play in is earliest form—discovered as recently as 1887, and known as the Urfaust—we now know exactly how much of Faust was the mmediate product of the Sturm und Drang, and are able to understand the intentions with which the young poet began his masterpiece.

Goethe’s hero changed with the author’s riper experience

and with his new conceptions of man’s place and duties in the world, but the Gretchen tragedy was taken over into the fi ished poem, practically unaltered, from the earliest drait of the poem. With these wonderful scenes, the most intensely tragic 3 German literature, Goethe’s: poetry in this period reaches is

climax.

Still another important work, however, was conceived,

and in large measure written at this time, the drama of Egmont, which was not published until 1788. This work may, to some extent, be regarded as complementary to Faust; it presents lighter, more cheerful and optimistic side of Goethe’s outlook 0 life in these years; Graf Egmont, the most: winning ànd fascinat-

GOETHE ing of the poet’s heroes, is endowed with that “daimonic” power over the sympathies of men and women, which Goethe himself possessed in so high a degree. But Egmont is but an indifferent

drama: it has little plot and its interest depends almost solely on two characters, Egmont himself and Klarchen, the young girl of

the people whom he loves.

471

impressions which crowded on him, and he was soon at home in the circle of German artists there. In the spring of 1787 he extended his journey to Naples and Sicily, returning to Rome in June 1787, where he remained until his final departure for Germany on April 2, 1788. It is difficult to exaggerate the importance

of Goethe’s Italian journey. He himself regarded it as a kind of

In Dec. 1774 the young “hereditary prince” of Weimar, Karl August, passing through Frankfurt on his way to Paris, came into rouch with Goethe, and invited the poet to visit him in Weimar. In Oct. 1775 the invitation was repeated, and an Nov. 7 Goethe arrived in the little Saxon capital which was to remain his home for the rest of his life. During the first few months in Weimar

the poet gave himself up to the pleasures of the moment as unre-

climax to his life; never before had he attained such complete understanding of his genius and mission as a poet: it afforded him a vantage-ground from which he could renew the past and make plans for the future. In Weimar he had already felt that he was no longer in sympathy with the Sturm und Drang, but it was Italy which first initiated him into that neo-classicism which superseded Sturm und Drang in German poetry. To the modem reader, im-

servedly as his patron;

pressed by Goethe's extraordinary sensitiveness to impressions, it

indeed, the Weimar

court even looked

upon him for a time as a tempter who led the young duke astray. But the latter, although himself a mere stripling, had implicit faith in Goethe’s judgment, and enlisted his services in the gov-

ernment of the duchy. Goethe was not long in Weimar before he was entrusted with responsible state duties, and events justified the duke’s confidence. Goethe displayed as minister of state, both energy and foresight. He interested himself in agriculture, horticulture and mining, which were of paramount importance to the welfare of the duchy, and these interests led to his preoccupation with the natural sciences which took up so much of his time in

later years. The inevitable love-interest was also not wanting. As

Friderike had fitted into the background of Goethe’s Strasbourg

life, Lotte into that of Wetzlar, and Lili into the gaieties of Frankfurt, so now Charlotte von Stein, the wife of a Weimar oficial, was the appropriate muse of Goethe’s Weimar life. We possess only the poet’s share of his correspondence with Frau von

Stein, but it may be inferred from it that, of all Goethe’s loves,

may seem strange that his interests in Italy were so limited; for, after all, he had eyes for comparatively little of what Italy had to offer. He went to Rome in Winckelmann’s footsteps; it was the antique he sought, and he was interested in the artists of the Renaissance only in so far as he saw in them the heirs of antiquity. The calm beauty of Greek tragedy is seen in the new iambic version of Iphigenie auf Tauris (1787): the classicism of the Renaissance gives the ground-tone to the drama of Torgquato Tasso (1790), in which the conflict of poetic genius with the prosaic world is transmuted into imperishable poetry. Classic, too, in this sense, were the plans of a drama on Iphigenie auf Delphos and of an epic, Nausikaa. Most interesting of all, however, is the reflection of the classic spirit in works already begun in earlier days, such as Egmont and Faust. The former drama was finished in Italy, the latter was brought a step forward, part of it being published as a Fragment in 1790. Disappointment in more senses than one awaited Goethe on his return to Weimar. He came back from Italy with a new philosophy of life, a philosophy at once classic and pagan, and with new ideals of literary beauty. But Germany had not advanced; in 1788 his countrymen were still admirers of that Sturm und Drang from which the poet had fled. The times seemed to him more out of joint than ever, and he withdrew into himself. Even his relations to the old friends were changed. Frau von Stein had not known of his flight to Italy until he had been several weeks there; but he looked forward to her welcome on his return. The months of absence, however, the change he had undergone, and, doubtless, lighter loves which had beguiled his leisure in Rome, weakened the Weimar ties; if he left Weimar as Frau von Stein’s lover he returned only as her friend; and she naturally resented the change. Goethe, meanwhile, continuing the freer customs to which he had adapted himself in Rome, took into his household Christiane Vulpius (1765-1816), a young girl who could offer him no kind of intellectual companionship. But Christiane gradually filled a gap in the poet’s life; she gave him, unobtrusively, without making demands on him, the comforts of a home. She was not accepted by court society; she was indifferent to the fact that even Goethe’s intimate friends ignored her; but she, who had suited the poet’s whim when he desired to shut himself off from all that might dim the recollection of Italy, became with the years an in-

she was intellectually the most worthy of him. Frau von Stein was a woman of refined literary taste and culture, seven years older than he and the mother of seven children. She dominated the poet’s life for 12 years, until his journey to Italy in 1786— 1788. Of other events of this period the most notable were two winter journeys, the first in 1777, to the Harz mountains, the second, two years later, to Switzerland—journeys which gave Goethe opportunity for that introspection and reflection for which his Weimar life had left him little time. On the second of these journeys he revisited Friderike in Sesenheim, saw Lili, who had married and settled in Strasbourg, and made the personal acquaintance of J. K. Lavater in Zürich. The literary results of these years cannot be compared with those of the preceding period; they are virtually limited to a few wonderful lyrics, such as Wanderers Nachtlied, An den Mond, Gesang der Geister über den Wassern, ballads, such as Der Erlkönig, a delicate little drama, Die Geschwister (1776), in which the poet’s relations to both Lili and Frau von Stein seem to be reflected, a dramatic satire, Der Triumph der Empfindsamkeit (1778), and a number of Singspiele, Lila (1777), Die Fischerin, Schers, List und Rache, and Jery und Bately (1780). But greater works were in preparation. A religious epic, Die Geheimnisse, and à tragedy Elpenor, did not, it is true, advance much further than plans; but in 1777, under the influence of the theatrical experi- dispensable helpmate to him. On the birth in 1789 of his son, ments at the Weimar court, Goethe began to write a novel of the Goethe had some thought of legalizing his relations with Christheatre on a large scale which was to have borne the title Wilkelm tiane, but this intention was not realized until 1806, when the Meisters theatralische Sendung. A manuscript copy of the novel invasion of Weimar by the French made both life and property im this early form was discovered as recently as 1910. In 1779 he insecure. | himself took part in a representation before the court at EttersThe period of Goethe’s life which succeeded his return from burg, of his drama Iphigenie auf Tauris. This Iphigenie was, how- Italy was restless and unsettled; relieved of his state duties, he ever, in prose; in the following year Goethe refashioned it in iam- returned in 1790 to Venice, only to be disenchanted with the Italy » but it was not until he went to Italy that it received the he had loved so intensely a year or two before. A journey with form we know. the duke of Weimar to Breslau followed, and in 1792 he accomIn Sept. 1786 Goethe set out from Carlsbad where he had been panied his master on that campaign against France which ended on holiday—secretly and stealthily, his plans known only to his ingloriously for the German arms at Valmy. In later years Goethe setvant—on that memorable journey to Italy, to which he had published his account of this Campagne in Frankreich as also ‘of forward with such intense longing; he could not cross the the Belagerung von Mamz, at which he was present in 1793. His quickly enough, so impatient was he to set foot in Italy. He literary work naturally suffered under these distractions. Tasso, travelled by way of Munich, the Brenner and Lago di Garda to and the edition of the Schriften in which it was to appear, had:stilt Verona and Venice, and from thence to Rome, where he arrived to be completed on his return from Italy; the Rdsmische Eleo Oct. 29, 1786. Here he gave himself up unreservedly to the new gien, perbaps the most Latin in form and content of all his works,

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GOETHE

were published in 1795, and the Wenezianische Epigramme, the result of the second visit to Italy, in 1796. The French Revolution, in which all Europe was engrossed, was in Goethe’s eyes only another proof that the passing of the old régime meant the abrogation of law and order, and he gave voice to his antagonism to the new democratic principles in the dramas Der Gross-Cophta

(1792), Der Biirgergeneral (1793), and in the unfinished frag-

ments Die Aufgeregten and Das Mädchen

von Oberkirch.

The

spirited translation of the epic of Reineke Fuchs (1794) he took up as a relief and an antidote to the perplexing state of the time. Two new interests, however, strengthened the ties between Goethe and Weimar—ties which the Italian journey had threatened to sever: his appointment in 1791 as director of the ducal theatre, a post which he occupied for 22 years, and his absorption in scientific studies. In 1790 he published his important Versuch, die Metamorphose der Pflanzen zu erklären, which was even more fundamental for the new science of comparative morphology than his discovery some six years earlier of traces of a structure in the human jaw-bone analogous to the intermaxillary bone in apes; and in 1791 and 1792 appeared two parts of his Beitrége zur Optik. Meanwhile, however, Goethe had again taken up the novel of the theatre which he had begun years before, with a view to its inclusion in the edition of his Neue Schriften (1792-1800). Wilhelm Meisters theatralische Sendung became Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre; the novel of purely theatrical interests was widened out to embrace the history of a young man’s apprenticeship to life. The change of plan explains, although it may not exculpate, the formlessness and loose construction of the work. A hero, who was probably originally intended to demonstrate the failure of the vacillating temperament when brought face to face with the problems of the theatre, proved ill-adapted to demonstrate those precepts for the guidance of life with which the Lekrjahre closes; unstable of purpose, Wilhelm Meister is not so much an illustra-

a more effective antidote to the prevailing mediocrity. The collection of stories, Unterhaltungen deutscher Ausgewanderten

(1797) was unworthy of Goethe’s genius, and the translation of

Benvenuto Cellini’s Life (1796-1797) was only a translation. But in 1798 appeared Hermann und Dorothea, one of Goethe's most perfect poems. It is indeed remarkable—when we consider by how much theoretic discussion the composition of the poem was preceded and accompanied—that it should make upon the reader so simple and unsophisticated an impression; in this respect it is

the triumph of an art that conceals art. Goethe has here taken

a simple story of village life, mirrored in it the most pregnant ideas of his time, and presented it with a skill which may well be called Homeric; but he has discriminated with the Insight of

genius between the Homeric method of reproducing the heroic life of primitive Greece and the same method as adapted to the

commonplace happenings of 18th century Germany. In this re. spect, he was guided by a forerunner who had depicted the life of the German people in the epic manner and in hexameters, j. H. Voss, the author of Luise. Hardly less imposing in their calm, placid perfection are the poems with which, in friendly rivalry, Goethe seconded the more popular ballads of his friend; Der Zauberlehrling, Der Gott und die Bayadere, Die Braut von Korinth, Alexis und Dora, Der neue Pausias and Die schöne Müllerin—the latter a cycle of poems in the style of the Volkslied —are among the masterpieces of Goethe’s poetry. On the other hand, even the friendship with Schiller did not help him to add

to his reputation as a dramatist. Die natürliche Tochter (1803),

the first part of a trilogy, in which he proposed to embody his ideas of the Revolution on wide canvas, did not get beyond this. Goethe’s abstract classic principles, when applied to the swift, direct art of the theatre, were ineffective, and Die natiir. liche Tochter, notwithstanding its good theoretic intention, remains the most lifeless and shadowy of all his dramas. Even les tion of the author’s life-philosophy as a lay-figure on which he in touch with the living present were the various prologues and demonstrates his views. Wilhelm Meister is, however, a work of Festspiele, such as Paléophron und Neoterpe (1800), Was wir extraordinary variety, its scenes ranging from the commonplace bringen (1802), which in these years he composed for the Weimar realism of the troupe of strolling players to the poetic romanti- theatre. cism of Mignon and the harper; its pages of intuitive criticism— Goethe’s classicism brought him into inevitable antagonism notably of Hamlet—add to its value as a Bildungsroman in the with the new Romantic movement which had been inaugurated in best sense of that word. Of all Goethe’s works, this exerted the 1798 by the Athendum, edited by the brothers Schlegel. The most immediate and lasting influence on German literature; it sharpness of the conflict was, however, blunted by the fact that. served as a model for the best fiction of the next 30 years. without exception, the young Romantic writers looked up to In completing Wilhelm Meister, Goethe found a sympathetic Goethe as their master; they modelled their fiction on Wilhelm critic in Schiller, to whom he owed in great measure his renewed Meister; they regarded his lyrics as the highwater mark of Gerinterest in poetry. After years of tentative approach on Schiller’s man poetry; Goethe, Novalis declared, was the “Statthalter of part, years in which that poet was not even himself clear that he poetry on earth.” With regard to painting and sculpture, however, desired a friendly understanding with Goethe, the favourable Goethe felt that a protest was necessary, if the ideas propounded moment arrived. It was in June 1794, when Schiller was seeking in works like Wackenroder’s Herzensergiessungen were not to collaborators for his new periodical Die Horen; and his invitation bring back the confusion of the Sturm und Drang; and, as a readdressed to Goethe was the beginning of a friendship which con- joinder to the Romantic theorists, Goethe, in conjunction with his tinued unbroken until the younger poet’s death. The friendship Swiss friend, Heinrich Meyer (1760-1832), published from 1798 of Goethe and Schiller, of which their correspondence is a price- to 1800 an art review, Die Propylien. In Winckelmann und Sem less record, had, however, its limitations; it was essentially a lit- Jahrhundert (1805) Goethe defended the classical ideal of beauty erary friendship, a certain barrier of personal reserve being main- in art. But in the end he himself proved the greatest enemy to the tained to the last. As far as actual work was concerned, Goethe strict classical doctrine by the publication in 1808 of the comwent his own way as he had always been accustomed to do; but pleted first part of Faust, a work which was accepted by contemthe mere fact that he devoted himself with increasing interest to poraries as a triumph of Romantic art. Faust is a patchwork of literature was due to Schiller’s stimulus. It was Schiller who in- many colours. With the aid of the vast body of Faust literature duced him to undertake those studies on the nature of epic and which has sprung up in recent years, and the many new docudramatic poetry which resulted in the epic of Hermann und Doro- ments bearing on its history—above all, the so-called Urfaust, to thea and the fragment of the Achilleis; without the friendship which reference has already been made—we are able now to disthere would have been no Xenien and no ballads, and it was again, criminate between the various phases of the work; on the original his younger friend’s encouragement which induced Goethe to be- Sturm und Drang hero of the opening scenes and of the Gretchen take himself once more to the “misty path” of Faust, and bring tragedy—the brother of Götz, and Clavigo—is superimposed, m

the first part of that drama to a conclusion. Goethe’s share in the Xenien (1796) may be briefly men-

tioned. This collection of distichs, written in collaboration with Schiller, was prompted by the indifference and animosity of contemporary criticism, and its disregard for what the two poets regarded as the higher interests of German poetry. The Xenien

succeeded as a retaliation on the critics, but the masterpieces

with which both poets justified their attack, were in the long run

the completed poem, a Faust of calmer moral and intellectual ideals, who corresponds to Hermann and Wilhelm Meister, m Goethe’s work. In its first form the poem was concerned with

very defnite personal problems; in the years of Goethe’s friendship with Schiller it was widened to embody the higher strivings

of 18th-century humanism; ultimately, in the second part, £ became a vast allegory of human life and activity. Thus the ele ments of which Faust is composed were even more difficult te

GOETHE blend than were those of Wilhelm Meister; but the very want of miformity is one source of the perennial fascination of the tragedy, and has made it in a peculiar degree the national poem of the German people, a mirror in which the national life and

poetry are reflected, from the outburst of Sturm und Drang to the

tranquil classicism of Goethe’s maturity. The third and final period of Goethe’s long life may be said to have begun after Schiller’s death. He never again lost touch with literature as he had done in the years which preceded his friend-

ship with Schiller; but he stood in no active or immediate connec-

tion with the literary movement of his day. His life moved on comparatively uneventfully. Even the era of Napoleonic oppression, 1806-1813, disturbed but little his equanimity. Goethe, the cosmopolitan Weltburger of the 18th century, had himself no very intense feelings of patriotism, and, having seen Germany flourish

as a group of small states under enlightened despotisms, he had little confidence in the dreamers of 1813 who hoped to see the

glories of Barbarossa’s empire revived. Napoleon, moreover, he regarded not as the scourge of Europe, but as the defender of

civilization against the barbarism of the Slavs; and in the famous interview between the two men at Erfurt the poet’s admiration was reciprocated by the French conqueror. Thus Goethe had no

great sympathy for the war of liberation which in 1813 kindled young hearts from one end of Germany to the other; and when

the national enthusiasm rose to its highest pitch he buried himself in those optical and morphological studies, which, with increasing

years, occupied more and more of his time.

The events and writings of the last 25 years of Goethe’s life may be briefly summarized. In 1805, as we have seen, he suffered

an irreparable loss in the death of Schiller; in 1806, Christiane became his legal wife, and to the same year belongs the magnificent tribute to his dead friend, the Epilog zu Schillers Glocke. Two new friendships about this time kindled in the poet something of the passion of younger days. Bettina von Arnim came into touch with Goethe in 1807, and her Briefwechsel Goethes mit

einem Kinde (published in 1835) is, in its mingling of truth and fiction, one of the most delightful products of the Romantic mind; but the episode was of less importance in Goethe’s eyes than Bettina would have us believe. On the other hand, his interest in Minna Herzlieb, foster-daughter of the publisher Frommann in Jena, was of a warmer nature, and has left its traces on the novel, Die Wahlverwandischaften and on his sonnets. In 1808, as we have seen, appeared the first part of Faust, which in 1809 was followed by the novel just mentioned. That novel, hardly less than the drama, effected a change in the public attitude towards the poet. Since the beginning of the century the conviction had been gaining ground that Goethe’s mission was accomplished, that the day of his leadership was over; but here were two works which not merely re-established his position, but proved that the old poet was in sympathy with the movement of letters, and keenly alive to the change of ideas which the new century had brought with it. The intimate study of four minds, which forms the subject of the Wahlverwandischaften, was an essay In a new type of psychological fiction and pointed out the way for developments of the German novel after the stimulus of Wilhelm Meister had exhausted itself. Less important than Die Wahlverwandtschafien was Pandora (1810), the final product of Goethe’s classicism and the most uncompromisingly classical and allegorical of all his works. And in 1810, too, appeared his treatise Zur Farbenlehre. In the following year the first volume of his autobiography was published under the title Aus meinem Leben, Dichtung und Wahrheit. The second and third volumes of this work followed in 1812 and 1814; the fourth, bringing the story of his life up to the close of the Frankfurt period in 1833, after his death. Goethe felt, even late in life, too intimately bound up with

Weithar to discuss in detail his early life there, and he shrank from carrying his biography beyond the year 1775. But a number of other publications—descriptions of travel, such as the

Nalienische Reise (1816-17), the materials for a continuation of Dichtung und Wahrheit collected in Tag-und Jahreshefte (1830)

473

diaries, his voluminous correspondence and his conversations, as recorded by J. P. Eckermann, the chancellor F. von Müller and

F. Soret. Several periodical publications, Uber Kunst und Altertum (1816-32), Zur Naturwissenschaft iiberhaupt (1817-24), Zur Morphologie (1817-24), bear witness to the extraordinary width of Goethe’s interests in these years. Art, science, literature—little escaped his ken—and that not merely in Germany: English writers, Byron, Scott and Carlyle, Italians like Manzoni, French sci-

entists and poets, could all depend on friendly words of appreciation and encouragement from Weimar.

With Westéstlicher Diwan (1819), Goethe had another surprise In store for his contemporaries; this is a collection of lyrics, matchless in form and more concentrated in their apophthegmatic expression than those of earlier days; it was suggested by a German translation of the Persian poet, Hafiz. And, again, an actual passion—that for Marianne von Willemer, whom he met in 1814 and 1815—had rekindled in him the lyric fire. Meanwhile the years were thinning the ranks of Weimar society: Wieland, the last of Goethe’s greater literary contemporaries, died in 1813, his wife in 1816, Charlotte von Stein in 1827 and Duke Karl August in 1828. ‘Goethe’s retirement from the direction of the

theatre in 1817 meant for him a break with the literary life of the day. In 1822 a passion for a young girl, Ulrike von Levetzow, whom he met at Marienbad, inspired the fine Trilogie der LeidenSchaft, and between 1821 and 1829 appeared the long-expected and long-promised continuation of Wilkelm Meister, Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre. The latter work, however, was a disappointment: perhaps it could not have been otherwise. Goethe had lost the thread of his romance, and it was difficult for him to find it again. Problems of the relation of the individual to society and industrial questions were to have formed the theme of the Wan-

derjahre ; but after the French Revolution these problems had entered on a new phase and demanded a method of treatment which it was not easy for the old poet to acquire. Thus his intentions were only partially carried out, and the volumes were filled out by irrelevant stories, written at widely different periods. But the crowning achievement of Goethe’s literary life was the completion of Faust. The poem had accompanied him since early manhood and was the repository for the fullest “confession” of his life; it is the poetic epitome of his experience. The second part is far removed from the impressive realism of the Urfausé or even the classicism of the first part. It is a phantasmagory; a drama the actors in which are not creatures of flesh and blood, but shadows in an unreal world of allegory. The lover of Gretchen had, as far as poetic continuity is concerned, disappeared with the close of the first part. In the second part it is virtually a new Faust who, accompanied by a new Mephistopheles, goes out into a world that is not ours. Yet behind the elusive allegories of an

imperial court with its financial difficulties, behind the classical Walpurgisnaché, the fantastic creation of the Homunculus, the noble Helena episode and the impressive mystery-scene of the close, where the centenarian Faust finally triumphs over the powers of evil, there lies a philosophy of life, a ripe wisdom born of experience, such as no other modern European poet has given us. Faust has been well called the “divine comedy” of 18thcentury humanism. The second part of Faust forms a worthy close to the life of Germany’s greatest man of letters, who died in Weimar on March 22, 1832. His was the last of those universal minds which have been able to compass all domains of human activity and knowl-

edge; for he stood on the brink of an era of rapidly expanding knowledge which has made forever impossible the universality of interest and sympathy which distinguished him. As a poet, his fame has undergone many vicissitudes since his death, ranging from the indifference of the “Young German” school to the enthusiastic appreciation of the closing decades of the roth century —an enthusiasm to which we owe the Weimar Goethe-Gesellschaft (founded in 1885) and a vast literature dealing with the poet’s life and work. That Goethe is Germany’s greatest poet and the master of her classical literature has never been seriously

we Important additions to the documents of his life. Meanwhile, | questioned. The intrinsic value of his poetic work, regarded no less valuable biographical materials were accumulating in his » apart from his personality, may be smaller in proportion to its

GOETHE

4.74 bulk than is the case great poets of other literary man; a poet tivity. Only a small

with some lesser literatures. But whose supreme fraction of his

German poets and with the Goethe was a new type of greatness lay in his subjecpoetical work sprang from

what might be called a purely artistic and objective impulse; by

far the larger—and the better—part is the immediate precipitate of his thought, emotions, and experiences. It is as a lyric poet that Goethe’s supremacy is least likely to be challenged; he has given his nation, whose highest literary expression has in all ages been essentially lyric, its greatest songs. No other German poet has succeeded in attuning feeling, sentiment and thought so perfectly to the music of words as he; none has expressed so fully that subtle spirituality in which the strength of German lyrism lies. Goethe’s dramas, on the other hand, have not, in the eyes of his nation, succeeded in holding their own beside Schiller’s; but the reason is rather because Goethe refused to be bound by the conventions of the theatre, than because he was deficient in the cunning of the dramatist. For, as a creator and interpreter of human character, Goethe is without a rival among modern poets, and there is not one of his plays that does not contain scenes and characters which bear indisputable testimony to this mastery. Faust is Germany’s most national drama, and it remains perhaps for the theatre of the future to prove itself capable of popularizing psychological masterpieces like Tasso and Iphigenie. As a novelist, Goethe has suffered most by the lapse of time. The Sorrows of Werther no longer maintains its hold upon us, and even Wilhelm Meister and Die Waklverwandtschaften require more understanding for the conditions under which they were written than do Faust or Egmont. Goethe could fill his prose with rich wisdom, but he was the perfect artist only in verse. Less attention is nowadays paid to Goethe’s work in other fields, work which he himself in some cases prized more highly than his poetry. It is only as an illustration of his many-sidedness and his manifold activity that we now turn to his achievement as a statesman, as a practical political economist, as a theatre-director. His art-criticism is symptomatic of a phase of European taste to which the growing individualism of Romanticism was repugnant. His scientific studies and discoveries now possess only an historical interest. We marvel at the obstinacy with which he, with inadequate mathematical knowledge, opposed the Newtonian theory of light and colour; and at his championship of “Neptunism,” the theory of aqueous origin, as opposed to “Vulcanism,” that of igneous origin of the earth’s crust. Of real importance was, on the other hand, his foreshadowing of the Darwinian theory in his works on the metamorphosis of plants and on biological morphology. Indeed, the deduction to be drawn from Goethe's contributions to botany and anatomy is that he, as few of his contemporaries, possessed that type of scientific mind which, in the 19th century, has made for progress; he was Darwin’s predecessor by virtue of his enunciation of what has now become one of the commonplaces of natural sclence—organic evolution. Modern, too, was the outlook of the aging poet on the changing social con-

ditions of the age and on its new political ideals; unexpectedly sympathetic his attitude towards modern industry, which steam was just beginning to establish ‘on a new basis. The Europe of his later years was very different from that of the enlightened autocracies of the 18th century, in which he had spent his best years; yet Goethe was at home in it too. From the philosophic movement, Romanticists were deeply involved, paratively early in life he had found who responded to his needs; and for

in which Schiller and the Goethe stood apart. Comin Spinoza the philosopher the subtle dialectic of later

thinkers he had neither liking nor understanding. As a convinced realist he took his standpoint on nature and experience, and could

afford to look on with indifference at. the battles of the metaphysicians. Of Kant’s work, however, he was not ignorant, and under Schiller’s stimulus he learned from him; but of the younger

thinkers, only Schelling, whose mystic nature-philosophy was akin to Spinoza’s thought, touched a sympathetic chord in his nature.

As a moralist and a guide to the conduct of life—an aspect of

Goethe's work which Carlyle, viewing him through the coloured glasses of Fichtean idealism, emphasized and interpreted not al-

ways justly—Goethe was a powerful force on German life in years of intellectual and political depression. It is difficult even

still to get beyond the maxims of practical wisdom he scattereg so liberally through his works and the lessons to be learned from Meister and Faust; the calm optimism which never deserted

Goethe, and was so completely justified by the tenor of his life, is still an uplifting element of his thought.

If the philosophy of

Spinoza provided the poet with a religion which made individual

creeds and dogmas seem unnecessary, Leibnitz’s doctrine of pre.

destinism supplied the foundations for his faith in the divine purpose of human life. Goethe’s many-sided activity is a tribute to the greatness of his mind and personality; we may see in him merely the embodiment of his particular age, or we may regard him as a poet “for al] time”; but with one opinion all who have felt the power of Goethe’s genius are in agreement—the opinion which was condensed in Napoleon's often cited words, uttered after the meeting at Erfurt: Voda un homme! Of all modern men of genius, Goethe is the most universal. It is the full, rich humanity of his personality—not the art behind which the artist disappears, or the

definite pronouncements of the thinker or the teacher—that con-

stitutes his claim to a place in the front rank of men of letters, His life was his greatest work. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—(a)

Collected Works, Diaries, Correspondence, Con-

versations. The following editions of Goethe’s writings appeared in the poet’s lifetime: Schrifien (Leipzig, 1787-90); Neue Schriften (1792-1800) ; Werke (13 vols., Stu’tgart, 1806-10) ; Werke (26 vols. Stuttgart, 1815-22); Werke (Vollständige Ausgabe letzter Hand) {40 vols., Stuttgart, 1827-30). Goethe’s Nachgelassene Werke appeared as a continuation of this edition in 20 volumes (Stuttgart, 1832-42).

These were followed by several editions of Goethe’s Sämtliche Werke, published by Cotta of Stuttgart. The first critical edition with notes was published by Hempel, Berlin, 1868-79. The standard edition js that published at Weimar between 1887 and rọrọ; it is divided into four sections: I. W ke; II. Naturwissenschaftliche Werke; Ill. Tagebücher; IV. Briefe. Oi other recent editions the most noteworthy are: Sämtliche Werke (Jubiläums-Ausgabe), ed. E. von der Hellen (Stuttgart, 1902-7); Werke, ed. K. Heinemann (Leipzig, 1900 ff.), the cheap edition of the Sämtliche Werke, ed. L. Geiger (Leipzig, x901), and the “Propylaen-Ausgabe” (Munich, 1909 ff.). There are alse innumerable editions of selected works; reference need only be made here to the useful collection of the early writings and letters by M.

Bernays, Der junge Goethe (Leipzig, 1875; new ed., 1900-11). A French translation of Goethe’s Œuvres complètes, by J. Porchat, appeared at Paris in 1860-63. There is, as yet, no uniform English edition, but Goethe’s chief works have all been frequently translated and most of them will be found in Bohn’s Standard Library. The definitive edition of Goethe’s diaries and letters is that per Sections III. and IV. of the Weimar edition. Collections of sel letters based on the Weimar edition have been published by E. von der Hellen (1901-13), and by P. Stein (1901~24). Of the many separate collections of Goethe’s correspondence mention may be made of the Briefwechsel zwischen Schiller und Goethe, edited by Goethe himself (1828-29), by H. G. Graf and A. Leitzmann (1923); Eng. trans. (1877—79); Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Zelter (183334); Eng. trans. (1887); Briefwechsel mit Bettina von Arnim, x

R. Steig (1922); Goethes Briefe an Frau von Stein, ed. A. Schill

(1848-51) ; ed. J. Wahle (1899~1900) ; Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und K. F. von Reinhard (1850); Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Knebel (1851); Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Staatsrat Schultz (1853); Briefwechsel des Herzogs Karl August mit Goethe (1863; ed.

H. Wahl, 1915-18) ; Briefwechsel swischen Goethe wnd Kaspar Grej

von Sternberg (1866); Briefwechsel mit Christiane, ed. H. G. Graf (1923); Briefwechsel mit H. Meyer, ed. M. Hecker (1920); Goetkes naturwissenschaftliche Korrespondenz,

den Gebriidern

von Humboldt

Goethes und Carlyles Briefwechsel

and Goethes Briefwecksel mit

(ed. F. T. Bratranek

(1874-76);

(1887), also in English; Geethe

und die Romantik, ed. C. Schiiddekopf and O. Walzel (1898-99);

Goethe und Lavater, ed. H. Funck (1901); Goethe und Osterresch, ed. A. Sauer (1902-4). Besides the correspondence with Schiller and

Zelter, Bohn’s library contains a translation of Early and M iscellaneaus Letters, by E. Bell (1884). The chief collections of Goethe’s ‘oom

versations are: J. P. Eckermann, Gespräche mit Goethe (1836; vol. Bly also containing conversations with Soret, 1848; ed. H. H. Houben, 1926; Eng. trans., 1850). Cf. J. Petersen, Die Entstehung der Eckermannschen Gespräche (1926). The complete conversations with

have been published in German translation by C. A., H. Burkha (1905); Goethes Unterhaltungen mit dem Kanzler F. von Müller (1870). Goethe’s collected Gespriche were published by W. van Biedermann

(1889-96) ; new ed. 1909-11.

(6) Biograpky—Goethe’s autobiography, dus meinem Leben: Dich

tung und Wahrheit, appeared in three parts between 1811 and 1834

part iv. in 1833 (Eng. trans., 1846); it is supplemented by othe

GOETHITE—GOGH, phical writings, as the Italienische Reise, Tag- und Jahreshefte, etc. The following are the more important biographies:

H. Déring,

Goethes Leben (1828, etc.); H. Viehoff, Goethes Leben (1841-54; sth ed, 1887); J. W. Schäfer, Goethes Leben (1851; 3rd ed., 1877); G H Lewes, The Life and Works of Goethe (1855, etc.; Ger. trans., i. Frese; a shorter biography was published by Lewes in 1873 under the title The Story of Goethe’s Life); W. Mézières, W. Goeike, les œuvres expliquées par la vie (1872—73); A. Bossert,

Goethe (1872-73); K. Goedeke, Goethes Leben und Schriften (1874; and ed. 1877); H. Grimm, Goethe: Vorlesungen (1876; 8th ed., 1903; Eng. trans. 1880) ; A. Hayward, Goethe (1878); H. H. Boyesen, Goethe and Schiller, their Lives and Works (1879); H. Düntzer, Goethes Leben (1880; 2nd ed., 1883; Eng. trans. 1883); A. Baumgartner, Goethe, sein Leben und seine Werke (1885; 4th ed.,

1923-25); J. Sime, Life of Goethe (1888); K. Heinemann, Goethes

Leben und Werke (1889; new ed., 1916); R. M. Meyer, Goethe (1894; 3rd ed., 1904) ; A. Bielschowsky, Goethe, sein Leben und seine Werke (1895-1903; over 30 editions; Eng. trans. 1905-8) ; G. Witkowski, Goethe (1899) ; H. G. Atkins, J. W. Goethe (1904) ; H. S. Chamberlain, Goethe (x912); F. Gundolf, Goetke (1916; 12th ed., 1925); W. Bode, Goethes Leben (1917 ff.) ; P. Hume Brown, Life of Goethe (1920); E.. Ludwig, Goethe (1920-21); G. Brandes, Goethe (Ger.

trans. 1922); J. G. Robertson, Goethe (1927).

Of writings on special periods and aspects of Goethe’s life the more

important are as follows (the titles are arranged as far as possible im the chronological sequence of the poet’s life): K, Heinemann, Goethes Mutter (1891; 6th ed., 1900) ; P. Bastier, La Mère de Goethe (1902) ; Briefe der Frau Rat (2nd ed., 1905) ; F. Ewart, Goethes Vater

(1899); G. Witkowski, Cornelia, die Schwester Goethes

(1903); P.

Besson, Goethe, sa soeur et ses amies (1898); H. Düntzer, Frauenbilder ous Goethes Jugendzeit (1852); W. von Biedermann, Goethe and Leipzig (1865); P. F. Lucius, Friderike Brion (1878; 3rd ed. 1904); A. Bielschowsky Friderike Brion (1880); F. E. von Dürck-

heim, Lili’s Bild geschichtlich entworfen (1879; 2nd ed., 1894); W. Herbst, Goethe in Wetzlar (1881); H. Gloel, Goethes Wetzlarer Zeit (orr); A. Diezmann, Goethe und die lustige Zeit in Weimar (1857; ath ed., 1906); H. Diintzer, Goethe und Karl August (1859-64; znd ed, 1888); Aus Goethes Freundeskreise (1868); Charlotte von Stein (1874); E. Hoefer, Goethe und Charlotte von Stein (1878; 7th ed., 1922); W. Bode, Charlotte von Stein (1909); J. Haarhaus, Auf Goethes Spuren in Italien (1896-98) ; O. Harnack, Zur Nachgeschichte

VINCENT

VAN

475

(1854); F. Kern, Goethes Tasso (1890); K. Fischer, Goethes Tasso (1890; 3rd ed., 1900) ; J. Schubart, Die philosophischen Grundgedan-

ken in Goethes Wilhelm Meister (1896); M. Wundt, Goethes Wilhelm

Meister (1913) ; E. Boas, Schiller und Goethe im Xenienkampf (1851); E. Schmidt and B. Suphan, Xenien 1796, nach den Handschriften (1893); W. von Humboldt, Asthetische Versuche: Hermann und Dorothea

(1799);

V. Hehn,

Uber Goethes

Hermann

und Dorothea

(1893); A. Fries, Quellen und Komposition der Achilleis (1901); K. Alt, Studien sur Entstehungsgeschichte von Dichtung und Wahrheit

(1898); A. Jung, Goethes Wanderjakre und die wichtigsten Fragen

des 19. Jahrhunderts (1854); F. Kreyssig, Vorlesungen über Goethes Faust (1866); the editions of Faust by G. von Loeper (1879; new ed., 1900); K. J. Schréer (188r; sth ed., rors—17); G. Witkowski (1909; 3rd ed., 1924), and

R. Petsch

(1925);

K. Fischer,

Goethes

Faust (1878; 5th ed., 1904): O. Pniower, Goethes Faust, Zeugnisse und Excurse zu seiner Entstehungsgeschichte (1899); J. Minor, Goethes Faust, Entstehungsgeschichte und Erklärung (1901); E. Traumann, Goethes Faust (1913-14). (d) Bibliograpkical Works, Goethe-Societies &c—S. Hirzel, Verzeichnis einer Goethe-Bibliothek (1884), to which G. von Loeper and W. von Biedermann have supplied supplements. Goedeke’s Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung (wol. iv., 3rd ed., I910~13) ; and the bibliographies in the Goethe-Jahrbuch (1880-1913). Also K. Hoyer, Zur Einfithrung in die Goethe-Literatur (1904). On Goethe in England see E. Oswald, Goethe in England and America (1899; 2nd ed., 1909); J. M. Carré, Goethe en Angleterre (1921); . Heinemann, A Bibliographical List of the English Translations and Annotated Editions of Goethe’s Faust (1886). _A Goethe-Gesellschaft was founded at Weimar in 1885; its pubfications include the annual Goethe-Jahrbuch (1880-1913); now Jahrbuch der Goethe-Gesellschaft (1914 ff.), and a series of GoetheSchriften. A Goethe-Verein has existed in Vienna since 1887, and an English Goethe society since 1886 (Publications, 1880-1910; new series 1924 ff.). A complete list of the literature on Goethe up to 1913 is given in Goedeke’s: Grundriss der deutschen Literaturgeschichte, 3rd ed. vol. 4. . G. R.)

GOETHITE, a mineral crystallizing in the orthorhombic sys-

tem and isomorphous with diaspore and manganite (g.v.). It consists of an iron hydroxide, Fe.0;-H,0; first noticed in 1780, der italienischen Reise (1890) ; H. Grimm, Schiller und Goethe (Essays, and named after the poet Goethe. Crystals are prismatic, acicular 1858; 3rd ed., 1884); G. Berlit, Goethe und Schiller im persönlichen or scaly in habit; they have a perfect cleavage in one direction. Verkehre, nach brieflichen Mitteilungen von H. Voss (1895); S. Reniform and stalactitic masses with a radiated fibrous structure Waetzoldt, Goethe und die Romantik (1888); C. A. H. Burkhardt, also occur. The colour varies from yellowish or reddish to blackDas Repertoire des weimarischen Theaters unter Goethes Leitung (1891); J. Wahle, Das Weimarer Hoftheater unter Goethes Leitung ish-brown, and by transmitted light it is often blood-red; the {1892}; O. Harnack, Goethe in der Epoche seiner Vollendung (3rd streak is brownish-yellow; hardness, 5; specific gravity, 4-3. The ed, 1905); J. Barbey d’Aurevilly, Goethe et Diderot (1880); A. best crystals are the brilliant, blackish-brown prisms with terminal Fischer, Goethe und Natoleon (1899; 2nd ed., 1900) ; J. G. Robertson, pyramidal planes from the Restormel iron mines at Lostwithiel, es and Byron (1925); R. Steig, Goethe und die Gebriider Grimm and the Botallack mine at St. Just, Cornwall, A variety occurring I892). (c) Criticism—H. G. Graf, Goethe iiber seine Dichtungen (1901- as thin red scales at Siegen, Westphalia, is known as Rubinglimmer 14); J. W. Braun, Goethe im Urteile seiner Zeitgenossen (1883-85); or pyrrhosiderite; lepidocrocite is a scaly-fibrous variety from the T. Carlyle, Essays on Goethe (1828-32); X. Marmier, Etudes sur same locality. Goethe (1835) ; W. von Biedermann, Goethe-Forschungen (1879-99) ; J. Minor and A. Sauer, Studien zur Goethe-Philologie (1880); H. Dintzer, Abhandlungen zu Goethes Leben und Werken (1881); A.

Scholl, Goethe in Hauptziigen seines Lebens und Wirkens (1882); V. Hebn, Gedanken iiber Goethe (1884, 7th ed., 1909); W. Scherer, Aufsétze uber Goethe (1886) ; Sir J. R. Seeley, Goethe reviewed after Sixty Years (1894) ; E. Dowden, New Studies in Literature (1895) ; É. Rod, Essai sur Goethe (1898); M. Morris, Goethe-Studien (1897-98; znd ed, 1902); A. Luth r, Goethe, sechs Vorträge (1905); R. Saitschik, Goethes Charakter (1898); W. Bode, „Goethes Lebenskunst (1900;

grd ed, 1903); by the same, Goethes Ästhetik (x901); T. Vollbehr,

Goethe und die bildende Kunst

(1895); E. Maas, Goethe wnd die

Antike (1912); E. Lichtenberger, Études sur les poésies lyriques de

Goethe (1878); T. Achelis, Grundzüge der Lyrik Goethes (1900) ; B. ann, Goethes Lyrik (1903) ; R. Riemann, Goethes Romantechnik

(1901); R. Virchow, Goethe als Naturforscher (1861); E. Caro, La

Philosophie de Goethe

(1866;

2nd ed., 1870);

R. Steiner, Goethes

Weltanschauung (1897); E. A. Boucke, Goethes Weltanschauung (1897); F. Siebeck, Goethe als Denker (1902); F. Baldensperger.

Goethe en France (1904); C. Schrempf, Goethes Lebensanschauung (1905-7) ; H. Loiseau, L’Evolution morale de Goethe (1911) ; B. Croce,

GOG, a hostile power that is to manifest itself in the world

immediately before the end of things (Ezek. xxxviii. sq., Rev. xx.). Magog who is joined with Gog in the latter passage is the name of Gog’s origin in the former. In Gen. x. 2 (and Ezek. xxxviii. 2) Magog appears to represent a locality in Armenia. The legends attached to the gigantic effigies (dating from 1708 and replacing those destroyed in the Great Fire) of Gog and° Magog in Guildhall, London, are of unknown date. According to the Recuyell des histoires de Troye, Gog and Magog were the survivors of a race of giants descended from the thirty-three wicked daughters of Diocletian; after their brethren had been slain by Brute and his companions, Gog and Magog were brought to London (Troy-novant) and compelled to officiate as porters at the

gate of the royal palace. Effigies similar to the present existed in London as early as the time of Henry V.

GOGH, VINCENT VAN

(1853-1890), Dutch painter of

Goethe (Bari, 1919; Eng. trans. 1923); K. J. Obenauer, Goethe in the Post-Impressionist movement. He was born on March 3. 1853, at Groot-Zundert, in Brabant, Holland, where his father seinem Verhältnis zur Religion (1921) ; P. Fischer, Goethes Altersweiswas Calvinist pastor. At the age of 16 he worked in the firm of keit (1921); H. A. Korff, Die Lebensidee Goethes (1925). ore special treatises dealing with individual works are the follow- his uncle, a picture dealer at The Hague, and was later employed bg: W. Scherer, Aus Goethes Frühzeit (1879); R. Weissenfels, Goethe wm Sturm und Drang, vol. i. (1894) ; W. Wilmanns, Quellenstudien zu

with Goupil and company in Paris and in London. In 1876 he was

und Goethe (1875) ; E. Schmidt, Goethes Faust in urspriinglicher Gesialt (1887; 6th ed., 1905); J. Collin, Goethes Faust in seiner ältesten

theology at Amsterdam.

Gocthes Gotz von Berlichingen (1874); J. W. Appell, Werther und sme Zeit (1855; 4th ed., 1896); E. Schmidt, Richardson, Rousseau ai

u

(1896);

F. T. Bratranek,

Goethes

Egmont

und Schillers

ustein (1862); C. Schuchardt, Goethes italienische Reise (1862);

Diintzer, Iphigenie auf Tauris;

die drei ältesten Bearbeitungen

art teacher in Ramsgate, and then determined to follow the religious vocation. In 1877 he returned to Holland to study

Imbued with ideals of Christian com-

munism, and seeking practical work, he went to live among the miners at Wasmes, in the Borinage. There he spent his free time in drawing. In 1880 he went to Brussels to take up the study of

+

4.76

GOGOL

painting, and then spent some years in his father’s home in the | In 1829 he published anonymously a poem called Jtaly, and, under village of Neunen, painting the simple life of the peasants, the the pseudonym of V. Alof, an idyll, Han Kichelgarten, which Was moorland and still life. His chief work of this period is “The so ridiculed that Gogol bought up all the copies he could and Potato Eaters” (1885), a group of labourers sitting round a table, burnt them. He was terribly disheartened, and thought of emiunder a lamp, painted in heavy brown tones and displaying the grating to America. Indeed, he got as far as Lübeck, but then hardship and ugliness of proletarian life. Six lithographs of like returned to St. Petersburg, and entered the civil service. He made subjects, of which only a few impressions are extant, were also his way in literary circles, and was well received by Pushkin executed at this time. He took some lessons from Mauve, who whom he met in 1831, was his cousin. In 1885 he studied at the Academy at Antwerp, In 1831 appeared Evenings in a Farm near Dikanka: by Rudy and a year later joined his brother, Théo, in Paris. At the studio Panko, a volume of stories of Ukrainian life, which was enthugi. of Cormon he met Emile Bernard, Anquetin and Toulouse- astically received, Gogol then planned a history of Little-Russia Lautrec, and joined in their revolt against slavish copying of of the middle ages, to be completed in eight or nine volumes nature. Through his brother, who was employed at Goupil, he This remained a plan only, but served to win for him a chair of was introduced to the Impressionist and Neo-Impressionist school, history in the university of St. Petersburg. His lectures were a and he was persuaded to remove the browns and umbers from his failure, and he resigned in 1835. Meanwhile he had, published his palette and to paint with the clear, bright colours, and in the Arabesques, a collection of essays and stories; his Taras Bulba, luminous divisionist technique of Seurat. He studied Japanese the best known of the Cossack Tales translated into English by prints, and the works of Delacroix and Monticelli. “The Res- George Tolstoi (1860) and by J. Cournos (Everyman Edition. taurant on Montmartre” (Luxembourg museum) was the first 1906), and a number of other short stories, including Old World canvas painted in this luminous key. The portraits of the colour Gentlefolks, a sketch of the tranquil life led in a quiet country man, Tanguy (1887) (example at the Rodin museum), show his house, also The Cloak, a description of the petty miseries enmore developed style. But only few works of his Parisian period dured by an ill-paid clerk in a government office, the great object have survived, and of the mural decoration of the café Tambourin of whose life is to secure the “cloak” from which his story takes its only fragments remain, After two years in Paris he longed to name. On April 19, 1836, his famous comedy, the Revizor (Eng. go south, and in Feb. 1888, with the financial aid of his brother, trans. by C. Garnett, The Government Inspector, 1926,) was prohe settled at Arles, in Provence. There he painted the blossoming duced. The Revizor is the greatest of Russian comedies; it is a fruit trees, the fields bathed in sunlight, the cypresses and sun- brilliant satire on bureaucracy, which was received with enthuflowers, his simple room, his rustic chair, and his own portrait siasm by the intelligentsia and with horror by the official classes, with keen and restless blue eyes and abnormal skull. His models But it is an error to look on its historical and political significance were the postman and his family, the innkeeper’s wife (“L’Arlé- as its principal claim to rank among the great European comedies. sienne”) and the “Berceuse.” Colour seemed to him vital; he Even when played in another language (and Gogol more than revelled in it, using it thick and pure, in long and nervous brush any other Russian author loses in translation), it is recognised as strokes. “I am thinking of decorating my studio with half-a-dozen pure and universal comedy. The plot is very simple. A traveller sunflowers,” he wrote to his brother, “it will be a decorative effect who arrives with an empty purse at a provincial town is taken for in which the glaring or broken tones of chromes will stand out an inspector whose arrival is awaited with fear, and he receives vividly against a background of variegated blue, ranging from all the attentions and bribes which are meant to propitiate the the most delicate emerald green to royal blue, enclosed in narrow dreaded investigator of abuses. strips of golden yellow. It will produce the sort of effect that After the production of the Revizor, Gogol went abroad, and Gothic church windows do.” He tried to render the very texture for twelve years (1836-48) lived mainly in Rome, while paying ocof things. His technique was not scientific and calculated, like casional short visits to Russia. Rome left a deep impression on his that of Seurat, but almost barbaric in its display of intense mind, but during his residence there he was occupied with purely emotion. In October, Gauguin, whom he had befriended in Paris, Russian subjects. There he wrote the classic novel, Mertuuiye arrived in response to his pressing invitation. The two worked Dushi, or “Dead Souls,” the first part of which appeared in 1842. for a while together; but soon Van Gogh’s nerves gave way, under- The hero of the story is an adventurer who goes about Russia mined by privation and strain and by undue exposure to the sun. making fictitious purchases of “dead souls,” 7.e., serfs who have One day he threatened his friend with a knife, and then, repentant, died since the last census, with the object of pledging his imagcut off his own ear. He was brought to the hospital, and though inary property to the government. His adventures provide the dismissed after a fortnight, had to be interned again in Feb. 1889. occasion for a series of unforgettable pictures of Russian provinThe remainder of his life was passed under the shadow of insanity, cial life, and of types of Russian society. These amazingly vivid though all the time he continued to paint. He was moved to St. pictures are a fundamental part of the experience of all Russian Remy, and in May 1890 to Auvers-sur-Oise, under the care of students of their own language. Gogol had an individual vision Dr. Gachet, whose portrait he painted (Frankfurt museum). His which presented his types with a force and truth of the kind last work was the “Mairie au 14 juillet,” a picture full of sunlight. attained by Dickens at his best. No one can fully appreciate He shot himself, and died on July 29, 1890. Gogol’s merits as a humorist who is not intimate with the lanDuring his lifetime the only one who believed in his art and guage in which he wrote, but there are good English versions by who helped him was his brother. Van Gogh’s letters to him, dated C. Garnett (1922) and by D. J. Hogarth (Everyman Edition, from 1872 to his death, are moving documents describing his aims 1906). To the period of his residence in Rome belong also the and his work. recasting of Taras Bulba and his second comedy, Marriage. See Maurice Denis, De Gauguin et de van Gogh au Classicisme (OcciDead Souls was published in 1842; Gogol lived ten years dent XV., 1909) ; T. Duret, Vincent v. Gogh (1916); J. Meier-Graefe, FV. v. Gogh (Eng. trans., 1928). Van Gogh’s letters were first published longer. He was still a young man, only 43, and it was reasonable in the Mercure de France (1893-95). Since then they have appeared in to expect that the creator of the Revizor and of Dead Souls book form also in English translation. Letters of a Post-Impressionist (1912); The Letters of V. v. Gogh to his Brother (1872-86) with a

Memoir by his Sister-in-Law, J. v. Gogh-Bonger (1927); Letters of V. v. Gogh to his Brotker (1929).

GOGOL, NIKOLAI VASILIEVICH

(I. A. R.)

(1809-1852), Rus-

sian novelist and dramatist, was born at Sorochintsky, province of Poltava, on March 31, 1809, of a family of Ukrainian Cossack

gentry, Educated at the Niezhin gymnasium, he there started a manuscript periodical, The Siar, and wrote several pieces including a tragedy, The Brigands. In 1820 he went to St. Petersburg, where he tried the stage but failed. In 1821 he obtained a

clerkship in the department of appanages, but soon resigned it.

would produce other great imaginative works.

He was a great artist and though both the comedy and the novel were “events” in the history of Russia, they are what they are because of the imaginative genius of the author. Gogol the man found himself the hero of those who would regenerate Russia, and he seems at

this point to have stifled his natural genius because of his conviction that he had a mission. However that may be, he began to work on the second part of his epic of Dead Souls, with the

idea of showing the redemption of Chichikov and his kind. He failed, and destroyed the draft, but he wrote what he concel

to be his message to Russia in his Selected Passages from a Cor-

GOGRA—GOITRE respondence with Friends (1847). It called forth some bitter replies, especially from Belinsky, who accused him of “falsifying Christianity for the profit of those in power” (see D. Mirsky, Hist. of Russ. Lit.). Gogol felt the rebuff deeply, and sought

compensation in a religious experience that was denied to him. In vain he went on pilgrimage to return he fell under the influence Konstantinovsky, who persuaded was sinful. He fell into melancholy He died on Feb. 21, 1852.

the Holy Land (1848). On his of a fanatic, Father Matthew him that his imaginative work and destroyed some of his mss.

The works of Gogol, translated by C. Garnett, have been by Chatto and Windus (1922, etc.,). See Materials for the of Gogol (in Russian) (1897) by Shenrok: “Illness and Gogol,” by N. Bazhenov, Russkaya Muisl, January 1902;

published Biography Death of J. Lavrin,

Gogol (1926) ; M. Theiss, Nikolaus W. Gogol und seine Biihnenwerke

(1922).

GOGRA, a river of northern India. It rises in Tibet near

Lake Manasarowar, not far from the sources of the Brahmaputra

and the Sutlej, passes through Nepal as the Kauriala, and becomes the most important waterway in the United Provinces. It joins

the Ganges at Chapra after a course of 600 m.

Its tributary,

the Rapti, is also commercially important. The Gogra is also called the Sarju, and in its lower course the Deoha.

GOHIER,

LOUIS

JEROME

(1746-1830), French poli-

tician, son of a notary, was born at Semblançay (Indre-et-Loire)

on Feb. 27, 1746. He practised law at Rennes. As a member of the Legislative Assembly he protested against the exaction of a new oath from the priests (Nov. 22, 1791), and demanded the sequestration of the emigrants’ property (Feb. 7, 1792). He was

minister of justice (March 1793—April 1794), and in June 1799

succeeded Treilhard in the Directory.

His wife was intimate with

Josephine Bonaparte, and when Bonaparte returned from Egypt

477

The other form of malignant disease, sarcoma, is much rarer, but runs a rapid course. Simple Goitre.—This is usually endemic, i.e., occurring in special regions, such as Derbyshire, the Thames Valley, the Yorkshire Dales, Hampshire and Sussex, in the neighbourhood of the Great Lakes in North America, in Switzerland, the Pyrenees and some mountainous parts of Asia, and is then due to some local condition, especially the water supply. In Kashmir Col. R. McCarrison

correlated it with infection of the drinking water;

“goitre springs” and “wells” are known, and fish and animals may also be affected in endemic areas. The observation that boiling the water prevents

the incidence

of goitre and the occurrence

of

epidemics of acute goitre in schools are compatible with this view. But that this is the only cause is uncertain, for simple goitre can be prevented by the administration of iodine and the water in goitrous regions is hard and poor in iodine. Goitre may also occur sporadically in areas where it is rare, but is seldom

except in endemic

regions.

congenital

It appears most commonly

about

puberty and is about seven times commoner in females than in males. Large gaitres may give rise mechanically to difficulty of breathing by compressing the windpipe. Toxic Goitre—The adenomatous enlargement may remain latent without any symptoms for years, and then become active and produce an internal secretion which excites toxic symptoms resembling, but not exactly the same as, those of exophthalmic goitre, protrusion of the eyes being absent. The preventive treatment of simple goitre consists in boiling the water, removal from an endemic district, and the administration of iodine, or iodide of potassium, in small doses. But in cases of adenomatous goitre iodine is said to lead to a toxic goitre. Exposure to X-rays may reduce the size of the goitre, but by

in Oct. 1799 he tried to gain over Gohier, who was then president producing adhesions renders surgical removal, should it become of the Directory. Refusing to resign after the coup d’état Gohier necessary, less easy. Surgical removal is necessary for pressure symptoms, toxic manifestations, and may be desirable for cosmetic was detained for a time, and on his release retired to Eaubonne. In 1802 Napoleon made him consul-general at Amsterdam. He considerations. Exophthalmic Goitre.—(Synonyms, Graves’ or Basedow’s died at Eaubonne on May 29, 1830. His Mémoires d’un vétéran irréprochable de la Révolution was pub- disease. )—This has very striking symptoms—an enlarged thyroid lished in 1824, his report on the papers of the civil list preparatory to gland, protrusion of the eyes, rapid action of the heart and the trial of Louis XVI. is printed in Le Procés de Louis XVI. (Paris, palpitation, tremor, extreme nervousness, wasting, flushing, sweatan IIT.) and elsewhere. ing and mental irritability. It is indeed the converse of myxoe-

GOHRDE, a forest of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, immediately W. of the Elbe, between Wittenberg and

Lüneburg. It has an area of about 85 sq.m. and is famous for its oaks, beeches and game preserves. It is memorable for the victory gained here, on Sept. 16, 1813, by the allies, under Wallmoden, over the French forces commanded by Pecheur. The hunting-box situated in the forest was built in 1689 and was restored by Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover. It ?s known to history on account of the constitution of Géhrde promulgated here in 1719.

GOIDELIC DIALECTS: see Cettic LANGUAGES. GOITO, a village of Lombardy, Italy, province of Mantua,

from which it is 1x m. N.W., on the road to Brescia. Pop. (1921) 898 (village); 7,739 (commune).

It is situated on the right bank

of the Mincio near the bridge and has been repeatedly fortified as a bridge-head. The Piedmontese forces won two actions (April 8, and May 30, 1848) over the Austrians here.

GOITRE.

Goitre or “Derbyshire neck” is a term used for

abnormal enlargements, usually chronic, of the thyroid gland in the front of the neck. The enlargement may be general and uniform (parenchymatous goitre), or may be localised to one part of the gland or to the isthmus connecting the two halves or lobes. Local enlargements are either innocent, which are common, or malignant, which are rare; the innocent growths are known as adenomas (adenomatous goitre) which at first solid may soften

down and become liquid-forming cysts; these cystic goitres or bronchoceles contain yellow, glue-like material (colloid); from

ding into, their interior may rapidly enlarge, otherwise they gow slowly, or may exist for many years without increasing in sz or causing discomfort.

They often arise in parenchymatous

goitres. Malignant disease commonly starts in an adenoma and is generally a carcinoma which grows slowly but has a special tendency to produce secondary deposits (metastases) in bones.

FROM SONS

ROBERT MC CARRISON, & DANIELSSON

“ETIOLOGY

SKETCH MAP OF THE WORLD OF ENDEMIC GOITRE

OF

ENDEMIC

SHOWING

GOITRE,”

THE

BY

PERMISSION

APPROXIMATE

OF JOHN

BALE,

DISTRIBUTION

dema. The skin may be pigmented, and in bad cases diarrhoea, vomiting and indigestion may be troublesome. Ninety per cent, if not more, of the patients are women. The basal metabolism (the minimal production of heat) is raised and this may be connected with the wasting and tolerance to cold. There is a structural change in the thyroid, probably due to poisons from the alimentary canal, but it may come on after mental shock or emotion. As a result of the change in the thyroid its internal

secretion is altered (dysthyroidism) and causes the nervous symptoms. The disease is usually chronic; more than half the patients

GOKAK—GOLASECCA

478

recover and others improve but do not become absolutely normal. ; grievances of Indians in that country.

His last public’ duty Was

Acute infections, such as influenza, are likely to prove fatal. In a few instances the morbid activity of the thyroid gland is followed by atrophy and myxoedema.

to serve as a member of the Indian Public Services Commission

country air, avoid much protein (meaty) food, stuffy rooms and excitement. Bromides, quinine hydrobromate, belladonna, digitalis and X-rays or radium to the gland should be employed. If these measures fail, and the case is severe, operative removal of part of the gland or ligature of some of its arteries should be undertaken; the operative mortality of excision of half the gland is now about five per cent. Iodine in the form of Lugol’s solution improves the patient’s condition so that operation can be more safely undertaken. (H. R.)

death-bed

Treatment.—The patients should live a simple life in fresh,

GOKAK, a town of British India, in the Belgaum district of Bombay, 8 m. from a station on the Madras and Southern Mah-

ratta railway. Pop. (1921) 9,989. It contains old temples with inscriptions. About 4 m. N.W. at the Gokak Falls, the Ghatprabha rushes over a precipice 170 ft. high. Close by, the water has been impounded for a large irrigation canal, and as motive power for a big cotton-mill. The irrigation works are extending. GOKCHA (G6k-Chai; Armen. Sevanga; anc. Haosravagha), a lake in Armenia 40° 20’ N. and 45° 35’ E., altitude 6,345 ft., triangular in shape, measures 45 m. N.W.—S.E., max. width 25 m., max. depth 67 fathoms, area 540 sqm. It is surrounded by barren mountains of volcanic origin 12,000 ft. high. Its outflow is the Zanga, a tributary of the Aras (Araxes); it never freezes, and its level undergoes periodical oscillations. It contains four species of Salmonidae, and two of Cyprinidae, peculiar to the drainage area of this lake. A lava island in it is crowned by an Armenian monastery.

GOKHALE,

GOPAL

KRISHNA

(1866-1915),

Indian

politician, was born at Kolhāpur of a humble Chitpavan Brahman family. Graduating at the Elphinstone college, Bombay, in 1884, he joined, as professor of history and political economy, the group of teachers at the Fergusson college, Poona, pledged to serve for 20 years on a merely nominal salary. He remained on the staff, finally as principal, until 1902. He was associated with the Indian National Congress from the beginning, and was for some years its joint secretary. In 1897 he paid the first of several visits to England, and gave evidence before the Royal Commission on Indian Expenditure. From then onwards he specialized as a critic of Indian official finance. In 1902 he became a member of the Bombay Legislature and was then elected to represent the non-official members thereof in the viceregal legislature. His persuasive eloquence, close reasoning and accurate knowledge of the subjects discussed, and instincts of statesmanship won him the Indian leadership, and Lord Curzon

recognized his earnest patriotism by nominating him for the C.I.E. in 1904. Consulting him freely in reference to his projected constitutional reforms, Lord Morley wrote of him to the viceroy as appreciating executive responsibility and having an eye for the tactics

of common sense (Recollections, vol. 2, p. 181, 1917). He was fiercely assailed by the extremist section, which never succeeded in his lifetime in capturing the congress machinery. In 1905 he became president of that body, on the occasion of its meeting at Benares. In the same year he founded at Poona his Servants of India Society, whose members take vows of poverty and lifelong

service to their country in a religious spirit. In the enlarged viceregal legislature set up in 1910 Gokhale was the commanding

Indian figure, His quickness in debate, the attractive literary style of his speeches, his studied moderation, and the care which he took to master his subjects, made him a most effective critic of the Government, though he indignantly disclaimed the title of the leader of an opposition party. Besides his brilliant handling of general topics, and more particularly of the annual budgets, he promoted measures for compulsory education on a basis of local option, but did not survive to see this principle introduced from 1918 onwards in all the large provinces. Though his last years were clouded by illness he

went. to South Africa to acquaint himself at first hand with the

(1912-15).

His death at Poona on Feb. 19, 1915, was a severe

blow to the Constitutional party at a critical moment in India’s

political history.

His last political testament, entrusted on his

to the Aga Khan, was published in Aug. IQI7, and

outlined plans of reform based on provincial autonomy. Gokhale’.

intense patriotism, powerful grasp of facts and great industry raised him head and shoulders above his contemporaries: and hig moderation,

invariable

courtesy

and

lofty personal

character

marked him out as one of the last and greatest of the old school of congress politicians before the age of non-co-operation.

See Speeches of the Honourable Mr. G. K. Gokhale (Madras 1908 3rd ed., 1920); R. P. Paraiijpye, Gopal Khrishna Gokhale (1913). '

GOLASECCA is a village situated on the river Ticino, a few

miles below the point at which it issues from Lago Maggiore.

Extensive cemeteries of the iron age have been found all over this

district, and the name Golasecca has come to be applied indiscriminately to the whole series, occupying an area of nearly forty square kilometres. Some of them are situated on the left bank of the Ticino at Somma, Vergiate, Sesto Calende and Golasecca itself; others on the right bank at Castelletto Ticino and the Lazzaretto of Borgo Ticino. During the past hundred years all these sites have been despoiled by excavators, very often unauthorized, and the objects found in them have been broken up or scattered over the world. The only collection of any size or importance

is in the newly arranged museum at the Sforza castle in Milan, There may be seen the contents of the Sesto Calende tomb illustrated in the accompanying plate, as well as the collection formed by Castelfranco, the only archaeologist of the past generation to make any comprehensive study of the region. All the cemeteries of the Somma plateau were of the cremation

rite. The tombs were very simple, each containing a single cinerary urn, often enclosed in the centre of a circle of rough stones. In several instances these circles were approached by a corridor of similar stones. The most perfect example of this kind is a circle 17 metres in diameter enclosing a smaller circle 4% metres in diameter approached by a corridor 30 metres long. One burial was found within the small circle and three more within the outer circle. Castelfranco observed traces of about 50 stone enclosures and it is probable that there had been many more. Castelfranco, whose explorations were fairly extensive and systematic, states that he invariably found a tomb in the centre of every circle that he explored, and that the tombs found within the circles contained precisely the same pottery as those which stood isolated from any enclosure. The construction of the graves moreover was precisely the same whether enclosed within a circle or not. There were four varieties, viz. (1) Plain round holes in which the ossuary was placed without any protection; (2) a heap of small stones surrounding the ossuary, which rested on a bed of similar stones and was sometimes covered with a rough slab; (3) rough slabs forming an oblong protection; (4) regular cists made of several slabs. These four methods of grave-making are precisely those employed by the other cremating peoples of Italy, which shows that the Golaseccans belonged to the same original family as the Comaeines, Atestines and Villanovans. The contents of the ossuaries were poor, consisting at most of one or two fibulae or weapons, or small objects of bronze, iron, amber or

glass.

Outside the cinerary urn itself were sometimes smaller

jars and bowls. It was principally upon a study of this pottery that Castelfranco

based his division of the Golasecca antiquities into two periods. It expresses a theory which cannot be maintained. There are undoubtedly two schools of pottery-making represented at Golasecca, the one characterized by rough jars with incised ornamentation, the other by a finer ware with striped decoration obtained by double-burnishing. Examples of each class are shown im accompanying plate. But the two styles were sometimes found to gether in a single tomb and they are certainly not mutually &

clusive. Similarly the attempt to establish the existence of twe

periods by the evidence of fibulae has broken down under analysis, so that there is only one period in all the Golasecca cemeters

GOLCONDA—GOLD

THE TOMB OF SESTO CALENDE, GOLASECCA, CIRCA 500 B.C. Extensive cemeteries of the Iron Age have been found near Golasecca, a village on the river Ticino, near the point at which it issues from Lago Maggiore. The most important single discovery made was of the tomb of Sesto Calende, found in 1867 by a farmer when ploughing his field. The grave, In the top centre, and the principal objects contained in it are shown

As to the chronology there have been until lately great divergencies of opinion, caused chiefly by the different interpretations given to the warrior’s tomb of Sesto Calende (see illustration above). The tomb of the warrior Sesto Calende is the most important

single discovery in the Golasecca area. It was found by a farmer

in the process of ploughing his field in 1867, and was described by Biondelli in the same year. A sketch of the grave is shown in the plate, with the principal objects contained in it. Discussion as to the date has centred upon the situla made of plates of hammered hronze ornamented with rudely executed figures and scenes. These are not embossed or engraved as on the fine situlae of the Etruscans or Atestines but outlined by the very primitive process of pointillé, that is to say with small consecutive dots. The technique is so infantile and the execution so poor that it was natural to suppose the situla to be a very archaic work. Actually however, comparisons have shown that though childish art it is not primitive. For an attentive examination of the scenes brings out the fact that they are derivations with a good deal of travesty

and misunderstanding from a well known Etruscan original. And from the date of this original it is possible to fix the date of the Sesto Calende situla, which can be very little if at all earlier than

Alpine region from the Ticino to Trieste, by which the products of the Adriatic filtered to this distant corner. And perhaps it is possible to detect in some of the metal work and in the individual

character of the pottery the beginnings of a native local style which is independent although barbaric. The Golaseccans, however, form only a part of the early population of Lombardy with neighbours and kinsmen living round Varese and Como. In this region the records begin earlier and the material though scattered

is more abundant (see CoMACINES). BrerrocrapHy.—The Gaulish theory of Bertrand is given in his book written with S. Reinach in 1894 Les Celtes dans les vallées du Po et du Danube. D. Randall-Maclver, The Iron Age in Italy (1927), gives all the original references. The articles by de Mortillet and Castelfranco are now out of date, though the latter has a certain value as an original record.

The

old-fashioned

dissertation

of the

Abbé Giani has been usefully summarized by Montelius La Civilisation primitive en Italie, cols. 231—247, with plates, who has reproduced the best of his drawings, as well as those of Castelfranco and Biondelli. Déchelette Manuel d'Archéologie, vol. II?, pp. 730-743 is useful. Hoernes has a good discussion of the Situla in his Urgeschichte der bildenden Kunst.

GOLCONDA,

a fortress and ruined city of India, in the

Nizam’s Dominions, 5 m. W. of Hyderabad city. Golconda was s00 B.c. The theory therefore that this is the grave of some very the capital of a large and powerful kingdom of the Deccan, ruled early Celtic warrior, with all its implications of a Gaulish invasion by the Kutb Shahi dynasty, founded in 1512 by a Turkoman in the early iron age must be finally abandoned. Nor is there any adventurer on the downfall of the Bahmani dynasty, but the city reason for attributing the burial to a Celt even of the fifth century, was subdued by Aurangzeb in 1687, and annexed to the Delhi for the weapons and accessories are not distinctively Gaulish; in empire. The fortress of Golconda, on a granite ridge, is exfact the tomb though richer than the average is a fair representa- tensive and strong, and contains many enclosures, but is commanded by the summits of the enormous and massive mausolea tion of the usual Golasecca civilization. The entire subject thus becomes much clearer. The Sesto of the ancient kings about 600 yd. distant. These buildings Calende warrior and his famous situla find their natural place at form a vast group in an arid, rocky desert. Time and man have the end of the Golasecca period. There are not two periods, as damaged them, but they have recently been repaired. Golconda Castelfranco supposed, but only one, which ranges from 750 or has given its name in English literature to the diamonds which 700 to 500 B.c. as the fibulae plainly show. The Golasecca period were found in other parts of the dominions of the Kutb Shahi o is precisely conterminous with the Arnoaldi period of dynasty, and cut at Golconda. ogna. GOLD, an extremely heavy, very valuable, bright yellow The amount of material available for a study of Golasecca, metal, with a resplendent lustre (symbol Au, atomic number 79,

though lamentably meagre, shows that in the 7th and 6th centuries

atomic weight 197-2).

On account of its brilliant appearance,

tinctly poor relations, living in a remote province on the outskirts

unalterability and occurrence in the native condition, gold was almost certainly the first metal to attract the attention of man. It was known and highly valued by the earliest civilizations, Egyptian, Minoan, Assyrian and Etruscan, and from all these periods ornaments of great variety and beautiful and elaborate

e more progressive nations. They were not of much importance in the development of early Italy. There seems, however, to ve been a trade system which extended all through the pre-

JEWELLERY, PLATE, EGYPT, CRETE, AEGEAN Civilization, NUMIS-

B.C. that branch of the cremating invaders which had made its way by stages from the Eastern Alps to a home on Lago Maggiore was kward in its civilization. The Golaseccans are far behind the

AMestines and the Villanovans of the same period; they are dis-

workmanship have survived, many of them being as perfect now

as when they were first made several thousands of years ago. (See

GOLD

480

MATICS.) The making of gold from base metals by means of the “philosopher’s stone” and discovery of the elixir of life were the chief aims of the alchemists of the middle ages and many of the advances in early chemistry were the direct outcome of such experiments, and even to-day the transmutation of base metals into

gold is not regarded as scientifically impossible. Gold is found very widely distributed in nature, but usually occurs in such small quantities as not to repay extraction. It is generally found in

In a finely divided state the colour of gold is very Variable, depending upon the size of the particles. The usual colour gf precipitated gold is brown, but black, purple, blue and pink shades are also known. In very thin sheet or leaf, gold is transly. cent and transmits a greenish light. Gold when pure is the mos malleable and ductile of all the metals; it can be beaten to no more than o-oooor mm. in thickness (see GoLD-BEATING), and a single gram has been drawn into a wire 2 miles long. Traces of

other metals reduce considerably the malleability and ductility,

the native or uncombined state but is almost invariably associated with variable proportions of silver. It exists in two forms—reef gold, in which the metal is embedded in a solid matrix, and alluvial gold, which has been formed by the weathering of auriferous rocks. Gold also occurs in sea water; assays of sea water from various sources vary from 5 to 267 parts of gold per 100,000,000

lead being especially injurious in this respect. Cadmium, tin, bismuth, antimony, arsenic, tellurium and zinc act in like manner Gold is one of the softest metals, its hardness varying accord.

of water. enormous

ods; it is so soft as to be capable of welding at ordinary temperatures.

These minimal amounts represent in the aggregate an quantity, which has been calculated at 10,000,000,000

tons (Mendeleyev,

Tke Principles of Chemistry).

Many proc-

esses, fraudulent or otherwise, have been proposed for extracting gold from this source, but none has proved commercially possible. The principal elements with which gold is admixed in nature are silver, tellurium, copper, iron, bismuth, mercury, palladium and rhodium. The native gold-silver alloys are known as electrum, and have a colour range from pale yellow to pure white, depending on the amount of silver present. Gold is found combined with tellurium in the minerals calaverite, AuTe., in which generally the gold is partly replaced by a certain amount of silver; sylvanite, AuAgTe,; nagyagite, which contains lead, copper, antimony and sulphur; and other tellurium ores to which local names have frequently been given. Galdmercury ores are known as gold amalgam. The other metals mentioned above are usually present in small amounts only and are not of great importance. Gold is generally present to a small extent in iron pyrites, FeS., and much alluvial gold is regarded as having been produced by the weathering of this mineral; in addition, galena, PbS, which often contains silver, is generally found to include appreciable amounts of gold, so that the silver obtained from lead by cupellation is usually auriferous. The common occurrence of gold together with silver is well shown in the fact that, even at the present time, several of the smaller countries in North, Central, and South America possess a silver coinage which, being of the intrinsic silver value of their contents and not mere tokens, as in Great Britain, renders the extraction of gold from them an economical process. This condition existed in Germany prior to the establishment of the German Empire in 1871, when each small German State possessed its own silver currency. These coins were recalled by the Imperial Government and refined by a

ing to treatment and being somewhere between that of zinc and tin; it is considerably softer than silver under all conditions

Dental gold is really a gold sponge produced by electrolytic meth-

The specific gravity of gold also depends upon its previous treatment. Cast gold is always somewhat lighter than gold that has been rolled or drawn. Different observers give the specific gravity of cast gold as from 19-23 to 19-29 and for worked gold as from 19-29 to 19-34. Precipitated gold, however, has a greater density and varies with the precipitant employed and the temperature of precipitation. Ferrous sulphate appears to give the

densest precipitate which has been found by G. Rose to be as high as 20-72. For practical purposes the density of pure gold may be taken as 19-3.

The melting point of gold has been determined by many observers with varying results but the mean of recent observations

is 1,063° C. Gold is comparatively easily volatilized at high tem-

peratures; at its melting point the loss is insignificant, but becomes appreciable at higher temperatures, and at 1,250° C it is 2-6 parts per thousand per hour (T. K. Rose). In all mints and gold refineries the flues are carefully swept periodically and con-

siderable quantities of the metal are thus recovered. In the presence of other metals, volatilization is greater than with pure gold, tellurium and selenium being most active in this respect and zinc and mercury less so. Some of the recently reported transmutations of mercury into gold have been traced to the mercury containing a minute quantity of gold which had not been removed by simple distillation. The boiling point of pure gold is about 2,500° C, The electrical conductivity of gold is greatly influenced by traces of impurities, so reported values are very variable. At ordinary temperatures the conductivity of gold is about 75% of that of pure silver, which has the greatest conductivity of any metal. The electrical resistance, which is the converse of conductivity, steadily diminishes with a lowering of the temperature, and at the company specially formed for this purpose (Deutsche Gold und boiling point of helium zm vacuo (i.e., below 5° Absolute) it has Suber Scheide Anstalt of Frankfurt a/M) with the result that practically disappeared (H. K. Onnes), or, in other words, gold is after several years’ work, gold to the value of about £3,000,000 then a perfect conductor of electricity. was recovered. The mean specific heat of gold is 0-03, a number which agrees well with the law of Dulong and Petit. Its coefficient of linear PHYSICAL PROPERTIES expansion is about o-oo0014 for r° C. Gold in the massive state possesses a characteristic yellow The spark spectrum of gold is very complicated; the most colour which by multiple reflection becomes orange or even red. prominent lines in the visible spectrum lie at 6278 and 5957 in This colour can be remarkably affected by alloying the gold with the orange and red, 5837 and 5656 in the yellow, 5065 in the other metals. Small quantities of silver reduce the depth of yellow green, 4793 and 4437 in the blue, and 4065 and 3808 in the violet. (vide supra), and when the amount of silver is increased to CHEMICAL PROPERTIES 30-40% a distinctly greenish tint results. Copper, on the other Gold is permanent in air or water under all conditions of temhand, deepens the yellow shade, and British standard gold coinage of 22-carat gold, or 91-67% Au to 83-33% Cu, is noticeably redder perature. It is insoluble in nitric, hydrochloric or sulphuric acids, but soluble in hot selenic acid forming gold selenate. Hot tellunc than the pure metal. The effect of small quantities of the platinum metals on the acid likewise dissolves it. The usual solvent for gold is aqua colour of gold is very marked; thus, less than 25% platinum gives regia (q.v.)—a mixture of 3 volumes of strong hydrochloric acid a pure white alloy—the white gold of the jeweller—which, as it with one volume of strong nitric acid which in practice is always can be made to contain 75% of gold, can be and is hall-marked diluted with a considerable volume of water. The nitric and as 18-carat gold. Palladium has a still greater whitening power hydrochloric acids interact producing nitrosyl chloride (NOCI) than platinum and about 12% is sufficient to produce a perfectly together with free chlorine, which attacks the metal. The other white alloy. A remarkable colour effect is produced by alloying halogen elements, fluorine, bromine and iodine, also attack gold 3 gold with aluminium. Roberts-Austen produced a fine purple freely, producing the corresponding halogen compounds. Gold alloy (containing about 80% Au and 20% Al), but unfortunately also soluble in aqueous solutions of alkaline sulphides and thiosulphates. Alkali cyanides, even in very dilute solution, attack too brittle to be made into jewellery. x

GOLD gold readily, especially in the presence of air or oxygen

(see

low).

baon and Oxygen.—Gold and oxygen do not combine directly under any conditions; hence all oxides and hydroxides have to be made by indirect methods. Two well-determined oxides of gold

are known, namely aurous oxide, Au,O, and auric oxide, AwOQs. The oxides Au2O2, AuzO. and AusOs have been described, but their individuality is doubtful.

Aurous hydroxide, AuOH, is best prepared either by treating a neutral aqueous solution of auric chloride, AuCl, with mercurous nitrate, or by decomposing aurous chloride, AuCl, or bromide,

AuBr, with cold dilute caustic potash or soda (not ammonia). It is also obtained by boiling an aqueous solution of auric chlo-

481

metallic chloride. The aurichlorides of lithium, potassium and sodium are very soluble in water; those of rubidium and especially caesium are much less soluble. The sodium salt, NaAuCh,2H,0, separating in yellowish-red prisms, is an article of commerce under the name of “sodio-gold chloride”; it has the advantage over aurichloric acid of being non-deliquescent. Aurichloric acid combines with the chlorides of many organic bases to form welldefined crystalline aurichlorides, frequently used in identifying and purifying such bases.. Two bromides of gold are known, AuBr and AuBr;, corresponding with the two chlorides; the tribromide, prepared by the action of bromine water on finely divided gold, forms dark brownish-red crystals and in its reactions resembles the corresponding chloride;

brownish-black powder which, on drying over phosphoric oxide,

the monobromide is obtained by heating the tribromide or HAuBr, tọ ro5—200° C. Auric bromide forms auribromides. MAuBr,, similar to the aurichlorides. These salts have been used in determining the atomic weight of gold. On mixing aqueous solutions of potassium iodide and AuCl; or HAuCh, some auric iodide, Auls, is produced, but being somewhat unstable, it decomposes to a large extent into aurous iodide, Aul, and free iodine. The latter reaction is complete on warming. Although unstable by itself, yet in combination with alkali and alkaline-earth iodides auric iodide forms a stable series of complex auriodides. The potassium salt, KAul, crystallizes in black, lustrous prisms. Iodine in aqueous, or preferably aqueous-alcoholic, solution combines with metallic gold to produce aurous

farms a brown powder of auryl hydroxide, AuO(OH), dehydrated

iodide, Aul, a white or lemon-yellow powder insoluble in water.

ride with the alkaline salt of an organic acid such as potassium acetate. It is a violet-black powder which, on heating to about 300° C loses water giving violet-brown aurous oxide, which at 150° C decomposes into gold and oxygen. The oxide and hydroxide have feebly basic properties and are capable of forming salts with balogen acids. Auric hydroxide is produced by precipitating a solution of auric chloride or of aurichloric acid, HAuCh, with a limited amount of

caustic alkali. The hydroxide thus prepared cannot be entirely freed from alkali by washing, and the precipitation is preferably effected with magnesia or zinc oxide, excess of the precipitant

being removed with dilute nitric acid.

Auric hydroxide is a

at 140° C to trioxide, and this oxide on further heating to 170° is said to lose oxygen and form the oxide Au2Oe.

Gold Cyanides.—In

the presence of air gold dissolves in

Auric oxide is

aqueous solutions of potassium or sodium cyanide ta form potas-

capable either of forming salts with haloid acids or of acting as an

sium or sodium aurocyanide, KAu(CN). or NaAu(CN)z2, and on precipitating this solution with dilute hydrochloric acid, aurous cyanide, AuCN, is deposited in yellow, insoluble, microscopic, hexagonal plates. Auric cyanide, Au(CN)s, has not been isolated with certainty, but stable complex salts are known with alkali and other cyanides. Potassium auricyanide, 2K Au(CN).,3H.20, forms colourless efflorescent crystals. The silver salt, AgAu(CN)., is formed by precipitating a solution of KAu(CN). with silver

acidic anhydride by combining with strong bases to form aurates. Potassium aurate, KAuO2,3H:0, is a yellow crystalline compound;

Ba(AuQz)2 is a yellow precipitate. Halogen Compounds.—Fluorine does not act on gold in the cold but only at a dull red heat, when a yellowish deposit is formed. Two chlorides of gold are known with certainty, aurous chloride,

AuCl, and auric chloride, AuCls. The identity of an intermediate chloride, Au2zCl,, is doubtful. Aurous chloride is almost always

formed by heating auric chloride. The optimum temperature is about 175° C, and several days are required to complete the reaction, If a higher temperature is used complete decomposition occurs into gold and chlorine. This decomposition of auric into aurous chloride takes place to some extent even in het aqueous solution. Aurous chloride is a yellowish-white solid insoluble in cold water but undergoing slow decomposition into gold and soluble

amic chloride. Auric chloride can be obtained either by heating aurichloric

acid to 200° in a stream of chlorine, or by dissolving gold in

chlorine water, preferably in darkness. It is obtained as a reddishbrown powder or as ruby-red crystals; it gives a neutral solution

and can be sublimed unchanged in a stream of chlorine. The auric chloride of commerce is really aurichloric or chloroauric acid, HAuCh,,3H.0, a brown deliquescent substance very soluble in water or ether.

If gold is dissolved in aqua regia and the resulting solution freed from nitric acid by evaporation with further quantities of hydrochloric acid to near the crystallizing point, the dissolved gold compound

corresponds

to the formula

H,AuCl;,

but on

allowing this solution to crystallize, brownish-yellow crystals of aurichloric acid are formed, having a ‘strongly acid reaction. These crystals always contain a small amount of aurous chloride unless chlorine has been passed through the solution during evaporation. They are also frequently contaminated with small amounts of silver chloride as this substance is soluble in strong solutions of auric chloride and is only precipitated therefrom by considerable dilution with water. Aurichloric acid forms a series of salts called aurichlorides or

nitrate.

From this salt auricyanic acid, 2HAu(CN).4,3H.0,

obtained by removing the silver with hydrochloric crystallizing the solution.

is

acid and

Fulminating Gold.—When auric oxide or a gold solution is

treated with strong ammonia, a black powder is formed called fulminating gold (AuN2H3,3H.O). When dry it is a very powerful explosive, as it detonates either by friction or on heating to about 145°; it should always be handled with great caution. Purple of Cassius—When a solution of auric chloride is precipitated with a solution of stannous chloride a reddish or purplish precipitate is produced containing both metallic gold and tin hydroxide. The composition of this precipitate is as variable as is its colour. This product is mainly used in the preparation of ruby glass. Liquid Gold.—A preparation known as “liquid gold” (German, Glanzgold) is very largely used in the decoration of pottery and earthenware. It consists essentially of a sulpho-resinate of gold dissolved in various essential oils, together with small quantities of bismuth, rhodium and sometimes other metals. The liquid gold is applied by suitable means to the surface of the glaze of the ware: it Is then allowed to dry and fired at about 7oo-800° C. A brilliant film of metallic gold is thus left on the surface of the ware. (F. E. M.) GOLD: MINING AND METALLURGY. It is probable that gold was the first metal to attract the attention of prehistoric man, but it could hardly have been used even for ornaments until the art of melting had been invented in the bronze age. The earliest mining work of which traces remain was on gold ores in

Egypt, and gold washing is depicted on monuments of the fourth dynasty (2900 3.c.). There are many other records of work on gold in ancient times. The legend of the Golden Fleece, stripped of its heroic dress, describes an expedition about 1200 B.C. to

chloroaurates, having the general formula MAuCl. These salts seize gold which was being laboriously washed out from the river may he obtained either by neutralizing the acid with the metallic sands with the aid of sheepskins by the long-suffering people or by treating the acid with the equivalent amount of the of Armenia. It is interesting to note as an example of the value

482

GOLD

of some old ideas that, in the latest development of practice in the Transvaal, blankets are used to collect the gold (see AMALGAMATION). Occurrence and Distribution of Gold.—Gold occurs in minute quantities in almost all rocks. Igneous and metamorphic rocks contain more than sedimentary deposits which have doubtless derived it from the sea. In sea-water the amount of gold present appears to vary from 0-03 grain to 1 grain (2 to 60 mg.) per ton, but all attempts to extract it at a profit have failed. It exists in all copper and lead ores. It is everywhere, apparently even in vegetation, for there is gold in the coal of the Cambrian coalfield of Wyoming and a rich deposit in a bed of lignite in Japan.

the “placers” of Klondike

Archaean to Quaternary but is mainly very ancient or compara.

tively recent.

by a cart, only a few inches below the surface of the ground.

‘Among the most productive goldfields in ancient times were those in Egypt, where in the deep mines the enslaved labourers were cruelly maltreated, and in Asia Minor where flows the river Pactolus, the source of the riches of Croesus. The Romans obtained their gold in great part from Transylvania, still a goldfield. After the discovery of America the main supplies to Europe came froin there. In 1850-60 the gold diggings of California and

Australia were at their zenith and at the end of the 19th century

The series of rocks formed between these eras

contain little gold. Placer Mining and Prospecting.—Gold sands and gravels occur in the beds of most rivers which flow for part of their

course through a region composed

Disseminations throughout large masses of rock, rich enough to be called ores, are unusual and gold is generally obtained from quartz lodes or veins, or from deposits derived from them by denudation, e.g., river gravels and the “banket” or conglomerate of the Transvaal. The gold is not evenly distributed in the lodes but is concentrated in certain parts. Many lodes are barren,

especially those which do not contain pyrites or other sulphides. The reason why gold occurs in greater quantities in lodes than in the neighbouring rocks is not known with certainty but it is considered that it has risen from below with other minerals, partly at least in solution in hot water, and has been precipitated where it is found. The mineral most commonly found with gold in lodes is iron pyrites, a yellow sulphide of iron. Others are copper pyrites, arsenical pyrites, zinc blende and stibnite—all sulphides. At the surface of the ground, where the lodes are weathered, limonite, a yellow oxide of iron, is the best indicator of gold. In alluvial deposits (“placers”) magnetite (“black iron sand”) usually occurs. No mineral, however, is an infallible guide to gold, except perhaps in particular localities. The gold in ores is generally free or native, not combined with other elements to form chemical compounds except in the tellurides. Even the gold contained in iron pyrites is metallic, consisting of thin films coating the crystals or perhaps the cleavage planes of the pyrites. Gold in ore is generally invisible unless magnified, but sometimes occurs in crystalline grains or arborescent flakes which can be seen, and more rarely gold is found in considerable masses. Large crystals of an inch or more across have been found in alluvial deposits in California. They belong to the cubic system and are usually in the form of octahedra or rhombic dodecahedra. In Transylvania gold occurs in thin plates and in some other districts in wire form. Tellurides of gold are contained in rich ores in Western Australia and Colorado and occur elsewhere. The mineral calaverite, a bronze-yellow gold telluride, contains 40% of gold, and sylvanite or graphic tellurium, a steel-grey mineral, contains up to 28% of gold combined with some silver. The tellurides are often grey or blackish. Tellurium is removed from telluride ores by weathering and finely divided yellow amorphous gold or “mustard gold” is left. It resembles yellow clay, but can be made bright by burnishing. It occurs in yellow splashes at Kalgoorlie. The rocks through which auriferous veins pass are generally metamorphic, such as slates or schists, with volcanic rocks in the neighbourhood. Andesite, a volcanic rock, is often found in gold districts. Alluvial deposits or “placers” have been the most prolific sources of gold in the past, although by 1927 they had become of little importance. They are the sands, gravels and detritus of ancient or existing streams and have been derived from the disintegration of auriferous veins or rocks. The gold occurs as “gold dust,” which consists of small scales and rounded grains, and “nuggets” or larger masses of a rounded or mammilated form. The largest nugget ever found was the “Welcome Stranger,” 2,520 oz. In weight, which was found in 1860 in Victoria in a rut made

and Alaska, the last-named a beach

deposit, were famous for a short time. By 10927 the Transvaal had been for many years the richest goldfield in the world but there are important goldfields in every continent and in many countries (see PuystcaL REsources, Precious Metals Group). The geological age of the deposits in which gold is found ranges from

of crystalline rocks.

ee

FIGS.

1 AND

2.—MINER’S

The gold

may be dispersed through the sand or caught in the crevices of

PAN

AND

BATEA

Simple appliances for separating gold from river gravel by washing with water; used mainly in prospecting

the rocky bed of the river and covered by sand. Sometimes the auriferous sands are covered by thick beds of barren detritus of even lava flows and can he reached only by sinking shafts

or driving tunnels.

The mining

operations are usually simple. In Siberia, Alaska and the Yukon the gravels are perennially frozen and

are thawed with steam jets or wood fires. The sand is tested by panning. The “dirt” is stirred and shaken with water in a pan (fig. 1.) to enable the gold to settle to the bottom, and the upper portions are gradually washed away by dipping the pan into water and pouring it off until only the gold and heavy minerals are left. Finally the gold is separated by a series of dexterous twists and tilts. The “batea” (fig. 2), a shallow wooden cone, is used instead of the pan in South America and by negro miners, If the deposit is found to be rich enough to work it is treated

in pans or cradles or sluice boxes. Work with the pan is simply

a repetition of the testing process already mentioned. In the Klondike a single pan of earth sometimes yielded 15 oz. of gold, but that was exceptional and work on so small a scale “as seldom paid expenses. The “cradle” or “rocker” (fig. 3), which resembles a child’s cradle, deals with larger quantities of earth and is more profitable. The gravel is shovelled on to the perforated iron plate, and water is poured on. The fine material drops through on to the apron, which is then carried forward over the sloping floor, rocking being continuous. The gold is caught by the “riffles,” which may be strips of wood. A riffle or riffle bar is almost anything which will break the current of water and provide a protected spot where gold can settle and remain wdisturbed. Mercury is often placed in riffles to amalgamate the

gold (see AMALGAMATION).

Thousands of improved cradles were

in use at Nome in Alaska as recently as 1900. A “sluice box” (fig. 4) is an inclined wooden trough PERFORATED IRON PLATE

FIG. 3.—MINER’S CRADLE OR ROCKER, A PRIMITIVE APPARATUS FOR EXTRACTING GOLD FROM GRAVEL

through which gravel is washed by a stream of water. The troughs are fitted together to form 4 sluice which may be hundreds of

yards long. If gold is still being caught at the lower end of the sluice, more boxes are added, but most of the gold is caught in riffles near the upper end, where

the gravel is shovelled in and

mercury sprinkled. In Califorma thick beds of gravel on hill-sides in the gulches have been worked by hydraulic mining. Powerful jets of water break down the banks of gravel and wash the material through a line of sluices without hand labour. The work was sometimes on a very large scale requiring huge reservoirs as for a great city, with many miles of pipes and flumes. The nozzle for the jet was inc

to rrin. in diameter with a pressure of water given by a head of 2ooft. The cost of treatment was only a few cents per cubic yard

and poor ground could be treated at a profit. Millions of tons of sand were washed down and delivered as “tailings” into the

GOLD

4.83

Yuba and Feather rivers, and the effects on farming lower down were so marked that an injunction was obtained against the

of iron. The pot was covered and heated to redness, but the temperature was not high enough to melt the gold. The silver and hydraulic miners in 1880 and their work thereafter was strictly other impurities in the gold were gradually converted into chlorimited. ides, which melted and oozed out of the gold and were absorbed : In the period 1900-15 dredging became the most important by the brickdust, and the gold was purified. Nitric acid was branch of placer working. The chain-bucket dredger was in gen- in use for refining gold in the 16th century. The gold was melted eral use. It is similar to those used in harbours, having a number with three times its weight of silver (process of “inquartation”), of buckets attached to an endless moving chain. The gravel is and granulated by pouring into scooped up from river beds and delivered on the deck of the CHLORINE water. The granules were boiled G vessel, where it is washed. It is disintegrated in revolving screens in nitric acid which dissolved the and then flows over gold-saving tables furnished with riffles, or silver and left the gold unthrough short sluices. The tailings pour overboard at the stern changed. If the alloy of gold and or are deprived of the water in them by being run on to sieves

and are then stacked on the river bank by a bucket elevator. Dredging originated in New

Zealand and attained its greatest

FIG. 5.—REFINING BY CHLORINE GAS FORCED THROUGH MOLTEN GOLD CONTAINED IN CLAY POT, REMOVING IMPURITIES, WHICH RISE

silver contains more than 33% gold, part of the silver remains undissolved, and it is for that reason that the excess of silver is melted with the gold in inquartation. The silver was recovered from the acid and used again. In the roth century sulphuric acid replaced nitric acid and is cheaper to use. The chlorine process (not to be confused with chlorination, the obsolete process of treating ores) was invented in 1869 in Australia where acid was expensive, and has become the usual method of refining. The

TO THE SURFACE, PURIFYING THE gold is melted in clay pots and COLD a stream of chlorine gas is bubbled through it (fig. 5). The chlorine is absorbed by the silver FIG. 4.—SLUICE BOXES, INCLINED WOODEN TROUGHS FOR SEPARATING which is present, and silver chloride is formed and rises to the GOLD FROM GRAVEL, SHOWING PLAN (TOP). GRAVEL, CONTAINING GOLD, IS CARRIED DOWN THE SLUICE BY A STREAM OF WATER. THE -urface of the molten metal whence it is skimmed off. The silver GOLD SINKS TO THE BOTTOM AND LODGES BEHIND THE CROSS-BARS is recovered by electrolysis in another vessel. Most of the other popularity on the rivers there, and in California. “Paddock metals are chloridized like silver; but the gold is not attacked dredging,” a later development in western America, enabled all intil nearly all the silver has been removed. When the gold flat placer ground to be treated, even if not in or near river "3 about 995 fine (containing 995 parts of gold per 1,000), chlorine beds. The dredger is placed in a reservoir filled with water, the subbles through to the surface freely, brown fumes appear, gold gravel is dug away from one end of the reservoir, the gold is egins to be lost by volatilization and by spirting, and the work washed out, and the tailings are stacked at the other end. In this. “ust be stopped. Platinum is not recovered by the process and, if present, remains in the gold, but the impurities which cause way the dredger moves across country taking the reservoir wit! it, By piling gravel round the reservoir and letting in more water 4rittleness in minting are always removed. The cost of the process the dredger can be made to work its way uphill. The cost of dredging before the World War was only about 2d. or 3d. per cubic yard of gravel, not counting the capital expenditure, so that poor

material could be treated at a profit, but in 1926 comparatively few dredgers remained at work. Vein Mining and Ore Treatment.—Methods of exploration and mining of veins do not greatly differ from those in use on the deposits of other metals (see Mintnc, METALLIFEROUS). Gold ere raised to the surface is treated by amalgamation or by the cyanide process (qg.v.). Before the invention of the cyanide process, the tailings from amalgamation mills were often concentrated on sloping tables, or in troughs lined with blanketing or by other machines. The concentrates consisted chiefly of sul-

RODS SUPPORTING PLATES

LEVEL OF SOLUTION

phides, especially pyrites, and often contained 2 or 3 oz. of gold pet ton. They were treated by smelting and in some places by chlorination, an obsolete process. Gold ores which cannot be

FIG. 6,—ELECTROLYTIC REFINING, IN WHICH ANODE PLATES OF IMPURE GOLD HUNG BY HOOKS IN HOT ACID, WASTE AWAY BY THE ACTION OF lead ores (see Copper and Leap). The gold is found in the metalA CURRENT OF ELECTRICITY PASSING FROM THEM THROUGH THE LIQUID TO THE THIN CATHODE PLATES. WHERE PURE GOLD IS DEPOSITED copper or lead which is tapped out from the furnaces and is recovered in the electrolytic refining of the copper and the de- at Ottawa in 1916-18 when the Transvaal output was being refined

treated by amalgamation or cyaniding are smelted with copper or

tilverizing of the lead. The amount of gold produced in the world

was about 3 cents per oz, of gold. smelting is comparatively small. In the United States mints the electrolytic process, introduced &-—Gold bars produced at the mines and gold dust there in 1902, has since been used for refining most of the gold and nuggets from placers are impure, containing as a rough aver- produced in North America. The gold is cast into thick plates age about 90% gold with 8—9% of silver and smaller quantities of which are suspended on gold or silver hooks in a porcelain cell aer metals. The gold is often brittle and is refined to make it filled with a solution of gold chloride containing some hydrochloric

mutable for minting or for use in the industries. The ancients acid. The hooks are hung on metal rods and the whole series of gold by “cementation.” Plates of gold were stacked in plates and hooks are connected and are made the anode (fig. 6). M earthen pot, and were surrounded and separated by powdered A series of thin rolled plates of pure gold are suspended in the porous stone or brickdust, mixed with common salt and sulphate

cell alternately with the impure plates and also connected to, form

4.84

GOLDBEATING

the cathode. The liquid in the cell is heated to about 60°C., and is continuously stirred, and a current of electricity is passed from the anode plates to the cathode through the liquid, The gold is dissolved from the anodes and is precipitated on the cathodes. At the end of the run it is stripped off the cathode plates and melted into bars. The silver is converted into insoluble chloride which falls to the bottom of the cell, and other metals, including platinum, dissolve in the liquid and remain in solution. The platinum is, however, subsequently recovered and sometimes pays for the whole operation. The process is somewhat slow, occupying three or four days, but the cathode gold is over 999 fine.

Alloys of Gold.—Gold alloys with silver in all proportions and

the alloys are soft, malleable and ductile. The colour of gold gradually changes from yellow to white as the proportion of silver increases. When the silver is over 70% the alloys are white.

The gold used by the goldbeater is variously alloyed, according

to the colour required.

being spoiled; but for work exposed to the weather it is mych

preferable, as it is more durable, and does not tarnish or Change colour. The external gilding on many public buildings, e.g., the Albert memorial in Kensington gardens, London, is done with pure gold. The following is a list of the principal classes of leaf recognized and ordinarily prepared by British beaters, with the proportions of alloy per oz, they contain. Name of leaf.

“Green gold” (gold 75%, silver 25%) is used in jewellery and is of about the same composition as the elecirum of the ancients. Gold-silver alloys are used to make trial plates, or standards of reference with which the fineness of gold wares and coins are compared. Copper hardens gold and forms alloys of reddish yellow colour at conveniently low melting points. These alloys

Red

are used for coinage. They blacken when heated, but the discolouration is removed by sulphuric acid. The triple alloys of gold, silver and copper are malleable and ductile, with a rich gold.

Pale yellow

colour. They are much used for the production of gold wares. Some zinc is often present in 9 carat gold. Hot nitric acid attacks all but the richer alloys of gold with silver or copper or both, and if the proportion of gold is no more than 33%, practically the whole of the silver and copper are removed in solution. Some of the gold-palladium and gold-platinum alloys are ductile and fit for use in jewellery. The alloys containing 10-20% of palladium are nearly white. Amalgams are alloys of gold and mercury. A piece of gold rubbed with mercury is immediately penetrated by it, turning white and becoming exceedingly brittle. The ductility is not always restored on driving off the mercury by heat. Solid amalgam contains 40% or more of gold, but any excess of mercury over 60% makes the amalgam pasty. The amalgam produced in gold mills (see AMALGAMATION) is not a true amalgam but a collection of little nuggets of gold, coated and partly saturated with mercury. Lead when molten takes up gold readily, and zinc removes the gold from molten lead. The zinc and gold form a solid crust which floats on the surface of the lead. Advantage is taken of these properties in smelting. Gold forms alloys with many other metals but most of them are brittle, and none is of metallurgical importance. Even a minute quantity (0-02%) of tellurium, bismuth or lead makes gold britile. See J. Percy, Metallurgy of Silver and Gold (1880); J. C. F. Johnson, Getting Gold (1897); W. R. Crane, A Treatise on Gold and Silver (1908); J. M. Maclaren, Gold; its Geological Occurrence and Geographical Distribution (1908) ; Sir T. K. Rose, The Metallurgy of Gold (1915) ; H. Garland and C. O. Bannister, Ancient Egyptian Metallurgy (1927); A. F. Taggert, Handbook of Ore Dressing (1927). (T. K. R.)

GOLDBEATING.

The art of goldbeating is of great an-

Fine gold is commonly supposed to be

incapable of being reduced to thin leaves. This, however, is not the case, although its use for ordinary purposes is undesirable on account of its greater cost. It also adheres on one part of a leaf touching another, thus causing a waste of labour by the leaves

Pale red Extra deep Deep . Citron Yellow

Lemon

White

Proportion of silver.

Proportion p of copper,

Grains

Grains

Grains

456-460 464 456 444 440

.

Green or pale

Proportion of gold.

408

é

.

384

360 312 240

Method of Manufacture.—The process of goldbeating is as follows: The gold, having been alloyed according to the colour desired, is melted in a crucible at a higher temperature than is necessary simply to fuse it, as its malleability is improved by exposure to a greater heat; sudden cooling does not interfere with its malleability, gold differing in this respect from some other

metals. It is then cast into an ingot, and flattened, by rolling between a pair of powerful smooth steel rollers, into a ribbon of iin. wide and roft. in length to the oz. After being flattened it is annealed and cut into pieces of about 64$grs. each, or about 75 per oz., and placed between the leaves of a “cutch,” which is about $in. thick and 34in. square, containing about 180 leaves of a tough paper. Formerly fine vellum was used for this purpose, and generally still it is interleaved in the proportion of about one

of vellum to six of paper. The cutch is beaten on for about 20 minutes with a 17 lb. hammer, which rebounds by the elasticity of the skin, and saves the labour of lifting, by which the gold is spread to the size of the cutch; each leaf is then taken out and cut into four pieces and put between the skins of a “shoder,” 43in. sq. and 3in. thick, containing about 720 skins, which have been worn out in the finishing or “mould” process. The shoder requires about two hours’ beating upon with a 9-lb. hammer. As the gold will spread unequally, the shoder is beaten upon after the larger leaves have reached the edges. The effect of this is that the margins of larger leaves come out of the edges inastate of dust. This allows time for the smaller leaves to reach the full size of the shoder, thus producing a general evenness of size in the leaves. Each leaf is again cut into four pieces, and placed between the leaves of a “mould,” composed of about gso of the finest goldbeaters’ skins, sin. square and 4in. thick, the contents of one shoder filling three moulds. The material has now reached the last and most difficult stage of the process; and on the fineness

tiquity, being referred to by Homer; and Pliny (W.H. 33.19) states that r oz. of gold was extended to 750 leaves, each leaf being four fingers (about 3in.) square; such a leaf is three times as thick as the ordinary leaf gold of the present time. In all probability the art origmated among the eastern nations, where the working of gold and the use of gold ornaments have been dis- of the skin and judgment of the workman the perfection and tinguished characteristics from the most remote periods. On thinness of the leaf of gold depend. During the first hour the Egyptian mummy cases specimens of original leaf-gilding are met hammer is allowed to fall principally upon the centre of the mould. with, where the gold is so thin that it resembles modern gilding This causes gaping cracks upon the edges of the leaves, the sides (g.v.). The minimum thickness to which gold can be beaten is of which readily coalesce and unite without leaving any trace not known with certainty. According to Mersenne (1621) 1 oz. of the union after being beaten upon. At the second hour, when was spread out over rossq.ft.; Réaumur (1711) obtained 1464 the gold is about 1s0,o0oth part of an inch in thickness, it for the sq.ft.; other values are 189sq.ft. and 300sq.ft. Its malleability first time permits the transmission of the rays of light. Pure gold, is greatly diminished by the presence of other metals, even in or gold but slightly alloyed, transmits green rays, gold highly alvery minute quantity. In practice the average degree of tenuity loyed with silver transmits pale violet rays. The mould requires to which the gold is reduced is not nearly so great as the last ex- in all about four hours’ beating with a 7-lb. hammer, when ample quoted above. A “book of gold” containing 25 leaves ordinary thinness for the gold leaf of commerce will be reached. measuring each 34in., equal to an area of 264sq.in. generally A single ounce of gold will at this stage be extended to 75X4%4 weighs from four to five grains. = 1,200 leaves, which will trim to squares of about 34in. eas.

GOLDBERG—GOLD The dryness of the cutch, shoder, and mould is a matter of ex-

treme delicacy. The finished leaf is taken out of the mould, and the rough edges are trimmed off by slips of the ratan fixed in parallel grooves of an instrument called a waggon, the leaf being aid upon a leathern cushion. The leaves thus prepared are placed

into “books” capable of holding 25 leaves each, which have been

rubbed over with red ochre to prevent the gold clinging to the r. Dentist gold is gold leaf carried no farther than the cutch

stage, and should be perfectly pure gold. By the above process also silver is beaten, but not so thin, the

inferior value of the metal not rendering it commercially desirable

to bestow so much labour upon it. Copper, tin, zinc, palladium, kad, cadmium, platinum, and aluminium can be beaten into thin

leaves, but not to the same extent as gold or silver. Goldbeaters’ Skin.—The

fine membrane

called goldbeaters’

485

COAST

Atlantic rollers are the Volta or Snake river some 20 m. W.

break unceasingly upon the shore. The chief rivers (g.v.) the Ankobra and the Prah. The Ankobra traverses auriferous country, and reaches the sea of Cape Three Points. It has a course of about 150

m., and is navigable in steam launches for about 80miles. The Prah (“Busum Prah,” sacred river) is regarded as a fetish stream by the Fanti and Ashanti. The Prah rises in the north-east of the colony and flows south-west. Some 60 m. from its mouth it is joined by the Ofin, which comes from the north-west. The united stream flows south and reaches the sea in r° 35’ W. Asa waterway the river, which has a course of 400 m., is almost useless, owing to the many cataracts in its course.

Geology.—The

geological structure of the country is only

partially known.

Igneous rocks underlie large areas and are ex-

posed in various

areas.

Granites,

diorites and dolerites

occur.

skin, used for making up the shoder and mould, is the outer coat

Cretaceous rocks along the coast belt are mostly hidden under of the caecum or blind gut of the ox. It is stripped off in lengths superficial deposits. Basalt occurs at Axim. Inland, large tracts about 25 or 30in., and freed from fat by dipping in a solution of are covered by water-bearing sandstone and laterite. Pure sandcaustic alkali and scraping with a blunt knife. It is afterwards stones, quartzite and hornstones are of wide distribution, as are stretched on a frame; two membranes are glued together, treated clays, shales and slates, and surface deposits of limonite and with a solution of aromatic substances or camphor, in isinglass, pisolite cement. In the western region are extensive beds of conand subsequently coated with white of egg. Finally it is cut glomerate or “banket,” containing gold. Here also are irregular into squares of sin. or s$in.; and to make up a mould of 950 gold bearing veins of quartz, known as the Birrimian system, pieces the gut of about 380 oxen is required, about 24 skins being usually highly inclined and traversing rocks of great age. Mangot from each animal. A skin will endure about 200 beatings in ganese ore is widely distributed, being found as an oxide im the mould, after which it is fit for use in the shoder alone. slate and phyllites and in highly metamorphosed rocks such as GOLDBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province gneisses. Bauxite, formed from clay shales and phyllites, is the of Silesia,’ 14 m. by rail S.W. of Liegnitz, on the Katzbach. Pop. cap—sometimes 50 ft. thick—of several hills. Alluvial silts and (1925) 7,120. Goldberg owes its origin and name to a gold mine gravels carry gold and diamonds. Climate.—The climate on the coast is hot and moist, but with in the neighbourhood, abandoned since the Hussite wars. The town obtained civic rights in 1211. It suffered from the Tatars Proper precautions, not particularly unhealthy for Europeans. in 1241, from the plague in 1334, from the Hussites in 1428, and The mean temperature in the coast towns is 78° to 80° F. There from various armies during the Thirty Years’ War. The principal are two wet seasons, not very clearly defined, but the “greater buildings are an old church dating from the beginning of the 13th rains” usually begin in March and end in July; and the “lesser century and the classical school (founded in 1524), which was rains” occur mostly in September and October. From the end of famous in the ryth century and numbered Wallenstein among December to about the end of February the dry harmatian wind its pupils. The chief manufactures are woollen cloth, gloves, blows from the Sahara. In consequence of the prevalence of the stockings, cigars and beer. sea-breeze from the south-west the western portion of the colony, GOLD COAST, that portion of the Guinea Coast (West up to the mouth of the Sekum river (a small stream to the west Africa) which extends from Assini upon the west to the river of Accra), is called the windward district, the eastward portion Volta on the east. It derives its name from the quantities of being known as the leeward. The rainfall at Accra, in the leeward grains of gold mixed with the sand of the rivers traversing the district, averages 27 in. in the year, but at places in the windward district. The term Gold Coast is now generally identified with the district is much greater, varying from 55 up to 80 inches. British Gold Coast colony. This extends from 30° 7’ W. to 1° 14’ Flora and Fauna.—tThe greater part of the colony is covered E., the length of the coast-line being about 370 miles. It is with primeval forest. Here the vegetation is so luxuriant that in bounded west by the Ivory Coast, east by Togoland. On the the struggle to reach the sunlight the forest growths are almost north the British possessions, including Ashanti (q.v.) and the entirely vertical. The chief trees are silk cottons, especially the Northern Territories, extend to the r1th degree of north latitude. bombax, and gigantic hard-wood trees, such as the African maTheir combined area is given as 78,650 sq.m., with a total popula- hogany, ebony, odum and camwood. The lowest growth in the tion, at the 192 census, of 2,110,424. The Gold Coast colony forest consists of ferns and herbaceous plants. Of the ferns some alone has an area of 23,490 sq.m., with a population (1921 census) are climbers reaching 30 ft. to 40 ft. up the stems of the trees of 1,173,439, including some 1,500 Europeans. For the British they entwine. Flowering plants are comparatively rare; they mandated area of Togoland, which is administered by the Gold include orchids and a beautiful white lily. The “bush” or interCoast, see TOGOLAND. mediate growth is made up of smaller trees, the rubber vine and Physical Features.—Though the lagoons common to the West other creepers, some as thick as hawsers, bamboos and sensitive African coast are found both at the western and eastern extremi- mimosa, and has a height of 30 to 60 feet. The creepers are found tes of the colony (Assini in the west and Kwitta in the east) not only in the bush, but on the ground, and hanging from the thegreater part of the coast-line is of a different character. Cape branches of the highest trees. West of the Prah the forest comes Three Points (4° 44’ 40” N. 2° 5’ 43” W.) juts boldly into the sea. down to the edge of the Atlantic. East of that river the coast Thence the coast trends east by north, and is but slightly indented. land is covered with bushes 5 to 12 ft. high, occasional large usually low, sandy beach is, however, diversified by bold, trees and groves of oil palms. Still farther east, by Accra, are tocky headlands. The flat belt of country does not extend inland numerous arborescent Euphorbias, and immediately west of the any considerable distance, the spurs of the great plateau which lower Volta, forests of oil palms and grassy plains with fan palms. the major part of West Africa advancing in the east, in the Behind all these eastern regions is a belt of thin forest country Akwapim district, near to the coast. Here the hills reach an alti- before the denser forest is reached. In the north-east are stretches tude of over 2,000 feet. Out of the level plain rise many isolated of orchard-like country, with wild plum, shea-butter and kola peaks, generally of conical formation. Numerous rivers descend trees, baobabs, dwarf date and fan palms. The cotton and tobacco

from the hills, but bars of sand block their mouths, and the only water harbour the Gold Coast possesses is that of Takoradi

plants grow wild. At the mouths of the rivers and along the

lagoons the mangrove is the characteristic tree. There are num-

(gv.), built at great expense and dating only from 1928. Great

erous coconut palms along the coast. The fruit trees and plants

paeoldberg is also the name of a small town in Mecklenburg-Schwerin,

also include the orange, pineapple, mango, papaw, banana and avocado, or alligator pear.

any. Pop. (1925) 3,082.

486

GOLD

COAST

The fauna includes leopards, panthers, hyenas, Potto lemurs, | the first place of note is Axim (pop. 2,189), the site of an old and in the jackals, antelopes, buffaloes, wild-hogs and many kinds of monkey, Dutch fort built near the mouth of the Axim river,

Rounding Cape including the chimpanzee and the Colobus vellerosus whose skin | pre-railway days the port of the gold region. with long, black, silky hair is much prized in Europe. Among the | Three Points, whose vicinity 1s marked by a line of breakers snakes are pythons, cobras, horned and puff adders and the veno- nearly 2} m. long, Dixcove Is reached, and then Takoradi, Jo

neglected. A few miles further on is Sekondi (g.v.), the firs mous water snake. Crocodiles, and, in fewer numbers, manatees starting-point of the railway to the gold-fields and Kumasi. Ẹl. | are hippopotami and lagoons, and rivers the and otters frequent

found in the Volta. Lizards of brilliant hue, tortoises and great | mina (q.v.), formerly one of the most important posts of Europeay snails are common. Birds, which are not very numerous, include | settlement, is some distance east of the mouth of the Prah

parrots and hornbills, kingfishers, ospreys, herons, crossbills, cur-

Eight miles east of Elmina is Cape Coast (g.v.), at one time the

3 lews, woodpeckers, doves, pigeons, storks, pelicans, swallows, | colonial capital. Anamabo, 9 m. farther east is where, in 1867, the against defence successful a made soldiers English of handful | of Shoals rare). last-named (the plover spur the and vultures herrings frequent the coast; the other fish include mackerel, sole, | Ashanti host. Saltpond, another 9 m. along the coast, is a well-

skate, mullet, bonito, flying fish, fighting fish and shynose. Sharks | built town (pop. 6,342), and is singular in possessing no ancient

(Cormanabound at the mouths of all the rivers, edible turtle are fairly | fort. Between Anamabo and Saltpond is Kormantine common, as are the sword fish, dolphin and sting ray (with poi- | tyne), noted as the place whence the English first exported slaves

in sonous caudal spine). Oysters are numerous on rocks running | from this coast. Hence the general name Cormantynes given (pop. Winnebah Coast. Gold the from slaves to Indies West the | into the sea and on the exposed roots of mangrove trees. Insect manlife is multitudinous; beetles, spiders, ants, fireflies, butterflies | 6,980), 50 m. from Cape Coast, is an old town noted for the

and jiggers abound. The earthworm is rare. The mosquitoes in- | ufacture of canoes. Next along the coast is Accra, and on the

clude the Culex or ordinary kind, the Anopheles, which carry | right bank of the Volta, near its mouth, is the town of Addah, malaria fever, and the Stegomyia, a striped white and black | Kwitta lies beyond the Volta, not far from the Togoland frontier, Of the inland towns the most populous are on the railway between mosquito which carries yellow fever. Inhabitants.—The natives are all of the negro race. The | Accra and Kumasi—but none has as many as 10,000 inhabitants, districts in general are named after the tribes inhabiting them. | Akropong, in the hills north-east of Accra is 1,400 ft. above the Those in the western part of the colony are mainly of Fanti | sea and is a centre of missionary work. Yarkwa is the centre of stock (see FANTI); the Accra and allied tribes inhabit the eastern | the gold mining industry. Communications.—Up to 1898, when the first railway was portion and are believed to be the aboriginal inhabitants. The Akim (Akem), who occupy the north-east portion of the colony, | begun, internal communication was mainly by tortuous bush have engaged in gold-digging from time immemorial, The Ak- | tracks, but there was a good main road (141 m. long) from Cape

wapim (Aquapem), southern neighbours of the Akim, are exten- | Coast to Kumasi. The first railway started from Sekondi (the sively engaged in agriculture and in trade. The Accra, a clever | terminus is now at Takoradi), and after traversing the gold-fields race, are to be found in all the towns of the West African coast | (with a branch line, 18 m. to Preston) was continued to Kumasi as artisans and sailors. On the right bank of the Volta, occupying | (168 m.), which was reached in Oct. 1903. In 1907-10 a railway

the low marshy land near the sea, are the Adangme. The Krobos | (35 m. in length) was built from Accra to Mangoase. To meet live in little villages in the midst of the palm tree woods which | the growing needs of trade this line was extended to Kumasi, grow round about the Kroboberg, an eminence about 1,000 ft. | reached in July 1923, the distance from Accra being 196 miles. high. Their country lies between that of the Akim and the | An east-west line through the centre of the colony was opened in Adangme. In the west of the colony is the country of the Ahanta, | 1927. It starts from the Sekondi-Kumasi line at Huni valley and one of the finest and most intelligent of the tribes of Accra stock. | goes to Kade. It is 99 m. long. The railways are on the3ft, 6 in. The Apollonia, a kindred race, occupy the coast region nearest | gauge, and are State owned. Over 5,000 m. of main roads for motor traffic had been built by 1928, and as early as 1925 the railthe Ivory Coast.

The Twi, Tshi or Chi language (the name occurs in many other| ways, in which the Government had sunk over £8,000,000 capital,

forms) is that most spoken on the Gold Coast. It belongs to the | were complaining of road competition. The Volta is navigable in great prefix-pronominal group. There are many dialects which | parts and there is canoe traffic on other rivers. There is an exmay be reduced to two classes or types, Akan and Fanti. Ak- | tensive system of telegraphs and telephones, and there is cable wapin, which is based on the Akim variety of the Akan type, but | communication with Europe. Regular mail services are mainexhibits Fanti influences, has been made the book-language by| tained between England and the Gold Coast, the usual time taken, the Basle missionaries. They had reduced it to writing before | Liverpool to Takoradi, being 14 or 15 days. Agriculture, Mining and Trade.—Originally the chief ex1850. About a million people in all, it is estimated, speak dialects of the Twi.

is spoken.

In the south-east another language, the Ga or Accra, | ports from the coast were gold and slaves; when the slave trade

It comprises the Ga proper and the Adangme and| was stopped palm oil and palm nuts, monkey skins, guinea grain

Krobo dialects. Ga proper is spoken by about 40,000 people. | and kola nuts took their place. To these rubber was added about The Adangme and Krobo dialects are spoken by about 80,000 | 1880. In 1895 the chief exports and their value were: rubber

people. They differ very considerably from Ga proper, but books | (£332,000), gold dust (£91,000), palm oil and palm kernel (£308,printed in Ga can be used by both the Krobo and Adangme natives. | 000), and kola nuts (£30,000). Four years later (1899) cocoa, Other tongues, less known, are Guan and the Obutu. East of the | for the production of which the Gold Coast is now chiefly famous. figures in the exports as 714,000 lb. in weight and £16,000 invalue, Volta are tribes speaking the Ewe group of languages. Fetishism (g.v.) is the prevailing religion, but there are large | while the rubber exported, was worth £555,000; gold and gold numbers of Christians and a lesser number of converts to Islam. | dust had fallen to the value of £51,000, but palm oil and kola Belief in a God is universal, as also is a belief in a future state. | nuts held their place. Thereafter, the rubber trade fluctuated and A Moravian mission was started at Christiansborg about 1736; | finally declined, chiefly because of the competition of plantation the Basle mission (Evangelical) was begun in 1828, the mission- | rubber from the East. Timber was added to the exports, and aries combining manual training and farm labour with purely | with the adoption of modern methods and railway facilities, the religious work; the Wesleyans started a mission among the Fanti | gold mining industry revived. For a time gold and cocoa became in 1835, and the Anglican and Roman Catholic Churches are also| rivals as the two chief exports (cocoa, £866,000; and gold, £7987 000 in 1910) with kola nuts progressing and the palm oil exports represented. _ Towns.—Owing to the multiplicity of traders of rival nations, tending to fall off. Cocoa, however, rapidly outdistanced who went to the coast in quest of gold, there are a large number | while the discovery of manganese ore in 1914 added another of towns on the coast. There are, however, now only two ports of | valuable product to the list of exports. Later (in 1919) came consequence, Takoradi (with a deep water harbour), and Accra | the discovery of diamonds and bauxite. Thus the chief (the capital), both separately noticed. Going from west to east |besides cocoa, came to be gold, manganese ore, kola nuts, humbet

GOLD

COAST

487

and diamonds, with palm oil and kernels and copra subsidiary; | In 1887 the total external trade of the Gold Coast was: imports, and much of the cocoa and most of the gold comes from Ashanti. £363,000; exports, £372,000; by 1g00—that is before the developImports include every variety of goods, the first in value being

cotton piece goods.

The cocoa industry was started by a native of Accra, who in

1879, returning from Fernando Po, brought with him a few pods, the seeds from which he planted at his home at Mampong in the Akwapim hills. The experiment was successful and a large demand for seeds arose. In 1890 a Government botanical station was established at Aburi, with the object of fostering agriculture, and the officials gave encouragement to the growers of cocoa. The

frst export of 80 lb. was made in 1891 and it fetched £4; in 1893 two tons of cocoa were exported. The natives, in whose hands the industry was, now became exceedingly keen on cocoa farms, the more so as they were easy to run, and large areas of forest were cleared. First in the eastern province and then in the central

province and in Ashanti, farmer after farmer took up cocoa, so that by 1913 the output exceeded 50,000 ta,s00,000. In 1924-25 the output had (value £7,896,000). In 1920 an abnormal the World War, a crop of 124,000 tons

tons and fetched nearly grown to 220,000 tons “boom” year, following had fetched over £10,-

ooo,o00, and the sharp fall in prices in 1921 caused a partial crisis, the farmers finding it hard to understand world economic workings. The building of roads and railways, by reducing much cocoa had been planted in places where it did not bring the crop to market by head loads—helped to restore conditions. With the aid of the Agricultural Department

costs— pay to normal in see-

ing that farmers used the best methods, the industry was placed on a stable basis.

The export of cocoa in 1926 was valued at

i9,181,000. The industry was built up within a quarter of a cen-

tury without the use of European capital, by the natives themselves, and mainly by a large number of illiterate farmers, each working a small area. The cultivation of cocoa led to the neglect of the oil palm in many districts, but the Volta region continued to export palmoil and kernels, while the Government sought to encourage the cultivation of other crops, notably sisal hemp—a plantation being started near Accra in I921—and citrus fruits. The cultivation

of Para rubber on plantation lines was also begun. In the eastern districts the cocoanut palm is abundant, and thence came the copra exports. For home consumption Indian corn, cassava and yams are largely grown. At many of the coast towns fishing is a big industry and salted and sun-dried fish from Addah and Kwitta

(Keta) find a ready sale inland. While efforts to grow cotton for export were not successful, cloths are woven by the natives, partly from home-grown but mostly from imported yarn; canoes are made from the silk cotton tree; salt is prepared from the Addah and other lagoons. Native artificers in gold and other metals often show skill and taste; odum wood is used for building and cabinet work. The timber exported is largely mahogany. The gold mines, since about 1874, have been worked by European companies though it is only since 1902 that modern methods have been used. The chief mines in the colony are at Tarkwa and Prestea; the most valuable mine is at Obuasi, in Ashanti.

Alluvial gold is obtained by hydraulic sluicing. For many genera-

ment of the cocoa plantetion and the modern methods of gold mining—the figures had grown to: imports, £1,294,000; exports, £885,000. Twenty-five years later (1925) the figures were: imports, £9,782,000; exports £10,890,000. Two-thirds of the imports are from Great Britain, which takes only about a third of the exports. Much of the cocoa goes to the Continent of Europe;

the kola nuts go mostly to Nigeria. Shipping is largely British (2,698,000 tons out of a total of 4,812,000 tons in 1926-27). Administration, Education and Revenue.—At the head of the administration is a governor, who is assisted by an executive council composed of officials, and a legislative council of official and non-official members, including, since 1925, members elected by the municipalities and chiefs chosen by the council of

head chiefs of each province. The provinces are three—western, central and eastern—each presided over by a commissioner. The provinces, again, are divided into districts and the district commissioner is the official in direct touch with the chiefs and people. In respect of internal affairs each tribe forms a petty, independent, and democratic State. Each town or village has its chiefs or

headman, and these chiefs form a council of State which elects, and can depose, the omanhene (head chief). In practice the omanhene, who is the occupant of the tribal stool (throne), and formerly by Europeans was styled king, is chosen from certain selected families, and succession to the stool is normally through the female line. An omanhene is usually succeeded by a son— chosen by the council—of his eldest sister. The principal woman of the tribe, a personage of much influénce, is known as the Queen Mother. She is usually an aunt or sister of the omanhene. The head chiefs had been accustomed for years to meet to discuss matters of common interest, but they had not statutory powers until r925. They did much good work in guiding the tribes at a time when the rapid growth of commerce and the intermingling of the peoples was breaking up old tribal customs, and they were instrumental in getting for the natives a fuller share in the Central Government. There are native tribunals with a limited civil and criminal jurisdiction, and native law is aaministered in all the courts as far as is compatible with “natural justice” and the law of the colony—which by an ordinance of 1874 is based on the common law of England. Education was at first wholly in the hands of missionaries, who, by grants from the administration, still provide most of the school teaching. There are also Government primary schools. Industrial instruction, mainly agricultural in character, is given in most primary schools. A Government technical school was opened at Accra in rgo0g and, later, trade schools were opened in other places. These schools instruct in agriculture, carpentry, metal work and other subjects; the object being to turn out lads

likely to become capable, adaptable citizens. For teachers there are ‘the Government training college at Accra and the Presbyterian Mission seminary at Akropong. In all the institutions

Africans take part in the teaching and, by an ordinance of 1927, all teachers are registered. Special care is taken to develop character, together with the preservation of all that is good in African

culture, taking from Western civilization only that which is worthy. To this end a college—known as the Prince of Wales’ college—was built at Achimota, near Accra, at a cost of £500,tuguese in their day did some regular mining. The output of gold ooo, primarily as a Government secondary school for boys and M1927 was valued at £803,000. Between 1903 and 1927 the total girls, but also to afford education from kindergarten to university value of gold produced was 6,148,192 0z., valued at £26,117,856. standards. It was opened in 1927 with a staff of so teachers, the The manganese ore mined is found along the Sekondi-Kumasi principal being a European and the vice-principal an African. y, some 34-36 m. from Sekondi. Mining began in 1916; The Gold Coast natives, in general, showed a keen desire for eduar the year 1926-27 over 390,000 tons of ore were railed—and cation; the attendance in the elementary schools (1926) was about thevalue of the total export since 1916 was about £2,500,000. 30,000. All teachers must know at least one vernacular tongue. diamonds are of alluvial origin and are found chiefly in the The languages taught are Twi, Fanti, Ga, Ewe and English. The gavel of streams in the Prah and Birim basins. Up to 1927 the “bush” schools, in which trained teachers give unsupervised inof the diamonds found, mostly stones under one carat, struction, are discouraged by the Government and, as far as Was over £800,000. Owing to the bauxite deposits occurring in possible, closed. Revenue in 1887 was £122,000; it first exceeded £300,000 in mens distant from the railways, the mining of that metal had het begun up to 1929. The ore had, however, been proved to be 1898. Thereafter, with the growth of trade, it increased more rapidly and in 1910 exceeded £1,000,000; in 1914 4£1,331,000; ei high grade. , tions the gold exported was dust, collected by the natives from the gavel or streams—small quantities are still obtained by African women, who use the calabash—but there is evidence that the Por-

GOLD

488

COAST

and in 1924-25, which may be regarded as a normal year after the

by the Ashanti in 1807.) Sir Charles and the Fanti army wer

In 1926-27 the figures were: revenue, £4,365,000; expenditure,

gained a victory over the Ashanti at Dodowah. The home govern.

fluctuations caused by war and post-war conditions, was £3,971,000. £4,812,000.

Expenditure was regulated by receipts, which were chiefly derived from customs (£2,244,000 in 1926-27). There is a tax of one-eighth of a penny per lb. of cocoa exported. It should be noted that, as in the case of trade returns, the figures of revenue and expenditure for the Gold Coast include Ashanti, the Northern Territories and British Togoland.

HISTORY It is claimed by some writers that English seamen made voyages to the Gold Coast in the reign of Edward I., also that a company of Norman merchants established themselves about 1364 at a place they named La Mina (Elmina), and carried on trade with the natives for nearly 50 years, when the enterprise was abandoned. There is no definite evidence to support these claims. By order of John II. of Portugal an expedition under Diogo d Azambuja, accompanied by Bartholomew Diaz and, probably, by Christopher Columbus, took possession of (or founded) Elmina in 1481-82. By the Portuguese it was called variously Sao Jorge da Mina or Ora del Mina—the mouth of the (gold) mines. That besides alluvial washings they also worked the gold mines was proved by discoveries in the latter part of the roth century. The Portuguese had no rivals on the coast for some half century, but in 1553 English ships brought back from Guinea gold to the weight of 150 Ib. The fame of the Gold Coast thereafter attracted to it adventurers from almost every European nation, the most aggressive being the Dutch, who from the end of the 16th century sought to oust the Portuguese, and in whose favour the Portuguese did finally withdraw in 1642, in return for the withdrawal of the Dutch claims to Brazil. The Dutch henceforth made Elmina their headquarters on the coast. Traces of the Portuguese occupation, which lasted 160 years, are still to be found, notably in the language of the natives. Such familiar words as palaver, fetish, caboceer and dash (ż.e., a gift) have all a Portuguese origin. English and Dutch Rivalry.—An English company built a fort at Kormantine previously to 1651, and some ten years later the fort or castle at Cape Coast was built. The settlements made by the English provoked the hostility of the Dutch and led to war between England and Holland, during which Admiral de Ruyter destroyed (1664-65) all the English forts save Cape Coast castle. The Treaty of Breda in 1667 confirmed the Dutch in the possession of their conquests, but the English speedily opened other trading stations. Charles II. in 1672 granted a charter to the Royal African Company, which built forts at Dixcove, Sekondi, Accra, Whydah and other places, besides repairing Cape Coast castle. At this time the trade both in slaves and gold was very great, and at the beginning of the 18th century the value of the gold exported annually was estimated by William Bosman, the chief Dutch factor at Elmina, to be over £200,000. Piracy was rife along the coast, and was not indeed finally stamped out until the middle of the 19th century. The Royal African Company, which lost its monopoly of trade with England in 1700, was succeeded by another, the African

Company of Merchants, which was constituted in 1750 by act of parliament and received an annual subsidy from government. The slave trade was then at its height and some 10,000 negroes were exported yearly. Many of the slaves were prisoners of war sold to

the merchants by the Ashanti, who had become the chief native power. The abolition of the slave trade (1807) crippled the company, which was dissolved in 1821, when the Crown took possession of the forts. Contact with the Ashanti.—Since the beginning of the roth century the British had begun to exercise territorial rights in the towns where they held forts, and in 1817 the right of the British to control the natives living in the coast towns was recognized by the Ashanti. In 1824 the first step towards extension of British

authority beyond the coast region was taken by Governor Sir Charles M’Carthy, who incited the Fanti to rise against their oppressors, the Ashanti. (The Fanti’s country had been conquered

defeated, the governor losing his life, but in 1826 the British ment, however, disgusted with the Gold Coast because of the per: petual disturbances in the protectorate, determined to abandon

the settlements, and sent instructions for the forts to be destroyed and the Europeans brought home. The merchants, backed Major Rickets, 2nd West India regiment, the administrator protested, and as a compromise the forts were handed over to acin: mittee of merchants (Sept. 1828), who were given a subsidy of £4,000 a year. The merchants secured (1830) as their administrator Mr. George Maclean—a gentleman with military experience on the Gold Coast and not engaged in trade. To Maclean is due

the consolidation of British interests in the interior. He concluded

(1831) a treaty with the Ashanti advantageous to the Fanti, whilst with very inadequate means he contrived to extend British infp.

ence over the whole region of the present colony. In 1843 the Colonial Office resumed control of the forts, Maclean continuing to direct native affairs until his death in 1847. British jurisdiction was defined by the bond of March 6, 1844, an agreement with the

native chiefs by which the Crown received the right of trying criminals, repressing human sacrifice, etc. The purchase of the

Danish forts in 1850, and of the Dutch forts and territory in 1871, led to the consolidation of the British power along the coast; and the Ashanti war of 1873-74 resulted in the extension of the area of British influence.

For a considerable time the Gold Coast had been a virtual de. pendency of Sierra Leone. In 1874 the Gold Coast and Lagos were created a separate crown colony, this arrangement lasting until 1886 when Lagos was cut off from the Gold Coast administration.

The Struggle for Hinterland.—aAt this period the partition of Africa had begun, and the British endeavoured to secure, north of Ashanti, an ample hinterland for the Gold Coast. They had to meet not only the keen rivalry of the French, their neighbours on the west (in the Ivory Coast) but also on the east that of the Ger. mans who in 1884 had secured a tiny seaboard at Togo and claimed for it a large hinterland. The Gold Coast had, in addition, further troubles with Ashanti leading finally to the annexation of that

country in 1901 (see AsHaAntI, History). By that time the dis

putes with Germany and France had been settled. The Germans. newcomers to the West Coast, had simply sought to get as much elbow room as they could. By an agreement of 1889, which defined the Gold Coast-Togoland frontier, they did very well. But the rivalry between the French and British was much more serious. Advancing from Senegal and the Ivory Coast the French tried to hem in the Gold Coast in the same manner in which they did in fact hem in the Gambia and Sierra Leone. But from 1882 onward British agents had penetrated the country north of Ashanti, prominent among them being George E. Ferguson, a native of West Africa, who had previously explored northern Ashanti. Between 1892 and 1897 Ferguson concluded several treaties guarding British interests. In 1897 Lieut. Henderson and Ferguson occupied Wa, where they were attacked by the sofas of Samory (s#e SENEGAL, History).

Henderson, who had gone to the sofa camp to parley, was held

prisoner for some time, while Ferguson was killed. A period of considerable tension, arising from the proximity of British and

French troops in the disputed territory, was ended by the signature of a convention in Paris (June 14, 1898), in which the westera

and northern boundaries were defined and the British abandoned their claim to the important town and district of Wagadugu in the Niger bend.

By the agreement with Germany and France, Britain had secured an area north of Ashanti of 30,600sq.m. In 1897 this region was organized under the name of the Northern Territories, as 4 dependency of the Gold Coast, and placed in the charge of & cour

missioner. Col. H. P. Northcott (killed in the Boer War, 1899

1902) was the first commissioner and commandant of the troops.

The government was at first of a semi-military character, but ìn 1907 a civilian staff was appointed to carry on the administration.

In these northern regions, consisting of open but well-tim

country inhabited by tribes who were both agriculturists

GOLDCREST—GOLDEN stock-raisers, steady progress was made. There was considerable

transport trade both with Ashanti in the south and the French colonies to the north. An Era of Development.—In the Gold Coast colony a new era began about 1900, the year in which the revolt of the Ashanti was crushed.

Sir Matthew

Nathan who then became governor

began the railway from Sekondi to Kumasi and in other ways initiated a vigorous policy of development, maintained by his successors, notable among whom were Sir John Rodger (governor 190410), Sir Hugh Clifford (1912-19) and Sir Gordon Guggisberg

(1919-27). Progress was seen in zeal for education (technical as well as literary), sanitation, and a greatly improved standard of living generally. There was a notable increase in the converts to Christianity; and in short a social and economic revolution

occurred which even the World War was powerless materially to

affect. The chief agent in this transformation was cocoa. The first cocoa plantation had been started in 1879 by a native of Accra. At

that time coffee was being grown and it was not until 1898, when the cultivation of coffee became no longer profitable, that serious attention was paid to cocoa. The natives then took up its cultiva-

tion on an ever-increasing scale. By 1900 the export of cocoa had become noteworthy; 20 years later the Gold Coast produced half

the world’s cocoa crop. The industry is entirely in the hands of the natives, Europeans acting only as purchasers and shippers, and in a decreasing degree, as carriers. The growth of the cocoa industry created private property in real estate, contrary to local custom, under which all lands are communal. Many natives became

wealthy and prosperity was general. On the outbreak of the World War the Gold Coast regiment, under Lieut.-Col. Bryant invaded Togoland and, with some help from French troops from Dahomey, speedily conquered it (Aug. 1914). Subsequently the Gold Coast regiment served both in the

Cameroons and in German East Africa where it had a distin-

guished record. It was regularly supplied with drafts from the col-

ony and at the time of the armistice in 1918 had expanded into a brigade. In other ways the colony gave substantial help in the war,

notably by meeting the cost of the occupation of part of Togoland, which was eventually divided into British and French spheres (see TOGOLAND). p The “boom” in trade which followed the war, and the depression which succeeded affected the Gold Coast but recovery came quickly. Much attention was paid to providing better communications, not only by railway, but by building roads for motor traffic, while a deep water harbour, opened in April 1928, was built at Takoradi (near Sekondi). Sir Gordon Guggisberg’s governorship was notable not only for material progress but for the successful efforts made to improve the social, moral and political condi-

tion of the people. In tribal matters the chiefs and their councils

already had much power and natives had been nominated to seats on the legislative council of the colony. In 1925 further measures were taken to associate the people with the government. The franchise was granted for the election of the non-official members of the council, and provincial councils of head chiefs were established. In this year the prince of Wales visited the Gold Coast and

he gave his name to Achimota college, an institution providing for

education up to a university standard, but aiming chiefly at character-building. The college was opened in Jan. 1927, though the

buildings were not then completed.

The vice-principal was Dr.

Kivegyir Aggrey, a Fanti, and the greatest native authority on the education of West Africans. Dr. Aggrey’s death, on July 30, 1927, was a loss to the whole of negro Africa.

A notable step had been taken in 1919 when by international agreement the importation of trade spirits into the Gold Coast and the other West African colonies was prohibited. The best authori€s were at variance as to the effect of trade gin on the natives, t generally, prohibition was welcomed.

As the duty on spirits

been a main source of revenue, other means had to be found to get money, and they included taxes on food. But a succession of

good budgets enabled the Government to abolish the food taxes in 1928. Efforts were made to widen the basis of the country’s prospenty, but, apart from cocoa, only kola nut cultivation had much attraction for the natives. In its mineral resources however the

BULL

colony had another valuable asset.

489 Besides the gold mines, man-

ganese ores were found, and from 1921 became an important

export. Diamonds and other minerals were also discovered, BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Of early works The Golden Coast or a description

of Guinney (1665) and A New and Accurate Description of the Coast of Guinea, written, in Dutch, by Willem Bosman, chief factor at Elmina (Eng. trans. 2nd ed., 1721) are the most notable; Col. A. B. Ellis, A History of the Gold Coast (1893); W. W. Claridge, A History of the Gold Coast and the Ashanti (r9r5); J. Maxwell, Gold Coast Handbook (1923); A. W. Cardinall, A Gold Coast Library (1924, bibl.). See also the annual reports on the colony published by the Colonial Office, London, and the authorities under ASHANTI.

(F. R. C.)

GOLDCREST or GOLDEN CRESTED WREN is the type of a small group placed among the Sylviidae, Old World warblers. The goldcrest (Regulus cristatus) is the smallest of British birds, its whole length being about 34 in., and its weight some 5 grams. Generally of an olive-green colour, the top of its head is bright yellow, deepening into orange, and bounded on either side by a black line. The wing coverts are dull black with a whitish bar. The cock has a pleasant but weak song, which has been compared to the squeaking of young mice. The nest is of moss, wool and spiders’ webs, lined with feathers, and usually built under and near the end of the branch of a yew, fir or cedar, supported by

the interweaving of two or three twigs. The six to ten eggs are dull white, sometimes freckled with reddish-brown. The species lives most of the year in family parties often in company with titmice. Though to be met with in Britain at all seasons, in the autumn large numbers of migrants from northern Europe visit the east coast. A more local European species is the fire-crest (R. ignicapillus) recognizable by the black streak on each side of the head, as well as by the deeper colour of its crown. A third species, R. maderensis, inbabits the Madeiras. Examples from the Himalayas and Japan are R. himalayensis and R. japonicus. North America has two species, R. satrapa, very like the European R. ignicapillus, and the ruby-crowned wren, R. calendula, which has a loud and very melodious song.

GOLDEN,

a city of Colorado, U.S.A., 14m. W. by N. of

GOLDEN

BULL, the general designation of any charter

Denver, at an altitude of 5,700ft.; the county seat of Jefferson county. It is served by the Colorado and Southern and the Denver and Intermountain (electric) railways. The population in 1930 was 2,426. The Colorado School of Mines (1874) is situated at Golden, and one m. S. is the State industrial school for boys. The manufactures include china, pottery, drain pipe, bricks, flour and malted milk. Golden is at the entrance to Denver’s system of mountain parks. The city was named after Tom Golden, one of the pioneer prospectors who established a mining camp at this point in 1859. It was incorporated as a town in 1865 and as a city in 1870. From 1862 to 1868 it was the capital of Colorado Territory.

decorated with a golden seal or bulla. The name, however, has become practically restricted to a few documents of unusual political importance, the golden bull of the empire, the golden bull of Brabant, the golden bull of Hungary, and the golden bull of Milan—and of these the first is undoubtedly the golden bull par excellence. The main object of the golden bull was to provide a set of rules for the election of the German kings, or kings of the Romans, as they are called in this document. Since the informal establishment of the electoral college about a century before (see Exzctors), various disputes had taken place about the right of certain princes to vote at the elections, these and other difficulties having arisen owing to the absence of any authoritative ruling. Under these circumstances the emperor Charles IV. determined by an authoritative pronouncement to make such uncertainty impossible in the future, and at the same time to add to his own power and prestige, especially in his capacity as king of Bohemia. In its first form the bull was promulgated at the diet of Nuremberg on Jan. ro, 1356, but it was not accepted by the princes until some modifications had been introduced, and in its final form it was issued at the diet of Metz on Dec. 25 following. The text of the golden bull consists of a prologue and of 31

chapters. The early chapters are mainly concerned with details

490

GOLDEN

CLUB—GOLDEN

of the elaborate ceremonies which are to be observed on the occasion of an election. The number of electors is fixed at seven, the duke of Saxe-Wittenberg, not the duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, receiving the Saxon vote, and the count palatine, not the duke

of Bavaria, obtaining the vote of the Wittelsbachs. The electors were arranged in order of precedence thus: the archbishops of Mainz, of Trier and of Cologne, the king of Bohemia, the count palatine of the Rhine, the duke of Saxony and the margrave of Brandenburg. The work of summoning the electors and of presiding over their deliberations fell to the archbishop of Mainz, but if he failed to discharge this duty the electors were to assemble without summons within three months of the death of a king. Elections were to be held at Frankfort; they were to be decided by a majority of votes, and the subsequent coronation at Aixla-Chapelle was to be performed by the archbishop of Cologne. During a vacancy in the empire the work of administering the greater part of Germany was entrusted to the count palatine of the Rhine, the duke of Saxony being responsible, however, for the government of Saxony, or rather for the districts ubi Saxonica jura servantur. The chief result of the bull was to add greatly to the power of the electors. To these princes were given sovereign rights in their dominions, which were declared indivisible and were to pass according to the rule of primogeniture. Except in extreme cases, there was to be no appeal from the sentences of their tribunals, and they were confirmed in the right of coining money, of taking tolls, and in other privileges, while conspirators against their lives were to suffer the penalties of treason. One clause gave special rights and immunities to the king of Bohemia, who, it must be remembered, at this time was Charles himself, and others enjoined the observance of the public peace. Provision was made for an annual meeting of the electors, to be held at Metz four weeks after Easter. This arrangement, however, was not carried out, although the electors met occasionally. Another clause forbade the cities to receive Pfahlbirger, i.e., forbade them to take men

dwelling outside their walls under their protection. It may be noted that there is no admission whatever that the election of

a king needs confirmation from

RENEO OTEA

the pope.

5 oe

aarp

RTs

f

wr de nt

reer TT Mann A eee

CLUB (OronGOLDEN tium aquaticum), a North American aquatic plant of the arum family (Araceae), found in shal-

low ponds and less frequently in |. swamps from Massachusetts to | Florida, chiefly near the coast. It is a somewhat fleshy perennial, with thick oblong, ascending, or floating leaves, 5 to ro in. long, and bearing in early spring a nar- BY

eS

or

row but dense cluster (spike) of

COURTESY OF ERVATION SOCIETY

THE

WILD

small bright yellow flowers, ter- THE GOLDEN CLUB minating a flattened stalk, 4 ft. to AQUATICUM), WHICH

2 ft. long, which rises above the UTE YELLOW FLOWERS

oo erties,

FLOWER

7

PRES.

(ORONTIUM

BEARS MIN-

water. This handsome aroid, the only species of the genus, is sometimes transplanted in water gardens (see ARACEAE).

GOLDEN-EYE, a name given to a diving duck (Gleucion, or Clangula), breeding in far northern regions, whence it migrates south in winter. It nests in hollow trees. In Scandinavia the people set up artificial nesting-boxes, whence they take toll of the bird’s eggs and down. The adult male is mainly black above, with a white eye-patch and scapulars; the lower parts are white; in the female, dark brown replaces black. An elaborate courtship during which the drake may dive and bob up just in front of the female, occurs in the early spring. Two species inhabit North America. These are Barrow’s goldeneye (C. islandica), with a high northern breeding range, and the

American golden-eye (C. c. americana). GOLDEN FLEECE, in Greek mythology, the fleece of the

ROD

GOLDEN-GLOW,

a double-flowered cultivated variety of

the tall cone-flower (Rudbeckia laciniata), native to North Amer. ica, widely grown in the United States and Canada as an oma. mental plant. It is a showy summer bloomer, usually 4ft. to ” ft,

high, with smooth, much branched stems, more or less divided leaves and numerous flowering heads 24 to 34 in. across, crowded with brilliant golden yellow ray flowers. (See article BLACE “EYED Susan.)

GOLDEN HORDE, a body of Tatars who in the middle of

the 13th century overran a great portion of eastern Europe and

founded in Russia the Tatar khanate, known as the Empire of the Golden Horde or Western Kipchaks. They invaded Europe about 1237 under the leadership of Batti Khan, a grandson of Jenghiz Khan, passed over Russia with slaughter and destruction and penetrated into Silesia, Poland and Hungary, finally defeating Henry II., duke of Silesia, at Liegnitz in the battle known as the Wahlstatt on April 9, 1241. So costly was this victory, however, that Batu, finding he could not reduce Neustadt, retraced his steps and established himself in his magnificent tent (whence the

name “golden”) on the Volga. The new settlement was known as Sir Orda (“Golden Camp,” whence “Golden Horde”). Very rapidly the powers of Batu extended over the Russian princes, and so long as the khanate remained in the direct descent from Bat nothing occurred to check the growth of the empire. But the death of Jani-Beg, in 1357, threw everything into confusion until in 1378 Toktamish, of the Eastern Kipchaks, succeeded in ousting all rivals. For a short time the glory of the Golden Horde was renewed, but it was finally crashed by Timur in 1395. (See MoncoLs and Russia.)

GOLDEN

MOLE, the name given to species of the South

African family Chrysochloridae of the order Insectivora (g.v.) from the bright lustre of their fur. They resemble the true moles

(q.v,) in habits and, to some extent, in appearance, but dig by

means of the enormous claws on the two middle digits of the forelimbs, an adaptation to the hard soil. For their structure and relationships, see INSECTIVORA.

GOLDEN RAGWORT (Senecio aureus), a North American plant of the composite family

(Compositae), called also squawweed, life-weed and false valerian, found in wet places from Newfoundland to Ontario and Wisconsin and southward to Florida and Texas. It is a slender perennial with strongly scented roots and a smooth stem, 1 to 2 ft. high, bearing large, rounded, heart-shaped, basal leaves on slender stalks and a few narrow, toothed or divided, somewhat clasping stem leaves. The conspicuous golden-yellow flower

heads, about # in. across, are borne in a long-stalked, terminal,

BY COURTESY OF VATION SOCIETY

THE

WILD

FLOWER

PREFER-

GOLDEN RAGWORT (SENECIO AUREUS), ALSO CALLED SQUAWWEED AND LIFEROOT, A NORTH AMERICAN PLANT FORMERLY A FAYOURITE MEDICINE OF THE INDIANS

more or less flat-topped cluster. The plant is a common late spring and early summer wild flower throughout most parts of its range

(see SENECIO).

,

GOLDEN ROD, the popular name for plants of the botanical

genus Solidago, of the family Compositae, comprising about 125 species, natives chiefly of North America, a few, however, occurring in the Old World and in South America. They are erect

perennial herbs, mostly from 2 to 8 ft. high, usually unbranched

or slightly branched, with undivided toothed or entire leaves and very numerous small heads of brilliant yellow (rarely white)

flowers arranged in conspicuous terminal or axillary clusters. The European golden rod (S. Virgaurea), the only British species. with a stem, usually 1 to 3 ft. high, bearing a long cluster af

showy flower heads, is found in woods and thickets. It is oneof

ram on which Phrixus and Helle escaped, for which see Arco-

the best garden plants of the genus, several other species of which

Kusghthood.

characteristic plants in eastern North America, where about 60

NAUTS; see also KNIGHTHOOD AND Curvatry, section Orders of are sparingly cultivated for ornament.

The

golden rods af

GOLDEN

ROSE—GOLDFISH

491

species occur, many of which are widely distributed and of great dense tufts, and bear triangular-shaped, somewhat leathery leaves, abundance. They are found almost everywhere—in woodlands, 3 in. to 4 in. long and broad, more or less deeply cut into rounded swamps, on mountains, in fields and along roadsides. With the leaflets or lobes. A tropical American species, G. chrysophyllum, asters, whose bright colours they complement, the golden rods form one of the chief floral glories of autumn from the Great Plains eastward to the Atlantic. While numerous handsome

popular in greenhouse cultivation, with golden yellow powder on

species occur in the Rocky Mountain region and on the Pacific

Nevada, U.S.A., served by the Tonopah and Goldfield and the

coast they are less abundant and conspicuous than in the eastern States. Among the best-known eastern species are the early

golden rod (S. juncea), the late golden rod (S. serotina), the tall golden rod (S. altissima), the Canada golden rod (S. canadensis), the dwarf golden rod (S. nemoralis), the wreath golden rod (S. caesia), the pale golden rod or white rod (S.

bicolor), the sweet golden rod (S. odorata) and the showy golden rod (S. speciosa). Among the western species are the western golden rod (S. occidentalis), found from the Rocky mountains

westward; the California golden rod (S. californica), the oreja de liebre of the Spanish Californians; and the coast golden rod

(5. spathulata), of central Californian shores. (See ASTER.)

GOLDEN ROSE, an ornament made of wrought gold and

set with gems, generally sapphires, which is blessed by the pope on the fourth (Laetare) Sunday of Lent, and usually afterwards sent as a mark of special favour to some distinguished individual, to a

church, or a civil community.

Formerly it was a single rose of

wrought gold, coloured red, but the form finaly adopted is a thorny branch with leaves and flowers, the petals of which are decked with gems, surmounted by one principal rose. The origin of the custom is obscure. From very early times popes have given away a rose on the fourth Sunday of Lent, whence the name Dominica Rosae, sometimes given to this feast. The practice of blessing and sending some such symbol (e.g., ewlogiae) goes back to the earliest Christian antiquity, but the use of the rose itself does not seem to go farther back than the 11th century. Beginning with the 16th century, a letter was sent with the rose, giving the reasons for sending it and recounting the merits and virtues of the receiver. When the change was made from the form of the simple rose to the branch is uncertain. The rose sent by Innocent IV. in 1244 to Count Raymond Berengar IV. of Provence was a simple flower without any accessory ornamentation, while the one given by Benedict XI. in 1303 or 1304 to the church of St. Stephen at Perugia consisted of a branch garnished with five open and two closed roses enriched with a sapphire, the whole having a value of seventy ducats. The value of the gift varied according to the character or rank of the recipient. John XXII. gave away some weighing 12 oz., and worth from £250 to £325. Many kings and queens have received this honour at the hands of the pope; and if, in any year, there is deemed to be no worthy recipient the rose is laid’ up in the Vatican. Some of the most famous Italian goldsmiths have been employed in making the earlier roses; and such intrinsically valuable objects have, in common with other priceless historical examples of the goldsmith’s art, found their way to the melting pot, therefore few specimens are extant. There is one of the 14th century in the Cluny Museum, Paris, believed to have been sent by Clement V, to the prince-bishop of Basel; one conferred in 1458 on his native city of Siena by Pope Pius II.; and the rose bestowed upon Siena by Alexander VII., a son of that city, is depicted in a procession in a fresco in the Palazzo Pubblico at Siena. BrsriocrapHy.—Angelo Rocca, Aurea Rosa, etc. (1719); Busenelli,

the under surface of the fronds, is also called gold fern.

GOLDFIELD, a mining town in the desert in south-western

Tonopah and Tidewater railways; the county seat of Esmeralda

county. The population in 1930 was 692. Gold was discovered here in 1902, two or three years after the lucky strike at Tonopah, 28m. north, and Goldfield soon became the largest town in the State. Production was at its peak in rg10—11, with an annual output of about $10,000,000. After 1918 it declined until in 1927 only about 500 tons of ore was mined. Much of the ground has not yet been explored, and in 1928 active prospecting operations were in progress by lessees of the principal mining property. The Goldfield mines were the scene of a bitter labour struggle. Conflict between the miners (organized as a branch of the Western Federation of Miners) and the operators began early, and there were several set strikes in the year beginning Dec. 1906. From Dec. 6, 1907, to March 7, 1908, Federal troops under Gen. Frederick Funston, sent by President Roosevelt On an appeal from Gov. Sparks, were stationed in the town to maintain order. On their arrival the mine-owners reduced wages and announced that no members of the Western Federation of Miners would be employed. After their withdrawal work was gradually resumed, on the operators’ terms, and there has been no union organization since.

GOLDFINCH, Carduelis carduelis, a well-known and beautiful bird found over the greater part of Europe and north Africa, and eastwards to Persia and Turkistan. It is a favourite cagebird. As a songster it is surpassed by other species, but its docility and attachment to its master or mistress make up for any defect in its vocal powers. In some parts of England the trade in goldfinches is very considerable. The goldfinch decreased markedly in Britain during the later part of the roth century, but is now becoming more common. Though goldfinches may be observed in the coldest weather, most leave Britain in autumn, returning in spring, and resorting to gardens and orchards to breed. The nest is beautifully neat, generally well hidden by the leafy bough on which it is built. When the broods leave the nest they frequent pastures, commons, heaths and downs in flocks. The goldfinch is very fond of the seeds of thistles and other weeds. It has been introduced into New Zealand, where it has firmly established itself (see Thomson, Naturalisation of Animals and Plants in New Zealand). Eastward of the range of the present species its place is taken by C. caniceps, wanting the black hood and white ear-coverts of the British bird. Its home seems to be in Central Asia, but it moves southward in winter, being common at that season in Cashmere. In America the term “goldfinch” is applied to Astragalinus tristis, a yellow bird with black wings, tail and

crown. This bird has a wild yet canary-like love song. FINCH.)

GOLDFISH

(See

(Carassius auratus), a cyprinid fish, like the

carp, a native of eastern Asia, but introduced into many other parts of the world. It is closely related to the crucian carp of Europe and northern Asia; both species resemble the common carp in having a long dorsal fin, but differ from it in having no

barbels. The goldfish flourishes in ponds and feeds on weeds and small invertebrates. In a wild state the coloration is generally greenish-brown, but specimens may occur with the brown or 1892), PP. 432-435; Eugéne Muntz in Revue dart chrétien (1901), series v. vol. 12 pp. 1-11; F. de Mély, Le Trésor de Charires (1886) ; black pigment absent or restricted to some spots and patches, Marquis de Mac Swiney Mashanaglass, Le Portugal et le Saint Siége: and bright orange in colour. These golden fish have been bred Les Roses d'or envoyées par les Papes aux rois de Portugal au XVIe (1904); Sir C. Young, Ornaments and Gift consecrated by the by the Chinese for centuries, and many strange and even monRoman Pontifis: the Galden Rose, the Cap and Swords presented to strous types have been produced. Fish ‘with silvery patches, or Sovereigns of England and Scotland (1864). (J.T. S.; X.; E. A. J) even pure white, are not uncommon; the telescope-fish, with proGOLD FERN, a handsome American fem (Gymnogramma truding eyes, no dorsal fin and a large trilobed tail-fin, is one of tnangularis or Pityriogramma triangularis), native to the Pacific the most extraordinary forms. Goldfish were introduced from coast region from British Columbia south to Ecuador, so called China into Japan, and for hundreds of years they have been culticause the leaves (fronds) are coated beneath with a bright vated in ponds by the Japanese, who have produced new t range-coloured powder, varying to white. The dark-brown, glossy by cross-breeding; many of these have a long double tail-fn, De Rosa Aurea. Epistola (1759); Girbal, La Rosa de oro (Madrid, 1820); C. Joret, La Rose d’or dans Pantiquité et au moyen age (Paris,

kaf-stalks (stipes), 6 in. to 12 in. high, rise from the rootstock in The most prized variety has a short rounded body, a broad héad

492

GOLDIE—GOLDING

covered with protuberances, no dorsal fin and a short double tàilfin; as much as £20-£25 may be given for an exceptional pair. Annual exhibits of this breed are held in Tokyo; fish which are entirely bright red are considered best, but white fish with red fins are much admired. Escaping from ornamental pools in parks and gardens the goldfish has become naturalized in many ponds and streams of the eastern United States, notably in the Potomac river. In some

localities it occurs in sufficient abundance to be marketed as a food fish. Upon resuming life under natural conditions it reverts to its original greenish-brown color, and usually attains a length of from 6 to 12 inches. See S. Matsubara, “Goldfish and their Culture in Japan,” Bull. U.S. Fish eee (1908); H. M. Smith Japanese Goldfish (Washington, 1909).

have lost a third, and the most valuable part, of the company’s territory. But he fell from power in March 18099, and in July following Lord Salisbury concluded the famous “Heligoland” agreement with Germany. After this event the aggressive action of Germany in Nigeria entirely ceased, and the door was opened for a final settlement of the Nigeria~Cameroon frontiers. These negotiations, which resulted in an agreement in 1893, were initiated by Goldie as a means of arresting the advance of France into Nigeria from the direction of the Congo. By conceding to Germany a long

but narrow strip of territory between Adamawa and Lake Chad to which she had no treaty claims, a barrier was raised against French

expeditions, semi-military and semi-exploratory, which sought to enter Nigeria from the east. Later French efforts at aggression

were made from the western or Dahomeyan side, despite an agree. ment

concluded

with France

in 1890 respecting the northern

GOLDIE, SIR GEORGE DASHWOOD TAUBMAN frontier, (1846-1925), English administrator, the founder of Nigeria, was The hostility of certain Fula princes led the company to desborn on May 26, 1846, at the Nunnery, Isle of Man, being the patch, in 1897, an expedition against the Mohamrnedan States of youngest son of Lieut.-Colonel John Taubman Goldie-Taubman, Nupé and Ilorin. This expedition was organized and personally speaker of the House of Keys. Sir George resumed his paternal directed by Goldie and was completely successful. Internal peace name, Goldie, by royal licence in 1887. He was educated at the was thus secured, but in the following year the differences with Royal Military academy, Woolwich, and for about two years held France in regard to the frontier line became acute, and compelled a commission in the Royal Engineers. He travelled in all parts of the intervention of the British government. In the negotiations Africa, gaining an extensive knowledge of the continent, and first which ensued Goldie preserved for Great Britain the whole of the visited the country of the Niger in 1877. He conceived the idea navigable stretch of the lower Niger. It was, however, evidently of adding to the British empire the then little known regions of impossible for a chartered company to hold its own against the the lower and middle Niger, and for over 20 years his efforts were state-supported protectorates of France and Germany, and in condevoted to the realization of this conception. The method by sequerice, on Jan. 1, 1900, the Royal Niger company transferred which he determined to work was the revival of government by its territories to the British government for the sum of £865,000, chartered companies within the empire—a method supposed to The ceded territory together with the small Niger Coast Protecbe buried with the East India company. The first step was to com- torate, already under imperial control, was formed into the two bine all British commercial interests in the Niger, and this he protectorates of northern and southern Nigeria (see further accomplished in 1879 when the United African company was NIGERIA). formed. In 1881 Goldie sought a charter from the imperial govIn 1903-04, at the request of the Chartered company of South ernment (the znd Gladstone ministry). Objections of various Africa, Goldie visited Rhodesia and examined the situation in kinds were raised. To meet them the capital of the company (re- connection with the agitation for self-government by the Rhodenamed the National African company) was increased from £125,- sians. In 1902-03 he was one of the royal commissioners who coo to £1,000,000, stations were founded on the Niger and the inquired into the military preparations for the war in South Africa French traders established on the lower river were bought out in (1899-1902) and into the operations up to the occupation of 1884. Meantime the Niger coast line had been placed under Pretoria, and in 1905-06 was a member of the royal commission British protection, and over 4oo political treaties—drawn up by which investigated the methods of disposal of war stores after Goldie—were made with the chiefs of the lower Niger and the peace had been made. In ro905 he was elected president of the Hausa states. The scruples of the British Government being Royal Geographical society and held that office for three years. overcome, a charter was at length granted (July 1886), the Na- From 1908 to 1919 he was an alderman of the London County tional African company becoming the Royal Niger company, Council, on which he served as chairman of the finance commitwith Lord Aberdare as governor and Goldie as vice-governor. In tee. Goldie was created K.C.M.G. in 1887, and a privy councillor 1895, on Lord Aberdare’s death, Goldie became governor of the in 1898. From rgo5 to 1914, and from 1915 to 1920 he was presicompany, whose destinies he had guided from the time of its dent of the National Defence Association. He died in London foundation under its former name. on Aug. 22, 1925. The building up of Nigeria as a British state had to be carried GOLDING, ARTHUR (c. 1536=c. 1605), English translaon in face of further difficulties raised by French travellers with tor, son of John Golding of Belchamp St. Paul and Halsted, Essex, political missions, and also in face of German opposition. From one of the auditors of the exchequer, was born probably in Lon1884 to 1890, Prince Bismarck was a persistent antagonist, and don about 1536. In 1549 he was already in the service of Prothe strenuous efforts he made to secure for Germany the basin of tector Somerset. He seems to have resided for some time in the the lower Niger and Lake Chad were even more dangerous to house of Sir William Cecil, in the Strand, with his nephew, the Goldie’s schemes of empire than the ambitions of France. E. R. poet, the 17th earl of Oxford, whose receiver he was, for two of his Flegel, who had travelled in Nigeria during 1882-84 under the dedications are dated from Cecil House. His chief work is his auspices of the British company, was sent out in 1885 by the translation of Ovid. The Fyrst Fower Bookes of P. Ovidius Nasos newly-formed German Colonial society to secure treaties for worke, entitled Metamorphosis, translation oute of Latin into Germany, which had established itself at Cameroon. After Flegel’s Englishe meter (1565), was supplemented in 1567 by a translation death in 1886 his work was continued by his companion Staud- of the 15 books. Strangely enough the translator of Ovid was 4 inger, while Hoenigsberg was despatched to stir up trouble in the man of strong Puritan sympathies, and he translated many of the occupied portions of the company’s territory—or, as he er works of Calvin. Golding translated also the Commentaries of pressed it, “to burst up the charter.” He was finally arrested at Caesar (1565), Theodore Beza’s Tragedie of Abraham’s Sacrifice Onitsha, and, after trial by the company’s supreme court at Asaba, (1577) and the De Beneficiis of Seneca (1478). He completed a

was expelled from the country.

Bismarck then sent out his

translation begun by Sidney from Philippe de Mornay, A Worke

nephew, von Puttkamer, as German consul-general to Nigeria, with orders to report on this affair, and when this report was published in a White Book, Bismarck demanded heavy damages from the company. Meanwhile Bismarck maintained constant pressure

ed., 1604).

on the British government to compel the Royal Niger company to

Philological Series (1906), which contains a biographical notice and

a division of spheres of influence, whereby Great Britain would

concerning the Trewnesse of the Christian Religion (1587, 3rd See the reissue of Golding’s translation of Theodore Bezas Tragedie of Abraham’s Sacrifice in the University of Toronto Studies,

complete bibliography.

GOLDINGEN—GOLDSCHMIDT GOLDINGEN

(Lettish, Kuldiga), a town of western Cour-

land in Latvia, 55 m. by rail N.E. of Libau, and on Windau

river, in 56° 58” N. and 22° E. Pop. (1925) 6,912. It has several

small industries including leather, woollen goods, food products, needles and other metal industries, matches and other products of wood. There are glass works and lime kilns in the neighbourhood, and ruins of a castle of the Teutonic Knights, built in 1248 and used in the 17th century as the residence of the dukes of Courland.

GOLDMARK, KARL (1832-1915), Hungarian composer, was born at Keszthely-am-Plattensee, Hungary, on May 18, 1832, the son of a poor cantor in the local Jewish synagogue. On a cheap violin and home-made flute, the future composer first gave rein

to his musical ideas. In 1844 he went to Vienna, and studied the violin at the conservatoire.

After the revolution of 1848 he ob-

tained an engagement in the orchestra at Raab. There, on the capitulation of Raab, he was to have been shot for a spy, and was only saved at the eleventh hour by the happy arrival of a former colleague. In 1850 he left Raab for Vienna, where from his friend Mittrich he obtained his first real knowledge of the classics. In

1857, being then engaged in the Karl-theatre orchestra, he gave a concert of his own works including his first quartet. Then followed

the “Sakuntala” and “Penthesilea” overtures, showing the influence of Wagner, and the delightful “Ländliche Hochzeit” symphony, which carried his fame abroad. His first and best opera, Die Königin von Saba (Vienna, 1875) was followed in November 1886, also at Vienna, by Merlin, much of which was afterwards rewritten. A third opera, a version of Dickens’s Cricket on the Hearth, was given by the Royal Carl Rosa Company in London in

1900. In opera Goldmark is most certainly at his best, and as an

orchestral colourist he takes high rank. He died at Vienna on Jan. 2, 1915.

1923).

bis reminiscences, Erinnerungen

GOLDONI,

CARLO

aus meinen Leben

(Vienna,

(1707-1793), Italian dramatist, the

real founder of modern Italian comedy, was born at Venice, on Feb. 25, 1707. His father Giulio was a native of Modena. The first playthings of the future writer were puppets which he made dance; the first books he read were plays,—among others, the comedies of the Florentine Cicognini. Later he received a still stronger impression from the Mandragora of Machiavelli. At

eight years old he had tried to sketch a play. His father, meanwhile, had taken his degree in medicine at Rome and fixed himself at Perugia, where he made his quarrelled with his colleagues in gia, leaving his son to the care of Rimini. The young Goldoni

son join him; but, having soon medicine, he departed for Chiogof a philosopher, Prof. Caldini soon grew tired of his life at Rimini, and ran away with a Venetian company of players. He began to study law at Venice, then went to continue the same pur-

this kind was Momolo Cortesan (Momolo the Courtier), written in the Venetian dialect, and based on his own experience. Other plays followed—some interesting from their subject, others from the characters; the best of that period are—Le Trentadue Disgrazie d’ Arlecchino, La Notte critica, Le Bancarotta, La Donna di Garbo. While consul of Genoa at Venice, he was cheated by a captain of Ragusa, and founded on this incident a play L’/mpostore. At Leghorn he made the acquaintance of the comedian Medebac,

and followed him to Venice, with his company, for which he began to write his best plays. The whole social life of Venice is to be found in Goldoni’s plays. Once he promised to write 16 comedies in a year, and kept his word; among the 16 are some of his very best, such as J? Cafè, IH Bugiardo, La Pamela. When he left the company of Medebac, he passed over to that maintained by the patrician Vendramin, continuing to write with the greatest facility. But Vendramin was tyrannical, and the purists of the day were constantly attacking Goldoni’s work (see Gozzr). Goldoni accepted the post of manager of the Italian theatre in Paris in 1761. Before leaving Venice he wrote Una delle ultime sere di Carnevale (One of the Last Nights of Carnival), an allegorical comedy in which he said good-bye to his country. At the end of the representation of this play, the theatre resounded with applause, and with shouts expressive of good wishes. Goldoni, at this proof of public sympathy, wept like a child. At Paris, during two years, he wrote comedies for the Italian actors; then he taught Italian to the royal princesses; and for the wedding of Louis XVI. and of Marie Antoinette he wrote in French one of his best comedies, Le Bourru bienfaisant, which was a great success. When he retired from Paris to Versailles, the

king made him a gift of 6,000 francs, and fixed on him an annual pension of 1,200 francs. It was at Versailles he wrote his Memoirs, which occupied him till he reached his 80th year. The Revolution deprived him all at once of his modest pension, and reduced him

to extreme misery; he dragged on his unfortunate existence till Feb. 6, 1793. The day after, on the proposal of André Chenier, the Convention agreed to give the pension back to the poet. and as it was too late, a reduced allowance was granted to his widow. The best comedies of Goldoni are: La Donna di Garbo, La Bottega di Cafè, Pamela nubile, Le Baruffe chiozsotte, I Rusteghi, Todero Brontolon, Gli Innamorati, If Ventaglio, IE Bugiardo, La Casa nova, Il Burbero benefico, La Locandiera. , A collected edition of the plays (44 vols., Venice, 1788) was repub-

lished at Florence in 1827. The standard edition is that arranged by the city of Venice, Opere complete (20 vols., Venice, 1907-17}. The Memoirs (best ed. by Mazzoni, 1907) were translated intq English by John Black (Boston, 1877), with preface by W. D. Howells. See A. de Gubernatis, Carlo Goldoni (Florence, 1911), a course of lectures deliv-

suit at Pavia, but at that time he was studying the Greek and Latin comic poets much more and much better than books about

ered at Rome

law. “I have read over again,” he writes in his own Memoirs, “The Greek and Latin poets, and I have told myself that I should like to imitate them in their style, their plots, their precision; but I would not be satisfied unless I succeeded in giving more interest to my works, happier issues to my plots, better drawn characters and more genuine comedy.” For a satire entitled Hl Colosso, which attacked the honour of several families of Pavia,

cious Metals Group: Gold.

he was driven from that town, and went first to study with the jurisconsult Morelli at Udine, then to take his degree in law at

Modena. After having worked some time as clerk in the chan-

ceries of Chioggia and Feltre, his father being dead, he went to Venice, to exercise there his profession as a lawyer.

But the wish to write for the stage was always strong in him,

493

stage. He wished to create comedy of character in Italy, to follow the example of Moliére, and to delineate the realities of social life in as natural a manner as possible. His first essay of

GOLD

in rgo1-11;

H. C. Chatfield-Taylor, Goldoni

PRODUCTION:

(1914).

see Puysitcar Resources, Pre-

GOLDS: see TuNncusEs. GOLDSBORO, a city of North Carolina, U.S.A., on the Neuse river, 5om. S.E. of Raleigh; the county seat of Wayne county. It is on Federal highways 70 and 171, and is served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Norfolk Southern and the Southern railways. The population was 11,296 in 1920 (43% negroes) and was 14,985 in 1930 by Federal census. It is an important market and shipping point for bright-leaf tobacco, cotton and early vegetables, and has over 30 substantial manufacturing establishments, with an output in 1925 valued at $5,109,914. The State Odd Fellows’ orphan home and a State hospital for insane negroes are situated

tragedies, some of which were well received; but the author him-

here. Goldsboro was settled in 1838 and incorporated in 1841. Between 1910 and 1920 the population almost doubled. Since 1920 it has had a commission-manager form of government. In the campaign of 1865 the Union armies under Sherman and Schofield united here before the final advance to Greensboro. (1802-1866), German HERMANN GOLDSCHMIDT, painter and astronomer, was the son of a Jewish merchant, and

{a radical dramatic reform was absolutely necessary for the

was born at Frankfort on June 17, 1802. He settled in Paris, where he painted a number of pictures. Between 1852 and 1861

ad he tried to do so; he made, however, a mistake in his choice,

and began with a tragedy, Amalasunta, which was represented at Milan and proved a failure.

In 1734 he wrote another tragedy,

erto, which, though not much better, chanced nevertheless to

please the public. This first success encouraged him to write other

self saw clearly that he had not yet found his proper sphere, and

494

GOLDSMID—GOLDSMITH

he discovered 14 asteroids between Mars and Jupiter. His solar observations, made during the total eclipse on July 10, 1860, are included in the work of Madler on the eclipse, published in 1861. Goldschmidt died at Fontainebleau on Aug. 26, 1866.

GOLDSMID, the name of a family of Anglo-Jewish bankers

sprung from Aaron Goldsmid (d. 1782), a Dutch merchant who settled in England about 1763. Two of his sons, Benjamin Goldsmid (c. 1753—1808) and Abraham Goldsmid (c. 1756-1810), set up as bill-brokers in London in 1777 and became great powers in the money market, during the Napoleonic war, through their dealings with the Government. Abraham Goldsmid was in 1810

by birth one of the Englishry, and though connected by numeroys

ties with the Established Church, never showed the least sign of

that contemptuous antipathy with which, in his days, the ruling minority in Ireland too generally regarded the subject majority

So far indeed was he from sharing in the opinions and feelings of the caste to which he belonged that he conceived an aversion to the Glorious and Immortal Memory, and, even when George III,

was on the throne, maintained that nothing but the restoration of the banished dynasty could save the country. From the humble academy kept by the old soldier Goldsmith was removed in his ninth year. He went to several grammar-

joint contractor with the Barings for a government loan, but owing to a depreciation of the scrip he was forced into bankruptcy and committed suicide, as his brother had done.

schools, and acquired some knowledge of the ancient languages, His life at this time seems to have been far from happy. He had

Their nephew, Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, Bart. (1778-1859), connected with a firm of bullion brokers to the Bank of England and the East India Company, was made Baron da Palmeira by the Portuguese Government in 1846 for services rendered in

Knole, features harsh even to ugliness. The small-pox had set its mark on him with more than usual severity. His stature was small, and his limbs ill put together. Among boys little tenderness is shown to personal defects; and the ridicule excited by

settling a monetary dispute between Portugal and Brazil, but he is chiefly known for his efforts to obtain the emancipation of the Jews in England and for his part in founding University college, London. The Jewish Disabilities bill owed its final passage to Goldsmid’s energetic work. He helped to establish the University college hospital in 1834, aided in the efforts to obtain reform in the English penal code, and financially assisted the building of the English southern railways and the London docks. In 184r he became the first Jewish baronet. His second son, Sir Francis Henry Goldsmid, Bart. (1808-1878), born in London, and the first Jew to become an English barrister, entered parliament in 1860 as member for Reading. He was succeeded in the baronetcy by his nephew Sir Julian Goldsmid, Bart. (1838-1896). Another distinguished member of the same family, Sir Frederic John Goldsmid (1818-1908), grandson of Benjamin Goldsmid (see above), was educated at King’s college, London, and entering the Madras army in 1839 served in the China War of 1840-41, with the Turkish troops in eastern Crimea in 1855-56, and during the Egyptian campaign. From 1865 to 1870 he was directorgeneral of the Indo-European telegraph, and carried through the telegraph convention with Persia; and between 1870 and 1872, as commissioner, he settled with Persia the difficult questions of the Perso-Baluch and Perso-Afghan boundaries. In 1881-82 he was in Egypt, as controller of the Daira Sanieh, and in 1883 he went to the Congo, on behalf of the king of the Belgians.

poor Oliver’s appearance was heightened by a peculiar simplicity and a disposition to blunder which he retained to the last. He became the common butt of boys and masters, was pointed at as a fright in the play-ground, and flogged as a dunce in the schoolroom. When he had risen to eminence, those who had once derided him ransacked their memory for the events of his early years, and recited repartees and couplets which had dropped from him, and which, though little noticed at the time, were supposed a quarter of a century later, to indicate the powers which produced the Vicar of Wakefield and the Deserted Village. On June 11, 1744, being then in his 16th year, Oliver went up to Trinity college, Dublin, as a sizar. The sizars paid nothing for food and tuition, and very little for lodging; but they had to

GOLDSMITH,

OLIVER (1728-1774), English poet, play-

wright, novelist and man of letters, came of a Protestant and Saxon family which had long been settled in Ireland. He is usually said to have been born at Pallas or Pallasmore, Co. Longford; but recent investigators have contended, with much probability, that his true birthplace was Smith-Hill House, Elphin, Roscommon, the residence of his mother’s father, the Rev. Oliver Jones. His father, Charles Goldsmith, lived at Pallas, supporting with diffculty his wife and children on what he could earn, partly as a curate and partly as a farmer. Youth.—While Oliver was still a child his father was pre-

sented to the living of Kilkenny West, in the county of West Meath. This was worth about £200 a year. The family accordingly quitted their cottage at Pallas for a spacious house on a frequented road, near the village of Lissoy. Here the boy was taught his letters by a relative and dependent, Elizabeth Delap,

and was sent in his seventh year to a village school kept by an old quartermaster on half-pay, who professed to teach nothing but reading, writing and arithmetic, but who had an inexhaustible

as appears from the admirable portrait of him by Reynolds at

perform some menial services from which they have long been relieved. Goldsmith was quartered, not alone, in a garret of what was then No. 35 in a range of buildings which has long since disappeared. His name, scrawled by himself on one of its windowpanes, is still preserved in the college library. From such garrets many men of less parts than his have made their way to the woolsack or to the episcopal bench. But Goldsmith, while he suffered all the humiliations, threw away all the advantages of his situation. He neglected the studies of the place, stood low at the examinations, was turned down to the bottom of his class for playing the buffoon in the lecture-room, was severely reprimanded for pumping on a constable, and was caned bya brutal tutor for giving a ball in the attic storey of the college to some gay youths and damsels from the city. The Continent.—While Oliver was leading at Dublin a life divided between squalid distress and squalid dissipation, his father died, leaving a mere pittance. In Feb. 1749 the youth obtained his bachelor’s degree, and left the university. During some time the humble dwelling to which his widowed mother had retired was his home. He was now in his 21st year; it was necessary that he should do something; and his education seemed to have fitted him to do nothing but to dress himself in gaudy colours, of which he was as fond as a magpie, to take a hand at cards, to sing Irish airs, to play the flute, to angle in summer and to tell ghost stones by the fire in winter. He tried five or six professions in twn

without success.

He applied for ordination; but, as he applied

in scarlet clothes, he was speedily turned out of the episcopal palace. He then became tutor in an opulent family, but soon quitted his situation in consequence of a dispute about pay. Then he determined to emigrate to America. His relations, with much satisfaction, saw him set out for Cork on a good horse, with £30

fund of stories about ghosts, banshees and fairies, about the great Rapparee chiefs, Baldearg O’Donnell and galloping Hogan, and about the exploits of Peterborough and Stanhope, the surprise of Monjuich and the glorious disaster of Brihuega. This man must

in his pocket. But in six weeks he came back on a miserable hack, without a penny, and informed his mother that the ship in which he had taken his passage, having got a fair wind while he was at a party of pleasure, had sailed without him. Then he resolved to

have been of the Protestant religion; but he was of the aboriginal race, and not only spoke the Irish language, but could pour forth

With this sum Goldsmith went to Dublin, was enticed into 8

wnpremeditated Irish verses, Oliver early became, and through life continued to be, a passionate admirer of the Irish music, and especially of the compositions of Carolan, some of the last notes of whose harp he heard. It ought to be added that Oliver, though

sent to Edinburgh. At Edinburgh he passed 18 months in nominal attendance on lectures, and picked up some superf

study the law. A generous uncle, Mr. Contarine, advanced £50. gaming-house and lost every shilling. He then thought of med

cine. A small purse was made up; and in his 24th year be was

GOLDSMITH information about chemistry and natural history. Thence he went to Leyden, still pretending to study physic. He left that celebrated university, the third at which he had resided, in his

27th year, without a degree, with the merest smattering of medi-

cal knowledge, and His flute, however, through Flanders, everywhere set the

with no property but his clothes and bis flute. proved a useful friend. He rambled on foot France and Switzerland, playing tunes which peasantry dancing, and which often procured

495

of the world; but he had noticed and retained little more of what he had seen than some grotesque incidents and characters which had happened to strike his fancy. But, though his mind was very scantily stored, with materials, he used what materials he had in such a way as to produce a wonderful effect. There have been many greater writers; but perhaps no writer was ever more uni-

for him a supper and a bed. He wandered as far as Italy. His

formly agreeable. His style was always pure and easy, and, on proper occasions, pointed and energetic. His narratives were always amusing, his descriptions always picturesque, his humour

musical performances, indeed, were not to the taste of the Ital-

rich and joyous, yet not without an occasional tinge of amiable

ians; but he contrived to live on the alms which he obtained at the gates of convents, It should, however, be observed that the stories which he told about this part of his life ought to be re-

sadness. About everything that he wrote, serious or sportive, there was a certain natural grace and decorum, hardly to be expected from a man a great part of whose life had been passed among thieves and beggars, street-walkers and merryandrews, in those squalid dens which are the reproach of great capitals.

ceived with great caution; for strict veracity was never one of his virtues; and a man who is ordinarily inaccurate in narration is likely to be more than ordinarily inaccurate when he talks about

his own travels. Goldsmith, indeed, was so regardless of truth as to assert in print that he was present at a most interesting conyersation between Voltaire and Fontenelle, and that this conyersation took place at Paris. Now it is certain that Voltaire never was within 100 leagues of Paris during the whole time which Goldsmith passed on the Continent. In London.—In Feb. 1756 the wanderer landed at Dover, without a shilling, without a friend and without a calling. He had indeed, if his own unsupported evidence may be trusted, obtained

a doctor’s degree on the Continent; but this dignity proved utterly useless to him. In England his flute was not in request; there were no convents; and he was forced to have recourse to a

series of desperate expedients. There is a tradition that he turned strolling player. He pounded drugs and ran about London with phials for charitable chemists. He asserted, upon one occasion, that he had lived “among the beggars in Axe Lane.” He was for atime usher of a school, and felt the miseries and humiliations of this situation so keenly that he thought it a promotion to be permitted to earn his bread as a bookseller’s hack; but he soon found the new yoke more galling than the old one, and was glad to become an usher again. He obtained a medical appointment in the service of the East India company; but the appointment was speedily revoked. Why it was revoked we are not told. The subject was one on which he never liked to talk. It is probable that he was incompetent to perform the duties of the place. Then he presented himself at Surgeons’ Hall for examination, as “mate to an hospital.” Even to so humble a post he was found unequal. Nothing remained but to return to the lowest drudgery of literature. Goldsmith took a room in a tiny square off Ludgate Hill, to which he had to climb from Sea-coal Lane by a dizzy ladder of flagstones called Breakneck Steps. Green Arbour Court and the ascent have long disappeared. Here, at 30, the unlucky adventurer sat down to toil like a galley slave. Already, in 1758, during his first bondage to letters, he had translated Marteilhe’s remarkable Memoirs of a Protestant, Condemned to the Galleys of France for his Religion. In the years that now succeeded he sent to the press some things which have survived, and many which have perished. He produced articles for reviews, magazines and newspapers; children’s books, which, bound in gilt paper and adorned with hideous woodcuts, appeared in the window of

Newbery’s once far-famed shop at the corner of Saint Paul’s churchyard; An Inquiry into the State of Polite Learning in Europe, which, though of little or no value, is still reprinted among his works; a volume of essays entitled The Bec; a Life of

Beau Nash; a superficial and incorrect, but very readable, His-

tory of England, in a series of letters purporting to be addressed by a nobleman to his son; and some very lively and amusing sketches of London Society in another series of letters purporting to be addressed by a Chinese traveller to his friends.

All these works were anonymous; but some of them were well

known to be Goldsmith’s; and he gradually rose in the estimation

of the booksellers for whom he drudged. He was, indeed, em-

atically a popular writer. For accurate research or grave dis-

quisition he was not well qualified by nature or by education. He knew nothing accurately; his reading had been desultory; nor

had he meditated deeply on what he had read. He had seen much

The Man of Letters.—As his name gradually became known,

the circle of his acquaintance widened. He was introduced to Johnson, who was then considered as the first of living English writers; to Reynolds, the first of English painters; and to Burke, who had not yet entered parliament, but had distinguished himself greatly by his writings and by the eloquence of his conversation. With these eminent men Goldsmith became intimate. In 1763 he was one of the nine original members of that celebrated

fraternity which has sometimes been called the Literary Club, but which always disclaimed that epithet, and gloried in the simple name of the Club. By this date Goldsmith had quitted his miserable dwelling at the top of Breakneck Steps, and, after living for some time at No. 6 Wine Office Court, Fleet street, had moved into the Temple. But he was still often reduced to pitiable shifts, the most popular of which is connected with the sale of his solitary novel, the Vicar of Wakefield. Towards the close of 1764(?} his rent is alleged to have been so long in arrear that his landlady one

morning called in the help of a sheriff’s officer. The debtor, in great perplexity, despatched a messenger to Johnson; and Jobnson, always friendly, though often surly, sent back the messenger with a guinea, and promised to follow speedily. He came, and found that Goldsmith had changed the guinea, and was railing at the landlady over a bottle of Madeira. Johnson put the cork into the bottle, and entreated his friend to consider calmly how money was to be procured. Goldsmith said that he had a novel ready for the press. Johnson glanced at the manuscript, saw that there were good things in it, took it to a bookseller, sold it for £60 and soon returned with the money. The rent was paid; and the sheriff’s officer withdrew. (Unfortunately, however, for this timehonoured version of the circumstances, it was later discovered that as early as Oct. 1762 Goldsmith had already sold a third of the Vicar to one Benjamin Collins of Salisbury, a printer, by

whom it was eventually printed for F. Newbery, and it is difficult to reconcile this fact with Johnson’s narrative.) Traveller and Vicar of Wakefield—But before the Vicar of Wakefield appeared in 1766, came the great crisis of Goldsmith’s literary life, In Christmas week 1764 he published a poem, entitled the Traveller. It was the first work to which he had put his name, and it at once raised him to the rank of a legitimate English classic. The opinion of the most skilful critics was that nothing finer had. appeared in verse since the fourth book of the, Dunctad. In one respect the Traveller differs from all Goldsmith’s other writings. In general his designs were bad, and

his execution good. In the Traveller the execution, though deserving of much praise, is far inferior to the design. No philosophical poem, ancient or modern, has a plan so noble, and at the same time so simple. An English wanderer, seated on a crag among the Alps, near the point where three great countries meet, looks down on the boundless prospect, reviews his long pilgrimage, recalls the varieties of scenery, of climate, of government, of religion, of national character, which be has observed, and comes to the conclusion, just or unjust, that our happiness depends little on political institutions, and much on the temper and regulation of our own minds. While the fourth edition of the Traveller was on the counters of the booksellers, the Vicar of Wakefield appeared, and rapidky

4.96

GOLDSMITH

obtained a popularity which has lasted down to our own time, stages in the progress of society, He had assuredly never seen and which is likely to last as long as our language. The fable in his native island such a rural paradise, such a seat of plenty is indeed one of the worst that ever was constructed. It wants, content and tranquillity, as his Auburn. He had assuredly never not merely that probability which ought to be found in a tale of seen in England all the inhabitants of such a paradise turned common English life, but that consistency which ought to be out of their homes in one day and forced to emigrate in a body found even in the wildest fiction about witches, giants and fairies. to America. The hamlet he had probably seen in Kent; the eject. But the earlier chapters have all the sweetness of pastoral poetry, ment he had probably seen in Munster; but by joining the two, together with all the vivacity of comedy. Moses and his spec- he has produced something which never was and never will be tacles, the vicar and his monogamy, the sharper and his cos- seen in any part of the world. She Stoops to Conquer.—In 1773 Goldsmith tried his chance mogony, the squire proving from Aristotle that relatives are related, Olivia preparing herself for the arduous task of converting at Covent Garden with a second play, Ske Stoops to Conquer, a rakish lover by studying the controversy between Robinson The manager was, not without great difficulty, induced to bring Crusoe and Friday, the great ladies with their scandal about Sir this piece out. The sentimental comedy still reigned, and Gold. Tomkyn’s amours and Dr. Burdock’s verses, and Mr. Burchell smith’s comedies were not sentimental. The Good Natur’d Man with his “Fudge,” have caused as much harmless mirth as has had been too funny to succeed; yet the mirth of the Good Natur'd ever been caused by matter packed into so small a number of Man was sober when compared with the rich drollery of She pages. The latter part of the tale is unworthy of the beginning. Stoops to Conquer, which is, in truth, an incomparable farce in As we approach the catastrophe, the absurdities lie thicker and five acts. On this occasion, however, genius triumphed. Pit, boxes and galleries were in a constant roar of laughter, If any thicker, and the gleams of pleasantry become rarer and rarer. The success which had attended Goldsmith as a novelist em- bigoted admirer of Kelly and Cumberland ventured to hiss or boldened him to try his fortune as a dramatist. He wrote the groan, he was speedily silenced by a general cry of “turn him out,” Good Natur’'d Man, a piece which had a worse fate than it de- or “throw him over.” Later generations have confirmed the ver. served. Garrick refused to produce it at Drury Lane. It was dict which was pronounced on that night. While Goldsmith was writing the Deserted Village and She acted at Covent Garden in Jan. 1768, but was coldly received. The author, however, cleared, by his benefit nights, and by the Stoops to Conquer, he was employed on works of a very different sale of the copyright, no less than £500, five times as much as he kind—works from which he derived little reputation but much had made by the Traveller and the Vicar of Wakefield together. profit. He compiled for the use of schools a History of Rome, by The plot of the Good Natur’d Man is, like almost all Goldsmith’s which he made £250; a History of England, by which he made plots, very ill constructed. But some passages are exquisitely £500; a History of Greece, for which he received £250; a Natural ludicrous,—much more ludicrous indeed than suited the taste of History, for which the booksellers covenanted to pay him 80 the town at that time. A canting, mawkish play, entitled False guineas. These works he produced without any elaborate reDelicacy, had just been produced, and sentimentality was all the search, by merely selecting, abridging and translating into his own mode. During some years more tears were shed at comedies than clear, pure and flowing language, what he found in books well at tragedies; and a pleasantry which moved the audience to any- known to the world, but too bulky or too dry for boys and girls, thing more than a grave smile was reprobated as low. It is not He committed some strange blunders, for he knew nothing with strange, therefore, that the very best scene in the Good Natur’d accuracy. Thus, in his History of England, he tells us that Naseby Man, that in which Miss Richland finds her lover attended by the is in Yorkshire; nor did he correct this mistake when the book bailiff and the bailiff’s follower in full court dresses, should have was reprinted. He was very nearly hoaxed into putting into the been mercilessly hissed, and should have been omitted after the History of Greece an account of a battle between Alexander the Great and Montezuma. In his Ammated Nature he relates, with first night, not to be restored for several years. - The Deserted Village.—In May 1770 appeared the Deserted faith and with perfect gravity, all the most absurd lies which he Village. In mere diction and versification this celebrated poem could find in books of travels about gigantic Patagonians, monkeys is fully equal, perhaps superior, to the Traveller; and it is gen- that preach sermons, nightingales that repeat long conversations. erally preferred to the Traveller by that large class of readers “Tf he can tell a horse from a cow,” said Johnson, “that is the who think, with Bayes in the Rehearsal, that the only use of a plot extent of his knowledge of zoology.” How little Goldsmith was is to bring in fine things. More discerning judges, however, while qualified to write about the physical sciences is sufficiently proved they admire the beauty of the details, are shocked by one unpar- by two anecdotes. He on one occasion denied that the sun ts donable fault which pervades the whole. The fault which we mean longer in the northern than in the southern signs. It was vain to is not that theory about wealth and luxury which has so often been cite the authority of Maupertuis. “Maupertuis!” he cried, “I cersured by political economists. The theory is indeed false; but understand those matters better than Maupertuis.” On another the poem, considered merely as a poem, is not necessarily the occasion he, in defiance of the eyidence of his own senses, mainworse on that account. The finest poem in the Latin language— tained obstinately, and even angrily, that he chewed his dinner by indeed, the finest didactic poem in any language—was written in moving his upper jaw. Yet, ignorant as Goldsmith was, few writers have done more defence of the silliest and meanest of all systems of natural and moral philosophy. A poet may easily be pardoned for reasoning to make the first steps in the laborious road to knowledge easy ill; but he cannot be pardoned for describing ill, for observing the and pleasant. His compilations are widely distinguished from the world in which he lives so carelessly that his portraits bear no compilations of ordinary bookmakers. He was a great, perhaps resemblance to the originals, for exhibiting as copies from real an unequalled, master of the arts of selection and condensation. life monstrous combinations of things which never were and In these respects his histories of Rome and of England, and still never could be found together. What would be thought of a more his own abridgments of these histories, well deserved to be painter who should mix August and January in one landscape, studied. In general nothing is less attractive than an epitome; but who should introduce a frozen river into a harvest scene? Would the epitomes of Goldsmith, even when most concise, are always it be a sufficient defence of such a picture to say that every part amusing; and to read them is considered by intelligent children not was exquisitely coloured, that the green hedges, the apple-trees as a task but as a pleasure. Personality.—Goldsmith might now be considered as a prosloaded with fruit, the waggons reeling under the yellow sheaves, and the sun burned reapers wiping their foreheads were very fine, perous man. He had the means of living in comfort, and and that the ice and the boys sliding were also very fine? To such even in what to one who had so often slept in barns and on a picture the Deserted Village bears a great resemblance. It is bulks must have been luxury. His fame was great and was conmade up of incongruous parts. The village in its happy days is stantly rising. He lived în what was intellectually far the best a true English village. The village in its decay is an Irish village. society of the kingdom, in a society in which no talent or accomThe felicity and the misery which Goldsmith has brought close plishment was wanting, and in which the art of conversation was together belong to two different countries and to two different cultivated with splendid success. There probably were never four

GOLDSMITH talkers more admirable in four different ways than Johnson,

Burke, Beauclerk and Garrick; and Goldsmith was on terms of

intimacy with all the four. He aspired to share in their colloquial renown, but never was ambition more unfortunate.

It may seem

strange that a man who wrote with so much perspicuity, vivacity and grace should have been, whenever he took a part in conversation, an empty, noisy, blundering rattle. But on this point the evidence is overwhelming. So extraordinary was the contrast between Goldsmith’s published works and the silly things which he said, that Horace Walpole described him as an inspired idiot.

“Noll,” said Garrick, “wrote like an angel, and talked like poor

Poll.” Chamier declared that it was a hard exercise of faith to

believe that so foolish a chatterer could have really written the Traveller. Even Boswell could say, with contemptuous compassion, that he liked very well to hear honest Goldsmith run on.

“Yes, sit,” said Johnson, “but he should not like to hear himself.”

Minds differ as rivers differ. There are transparent and sparkling rivers from which it is delightful to drink as they flow; to such rivers the minds of such men as Burke and Johnson may be com-

pared. But there are rivers of which the water when first drawn

is turbid and noisome, but becomés pellucid as crystal and delicious to the taste, if it be suffered to stand till it has deposited a, sediment; and such a river is 4 type of the mind of Goldsmith. His first thoughts on every subject were confused even to absurd-

ity, but they required only a little time to work themselves clear. When he wrote they had that time, and therefore his readers pronounced him a man of genius; but when he talked he talked nonsense and made himself the laughing-stock of his hearers. He was painfully conscious of his inferiority in conversation; he felt every failure keenly; yet he had not sufficient judgment and self-

command to hold his tongue. His animal spirits and vanity were always impelling him to try to do the one thing which he could not do. After every attempt he felt that he had exposed himself,

and writhed with shame and vexation; yet the next moment he began again. His associates seem to have regarded him with kindness, which, in spite of their admiration of his writings, was not unmixed with contempt. In truth, there was in his character much to love, but

very little to respect. His heart was soft even to weakness: he

497

his distresses. His average income, during the last seven years of his life, certainly exceeded £400 a year, and £400 a year ranked, among the incomes of that day, at least as high as £800 a year would rank a century later. A single man living in the Temple, with £400 a year, might then be called opulent. Not one in ten of the young gentlemen of good families who were studying the law there had so much. But all the wealth which Lord Clive had brought from Bengal and Sir Lawrence Dundas from Germany,

joined together, would not have sufficed for Goldsmith. He spent twice as much as he had. He wore fine clothes, gave dinners of several courses, paid court to venal- beauties. He had also, it should be remembered, to the honour of his heart, though not of his head, a guinea, or five, or ten, according to the state of his purse, ready for any tale of distress, true or false. But it was not in dress or feasting, in promiscuous amours or promiscuous charities, that his chief expense lay. He had been from boyhood

a gambler, and at once the most sanguine and the most unskilful of gamblers. For a time he put off the day of inevitable ruin by temporary expedients. He obtained advances from booksellers by promising to execute works which he never began. But at length this source of supply failed. He owed more than £2,000; and he saw no hope of extrication from his embarrassments. His spirits and health gave way. He was attacked by a nervous fever, which he thought himself competent to treat. It would have been happy for him if his medical skill had been appreciated as justly by

himself as by others. Notwithstanding the degree which he pretended to have réceived on the Continent, he could procure no patients. “I do not practise,” he once said; “I make it a rule to prescribe only for my friends.” “Pray, dear Doctor,” said Beauclerk, “alter your rule; and prescribe only for your enemies.” Goldsmith, now, in spite of this excellent advice, pre-

scribed for himself. The remedy aggravated the malady. The sick man was induced to call in real physicians; and they at one time imagined that they had cured the disease. Still his weakness and restlessness continued. He could get no sleep. He could take no food. “You are worse,” said one of his medical attendants, “than you should be from the degree of fever which you have. Is your mind at ease?” “No; it is not,” were the last recorded words of Oliver Goldsmith. He died on April 4, 1774, in his 46th

was so generous that he quite forgot to be just; he forgave injuries so readily that he might be said to invite them, and was so liberal to beggars that he had nothing left for his tailor and his butcher. He was vain, sensual, frivolous, profuse, improvident. One vice of a darker shade was imputed to him, envy. But there is not the least reason to believe that this bad passion, though it sometimes made him wince and utter fretful exclamations, ever impelled him to injure by wicked arts the reputation of any of

year. He was laid in the churchyard of the Temple; the actual

his rivals. The truth probably is that he was not more envious, but merely less prudent, than his neighbours. His heart was on

which will, as long as our language lasts, associate the names of his two illustrious friends with his own. It has already been mentioned that he sometimes felt keenly the sarcasm which his wild blundering talk brought upon him. He was, not long before his last illness, provoked into retaliating. He wisely betook him-

his lips. All those small jealousies, which are but too common among men of letters, but which a man of letters who is also a man of the world does his best to conceal, Goldsmith avowed with the simplicity of a child. When he was envious, instead of affecting indifference, instead of damning with faint praise, instead of doing injuries slyly and in the dark, he told everybody that he was envious. “Do not, pray, do not, talk of Johnson in

such terms,” he said to Boswell; “you harrow up my very soul.” George Steevens and Cumberland were men far too cunning to say such a thing. They would have echoed the praises of the man whom they envied, and then have sent to the newspapers anonymous libels upon him. Both what was good and what was bad in Goldsmith’s character was to his associates a perfect se-

curity that he would never commit such villainy. He was neither

l-natured enough,-nor long-headed enough, to be guilty of any malicious act which required contrivance and disguise. The Spendthrift.—Goldsmith has sometimes been represented as aman of genius, cruelly treated by the world, and doomed to struggle with difficulties, which at last broke his heart. But no representation can be more remote from the truth. He did, indeed,

go through much sharp misery before he had done anything con-

Siderable in literature. But after his name had appeared on the title-page of the Traveller, he had none but himself to blame for

spot is unknown, but a stone with a Latin inscription, erected nearby in 1856, notes the fact. The coffin was followed by Burke and Reynolds. Both these great men were sincere mourners.

Burke, when he heard of Goldsmith’s death, had burst into a flood of tears. Reynolds had been so much moved by the news that he had flung aside his brush and palette for the day. A short time after Goldsmith’s death, a little poem appéared,

self to his pen; and at that weapon he proved himself a match for all his assailants together. Within a small compass he drew with a or ten receive piece.

singularly easy atid vigorous pencil the characters of his intimate associates. Though this little work his last touches, it must always be regarded as a It is impossible, hòwever, not to wish that four

of nine did nor masteror five

likenesses which have no interest for posterity were wanting to

that noble gallery, and that their places were supplied by sketches of Johnson and Gibbon, as happy and vivid as the sketches of Burke and Garrick.

Some of Goldsmith’s friends and admirers honoured him with

a cenotaph in Westminster Abbey. Nollekens was the sculptor, and Johnson wrote the inscription. It is much to be lamented that Johnson did not leave to posterity a more durable and a more valuable memorial of his friend. A life of Goldsmith would have been an inestimable addition to the Lives of the Poets. No man appreciated Goldsmith’s writings more justly than Johnson; no man was better acquainted with Goldsmith’s character and habits; and no man was more competent to delineate with truth and spirit the peculiarities of a mind in which great powers were found in

GOLDSMITH

4.98 company with great weaknesses.

BEETLE—GOLF

But the list of poets to whose

works Johnson was requested by the booksellers to furnish prefaces ended with Lyttelton, who died in 1773. The line seems to have been drawn expressly for the purpose of excluding the person whose portrait would have most fitly closed the series. Goldsmith, however, has been fortunate in his biographers. (M.) BrsriocrapHy—Goldsmith’s

Miscellaneous Works were first pub-

lished by W. Osborne and T. Griffin (1775). Bishop Percy wrote a memoir for S. Rose’s edition of Goldsmith’s Miscellaneous Works (4 vols., 1806). For other editions see I. A. Williams, Seven XVIII. Century Bibliographies (1924). The Oxford edition of Goldsmith’s plays and The Vicar of Wakefield was issued in 1909. Some New Essays by

gresses. He received many foreign academic honours. Goldziher investigated pre-Mohammedan and Mohammedan law, tradition religion and poetry. Among his chief works are: Beiträge sur Literaturgeschichte

der Schi’u

(1874); Beitrége zur Geschichte

der Sprachgelehrsamkeit bei den Arabern (1871-73): Der Mythos bei den Hebréern und seine geschichtliche Entwickelung (Leipzig

1876; Eng. trans., R. Martineau, 1877); Muhammedanische Sty.

dien (Halle,

1889-90,

2 vols.); Abhandlungen

zur arabischen

Philologie (Leyden, 1896—99, 2 vols.); Buch v. Wesen d. Seel (ed. 1907). GOLETTA, a town on the Gulf of Tunis in 36° so’ N, 392

him were edited by R. S. Crane (Chicago, 1927). Goldsmith’s life has 19’ E., a little south of the ruins of Carthage, and on the north been written by Prior (1837), by Washington Irving (1844-49), and side of the ship canal which traverses the shallow Lake of Tunis by John Forster (1848, 2nd ed. 1854). The diligence of Prior deserves great praise; the style of Washington Irving is always pleasing; but and leads to the city of that name. Built on the narrow strip of the highest place must, in justice, be assigned to the eminently inter- sand which separates the lake from the gulf, Goletta is defended esting work of Forster. Subsequent biographies are by William Black by a fort and battery. The town contains a summer palace of the (1878) ; Austin Dobson (1888, American ed. 1899); R. A. King (r910) ; bey, the old seraglio, arsenal and custom-house, and many villas and F. F. Moore (1910); see also K. C. Balderston, The History and Sources of Percy’s Memoir of Goldsmith (1926). The above article by gardens and pleasure resorts. A short canal, 4o ft. broad and 3} ft Lord Macaulay was slightly revised by Austin Dobson, as regards ques- deep, divides the town and affords communication between the ship canal and a dock or basin, 1,082 ft. long and sax ft. broad, tions of fact for which there has been new evidence.

GOLDSMITH BEETLE, a name applied to species of the An electric tramway which runs along the north bank of the ship canal connects Goletta with the city of Tunis (¢.v.). Pop. 7,407,

sub-family Rutelinae, from their brilliant metallic lustre, and especially to Cotalpa lanigera of the eastern United States, a large hairy form, nocturnal in habit, remaining concealed often in willow trees, by day. It is allied to the common dung and burying bettles. GOLDSMITHS’ AND SILVERSMITHS’ WORE: see SILVERSMITHS’ AND GOLDSMITHS’ Work.

GOLD-STICK

IN WAITING,

an officer of the British

royal household who waits in close attendance upon the Sovereign and whose emblem of office is an ebony staff or stick with a gold head, engraved with the Sovereign’s cypher and crown. The office was instituted in 1678 and was held exclusively by “Colonels of the Regiment” of regiments of Life Guards until 1820 when the honour was extended to officers holding similar appointments in the Royal Horse Guards. Silver Stick in Waiting is the officer who stands near the Gold Stick “ready to relieve him on occasions’? and whose emblem of office is an ebony staff or stick with a silver head. See Sir George Arthur, The Story of the Household Cavalry (1909).

GOLD STRIPE: see Strive. GOLDSTUCKER, THEODOR (1821-1872), German Sanskrit scholar, was born of Jewish parents at Königsberg on Jan. 18, 1821r; He studied at Königsberg, Bonn and Paris. From 1847 to 1850 he resided at Berlin, and was recognized by Alexinder von Humboldt, but his advanced political views caused the authorities to regard him with suspicion. In the latter year he removed to London, in 1852 he became professor of Sanskrit in University college. He was one of the founders and chief promoters of the Sanskrit Text Society. He died in London on March 6, 1872. As Literary Remains some of his writings were published in two volumes (1879), but his papers were left to the India Office.

GOLDWELL, THOMAS (d. 1585), English ecclesiastic, began his career as vicar of Cheriton in 1531, after graduating

at All Souls college, Oxford.

As chaplain to Cardinal Pole he

lived at Rome, was attainted in 1539, but returned to England on Mary’s accession, and in 1555 became bishop of St. Asaph. On the death of Mary, Goldwell escaped from England and in 156z became superior of the Theatines at Naples. He was the only English bishop at the council of Trent, and in 1562 was again attainted. In the following year he was appointed vicar-

general to Carlo Borromeo, archbishop of Milan. He died in Rome in 1585, the last of the English bishops who had refused to accept the Reformation. GOLDZIHER, IGNAZ (1850-1921), Jewish Hungarian orientalist, was born in Stuhlweissenburg on June 22, 1850. He was educated at the universities of Budapest, Berlin, Leipzig and Leyden, and became privatdocent at Budapest in 1872. He was

the first Jewish scholar to become professor in the Budapest university (1894), and represented the Hungarian Government and: the Academy of Sciences at numerous international con-

mostly Jews and Italian fishermen. Beyond Cape Carthage, 5 m. N. of Goletta, is La Marsa, a summer resort overlooking the sea. The bey has a palace here. and the French resident-general, the British consul, other officials. and many Tunisians have country-houses, surrounded by groves of olive trees. Before the opening of the ship canal in 1893 Goletta, as the port of Tunis, was a place of considerable importance. The

basin at the Goletta end of the canal now serves as a subsidiary harbour to that of Tunis. The most stirring events in the history

of the town are connected with the Turkish conquest of the Barbary states. Khair-ed-Din Barbarossa having made himself master of Tunis and its port, Goletta was attacked in 1535 by the emperor Charles V., who seized the pirate’s fleet, which was sheltered in the small canal, his arsenal, and 300 brass cannon. The Turks regained possession in 1574. (See Tunisia: History.)

GOLF

(in its older forms Gorr, Gourr, or Gowrr, the last

of which gives the genuine old pronunciation), a game which probably derives its name from the Ger. kolbe, a club—in Dutch, kolf—which last is nearly in sound identical and might suggest a

Dutch origin, which many pictures and other witnesses support. From an enactment of James VI. of Scotland (then James I. of England), bearing date 1618, we find that a considerable importation of golf balls at that time took place from Holland, and thereby “na small quantitie of gold and silver is transported zierly out of his Hienes’ kingdome of Scoteland.” From this it might seem that the game was at that date still known and prac-

tised in Holland. History.—One of the most ancient and most interesting pictures in which the game is portrayed is the tailpiece to an illuminated Book of Hours made at Bruges at the beginning of the 16th century. The original is in the British Museum. The players, three in number, have but one club apiece. The heads of the clubs are steel or steel covered. They play with a ball each. That which gives this picture a peculiar interest over the many pictures of

Dutch schools that portray the game in progress is that most of them show it on the ice, the putting being at a stake. In this Book

of Hours they are putting at a hole in the turf, as in our modem golf. It is scarcely to be doubted that the game is of Dutch

origin, and that it has been in favour since very early days.

Further than that our knowledge does not go. The early Dutchmen played golf, they painted golf, but they did not write it.

It is uncertain at what date golf was introduced into Scotland,

but in 1457 the popularity of the game had become so great ap to interfere with the more important pursuit of archery. In March of that year the Scottish parliament “decreted and ordained that wapinshawingis be halden be the lordis and baronis spirituale and

temporale, four times in the zeir; and that the futeball and galf be utterly cryit doun, and nocht usit; and that the bowe-merkis

be maid at ilk paroche kirk a pair of buttis, and schuttin be usit ik

GOLF Sunday.” Fourteen years afterwards, in May 1471, it was judged

necessary to pass another act “anent wapenshawings,” and in 1491 a final and evidently angry fulmination was issued on the general subject, with pains and penalties annexed. It runs thus: “Futeball and Golfe forbidden. Item, it is statut and ordainit that in na

place of the realme there be usit fute-ball, golfe, or uther sik

ynprofitabill sportis,” etc. This, be it noted, is an edict of James

499

medal, which “should be challenged and played for annually’; and in 1838, the queen dowager, duchess of St. Andrews, became patroness of the club, and presented to it a handsome gold medal,

—“The Royal Adelaide”—with a request that it should be worn by the captain, as president, on all public occasions.

In June 1863

the prince of Wales (afterwards Edward VII.) signified his desire to become patron of the club, and in the following September was

elected captain by acclamation. In more recent days, golf has become increasingly popular; in 1880 the man who travelled about England with a set of golf clubs was an object of some astonishment to his fellow-travellers. In those days the commonest of questions in regard to the game was, “You have to be a fine rider, do you not, to play golf?” so confounded was it in the popular mind with the game of polo. At Blackheath a few Scotsmen resident in London had long played golf. In 1864 the Royal North Devon club was formed at Westward Ho, and this was the first of the seaside links laid out for golf in England. In 1869 the Royal Liverpool club established itself in possession FROM MAIDEN,

“TEN LESSONS

IN GOLF"

FIG. 1.—THE GRIP A. The regular Vardon grip for the full shot. B. The application of the left hand to the club for all shots except the putt. C. A side view of the Vardon grip

IV.; and it is not a little curious presently to find the monarch himself setting an ill example to his commons, by practice of this

“ynprofitabill sportis,” as is shown by various entries in the accounts of the lord high treasurer of Scotland (1503-6).

About a century later, the game again appears on the surface of history, and it is quite as popular as before. In the year 1592 the town council of Edinburgh “ordanis proclamation to be made threw this burgh, that na inhabitants of the samyn be seen at ony pastymes within or without the toun, upoun the Sabboth day, sic as golfe, etc.” The following year the edict was re-announced, but with the modification that the prohibition was “in tyme’ of sermons.” Golf has from old times been known in Scotland as “The Royal

and Ancient Game of Goff.” James IV. is the first who figures

formally in the golfing record. James V. was also very partial to the game distinctively known as “royal”; and there is some evidence to show that his daughter, the unhappy Mary Stuart, was a golfer. It was alleged by her enemies that, as showing her shameless indifference to the fate of her husband, a very few days after his murder, she “‘was seen playing golf and pallmall in the fields beside Seton.” That her son, James VI. (afterwards James I. of England), took an interest in golf we have evidence in his act— already alluded to—‘‘anent golfe ballis,” prohibiting their importation except under certain restrictions. Charles I. was devotedly attached to the game. Whilst engaged in it on the links of Leith, in 1642, the news reached him of the Irish rebellion. He had not the equanimity to finish his match, but returned precipitately and in much agitation to Holyrood. Afterwards, while prisoner to the Scots army at Newcastle, he found his favourite diversion in

“the royal game.”

Sykes (Records of Northumberland)

says:

of the second

English

course

of this quality at

Hoylake, in Cheshire. A golf club was formed in connection with the London Scottish Volunteer corps, which had its house on the Putney end of Wimbledon Common on Putney Heath; the progress of the game was slow, though steady, for many years. A few more clubs were formed; the numbers of golfers grew; but it could not be said that the game was yet popular in England. All at once the qualities of the ancient Scottish game seemed to strike home, and from that moment its popularity has been increasingly great. The English links to rise into most immediate favour was that of the Royal St. George’s golf club, near Sandwich, on the coast of Kent. To the London golfer it was the first course of the first class that was reasonably accessible, and the fact made something like an epoch in English golf. Already there was a chain of links all round the coast, besides numerous inland courses; but since 1890 their increase has been extraordinary, and the number which has been formed in the colonies and abroad is also very large. The immense amount of golf-playing that this denotes, the large industry in the making of clubs and balls, in the upkeep of links, in the actual work of club-carrying by the caddies, and in the instruction given by the professional class, is obvious. Golf has taken a strong hold on the affections of the people in many parts of Ireland, and the fashion for golf in England has reacted strongly

on Scotland itself, the ancient home of the game.

Besides the in-

dustry that such a growth m the game denotes in the branches mentioned above, there is to be taken into account the visiting population that it brings to all lodging-houses and hotels within reach of a tolerable golf links, so that many a fishing village has arisen into a moderate watering-place by virtue of the attractions offered by its golf course. Therefore to the Briton, golf has developed into something in the nature of an important business, a business that can make towns and has a considerable effect on the receipts of railway companies.

Moreover, ladies have learned to play golf. Although this is a

crude and brief sentence, it does not state the fact too widely nor too forcibly, for though it is true that before 1885 many to go abroad and play at goff in the Shield Field, without the played on the short links of St. Andrews, North Berwick, Westwalls.” Of his son, Charles II., as a golfer, nothing whatever is ward Ho, and elsewhere, still it was virtually unknown that they known, but James II. was a known devotee. After the restoration, should play on the longer courses which, till then, had been in James, then duke of York, was sent to Edinburgh in 1681-2 as the undisputed possession of the men. Women now play on the commissioner of the king to parliament, and a historical monu- same course as the men. They have their annual championship, ment of his prowess as a golfer remains in the “Golfer’s Land,” which they play on the long links of the men, sometimes on one, as it is still called, 77 Canongate. The duke, challenged by two sometimes on another, but always on courses of the first quality, English noblemen of his suite to play a match against them, demanding the finest display of golfing skill The claim that England made to a golfing fellowship with Scotalong with any Scotch ally he might select, chose as his partner me “Johne Patersone,” a shoemaker. The duke and the said Jobne land was conceded very strikingly by the admission of three Engwon easily, and half of the large stake the duke made over to his lish greens, first those of Hoylake and of Sandwich, and in 1909 “The King was nowhere treated with more honour than at Newcastle, as he himself confessed, both he and his train having liberty

humble coadjutor, who therewith built himself the house men-

tined above. In 1834 William IV. became patron of the St. Andrews golf club (St. Andrews being then, as now, the most famous seat of the game), and approved of its being styled “The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews.”

In 1837, as fur-

ther proof of royal favour, he presented to it a magnificent gold

Deal, into the exclusive list of the links on which the open championship of the game is decided. Before England had so fully assimilated Scotland’s game this great annual contest was waged at St. Andrews, Musselburgh and Prestwick in successive years. The ancient green of Musselburgh, somewhat worn out with hard service, and moreover, as a nine-holes course inadequately accom-

500

GOLF

modating the numbers who compete in the championships to-day, was superseded by Muirfield as a championship arena. While golf was making itself a force in the southern kingdom, the professional element—men who had learned the game from childhood had become past-masters, were capable of giving instruction, and also of making clubs and balls and looking after the greens on which golf was played—was at first taken from the northern side of the Border. But when golf had been started long enough in England for the little boys employed as “caddies” to grow to sufñcient strength to drive the ball as far as their masters, it was inevitable that out of their number some should develop an exceptional talent for the game. This, in fact, actually happened,

and English golfers have proved themselves so adept at Scotland’s game that there are as many English as Scottish professional golf players, and their number is increasing. Golf also “caught on,” to use the American expression, in the United States. To the American of 1890 golf was largely an unknown thing. Since then, however, golf has become a greater factor in the life of the upper and upper-middle classes in the United States than it ever has been in England or Scotland. Golf to the English and the Scots meant only one among several of the sports and pastimes that take the man and the woman of the upper and upper-middle classes into the country and the fresh air. To the American of like status golf came as the one thing to take him out of his town and give him a reason for exercise in the country. So much enthusiasm and so much golf in America have not failed to make their influence felt in the United Kingdom. Naturally and inevitably they have created a strong demand for professional instruction, and for professional advice and assistance in the laying out and upkeep of the many new links that have been created in all parts of the States, sometimes out of the least promising material. By the offer of great prizes for exhibition matches, and of wages that are to the British rate on the scale of the dollar to the shilling, they have attracted many of the best Scottish and English professionals to pay them longer or shorter visits as the case may be, and thus a new opening has been created

plays against a “bogey” score—a score fixed for each hole in the

round before starting—and his position in the competition rélatively to the other players is determined by the number of holes that he is to the good or to the bad of the “bogey” score at the

end of the round. The player who is most holes to the good, or fewest holes to the bad, wins the competition.

Golf occupies the

almost unique position of being the only sport in which even a single player can enjoy his game, his opponent in this event being “Colonel Bogey’-—more often than not a redoubtable adversary, The open championship of golf was started in 1860 by the Prestwick club giving a belt to be played for annually under the con.

dition that it should become the property of any who could win it thrice in succession. The champions in the first three years

were :—

1860. W. Park, Musselburgh 174, at Prestwick

1861. Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick 163, at Prestwick 1862. Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick 163, at Prestwick

Tom Morris, jun., won the belt finally, according to the con. ditions, in 1868-69-70. In 1871 there was no competition; but by 1872 the three clubs of St. Andrews, Prestwick, and Musselburgh had subscribed for a cup which should be played for over the course of each subscribing club successively, but should never become the property of the winner. In later years the course at Muirfield was substituted for that at Musselburgh, and Hoylake

and Sandwich were admitted into the list of championship courses, Up to 1891, inclusive, the play of two rounds, or 36 holes, determined the championship, but from 1892 the result has been determined on 72 holes (for list of champions see page 503). There have been some slight changes of detail and arrangement as time has gone on, in the rules of the game (the latest edition of the rules should be consulted). A new class of golfer has arisen, requiring a code of rules framed rather more exactly than the older code. The Scottish golfer, who was “teethed” on a golf club,

as Mr. Andrew Lang has described it, imbibed all the traditions of the game with his natural sustenance.

Very few rules sufficed for

him. But when the Englishman, and still more the American (less

in touch with the traditions), began to play golf as a new game, for the energies of the professional golfing class. they began to ask for a code of rules that should be lucid on every The Game.—tThe game of golf consists in hitting the ball over point—an ideal perhaps impossible to realize. It was found, at a stretch of country, preferably of that sand-hill nature which is least, that the code put forward by the Royal and Ancient Club of found by the sea-side, and finally hitting or “putting” it into a little hole of some 4in. diameter cut in the turf. The place of the hole 1s commonly marked by a flag. Eighteen is the recognized number of these holes on a full course, and they are at varying distances apart. For the various strokes required to achieve the

hitting of the ball over the hills, and finally putting it into the small hole, different “clubs” have been devised to suit the different positions in which the ball may be found. At the start for each hole the ball may be placed on a favourable position (e.g. “tee’d” on a small mound of sand) for striking it, but after that it may

not be touched, except with the club, until it is hit into the next hole. It is easily to be understood that when the ball is lying on the turf behind a tall sand-hill, or in a bunker, a differently-shaped club is required for raising it over such an obstacle from that which is needed when it is placed on the tee to start with; and again, that another club is needed to strike the ball out of a cup or out of heavy grass. It is this variety that gives the game its charm. Each player plays with his own ball, with no interference from his opponent, and the object of each is to hit the ball from the starting-point into each successive hole in the fewest strokes. The player who at the end of the round (z.e., of the course of 18 holes) has won the majority of the holes is the winner of the round; or the decision may be reached before the end of the round by one side gaining more holes than there remain to play. The British amateur championship is decided by a tournament in matches thus played, each defeated player retiring, and his

opponent passing on into the next round. In the open championship, and in most medal competitions, the scores are différently reckoned—each man’s total score (irrespective of his relative merit at each hole) being reckoned at the finish against the total score of each other player in the competition.

There is also a

species of competition called “bogey” play, in which each man

FROM

MAIDEN,

"TEN

LESSONS

IN

GOLF”

FIG. 2.—WRIST

ACTION

The correct position of the hands at the top of the swing Is illustrated at

left. At right is shown the finish.

Note that the right hand appears to hold

loosely and the [eft firmly

St. Andrews did not realize it adequately. Nevertheless the new golfers were very loyal indeed to the club that had held, by tacit

consent, the position of fount of golfing legislation. The Royal and

Ancient Club was appealed to by English golfers to step into the place, analogous to that of the Marylebone Cricket Club in cricket, that they were both willing and anxious to give it. It was a place that the club at St. Andrews did not in the least wish to occupy, but the honour was thrust so insistently upon it that there was no declining. The latest effort to meet the demands for some more

gor

GOLF satisfactory legislation on the thousand and one points that continually arise for decision consists of the appointment of a stand-

ing committee,

called the

“Rules

of Golf

Committee.”

Its

members all belong to the Royal and Ancient Club; but since this

club draws its membership from all parts of Britain and Ireland, this restriction is quite consistent with a very general representa~

tion of the views of north, south, east, and west—from Westward

first balls of the kind were called, was not good. The rubbercored ball, which is now everywhere in use, is a hard core of guttapercha or some other substance, round which is wound, by machinery, india-rubber thread or strips at a high tension, and over all is an outer coat of gutta-percha. Some makers have tried to dispense with the keel of hard substance, or to substitute for

it kernels of some fluid or gelatinous substance, but in general

the above is a sufficient, though rough, description of the mode of making these balls. Their superiority over the solid gutta-percha lies in their superior resiliency. The effect is that they go much more lightly off the club. They also go remarkably well off the iron clubs, and thus make the game easier by placing the player within an iron shot of the hole at a distance at which he would have to use a wooden club if he were playing with a solid gutta-percha ball. They also tend to make the game more easy by the fact that if they are at all mis-hit they go much better than a gutta-percha

ball similarly inaccurately struck. As a slight set-off against these qualities, the ball, because of the greater liveliness, is not quite so good for the short game as the solid ball; but on the whole its advantages distinctly overbalance its disadvantages. When these balls were first put on the market they were sold at 2s. each and even, when the supply was quite unequal to the

demand, at a great deal higher price, rising to as much as a guinea

FROM

MAIDEN,

“TEN

FIG.

LESSONS

IN

3.—TWO

GOLF”

STANCES

FOR

WOOD

CLUB

PLAY

At the left, the “square” stance, the feet parallel with the line of the shot; the ball opposite the left heel.

At the right, the “open”

left foot drawn back somewhat farther from the line of flight

stance,

with

the

Ho and Sandwich to Dornoch, and all the many first-rate links of Ireland—on the committee. Ireland has some of the best links in the British Isles, and yields to neither Scotland nor England

in enthusiasm for the game. This committee, after a general revision of the rules into the form in which they now stand, consider every month, either by meeting or by correspondence, the questions that are sent up to it by clubs or by individuals; and the committee’s answers to these questions have the force of law until they have come before the next general meeting of the Royal and Ancient Club at St. Andrews, which may confirm or may reject them at will. The women of Great Britain manage otherwise. They have a golfing union which settles questions for them, but since this union itself accepts as binding the answers given by the Rules of Golf Committee, they arrive at the same conclusions by a slightly different path. Nor does the American union, governing the play of men and women alike in the States, really act differ-

ently. The Americans naturally reserve to themselves freedom to make their own rules, but in practice they conform to the legislation of Scotland, with the exception of a more drastic definition of the status of the amateur player, and certain differences as to the clubs used. A considerable modification had been effected on the implements of the game. The tendency of the modern wooden. clubs is to be short in the heads as compared with the clubs of, say, 1880 or 1885. The advantage claimed for this shape is that it masses the

weight behind the point on which the ball is struck. Better material in the wood of the club is a consequence of the increased demand for these articles and the increased competition among their makers. Whereas under the old conditions a few workers at the few greens then in existence were enough to supply the golfing wants, now there is a very large industry in golf club and hall making, which not only employs workers in the local club-makers’ shops all the kingdom over, but is an important branch of the commerce of the stores and of the big athletic outfitters both in Great Britain and in the United States. By far the largest modification in the game since the change to gutta-percha balls from

balls of leather-covering stuffed with feathers, is due to the Ameri-

can invention of the india-rubber cored balls. Practically it is as an American invention that it is still regarded, although the British

law courts decided, after a lengthy trial (190s), that there had

been “prior users” of the principle of the balls’ manufacture, and

therefore that the patent of Mr. Haskell, by whose name the

a ball. But the normal price, until about a year after the decision in the British courts of law affirming that there was no patent in the balls, was always 2s. for the best quality of ball. Subsequently there was a reduction to 1s. for the balls made by many of the manufacturing companies, though in 1910 the rise in the price of rubber sent up the cost. The rubber-cored ball does not go out of shape so quickly as the gutta-percha solid ball and does not show other marks of ill-usage with the club so obviously. It has had the effect of making the game a good deal easier for the second and third class players, favouring especially those who were

short drivers with the old gutta-percha ball. To the best players it has made the least difference, nevertheless those who were best with the old ball are also best with the new; its effect has merely been to bring the best closer to each other. The expenditure of clubs on their courses has increased and tends to increase. Demands are more insistent than they used to be for a well kept course, for perfectly mown greens, renewed teeing grounds and so on, and probably the modern golfer is a good deal more luxurious in his clubhouse wants than his father used to be. This means a big staff of servants and workers on the green, and to meet this a rather heavy subscription is required.

Such a subscription as five guineas added to a ten or 15-guinea entrance fee is not uncommon,

and even this is very moderate

compared with the subscriptions to some of the clubs in the United States, where $150 to $250 a year is not unusual and admission costs in some cases amount to $2,500. But on the whole, golf is yery economical, as compared with almost any other sport which engages the attention of Britons, and it is a pastime for all the year round and for all the life of a man or woman. GOLF SINCE 1910

Since 1910 the popularity of golf has increased steadily in Great Britain, while in the United States of America it has spread like a prairie fire. There could be no more striking evidence than the fact that the profession of the golf architect has now become an exceedingly busy and prosperous one. Tracts of woodland, where it would once have been deemed impossible to make a course, have

been hacked and hewn into shape, tree stumps have been blown

up with dynamite; and on one famous course in America, the Lido, sand has been sucked up from the sea by giant engines and

spread over a flat marsh in picturesque hills and valleys. designing of courses has developed into an art.

The

This, which may be called the second great boom in the history of the game, began with the coming of the rubber-cored ball and is no doubt largely due to it. The ball made the game easier and pleasanter for the average man to play, but it has had its disadvantages. The ball goes so far that there has been a constant cry that courses are too short. Consequently clubs have had to remake their courses, taking in more ground with great attendant

502

GOLF

expense. Some attempts have been made, though not with any conspicuous success, to limit the ball’s activities. In 1920, there was passed a rule, still in force, which lays down that the weight of the ball shall not be greater than 1-620z. avoirdupois and the size not less than 1-62in. in diameter. The “implements committee” of the U.S. Golf Association, after exhaustive experiments, proposed a further slight limitation, At the autumn meeting of the

Royal and Ancient Club in 1925 it was proposed that a ball thus further limited should be used in the open and amateur championships of 1926, but the proposal was rejected by a large majority. The American authorities are still anxious to take some definite step towards limiting the ball, but at the moment it seems doubtful whether any concerted action will be taken. GOLF IN FRANCE AND ELSEWHERE Before coming to British golf, something must be said of that in other countries. As long ago as 1907, Arnaud Massy, originally a Biarritz fisherman, won the British open championship. He has never repeated that feat, though he tied with Vardon in 1911 and has several times beaten strong fields of British players in the French championship and did so once again in 1925. There has been no other French professional as good as Massy, but there has been a number of very good ones, such as the late Louis Tellier, Gassiat, Laffitte, Daugé, and one most remarkable onearmed player, Yves Bocatzou. The French amateurs have hardly yet reached the same standard, but France has produced one extremely good lady player, Mlle. Simone de la Chaume. She is already a very fine player, and in 1927 won the British ladies’ championship, though it should be added that neither Miss Wethered nor Miss Leitch was competing. There are to-day some very good courses in France. Paris has La Boulie, Chantilly, St. Cloud, and Fontainebleau. Le Touquet, near Etaples, is excellent, a mixture of seaside sand and inland pine trees; and Wimereux, lately remodelled, promises well. In the Riviera English visitors have made courses of varying quality. Cannes has one very pleasant one among pine trees at Napoules and the new Cannes country club, rather farther off at Mougins, is probably better. Sospel, in a mountain valley above Mentone, is very charming, and others that are at least pretty and worth playing on are Costebelle, Valescure, and Cagnes, near Nice. On the Cote d’Argent there is La Nivelle, near St. Jean de Luz, where Massy is the professional, and Biarritz. Moreover, close to Biar-

ritz there is a new course, Chiberta, which, if time and the blazing sun are kind to it, should be a course of a higher class than any of those mentioned. Nor must Pau be forgotten. It is a club of now almost venerable age, one of the oldest out of Scotland. The golf is good and interesting and, what is more, can be played in reasonable peace and quiet. Switzerland and Italy have courses which are at least very beautiful. Canada, if it has not yet quite attained to the American standard of skill, is almost as keen and spends almost as much money on its courses and club houses. Australia has some good courses, notably perhaps Seaton, near Adelaide, and Kensington, near Sydney; and it has bred at least one first-class professional, Joseph Kirkwood, who has several times done well in the British open championship and is now one of the leading professionals in America. Japan has taken to the game with enthusiasm, although the turf of the country is not of the best kind. It possesses a golf paper, Goifdom, and has some good players, although none has yet reached the standard of its lawn-tennis players. In short, in its world-wide character the game is only second to lawn tennis.

THE GAME IN GREAT BRITAIN In Great Britain golf has become steadily more and more popular, and nowhere more markedly than in its original home, Scotland. There, it is essentially the people’s game, and there are many municipal courses on which it can be played at the minimum of expense. In England, it is still largely the game of the comparatively well-to-do, but mumicipal golf is on the increase, and wherever it arises it is an instant success, as witness the public

course in Richmond Park, which is crowded with all sorts and conditions of players. There are to-day far more golfers than

there used to be who have begun the game as boys. It is nota school game but many boys play in their holidays; and, con. sidering this fact, it is rather surprising that Great Britain does not breed more good young players. The universities of Oxford ang Cambridge are full of golfers, but only a few of them are really

good and the standard of university teams is not noticeably

higher than it used to be. The number of players who may fairly be called good has of course increased greatly throughout the country and championship fields have correspondingly increased, British Amateurs.—It has already been said that when the

game was resumed after the World War the leading British pro-

fessionals were a little past their best. Much the same may be said as regards the amateurs. Mr. John Ball, Mr. Hilton, and others of their generation had naturally begun to think of retiring and their places were left open. Two very brilliant young players, too young to be heard of before the war, at once made their presence felt after it, Mr. Cyril Tolley and Mr. Roger Wethered. Of all British

golfers in late years, these two have been the most essentially dramatic, and have taken the largest share of public attention.

Both can hit the ball enormous distances, both are on their day

almost unapproachably good and both can be, on an off day, disappointing. They lack the consistency of such a player as Mr. John Ball, but the game as played by them is an exciting and attractive one. Each has won the amateur championship once. Mr. Tolley has won the French open championship against a strong

field, and Mr. Wethered did the best thing which any British amateur has done for a long time when he tied for the open championship with Jock Hutchison. A golfer of a rather different type, Sir Ernest Holderness, has twice won the amateur championship since the war and, though

he has not the magnetic powers of a Tolley or a Wethered, he is beyond doubt a very fine player. In the matter of consistency and steadiness he challenges comparison with the best of the older: amateurs. In 1925 another eminently consistent player, Mr. Robert Harris, won the amateur championship. It was a most popular victory, for Mr. Harris has now been among the leading amateurs for a long time; he was in the semi-final of the amateur championship as long ago as 1907 and in the final in 1913 and 1923. In 1926, Mr. Sweetser, the American, won. The year 1927 saw no American invasion but produced a new and entirely worthy

FRON

MAIDEN, “TEN LESSONS

IN

GOLF”

FIG. 4.—THE PUTTING POSITION

In this stroke, the wrists are. exactly opposed, the palms held facing one another, and the club sent on through the ball straight down the line of the putt.

The back swing here is for a putt of twenty feet

champion in Dr. Tweddell of Stourbridge who, though an Eng-

lishman, learnt much of his golf in Scotland. He is an extremely sound and painstaking golfer and his victory will probably be good for golf because he is a player who is essentially straight and accurate. There is some danger lest too much importance should be attached to length and young golfers should indulge in an orgy of slogging. On the whole the amateur standard is gomg

up; but there is still room for a combination of the older and

younger virtues.

British Professionals.—No one or two professionals have

definitely succeeded to the throne left vacant by the “triumvirate —Vardon, Braid, and Taylor. Duncan appeared likely to do 80

when he played so wonderfully well in 1920, but he has since been

GOLF somewhat fitful and inconstant. He is a magnificent golfer but | Year. lacks something of solidity and stolidity. Much the same may be 1924 1925 said of Abe Mitchell, who has never yet won the open champion1926 ship, though he has been very successful in tournaments by match lay. It is almost impossible to imagine anything better than 1927 Mitchell’s golf when things are going well; his brother professionals always expect him to win; but he, too, seems to want that 1928

503 Open. W. Hagen J. M. Barnes

Amateur. E. Holderness R. Harris

Ladies. Miss J. Wethered Miss J. Wethered

Jones R. T. Jones

Jesse Sweetser W. Tweddell P. T. Perkins

Miss C. Leitch Mile. Simone de la Chaume Mille. Manet Leblanc

Robert T. (“Bobby”)

W. Hagen *After tie with A. Massy. jAfter tie with R. H. Wethered.

Glossary of Technical Terms Used in the Game Ace.—A hole scored in one stroke. Addressing the Ball——Putting oneself in position to strike the ball. All Square.—Term used to express that the score stands level, neither side being a hole up. Approaching.—Playing or attempting to play a ball on to the putting green. 4 Away—The player whose ball lies furthest from the hole is said to e away. Back spin—Rotating of the ball in flight backward, imparted by causing the clubhead

FROM MAIDEN,

“TEN LESSONS

IN GOLF"

FIG. 5.—THE CHIP SHOT In the normal hands are held tlon. For the hands are just

chip-and-run most of the weight is on the left foot and the slightly in front of the ball at the address, as in the illustrachip-and-drag the weight is more on the right foot and the behind the ball

power of rising superior to circumstances, which Hagen so conspicuously possesses. The two Whitcombes, George Gadd, Ockenden, Havers, and many others all play exceedingly well without

" quite rising to the greatest heights. In 1925, however, there appeared suddenly another player, Compston, who adds great determination and character to great physical strength and may possibly be the man for whom the British golfing world has been waiting. He was unquestionably the player of the year and appears, far from relaxing his efforts after a victory, to go from strength to strength. Late in the year he was defeated by Abe Mitchell, who played golf of overpowering brilliancy, but this did not discourage him, after seeming to go back for a while, he

played perhaps the best golf of his life towards the end of 1927. Golf for Ladies.—In its ladies’ golf Great Britain is strongest. For the first few years after the war Miss Cecil Leitch was the outstanding figure. She has all the qualities of a great player; it

is possible to criticize her rather unorthodox methods, but not

their results. She is still as good as ever, but she has been surpassed by Miss Joyce Wethered, who to equal strength and courage adds a sounder method. Indeed, she is so sound in everything she does that it is impossible to suggest even the smallest loophole in her armour. She won the English close championship five times in succession and the open championship three times in four years, the last time after a terrific struggle with Miss Leitch, in which both played superbly. She has now no worlds left to conquer and has, for a while at any rate, retired from public competition. Miss Leitch has also not played quite so regularly in championships; but these two may still be said to dominate ladies’ golf. WINNERS OF BRITISH Year, Open. 1900 J. H. Taylor H. 1901 J. Braid H. 1902 A. Herd C. 1903 H. Vardon R. 1904 J. White W. 1905 J. Braid A. 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 IQII 1912 1913 1914 IQI5~I9I9

1920

1921 1922

1023

J. Braid A. Massy J. Braid

J. H. Taylor J. Braid H. Vardon* E. Ray J. H. Taylor H. Vardon

G. Duncan

J. Hutchisont W. Hagen

A. G, Havers

CHAMPIONSHIP FROM 1900. Amateur. Ladies. H. Hilton Miss R. K. Adair H. Hilton Miss M. A. Graham Hutchings Miss M. Hezlet

Maxwell J. Travis G. Barry . Robb John Ball E. A. Lassen R. Maxwell Jobn Ball H. H. Hilton John Ball H. H. Hilton J. L. C. Jenkins No competitions.

Miss Miss Miss Mrs. Miss Miss Miss Miss Miss Miss Miss Miss

R. K. Adair L, Dod B. Thompson Kennion M. Hezlet M. Titterton D. Campbell Grant Suttie D. Campbell G. Ravenscroft M. Dodd C. Leitch

W. I. Hunter E. Holderness

Miss C. Leitch Miss J. Wethered

C. J. H. Tolley

Miss C. Leitch

R, H. Wethered

Miss D. Chambers

to strike the ball a descending

blow,

as in a

draw shot in billiards. Baf.—To strike the ground with the club when playing, and so loft the ball unduly. Bafy——A short wooden club, with laid-back face, for lofting shots. Bent.—Rushes. Also a certain species of grass of fine texture used for

putting greens.

Best-Ball Match.—A match in which a single player competes against the better ball of two others. Birdie-—A hole scored in a stroke less than par. Bisque.—A handicap stroke given under the condition that the player may use it at his option on any hole, but with the provision that he must announce his choice to do so on any hole, before striking off from the tee for the next hole. Bogey.—The number of strokes which a good average player

should take to each hole. This imaginary player is usually known as “Colonel Bogey” and plays a fine game. Bone.—A piece of horn, wood fibre, or hard composition placed in the sole of the club at its front edges to protect it from injury. Borrow.—In putting to play to the right or left of the direct line from ball to the hole in order to compensate for roll or slant in the putting green. Brassy——A wooden club with a brass sole. Bulger-—A driver in which the face “bulges” into a convex shape. The head is shorter than in the older-fashioned driver. Bunker-—A sand-pit, either natural or artificial, preferably the former. The word is loosely used also for any hollow (in which a ae may not be grounded) devised to endanger the approach to the ole. Bye—The holes remaining after one side has become more holes up than remain for play. Caddie.—The person who carries the clubs. Diminutive of “cad”; (from Fr. cadet, cf. laddie). Carry-—The distance between where a ball is hit and where it first strikes the ground. Cleek.—The iron-headed club that is capable of the farthest drive of any of the clubs with iron heads. Club.—The implement with which the ball is struck. Cop.—The top or parapet of a bunker. Course.—The terrain over which the game is played. AH ground on which play is permitted, including fairway, rough, hazards and putting greens. See also Links. Cup—A depression in the ground causing the ball to lie badly. Cuppy.—Referring to the position of the ball, a small depression in the ground, as a cuppy lie. Dead—A ball is said to be “dead” when so near the hole that the

putting it in in the next stroke is a “dead” certainty. A ball is said

to “fall dead” when it pitches with hardly any run. Divot—A piece of turf cut out in the act of playing, which, be it noted, should always be replaced before the player moves on. Dormy.—One side is said to be “dormy” when it is as many holes to the good as remain to be playéd—so that it cannot be beaten. Draw—An effect of making the ball curve or veer to the left. See also Hook and Pull. Driver—The longest driving club, used when the ball lies very well and a long shot is needed. Driving Iron—An iron club with little loft; similar to the cleek, but having a slightly shorter and thicker blade, Eagle—A hole scored in two less than par, Face.—The surface of the club with which the ball is struck. Fairwoy.—The expanse of ground, extending in whole or in part from the tee to the putting green, especially prepared for play with excellent turf on which the grass is kept cut. Flat.—Referred to the club, as a “flat lie,” means that the angle between the sole of the club and the shaft is decidedly obtuse.

Follow Througk—The continuation of the sweep of the club aft the ball has been struck. +

504

GOLF

Foozle-—Any very badly missed or bungled stroke. “Fore!”—A cry of warning to people in front. Fourball Match—A match in which two players to a side are engaged, each plaving his own ball. Foursome—A, match in which four persons engage with two balls, two on each side playing alternately with the same ball. A four-ball match implies that each of the four players uses his own ball only, and they may all play against each other or may play in pairs, the best ball of each pair scoring. Gobble-—Said of a boldly hit putt, which finds the hole, but which must have gone considerably beyond the hole, had it failed to go in. Ni a The links as a whole; (b) the “putting-greens” around the holes. Grip—(a) The part of the club-shaft which is held in the hands while playing; (b) the grasp itselfi—e.g. “a firm grip,” “a loose grip,” are common expressions. Half-—An expression used to indicate a handicap allowance, meaning a stroke on every other hole; also one used to indicate that two players scored alike on a hole. Half-Shot.—A shot played with something less than a full swing. Halved—aA hole is “halved” when both sides have played it in the same number of strokes. A round is “halved” when each side has won and lost the same number of holes. Handicap.—The strokes which a player received either in match play or competition. Hanging.—Said of a ball that lies on a slope inclining downwards in regard to the direction in which it is wished to drive. Hazard.—Limited space or area in which the privileges of play are

restricted, including bunkers, water courses, ponds, sand, etc.; also recognized roadways and paths. Head.—The knob or crook part of the club as distinguished from the shaft or handle. Heads are made of wood, iron, and sometimes metallic compounds. Heel—To hit the ball on the “heel” of the club, i.e. the part of the face nearest the shaft, and so send the ball to the right, with the same result as from a slice. Hole.—-The circular opening in the ground into which the ball is played, being 44 in. in diameter and 4 in. deep; also a unit of play including teeing ground, putting green and all intermediate ground. Hole-out-—To make the final stroke in playing the ball into the hole. Honour —tThe privilege (which its holder is not at liberty to decline} of striking off first from the tee,

oe

flight.

of

ee cause the ball to swerve to the left of its original line

i H oe or Hosel—The tted.

socket on iron clubs into which the shaft is

Iron.—An iron-headed club intermediate between the cleek and lofting mashie. There are driving irons and lofting irons according to the purposes for which they are intended. Jigger~—~An iron club with narrow blade, in classification intermediate between a midiron and a mashie. Lie—(a) The angle of the club-head with the shaft (e.g. a “flat lie,” “an upright lie,”); (b) the position of the ball on the ground (e.g. a “good lie,” “a bad lie”). Like, The.—The stroke which makes the player’s score equal to his opponent’s in course of playing a hole. Like-as-we-Lie—-Said when both sides have played the same number of strokes. Line-—The direction in which the hole towards which the player is progressing lies with reference to the present position of his ball. Links.—Ground on which golf is played; more properly used of a seaside course. Lojt-—The angle of declination from 90° on the face of a club; also shhit ra ball on a high short trajectory, usually over some intervening

Neck.—The bent or crooked part of the club where the Shaft joins on to the head.

Niblick.—A short stiff club with a short, laid back, iron head used

: for getting the ball out of a very bad lie. Number One.—A late tendency to number iron clubs rates them follows: Number one, driving iron; number two, midiron: numberas three, mid-mashie or mashie-iron; number four, mashie; number five mashie-niblick; number six, niblick. , Nose.—The outward point of the club face; called also the toe. Odd, The—A stroke more than the opponent has played. Par.—Theoretically perfect play, calculated on the number of Strokes required to reach the green, plus two putts.

Distance is the chief fac-

tor in determining the par for a hole. Following are the divisions: all distances up to 250 yds., par 3; 251 to 445, par 4; 446 to 600, par s: , over 600, par 6. Pitch —To lob or loft a ball into the air. Pitch-and-run.—To so play the ball that a part of the desired dis-

tance is to be covered by the roll of the ball after it strikes the ground.

Press——To strive to hit harder than you can hit with accuracy. Pull—To hit the ball with a pulling movement of the club, so as to make it curve to the left. Push-Shot.—A stroke with an iron club in which the player keeps the weight well forward on the left foot, holds the wrists firm, and causes the clubhead to strike the ball a descending blow. are play the short strokes near the hole (pronounced as in “but”). Putter —The straight-faced club used for playing the short strokes near the hole. Some have a wooden head, some a metal head. Quarter-Shot—A stroke in which the club is taken back practically half the distance from its position in the address to a vertical one overhead. Rough —Ground to left and right of the fairway; also at times inter. vening between the tee and fairway, on which vegetation is allowed to grow without being cut; long grass and weeds. Rub-of-the-Green—Any chance deflection that the ball receives as it goes along. Run.—~-The distance the ball rolls after striking the ground. Run Up—To send the ball low and close to the ground in approaching the hole—opposite to lofting it up. Scare.—That portion of wood clubs where the head and shaft are eva together, the union being bound by closely wound thread or cord. Sclafi—To strike the ground back of the ball before striking it.

Scratch Player—Player who receives no odds in handicap com-

petitions. Scruf.—To cut just through the roots of the grass in playing the ball. Shaft—The handle of the club, as distinguished from the head. Short Game.—Approach shots and putts. Single—-A match between two players. ; Slice-—To hit the ball with a cut across it, so that it flies curving to the right; also the flight of ball so struck. , Socket.—The opening in the neck of an iron club into which the shaft is fitted; also to hit the ball back on this part of the club, or the heel,

obstacie.

eo

the

ball.

iron club with considerable loft on the face, for lofting

Long Game—-The strokes where distance is an important factor, as distinguished from play where control of distance is a problem. Loose Impediments—Any detached object lying in the immediate vicinity of the ball, not fixed in the earth. AMashie-——An iron club with a short head. The lofting mashie has the blade much laid back, for playing a short lofting shot. The driving TE has the blade less laid back, and is used for longer, less lofted ots.

Mashie-Iron—ÀA heavy mashie with a somewhat longer shaft than the mashie. rii aca intermediate iron club between the mashie and

niblick. Match-Play.—Play in which score is reckoned by holes won and lost.

Medai-Play-—Play in which the score is reckoned by the total of strokes taken on the round. Midiron—An iron head club for medium distances, having less loft than a cleek or driving iron, and more than a mashie. Mid-Mashie-—-A deep-face mashie with a slightly longer shaft than a mashie. Nassau.—A basis of scoring, in which three points are involved, one

a the first nine holes, one on the second nine, and one on the full eighteen.

FROM

MAIDEN,

“TEN

LESSONS

IN

FIG.

GOLF?

6.—THE

MEDIUM

PITCH

In the medium pitch, the ball is opposite to the left foot, most of the welght is on the right foot, and the ball is hit fairly in the back, the club being carried through without turning the hands over to the left. The left arm must be kept straight all through the stroke 5

Sole——-The bottom of the club on which it rests when set in position on the ground. Spoon.—A wooden head club with considerable loft and a shaft shorter than the driver or brassie. Spring.—The resilience in the shaft of a club. Square—Said of a match, when the players are even. Stance.—The position of the player’s feet in hitting the ball. Stances are designated as open, square and closed. In the square stance, the

toes of the feet are in a line parallel with the proposed line of play. In the open stance, the left foot is drawn back from the line. In closed stance, this foot is advanced beyond the line.

Stroke.—The hitting or trying to hit the ball. A forward movement

of the club made with the intent to hit the ball, even though the ball ®

GOLF

595 UNITED STATES

struck, constitutes a stroke. Swing.—The sweep of the club in the operation of hitting the ball.

y ot

Golf first began to attract serious attention in the United States Tee-—Lhe little mound of sand on which the ball is generally placed sometime during the early and middle ’80s when such pioneers as =e for the first drive to each hole. Teeing-Ground.—The place marked as the limit, outside of which Charles B. MacDonald, Robert Lockhart, T. A. Bell and George it ig not permitted to drive the ball off. This marked-out ground is Wright carried clubs and balls into the country. The early history also sometimes called “the tee.” of golf in the United States is shrouded in a fog of doubt. Out of Third-—An expression in handicapping, meaning that one of the this fog two facts seem well established. One is that the first actual bona fide golf club, organized as such, war the St. Andrews golf club of Yonkers, N.Y., which in 1888 constructed and played over a six-hole course. The other is that the Chicago golf club was the first to construct a full 18 hole course.

This club, whose

course was designed and constructed by Charles B. MacDonald, had 18 holes ready for play at Wheaton, Ill, in 1893. In the late *80s J. Hamilton Gillespie, a young Scotchman heading a land syndicate, made a start at Sarasota, Fla., and about the same time T. A. Bell laid out four holes on a farm belonging to his father in what is now a part of the city of Burlington, Ia. Bell claims to have been the first man to carry golf clubs into the United States. The first competition which assumed the nature of a national

championship was played at the Newport (R.I.) golf club, on Sept. 3-4, 1894. It was a stroke play competition over 36 holes and was won by W. G. Lawrence with a total of 188 strokes, Charles B. MacDonald finishing second with 189. In October of the same year a match play meeting was held at the St. Andrews golf club. It was won by L. B. Stoddart, who defeated MacDonald FROM MAIDEN, “TEN LESSONS

by one hole in the final match.

IN GOLF” FIG.

7.—THE

FULL

PITCH

For the full pitch, the ball is played back of the left heel and the weight is more on the left foot.

The hands are lifted freely but the club should not go

any farther back than here shown.

The left arm

is kept straight.

The grip is

firm with the left hand and light with the right

payee is allowed a stroke on one-third of the holes, or six strokes in 18 holes.

Before the season of 1895 opened,

the U.S. Golf Association was formed and held the first formal championship at the Newport It was won by MacDonald, Andrews in the final match. members of the association. Newport, R.I., the Shinnecock

golf club in October of that year. who defeated C. E. Sands of St. Five clubs made up the charter They were the Newport golf club, Hills golf club, Southampton, L.I., the Country club, Brookline, Mass., St. Andrews golf club and

Three-Quarter Swing.—A stroke in which the club on the back-swing is carried back approximately half-way between a vertical position and the Chicago golf club. a horizontal one back of the head. The year 1895 also saw the first open championship as well as Three-Ball Match—A match in which three players compete against the first championship for women. The former was held at the the other, each playing his own ball. Newport golf club at 36 holes. It was won by Horace Rawlins Three-Some——A match in which one player competes against two others of a side, the two playing alternate strokes with the same ball. with a total of 173 strokes. The women’s championship was played Through-the-Green.—Conditions governing play from the time the at the Meadowbrook club, L.I., and was won by Mrs. C. S. Brown, ball is played from the tee until it reaches the green, except in hazards. Through-the-green covers play both in fairway and in the rough. Toe—The outward point of the head of the club; also called nose. Top.—To hit the ball above the centre, so that it does not rise much from the ground. Under-Cut.—Also called “cut”; same as Back Spin. Up—aA player is said to be “one up,” ‘two up,” etc., when he is

so many holes to the good of his opponent.

Upright—Referring to the lie of clubs, means that the angle between the head of the club and the shaft is less obtuse than in a flat lie. Whipping —The thread or twine used in wrapping the space where the head and shaft of the club are joined together. Wrist-Shot—A shot less in length than a half-shot, but longer tban a putt. (I. Bn.; H. G. H.; B. D.) BrsriocgrapHy.—J. Kerr, Golf Book of East Lothian (1896); W. E. Hughes, Chronicle of Blackheath Golfers (1897); R. Clark, Golf: A Royal and Ancient Game (1899); H. J. Whigham, The Book of Golf and Golfers (1809); H. G. Hutchin;on, Hints on Golf (1903); G. W. Beldam, Great Golfers: their Methods at a glance (1904); J. Braid,

Advanced Golf (1908); A. Massy, Le Golf (1911); J. H. Taylor, Taylor on Golf (1911); H. G. Hutchinson,

The New Book of Golf

(1912); Fifty Years of Golf (1919); J. D. Travers, A Golf Book

(t913); J. W. Duncan and B. A. Clark, Municipal Golf (Seattle, 1917); J. M. Barnes, Picture Analysis of Golf Strokes (x919); A

Guide to Good Golf (1925) ; H. S. Colt and C. H. Alison, Some Essays an Golf Course Architecture (1920); B. Darwin, Golf: Some Hints and Suggestions (1920); A Friendly Round (1922); The Golf Courses

of Great Britain (1925); C. Evans, Chick Evans’ Golf Book (1921);

FROM

MAIDEN,

“TEN

LESSONS

IN GOLF”

FIG. 8.—THE

FULL

IRON SHOT

Note that the left heel is hardly off the turf at the top of the swing, the left foot supporting not less than half the weight (it supports more than half

at the address) and continuing to grip the ground firmly. Left arm Is straight, hands lifted high and both exactly under the club, which must not be carried

À. Kirkaldy, Fifty Years of Golf (1921); F. Ouimet, Golf Facts for below the horizontal Young People (1921) ; J. White, Putting (1921) ; Easter Golf (1924) ; Cecil Leitch, Golf, etc. (1922); H. H. Hilton, Modern Golf (1922); who scored 132 for the 18 holes. It is further noteworthy that R. and J. Wethered, Golf from Two Sides (1922); G. W. Beldam, 1895 saw a marked growth in the number of golf clubs in the The World’s Champion Golfers (1924); G. Duncan and B. Darwin, country. From about 4o at the beginning of the year the number Present Day Golf (1924); G. Sarazen, Common Sense Golf Tips (1024); R. E. Howard, Lessons from Great Golfers (1924); C. J. H. Tolley, The Modern Golfer (1924): H. Vardon, How to Play Golf

(1924); Abe Mitchell, The Essentials of Golf (1926) ; Robert Hunter,

The Links (1926) ; Robert T. Jones, jun., and O. B. Keeler, Down the F mrway

(1927);

see also the volume

on

Golf in the Badminton

Library, The Golfers’ Yearbook, The Golfing Annual, and the Amer“xan Annual Golf Guide and Yearbook. (H. G. H.; B. D.)

had increased to more than roo by the end. Growth of the Game.—Naturally enough, in the early days of the game its leading exponents both in administration and playing skill were men and women who had first taken to it in the British Isles. For several years players so trained were the successful competitors for championship honours both among amateurs and

506 professionals.

GOLF But by r900 Walter J. Travis, who developed his

held. But beginning in 1919, the national events were resumed,

game in the United States, though an Australian by birth, succeeded in winning the amateur championship. He repeated this triumph in rgor and 1903, and since that time only once has a foreign-born player won the title, Harold H. Hilton of England winning at the Apawamis club of Rye, N.Y., in 1911. In profes-

and with this resumption came still another very extensive growth

sional circles, a longer period was required to develop a native-born champion. The first instructors were mostly Scots with a few English, and these dominated the open championship until 1912,

The first of these was opened at Van Cortlandt Park, N.Y., in 1895. In 1927 more than 150 cities were operating over 200 such

when John J. McDermott became the first American-born player to win the open championship. Meantime, as far back as 1904, Walter J. Travis had won the British amateur championship at Sandwich, a feat which in the early days was the outstanding achievement of American golf. McDermott’s victory in 1912 marked another step in the general advance, and the following year another event took place entitled to rank along with the fine performance of Travis. This was the

operated on daily fee, or pay-as-you-play, plans. Figures available on about one-half of the actual public courses show that approximately 5,000,000 rounds were played on these during the:year: so that, whereas, conditions under which the game was imported from Scotland and England have resulted in the costs of private club memberships, especially in the vicinity of the larger cities, becoming excessively high, some headway has been made in providing playing facilities to persons of modest means in many localities.

victory of Francis Ouimet, a 20-year-old amateur, in the open championship. Harry Vardon and Ted Ray, famous British professionals, competed in the championship and up until quite near the finish seemed destined to make sure of the title with a tie for first place. But Ouimet, a late starter, finished brilliantly to tie with the two visitors. In the play-off on the following day, under unfavourable conditions due to rain, he defeated his two competitors, scoring 72 against 77 by Vardon and 78 by Ray. Travis’s victory at Sandwich had provided a big stimulus to the growth of the game in 1904 and the succeeding years, but Ouimet’s performance added still greater impetus, and the game took on a big expansion in all sections of the country. Its growth was moving by leaps and bounds until the entry of the United States into

the World War checked it temporarily. But not, however, until Robert T. Jones, familiarly known throughout the golfing world as “Bobby,” made his first entry into big cumpetitions. At the age of 14 Jones entered his first amateur championship at the Merion cricket club in 1916. A preliminary qualifying test of 36 holes was played before match play was begun. On the first 18 holes, he led the entire field. His showing on the second round was not so flattering, but he qualified easily, and won his first two matches. His opponent in the second of these was Eben M. Byers, who had held the title in 1906. When beaten in the third match, he bowed to none other than Robert A. Gardner, the defending champion. Eight years later Jones returned to Merion to win his first amateur title. A year previous, he had won the open championship at the Inwood Country club in Long Island, and had finished second in defending this title at the Oakland Hills Country club of Detroit, earlier in the summer, before his triumph at Merion. He again won the amateur in 1925, and also tied for the open with Willie Macfarlane, a Scottish-born professional, but lost in the play-off, which went 36 holes, the two still being level at the end of the first 18. In 1926, Jones won the British open championship, and incidentally set up a record for the preliminary qualifying play with rounds of 66 and 68 at the Lytham and St. Anne’s club. A few

of the game and a marked advance in the level of play judged on an international basis.

Municipal Golf—One of the most marked developments jn

golf in the United States has been in municipal and public courses.

courses, and there were half as many more proprietary courses,

Apart from its influence on the competitive aspects of golf in an international way, the United States has contributed one very

important factor to the development of the game generally—the rubber-cored ball. This was the invention of Mr. Coburn Haskell, who first conceived the idea in the summer of 1898, but it was more than two years before it began to attract any considerable attention, and it was not until 1902, when Alex Herd, Scotch professional, won the British open championship, that the new ball scored its first triumph in a major championship. Since that time it has become the medium of play throughout the world.

(G. R.) GOLFING

STROKES

The Swing—General.—The swing may be of three types: (r) The flat swing, in which the club, if carried back as far as possible, would strike the player across the shoulders. (2) The upright swing, which would reach the back of the player’s neck. (3) The medium swing, between the two, and best for players of approximately normal physique. The flat swing is suited to short, stout players; the upright to tall and slender ones. The Arms.—For all strokes greater than the putt and chipshot, the left arm is maintained approximately straight throughout

. weeks later, he again won the U.S. open at the Scioto Country club of Columbus, O., so that for a brief period he held three national titles at the same time: the British open, the U.S. open and the U.S. amateur. However, he was beaten by George Von Elm in the autumn of 1926 in defending the last-named title at the Baltusrol golf club, Short,Hills, N.J. In 1927, after regaining this, he returned to Scotland and won the British open for the second year in succession—the first time this was done since James Braid won in 1908. Incidentally his total for the 72 holes of play at St. Andrews was 285, six strokes better than the second player, and six strokes better than the best previous title-winning total on the historic course. At the age of 25 Jones had won the US.

amateur three times, the open twice and the British open twice, and besides had been the runner-up twice in the amateur and twice in the open, a record unequalled in the annals of modern

golf, considering his age and the limited time in which it was compiled.

Owing to the World War there were no national championships during 1917—18, though certain other lesser championships were

FROM

MAIDEN,

“TEN

LESSONS

IN

FIG.

This

GOLF”

9.—THE

“MEDIUM

SWING”

is the address and top of the swing for a full wood

shot.

The hands

are held low at the address, and at the top of the swing the left heel Is fairly

off the turf, the right elbow is close to the side, the left arm Is straight, and the toe of the club pointing toward the ground

the back swing and until after the ball has been struck. Some experts ease the back swing by a slight bend in the left elbow.

but the bent elbow must be straightened early in the downward

stroke. The right elbow is not permitted to move far away from the right side in the back swing; it travels around the body. In beginning all strokes the arms should make an obtuse angle with the club-shaft; never a straight line with it.

The Wrists—At the “address,” or preparation to strike the ball, the wrists are above the shaft, and at the top of a full stroke

PLATE

GOLFING

STROKES:

DRIVING,

IRON

1, 2, 3. Wood Club Play, demonstrated by Bobby Jones:

CLUB

PLAY

AND

(1) Addressing the ball.

PUTTING

STROKES

(2) Top of swing.

4, 5, 6. Iron Club Play, demonstrated by Mike Brady: (4) Addressing the ball. (5) Top of swing. 7, 8, 9. Putting: (7) Addressing the putt. (8) Putt, back swing. (9) Putt, finish

(3) Finish

(6) Finish

-

GOLGOTHA—GOLIARD

597

are directly beneath the shaft, so that the head of the club is ducing the high trajectory or “pitch.” When it is required to stop inted toward the ground. This is the “winding” action of the the ball promptly on touching the turf, backspin or reverse English wrists Which provides much of the power in the stroke, the wrists is applied by playing the ball on a line midway between the feet or even back toward the right, the stroke thus being more downunwinding as the club-head approaches impact. The Swing—Details:—Grip—The most popular is the over- ward, as the chop-stroke in tennis. In all pitch shots and in iron lapping or Vardon grip, in which the little finger of the right hand play the “divot” or chip of turf is taken after the ball has left overlaps the index finger of the left. A variation interlocks these the club’s face, from a location immediately in front of where fingers. In the plain grip there is no overlapping or interlocking. the ball rested. Iron Piay—There are two leading divisions in iron play. In In all grips the left thumb is against the shaft and is buried one, the ball is placed just back of the line of the left heel and is by the right palm. The shaft is ge held by the fingers and not struck quite fairly in the back just before the club-head has reached the lowest point in its arc. This permits considerable roll grasped in the palms; the golf at the end of the shot, and when it is necessary to achieve a more stroke is as delicate as that in bilsudden stop the ball is played farther back toward the line of tards. The left hand should be the right foot, a more downward stroke is employed, and the backsufficiently on top of the shaft spin thus applied results in a lower flight and a shorter roll. This for the first two knuckles to be sometimes is called the “push shot.” seen at the address. The right Wood Club Play—With the wood clubs the player stands farhand is more or less under. Any ther from bis ball, since the clubs are longer, and should find the of these grips will be found suited normal position of the ball about opposite his left heel. The swing +o all strokes save putting. Most with the wood club is more free than with the irons, but it is best players alter the putting not to permit the club at the top of the swing to drop below the grip so that the palms face each horizontal. A straight left arm tends to check the back swing other and the wrist-joints are opwithin reasonable limits. More emphatically than with the irons posed, to gain the pendulum or pitching clubs, the ball is struck with the woods fairly in the effect in the stroke. back. The Stance—The stance, or Bunker and Rough—The “explosion shot” from sand is acmanner in which the player’s feet FROM “OUTDOOR-SOQUTH" are disposed with relation to the FIG. 10.—-UNWINDING THE WRISTS complished with the niblick, the blade being sent full force into ball, is of three kinds. In the The position of the hands is shown at the sand about an inch behind the ball, which literally is blasted “open” stance the left foot is this stage of the downward stroke, upward and forward without the club touching it. This is the before the wrists “unwind.” It usual recovery from a bunker near the green, though if the farther from the line of play than just is this ‘‘turn-over’” which imparts the right, so that he faces very the lash at Impact and yields most of ball be lying on top of the sand it may be chipped or pitched. In the rough, or heavy grass, the general method is to strike the ball slightly toward the objective. In the range in the longer shots the “square” stance the feet are parallel with the line of play. with an ascending club-head, so as to extricate it from the clinging (O. B. K.) In the “closed” stance the right foot is a few inches to the rear obstruction with as little opposition as possible. GOLGOTHA, a skull, from the Aramaic Gulgulta ( xnbabu of the line of the left. The “square” stance is best tried at the outset, and altered, if need be, as the player gets on in the game. Targ. Ongelos of Ex. xvi. 16, with the second “I”? omitted for The ball normally is placed in line with the left heel or slightly euphony to Greek ears). The name of the spot where Christ inside it. The distance at which to stand from the ball may be was crucified (Matt. xxvii. 33; Mk. xv. 22; John xix. 17), outgauged by placing the club-head against the ball, the end of the side Jerusalem. Perhaps so called from a knoll on the north of the city, not far from the Damascus gate, which now reshaft reaching to the left knee. Pivoting or Body-turn.—The back swing is achieved properly sembles a skull, cavities in its face forming eyes, nose, and with a liberal action of the body, the hips rotating or pivoting away mouth, if we may assume that the form of this has not changed from the ball, and the shoulders turning with them, as the club is since those days. But this is very doubtful; see F. L. N. Bower taken back. The left hip inaugurates both the backward and the in Ch. Qu. Review xci. (1920) p. 125. See further Dict. of Christ (A. L. W.) forward motion of the club; and the principal force or “hit” in and the Gospels, s.v. the stroke is applied only after the hips have moved toward the GOLIAD, an incorporated village of south-eastern Texas, on objective. The weight is supposed to move slightly on to the the San Antonio river and the Southern Pacific railway, 85m. right leg in the back swing and be transferred freely to the left S.E. of San Antonio; the county seat of Goliad county. The as the stroke moves toward impact, finishing well on the left leg. population in 1930 was 1,424. Goliad is surrounded by a very iming.—Of vital importance in the golfing stroke, this means rich farming and grazing country. The interesting Spanish mission bringing the club-head against the ball at the instant of achieving of La Bahia, moved here in 1747 from the Guadaloupe river, is greatest velocity. The club-head is not swung against the ball, still in a good state of preservation. The name Goliad, in use but is whipped against it with a sort of lash, as if the shaft were since 1829, is probably an anagram of the name of the Mexican flexible and not rigid. patriot Hidalgo (1757-1811). During the struggle between The Principal Strokes.—Putiing —Putting is a game within Mexico and Spain the Mexican leader Bernardo Gutierrez was a game, in that the stance, the grip and even the stroke may be besieged here. On the outbreak of the Texan War of Liberation at variance with those of all the other shots. A sound and con- Goliad was garrisoned by a small force of Mexicans, who were soon servative method places the ball opposite the left foot, the weight forced to surrender, and on Dec. 20, 1835, a preliminary “decmclining to that leg, the hands so placed on the club as to bring laration of independence” was published here. In 1836, when the wrist-joints in precise opposition, the club taken back with Santa Anna began his advance, Goliad was occupied by 350 the left hand and brought on the ball with the right. American troops under Col. James W. Fannin, In obeying orders The Chip-shot-—This tiny stroke, played with a lofted club to withdraw and join Gen. Houston, they were overtaken on Cofrom just off the putting surface, ordinarily is executed from the letto Creek, and after a sharp fight (March 19-20) were obliged to usual stance but with the feet closer together, as little power is surrender, whereupon they were marched back te Goliad, were required. The wrists are firm and the hands are swung decisively, shot down (March 27) by Santa Anna’s command.

the ball being struck crisply in the back with sufficient force to

tarry it over intervening grass or hazards to the closely clipped

patting surface, where it finishes with a relatively long roll.

The Pitch—There are two main types of pitch shot. Normally,

the ball 1s played nearly opposite the left heel, with the mashie,

mashie-niblick, spade or niblick, the natural loft of the club pro-

GOLIARD, a name applied to those wandering’ students (vagantes) and clerks in England, France and Germany, during

the r2th and 13th centuries, who were better known for their rioting, gambling and intemperance than for their scholarship. The derivation of the word is uncertain, burt it was connected by them with a mythical “Bishop Golias,” also called “archi poéte”

GOLIATH—GOLITZIN

508 and “primas”—especially

in Germany—in

whose name

their

satirical poems were mostly written. The jocular references to the rules of the “gild? of goliards should not be taken too seriously, though their aping of the “orders” of the Church, especially their contrasting them with the mendicants, was denounced by Church synods. Their satires were almost uniformly directed against the Church, attacking even the pope. In 1227 the Council of Tréves forbade priests to permit the goliards to take part in chanting the service. In 1229 they played a conspicuous part in the disturbances at the University of Paris, in connection with the intrigues of the papal legate. During the century which followed they formed a subject for the deliberations of several Church councils, notably in 1289, when it was ordered that “no clerks shall be jongleurs, goliards or buffoons,” and in 1300 (at Cologne) when they were forbidden to preach or engage in the indulgence traffic. This legislation only became effective when the “privileges of clergy” were withdrawn from the goliards. Along with their satires went many poems in praise of wine and riotous living. A remarkable collection of them, now at Munich, from the monastery at Benedictbeuren in Bavaria, was published by Schmeller (3rd ed., 1895) under the title Carmina Burana. Many of these, which form the main part of song-books of German students to-day, have been delicately translated by John Addington Symonds in a small volume, Wine, Women and

Song (1884). The word “goliard” itself outlived these turbulent bands which had given it birth, and passed over into French and English literature of the 14th century in the general meaning of jongleur or minstrel, quite apart from any clerical association. It is thus used in Piers Plowman, where, however, the golzard still rhymes in Latin, and in Chaucer. See QO. Hubatsch, Die lateinischen Vagantenlieder des Mittelalters (Görlitz, 1870); B. Spiegel, Die Vaganten und ihr Orden (Spires, 1892); M. Haezner, Goliardendichiung und die Satire im r3ten Jahrhundert in England (Leipzig, 1905); the article in La grande Encyclopédie; Helen Waddell, The Wandering Scholars (1927); also K. Breul, The Cambridge Songs (1915).

the 17th century in its transition from barbarism to civilization In many respects he was far in advance of his age. He was highly educated, spoke Latin fluently, frequented the society of

scholars and had his children carefully educated. Vet he was an

habitual drunkard; it was his drunkenness which ruined him in the estimation of Peter the Great, despite his previous services. See S. Soloviev, History of Russia (Rus.), vol. xiv. (Moscow, 1858). R. N. Bain, The First Romanovs (1905).

,

GOLITSUIN, DMITRY MIKHAILOVICH (1665 1737), Russian statesman, was sent in 1697 to Italy to learn “mili. tary affairs’; in 1704 he was appointed to the command of ap auxiliary corps in Poland against Charles XII.; from razr to 1718 he was governor of Byelogorod.

In 1718 he was appointed

president of the newly erected Kammer Kollegium and a senator. In May 1723 he was implicated in the disgrace of the vice. chancellor Shafirov and was deprived of all his offices and dignities, which he only recovered through the mediation of the empress Catherine I. Golitsuin remained in the background till the fall of Menshikov, 1727. During the last years of Peter II. (1728-30) his high aristocratic theories had full play. On the death of Peter II. he conceived the idea of limiting the autocracy by subordinating it to the authority of the supreme privy council, of which he

was president. He drew up a form of constitution which the em press Anne was forced to sign at Mittau before leaving for St. Petersburg. Anne lost no time in repudiating this constitution, and never forgave its authors. Golitsuin lived in retirement till 1736, when he was arrested on suspicion of being concerned in the conspiracy of his son-in-law Prince Constantine Cantimir. He was really prosecuted for his anti-monarchical sentiments. A court, largely composed of his antagonists, condemned him to death, but the empress commuted the sentence to lifelong imprisonment in Schliisselburg and confiscation of all his estates. He died in prison on April 14, 1737, after three months of confinement. See R. N, Bain, The Pupils of Peter the Great (1897).

GOLITSUIN, VASILY VASILEVICH (1643-1714), Russian statesman, spent his early days at the court of Tsar GOLIATH, the name of the giant by slaying whom David Alexius where he gradually rose to the rank of boyar, In 1676 achieved renown (1 Sam. xvii.). The Philistines had come up to he was sent to the Ukraine to keep in order the Crimean Tatars make war against Saul and this warrior came forth day by day to and took part in the Chigirin campaign. The revolution of May challenge to single combat. Only David ventured to respond, and 1682 placed Golitsuin at the head of the Posolsky Prtkaz, or armed with a sling and pebbles he overcame Goliath. The Philis- Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and during the regency of Sophia, tines, seeing their champion killed, lost heart and were easily put sister of Peter the Great, whose lover he became, he was the to flight. The giant’s arms were placed in the sanctuary, and it principal minister of State (1682-1689) and “keeper of the great was his famous sword which David took with him in his flight seal.” His foreign policy was distinguished by the peace with from Saul (1 Sam. xxi. 1-9). From another passage we learn that Poland in 1683, whereby Russia recovered Kiev. By the terms Goliath of Gath was slain by a certain Elhanan of Bethlehem in of the same treaty, he acceded to the grand league against the one of David’s conflicts with the Philistines (2 Sam. xxi. 18-22)— Porte, but his two expeditions against the Crimea (1687 and the parallel 1 Chron. xx. 5, avoids the contradiction by reading the 1689), “the First Crimean War,” were unsuccessful and made “brother of Goliath.” But this old popular story has probably him extremely unpopular. In the civil war between Sophia and preserved the more original tradition, and if Elhanan is the son Peter (Aug.-Sept. 1689), Golitsuin half-heartedly supported his of Dodo in the list of David’s mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii. 9, 24) the mistress, and shared her ruin. He was banished successively to resemblance between the two names may have led to the trans- Kargopol, Mezen and Kologora, where he died on Apr. 21, 1714. Golitsuin was unusually well educated. He understood German ference. GOLITSUIN, BORIS ALEKSYEEVICH (1654-1714), and Greek, and could express himself fluently in Latin. He was 8 Russian statesman, came of a princely family, claiming descent great friend of foreigners, who generally alluded to him as “the from Prince Gedymin of Lithuania. Boris became court chamber- great Golitsuin.” See R. N. Bain, The First Romanovs (1905); A. Briickner, Furst lain in 1676. He was the young tsar Peter’s chief supporter when, in 1689, Peter resisted the usurpations of his sister Sophia, and Golisin (Leipzig, 1887); S. Soloveiv, History of Russia (Rus.), vols. the head of the loyal council which took refuge in the Troitsa xiii—xiv. (Moscow, 1858, etc.). GOLITZIN, BORIS BORISOVICH, Prince (1867 monastery and won over the boyars of the opposite party. In 1690 he was created a boyar and shared with Naruishkin, Peter’s 1916), Russian physicist, was born on Feb. 18 (old style) 1862 m uncle, the conduct of home affairs. After the death of the tsaritsa St. Petersburg (Leningrad). He was educated in the naval school Natalia, Peter’s mother, in 1694, his influence increased further. and naval academy. In 1887 he left the active service for scientific He accompanied Peter to the White Sea (1694-95); took part in studies and went to Strassburg. In 1891 he was appointed privalthe Azov campaign (1695); and was one of the triumvirate who docent at the University of Moscow and in 1893 professor ruled Russia during Peter’s first foreign tour (1697-98). The physics at Dorpat. The same year he was elected fellow of the Astrakhan rebellion (1706), which affected all the districts under Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg and in 1908 a member his Government, shook Peter’s confidence in him, and seriously the same. His early research was in spectroscopy, but his world: on impaired his position. In 1707 he was superseded in the Volgan known work is on the methods of earthquake observations and provinces by Andrei Matvyeev, and in 1713 entered a monastery. the contruction of seismographs, which are used in all Russian He was a typical representative of Russian society of the end of and in many foreign observatories. His valuable book, Lectures

GOLIUS—GOLTZ on Seismometry, was published in 1912 and translated into German in 1914. He received the degree of D.Sc. from the University of Manchester in 1910.

In IQIT he was elected president of the

International Seismological association. In 1913 he was appointed director of the Central Physical (now Geophysical) observatory

at St. Petersburg and achieved good results in the organization of the meteorological service throughout Russia, especially during the World War, but his work was cut short by his death from pneumonia on May 4, 1916, at New Peterhof, near Sa

GOLIUS or GOHL, JACOBUS

A. Foe.

(1596-1667), Dutch orien-

talist, born at The Hague, studied at the University of Leyden,

where in Arabic and other Eastern languages he was a pupil of Erpenius. In 1622 he accompanied the Dutch embassy to Morocco, and on his return he was chosen to succeed Erpenius (1624). He then spent five years travelling in Syria and Arabia. The remainder of his life was spent at Leyden where he held the

chair of mathematics as well as that of Arabic. He died on Sept. 98, 1667. His most important work is the Lexicon Arabico-Latiwim (Leyden, 1653), which, based on the Sikak of Al-Jauhari, was only superseded by the corresponding work of Freytag. In 1656 he published a new edition, with considerable additions, of

the Grammatica Arabica of Erpenius.

After his death, there was

found among his papers a Dicttonarium Persico-Latinum which

was published, with additions, by Edmund Castell in his Lexicon keptaglotton (1669).

GOLLANCZ, SIR HERMANN (1852), Jewish rabbi, son of the Rev. S. M. Gollancz, studied at University college, London. He became an authority on the Hebrew language and literature, and in 1897 the Chief Rabbis in Galicia conferred on him the highest Rabbinical diplomas, “Hatarath Horaah.”

He was for 21 years Goldsmid professor of Hebrew at University college, and presented his library to the college at the end of this period (1902-24). From 1892 to 1923 he was preacher at the Bayswater synagogue, and was then appointed emeritus minister for his record service of 51 years. In that year he received

a knighthood.

He

interested himself

in many

philanthropic

works, and founded several synagogues for the working classes.

He was a member of the commission on the birth-rate (1913-16), and other Government inquiries. His publications include many translations from Hebrew and Aramaic and articles contributed to learned reviews.

GOLLANCZ,

SIR ISRAEL

(1863-1930), British scholar,

was born in London July 13, 1863. He was educated at the City of London school and at University college, London and Christ’s college, Cambridge. From 1892 to 1895 he was Quain student and lecturer in English at University college, London and in 1896 was appointed university lecturer in English at Cambridge, becoming in 1906 university professor of English language and literature at King’s college, London. He became secretary of the British Academy on its foundation in 1903 and was knighted in 1919. He was general editor of the Temple Classics and King’s Library series and of the Book of Homage to Shakespeare which

appeared in 1916. He died June 23, 1930. His published works include Cynewulf’s Christ (1892); an edition of C. Lamb’s Specimens of Elizabethan Dramatists (1893); Exeter Book of Anglo-

Saxon Poetry (1895); Hamlet in Iceland

(1898); and The

Caedmon Manuscript of Anglo-Saxon Biblical Poetry (1927).

GOLLNOW, 2 town in the Prussian province of Pomerania,

on the right bank of the Ihna, 14 m. N.N.E. of Stettin, with which i has communication by rail and steamer. Pop. (1925) 11,589.

Golnow was founded in 1190, and was raised to the rank of a

town in 1268. It was for a time a Hanse town, and came into the

possession of Prussia in 1720, having belonged to Sweden since 1648. It manufactures chairs and cement, GOLOVIN, FEDOR ALEKSYEEVICH, Count (d. 1706), Russian statesman. During the regency of Sophia, sister of Peter the Great, he was sent to the Amur to defend the new Muscovite fortress of Albazin against the Chinese. In 1689 he

599

in 1697 Golovin occupied the second place immediately after Lefort. It was his chief duty to hire foreign sailors and obtain everything necessary for the construction and complete equipment of a fleet. On Lefort’s death, in March 1699, he succeeded him as admiral-general. The same year he was created the first Russian count, and was also the first to be decorated with the newlyinstituted Russian order of St. Andrew. The conduct of foreign affairs was at the same time entrusted to him, and from 1699 to

his death he was “the premier minister of the tsar.” Golovin supplemented the Treaty of Carlowitz, by which peace with Turkey had only been secured for three years, by concluding with the Porte a new treaty at Constantinople (June 13, 1700), by which the term of the peace was extended to 30 years and, besides other concessions, the Azov district and a strip of territory extending thence to Kuban were ceded to Russia. See R. N. Bain, The First Romanovs (1908).

(R. N. B.)

GOLOVKIN, GAVRIIL IVANOVICH, Count (16601734), Russian statesman, was attached (1677), while still a lad, to the court of the tsarevitch Peter, afterwards Peter the Great, with whose mother Natalia he was connected, and vigilantly guarded him during the regency of Sophia. He accompanied the young tsar abroad on his first foreign tour, and worked by his side in the dockyards of Saardam. In 1706 he took over the direction of foreign affairs, and was created the first Russian grand-chancellor on the field of Poltava (1709). Golovkin held this office for 25 years. Under Catherine I. he became a member of the supreme privy council; the empress also entrusted him with her last will whereby she appointed the young Peter II. her successor and Golovkim one of his guardians. On the death of Peter ITI. in 1730 he declared in favour of Anne, duchess of Courland, in opposition to the aristocratic Dolgorukis and Golitsuins, and his determined support of the autocracy wrecked the proposed constitution, which would have converted Russia into a limited monarchy. Under Anne he was a member of the first cabinet formed in Russia. He was one of the wealthiest, and at the same time one of the stingiest, magnates of his day. His ignorance of any language but his own made his intercourse with foreign ministers very inconvenient. See R. N Bain, The Pupils of Peter the Great (1897).

GOLOVNIN, VASILY MIKHAILOVICH (1776-1831), Russian vice-admiral, born on April 8 (new style April 20), 1776 in the province of Ryazan, received his education at the Cronstadt naval school and from 18o0r to 1806 served as a volunteer in the English navy. In 1807 he was commissioned by the Russian Government to survey the coasts of Kamchatka and of Russian Amer-

ica, including also the Kurile islands. Golovnin sailed round the Cape of Good Hope, and on Oct. 5, 1809, arrived in Kamchatka. In 1810, whilst attempting to survey the coast of the island of Kunashiri, he was seized by the Japanese, and was kept prisoner until Oct. 13, 1813. Golovnin was presently appointed to the command of a voyage of circumnavigation. He started from St. Petersburg on Sept. 7, 1817, sailed round Cape Horn, and arrived in Kamchatka in the following May. He returned to Europe by way of the Cape of Good Hope, landing at St. Petersburg on Sept. 17, 1819. He died on July 12, 1831. Golovnin’s works include: Journey to Kamchatka (2 vols., 1819); Journey Round the World (2 vols., 1822); and Narrative of my Captivity in Japan, r8ri—z81r3 (2 vols., 18x6). The last has been translated into French, German and English (1824). A complete edition of his works was published at St. Petersburg in

five volumes in 1864, with maps and charts, and a biography of the author by N. Grech.

GOLTZ, BOGUMIL

(1801-1870),

German humorist and

satirist, was born at Warsaw on March 20, 1801, and died at Thorn on Nov. 12, 1870. Goltz wrote Buck der Kindheit (Frankfort, 1847; 4th ed., Berlin, 1877), in which he gives a charming and idyllic description of the impressions of his own childhood. Among

his other works must be noted Ein Jugendleben (1852); Der Mensch und die Leute (1858); Zur Charakteristik und NaturConcluded with the Celestial empire the Treaty of Nerchinsk, by geschichte der Frauen (1859); Zur Geschichte und Charakteristik which the line of the Amur, as far as its tributary the Gorbitsa, des deutschen Genius (1864), and Die Weltklugheit und die Was retroceded to China. In Peter’s grand embassy to the West | Lebensweisheit (1869). Goltz was a follower, in some respects,

GOLTZ—GOLUCHOWSKI

510

of Rousseau. He desired to see a freer, more natural system of education which should develop a robuster type of manhood. . See T. Kuttenkeuler, Bogumil Goltz ...

GOLTZ,

COLMAR,

FREIHERR

(1913).

VON

DER

(1843-1916),

Prussian soldier and military writer, was born at Bielkenfeld, East Prussia, on Aug. 12, 1843, and entered the Prussian infantry in 1861. In 1864 he entered the Berlin military academy, but was temporarily withdrawn in 1866 to serve in the Austrian war, in which he was wounded at Trautenau. In 1867 he joined the topographical section of the general staff, and at the beginning of the Franco-German War of 1870-71 was attached to the staff of Prince Frederick Charles. He took part in the battles of Vionville and Gravelotte and in the siege of Metz. After its fall he served under the Red Prince in the campaign of the Loire, including the battles of Orleans and Le Mans. He was appointed in 1871 professor at the military school at Potsdam, and the same year was promoted captain and placed in the historical section of the general staff. He then wrote Die Operationen der II. Armee bis zur Capitulation von Metz and Die Sieben Tage von Le Mans, both published in 1873. In 1874 he was appointed to the staff of the 6th division, and while so employed wrote Die Operationen der II. Armee an der Loire and Léon Gambetta und seine Armeen, published in 1875 and 1877 respectively. Both are impartially written, and the latter was translated into French the same year. The views expressed in it led to his being sent back to regimental duty for a time, but he soon returned to the military history section. In 1878 von der Goltz was appointed lecturer in military history at the military academy ‘at Berlin, where he remained for five years and attained the rank of major. He published, in 1883, Rossbach und Jena (new and revised ed., Von Rossbach bis Jena und Auerstädt, 1906), Das Volk in Waffen (Eng. trans. The Nation in Arms), both of which quickly became military classics, and during his residence in Berlin contributed many articles to the military journals. In June 1883 his services were lent to Turkey to reorganize the military establishments of the country. He spent 12 years in this work, the result of which appeared in the Greco-Turkish War of 1897, and he was made a pasha and in 1895 a mushir or field-marshal. On his return to Germany in 1896 he became a lieutenant-general and commander of the sth division, and in 1898, head of the Engineer and Pioneer Corps and inspector-general of fortifications. In 1900 he was made general of infantry and in 1902 commander of the I. Army Corps. In 1907 he was made inspector-general of the newly created sixth army inspection at Berlin, in 1908 colonel-general, and in grr field-marshal. He retired in 1913. In Aug. 1914 he was appointed governor-general of Belgium, then occupied by German forces. In November of the same year he was attached to the Turkish headquarters as aide-de-campgeneral to the Sultan. In April 1915 he was placed in the chief command of the I. Turkish army in Mesopotamia, and succeeded im investing General Townshend’s British forces at Kiit-el-Amara in Dec. 1915. He died on April x9, 1916, at Baghdad and was said to have been poisoned by the Young Turks. His latest work was Kriegsgeschichte Deutschlands im roten Jahrhundert (2 wol., 1910-14). In addition to the works already named and frequent contributions to military periodical literature, he wrote Kriegführung

(1895, later ed. Krieg- und Heerfiihrung, 1901; Eng. trans. The Conduct of War); Der thessalische Krieg (1898); Ein Ausflug nach Macedonien (1894); Anatolische Ausfitige (1896); a map and description of the environs of Constantinople; Von Jena bis Pr. Eylau (1907), a most important historical work, carrying on the story of Rossbach und Jena to the peace of Tilsit, etc. see v. Schmiterlow, Gex.-Feldm. Freiherr Colmar von der Goltz Paska, Leben und Briefe (1926).

GOLTZ, RUDIGER, Count von per (1865—

), German

heutenant-general, was born at Ziillichau on June 28, 1864. He commanded a division of the Landwehr at the battle of the Masurian Lakes in Feb. 1915. In the spring of 1918 he led the Baltic Division into Finland and was appoimted chief-in-command in the Baltic countries in Nov. 1918. In rorg he was leading a volun-

teer army professedly against the Bolshevists, but he was sus-

pected of scheming to use his Baltic volunteers as an instrument for the royalist and reactionary movement and his recall Was

demanded. Sections of these troops (Das Baltikum) actually took part in the military occupation of Berlin which attended the Kapp coup in March 1920, and were with difficulty disbanded He then took part in the youth movement, and in 1924 became president of the United Patriotic Associations. Count von der

Goltz wrote Meine Sendung in Finnland und im Baltikum (1920),

GOLTZIUS, HENDRIK

(1558-1617), Dutch painter ang

engraver, was born in 1558 at Milebrecht, in the duchy of Jiilich, After studying painting on glass for some years under his father he was taught the use of the burin by Dirk Volkertsz Coorlert.

a Dutch engraver. He was employed by Philip Galle to engrave a set of prints of the history of Lucretia. Marriage with a rich widow at the age of 21 enabled him to set up in independent business at Haarlem, where he spent the rest of his life, except for a tour in Germany and Italy in 1590. He died at Haarlem on

Jan. 1, 1617.

His portraits, mostly miniatures, are masterpieces of their ki both on account of their exquisite finish, and as fine studies of

individual character.

Of his larger heads, the life-size portrait of

himself is probably the most striking example. Six scenes from the life of the Virgin are called his “master-pieces,” from their

being attempts to imitate the style of the old masters. In his command of the burin Goltzius is not surpassed even by Diirer; his eccentricities and extravagances are counterbalanced by the beauty and freedom of his execution. He began painting at the age of 42, but none of his works in this branch of art display any special excellences.

His prints amount to more than 300 plates, and are fully described in Bartsch’s Peintre-graveur, and Weigel’s supplement to the same work. See Karel van Mander, Schilderboeck (1604).

GOLUCHOWSKI, the name of an ancient family of Polish aristocracy, two members of which played an important part in

Austrian politics. Count AGENOR GoLtucHOWSKI, the elder (181275), studied at Lemberg, served in the Galician Statthalterei under Stadion, and did excellent work on the Galician agrarian reform of 1847. In Nov. 1848 he became a member of Schwarzenberg’s cabinet and was governor of Galicia, 1848—59, 1866-68 and 187175. From 1859-61 he was Austrian minister of the interior,

during which period he secured for Galicia a degree of autonomy not enjoyed by any other Austrian crownland, while as governor of Galicia he secured the introduction of Polish as official language.

He was the principal author of the federalist “October Diploma” of 1860 (see Austria). An excellent administrator, Goluchowski transformed the policy of the Austrian Poles from romantic revolutionism to their eminently successful later policy of co-operation with the Austrian Government in return for national concessions in Galicia, and was thus one of the true forerunners of Polish independence. His son AGENoR GOLUCHOWSKI, the younger (1849-1921) was born on March 25, 1849, entered the Austro-Hungarian diplo-

matic service, served in Berlin, Paris and Budapest (1887-93)

and became Austro-Hungarian minister of foreign affairs in May 1895. The appointment caused surprise, but Goluchowski enjoyed Francis Joseph’s personal confidence, and his policy was peaceable and practical, and generally conducted with an eye on economk necessities. In particular he showed a conciliatory spirit towards Russia for which he was often blamed by more bellicose spirts. He was author of the Austro-Russian agreement of 1897, which

temporarily ended the two Powers’ rivalry in the Balkans and of

the Macedonian reform plans of 1902 and 1903 (Miirasteg pregramme). At the same time, he contrived to pacify Italy’s fears

by guaranteeing the status quo (1898) and stood loyally by the German alliance.

It was to Goluchowski that the German em»

peror William II. addressed the famous telegram after Algeciras, saying that he had proved a “brilliant second” and could rely om

the Imperial gratitude—a promise redeemed to Goluchowskr's

more aggressive successor, Aerenthal, in 1908. As a Pole and à

Slav, Goluchowski was unpopular with the Magyars who be lieved him to be inspiring Francis Joseph’s opposition to the use of Magyar in the army. He resigned office on Oct. 11, 1906, 1

SII

‘GOMAL—GOMPERS

ease the crisis in Hungary and did not return to office. He died | 144 sq.m. Gomera lies 20 m. W.S.W. of Teneriffe. Its greatest in Lemberg on March 29, 1921. (C. A. M.) length is about 23 m. Dromedaries are bred on Gomera in large GOMAL or Guma, the name of a river of Afghanistan, and numbers. San Sebastian (4,833) is the chief town and a port.

of a mountain pass on the Dera Ismail Khan border of the

North West Frontier Province of British India. The Gomal river

rises in the unexplored regions to the south-east of Ghazni and rans to the Indus. Its chief tributary is the Zhob. Within British territory the Gomal bounds the North West Frontier Province

and Baluchistan, and more or less the Pathan and Baluch races. The Gomal pass is the most important pass on the Indian frontier between the Khyber and the Bolan.

It connects

Dera Ismail

Khan with the Gomal valley in Afghanistan, and has formed for centuries the outlet for the povindak trade. In 1889 the Government of India decided that the Zhob valley should, like the Bori

valley, be brought under British protection and control, and the Gomal pass should be opened.

After the Waziristan expedition

of 1894 Wana was occupied by British troops in order to dominate the Gomal and Waziristan; but on the formation of the North

West Frontier Province in 19o0z it was occupied by the South Waziristan militia.

Since the Waziri rising during the third Afghan War in 1919

Wana has been abandoned, but the Gomal route is still protected. GOMARUS, FRANZ (1563-1641), Dutch theologian, was born at Bruges stadt, Oxford Dutch church gregation was

on Jan. 30, 1563. He studied at Strasbourg, Neuand Cambridge. He was pastor of a Reformed

in Frankfort from 1587 till 1593, when the condispersed by persecution. From 1594 to 1611 he was professor of theology at Leiden. There he became the leader of the opponents of Arminius, who from that circumstance came to be known as Gomarists. He disputed with Arminius before the assembly of the estates of Holland in 1608, and was one of five Gomarists who met five Arminians or Remonstrants in the same assembly of 1609. On the death of Arminius, Konrad Vorstius (1559-1622), who sympathized with his views, was appointed to succeed him; and Gomarus left Leiden for Middleburg, where he became preacher at the Reformed church, and taught theology and Hebrew in the newly founded Jilustre Schule. Later he was professor at Saumur, then at Groningen, where he died on Jan. 11, 1642, He took a leading part in the synod of

It was visited by Columbus on his first voyage of discovery in

1492.

GOMES, MANUEL TEIXEIRA (1862—

_‘+), Portuguese

politician, was born at Portimão, in the province of Algarve, in 1862, and educated at the University of Coimbra. From 1910-23 he was Portuguese minister to Great Britain, and in 1923 he became president of the Portuguese republic. This office he resigned on Dec. 10, 1925, on grounds of health, being succeeded by Dr. Bernadino Machado.

GOMEZ, DIOGO

(fl. 1440-1482), Portuguese explorer and

writer, is known to have been receiver of the royal customs in

1440. Sixteen years later, Prince Henry the Navigator sent him in command of three vessels along the west African coast with the commission to explore and to reach the Indies. Strong currents beyond the Rio Grande obliged Gomez to put back to the Gambia, which he ascended to the negro town of “Cantor,” where he established profitable commercial relations with negro chiefs. In 1462 another African voyage resulted in a fresh discovery of the Cape Verde islands, already found by Cadamosto (q.v.). Four years later Gomez was appointed judge at Cintra. His ‘chronicle, which deals with the life and exploring ventures of Prince Henry and gives an elaborate account of negro life and trade along the Gambia, exists only in one ms., viz., Cod. Hisp. 27 in the Staats-Bibliothek, Munich. The original Latin text was printed by Schmeller, “Uber Valentim Fernandez Alemão,” in the Abhandlungen der philosoph.-philolog. Ki. der bavyerisch. Akademie der Wissenschaften, vol. iv. (Munich, 1847): see also J. Mees, Histoire de la découverte des îles Agores (Ghent, 1901); R. H. Major, Life of Prince Henry the Navigator (1868); C. R. Beazley, Prince Henry the Navigator (1895) and Introduction to Azurara’s Discovery and Conquest of Guinea (1899).

GOMM,

SIR

WILLIAM

MAYNARD

(1784-1875),

British soldier, was gazetted to the oth Foot at the age of ten, in recognition of the services of his father, Lieut.-Colonel William Gomm, who was killed in the attack on Guadaloupe (1794). He joined his regiment in 1799, and fought in Holland under the duke of York, and subsequently was with Pulteney’s Ferrol expedition. On the general staff he was with Cathcart at CopenDort (1618). His works were collected and published in one hagen, with Wellington in the Peninsula, and on Moore’s staff at volume folio, in Amsterdam in 1645. He was succeeded at Gronin- Corunna. He was also on Chatham’s staff in the disastrous gen in 1643 by his pupil Samuel Maresius (1599-1673). Walcheren expedition of 1809. In 1810 he rejoined the PeninGOMEL (Homel), town in White Russian S.S.R.; lat. 52° 25’ sular army as Leith’s staff officer, and took part in all the battles N., long. 31° o” E., on the Sozh river, a tributary of the Dnieper. of r81o, 1811 and 14812, winning his majority after Fuentes Pop. (1926) 82,952.

It is situated on the great north road from

d’Onor and his lieutenant-colonelcy at Salamanca. His careful reconnaissances and skilful leading were invaluable to Wellington in the Vittorla campaign, and to the end of the war he was one of the most trusted men of his staff. His reward was a transfer to the Coldstream Guards and the K.C.B. In the Waterloo campaign he served on the staff of the sth British Division. From 1839 to 1842 he commanded the troops in Jamaica. He humerous tributaries of the Dnieper. Its western position gives was sent out to be commander-in-chief in India in 1846, arriving it a less extreme climate, average January temperature —6-s° C, only to find that his appointment had been cancelled in favour of average July temperature 18.5° C. The rivers are frozen for 130 Sir Charles Napier, whom, however, he eventually succeeded to 140 days. (1850-55). In 1854 he became general and in 1868 field marshal. The town is first mentioned in 1142, when it belonged to the In 1872 he was appointed constable of the Tower, and he died

Kiev, and is an important railway junction from which five lines radiate, one linking westward with Warsaw. It also has steamer routes to Kiev and Mogilev. Its industries include iron founding, the making of agricultural machinery, saw-milling, the preparation of bristles, brewing and confectionery. It is situated in a forest and marsh-dotted county of the same name, drained by

Prince of Chernigov.

It was alternately in the occupation of

Poland and Russia until 1772, when it was finally annexed by

Russia. In 1648 it was captured by the Cossack chieftain Bog-

in 1875. Five “Field Marshal Gomm” scholarships were afterwards founded in his memory at Keble college, Oxford. See his Letters end Journals (ed. F. C. Carr-Gomm, 1881).

dan Chmielnicki (g.v.). GOMME, SIR GEORGE LAURENCE (1853-1916), GOMER, in the table of nations, Gen. x., the eldest “son” of knighted 1911, English archaeologist, was born in London on Dec. Japheth, and in Ezek. xxxviii. 6 a part of Gog’s army, represents

the people known to the Greeks as Cimmerians, and in the cunei‘erm Inscriptions called Gi-mi-ra-a-a.

Their earliest known home

is the district north of the Black Sea. They appeared on the

Assyrian horizon first in the reign of Sargon, when they overthrew

the kingdom of Urartu and settled there. About 700 B.c. they migrated into Asia Minor, subduing the kingdom of Phrygia under Midas, and that of Lydia under Gyges. Gomer, wife of Hosea. See Hosga.

MERA, an island forming part of the Spanish archi-

pelago of the Canary islands (g.v.).

Pop. (1920) 22,870; area,

17, 1853, and educated at the City of London school. As a boy he entered the service of the Metropolitan Board of Works; but in 1891 he was appointed statistical officer to the London County Council, becoming in rgoo clerk to the council. Few men have possessed a more profound knowledge of the past and present his-

tory of London, and his book The Making of London (1912) is a classic on the subject. He died at Long Crendon, Bucks., on Feb. 25, 1916, GOMPERS,

; SAMUEL (1850-1924), American labour leader, was born in London on Jan. 27, 1850. He emigrated to New York in 1863 and became a prominent member of the Cigar-

GOMPERZ— GONCOURT

512

makers’ International Union, which he represented at the conventions of the American Federation of Labor, of which he became president in 1882. He served intermittently in this capacity until 1894, when the opposition of the Socialists secured his defeat; he was re-elected in the following year and thereafter was re-elected every year till his death. His power within the organization increased yearly and he was largely responsible not only for its victory over the Knights of Labor but also for the general adoption of the “craft” principle in U.S. trade unionism. In 1894 he became editor of the Federation’s organ, The American Federationist, and in 1907 was sentenced to 12 months’ imprisonment for contempt of court in disobeying an injunction prohibiting The Federationist from blacklisting the Buck Stove and Range Co. of St. Louis, a sentence

eventually

set aside by the US.

Supreme Court. Although in theory opposed to all war, after the outbreak of the World War he resisted any pacifist tendency in the trade unions. He was appointed a member of the advisory commission of the U.S. Council of National Defence in 1917. Gompers represented the American Federation of Labor at the Peace Conference in Paris 1918-19, and was appointed chairman of the Peace Conference Commission on Labour Legislation. He was also actively concerned in the organization of the PanAmerican Federation of Labor, and was largely responsible for the decision of the A.F. to hold aloof from the International Federation of Trade Unions, rọrọ. He consistently opposed socialistic movements among the unions, fought the I.W.W. and chartered craft unions (as opposed to industrial unions) wherever possible. He opposed compulsory arbitration in labour disputes. For many years he was the most prominent figure in U.S. labour and had a worldwide reputation as a conservative labour leader. This policy excited the bitterest opposition in certain circles, but

dramatist, and in 1846 established his reputation by a volume of

poems—Primeiros

Cantos—which

were

remarkable

for their

autobiographic impress, and placed their author at the head of the

lyric poets of his country. In 1848 he followed up his success by Segundos Cantos e sextilhas de Frei Antão, and in the following year, in fulfilment of the duties of his new post as professor of

Brazilian history in the Imperial College of Pedro Il. at Rio de Janeiro, he published an edition of Berredo’s Annaes historicos do Maranhão and added a sketch of the migrations of the Indian

tribes. A third volume of poems, Ultimos Cantos, published in

1851, was practically the poet’s farewell to the service of the muse for he spent the next eight years engaged under Government patronage in studying public instruction in the north and the educational institutions of Europe. On his return to Brazil in 1860 he joined an exploring expedition but was forced in 1862 by the state of his health to try the effects of another visit to Europe. He died in Sept. 1864. While in Germany he published at Leipzig a complete collection of his lyrical poems, which went through several editions, the four first cantos of an epic poem called Os

Tymbiras (1857) and a Diccionario da lingua Tupy (1858).

A complete edition of the works of Dias has been published in Rio de Janeiro. See Wolf, Brésil littéraire (Berlin, 1863); Innocencio de Silva, Diccionario bibliographico portuguez, viii. 157; Sotero do Reis, Curso de litteratura portugueza e brazileira, iv. (Maranhão, a

i; Pa Verissimo, Estudos de literatura brazileira, segunda seria

GONCHAROV, IVAN ALEXANDROVICH (i8 1891), Russian novelist, was the son of a rich merchant in the town of Simbirsk.

At the age of ten he was placed in one of the

gymnasiums at Moscow, from which he passed into the Moscow

university. He then entered the civil service, being first employed as secretary to the governor of Simbirsk, and afterwards in the

it cannot be denied that he was the most powerful influence in ministry of finance at St. Petersburg (Leningrad). Absorbed in American trade unionism. He died at San Antonio, Texas, on bureaucratic work, Goncharov paid no attention to the social Dec. 13, 1924. See J. R. Commons and others, History of Labour in the United

a

1925).

(1918), and Samuel Gompers, Seventy Years of Life and Labour

GOMPERZ, THEODOR (1832-1912), German philosopher and classical scholar, was born at Briinn on March 29, 1832. He studied at Briinn and at Vienna under Herman Bonitz. He became professor of classical philology in 1873. In 1882 he was elected a member of the Academy of Science. He received the D. Ph. honoris causa from Konigsberg, and the D. Litt. from Dublin and Cambridge, and became correspondent for several learned societies. He died Aug. 29, 1912, at Baden, Austria. His principal works are: Demosthenes der Staatsmann (1864), Philodemi de ira liber (1864), Traumdeutung und Zauberei (1866), Herkulanische Studien (1865-1866), Beiträge zur Kritik und Erklärung griech. Schriftsteller (7 vols. 1875-1900), Neue Bruchstiicke

Epikurs (1876), Die Bruchstiicke der griech. Tragiker und Cobets

neueste kritische Manier (1878), Herodoteische Studien (1883), Ein bisher unbekanntes griech. Schrifisystem (1884), Zu Philodems Biichern von der Musik (1885), Uber den Abschluss des herodoteischen

Geschichtswerkes (1886), Platonische Aufsdtze (3 vols., 1887-1905), Zu Heraklits Lehre und den Uberresten seines Werkes (1887), Zu Aristoteles Poëtik (2 parts, 1888—96), Uber die Charaktere Theophrasts (1888), Nachlese zu den Bruchstücken der griech. Tragiker (1888), Die Apologie der Heilkunst (1890), Philodem und die ästhetischen Schriften der herculanischen Bibliothek (1891), Die Schrift vom

Staatswesen der Athener (1891), Die jüngst entdeckten Überreste einer den Platonischen Phaidon enthaltenden Papyrusrolle (1892), Aus der Hekale des Kallimachos (1893), Essays und Erinnerungen (1905). He supervised a translation of J. S. Mirs complete works (12 vols,, Leipzig, 1869-80), and wrote a life (Vienna, 1889) of Mill. His Griechische Denker: Geschichte der antiken Philosophie (vols. i. and ii., Leipzig, 1893 and 1902) was translated into English by L. Magnus and G. G. Berry (1go01—12).

GONAGUAS

(“borderers”), descendants of a cross between

the Hottentots and the Kafirs, before the arrival of the whites in

South Africa, and in some districts scarcely distinguishable from other natives but for their broken speech.

GONCALVES DIAS, ANTONIO

(1823-1864), Brazilian

lyric poet, was born near the town of Caxias, in Maranhão. He studied law at the university at Coimbra, in Portugal, and in 1845 decided to try his fortune as an author at Rio de Janeiro. Here he wrote for the newspaper press, ventured to appear as a

questions then ardently discussed by his contemporaries, Herzen, Aksakov and Bielinsky. His first original work was Obykunovennaya Istoria, “A Common Story” (1847, Eng. trans. by C. Garnett,

1890, 2nd ed. 1917). In 1856 he sailed to Japan as secretary to

Admiral Putiatin, returning by the then tedious land route through Siberia. He published a description of the voyage under the title of “The Frigate Pallada.” In 1857 appeared his masterpiece, Oblomov (Eng. trans. by C. J. Hogarth, 1915), which was immediately recognized as a classic. He had been at work on it for ten years. What Prince Mirsky has called the “indolent and impotent determinism of the hero” was recognized as of general significance in Russian life, especially in the life of the country gentry. Dobrolubov said of it, “Oblomovka (the country-seat of the Oblomovs) is our fatherland: something of Oblomov is to be found in every one of us.” Pisarev, another celebrated critic, declared that “Oblomovism,” as Goncharov called the sum total of qualities with which he invested the hero of his story, “is an illness fostered by the nature of the Slavonic character and the life of Russian society.” In 1858 Goncharov was appointed a censor, and in 1868 he published another novel called Obryv (Eng.

trans., The Precipice, 1915), on which he had worked for 20 years. This contains a charming picture of a great Russian household, ruled by a despotic and benevolent grandmother, but aroused great hostility among the intelligentsia by the unsympathetic portrait of the nihilist. Goncharov was convinced that Turgenev borrowed from The Precipice, and wrote an account of his wrongs. in a ms. which only saw the light in recent years. He died on Sept. 15-27, 1891. |a

19z4).

A. Mazon,

Un Matire

du roman

russe:

Ivan Gontcharov

GONCOURT, DE, a name famous in French literary history. Epmonp Lovis ANTOINE Huot pe Goncourt was born at Nancy on May 26, 1822, and died at Champrosay on July 16, 1896. Jures ALFRED Hvor pz Goncourt, his brother, was born in Parts on Dec. 17, 1830, and died in Paris on June 20, 1870. Writing always in collaboration, until the death of the youngtt, it was their ambition to be not merely novelists, inventing & n¢W

kind of novel, but historians; not merely historians, but the bistorians of a particular century, and of what was intimate and what

GONDA—GONDAR js unknown in it; to be also discriminating, indeed innovating,

critics of art, but of a certain section of art, the 18th century, in France and Japan; and also to collect pictures and bibelots, always

513

by H. Céard; R. Doumic, Portraits d’écrivains (1892); Pauli Bourget,

Nouveaux Essais de psychologie contemporaine

(1886); Emile Zola,

Les Romanciers naturalistes (1881).

of the French and Japanese 18th century. Their histories (Poraits intimes du XVIIe siècle [1857], La Femme au XVIIIe

division

documents,

district of Gonda has an area of 2,809 sq.m. It consists of an alluvial plain with very slight undulations, studded with groves

siècle [1862], La du Barry [1878], etc.) are made entirely out of autograph

letters,

scraps

of costume,

engravings,

songs, the unconscious self-revelations of the time; their three volumes on L'Art du XVIII. siècle (1859-75) deal with Watteau and his followers in the same scrupulous, minutely enlightening way, with all the detail of unpublished documents; and when

they came to write novels, it was with a similar attempt to give the inner, undiscovered, minute truths of contemporary existence, the inédit of life. The same morbidly sensitive noting of the inédit, of whatever came to them from their own sensations of things and people around them, gives its curious quality to the nine volumes of the Journal, 1887-96, which will remain, perhaps, the truest and most poignant chapter of human history

that they have written. Their novels, Soeur Philoméne (1861), Renée Mauperin (1864), Germinie Lacerteux (1865), Manette Selomon (1865), Madame Gervaisais (1869), and, by Edmond alone, La Fille Elisa (1878), Les Fréres Zemganno (1879), La Faustin (1882), Chérie (1884), are, however, the work by which

they will live as artists. Learning something from Flaubert, and

teaching almost everything to Zola, they invented a new kind of

novel, and their novels are the result of a new vision of the world, in which the very element of sight is decomposed, as in a picture of Monet. Seen through the nerves, in this conscious abandonment to the tricks of the eyesight, the world becomes a thing of broken patterns and conflicting colours, and uneasy movement. A novel of the Goncourts is made up of an infinite number of details, set side by side, every detail equally prominent. While a novel of Flaubert, for all its detail, gives above all things an

impression of unity, a novel of the Goncourts deliberately dispenses with unity in order to give the sense of the passing of life, the heat and form of its moments as they pass. It is written in little chapters, sometimes no longer than a page, and each chapter is a separate notation of some significant event, some emotion or sensation which seems to throw sudden light on the picture of a soul. To the Goncourts humanity is as pictorial a thing as the world it moves in; they do not search further than “the physical basis of life,” and they find everything that can be known of that unknown force written visibly upon the sudden faces of little incidents, little expressive moments. The soul, to them, is a series of moods, which succeed one another, certainly without any of the too arbitrary logic of the novelist who has conceived of character as a solid or consistent thing. Their novels are hardly stories at all, but picture-galleries, hung with pictures of the momentary aspects of the world. French critics have complained that the language of the Goncourts is no longer French, no longer the French of the past; and this is true. It is their distinction— the finest of their inventions—that, in order to render new sensations, a new vision of things, they invented a new ere ) A. Sy. In his will Edmond de Goncourt left his estate for the endowment of an academy, the formation of which was entrusted to Alphonse Daudet and Léon Hennique. The society was to consist of ten members, each of whom was to receive an annuity of 6,000 francs, and a yearly prize of 5,000 francs was to be awarded to the author of some work of fiction. Nine of the members of the new academy were nominated in the will. They were: Alphonse

Daudet, J. K. Huysmans, Léon Hennique, Octave Mirbeau, the two brothers, “J. H.” Rosny, Gustave Geffroy and Paul Margueritte. On Jan. 19, 1903, after much litigation, the academy was consututed, with Elémir Bourges, Lucien Descaves and Léon Daudet

as members in addition to those mentioned in de Goncourt’s will,

e placeof Alphonse Daudet having been left vacant by his death 1897.

On the brothers de Goncourt' see the Journal des Goncourt already

ted; M. A. Belloc (afterwards Lowndes)

and M. L. Shedlock,

Edmond and Jules de Goncourt, with Letters and Leaves from their

(1895) ; Alidor Delzant, Les Goncourt (1889) which contains

4 valuable bibliography; Lettres de Jules de Goncourt (1888), preface

GONDA, a town and district of British India, in the Fyzabad of the United

Provinces.

Pop.

(1921)

13,228.

The

of mango trees, and divided into three belts known as the ¢arai or swampy tract, the wparkar or uplands, and the tarhar or wet lowlands, all three being fertile and closely tilled. Several rivers flow through the district, but only two, the Gogra and Rapti, are of any importance. On the outbreak of the Mutiny, the raja of Gonda, after honourably escorting the government treasure to Fyzabad, joined the rebels. His estates, along with those of the rani of Tulsipur, were confiscated, and conferred as rewards upon

the maharajas of Balrampur and Ajodhya, who had remained loyal. In 1921 the population was 1,473,098.

GONDAL, a town and native State of India, in the western Indian States agency of Bombay, in the centre of the peninsula of Kathiawar. The area of the State is 1,024 sq.m.; pop. (1921) 167,071. The tribute is £7,000. Grain and cotton are the chief products, and cotton and wool stuffs and gold embroidery are made. The chief, whose title is Thakur Sahib, is a Jadeja Rajput. The State has long had progressive administration and compulsory female education has recently been introduced. It is traversed by a railway connecting it with Bhanagar, Rajkot and the sea-board. The town of Gondal, the state capital and residence of the chief, is 23 m. by rail S. of Rajkot; pop. (1921) 17,418. It contains a fine college, an orphanage, a high school for girls, and an asylum.

GONDAR, one of the former capitals of Abyssinia, situated on a basaltic ridge some 7,500 ft. above the sea, about 21 m. N.E. of Lake Tana, a splendid view of which is obtained from the castle. Two streams, the Angreb on the east side and the Gaha or Kaha on the west, flow from the ridge, and meeting below the town, pass onwards to the lake. Gondar was a small village when at the beginning of the 16th century it was chosen by the Negus Sysenius

(Seged I.) as the capital of his kingdom. His son Fasilidas, or A’lem-Seged (1633-1667), was the builder of the castle which bears his name. Later emperors built other castles and palaces, the latest in date being that of the Negus Yasu II., erected about 1736, at which time Gondar appears to have been at the height

of its prosperity.

Thereafter it suffered greatly from the civil

wars which raged in Abyssinia, and was more than once sacked, most recently in 1868 by the emperor Theodore, and in 1887 by the dervishes under Abu Anga, who inflicted very great injury, destroying many churches, damaging the castles and carrying off much treasure. The population, estimated by James Bruce in 1770 at 10,000 femilies, had dwindled in 1905 to about 7,000 persons. Since the pacification of the Sudan by the British (1886-1889) there has been some revival of trade between Gondar and the regions of the Blue Nile. Among the inhabitants are numbers of Mohammedans, and there is a settlement of Falashas. Cotton, cloth, gold and silver ornaments, copper wares, fancy articles in

bone and ivory, excellent saddles and shoes are among the products of the local industry. Unlike any other buildings in Abyssinia, the castles and palaces of Gondar resemble, with some modifications, the mediaeval fortresses of Europe, the style of architecture being the result

of the presence in the country of numbers of Portuguese. Fasilidas’s castle was built by Indian workmen, under the superintendence of Abyssinians who had learned something of architecture from the Portuguese adventurers. The castle has two storeys, is go fi. by 84 ft., has a square tower and circular domed towers at the corners. The most extensive ruins are a group of royal buildings enclosed in a wall. These ruins include the palace of Yasu II., which has several fine chambers. Christian Levantines were employed in its construction and it was decorated in part with Venetian mirrors, etc. In the same enclosure is a small castle attributed to Yasu 1. The exterior walls of the castles and palaces named are little damaged and give to Gondar a unique character among African towns. Of the 44 churches, all in the circular

GONDJA—GONDWANALAND

514

Abyssinian style, which are said to have formerly existed in Gon- | on Oct. 2, 1626. See S. R. Gardiner, History of England (London, 1883-84): P. de dar or its immediate neighbourhood, Major Powell-Cotton found Gayangos, introduction to Cinco Cartas politico-literarias de Don only one intact in 1900. Diego Sarmiento de Acuna, Conde de Gondomar . . . (Madrid 1869 See E. Ruppell, Reise in Abyssinien (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 18381840); T. von Heuglin, Reise nach Abessinien (Jena, 1868); G. Lejean, Soc. de Bibliéfilos Espafioles) ; R. H. Lyon, Gondomar (Oxford, r9t0)" Voyage en Abyssinie (Paris, 1872); Achille Raffray, Afrique orientale; | Abyssinie (Paris, 1876); P. H. G. Powell-Cotton, 4 Sporting Trip|

GONDWANA,

the historical name for a large tract of hilly

through Abyssinia, chaps. 27-30 (London, 1902); and Rosita Forbes, |country in India which roughly corresponds with the greater part

of the present Central Provinces.

From Red Sea to Blue Nile (1925). Views of the castle are given by Heuglin, Raffray, Powell-Cotton and Rosita Forbes.

GONDJA,

a people greatly resembling the Dagomba

to the beginning of the x8th cen.

(to

tury in three or four separate

whom they were formerly subject), living in the Salaga and Bole districts of the Northern Territories. Gold Coast.

GONDOKORDO,

The name is derived from the

aboriginal tribe of Gonds, who ruled the country from the roth

kingdoms. They maintained a barbaric civilization and though nominally subject to the Moguls

a stopping place for steamers on the east

bank of the upper Nile, in 4° 54’ N., 32° 43’ E. 1,077 m. by river south of Khartum and 13 miles below Rejef where. up stream from Khartum, the Nile ceases to be navigable. The station, which is very unhealthy, is at the top of a cliff 25 ft. ahove the river-level. Gondokoro was first visited by Europeans in 1841-1842, when expeditions sent out by Mohammed Ali, pasha of Egypt, ascended the Nile as far as the foot of the rapids above Gondokoro, It soon became an ivory and slave-trading centre. In 1851 an Austrian Roman Catholic mission was established here, but it was

they were not much disturbed, but when the Mahratta invaders

appeared in the 18th century the Gond kingdoms succumbed and the aboriginal population fled for

safety to the hills.

Gondwana

was included in the dominions of the Bhonsla Raja of Nagpur which passed to the British be. tween 1818 and 1853. The Gonds, who call themselves Koitur or “highlanders,” are the most numerous tribe of Dravidian race in India. In 1921 CENTRAL INDIA” MARIA GOND IN DANCING COSTUME they numbered 2,110,000. Their The Gonds are an aboriginal hill race language, akin to the Southem of Central India languages of India, is unwritten and, except for missionary productions, there is no literature, but it is still the spoken language of 7% of the population of the Central Provinces. The Rajgonds, claiming to have Rajput blood, are on the skirts of Hinduism, but most of the Gonds are animistic in belief. They are a courageous race, and, when unspoilt by contact with civilization, extremely honest. The term “Gondwana” is likewise used by geologists as a name for certain rock formations.

abandoned in 1859. It was at Gondokoro that J. H. Speke and J. A. Grant, descending the Nile after their discovery of its source, met, on Feb. 15, 1863, Samuel Baker and his wife who were journeying up the river. In 1871 Baker, then governor-general of the equatorial provinces of Egypt, established a military post at Gondokoro, which he named Ismailia, after the then khedive.

Baker made this post his headquarters, but Colonel (afterwards General) C. G. Gordon, who succeeded him in 1874, abandoned the station on account of its unhealthy site, removing to Lado, 11 miles down stream. Gondokoro fell into the hands of the Mahdists in 1885. After the destruction of the Mahdist power in 1898 it was occupied by British troops and formed the northernmost post on the Nile of the Uganda protectorate. In 1914 however the administration was transferred to the Sudan Government which gained control of the whole stretch of the Nile navigable from Khartum. GONDWANALAND. This name, derived from GondGONDOMAR, DIEGO SARMIENTO DE ACUNA, Count or (1567-1626), Spanish diplomatist, born in Gondomar, wana, a district of Central India, was given by Siiss to the inferred Galicia, on Nov. 1, 1567. He inherited wide estates in Galicia and | Palaeozoic continent, that at its greatest extension spanned the in Old Castile from his father, corregidor of Granada and gov- South Atlantic and Indian oceans—incidentally including Sclater's ernor of the Canary islands. In 1583 Philip IT. gave him military Lemuria linking India, Madagascar, and Africa, and Ihering’s command of the Portuguese frontier and coast of Galicia. Cor- Arch-hellenis uniting Africa with Brazil. It embraced all (except regidor of Toro in 1593, he was sent in 1603 to superintend the north-west) Africa, Madagascar, peninsular India, Australia, Tasdistribution of the treasure brought from America by two galleons mania, Antarctica, Falklands, and all South America except the driven to take refuge at Vigo, and on his return was appointed on extreme west and north-west. Its unstable margins were between the board of finance. In 1609 he repelled a naval attack on Galicia the Devonian and Jurassic, intermittently and widely transgressed made by the Dutch. In the Casa del Sol at Valladolid, where he by the oceans; the sea bounding it on the north, wherein deposition resided. he collected a library which the marquis of Malpica, his went on continuously down to the Tertiary, being called the descendant, ceded to Charles III.; it is now in the royal library “Tethys”—with the Mediterranean as a remnant. Sedimentation upon Gondwanaland itself was predominantly at. Madrid. His reputation as a diplomatist rests on his two periods of of “continental” type, the widespread strata—Gondwana beds— —

service as ambassador in England (1613—18 and 1619-22). The excellence of his latinity pleased the literary tastes of James I., whose character he judged with remarkable insight. He flattered

the king’s love of books and of peace, and he made skilful use of his desire for an alliance between the prince of Wales and a Spanish infanta. Sarmiento’s aim was to keep James from aiding the Protestant States against Spain and the house of Austria, and to avert English attacks on Spanish possessions in America. His success made him odious to the anti-Spanish and Puritan parties. The active part he took in promoting the execution of Sir Walter Raleigh aroused particular animosity. He was attacked in pamphiets and figured as the principal person in Thomas Middleton's A Game of Chess, a political play suppressed by order of the council, Count of Gondomar in 1617, he returned home on leave for his health, through Flanders and France, on a diplomatic mission im 14628. He resumed office in London in 1619; on his retirement im 1622 he was appointed on the royal council and sent on a complimentary mission to Vienna. He died near Haro in the Rioja

being often coal-bearing and frequently still horizontal. Highly

folded banded ironstones and jaspilites characterise the Proterozoic. Noteworthy are those deposits betraying glacial conditions during several epochs—in the late pre-Cambrian, early Devonian and especially late Carboniferous (so-called Permian or Permocarboniferous), the last-named occupying enormous stretches within the west and south-east of Australia, Tasmania, (possibly New Zealand), peninsular India (and the Salt Range), southern Madagascar, South Africa (possibly the Congo), Falklands, south-eastern Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, and central and western Argentina. Those morainic deposits are regarded as the products of continen-

tal ice-caps of vast extent and huge thickness, that developed over relatively low-lying ground, moving outwards over distances megsurable in hundreds of miles and passing into the ocean in places,

as indicated by beds with marine fossils. This intense refrigeration (with milder inter-glacial periods) began in themid-Carbouif-

erous in New South Wales and oniy ended there in the Permian. attaining its maximum throughout the regions cited towards the =i ae ea a enan mr rae aa e eae ELAR ppm erate,

GONFALON—GONIOMETER

525

close of the Carboniferous. The causes are obscure and much debated.

prise undertaken in the name of the church and the people of The boulder-beds | Rome, and also at ceremonies, processions, etc. This was granted with striated erratics and underlying grooved rock-surfaces dis- by the pope to distinguished families. close the ice-emovement, which was away from the South Pole GONGORA Y ARGOTE, LUIS DE (1561-1627), Spanish except in Africa. The succeeding Permian sediments contain the lyric poet, was born at Cordova. His father, Francisco de Argote, workable coals of the Southern hemisphere. The Triassic is sig- was corregidor of that city, but the poet early adopted the surnalled by diastrophism and transgression; and later by widespread name of his mother, Leonora de Góngora, who was descended aridity, as in Europe. In the early Jurassic, floods of basalt (some- from an ancient family. He was educated at the university of times rhyolite) terminated sedimentation and the strata beneath Salamanca, and was already known as a poet in 1585, when Cerwere riddled with intrusive dolerite in South Africa, Tasmania, vantes praised him in the Galatea. Ordained priest in 1599, he

Antarctica, and Brazil. The breaking up of Gondwanaland dates from that time, though not accomplished until late in the Cretaceous—a process currently ascribed to the foundering of segments of the continent or of nar-

row “land bridges.” Under Wegener’s “Displacement Hypothesis,” however, the continent is supposed to have fractured and the crustal blocks, floating on a liquefied basic substratum (basalt), to have drifted apart, pushing up before them the marine sediments bordering Gondwanaland, and elevating them as the Tertiary folded chains of the Andes, Morocco, Alps, Iranian chains,

Himalayas, New Zealand, which encircle its relics. Magma was squeezed into or erupted through the rising arches, as in the Andes.

The Great Rift Valley of Africa with its prolonged volcanicity and the lavas of the Deccan (India) and Abyssinia bespeak zones of tension in the crust.

Distinctive of the Gondwana beds is the “Southern” or Glossopteris Flora-——with its few “Northern” Carboniferous elements in South America and South Africa that survived the intense glaciation—ousted in late Triassic times by the Thinnfeldia Flora, with return to floral uniformity throughout the globe in the Jurassic. Reptilia and amphibia belonging to the orders Anomodontia, Ther-

ocephalia, Therodontia, and Saurischia characterise the PermoTriassic, especially that of the Karroo (spreading partly into Russia), the Triassic Cynodontia being apparently ancestral to the

Mammalia. Post-Cretaceous vertebrate evolution followed diverging lines in the fragments of Gondwanaland, producing the Edentata of Patagonia, Proboscidea of Africa and Asia, and Monotremata of Australasia. As noted by Blanford, the distribution and affinities of their existing faunas point to the former continental unity of these areas. For example the lemurs of Africa, Madagascar and India, manati of West Africa and the Amazon, freshwater fishes, birds of Struthzo-type, blind snakes, geckos, scorpions, decapod Crustacea, Helicidae, isopod Phreatoicus and oligochete Phreodrillidae, could not have crossed the oceans. Similar evidence is obtainable from the present floras and the actuality of this former continent appears unquestionable. (A. L. pu T.)

settled from 1612 onwards at Madrid, where, as a contemporary remarks, he “noted and stabbed at everything with his satirical pen.” In 1626 a severe illness, which impaired his memory, compelled his retirement to Cordova, where he died (1627). The collection of his poems consists of numerous sonnets, odes, ballads, songs for the guitar and of certain larger poems. such as the Soledades and the Polifemo. Too many of them exhibit

that tortuous elaboration of style (estilo culto) with which the name of Góngora is inseparably associated; but though Góngora has been justly censured for affected Latinisms, unnatural transpositions, strained metaphors and frequent obscurity, it must be admitted that he was a man of rare genius—a fact cordially acknowledged by those of his contemporaries who were most capable of judging. It was only in the hands of those who imitated Gongora’s style without inheriting his genius that culteranismo became absurd. Besides his lyrical poems, Góngora is the author of a play entitled Las Firmezas de Isabel and of two incomplete dramas, the Comedia venatoria and El Doctor Carlino. See E. Churton, Góngora (1862); L. P. Thomas, Góngora et le gongorisme considérés dans leurs rapports avec le marinisme (1911) ; M. Artigas, “D. Luis de Góngora and Argote,” Biografia y estudio critico (1928).

GONIOMETER, an instrument for measuring the angles of crystals; there are two kinds—the contact goniometer and the reflecting goniometer. The Contact Goniometer (or Hand-goniometer).—This consists of two metal rules pivoted together at the centre of a graduated semicircle (fig. 1). The instrument is placed with its plane perpendicular to an edge between two faces of the crystal to be measured, and the rules are brought into contact with the faces; this is best done by holding the crystal up against the light with the edge in the line of sight. The angle between the rules,

GONFALON, a banner or standard of the middle ages (the

late French and Italian form, also found in other Romanic languages, of gonfanon, which is derived from the O.H. Ger. gundfeno, gund, war, and fano, flag, cf. Mod. Ger. Fahne, and English “vane”), It took the form of a rectangular ensign, often slit into streamers at the foot, and swinging from a cross-bar attached to a pole, This is the most frequent use of the word. The title of “gonfalonier,” the bearer of the gonfalon, was in the middle ages both military and civil. It was borne by the counts of Vexin, as kaders of the men of St. Denis, and when the Vexin was incorporated in the kingdom of France the title of Gonfalonier de

Seint Denis passed to the kings of France, who thus became the bearers of the “oriflamme,” as the banner of St. Denis was called. Gonfalonier was the title of civic magistrates of various degrees of authority in many of the city republics of Italy, notably of

Florence, Siena and Lucca.

At Florence the functions of the

FIG. 1.—CONTACT

GONIOMETER

oce varied. At first the gonfaloniers were the leaders of the as read on the graduated semicircle, then gives the angle be-

various military divisions of the inhabitants. In 1293 was created theoffice of gonfalonier of justice, who carried out the orders of the signiory. By the end of the 14th century the gonfalonier was

the chief of the signiory. At Lucca he was the chief magistrate

of the republic. At Rome two gonfaloniers must be distinguished,

that of the church and that of the Roman people; both offices

were conferred by the pope. The first was usually granted to soveréigns, who were bound to defend the church and lead her armies.

second bore a standard with the letters S,P.Q.R. on any enter-

tween the two faces. The rules are slotted, so that they may be shortened and their tips applied to a crystal partly embedded in its matrix. The instrument represented in fig. 1 is employed for the approximate measurement of large crystals with dull and rough faces. The Reflecting Goniometer.—This is an mstrument of far greater precision, and is always used for the accurate measurement

of the angles when small crystals with bright faces are availabe. As a rule, the smaller the crystal the more even are its faces; and

GONTAUT

516

when these are smooth and bright they reflect sharply defined images of a bright object. By turning the crystal about an axis parallel to the edge between two faces, the image reflected from a second face may be brought into the same position as that formerly occupied by the image reflected from the first face; the angle through which the crystal has been rotated, as determined by a graduated circle to which the crystal is fixed, is the angle between the normals to the two faces. Several forms of instruments depending on this principle have been devised. One consists of a graduated circle reading degrees and minutes, which turns with a milled head about a horizontal axis. The crystal is attached with a mixture of beeswax and pitch to a holder and by means of pivoted arcs is adjusted so that the edge between two faces (a zone-axis) is parallel to, and coincident with, the axis of the instrument, The crystal-holder and adjustment-arcs, together with the milled head are carried on an axis which passes through the hollow axis of the graduated circle, and may thus be rotated independently of the circle. In use, the goniometer is placed directly opposite to a window, with its axis parallel to the horizontal window-bars, and as far distant as possible. The eye is placed quite close to the crystal, and the image of a slit in a dark screen as seen in the crystal-face is made to coincide with a chalk mark on the floor as seen directly; this is done by turning the milled head, the reading of the graduated circle having previously been observed. Without moving the eye, the crystal is then rotated until the image from a second face is brought into the same position; the difference between the first and second readings of the graduated circle will then give the angle between the normals of the two faces. Several improvements have been made on this goniometer.

The adjustment-arcs

have been modified;

a mirror of black

glass fixed to the stand beneath the crystal gives a reflected image of the signal, with which the reflection from the crystal can be more conveniently made to coincide; a telescope provided with cross-wires gives greater precision to the direction of the reflected rays of light; and with the telescope a collimator has sometimes been used. A still greater improvement was effected by placing the graduated circle in a horizontal position. Many forms of the horizontal-circle goniometer have been constructed; they are provided with a telescope and collimator, and in construction are essentially the same as a spectrometer, with the addition of arrangements for adjusting and centring the crystal. The instrument shown in fig. 2 has four concentric axes, which enable the crystal-holder A, together with the adjustment-arcs B and centring-slides D, to be raised or lowered, or to be rotated independently of the circle H; further, either the crystal-holder or

the telescope T may be rotated with the circle, while the other remains fixed. placed on the justed so that axis) between incident with

instrument. candescent

The crystal is holder and adthe edge (zonetwo faces Ís cothe axis of the

Light from an ingas-burner passes

through the slit of the collimator

C, and the image of the slit (signal) reflected from the crystal face is then viewed in the telescope. The clamp and the slowmotion screw F enable the image to be brought exactly on the FiG. 2.——HORIZONTAL:+CIRCLE GONcross-wires of the telescope, IOMETER and the position of the circle with respect to the vernier is read through the lens. The crystal and the circle are then rotated to-

gether until the image from a second face is brought on the crosswires of the telescope, and the angle through which they have been turned is the angle between the normals to the two faces. While measuring the angles between the faces of crystals the telescope remains fixed by the clamp $, but when this is released the instrument may be used as a spectrometer or refractometer for determining, by the method of minimum deviation, the indices of refraction of an artificially cut prism or of a transparent crystal

when the faces are suitably inclined to one another.

With a one-circle goniometer, such as is described above, it is necessary to mount and re-adjust the crystal afresh for the meas. urement of each zone of faces (7.e., each set of faces intersecting in parallel edges); with very small crystals this operation takes a, considerable time, and the minute faces are not readily identified

again. Further, in certain cases, it is not possible to measure the angles between zones, nor to determine the position of small faces which do not lie in prominent zones on the crystal. These diff. culties have been overcome by the use of a two-circle goniometer or theodolite-goniometer, which is a combination of a vertical.

circle goniometer. In these instruments the crystal is set up and adjusted with the axis of a prominent zone parallel to the axis of either the horizontal or the vertical circle. As a rule, only in this

zone can the angles between the faces be measured directly: the positions of all the other faces, which need be observed only once, are fixed by the simultaneous readings of the two circles. These readings, corresponding to the polar distance and azimuth, or latitude and longitude readings of astronomical telescopes, must be plotted on a projection before the symmetry of the crystal js apparent; and laborious calculations are necessary in order to

determine the indices of the faces and the angles between them, and the other constants of the crystal; or to test whether any

three faces are accurately in a zone. These disadvantages are overcome by adding still another graduated circle to the instrument, with its axis perpendicular to the axis of the vertical circle, thus forming a three-circle goniometer, With such an instrument measurements may be made in any zone or between any two faces without re-adjusting the crystal; further the troublesome calculations are avoided, and, indeed, the instrument may be used for solving spherical triangles, Goniometers of special construction have been devised for measuring crystals during their growth in the mother-liquid; for

cutting section-plates and prisms from crystals (precious stones) accurately in any desired direction. The instrument commonly employed for measuring the optic axial angle of biaxial crystals is really a combination of a goniometer with a polariscope, For the optical investigation of minute crystals under the microscope, various forms of stage-goniometer with one, two or three graduated circles have been constructed. An ordinary microscope fitted with cross-wires and a rotating graduated stage serves the purpose of a goniometer for measuring the plane angles of a crystal face or section, being the same in principle as the contact goniometer. For fuller descriptions of goniometers see text-books of Crys-

tallography and Mineralogy, especially P. H. Groth, Physikalische Krystallographie (4th ed., Leipzig, 1905). See also C. Leiss, Die optischen Instrumente der Firma R. Fuess, deren Beschreibung,

Justierung und Anwendung (Leipzig, 1899).

(L. J. S)

GONTAUT, MARIE JOSEPHINE LOUISE, Ducuzsss DE (1773-1857), was born in Paris on Aug. 3, 1773, daughter of Augustin Francois, comte de Montaut-Navailles, who had been governor of Louis XVI. and his two brothers when children. Joséphine de Gontaut ‘shared the lessons given by Madame de Genlis to the Orleans family, with whom her mother broke off relations after the outbreak of the Revolution. Mother and daughter em! grated to Coblenz in 1792; thence they went to Rotterdam, and finally to England, where Joséphine married the marquis Charles

Michel de Gontaut-Saint-Blacard (d. 1822). They returned to France at the Restoration, and resumed their place at court. Madame de Gontaut became lady-in-waiting to Caroline, duchess of Berry, and later governess to the children of France. She remained faithful to the Bourbon cause all her life. In 1827 she was created duchesse de Gontaut. She followed the exiled royal family to Prague, but in 1834 Pierre Louis, duc de Blacas, thought her comparatively liberal views dangerous for the prince an

princess and she received a brusque congé from Charles X. Het twin daughters,

Joséphine

(1796-1844)

and Charlotte (179%

1818), married respectively Ferdinand de Chabot, prince de and afterwards duc de Rohan, and François, comte de BourbonBusset. She wrote in her old age some naïve memoirs. She died in Paris in 1857.

GONVILLE—-GOOCH See her Memoirs

(Eng. ed., 2 vols., 1894), and Lettres inédites

(1895). GONVILLE,

517

GONZAGA, THOMAZ ANTONIO (1744-c. 1809), Por-

tuguese poet, was born at Oporto, and brought up at Bahia, Brazil, EDMUND (4d. 1351), founder of Gonville where his father was disembargador of the appeal court. After Hall, now Gonville and Caius College, at Cambridge, England, is completing his legal studies at Coimbra he remained there for thought to have been the son of William de Gonvile, and the some time, and compiled a treatise on natural Jaw. In 1782 he

prother of Sir Nicholas Gonvile.

The foundation of Gonville Hall

at Cambridge was effected by a charter granted by Edward III. in 1348. It was called, officially, the Hall of the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin, but was usually known as Gunnell or Gonville Hall. Its original site was in Free-school Lane, where Corpus Christi college naw stands. Gonvile apparently wished it to be devoted io training for theological study, but after his death the founda-

tion was completed by William Bateman, bishop of Norwich and founder of Trinity Hall, on a different site and with con-

siderably altered statutes. (See also Carus, Jorn.) GONZAGA, an Italian princely family named after the town

where it probably had its origin. Its known history begins with Luigi I, (1267-1360), who, after fierce struggles, supplanted his

brother-in-law Rinaldo Bonacolsi as lord of Mantua in 1328, with

the title of captain-general, and afterwards of vicar-general of the empire, adding the designation of count of Mirandola and Concordia, which fief the Gonzagas held from 1328 to 1354. In 1335 his son Guido wrested Reggio from the Scaligeri and held it

wotil 1371. Luigi was succeeded by Guido (d. 1369); the latter’s son Luigi II. came next in succession (d. 1382), then Giovan Francesco I, (d. 1407), then Giovan Francesco II. (d. 1444)

was made disembargador of the appeal court at Bahia; in 1785,

on the eve of his marriage with the “Marilia” of his verses, he was arrested on a charge of complicity in the conspiracy of Tiradentes, and after three years’ imprisonment was exiled to Mozambique. His last years were darkened by melancholia, deepening into madness, and he died in exile. His reputation as a poet rests on a little volume of bucolics entitled A Marilia de Dirceo (Dirceo being his Arcadian pen name), which includes all his published verses and is divided into two parts, corresponding with those of his life. The first extends to his imprisonment and breathes only love and pleasure, while the main theme of the second part, written in prison, is his saudade for Marilia and past happiness. Gonzaga borrowed his forms from Anacreon and TheOcritus, but the matter, except for an occasional imitation of Petrarch, the natural, elegant style and the harmonious metrification, are all his own. Marilia is the most celebrated collection of erotic poetry dedicated to a single person in the Portuguese tongue. BısLIocRAPgY.—The Paris edition of 1862 in 2 vols, is in every way the best, although the authenticity of the verses in its 3xd part,

which do not relate to Marilia, is doubtful. A popular edition of the first two parts was published in 1888.

A French version of Marilia

who received for his military services to the emperor Sigismund

by Monglave and Chalas appeared in Paris in 1823, an Italian by Vegezzi Ruscalla at Turin in 1844, a Latin by Dr. Castra Lopes at

grandson, Federigo I. (d. 1484}, served under various foreign

1901).

the title of marquess of Mantua (1432), an investiture which Rio in 1868, and there is a Spanish one by Vedia. See Innocencio da Silva, Diccionaria Bibliographico Portuguez vol. Vii, BP. 320; also legitimatized the usurpations of the house of Gonzaga. His Dr. y Braga, Filinto Elysio e os Dissidentas da Arcadia (Oporto,

sovereigns, including Bona of Savoy and Lorenzo de’ Medici; subsequently he upheld the rights of the house of Este against Pope Sixtus IV. and the Venetians, whose claims were a menace to his own dominions of Ferrara and Mantova, His son Giovan Francesco ILL (d. z519) commanded the allied Italian forces against Charles VIII. at the battle of Fornovo; he afterwards fought in the kingdom of Naples and in Tuseany, until captured by the Venetians in rsog. With the help of his wife, the famous Isabella d’Este, he promoted the fine arts and letters. He was succeeded by his son Federigo IT. (d. 1540), captaingeneral of the papal forces. After the peace of Cambrai (1529) his ally and protector, the emperor Charles V., raised his title to that of duke of Mantua in 1530; in 1536 the emperor decided the controversy for the succession of Monferrato between Federigo and the house of Savoy in favour of the former. His son Guglielmo subdued a revolt in Monferrato and was presented

with that territory by the emperor Maximilian II. His grandson Vincenzo II. (d. 1627) appointed as his successor Charles, the son of Henriette, the heiress of the French family of NeversRethel, who was only able to take possession of the ducal throne after a bloody struggle; his dominions were invaded and he himself reduced to the sorest straits. His great grandson, Ferdinand Charles, acquired Guastalla by marriage in 1678, but lost it soon

afterwards; he involved his country in useless warfare, with the result that in 1708 Austria annexed the duchy. On July 5, 1708,

i died a Venice, and with hìm the Gonzagas of Mantua came o an end. BerIocrRAaraY.—S. Maffei, Annali

dè Mantova

(Tortona,

1675);

. Veronesi, Quadro storico della Mirandola (Modena, 1847); T. Aifd, Storia di Guastalla (Guastalla, 1:875, 4 vols.) ; A: Luzio, I Precattori

elsabella dE ste (Ancona, 1887); A., Luzio and R. Renier, “Francesco aga alla battaglia di Fornovo (r495), secondo i documenti tovani”

(in Archivio storico italiano, ser. v. vol. vi, 205—246);

» Mantova e¢ Urbino, Isabella d’Este e Elisabeth Gonzaga nelle

GONZALEZ-CARVAJAL,

TOMAS

JOSE

(1753-

1834), Spanish poet and statesman, Intendant (1795) of the colonies recently founded in Sierra Morena and Andalusia, and director (1813) of the University of San Isidro, he was imprisoned

(1815-20) for establishing a chair of international law. Reinstated by the revolution of 1820, he was exiled by the counterrevolution of 1823-27, He died a member of the supreme council of war. As an author, he is known for his metrical translations : the poetical works of the Bible after the model of Luis de eon.

GOOCH, SIR DANIEL, Barr (1816-1889), English mechanical engineer, was born at Bedlington, Northumberland, on Aug. 26, 1876.

In 1837 he became the Jacomotive super-

intendent of the Great Western Railway, the unsatisfactory locomotives employed eight-wheeled ciass. One of these broad “Lord of the Isles” gained a gold medal

and gradually replaced by a new and efficient gauge locomatives, the

at the Great Exhibition

of 1851, and ran 789,300 miles, with its original boiler, before

withdrawal in 1881.

Gooch left the railway in 1864, and as a

director of the Telegraph Construction Company personally superintended the laying of the first two Atlantic Cables by the

steamship “Great Eastern” in 1865-6. He returned to the Great Western Railway as chairman in 1866 and carried out many

improvements hefore his death at Clewer Park, near Windsor, on Oct. 15, 1889. He was an advocate af the “broad,” or 7 ft., gauge for railways, but his death only preceded by three years the complete conversion of the Great Western Railway ta standard gauge.

GOOCH,

GEORGE

PEABODY

(1873~

), English

historian, was educated at King’s callege, Londan, and Trinity college, Cambridge, and continued his studies in Berlin and

Paris. He was Liberal M.P. for Bath (1906-10), and for Reading

(1913). He was joint editor of the Contemporary Review (1911 onwards); president of the Historical Association (1922-25); and joint editor of the British Documents om the Origins of the War, 1898-1914 (1926, etc.). Gooch has made a special study of modern German history, and is one of the first English authorities teriaggio del card, Ercole Gonzaga (Venice, t904); A. Segrè, I on the subject. Richjamo di Don Ferrante Gonzaga dal governo di Milana (Turin, His more important works include: Germany and the French

Pek ons Jamigliari e nelle vicende politische (Turin, 1893); L. G. élissier, Les Relations de Francois de Gonzague, marquis de Mantoue, tvec Ludovico Sforza et Louis XII.” (in Annales de la faculté de tires de Bordeaux, 1893) ; A. Bertolotti, “Lettere del duca di Savoia anuele Filiberto a Guglielmo Gonzaga” (Arch. stor. #., ser. V. wl ix); E. Solari, Lettere inedite del card. Gasparo Contarini nel

1904) ; G. Fochessati, 7 Gonzaga di Mantova e Pultimo duca (Mantua,

912); A. Luzio, I Corradi di Gonzaga, Signori di Mantova, nuovi enti (1913) ; S. Brinton, Tke Gonzaga (1927).

Reuolution (1920); History af Modern Europe, 1878-1978 (1923);

Franco-German Relations, 1871-1914 (1923); Recent Revelations of European Diplomacy (1927).

518

GOOD—GOODNOW

GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827), English writer on {| for the peace and unity of the church, for the pope, the cl medical, religious and classical subjects, was born on May 25, all ranks and conditions of men, the sovereign, for eerie: 1764, at Epping, Essex, the son of a Nonconformist minister. In the sick and afflicted, heretics and schismatics, Jews and heathen 1794 he became a member of the British Pharmaceutical Society, Then follows the “adoration of the cross.” In the Church oj and in that connection, and especially by the publication of A England the history of the Passion from the gospel according to History of Medicine (1795), he effected a greatly needed reform John is also read; the collects for the day are based upon the in the profession of the apothecary. In 1820 he took the diploma bidding prayers which are found in the Ordo Romanus. The of M.D. at Marischal college, Aberdeen. He died at Shepper- “three hours” service, borrowed from Roman Catholic usage and ton, Middlesex, on Jan. 2, 1827. Good was acquainted with the consisting of prayers, addresses on the “seven last words from principal European languages, and also with Persian, Arabic and the cross” and intervals for meditation and silent prayer, has become very popular in the Anglican Church, and the observance Hebrew. .

GOOD CONDUCT BADGES: see Stripe.

GOODE, GEORGE BROWN (1851-1896), American zoologist, was born in New Albany, Ind., on Feb. 13, 1851. He graduated from Wesleyan University at Middletown, Conn., and spent a year at Harvard studying natural history under Agassiz. In 1874 he became chief of the division of fisheries at the National

Museum, Washington, D.C., and in 1887 assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution in charge of the National Museum, which position he held until his death at Washington, on Sept. 6, 1896. Under his direction the collections at the museum were entirely reorganized and recatalogued in a scientific manner and displayed with an educational aim in view. His ideas of museum administration and display as expressed in his papers ““Museums of the Future” and “Principles of Museum Administration” (U.S. National Museum Report, pt. ii., 1897) influenced nearly every important museum of the period. They were also spread by the remarkable Government exhibits prepared by Goode for the Centennial Exhibition of 1876, The World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893, exhibitions at Berlin (1880), London (1883) and Madrid (1892—93) and many others. Goode directed the fisheries division of the roth census (1880) and prepared the report in seven quarto volumes The Fisheries and Fishing Industries of the United States (1884-87). He wrote American Fishes (1888) and in 1896 published his most important scientific work, Ocean Ichthyology. He was prominent in the organization and conduct of scientific societies, interested in the history of science, in which field he prepared many papers, and an indefatigable bibliographer of the writings of naturalists. The Annual Report of the U.S. Nat. Museum for 1897 contains a bibliography of Goode’s publications together with memoirs by S. P. Langley and others. See also D. S. Jordan, ed., Leading Men of Science (1910).

GOOD FRIDAY, the English name for the Friday before

.

*

€

of the day is more marked than formerly among Nonconformist bodies even in Scotland. GOODHUE, BERTRAM GROSVENOR (1869-1924),

American architect, was born at Pomfret Hill (Conn.), April 23 1869. He studied architecture in New York city with James Renwick, and in 1891 entered the office of R. A. Cram in Boston (Mass.), later becoming a partner. In 1903 the firm opened an office in New York city, of which Goodhue took charge, After 1914 he practised alone. He designed churches and cathedrals which were thoroughly modern, yet Gothic in inspiration. At the

same time he was one of the most prominent exponents of the sky-scraper building. Among the structures designed by him are St. Thomas’s Church, the Chapel of the Intercession, and the Church

of St. Vincent

Ferrer, New York city; the Nebraska State capitol, Lincoln (Neb.); St. Mark’s Church, Mount Kisco (N.Y.); St. Thomas's College, and the National Academy of Sciences and National Research Council in Washington; University Chapel at the University of Chicago; the California Institute of Technology, Pasadena (Calif.); and the Exposition buildings for San Diego (Calif.). He was also the architect for the Cathedral of Maryland (Balt.). He died in New York city, April 24, 1924.

GOOD KING HENRY

(Chenopodium Bonus-Henricus), a

perennial herb of the goose-foot family (Chenopodiaceae), found in Great Britain and naturalized in North America from Nova Scotia to Ontario and southward. It is a smooth, dark green, littlebranched plant, about 2 ft. high, with usually entire halberdshaped leaves. The plant is cultivated as a pot-herb, in lieu of asparagus, under the name mercury or all-good. (See CHENo-

PODIUM.) GOODMAN,

GODFREY

(1583-1656), bishop of Glou-

cester, was born at Ruthin, Denbighshire, and educated at WestEaster, kept as the anniversary of the Crucifixion. The term is minster and Cambridge. He took orders in 1603, and, after holding probably a corruption of “God’s Friday.” It was called Long various preferments, became bishop of Gloucester in 1625. From Friday by the Anglo-Saxons and Danes, possibly in allusion to this time his tendencies towards Roman Catholicism constantly the length of the services which marked the day. got him into trouble. In 1633 he secured the see of Hereford by The origin of the custom of a yearly commemoration of the bribery, but Archbishop Laud persuaded the king to refuse his Crucifixion is somewhat obscure. It may be regarded as certain consent. In 1640 he was imprisoned for refusing to sign the new that among Jewish Christians it almost imperceptibly grew out canons denouncing popery and affirming the divine right of of the old habit of annually celebrating the Passover on the r4th kings. He afterwards signed and was released on bail, but next of Nisan, and of observing the “days of unleavened bread” from year the bishops who had signed were all imprisoned in the the 15th to the 21st of that month. In the Gentile churches, on Tower, by order of parliament, on the charge of treason. After the other hand, it seems to be well established that originally no 18 weeks’ imprisonment Goodman was allowed to return to his diocese. About 1650 he settled in London, where he died a conyearly cycle of festivals was known at all. (See Easter.)

From its earliest observance, the day was marked bya specially rigorous fast, and also, on the whole, by a tendency to greater simplicity in the services of the church. Prior to the 4th century

there is no evidence of non-celebration of the eucharist on Good Friday; but after that date the prohibition of communion became common. In Spain, indeed, it became customary to close the churches altogether as a sign of mourning; but this practice was condemned by the council of Toledo (633). In the Roman

fessed Roman Catholic. His best known book is The Fall of Man (1616). GOODNOW, FRANK JOHNSON (18s9_—s+), Amer can educationalist, was born in Brooklyn

(N.Y.), on Jan. 18,

1859. Educated at’ Amherst college (Mass.), he graduated in law

at Columbia (1882), subsequently proceeding to the Ecole Libre

des Sciences Politiques, Paris, and the University of Berlin. was appointed instructor in history and lecturer in U.S. adminis Catholic Church the Good Friday ritual at present observed is trative law at Columbia university in 1883, becoming professor m marked by many special features, most of which can be traced 1891, and Eaton professor of administrative law and municy back to a date at least prior to the close of the 8th century (see science in 1903. During 1906-7 he was acting dean of political the Ordo Romanus in Muratori’s Liturg. Rom. Vet.). The altar science. He was legal adviser to the Chinese Government, sta

and the officiating clergy are draped in black and the gospel for the day consists of the history of the Passion as recorded by St. john. This is often sung in plain-chant by three priests, one

representing the “narrator,” the other two the various characters of the story. The singing of this is followed by bidding prayers

tioned at Peking, during the years 1913 and 1914, and from 1914

to 1928 was president of Johns Hopkins university.

Among bis

published works are Comparative Administrative Law (1893);

Municipal Home Rule (1895); Municipal Problems (1897); Pol

tics and Administration (1900); City Government in the U

GOODRICH—GOODWIN States (1904); The Principles of the Administrative Law of the United States (1905); Municipal Government (1909); Social Reom and the Constitution (1911); Principles of Constitutional

519

“Universal Brotherhood of the Friends of Truth,’ which com-

prised artists, scholars, naturalists and others, whose relationship became a potent influence in science. With Forbes he worked at marine zoology, but human anatomy, pathology and morphology Government (1916); and China; an Analysis (1926). ), formed his chief study. In 1840 he moved to Edinburgh, where (1866WARBURTON GOODRICH, ANNIE he was appointed conservator of the museum of the College of on N.J., American nurse educator, was born at New Brunswick, Surgeons, in succession to William Macgillivray. In his lectures Feb. 6, 1866. She was educated at private schools in Connecticut, in the theatre of the college in 1842-43 he insisted on the imEngland and France and in 1892 graduated from the New York portance of the cell as a centre of nutrition, and pointed out that hospital training school for nurses. In 1900-14 she was super- the organism is subdivided into a number of departments. R. intendent of nurses at St. Luke’s, New York and Bellevue and Virchow recognized his indebtedness to these discoveries by

Allied hospitals, inspector of nurses’ training schools under the New York department of education, also lecturer at Teachers

dedicating his Cellular Pathologie

tion of Yale university she became dean of its school of nursing in 1923 when it was established with the aid of the Rockefeller

Turner, with Memoir by H. Lonsdale (Edinburgh, 1868) ; Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. iv. (1868) ; Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin., vol. ix. (1868).

to Goodsir, as “one of the

earliest and most acute observers of cell-life.” In 1843 Goodsir college, Columbia university, 1904-13. In 1914 she became assist- -became curator in the University of Edinburgh; then demonstraant professor of the department of nursing and health at Teachers tor of anatomy, and in 1845 curator of the entire museum. A year college, and in 1917 director of nurses, Henry St. Settlement. later he was elected to the chair of anatomy in the university. Her services to nursing during the World War led to her appoint- He died at Wardie near Edinburgh, on March 6, 1867. ment in 1918 as dean of the army school of nursing. At the invitaSee Anatomical Memoirs of John Goodsir, F.R.S., edited by W.

Foundation. In 1928 it was the only school of nursing awarding the degree of “Bachelor of Nursing.”

GOODRICH,

SAMUEL

GRISWOLD

(1793-1860), an

American author, better known under the pseudonym of “Peter

Parley,” was born, the son of a Congregational minister, at Ridgefield, Connecticut, Aug. 19, 1793. He was largely self-educated, but after general mercantile experience became a bookseller and publisher at Hartford and later in Boston. There, beginning in

1828, he published for fifteen years an illustrated annual, the Token, to which he was a frequent contributor both in prose and verse. The Token contained some of the earliest work of Nathaniel Hawthorne, N. P. Willis, Henry W. Longfellow and Lydia Maria

Child. In 1841 he established Merry’s Museum, which he continued to edit till 1854. In 1827 he began, under the name’ of “Peter Parley,” his series of books for the young, which embraced geography, biography, history, science and miscellaneous tales. Of

these he was the sole composer of comparatively few, but in his Recollections of a Lifetime (2 vols., 1856) he wrote that he was “the author and editor of about 170 volumes,” of which

about seven million copies had been sold, and gave a list both of the works of which he was the author or editor and of the spuri-

ous works published under his name. He was chosen a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1836, and of the state senate in 1837, and in 1851-53 he was consul at Paris, where he remained till 1855. He died in New York May 9, 1860. GOODRICH or GOODRICKE, THOMAS (d. 1554), English ecclesiastic, son of Edward Goodrich of East Kirkby, Lincolnshire, was educated at Corpus Christi college, Cambridge, afterwards becoming a fellow of Jesus college in r510. He was

GOODWILL.

In accounting, goodwill appears as an asset

upon the balance sheet at the amount it originally cost, or at such lesser amount as it may have been written down out of profits. No attempt is ever made to re-value the goodwill of a business from year to year for balance sheet purposes. When, however, a change takes place in the owners of a business, the price to be paid for goodwill has necessarily to be agreed upon by the incoming and outgoing parties. This price is a matter of bargaining,

and has nothing to do with the figure that goodwill may appear at in the books of the business changing hands. Goodwill represents the difference between an established successful business and one that has yet to establish itself and achieve success. The price that a purchaser is willing to pay for goodwill is the price he is prepared to pay for the right to stand in the shoes of his predecessor, and to represent himself as his successor in business. The price that the vendor of a goodwill is content to receive is the compensation that he is content to regard as adequate for his surrender of an income equal to the future profits of the business. The future profits of any business are, in the nature of things, incalculable.

The Result of Fair Dealing—aAt

one time it used to be

thought that the goodwill of a business consisted solely of the goodwill of its customers, and represented the reputation that the business had acquired in their minds as a result of fair dealing over a reasonably extended period of time. Modern thought recognizes that, second only to the esteem of customers, is the esteem of supplying houses and employees. _ Writing down Goodwill.—Many persons take the view that goodwill is an unsatisfactory item to appear in a balance sheet. consulted about the legality of Henry VIII.’s marriage with The earning power of every business fluctuates from year to year; Catherine of Aragon, became royal chaplain about 1530, and thus, the actual value of goodwill also fluctuates. No attempt bishop of Ely in 1534. He was zealous for the Reformation, helped would ever be made to record these fluctuations in successive i 1537 to draw up the Institution of a Christian Man (known balance sheets, as that would give rise to confusion and serve no as the Bishops’ Book), and translated the Gospel of St. John for useful purpose; but goodwill is very commonly written down year, the revised New Testament. On the accession of Edward VI. in by year when the profits are sufficiently large to make that practice 1547 the bishop was made a privy councillor. He assisted to possible, and many persons confuse this with the writing down: compile the First Prayer Book of Edward-VI., and he was one of of such wasting assets as plant and machinery to provide for dethe commissioners for the trial of Bishop Gardiner. In January preciation. As a matter of fact, the goodwill of a business does not: 1551 he succeeded Rich as chancellor and held this office during the “depreciate” unless the business is a temporary one. Paradoxical nine days’ reign of Lady Jane Grey; but he made his peace with as it may seem, goodwill is in practice written down, only when in Queen Mary by associating himself with the order commanding fact its value is increasing.

the duke of Northumberland to disarm. He conformed to the restored religion, and, though deprived of the chancellorship, kept his bishopric until his death on May 10, 1554. See the Dict. Nat. Biog., where further authorities are cited.

GOODSIR, JOHN

(1814-1867), Scottish anatomist, was

bern at Anstruther, Fife, on March 20, 1814. He was educated

Brsriocrarry.—L. R. Dicksee and F. Tillyard’s Treatment in Accounts (4th ed. 1920).

Goodwill and its (L. R. D)

GOODWIN, JOHN (ce. 1594-1665), English Nonconformist

divine, was born in Norfolk and educated at Queens’ college, Cambridge, where he was elected fellow in 1617. He was vicar of St. Stephen’s, Coleman street, London, from 1633 ta, 1645, when he was ejected by parliament for his attacks on Presbyterianism, especially in his Qeovaxia (1644). He established an independ-

at St. Andrews, and at Edinburgh, and in 1835 joined his father in practice at Anstruther. Three years later he communitated to the British Association a paper on the pulps and sacs of ent congregation, and put his literary gifts at Qliver Cromwell’s

human teeth, and about the same date, on the nomination of | service, In 1648 he justified the proceedings of the army against Might and Right ward Forbes, he was elected to the famous coterie called the |the parliament (“Pride’s Purge”) in a pamphlet

GOODWIN—GOOGE

520

Well Met, and in 1649 defended the proceedings against Charles I.

(to whom he had offered spiritual advice) in ‘{Ppicrodixar,

At

the Restoration this tract, with some that Milton had written to Monk in favour of a republic, was publicly burnt, and Goodwin

was ordered into custody, though finally indemnified. 1665.

He died in

ite his other writings are Anti-Cavalierisme (1642), a translation of the Siratagemata Satanae of Giacomo Aconcio, the Elizabethan advocate of toleration; Redemption Redeemed, containing a thorough discussion of ... election, reprobation and the perseverance of the saints (1651, reprinted 1840). Jchn Wesley published an abridged edition of his Imputatio fidei. See Life by T. Jackson (1839).

GOODWIN, THOMAS

(1600-1680), English Nonconform-

ist divine, was born at Rollesby, Norfolk, on Oct. 5, 1600, and was educated at Christ’s college, Cambridge, and became a fellow of Catharine Hall. In 1625 he was licensed a preacher of the university; he became lecturer and then vicar (1632) of Trinity church, Cambridge. Worried by his bishop, who was a zealous adherent of Laud, he resigned all his preferments and left the university in 1634, He lived for some time in London; but in 1639 he withdrew to Holland. Returning to London soon after Laud’s impeachment by the Long Parliament, he became minister of an independent congregation in Lime St., East London. In 1643 he was chosen a member of the Westminster Assembly, and at once identified himself with the Congregational party. In 1650 he became president of Magdalen college, Oxford, a post which he held until the Restoration. He was one of Cromwell’s intimate advisers, attending him on his death-bed. He was also a commissioner for the inventory of the Westminster Assembly, 1650, and for the approbation of preachers, 1653, and together with John Owen (g.v.) drew up an amended Westminster Confession in 1658. From 1660 until his death on Feb. 23, 1680 he lived in Lon-

don as pastor of the Fetter Lane Independent church. See his Works (5 vols. 1681-17043 reprinted 12 vols., Edin., 1861-66) ; a memfh. prefixed to vol. v. of his Works; and a sketch by Addison in No. 494 of the Spectator.

GOODWIN, WILLIAM WATSON

(1831-1912), Ameri-

can classical scholar, was born in Concord, Mass., on May 9, 1831. He graduated at Harvard in 1851, studied at Bonn, Berlin and Gottingen, receiving his Ph.D. degree from there in 1855; was tutor in Greek at Harvard in 1856-60, and Eliot professor of

Greek thereafter until his retirement in 1901. He became an over-

seer of Harvard in 1903. In 1882~83 he was the first director of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. Goodwin edited the Panegyricus of Isocrates (1864) and Demosthenes’ De Corona (1901), and assisted in preparing the 7th edition of Liddell and Scott’s Greek-English Lexicon. He revised an English version by several writers of Plutarch’s Morals (5 vol., 1871), and published the Greek text with literal English version of Aeschylus’ Agamemnon for the Harvard production of that play in Jume rgo6. As a teacher he did much to raise the tone of classical reading from that of a mechanical exercise to literary study. But his most important work was his Syntax of the Moods and Tenses of the Greek Verb (1860, enlarged ed, 1890)’ Besides making accessible to American students the works of Madvig and Krüger, it presented original matter, including a “radical innovation in the classification of conditional sentences,” notably the “distinction between particular and general suppositions.” Both this and his Greek Grammar (1870) in later editions are largely dependent on the theories of Gildersleeve for additions and ehanges. He died in Cambridge, Mass., on June 16, 1912.

GOODWIN

SANDS, a dangerous line of shoals at the en-

trance to the Strait of Dover from the North sea, about 6 m. from the Kent coast of England, from which they are separated

by and form shelter for, the anchorage of the Downs. The shifting sands are partly exposed at low water and in spite of lights and bell-buoys, are frequently the scene of wrecks, while attempts to erect a lighthouse have failed. Tradition finds in the Goodwins the remnant of an island called Lomea, which belonged to Earl Godwine (11th century) and was afterwards submerged. Four lightships mark the limits of the sands, and also signal to the lifeboat stations on the coast when any vessel is in distress on the

GOODYEAR, CHARLES (1800-1860), American inventor was born at New Haven (Conn.), Dec. 29, 1800, the son ofAmasa Goodyear, an inventor (especially of farming implements) and a pioneer in the manufacture of hardware in America. In 1801 he

entered into a partnership with his father at Naugatuck, which

continued till 1830. Already he was interested in an attempt to

discover a method of treatment by which india-rubber could be made into articles that would stand extremes of heat and cold.

To the solution of this problem the next ten years of his life were devoted. For a time he seemed to have succeeded with atreat. ment of the rubber with agua fortis. In 1836 he secured a contract for the manufacture by this process of mail bags for the US.

Government, but the rubber fabric was useless at high temper-

atures,

In 1837 he worked with Nathaniel Hayward (1808-65),

who had been an employee of a rubber factory in Roxbury and

had made experiments with sulphur mixed with rubber. Goodyear bought from Hayward the right to use this imperfect process, In 1839, by dropping on a hot stove some india-rubber mixed with sulphur, he discovered accidentally the process for the vulcanization, of rubber. In 1844 his first patent was granted. Numerous

infringements had to be fought in the courts, the decisive victory coming in 1852. In the same year he went to England, where articles made under his patents had been displayed at the International Exhibition of 1851, but he was unable to establish factories

there. In France a company for the manufacture of vulcanized rubber by his process failed, and in Dec, 1855 he was arrested and

imprisoned for debt in Paris. He died in New York city July t, 1860. He wrote an account of his discovery entitled GumElastic and Its Varieties (2 vols., New Haven, 1853-55). See also B. K. Peirce, Trials of an Inventor, Life and Discoveries of Charles Goodyear (New York, 1866); James Parton, Famous Americans of Recent Times (Boston, 1867); and Herbert L. Terry, Indis Rubber and Its Manufacture (New York, 1907).

GOODYEAR TIRE AND RUBBER COMPANY, founded in 1898 at Akron, O., began as a manufacturer of bicycle and carriage tyres. It soon entered the field of automobile tyre manufacture, research and development, and by 1916 had become the largest tyre company in existence, and in 1926 the largest manufacturer of rubber products. Jt is the principal American manufacturer of lighter-than-air craft, More than 1,100 passengercarrying balloons, observation, kite and free balloons, and more than roo dirigible airships have been built by the company, in-

cluding the semi-rigid U.S. army airship RS-r. The company has subsidiary tyre factories at Toronto and Bowmanville, Ontario, Can.; at Los Angeles, and in England and Australia; textile mills for making tyre fabric in Los Angeles, Goodyear, Conn., New Bedford, Mass., Cedartown, Ga. and St, Hyacinthe, Quebec; a 40,000 ac. cotton plantation in Southern Arizona; a 50,000 ac. plantation in Sumatra, and its own coal mines in southern Ohio. It has branches or sales representation throughout the world. For its 35,000 employees, the company has developed an industrial university at Akron, with some 2,000 employee-students and a curriculum ranging from Americanization subjects and business administration to rubber chemistry. In 1906 the company’s total annual sales were approximately $2,000,000; twenty years later they exceeded $200,000,000.

GOOGE,

BARNABE

(1540-1594), English poet, son of

Robert Googe, recorder of Lincoln, was born at Alvingham, Lin-

colnshire. He studied at Christ’s college, Cambridge, college, Oxford. He was attached to the household of Sir William Cecil, and in 1563 became a gentleman Queen Elizabeth. His poems appeared in 1563

and at New his kinsman, pensioner to

as Eglogs, Epytaphes and Sonettes, Googe was provost-marshal of the court of Connaught, and some 20 letters of his in this capacity are preserved in the record office. He was an ardent Protestant, and his

poetry is coloured by, his religious and political views.

His other works include’a translation from Marcellus Palim genius (said to be an anagram for Pietro Angelo Manzolli) of @ satirical Latin poem, Zodiacus vitae (Venice, 1531?), in 12 books,

under the title of The Zodyake of Life (1560); The Popish King

dome, or Reign of Antichrist (1570), translated from Thomas Kirchmayer or Naogeorgus; The Spiritual Husbandrie from the

GOOLE—GOOSEBERRY game author, printed with the last; Foure Boakes of Husbendrie

(1577) collected by Conradus Heresbachius; and Tke Proverbs

of .. . Lopes de Mendoza (1579).

GOOLE, urban district, market town and river-port, in the Pontefract parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, at the confluence of the Don and the Ouse, 24 m.

W. by S. from Hull, and served by the L.M.S. and L.N.E. rail-

521

sharp spines, standing out singly or in diverging tufts of two or three from the bases of the short spurs or lateral leaf shoots, on which the bell-shaped flowers are produced, singly or in pairs, from the groups of rounded, deeply-crenated 3- or 5-lobed leaves. ‘The fruit is smaller than in the garden kinds, but is often of good flavour; it is generally hairy, but in one variety smooth; the colour is usually green, but plants are occasionally met with having

ways. Pop. (1931), 20,238. It is situated on very low-lying land, on the right bank of the Ouse, at its last bridging place. The river

ister widens to the broad channel of the Humber. The town owes

ts existence to the construction of the Knottingley canal, in 1826,

by the Aire and Calder Navigation company, after which, in

1329, Goole was created a landing port. The port was administra-

tively combined with that of Hull in 1885.

It is 47 m. from the

North sea (mouth of the Humber), and a wide system of inland

navigation opens from it. There are eight docks supplied with

timber ponds, quays, warehouses, etc. The depth of water is a1 or 22 ft. at high water, spring tides. Chief exports are coal, stone, woollen goods, machinery,

cotton (raw and waste), and

hams; imports include butter, fruit, indigo, logwood, linen yarn, wool and timber.

Iron founding and the manufacture of alum,

sugar, rope and agricultural implements, form the principal industries. Shipbuilding is also carried on, and there is a large dry dock and patent slip for repairing vessels. Passenger steamship services are worked in connection with the L.N.E. railway to Amsterdam, Antwerp, Bruges, Copenhagen, Rotterdam and other north European ports.

GOOSE, the common name for birds forming the sub-family

Anserinae of the Anatidae. Technically “goose” is the female, the male being “gander.” Geese differ from ducks in that the sexes are alike and that the male assists the female in the duties of rearing the young, At the close of the breeding season they moult their wing quills and may then be easily approached. When in company, geese usually fly in a V-shaped formation. The type of the sub-family is the grey-lag goose (Anser anser), from which the domestic goose has been derived (see Pouttry), It breeds in suitable localities from Lapland to Spain, and from Scotland ta China. The nest is placed in heather or grass and five or six eggs form a clutch. The genus Anser constitutes the “grey” geese, and includes, besides the grey-lag, the bean-goose (A. jabas), the pink-footed goose (4. brachyrhynchus) and the white-fronted goose (A. albifrons), all breeding in the northern part of the Old World and migrating south in winter. American members of the genus are A. gambeli and, in its northern portions,

the snow-geese, of which the commonest is A. Ayperboreus, the show goose proper, white with black primaries, and A. canagica, the emperor goose of the Aleutian Islands. South America possesses the genus Chloephaga, which includes the kelpgoose, C. antarctica, and the upland goose, C. magellanica. The “black” geese include the barnacle-goose (Branta leucop-

sis), breeding in Spitsbergen, north-east Greenland and north-west

Siberia, supposed of old to be produced from barnacles (Le-

padidae), and the brent-goose, B. bernicla, with a circumpolar breeding range. To this group also belongs the well-known Canada goose (B. canadensis) of America. Other species occur in North

America, Asia and the Hawaiian archipelago.

The largest living goose is the Chinese goose, Cygmopsis cygnoides, the origin of the eastern domestic races, Cnemioriųs calcitrans is a fossil goose from New Zealand, remarkable for its extraordinary patella, and its loss of flight, The Egyptian and Orinoco geese (Chenalopex) are of doubtful affinities and possess an enlargement of the junction of the bronchial tubes and trachea

~a characteristic of the ducks (Anatinae).

GOOSEBERRY, Ribes Grossularia, a well-known fruit-bush of northern and central Europe, placed in the same genus of the

family Saxifragaceae as the closely allied currants. It forms a disnct section Grossularia, the members of which differ from the

true currants chiefly in their spinous stems, and in their flowers growing on short foot-stalks, solitary, or two or three together, instead of in racemes. The wild gooseberry is a small, straggling bush, nearly resem-

bling the cultivated plant,—the branches being thickly set with

GOLDEN DROP GOQOSEBERRY FRUIT, DIFFICULT TO GROW

(RIBES GROSSULARIA), A SPINY EUROPEAN IN AMERICA BECAUSE OF THE CLIMATE

deep purple berries. The gooseberry is indigenous in Europe and western Asia, growing naturally in alpine thickets and rocky woods in the lower country, from France eastward, perhaps as far as the Himalayas. In Britain it is often found in copses and hedgerows and about old ruins, but has heen sọ long a plant of cultivation that it is difficult to decide upon its claim to a place in the native flora of the island. Of the many hundred sorts enumerated in horticultural works, few equal in flavour some of the older denizens of the fruit-garden, such as the “old rough red” and “hairy amber.” The climate of the British Isles seems peculiarly adapted to bring the gooseberry to perfection, and it may be grown successfully even in the most northern parts of Scotland; indeed, the flavour of the fruit is said to improve with increasing latitude. In Norway the bush flourishes in gardens on the west coast nearly up to the Arctic Circle, and it is found wild as far north as 63°. The dry summers of the French and German plains are less suited to it, though it is grown in some hilly districts with tolerable success. It will succeed in almost any soil, but prefers a rich loam or black alluvium, and, though naturally a plant of rather dry places, will do well in moist land, if drained. The varieties are easily propagated by cuttings planted in the autumn, which root rapidly, and in a few years form good fruitbearing bushes. Much difference of opinion prevails regarding the mode of pruning this valuable shrub; it is probable that in different situations it may require varying treatment. The fruit being borne on the lateral spurs, and on the shoots of the last year, it is the usual practice to shorten the side branches in the winter, before the buds begin to expand. When large fruit is desired, plenty of manure should be supplied to the roots, and the greater portion of the berries picked off while still small. If standards are desired, the gooseberry may be grafted or budded with advantage on stocks of some other species of Ribes, R. aureum, the ornamental golden currant of the flower garden, answering well for the purpose. The bushes at times suffer much from the ravages of the caterpillars of the gooseberry or magpie moth, Abraxas grossulariata, which often strips the branches of leaves in the early summer, if not destroyed before the mischief is accomplished. The

522

GOOSSENS— GORAKHPUR

most effectual way of getting rid of this destructive insect is to though none have been brought under economic culture. Amo look over each bush carefully, and pick off the larvae by hand. them may be noticed R. oxyacanthotdes and R. Cynosbati, abun. Equally annoying in some years is the smaller larva of the V- dant in Canada and the northern United States, and R. gracile moth, Halias vanaria, which often appears in great numbers, and common along the Allegheny range. The’ group is widely dis. is not so readily removed. The gooseberry is sometimes attacked tributed in the north temperate zone,—one species is found in by the grub of the gooseberry sawfly, Nematus ribesii, of which Europe extending to the Caucasus and North Africa (Atlas several broods appear in the course of the spring and summer, and Mountains), five occur in Asia and nineteen in North America, the are very destructive. For the destruction of the first broods it range extending southwards to the republics of Mexico and has been recommended to syringe the bushes with tar-water; per- Guatemala. haps a very weak solution of carbolic acid might prove more GOOSSENS, EUGENE (1893), English composer and effective. The powdered root of white hellebore is said to destroy conductor, was born at Bordeaux on May 26, 1893, being the son both this grub and the caterpillars of the gooseberry moth and of a Belgian musician of the same name who has settled in EngV-moth; infusion of foxglove, and tobacco-water, are likewise land and is well known as an excellent operatic conductor. His tried by some growers. If the fallen leaves are carefully removed musical training was received at Bruges conservatoire, the Liver. from the ground in the autumn and burnt, and the surface of the pool School of Music and the Royal College of Music, London, soil turned over with the fork or spade, most eggs and chrysalids In 1921, after he had for some years been associated with Sir will be destroyed. Thomas Beecham, he organized an orchestra of his own and gave The gooseberry was introduced into the United States by the some concerts of modern chamber music. He has since then con. early settlers, and in some parts of New England large quantities ducted the London Symphony orchestra, the new Rochester or. of the green fruit are produced and sold for culinary use in the chestra (U.S.A.), the Russian Ballet, and the Beecham National towns; but the excessive heat of the American summer is not and Carl Rosa opera companies. In composition his output is adapted for the healthy maturation of the berries, especially of the already considerable. Of particular interest is his chamber music, English varieties, and the attacks of the American gooseberry which includes: Suite for flute, violin and harp op. 6; “Five Immildew have largely contributed to the failure of the crop in pressions of a Holiday” for piano, flute or violin, and ’cello; FanAmerica. tasy for string quartet; string quartet op. 14; a quintet, and a Occasionally the gooseberry is attacked by a fungus once called sextet for strings. He has also written songs and arrangements Aecidium Grossulariae, which forms little cups with white torn of folk-songs; piano, ’cello, and violin pieces; and works for edges clustered together on reddish spots on the leaves or fruits orchestra. The spores contained in these cups will not reproduce the GOOTY, a town and hill fortress of southern India, in the disease on the gooseberry, but infect species of Carex (sedges), on Anantapur district of Madras, 48 m. E. of Bellary, with a station which they produce a fungus of a totally different appearance. This on the Madras and Southern Mahratta railway. Pop. (1921) stage in the life-history of the parasite gives its name to the whole 8,720. The town is surrounded by a circle of rocky hills, connected fungus and it is now known as Puccinia Pringsheimiana. Both by a wall. On the highest stands the citadel, 2,100 ft. above seauredospores and teleutospores are formed on the sedge, and the level. Here was the stronghold of Morari Rao Ghorpade, a latter live through the winter and produce the disease on the goose- famous Mahratta warrior and ally of the English, who was ultimately starved into surrender by Hyder Ali in 1775. berry in the succeeding year. GOPHER, the name applied in North America to certain A much more prevalent disease is that caused by Microsphaeria Grossulariae. This is a mildew growing on the surface of the leaf burrowing, squirrel-like rodents, as the pocket gopher (Geomys and sending suckers into the epidermis. The white mycelium gives bursarius), of the Mississippi valley, and the northern pocket the leaves of the plant the appearance of having been whitewashed. gopher (Thomomys talpoides), common west of the Rocky MomThere are numerous white spores produced in the summer which tains, both exceedingly destructive to crops. The gopher turtle (Gopherus polyphemus), native to the Southern States, likewise are able to germinate immediately, and later small blackish fruits (perithecia) are produced that pass uninjured through the lives in burrows and often does great damage to crops. winter liberating the spores they contain in the spring, which infect GOPPINGEN, a town of Germany, in the republic of Württhe young developing leaves of the bush. In bad cases the plants temberg, on the Fils, 22 m. E.S.E. of Stuttgart on the railway to are greatly injured but frequently little harm is done. Friedrichshafen. Pop. (1925) 22,017. Göppingen originally beAn allied fungus, Sphaerotheca mors-uvae, of much greater vir- longed to the Hohenstaufen, and in 1270 came into possession of ulence, causes the disease known as “‘American gooseberry mil- the counts of Württemberg. It was surrounded by walls in 1139, dew.” For the most part the mode of attack is similar to that and was rebuilt after a fire in 1782. It possesses a castle built of the last-mentioned, but not only are the leaves attacked, but the partly with stones from the ruined castle of Hohenstaufen which tips of the young shoots and the fruits become covered by the stands 3 m. N. of the town, by Duke Christopher of Württemberg cobweb-like mycelium, the attack frequently resulting in the death in the 16th century and now used as public offices. The manufacof the shoots and the destruction of the fruits. After a time the tures include linen and woollen cloth, electric motors, leather, glue, mycelium becomes rusty brown and produces the winter form of paper and toys. There are machine shops and tanneries in the the fungus. Through the winter the shoots are covered thickly town. It has a chalybeate spring. with the brown mycelium and in the spring the spores contained GORAKHPUR, a city, district and division of the United in the perithecia germinate and start the infection anew, as in the Provinces of British India. The city is situated on the left bank case of the European mildew. of the river Rapti. Pop. (1921) 50,498. It is believed to have The gooseberry, when ripe, yields a wine by the fermentation of been founded about A,D. 1400. It is the civil headquarters of the the juice with water and sugar, the resulting sparkling liquor re- district and an important depot for recruits coming from Nepal taining much of the flavour of the fruit. By similarly treating the to join the Gurkha regiments of the Indian army. It is also the juice of the green fruit, picked just before it ripens, an efferves- headquarters of the Bengal and North-western railway, with its cing wine is produced, nearly resembling some

kinds of cham-

workshops

and a large settlement of European employees.

The

pagne, and, when skilfully prepared, far superior to much of the town itself is little better than a collection of adjacent village liquor sold under that name. Brandy has been made from ripe sites, sometimes separated by cultivated land, and most of the gooseberries by distillation; by exposing the juice with sugar to inhabitants are agriculturists. the acetic fermentation, a good vinegar may be obtained. The The District or GorakHpur has an area of 4,528 sq.m. It lies gooseberry, when perfectly ripe, contains a large quantity of sugar, immediately south of the lower Himalayan slopes, but itself most’ abundant in the red and amber varieties; in the former it | forms a portion of the great alluvial plain. Only a few san amounts to from 6 to upwards of 8%. The acidity of the fruit is |break the monotony of its level surface, which is, however, Inter chiefly due to malic acid. sected by numerous rivers (Gogra, Gandak, Rapti and others)

: Several other species of the sub-genus produce edible fruit,

studded with lakes and marshes.

In the north and centre dense

GORAL—GORDIAN

523

forests abound, and the district is not subject to very intense ; general. In 1828-29 he fought under Wittgenstein against the heat, from which it is secured by its vicinity to the hills and the | Turks, won an action at Aidos, and signed the treaty of peace at Adrianople. In 1839 he was made governor of Eastern Siberia, moisture of its soil. Gautama Buddha was born, and died near the boundaries of the ; and in 1851 retired into private life. When the Crimean War district; and near Kasia are remains which were long (but prob- | broke out he offered his services to the emperor Nicholas, by ably erroneously) believed to mark his burial-place. From the || whom he was appointed general of the VI. army corps in the beginning of the 6th century the country was the scene of a con- | Crimea. He commanded the corps in the battles of Alma and Intinuous struggle between the Bhars and kos; kerman. He retired in 1855 and died at Moscow, on March 18, 1868. Other members of the family are separately noted. their Rajput antagonists, the Rathors. p% GORCHAKOV, PRINCE ALEXANDER MIKHAILTowards the end of the 16th century the OVICH (1798-1883), Russian statesman, cousin of Princes Petr Vohammedans occupied Gorakhpur town, and Mikhail Gorchakov, was born on July 16, 1798, and wus eduhut they interfered very little with the cated at the lyceum of Tsarskoye Selo. On leaving the lyceum district, and allowed it to be controlled | . ie. Gorchakov entered the foreign office under Count Nesselrode. by the local rajas. In the middle of the Bes When the German confederation was re-established in 1850 in igth century a formidable foe, the Ban- ke; place of the parliament of Frankfort, Gorchakov was appointed jaras from the west, so weakened the |;

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largest undivided hall in Europe, 89 ft. wide, 267 ft. long. The French type usually combined an arcaded market hall on the ground floor with the governmental portion above and a belfry

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century, and S. Quentin, 16th century, with an elaborate late Gothic facade, show the development. The market hall has been completely forced out and the entire building is devoted to governmental purposes, and instead of one or two large chambers with a chapel, there now appears a more articulated plan with meeting halls, offices and storage facilities carefully differentiated. During the 200 years from 1400 to 1600, the town hall received

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at one side, At S. Antonin there is a town hall of the 12th century in almost perfect preservation. Another rath century example is that at La Réole. As the power of the municipalities increased, the richness of the town hall grew also, and those at S. Omer, rath

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the desire for classicism led to the erection of smaller and more elegant single buildings such as the beautiful Palazzo del Consiglio at Verona (c. 1500 by Fra Giocondo), whose exquisite early Renaissance polychrome facade was adapted by McKim, Mead and White for the old Herald building in New York, and the. equally rich and somewhat similar Municipio of Brescia (c. 1500). Michelangelo’s Palazzo del Senatore (1592-98) on the Capitoline hill at Rome is significant in its attempt to give to such an official building an architectural form dominant and monumental, and differing alike from the castellated halls of the middle ages and the delicate early Renaissance of north Italy. Outside of Italy, where the mediaeval tradition held true, the Renaissance town halls merely clothed in classic dress such building types as had been developed before; e.g., the town hall of Bremen (rsth century, reconstructed 1609) and the old city hall of Paris (originally built under Francis I. and destroyed in the civil war, 1871). In rebuilding the latter, the old plan was merely enlarged and the old style preserved; the modern tradition of municipal building is thus founded on the mediaeval town hall. The second important type of governmental building that took form during the middle ages was the court-house or palais de

justice. Most mediaeval examples are of the late Gothic period because only then had judicial processes become sufficiently

divorced from royal, monastic or feudal domination to necessitate separate buildings. The earliest existing examples are the Maison gild-hall, for the merchants gilds had become closely related to de Pierre at Chartres and the Salle le Roi at Montdidier (both of municipal government; in some cases the governing body of a the 14th century). By far the most famous is the lavish Palais city was itself termed a gild. Thus the hall of the corporation of de Justice at Rouen (begun before 1474, completed before 109): the city of London is known as the Gildhall. In some towns of This magnificent building stands on three sides of a court and

the north. In these a new influence was operative, that of the

the Low Countries, the town hall and a gild-hall were combined. Thus at Ypres the town hall is also known as the Cloth Hall. This magnificent building (1200-1304), is a vast rectangle 50 ft. wide and 462 ft. long. Its arcaded ground floor served as a cloth market,

contains, not only the smaller court rooms, but two vast halls and

a beautiful chapel. It is in this use of large halls that originated

the tradition of having as an integral part of every cotirt-house a great lobby where lawyers could confer with their clients. `

GOVERNMENTAL

568

No such development oi national governmental buildings can be found during this period. Whatever national unity existed was centred in the residence of the sovereign, and when national councils or legislative bodies arose they were housed either in a royal palace or in religious buildings. To this day the French senate sits in the palace of the Luxembourg. In England, the king’s council met wherever he happened to be, as at St. Albans, Oxford or Winchester, and the English parliament convened at the nearest convenient spot to the royal palace at Westminster, which was the chapter house of Westminster Abbey, until 1547 when it moved to St. Stephen’s chapel within the palace itself.

ARCHITECTURE cial and administrative sections of the town government, such as

the tax board, building department, etc. In addition, particularly

in European town halls, there are frequently great suites of State rooms for receptions and official banquets (cf. the ancient Greek prytaneum). In America, the typical smaller building frequently also contains an auditorium for popular meetings or entertain. ments, and may also house the police department and the gaol, The most’monumental example of the continental city hall is the

great Paris Hotel de Ville, rebuilt, after the commune, by Bally and Deperthes (1874~82). Fol. À

This remained the meeting place of the House of Commons until 1834 when the palace was burned. It was only with the development of the government of the United States that a national capitol building, built solely for the

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MODERN

PRACTICE

The controlling elements of all governmental architecture are simple. Most important is the convenient relationship of the necessary working units; second in importance is the means of communication between them, and from them to the outside. By virtue of its public and official function, a government building must have the means of communication highly developed and designed for convenience, directness and to give the most beautiful effect possible. As a result, there are many public spaces, such as lobbies, rotundas or salles des pas perdus, and the halls and corri-

lowing the original Francis I. style on the exterior, it was elaborated inside with all the decorative lav-

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ishness then characteristic, and

housing of a National Government, was first projected. The competition for the capitol at Washington, D.C., was advertised in March 1792 and awarded to Dr. William Thornton. A carefully articulated plan, in which large halls for the meetings of a higher and a lower legislative body flank a central rotunda, appeared for the first time. The capitol, in its original form, was

not completed until the early ’30s, and its form was then due not only to Thornton but to Stephen Hallet, B. H. Latrobe and Charles Bulfinch as well, all successively its architects. The old House of Representatives is now Statuary hall, and the old Senate is used for the Supreme Court; the original rotunda was roofed with a low dome. By the ’50s this plan had become inadequate and two new wings were added by T. U. Walter, together with the enormous colonnaded dome that now crowns the building; one wing was designed for each of the houses. In its present condition, as completed in 1865, it is one of the largest.and most monumental of national buildings, and it has furnished a basic plan idea of profound influence on almost all modern governmental architecture. (See RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE; MODERN ARCHITECTURE, 18th and roth Centuries.)

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its great Salles des Fétesand magnificent stairways, with decorations by Puvis de Chavannes and others, form one of the most gorgeous and effective official suites in the world. This precedent has affected French municipal build-

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LOS ANGELES, CAL.; AUSTIN, PARKINSON & MARTIN, ARCHITECTS

of Renaissance classicism, lavish decoration and monumental plan are those of Neuilly-sur-Seine, by Dutocq and Simonet (1885); Versailles, by le Grand (1897):

Tours, by Laloux (1896-1904). In England, the dominance of the Gothic revival movement of the middle roth century affected much municipal building. The town hall of Manchester, by Waterhouse (1868-77), is the largest example of this, and its picturesque outline and original detail are typical of the best in Gothic revival work. The town hall of Halifax, by Sir Charles Barry, completed by his son after his death in 1860, is a daring and unsuccessful attempt to treat a picturesque Victorian outline, essentially Gothic, in an elaborate Renaissance style. In more recent examples there is greater simplicity of composition and freedom of style. That of Sheffield, by Mountford (1897), in a free early Renaissance style, is typical of the larger examples; that of Oxford, by Hare (1897), in modified Jacobean, is characteristic of the smaller. Growing complexity of the administrative branches of city government has led inevitably to a type of building in which the council chamber and mayor’s offices are subsidiary to the vast amount of office space required. This movement is best expressed in the London County Council Hall, won in competition in 1908

by Ralph Knétt, but only completed in 1922. This vast building, N

N N ONN

N

in a severely classic, late English Renaissance style, forms an impressive decoration to the south bank of the Thames. In Germany, the most interesting recent municipal buildings are those in which modernistic expression is conseiously sought. In that at Mülheim, by Pfeiler and Grosymann and the Verwaltungsgebäude at Berlin, by Lud-

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D.C.

dors are made as monumental as possible. Axial symmetry is an almost inevitable result, as the existence of an axis is not only expressive of direct communication, but also of direct view. Owing to the complexity of modern government, governmental buildings can be divided into several classes, each of which must be treated separately. These classes are: (1) Municipal; (2) judicial; (3) legislative, either State, provincial or national; (4)

administrative and executive. Modern Municipal Buildings.—The requirements governing

the design of a modern town hall are as follows: First, a hall or halls for the town council meetings; second, offices for the mayor or the councillors and their secretaries; third, offices for the finan-

FIG. 8.—PLAN OF HOTEL DE VILLE, PARIS

tional, and the effect one of restrained and harmonious monumentality. The famous stadhalle at Hanover, by F. Scholer and Bonatz (1914), contains a vast circular hall, and the whole 1s

treated in a much more bizarre

and fantastic manner. This is, however, more properly a municipal auditorium similar to a common American type, of which that at

San Antonio, Texas, by Ayers, Willis and Jackson, is a good

example.

All three show the vitality of this movement in Ger-

many. A similar imaginative quality distinguishes the exquisitely restrained town hall at Joensuu, Finland, by Eliel Saarinen. The most remarkable of the modernistic city halls is that at

GOVERNMENTAL

ARCHITECTURE

569

stockholm, Sweden, by Ragnar Ostberg (completed 1924). This 1618, and its present form was completed by large rebuildings forms a dignified mass capped with a well designed tower and after the commune, and a new west front by J. L. Duc. Thus its embodying in its base an arcade of great beauty. Inside, it is plan represents a continual compromise between old and new. chiefly noteworthy for the brilliant colour decoration, especially Nevertheless, two of the most remarkable modern public buildings of Europe are court-houses. The Palazzo di Giustizia at the mosaics of the great official reception hall. (See Mosaic.) American Town and City Halls.—Town and city halls in Rome, by Calderini (1889~1910), is a vast agglomeration of the United States can be divided into three classes. The first pseudo-classic detail, monumental and powerful in composition, consists of the town halls of the small towns and villages, whose but with too much meaningless small scale ornament which detracts from the unmistakable needs are simple and whose buildings, therefore, are comparatively vitality. A somewhat similar type small. Faithfulness to the traditional style of the locality is of imagination characterizes the general. In the East, colonial types predominate; in the far West, much more interesting Palais de Spanish colonial; in the spaces between, there is more freedom. Justice at Brussels, by Poelaert The town hall of Weston, Mass., by Bigelow and Wadsworth, in (1866-83). Here everything is a charming brick colonial, and the Plattsburg, N.Y., city hall, by subservient to a vast and craggy John Russell Pope, in an austere Greek revival style, are characgrandeur. teristic of these smaller halls. Other notable examples are those American Court-houses.— at Athol, Mass., by Brainerd, Leeds and Thayer, at Huntington, It is in America that the courtN.Y., by Peabody, Wilson and Brown and the village hall, Winhouse has received a definitive netka, Ill., by Edwin Clark. The second type, that of the small form; as early as 1724 the germs TIS ge, city, is necessarily larger and AS of it are seen in the charming more articulated, with greater 10.—-PLAN OF NEW YORK FIG. porticoed Court House at Chesoffice areas. This class owes COUNTY COURT HOUSE: GUY ter, Va. The traditional elements much to the beautiful city hall LOWELL, ARCHITECT have remained the same, and the of New York, then a small city, by Mangin and McComb (1802— classic tradition for governmental buildings, dating back to the beog), which Lafayette’s secretary, ginning of the roth century, has almost completely dominated. A. Lavasseur, said was the only The wide use of elevators, and the demand for economy in land building worth looking at in New usage, have produced a compact plan, generally in several storeys. York (Lafayette en Amérique, The wide development of the jury system has also necessitated 1824, trans. 1829). This building careful planning to give adequate jury rooms with the necessary is characterized by an unusual services. The basic unit, therefore, consists of the court room delicacy of detail that owes much proper, with its space for the public, witnesses, jury box, judge’s to Louis XVI. inspiration. Its bench and areas for counsel, clerks and stenographers and the dome, rotunda and monumental press; the judge’s office or chambers, and the jury room. Since the time of the Gothic revival, classic treatment and an staircase, council chamber, and the suite of offices and reception attempt to emphasize the dignity of the law are almost universal. rooms over the entrance, are par- This tendency is as strong within the building as without and it is FROM BYRNE & STAPLEY “SPANISH INTERIORS AND FURNITURE” (WILLIAM HELBURN) ticularly noteworthy. Character- sometimes only in his court room experience that an American FIG. 9.—VALENCIA COURT ROOM istic modern examples are those is brought in close contact with a dignified and beautiful room, of Portland, Me., by Carrére and Hastings, with a colonial flavour, austere in form but lavish in fittings and decoration. The Shelby and the group at Springfield, Mass., by Pell and Corbett, in which county court-house at Memphis, Tenn., by Hale and Rogers, with its dignified Ionic portico, and its pedimented end pavilions is two colonnaded buildings flank a municipal clock tower. The great city hall of San Francisco, California, by Bakewell characteristic of the classic grandeur obtained in many recent and Brown, reaches the dimensions of an important State capitol. court-houses even in the smaller cities. The Hamilton county It is, nevertheless, a compromise, lacking the intimacy of the court-house at Cincinnati, O., shows the same tradition, applied to small type, and due to its necessary small subdivisions, missing a much larger building. All of these modern trends in court-house the simplicity of a great legislative building. To meet the same design reached a conclusion in the court-house of New York problem, New York was compelled to erect a great municipal office county, at New York city, by Guy Lowell, completed in 1927, building to supplement its century old city hall. This, by McKim, after his death. In this, a plan of striking originality, a central Mead and White, is essentially a sky-scraper office building. Only rotunda gives access to elevators surrounding it, which, in turn, the lavish classicism and dignity of its exterior distinguish it from communicate simply with the court rooms on each floor. its commercial neighbours. Thus far, the most successful AmeriModern Administrative Buildings.—Administrative buildcan solution of the problem is the Los Angeles, Calif., city hall, ings are of two broad classes, one consisting of those primarily for by Austin, Parkinson and Martin, completed 1928. Here, for the a public service, such as post offices and custom houses, and one first time, the two elements of town hall and municipal office build- of those devoted to purely administrative services, such as mining are combined in the same structure and given adequate archi- istries. Owing to the gradual growth of public services of the first type their housing in many European countries has until recently tectural expression. been neglected; they have frequently been forced into altered syscourt modern the as .—Just Buildings Judicial Modern tem has remained close to its traditional ancestry, so the modern buildings, usually palaces, but in Rome and in Havana, Cuba, the court-house in its essential elements has changed little. Such a post offices occupy former monastery buildings. Only in the Renaissance court room as that in the Ayuntamiento of Valencia, largest cities are there exceptions, such as the rather undistinwhich dates from 1535, could be used, even to its furniture, with- guished general post office of Paris (1884) by Guadet, or the great out change, by almost any modern court. The salle des pas perdus, late Renaissance piles in London of the general post office proper or monumental lobby, the court rooms and rooms for judges, (1910) and the general post office north (1905), both by Henry _ lawyers, witnesses and archives, all appeared in court-houses of Tanner. Recent years have seen greater attention paid to post the tsth century, so that between such a building as the pic- office design, especially in Germany, but it is in the little Dutch turesque Law Courts of London, by G. E. Street (completed city of Utrecht that the most beautiful of modern European post 1882), and the Palais de Justice of Rouen, 400 years earlier, the offices is to be found, designed by Crouwel. Custom houses similarly are seldom of architectural import in difference is only one of detail. The Palais de Justice at Paris is Almost the only one that has adequate dignity and conEurope. typical of the roth century continental court-house. It is of many dates, as it is on the site of and incorporates portions of a 13th venience, is the great custom house in London, by David Lang century royal palace. Other portions were rebuilt after a fire in (1817), partially rebuilt by Robert Smirke. Its vast length forms

GOVERNMENTAL

57°

one of the most distinguished decorations of that portion of the Thames bank, and it is remarkable for its “Long Room” over 200 ft. long, where most of the business is transacted. The lack of any adequate buildings into which these services could be placed in America was, from the beginning, a great incentive to the development of new types of building. As early as 1832 New York possessed a monumental custom house, designed by Town and Davis, in the Greek revival style, which is still (1928) standing at the oe of Nassau ernan rea

and Wall Sts. used for a passport office.

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THE

STATE

of the Admiralty, by Ripley (1726), with an exquisite screen by Robert Adam (1760). The Renaissance group by Scott (1873), and Brydon (1900-20), containing many ministries is noteworthy. In America, the classic tradition, under which the city of Washington, D.C., was started, has led to the imposing colonnade of the Treasury building, and within the 2oth century to the restrained Senate and House office buildings, by Carrére and Hastings. Modern Buildings.—With the addition to the old Palais Bourbon (1722, by Girardini and Gabriel) of the great 12 columned pedimented front, in 1807, by Poyet, to express the dignity of the buildings used by the Chambre des Députés, modern legislative architecture began. The classic tradition, there set, remained almost unbroken for 100 years all over the Western world; to this precedent was added the influence of the U.S. Capitol at Washington, D.C., with its clear expression of two chambers, one on each fy

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corridor, with a central rotunda. legislative houses. Above the rotunda rises a tower of many storeys, and the administrative

by Tracy, Swartwout and Litch- CAPITOL OF NEBRASKA: BERTRAM field. The New York post office, GROSVENOR GOODHUE, ARCHITECT by McKim, Mead and White, is interesting for its Corinthian colonnade. Ministries and similar administrative buildings suffer from having a programme exactly like that of a modern office building; in general, the result is not distinguished. In European capitals, ministries are frequently housed in altered palaces, as in Paris and Vienna. In London, where they are concentrated along Whitehall and Parliament street they form a group, impressive in general effect, but without individual distinction, except in the case

j

In the Wisconsin capitol the architects were forced to have four

wings, forming a cross, instead of the usual two. This was atbest a compromise. Finally, in the masterly Nebraska State capitol, at

four courts.

|

11.——PLAN

Cass Gilbert, the Wisconsin capitol at Madison, by George B Post and Sons, and the Territorial Capitol of Porto Rico at San Juan, by Carmaega and Nichols. In Hungary, the same type appears in the parliament building at Budapest, by Steindl (18831902), although the style is famboyant Gothic. In Vienna the parliament building by Hansen (1874—83), has a similar plan.

with a dome, there is a vast rectangle, divided bya cross into

E

FIG.

Swartwout and Litchfield, that of Minnesota, at St. Pay} by

Lincoln, the late Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue accepted the problem and solved it. In place of the usual two-winged building

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of Renaissance character, by Cass Gilbert. Of the smaller towns that at Wooster, O., by Wetmore, and New Haven, Conn., by J. G. Rogers, are typi-

ARCHITECTURE

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FIG. 12.—PLAN OF PRINCIPAL FLOOR, HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT, WESTMINSTER side of a central public rotunda. The French Chambre des Députés, reconstructed (1822-33) by de Joly, and the Senate, in the Luxembourg palace (1836-41), by de Gisors, are characteristic lavish developments of a classic amphitheatre plan already adopted in the Washington Capitol. The simplicity and directness of the U.S. Capitol plan have inspired many modern legislative buildings of two chambers. It is almost universal in American State capitols, from such early examples as the Massachusetts State house at. Boston, ‘completed 1798, by Charles Bulfinch. To such zoth century examples as that at Jefferson City, Mo., by ‚Tracy,

The cross arm holds the two

offices ring the courts and occupy the tower as well. The Houses of Parliament in London, by Sir Charles Barry (1840-50) is an interesting and remarkable exception to the general rule in both plan and style. Here, the House of Lords and the House of Commons are but incidents in a vast composition in which are placed the members’ FIG. 13.—LEGISLATIVE BUILDING, offices, dining-rooms and libraries, DELHI: SIR HERBERT BAKER AND the speaker’s residence and all the SIR EDWIN LUTYENS, ARCHITECTS rooms required for the traditional and picturesque ritual. In style, the whole is treated in lavish Perpendicular Gothic, and the exterior aim has been to achieve picturesque massing, with the Victoria tower at one end and the clock tower at the other, rather than any expression of interior function. The foundation of new provincial capitals, in Australia, 1911, and in India, 1919, furnished a new opportunity for the adequate housing of complete dominion governments. In Australia, the competition for the lay-out of the city of Canberra was won by Walter Griffin of Chicago, with a most comprehensive plan. The first of the buildings, in connection with this, was formally opened in the summer of 1928. The eventual scheme consists of a rectangular plaza with the departmental administrative buildings flanking it on each side, and at its head, a great structure containing the parliament and a library. Behind is a circular plaza flanked by the residences of the premier and the governor-general. In Delhi, a much more lavish scheme is under construction. It consists of an enormous avenue, or plaza, flanked by two groups of administrative offices known as the secretariat buildings, by Sir

Herbert Baker, and headed by the picturesque mass of the Government house, the official residence of the viceroy, by Sir Edward Lutyens. At one side is the legislative building, by Baker, an enormous circle, with three interior courts, between which are the three houses, the council of princes, the assembly, and the

council of State, with a circular library joining them in the centre. Lower down on the main axis is a great memorial arch, by Lutyens; smaller buildings are to flank the avenue, one of them, the record office, by Lutyens, being now (1928) under construction. All the buildings of this tremendous group are designed with great lavishness of plan and interior arrangement, and exteriors in which classic Renaissance and Indian detail are daringly combined and powerfully massed. An even greater opportunity is offered in the proposed group of buildings for the League of Nations at Geneva. The opening created by the site on the shore of the lake, and by the programme,

is one to stimulate the best efforts of modern architects. BrsriocraPHy.—J.

Bartram, Observations

on his Travels in 1743

(1751); Gourlier, Biet, Grillon and Tardieu, Choix d'édifices public,

etc. (1825-50) ; A. Levasseur, Lafayette en Amérique, 1824-25 (1829); J. Coney, Engravings of Ancient Cathedrals, Hôtels de Ville, etc.

(1832); F. Narjoux, Monuments élevés par la ville (1880-83); L. H. Morgan, Houses and House Life of the American Aborigines (1881); J

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i. Parliament House, Budapest, Hungary; Steindl, architect (1883-1902) . An interesting attempt Is made in this building to take a plan of the type set by the Capitol at Washington (fig. 3)—two wings, one on each side of a central rotunda—but to treat the whole in a picturesque and romantic Gothic style. The result is impressive, although the detail is sometimes crowded. 2. Houses of Parliament, London, England; Sir Charles Barry, architect (1840-50). The first great modern legislative building in an adapted Gothic style was that In London. It forms one of the most convincing examples of Modern Gothic. There is no attempt to express the plan or arrangement of the building on its exterior; on the other hand there is no attempt at false or forced picturesqueness. In addition to the legislative chambers and their offices, the building contains the Speaker’s residence, and many robing rooms and other quarters required for royal ceremonials. 3. The United States Capitol, Washington, D.C. Begun in the last decade of the 18th century with Dr. William Thornton as architect,

it was carried on through the early 19th century by Stephen Hallet, B. H.

Latrobe,

rotunda

and

Charles

Bulfinch.

(then with a low dome)

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Senate, and one for the House of Representatives.

PLATE I

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(3, 4, 6) PUBLISHERS

ARCHITECTURE

In 1850 these old rooms

JUDICIAL

BUILDINGS

were found too small, and a great wing was added at each end, from the designs of Thomas U. Walter. At the same time the Present great dome with its column-circled drum was added. 4, The Parliament Buildings, Vienna, Austria; Hansen, architect (1874-83). One of the most monumental in plan, and most gracious in its classic detail of any of the national parliament buildings, this simple composition is one of the distinguished decorations of its city. 5. Hôtel de Ville, Ypres, Belgium. 13th—L5th centuries. Sometimes called the “Cloth Hall,” this building (destroyed during the World War) was an expression of the close relationship of merchants’ guilds and city government which was usual in Flanders. It contained the hall of the Cloth Merchants’ Guild, a market hall beneath, and the offices of the city government as well as a great banqueting hall. 6. The Palais de Justice, Brussels, Belgium; Polaert, architect (1866-83). The enormous bulk of this craggy and powerful building set on a hill top dominates the citys although lavish and in questionable taste, It conveys, nevertheless, by virtue of simple conception, monumental arrangement, and stark strength of design, a compelling impression of the dignity of government, and the power of law

GOVERNMENTAL

PLATE II

ARCHITECTURE

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HISTORICAL

AND

SOCIETY;

MUNICIPAL

1. Nebraska Capitol, Lincoln, Neb.; Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue, and the Goodhue associates, architects. This, the newest of American State capitols, shows a radical departure from the earlier traditional domed type. Equally new and original is its decorative treatment——a form basically classic in its dignity with ornament which is not archaeological and in which

sculpture plays a large part.

2. A detail from

Government

PHOTOGRAPHS,

House, Delhi,

Indias; Sir Edwin Lutyens, architect; from a water colour by William Wallcot. A daring attempt to combine Indian details with a severe and monumental classic style characterizes the buildings of the new capitol of India, Delhi. Other buildings In the group, in a similar style, are by Sir Herbert Baker. 3. Palazzo Vecchio, Florence (1298). This great castellated mass, with its high bell tower, is characteristic of many mediaeval cities In north Italy. Built round a court, its buildings (in their present form dating from the Renaissance) were the administrative centre of the Renaissance city. 4. Los Angeles City Hall, Californias Austin, Parkinson

(4)

UNDERWOOD

AND

UNDERWOOD,

(3)

ALINARI,

(7)

EWING

GALLOWAY

BUILDINGS

and Martin, architects (1928). A comparison with fig. 6 shows how the increase in administrative offices in recent times has forced a change in

city hall design; the tower in the centre, almost like an office building, expresses this trend. 5. City Hall, Stockholm, Sweden;

Ragnar Ostberg, archi-

tect

of European

(1924).

The climax

of the lavish

tradition

city hall

design is reached In the Stockholm City Hall, the great state rooms and the necessary offices of which are combined into one large simple mass; the whole design is carried out in a restrained and beautiful ‘“‘modernist” style. 6. City Hall, New York City: Mangin and McComb, architects (1802-09). An exquisite piece of early American architecture, strongly Influenced by French Louis XVI. work, still holds its own as one of the finest examples of the small City Hall. 7. Palazzo del Consiglio, Verona, Italy; Fra Giocondo, architect (1476). A small Renaissance palace for a city council, detailed oo the delicacy that is characteristic of the early Renaissance of North y

GOVERNMENT Handbuch der Architektur, iv., 7 (1887); R. Lanciani, Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Excavations (1889); P. Planat, Encyclopédie

de Parchitecture (1890); Adler, Borr, Dorpfeld, Graeber and Graef,

Die Baudenkmäler von Olympia (1892) ; E. A. Gardner, “Excavations

at Megalopolis,” in special no. Jour. of Hellenic Studies

(1892);

F. Cornish, Concise Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1898); R. Lanciani, New Tales of Old Rome (1901) ; Wiegand and Schrader, Ergebnisse der Ausgraben und Unterschungen (Priene) (1904) ; C. Enlart, M anuel d'archéologie française, ii. (1904) ; O. Stiehl,

Rathaus im Mittelalter (1905); F. R. Hiorns, “Modern Town Halls,”

in RIBA. Journal, xiv. (1906-07); A. Grisebach, Das deutsche Rathaus der Renaissance (1907); A. Marquand, Greek Architecture (1909); H. E. Warren, “Mediaeval Town Halls of Italy,” in Arch. Quart., Harvard Univ. (March, 1912) ; V. Lamperez y Romea, Arquitectura Civil Española (1922); L. H. Morgan, League of the... Iroquois (1851; n. ed., 1922) ; Cremers, Fahrenkamps and W. Hendel, two articles on “Miilheim Stadhalle,” in Deutsche Kunst und Dekoration, Iviii. (May 1926). For Delhi, see Arch. Rev. vol. 60 (Dec. 1926) and RJI.B.A. Jour., vol. 35 (1927). (T. F.H.

GOVERNMENT

DEPARTMENTS.

While differences of

internal organization and of cultural development between coun-

tries have produced inevitable differences—superficial or profound—in their governmental machinery, it will be found under modern conditions that common political, social and economic needs tend to give the same functions to Government departments in one country as another, however diverse their theory of the proper arrangement and scope of governmental organs. In comparing different countries, homogeneity is suggested by the nomenclature of their Government departments, but this is apt to be deceptive. For example, the English Home Office may reasonably be thought to correspond to the Ministry of the Interior in nearly every other country. This is largely true, but the Home Office has many functions which elsewhere are commonly assigned to a Ministry of Justice, and the control of local government, which in France (for example) has been said to be the main function of the Minister of the Interior, is in England (so far as control exists in England) at least as much for the Ministry of Health, as successor of the Local Government Board. Again the Ministry of Public Works is in France responsible for

railways, with which the English Office of Works has no concern. In England, the normal mode of creating a new department in modern times has been by statute, e.g., the Local Government Board Act, 1871, and the acts creating Ministries of Transport and Agriculture in 1919, but the constitutional necessity for this arises—so long as existing statutory functions are not touched— only from the need of a parliamentary grant for the resulting expenditure. Indeed, in the drafting of statutes care is usually taken, if the department of a secretary of State is involved, to preserve the position that the King can appoint a fresh secretary of State without parliamentary authority. A good example is the Secretaries of State Act, 1926, turning the secretaryship for Scotland into a secretaryship of State: the act is expressed to operate as from the date when His Majesty shall first appoint another secretary of State after the act passes, if he shall be pleased to do so. With two or three exceptions all statutory functions of a secretary of State in England are assigned to a

DEPARTMENTS

571

eficiency of Government, but they have small interest for the public—except those members

of it affected personally by some

fault in distribution—and no nation popularly governed has made a serious effort towards embodying a scientific answer in its

legislation. A re-grouping on practical lines, halving the number of departments, has been effected in Italy between 1923 and 1927. Lord Haldane’s committee on the machinery of Government, reporting in 1918, suggested a re-grouping of functions for England, but this has not been carried out—and whether the particular suggestions made were sound remains a matter of opinion. The central recommendation was re-grouping according to the services performed, not according to the persons affected, but exceptions were perforce admitted. Thus—to take the instance already used—if shipping be nationalized the department managing it

(and not a separate Ministry of Health) must be responsible for the health of its employees: this applies to any nationalized service, as is seen with the army and the post office. Practical exigencies, constitutional accretion, statute, order in council, tradition and convention have played their part in making the English distribution more haphazard than that of most

other countries, but in this article an attempt is made to use the English departments as a key (since their names at least will be familiar to English speaking readers), mentioning under each any points of special interest relating to the Government departments of European countries. The Treasury or Ministry of Finance——Among English Government departments the first place is taken by the Treasury. This is the office responsible for the management of the national revenue—although the actual collection of revenue is made (apart from that which is earned, e.g., by the post office) through the commissioners of inland revenue and the commissioners of customs and excise—two departments which, while closely connected with the Treasury, are formally distinct. The Treasury has an exceptional relation to the House of Commons, and the position has come to be recognized that no expenditure can be incurred by any department of Government (with certain exceptions not affecting the general proposition) without previous Treasury sanction. Moreover, when money is voted by parliament, the department to which it has been granted does not get it automatically. The money has still to be collected from the taxpayer, and meantime the department and all others—in short the business of Government as a whole—must be financed. This involves extensive borrowing, to be repaid as taxes are forthcoming, and this borrowing in the money market is a specific function of the Treasury. Similarly, the negotiating of long term

loans, at as favourable a rate as the national credit will secure, is a

function of the Treasury, which is thus in close and necessary touch with the city as well as with parliament. Historically, the Treasury sprang from the accounts department of the Plantagenet kings, the early “‘exchequer,” which was associated with the court of exchequer in dealing with the revenue. In later days, a lord high treasurer was appointed, whose office was placed in commission in the 17th century. The Treasury has since been (or the) secretary of State simply, without distinction between controlled in name by a board of lords commissioners, of whom one department and another, on the constitutional view that the the prime minister is usually (though not of necessity) first lord, King’s secretariat is one, although in practice the work is divided but the commissioners have formal duties merely. The chanby administrative arrangements periodically varied. So in France, cellor of the exchequer, assisted by the financial secretary of the although jurists differ concerning the basis of the practice, it is Treasury, is the minister in charge of the Treasury’s daily work, recognized that the Government of the day can increase or reduce which is divided under three main heads. These are supply>—that the number of departments and redistribute their functions at is, that side of its work which relates to public expenditure; will, subject to parliamentary control of the necessary funds. finance—that side which is related to the raising of loans, to curTransfers of duty from one department to another are made, in rency, banking and the like, including since 1918 the important modern English practice, by statute or (perhaps more often) by and complicated question of international debts; and establishorder in council authorized by statute, but some transfers, e.g., ments—that side which deals specifically with the problems: of from one secretary of State to another, can in principle be made “management” of Government departments, salaries and wages; accommodation, and the like. The field of action of the Treasury without formality. E If functions are distributed on a theoretical basis, between covers Scotland as well as England, but the constitution of sepavarious departments, this must be either according to the per- rate parliaments for Northern Ireland and the. Irish Free ,State sons affected by performance of a function or according to the has naturally led to the establishment of separate Finance: Minpurpose for which it is performed. For example, assuming Min- istries. The title “Ministry of Finance” is used in. all countries

istries of Shipping and of Health, which should be responsible for

the health of seamen?

Questions like ‘this closely bear on the

of the British empire except Australia, and is the accepted English translation of the titles given in all European countries to the

GOVERNMENT

572

department having functions generally similar to those of the British Treasury. DEPARTMENTS

OF A SECRETARY OF STATE order of precedence among English formal Although there is no Government departments a certain priority, after the Treasury, may be said to attach to those whose head is one of the secretaries of State. These are eight in number under seven Ministers (that of the colonies and the dominions being held together), namely—Home Affairs, Foreign Affairs, War, the Colonies, India, Air, the Dominions, and Scotland. The Board of Trade, the Board of Education, the Ministries of Agriculture and Fisheries, of Health, of Transport and of Pensions, and the General Post Office are other departments usually recognized as suitable to be placed in charge of a minister of cabinet rank, though not of a secretary of State. The Home Office.—The Home Office in its present form dates from 1801, when colonial business was transferred to a separate secretary of State. The supervision (other than judicial) of the administration of justice, advice to the King upon the exercise of the prerogative of mercy, the supervision of police, prisons, reformatories, the liquor trade and factories, and the making of arrangements for national and local elections and for electoral registration, are among the specific duties of the home secretary. He is, moreover, the primary constitutional channel of communication between the sovereign and the subject, and in this capacity no limit to his duties can be set. A duty of particular interest is to serve as intermediary between the Imperial Government and the Channel islands, which are not colonies but part of the ancient dominions of the Crown. It is his duty also to receive petitions addressed to the Crown (and refer them to other departments if necessary), to issue warrants and appoint royal commissions (even in matters not affecting his own specific duties), to settle precedence and titles of honour (for example, in 1927, a pronouncement

was made that lord mayors are not entitled to be

called “Right Honourable” without a grant from the Crown) and generally to deal with business involving the prerogative, or any business not definitely assigned to some other department of Government. The jurisdiction of the Home Office does not extend to Scotland, which has its own secretary of State. The Home Office, though new duties, e.g., the supervision of factories, have been engrafted on it by statute, is fundamentally a peculiar product of British constitutional growth, and its position has no exact parallel elsewhere. In many countries of the British empire and of Europe its duties are divided between the Ministries of Justice and of the Interior (some also being appropriate to a Ministry of Labour)-——although in many countries, as is mentioned above, the Minister of the Interior is largely engaged in controlling local administration through the prefect, a functionary for whom no English parallel exists. The Colonial and Dominions Offices.—The Colonial Office is the department which deals with questions affecting the various colonial possessions of the British Crown other than the self-governing dominions. At the Restoration, a committee of the privy council was formed to deal with colonial business, and in 1695 a Board of Trade and Plantations was created for collecting information and giving advice, the executive work being performed by the secretary of State for the southern department. A separate secretary of State was appointed, abolished and reappointed in the r8th century, and in 1801 this secretary was designated as secretary of State for war and the colonies. In 1854 a distinct office of secretary of State for the colonies was created. In 1925 a secretaryship of State for the dominions was created. This is a good example of the constitutional process by which a secretaryship of State comes into existence, for there was no statute: an order was given to the king’s engraver to make a new seal and this was conferred on L. S. Amery, to be held with the seal appertaining to the secretaryship of State for the colonies. The business relating to the self-governing dominions was assigned to a separate Dominions Offce, though certain services, e.g., legal, financial, and other general business, continued common. Since the Colonial and Dominions Offices exist as the vehicle of communication

DEPARTMENTS between the Imperial Government

and the rest of the empire

there is, in the nature of things, no counterpart in other coun. tries of the empire. Similarly, no other State has an exact parallel to the Dominions Office, because no imperial constitution re. sembles the British, but France and Italy among the Great Powers have Colonial Offices, under ministers of the first rank

as had Germany before the war. The India Office.—The India Office is another department of the British Government which is without parallel elsewhere, being the link between the imperial cabinet and parliament and the Government of India. Created in 1858, it took over the duties of the Board of Control (which Pitt’s act of 1784 had set up for such supervision of Indian affairs as parliament and the home Government then desired to exercise) and of the head office of

the East India company in the city. The office was in part re-

organized in 191g, in connection with the reform of the Indian Government, but retains certain special features due to its origin, which are not found in other departments. Thus the secretary of State, who is the head of the department, exercises in part the same class of jurisdiction as any other member of the Government, but in certain matters he is bound by statute to obtain consent of,

and in other matters to consult, the “Council of India.” This js an advisory body, of whom half at least must have Indian ex-

perience, and is historically descended from the 18th century Board of Control on the one hand and from the board of directors of the East India company on the other. It works in close touch

with the several divisions of the India Office, but administratively

does not control them. A second peculiarity of the India Office lies in the fact that its cost is in part not charged upon British revenues: the British parliament pays (since 1919) the salary of the secretary of State and a proportion of the office charges, and the rest, calculated to represent the value of business done in England for India, falls on Indian revenues. For the departments of other secretaries of State, see FOREIGN OFFICE; WAR OFFICE; see also ADMIRALTY. OTHER DEPARTMENTS

After the departments headed by secretaries of State come a number of ministries and boards, the most important of which are here noticed in alphabetical order—their relative standing not being authoritatively defined—and the others collectively at the end of this article. It will be seen that the title of “ministry” is borne by those created since the war, some of which absorbed or were mere reincarnations of “boards” with the same functions. There is, it seems, a fashion in the naming of Government de-

partments—the English tradition in the 18th century, e.g., Board of Trade, and until the 20th, e.g., the Insurance Commission created in 1911, being in favour of boards of commissioners, their theoretical constitution being often more or less a legal fiction, The Continental titles of “minister” and “ministry” do not occur

in a single English department before the war: they sprang into use with the Ministry of Munitions in 1915, and—for some inexplicable reason—wholly replaced the native usage after the war.

A bill was introduced into parliament in March 1928 to remodel the Scottish departments (most of which existed previously in the form of boards of active members, with the secretary of State for Scotland as their president) under the name of ministries. The Ministry of Agriculture.—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, created in 1919, took over the duties of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, which itself sprang from the “veterlnary department” of country was ravaged tural department” in Among the statutes

the privy council, formed in 1865 when the by cattle plague and renamed the “agricul1883. executed by the ministry may be mentioned

those relating to the diseases of animals, the weighing of cattle,

the redemption of tithe, the enclosure of commons, the provision of small holdings and the drainage and improvement of land.

In 1903 the powers and duties of the Board of Trade under various acts relating to fishing were transferred to the Board of Agriculture. The department carries out much agricultural research, and publishes numerous pamphlets and other papers at popular prices for the assistance of farmers, small holders, poultry

GOVERNMENT

DEPARTMENTS

keepers, horticulturalists, etc. Similar departments exist in Scotland, in Northern and Southern Ireland and in most of the British dominions. Among European countries many have separate Ministries of Agriculture, but the Italian reforms of 1923-27 placed agricultural affairs in a general “Ministry of National Economy” which is responsible for co-ordinating agricultural and industrial policy. The Board of Education.—The Board of Education succeeded a committee of the privy council, formed in 1839 to administer

parliamentary grants in aid of education which had then recently heen introduced.

The board consists of a president, the lord

president of the council, the first lord of the treasury, the chan-

cellor of the exchequer and the secretaries of State—the responsibility resting with the president. Its jurisdiction extends to Wales, for which, however, there is a separate department in its office. As at present constituted, after education in England and Wales was put on its present footing by the Education Act, 1902, this office is one of the largest of Government departments. The board, through its headquarters staff and a large inspectorate, supervises the educational work carried on by local education authorities in counties and boroughs, and through parliamentary grants has

considerable influence over the work of universities and other educational organizations which are not subject to direct govern-

mental control. In addition, the Board controls several (not all) of the national museums. In Scotland and Northern Ireland, there are separate education

departments, as there are in Southern Ireland and the dominions

overseas. Indeed, education is one of the national services which is almost everywhere increasingly costly and considered to require governmental organization. This is usually by a separate ministry, which may, however, be combined with “fine arts” as in France and Italy, or with “public worship” or’some other subject as in some States of Germany. The commissariat for education in

Russia, in addition to educational duties of the usual type, manages a large publishing business, producing not merely text-books but some 40 scientific journals. The Ministry of Health.—The Ministry of Health was set up by statute in 1919, primarily to concentrate health services previously exercised by the Local Government Board, the National Health Insurance Commission, the privy council, the Home Office and the Board of Education. The insurance commission had been responsible for collecting contributions to a national scheme of health insurance established in 1911, and for providing the benefits for which the insured population had paid, with certain ancillary functions in the way (especially) of research. The Local Government Board had much wider scope. Established by act of parliament in 1871, with the same purpose as the new ministry—that of concentrating services which previously had been divided— it was responsible for the central supervision of most services carried out by locally elected authorities, and for much besides. In matters of health, these services covered the suppression of nuisances, closing of unhealthy dwellings, prevention of infectious disease and of the sale of contaminated food, maintenance of sewers and (increasingly under the legislation of the 2oth century) the provision of clinics and public medical assistance, largely aided by parliamentary grants. The board took over the central administration of the poor law from the Poor Law board in 1871. It supervised highways, the registration of electors, town planning, the provision of houses for the working classes, motor cars and local finance (sanctioning loans and auditing through district auditors the accounts of most local authorities). It confirmed bylaws on most subjects on which local authorities could make them. It decided between the Crown and the subject on claims for old age pensions, between local authorities in various disputes, and between them and individuals on numerous matters affecting proprietary rights. Of the subjects here enumerated, highways (in part) and motor cars have, by the Ministry of Transport Act, 1919, passed to the Ministry of Transport, and electoral registration has by order in council passed to the Home Office. The Ministry of Health Act gave power, by order in council, to transfer functions from or to the minister, and a few small changes, additional to those mentioned, have been made, but

573

substantially the functions of the ministry remain as now enumerated (that is, as they were in 1919), with the addition of extensive new duties, affecting many matters besides health, under later legislation. To a great extent, therefore, the Ministry of Health in England has functions assigned in most European coun-

tries to the Ministry of the Interior. The minister’s jurisdiction extends to Wales, where work in matters of “health” (not including “housing’”’) is done through the Welsh Board of Health, but the “local government” work of the ministry direct from London. In Scotland the Scottish Board of Health performs duties almost identical with those of the Ministry of Health in England. It is derived similarly from the Scottish Local Government Board and the Scottish Insurance

Commission.

In Northern

Ireland,

most of the duties of a Ministry of Health are performed by the Ministry of Home Affairs. So in the Free State, and in the dominions overseas, there is no separately organized Ministry of Health, but duties analogous to those of the English ministry are

performed by other departments. Except in France, where “health” and “labour” are combined, the same is true of European countries. The Ministry of Labour.—The Ministry of Labour was set up in 1916 and took over certain duties (mainly from the Board of Trade) in relation to problems of labour. It does not deal with all such problems; in particular the inspection of factories and workshops remains under the Home Office, and that of mines falls to the mines department of the Board of Trade. The ministry is responsible for unemployment insurance and for the national system of employment exchanges. It is also the authority for dealing with industrial disputes and the medium by which those capable of settlement in a judicial manner are brought before the industrial court or special tribunals of enquiry. Among European States, France, Germany and Russia have Ministries of Labour (the first named combining it with “health’’) and it will probably be found that the Italian “Ministry of Corporations” when fully constituted performs a great many of the same functions. The Ministry of Pensions.—The Ministry of Pensions was set up by act of parliament in Dec. 1916, to deal with pensions arising out of services during the war, but the department does not deal with the “service pensions” of the army, navy and air force, which are left with the departments responsible for the general administration of those services. That is, the business of the ministry is the assessment and payment of pensions to widows and dependents, and for disability—the latter involving maintenance of hospitals and a large staff of medical men. The Board of Trade.—The “committee of the privy council for trade” or, as it is usually called, the Board of Trade, dates in its present form from 1786, when (after the constitution and dissolution of several earlier bodies) a permanent committee was formed by an order in council, which with one or two small exceptions still regulates the legal constitution of the board. Under it all the principal officers of State, including the first lords of the Treasury and Admiralty, the secretaries of State, and certain members of the privy council, among whom was the archbishop of Canterbury, obtained seats at the board ex officio. The growth of commerce, however, necessarily threw new duties upon the Board of Trade, and its technical constitution has now merely an historical importance, the president acting alone as the responsible minister. Described by Lord Haldane’s committee on the machinery of Government in 1918, as “the department dealing with private enterprise as such,” the Board of Trade has since lost some of its functions, to the Ministry of Transport and Ministry of Labour in particular. It retains, however, the control of patents, weights and measures, and of foreshores belonging to the Crown, the administration of the Jaw relating to wrecks, to copyright, to companies and bankruptcy, to gas undertakings and to merchant shipping, and it publishes statistical and other information on commercial subjects, relating to Great Britain and other countries. A sub-department under a parliamentary secretary is charged with administration of the law relating to mines, and another organization of general interest was attached to the Board of Trade in 1925, when a food council was established, without executive

574

GOVERNMENT

functions but intended to collect and publish information on food prices and supplies. The Board of Trade is one of the few departments which exercises jurisdiction in Scotland as well as England. Departments of trade, or commerce, or bearing similar titles, exist in Northern Ireland and the Irish Free State, and in all the self-governing dominions, with functions similar to the central functions of the Board of Trade in Great Britain. In European countries the same is generally true, but in Italy the interests of industry and the supervision of mining, of insurance, of “intellectual property,” and the preparation of statistics on all subjects, are among the duties of sub-departments of the Ministry of National Economy, which also embraces agriculture, fisheries and the exploitation of forests and national domains.

The Ministry of Transport.—The Ministry of Transport was

formed by statute in 1919, to take over from other Government departments their duties concerning transport by road and rail throughout Great Britain. In effecting the transfer of existing powers to the ministry, the problem already mentioned, of allocating governmental functions, arose and it was found expedient to leave some, e.g., the sanctioning of loans for road works proposed by local authorities, and the approval of by-laws for the width of streets and for vehicles on the roads, with the Ministry of Health, as the department generally responsible for local government. In 1927 the Government announced an intention to abolish the Ministry of Transport as a separate entity, but this intention was abandoned, and the functions of the department continued as before. These fall under three main headings: railways, roads and road vehicles. The minister orders public enquiry into railway accidents and confirms by-laws of the railway companies. He sees to the enforcement of the regulative acts of parliament for railways, and himself makes orders, having statutory force, for trams and mechanically propelled road vehicles. He also administers the road fund, a fund kept separate from the country’s main revenues, fed by the proceeds of taxation on motor cars, and devoted to the upkeep of the roads. The minister is also responsible to parliament for the work of the electricity commission, a sub-department charged with the duty (under the supervision of a central board created in 1927) of developing electrical supplies. Among European countries, Russia has a Ministry of .Transport whose jurisdiction covers the whole U.S.S.R. In Germany a Ministry of Transport works the State railways and supervises others, as does the Ministry of Public Works in France, though many of the supervisory duties in regard to private enterprise appertain to the Ministry of the Interior. In Italy, the State railways are worked by an autonomous department of the Ministry of Communications, which ministry also controls posts and telegraphs and the mercantile marine, while supervision over privately owned railways, trams and automobile services is exercised by the Ministry of Public Works. The latter is also responsible, like the English Ministry of Transport, for the development of electric power, and, like that ministry and the French Ministry of Public Works, for the development of roads. > All men, however, have not seemed to be equally under the influence of grace, and an explanation of this indisputable fact has had to be sought. Some found it in the inscrutable character

of the deity, who was held by them to bestow grace sportively or

586

GRACES—GRACKLE

capriciously, just like an oriental despot. But this conflicted with the gradually developing human conviction that any deity worthy of the name must be at least as good as the best human being; and so an explanation was found in the experience of the freedom of the will. All, it was held, were given sufficiency of grace, but only those who freely appropriated it showed its full effects. Alongside of this conception of grace developed that of sin.

This article is limited in scope by its title, but we are bound to consider the fact that in proportion as man’s sense of guilt and failure increases (a4uapria the N.T. word translated “sin” = “missing of the mark”) so there also increase his sense of helplessness and dire need of divine aid and his sense of his unworthiness and so of his inability to merit the loving self-outpourings of the Divine Being. The conception of “grace” is therefore an inevitable concomitant of moral theism. The positivist and determinist find with difficulty a place in their programme for grace and free will. But the common-sense of the ordinary man revolts against the rigid conclusions of the determinist, and insists upon the reality of free will, and so upon the reality of grace. In Christianity the conception of grace has developed propor-

tionately to the richness of the experiences of Christian believers. As the influence of the energising personality of God exercised on man, its definition has depended upon the nature of the beliefs held about God’s personality and Character. Hence the wonderful richness and variety of the xapısuara imparied to the Christian, believing himself, as he has always done, to be in touch with a deity whose character and influence are equivalent to those of the historical Jesus.

It must be admitted that the

interpretation of Christian experience has been the subject of some controversy. Thus it was debated whether after a single fall from grace a Christian could be reinstated (Novatianism, A.D. 251). It was also debated as to whether saving grace could be obtained outside the membership of the Church. The largest single contribution to the answer of these questions was made by Augustine the Great (A.D. 354-430), Bishop of Hippo in Africa. (See AUGUSTINE, Sart.) The experiences of his stormy youth and impressive conversion led him to lay tremendous stress on the irresistible power of God, and he therefore undervalued the importance of the co-operation of the free human will. But he was led to do this by the sense of his own past wickedness, interpreted as evidence of the correctness of the meaning of the early chapters of the book of Genesis, z.¢., that the nature of every man is corrupted because of the original fall of Adam, so that man is not only of his own nature inclined to evil, but is now in such a condition that he cannot by his own natural strength and good works carry out the will of God. The dependence: of the soul upon God seems to be a natural consequence of its origin, and the teaching of the Roman Catholic catechism is that we can do no good work of ourselves, but that we need the help of God’s Grace. This is also taught by the Church of England catechism. Pelagius, a native of Britain, a learned layman and a monk (a contemporary of Augustine), saw no safeguard for righteousness unless men recognised the complete freedom of the will and realised that they were accountable for their actions. Augustine in 417 secured the condemnation of Pelagius by means of an imperial decree, and this decision was afterwards confirmed in 431 at the Council of Ephesus. The influence of Augustine, with his tendency to attribute arbitrary action to the deity, runs through the’ subsequent history of the Church. In the 16th century Erasmus tended to take the side of Pelagius, Luther and to an even greater extent Calvin the side of Augustine. Calvin in fact has seemed to insist that God predestines some to blessedness and some to damnation, and that man himself is so helpless and corrupt that: all he can do is to take thankfully whatever grace and mercy may be dealt out to him. The so-called Arminian controversy was due to a reaction against this (A.D. 1608) and an attempt was made to settle the dispute at the famous Synod of Dort 1618—1 Q, the decrees ‘of which decided that predestination only came in after the fall, and was not included in the eternal counsels of God. *iAnother difference of opinion arose as to the relation of grace tothe sacraments. The Catholic view is that the sacraments are means: by- which grace is given, and its appropriation is held to

depend on having the right disposition when receiving the sacra.

ments. The Protestant view, aiming at the rejection of magic has tended to regard the sacraments rather as symbols and pledges of grace already given, and the teaching and experience

of Luther, that faith alone was needed in order to receive grace

was an immense simplification of life, though it was not carried to its logical conclusion by the earlier Protestants (except perhaps

the Quakers) but was still linked up to the church system and its

ordinances. In modern times the study of psychology has led to a clearer apprehension of the reality of grace, and of the lines along which the divine gift appears to operate. The notion that behind consciousness lies a large realm, to which various titles have been given, has suggested to some that grace is the inflow into con-

sciousness (as it were through a mental sluice) of spiritual power which exists in the realm of the subconscious or super-conscious. The extension of Protestant principles has led many totally to discard sacraments, services and institutions as means of attaining

grace, and to assert that the individual can find the power he

needs ready to hand at all points in ordinary daily life. On the other hand the last forty years have seen a considerable revival

of Catholic sacramentalism, based often upon a pragmatic appeal.

A final change in the conception of grace has resulted from the

effect upon the belief in an original fall from righteousness pro-

duced by an independent study of the origin and development of the human species. Those who totally discard the traditional

belief are led sometimes to an exaggerated denial of the necessity of grace. But the acceptance of its absolute necessity is independ-

ent of folk-lore. The facts of past and present sin and corruption, and the humiliating spectacles of individual, national and racial deterioration, must prevent sober thinkers from indulging in the rash assumption that man is capable by himself, and without any aid from the' Divine Spirit, either of developing or of regenerating his character. BIBLioGRAPHY.—R. R. Marrett, Anthropology, 2nd ed. ror4; J, Oman, Grace and Personality, 3rd ed. 1925; N. P. Williams, The Ideas of the Fall and of Original Sin, 1927; H. Rashdall, The Idea of Atonement in Christian Theology, 1919. The pre-modern treatment of the subject may be studied in the writings of S. Augustine, S. Thomas Aquinas, Luther, Calvin, Arminius, Bellarmine, and John Wesley (cj. the Histories of Doctrine). (A. C. B.)

GRACES,

THE, Greek goddesses of fertility. The name

(cf. Venus) refers to the “pleasing” or “charming” appearance of a fertile field or garden. (Gr. Xápıres, Lat. Gratiae.) The number varies; sometimes only one Charis is mentioned, but usually they are three, Aglaia (brightness), Euphrosyne (joyfulness), Thalia (bloom)—daughters of Zeus and Hera (or Eurynome, daughter of Oceanus), or of Helios and Aegle. At Sparta there were two, Kleta and Phaenna; at Athens two, Auxo and Hegemone, associated with Agraulos in the ephetic oath. Frequently they are taken as goddesses of charm or beauty in general, hence as associated with Aphrodite, Peitho, Hermes; the union of Hephaestus with Charis in the /liad is probably a mere allegory (Craftsmanship weds Beauty). In works of art they were represented in early times draped, later as nude female figures. In Latin the name was translated Gratiae (Graces). See the articles in Roscher’s Lexikon der Mythologie, and in Darem-

berg and Saglio’s Dictionnaire des antiquités (with useful bibliography). GRACIAN Y MORALES, BALTASAR (1601-1658), Spanish prose writer and Jesuit. His principal works are El] Héroe (1637); the Arte de ingenio, tratado de Agudeza (1642), a system of rhetoric in which the principles of conceptismo as op-

posed to culteranismo are inculcated; El Discreto (1646), a delineation of the typical courtier; Æl Oráculo manual y arte de prudencia (1647); and El Criticón (1651—53—57), an ingenious philosophical allegory of human existence. See Karl Deutschland

l

Borinski, Baltasar Gracián und die Hoflitteratur im (Halle, 1894) ; Benedetto Croce, I Trattatisti italiani del

“concettismo” e Baltasar Gracian (Napoli, 1899) ; A. Coster, “Baltasar

Gracian,' 1601-58,” Revue Hispanigue, xxix., pp. 347-752 (1913)}

A. F, G. Bell; Baltasar Gracién (1921).

ra

GRACKLE, a word applied to certain birds of the family Sturnidae in the Old World and of the Icteridae in the New. The

former include the mynas of India and adjacent countries, es:

GRADO—GRADUATION pecially Gracula religiosa, which is some roin. long and has a black iridescent plumage, a white patch on the wing and yellow

587

towards this ideal may be found in the fact that it is possible to

wattles behind the eyes, the bill is orange, the legs yellow, and the

It can be

produce circles of 12 inches diameter divided into very many nearly equal parts by divisions none of which is out of its true position by more than two seconds of arc. Graduation may be

taught to talk. Allied species occupy Ceylon, Burma and Malay. The American grackles belong to the genera Euphagus, Mega-

considered under three heads, viz., original graduation, hand copying, and machine graduation performed by a dividing engine.

quiscalus and Quiscalus, The best known are the rusty blackbird or rusty grackle, £. carolinus, found all over North America, and Q. quiscula, the purple grackle east of ý | | the Rocky mountains.

line may be performed either by continual bisection or by stepping. In continual bisection the entire length of the line is first laid down. Then, as nearly as possible, half that distance is taken in the beam-compass and marked off by faint arcs from each end of

bird, which inhabits southern India, is frugivorous.

Original Graduation.—The original graduation of a straight

GRADO, an island of the province of

The errors of Hevel-

the line. Should these marks coincide the exact middle of the line is obtained. If not, as will almost always be the case, the distance between the marks is carefully bisected by hand with the aid of a magnifying glass. The same process is again applied to the halves thus obtained, and so on in succession, till the desired divisions are reached. In stepping, the smallest division required is first taken as accurately as possible by spring dividers, and that distance is then laid off by successive steps from one end of the line. The division of circular arcs is essentially the same in principle as the graduation of straight lines. The foundation of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, and the increasing demand for more accurate determination of the positions of the heavenly bodies, induced great advances in the art of graduation. In England, outstanding amongst those who made definite contributions to these advances from the late 17th to the early roth century, are Abraham Sharp (1651-1742), Thomas Tompion (1639-1713), George Graham (1673-1751), Jonathan Sisson (c. 1690-1747), Jeremiah Sisson (c. 1715-c. 1780), John Bird (1709-1776), John Smeaton (1724-1792), Jesse Ramsden (1735-1800), John Troughton (¢. 1747—c. 1790), Edward Troughton (1753-1835), Thomas Jones (¢. 1780—c. 1840), and William Simms (1793-1860). The first example in which the method of performing the graduation is described in detail is the 8-ft. mural circle graduated by George Graham for Greenwich Observatory in 1725. In this two concentric arcs of radii 96-85 and 95-8 in. respectively were first described by the beam-compass. On the inner of these the arc of go° was to be divided into degrees and 12th parts of a degree, while the same on the outer was to be divided into 96 equal parts and these again into 16th parts. The reason for adopting the latter was that 96 and 16 being both powers of 2, the divisions could be obtained by continual bisection alone (which in Graham’s opinion was the only accurate method), and would thus serve as a check upon the accuracy of the divisions of the inner arc. With the same distance on the beam-compass as was used to describe the inner arc, laid of from o°, the point 60° was determined. With the points o° and 60° as centres successively, and a distance on the beam-compass very nearly bisecting the arc 60°, two slight marks were made on the arc; the distance between these marks was divided by the hand aided by a lens, and this gave the point 30°. The chord of 60° laid off from the point 30° gave the point go°, and the quadrant was now divided into three equal parts. Each of these parts was similarly bisected, and the resulting divisions again trisected, giving 18 parts of 5° each. Each of these quinquesected gave degrees, the r2th parts of which were arrived at by bisecting and trisecting as before. The outer arc was divided by continual bisection, and a table was constructed by which readings of the one could be converted into those of the other. After the dots indicating the required divisions were obtained small arcs were drawn through them by the beam-compass having its fixed point somewhere on the line which was tangent to the quadrantal arc at the point where a division was to be marked. The next important example of graduation was performed by Bird in 1767. His quadrant, which was also of 8-ft. radius, was divided into degrees and 12th parts of a degree. Bird computed

lus’s 6-foot sextant (middle ryth century) might amount to 15 or 29 seconds of arc, Flamsteéd’s sextant to Iro or'I12 seconds, and

scale of equal parts (previously: ‘constructed by him; employing

Trieste, Italy, 4 m. from Belvedere. Pop. (1921) 5,219. The inhabitants of Aquileia took shelter there in 452 and 568 and the patriarchate of Grado began in 557-569 and continued till 1451 when it passed to }

Venice. The cathedral was rebuilt in 571-

$86; it has a fine mosaic pavement.

GRADUAL,

advancing

or

taking

place by degrees or step by step; hence used of a slow progress or a gentle declivity or slope, opposed to steep or precipitous. As a substantive, “gradual” is used of a

service book of the Roman Catholic Church containing certain chants, called

BY COURTESY ASSOCIATION CIETIES

OF OF

THE NATIONAL AUDUBON SOQ-

THE AMERICAN GRACKLE, COLOURED PURPLE AND BRONZE, WITH METALLIC

“oraduals,” sung at the service of the Mass ToucHES OF GREEN AND after the reading or singing of the Epistle. BLUE For the so-called Gradual Psalms, cxx—cxxxiv., the “songs of

degrees,” LXX., wdai rav avaBaluar, GRADUATE (Med. Lat. graduare, to admit to an academi-

cal degree, gradus), in Great Britain a verb now only used in the academical sense intransitively, 7.e., “to take or proceed to a university degree,” and figuratively of acquiring knowledge of, or proficiency in, anything. The original transitive sense of “to confer or admit to a degree” is, however, still preserved in America, where the word is, moreover, not strictly confined to university degrees, but is used also of those successfully completing a course of study at any educational establishment. As a sub-

stantive, a “graduate” (Med. Lat. graduatus) is one who has

taken a degree in a university. Those who have matriculated at a university, but not yet taken a degree, are known as “undergraduates.” The word “student,” used of undergraduates, ¢.g., in Scottish universities, is never applied generally to those of the

English and Irish universities. At Oxford the only “students” are the “senior students” (i.e., fellows) and “junior students” (ze., undergraduates on the foundation, or “scholars”) of Christ Church. The verb “to graduate” is also used of dividing anything into degrees or parts in accordance with a given scale. For the scientific application see GRADUATION below. It may also mean “to arrange in gradations” or “to adjust or apportion according to a given scale.” Thus by “a graduated income-tax”’ is meant the system by which the percentage paid differs according to the amount of income on a pre-arranged scale.

GRADUATION.

There are few advances or refinements

in the exact sciences which have not depended considerably on corresponding refinement in linear or angular measurement. Graduation, or “dividing,” as it is usually called, is the art of dividing straight lines, circular arcs, or whole circumferences into any required number of equal parts. It is the most important and difficult part of the work of the mathematical instrument maker. According to Shuckburgh, from the time of Hipparchus and Ptolemy to that of Copernicus in the beginning of the 16th century, few astronomical observations can be depended on to within

less than 5 to xo minutes of arc, those of Tycho Brahé (1546101) being reliable to within one minute.

Graham’s 8-foot mural quadrant, used by Bradley from 1742, to 7 or 8 seconds. There is still no such thing as a perfectly graduated circle in existence. A fair’ indication of the ‘present state of progress

the chords of certain arcs, so that when taken from an accurate

continual bisection), and marked on the quadrant in their proper

order, he obtained the point 85° 20’=1,024x5’. As 1,024 is equal to the tenth power of 2, he was able to obtain 5’ by continual bisection of this arc.

i

ES

588

GRADUATION

The Due de Chaulnes published in 1768 a method of dividing in which greater accuracy was obtainable by replacing the points of a pair of beam compasses by two micrometer microscopes, These

microscopes, having cross wires in the foci of their eye-glasses

were fixed to a frame, and several pieces of brass with divisions on them could be temporarily secured by wax as required, to the circle to be divided; these were used as trial divisions. The microscopes were first fixed as nearly as possible at opposite ends of a diameter of the circle to be divided, and a trial division placed under each,

so that the intersection of the cross wires in each case was coin-

cident with the middle of the division when viewed through the microscope. By repeatedly turning the circle half round, and by slight adjustment of the position of one microscope and one trial division, positions were obtained which were exactly diamet-

tically opposite. A cutting point was then placed over one division and a fixed microscope over the other, so that when any division was brought to bisect the cross wires in the microscope, the cutting point made one diametrically opposite, By a process of trial and adjustment with bisections and trisections, the circle was divided into spaces of 10°, then by obtaining the arc of 9°, by

trial on the arc of 180°, the circle could be divided into spaces of 1°, or by similar means into smaller spaces. In the first stages of an original graduation, Ramsden used beam compasses as employed by Bird.

Micrometer microscopes were

then used as in the method of the Duc de Chaulnes to measure

the errors in the positions of the dots. Corrections were made by pressing the dots backwards or forwards by hand, with a fine conical point. This method, known as “coaxing,” is capable of a great degree of accuracy, but is extremely tedious, Ramsden’s original graduation of the wheel of his dividing

engine (described later) was as follows:—-It was divided with the greatest exactness of which he was capable, first into 5 parts,

and each of these into 3; these parts were then bisected 4 times. Supposing the whole circumference of the wheel to contain 2,160 teeth, this gave successively spaces corresponding to 432, 144, 72, 36, 18 and g teeth, To check the accuracy of these, he divided another circle (one-tenth of an inch within the first one), by continual bisections, giving 1,080, 540, 270, 135, 674 and 334. Not

finding any sensible differences as observed by means of a fixed

radial thin silver wire and magnifying lens, he used the former set of divisions for reference in ratching the edge of the wheel. The method of original graduation adopted by Edward Troughton is fully described in the Philosophical Transactions for 1809,

150 days.

Copying.—In copying a linear scale the pattern and scale to be divided are first fixed side by side, with their upper faces jn the same plane. The dividing square, resembling an ordinary joiner’s square, is then laid across both, and the point of the dividing knife dropped into the division of the pattern, The square is now moved up close to the point of the knife; and, while it is held firmly in this position by the left hand, the correspond. ing division on the work is made by drawing the knife along the edge of the square with the right hand.

In copying circles use is made of the dividing plate. This is a circular plate of brass, three feet or more in diameter, carefully graduated near its outer edge. The work to be graduated is centred and clamped to the dividing plate, and by setting a radial straight-edge to any required division on the dividing plate, the corresponding division on the work is cut by drawing the dividing knife along the straight-edge.

Machine Graduation.—Henry Hindley of York, about 1739,

constructed a small engine for cutting the teeth in clock wheels,

and for dividing instruments, In this he used the roller method for the original division of the dividing plate, which was actuated by an endless screw.

In 1766 Jesse Ramsden had made his first dividing engine, with a dividing plate 30 inches in diameter, Though this engine gave more accurate results than the ordinary dividing plate method, and was good enough for dividing the circle of the common surveying instruments, it was not sufficiently accurate for nautical instruments used in the determination of position. In 1775 Ramsden had completed his second and very much better engine. A sextant divided by it was examined by Bird, who reported favourably on it. For his invention Ramsden received £615 from the Commissioners of Longitude on condition that he would divide sextants and octants for the trade at the rate of 6s. per sextant and 3s. per octant, also that he should instruct

a certain number of persons (not exceeding ten) in the method of making and using the engine, during the period 28th October 1775 to 28th October 1777, the engine ta become the property of the Commissioners, Jesse Ramsden’s engine consists of a horizontal wheel or plate 45 inches in diameter, which turns on a vertical axis; its outer edge is ratched or cut into 2,160 teeth, into which an endless screw gears. The downward stroke of a treadle turns the screw through any portion of a revolution as fixed by the setting of suitable mechanism. By means of a free wheel on the worm axis, the upward stroke of the treadle leaves the worm stationary.

as employed by himself to divide a meridian circle of 4 ft, diameter, made for Stephen Groombridge, and now preserved in the Science Museum, The circle was first accurately turned both The circle to be divided is centred and fixed securely to the on its face and its inner and outer edges. A roller was next pro- horizontal plate of the engine, and after each downward stroke vided, of such diameter that it revolved 16 times on its own axis while made to roll once round the outer edge of the circle. The

roller, after having been properly adjusted as to size, was divided as accurately as possible into 16 equal parts by radial lines near the edge. While the frame carrying the roller was moved once round along the circle, the points of coincidence of the rollerdivisions with the circle were accurately observed by two microscopes attached to the frame, one of which commanded the ring

on the circle near its edge, which wag to receive the divisions, and the other viewed the roller-divisions. The points of contact thus

ascertained were marked with faint dots, and the circle thereby divided into 256 very nearly equal parts. From observations by means of two microscopes a table of errors in the positions of these dots was prepared. The last part of Troughton’s process was to employ them in cutting the final

divisions of the circle, which were tq be spaces of 5’ each. The

mean interval between any two dots is 360°/2565’x16%, and in the final division, this interval must be divided into 16% parts. This was accomplished by means of an instrument called a subdividing sector,

Troughton estimated (1809 paper) that 13 days of eight hours each would be well employed in dividing a 4-ft. circle by his own method, and 52 days by Bird’s method; whereas the method

by adjustment supposing every dot to be tried, and that twothirds of them wanted adjusting, would require approximately

of the treadle a division is cut by hand, the cutting point being carried in a frame (invented by Hindley) which allows only a

radial to-and-fro motion of the point. One forward revolution of the screw advances the wheel through zo minutes of arc. A

brass plate on the screw arbor is divided into 60 parts, so that

one division of this corresponds to ro seconds of arc on the

wheel. In cutting the teeth on the wheel, the first light marks

were made for the whole circlé by a series of 240 operations, in each of which the space corresponding to 9 teeth was dealt with by 9 turns of the endless screw, the divided circle being referred to at the commencement of each operation so as to eliminate any

slight errors which may have occurred during thẹ previous operation. The whole series of operations was repeated three times round, to make the impression of the screw deeper. The wheel

was then ratched round continuously about 300 times, until the teeth were finished. As the screw in ratching had continually

hold of several teeth at the same time, and these continually changing, the inequalities of the teeth soon corrected themselves, and the teeth were reduced to what Ramsden described as “a perfect equality.” This engine was used continuously by Ramsden until his death

in 1800. Since that time it has been in the possession of several dividers, and is now in the U.S. National Museum at Washington,

together with his original machine by which the endless screw of the dividing engine was cut. Ramsden also constructed a linear

GRADUATION dividing engine on essentially the same principle, a straight rack

589

There aré two sets of teeth on the edge of the wheel, one having

taking the place of the notched rim of the circular plate.

4,320 teeth and the other 2,160. In 1778 John Troughton completed an engine which had occuAfter the circle to be graduated has been exactly centred and pied him three years. It was in general construction like that of clamped upon the revolving wheel, the action of the engine is Ramsden, but according to Edward Troughton it was thought to entirely automatic. The main frame, in which the revolving table be superior in point of accuracy. Writing in 1830, he states: “The moves, is of cast iron; the revolving table and its spindle are of excellent engine of my late brother being fully four feet in phosphor bronze, and weigh about 5 cwt., the whole engine diameter gave the operator, when at work near the centre, a weighing about 2 tons. The original graduation into 4,320 equal position so painful, that it had done no good to either his health divisions, which occupied five months, was made on three rings or my own, and has materially injured that of a worthy young man then my assistant; it was evident that, by making one of

smaller dimensions, this evil would in a great measure be removed,

of silver inlaid on the top face near its outer edge. The gradua-

tions, successively made

on circular lines cut on these silver

rings, were re-cut from tables of errors many times, until the

and I foresaw that by employing my own method of original dividing from which to rack the plate, a considerable reduction

maximum

ceived, that by contriving the parts with more simplicity than Ramsden had done, I could get through the work at less than

metal, and to maintain the keen edge of the V cutter, several cuts were taken, and the accuracy was checked by taking the mean of seven micrometer readings before each tooth was cut. The whole process of cutting the teeth occupied five weeks, cate

might be effected without any sacrifice to accuracy. I also pertwo-thirds of the labour and expense.

Such were my motives for

making an engine and the work was accomplished in the year 1793.” The description of the engine was published only in 1830. The engine was driven by a treadle and the divisions were cut

error of any one division did not exceed 0-6 of a

second. From the final graduations the teeth on the edge of the revolving table were cut one by one. To avoid undue stress of the

being taken to keep the temperature

constant and uniform

throughout the specially constructed room in which the opera-

by hand, as in Ramsden’s engine. The circle is 34 inches in tions were cartied owt. The machine is capable of graduating diameter, the worm has 20 threads to the inch, and the edge of circles from 3 inches to 4 ft. 6 in. in diameter. the plate is ratched into 2,160 teeth. In Troughton’s dividing engine and those of Ramsden’s construction the operator could cut about 24 divisions per minute and could continue at this rate for hours, allowing for slight interruptions. In one minute as many as 30 divisions could be cut, but this rate could not be maintained. In 1826 William Simms went into partnership with Troughton, who retired from business in 1831r and died in 1835. In 1843 Simms had completed his own dividing engine, which he described before the Royal Astronomical Society in 1843. The plate was 46 inches in diameter and divided with extreme care on a ring of silver into 4,320 divisions, adopting Troughton’s method with some modifications. A single cutter, mounted in the endless screw frame, was used for ratching the edge of the plate, and as each of the 4,320 divisions in order was brought to coincide with the wires of a powerful microscope, the cutter was entered, and three circulations of the engine plate completed the work. Mr. Simms, in his paper, states: —“I was not without hope that the teeth on the edge would by this means be cut as truly as the original divisions themselves, and this expectation has, I believe, been fully realised.” A new, important feature in this engine was the mechanism by

which the engine became self-acting. When first used, it was driven by means of a descending weight in an open court adjoining the room in which the engine was placed; later on, it was driven from an overhead shaft by a belt in the usual way. The original Troughton engine of 1793 with self-acting mechanism added by Wiliam Simms, appeared probably not long after Simms’ larger engine had been made. The wooden stand, the worm mechanism, and the large circle were made by Troughton in 1793. The casting seen on the left, with its wheelwork, the tracelet frame, and cam mechanism for moving the cutting knife up and down, and for regulating the length of cut, are due to Simms. This engine was in use almost continuously from 1793 until recent years, though it has been superseded for more

Dividing engines of different designs for both circular and linear graduation are manufactured in considerable numbers at Geneva by the Société Genevoise d'Instruments de Physique. The thachines designed and made for laboratory use can engrave

lines either fine grade, 0-05 to ors mm.

(0-002” to 0-006”) in

thickness, or microscopic grade, 0-002 to 0-oo5 mm. (0-0001” to o-0006”) in thickness to a guaranteed accuracy of 0-002 mm. (o-co01r”) for linear machines and +r second of arc for circular machines. The largest and most accurate of the circular dividing engines are I metre in diameter and the guaranteed accuracy is

“kr second of arc. An automatic correcting device is provided to

compensate the slight errors existing in the spacing of the teeth on the periphery of the dividing wheel. In a larger machine, 2 metres in diameter, specially designed for use in gun factories, the accuracy is +15 seconds: In the automatic machines for workshop use, lines may be ruled either of medium or coarse grade, o-r to 0-2 mm. (0-004” to 0-008”) in thickness to a guaranteed accuracy of --o-oro mm.

(o-0004”) for linear machines, and +15 to +30 seconds of arc for circular machines, at a rate of 80 to 200 lines per minute. The high precision linear dividing engines are provided with a

temperature compensation device which produces the same effect as if the pitch of the leading screw were varied by the small amount necessary to produce the correct compensation. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—R. Smith, “Compleat System of Optiks,” 1738; v., li, pp. 332-336. (Describes Graham’s method of original graduation of the 8-ft. mural arc at Greenwich.) J. Bird, “The Method of dividing Astronomical Instruments,” 1767. (Describes the method practised by Bird during the period 1733-1767.) Duc de Chaulnes, “Nouvelle méthode pour diviser les instruments de mathématique et d'astronomie,”

1768;

J. Ramsden,

“Description

of an

Engine

for

dividing Mathematical Instruments.” Published by order of the Commissioners of Longitude, 1777; J. Smeaton, “Observations on the Graduation of Astronomical Instruments,” Phil. Trans., v. 76, 1786; Sir Geo. Shuckburgh, “An Account of the Equatorial Instrument” (made by Jesse Ramsden), Phil. Trans., 1793 v. 83, pp. 67-128; E. Troughton, “An account of a Method of dividing Astronomical and accurate division by later and better engines constructed by other instruments by ocular Inspection; in which the usual Tools for are not employed; the whole Operation being so contrived, Troughton and Simms. During the latter part of its existence it graduating that no Error can occur but what it chargeable to Vision, when ashas not been used for graduating instruments reading to a greater sisted by the best optical Means of viewing and measuring minute

accuracy than one minute of arc.

Quantities,” Phil. Trans. 1809; Rees’ Cyclopaedia, 1819, Arts. “Grad-

The re-graduation by hand of the two circles 30 and 24 inches

in diameter of the Westbury altitude and azimuth circle made by Edward Troughton, which was performed by Simms in 1823, occupied nearly twelve weeks of six eight-hour days a week.

By

means of his automatic dividing engine (1843), after some five

hours necessary for setting up the circles on the engine, the actual graduation would have been performed in about five hours.

Modern

Dividing Engines-—In

fundamental

design and

principle of action the automatic dividing engine constructed by

George W. Watts in toos resembles the engine of William Simms.

uation” and “Engine”; E, Troughton, In Art. “Graduation,” Brewster’s Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, v. ro, 1830; Andrew Ross, Trans, of the Society of Arts, vol. xlvili., 1831, pp. 302-332; William Simms,

“Self-acting circular dividing engine,” Memoirs R.AS. v. 15, 1846; J. E. Watkins, “The Ramsden dividing engine.” Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution (to July 1896), p. 732; G. T. McCaw, “A new Dividing Engine” (Messrs. EB. R. Watts & Son). Monthly Notices R.A.S. v. kiz, pp. 226-228, 1909; E. O. Henrici and G. W. Watts,

Art. “Divided Circles” vol. 4, pp. 53-87, 1923; of Edward Troughton, 3, DP. 138-140, 1923-24;

Glazebrook’s Dictionary of Applied Physics, D. Baxandall, “The Circular dividing engine 1793.” Trans. Optical Society, vol. xxv., No. Société Genevoise, “Catalogue of Linear and

GRADUS—GRAECO-PERSIAN

599

Circular Dividing Machines for Laboratory and Works,” 1924. Brstiocrapuy.—Chaulnes, Michel-Ferdinand d’Albert d’Ailly, duc de, Nouvelle méthode pour diver les instruments de mathématiques (1768) ; Ramsden, Jesse, Description @une machine pour diver les instruments de mathématiques, augmentée de la description d'une machine à diviser les lignes droites (1790); Edward Troughton, Method of Dividing Astronomical Instruments (1809); Abraham Sharp, Geometry Improved by a Table of Segments of Circles; its construction and various uses in the solution of dificult problems (1718). (D. B.

GRADUS, or Grapus ap Parnassum (a step to Parnassus), a Latin (or Greek) dictionary, in which the quantities of the vowels of the words are marked. Synonyms, epithets and poetical expressions and extracts are also included under the more important headings, the whole being intended as an aid for students in Greek and Latin verse composition. The first Latin gradus

546-466

3.c.

The

even the Greeks themselves ever alleged that it was a crushing burden. They had also in time of war to provide military and naval contingents for the Persian forces. But, however lightly the hand of Persia lay upon them, the Greeks of Asia, being Greeks resented any form of subjection which circumscribed their political freedom.

great

Rise of Cyrus.—The independent, kingdom of Media had lasted

little more than half a century when there came a change of dynasty within it, a change which seems, judging from the contemporary records of Nabonidus, king of Babylon, to have been little more than a domestic matter. The history of the next two centuries makes it almost certain that the Persians in the southwest of modern Persia were either a Median tribe or of a race near akin to the Medes. In 532 Cyrus the Persian king of Anshan, a part of Elam, revolted and set himself up as ruler of the Median

kingdom. Lydia and Babylonia got alarmed at his vigour and success, and concluded an alliance which aimed at checking, or even suppressing, Cyrus. Of that alliance he got wind; so about 546 he made an attack on Croesus of Lydia which ended in the capture of Sardes, the fall of the Lydian kingdom, and the passing of the continental Greeks of the Asiatic coast under Persian dominion. The fall of Lydia made a great impression on the Greek world, for it had loomed large as an oriental empire in contrast to the small and comparatively poor States of Greece. Of the relations between the Persians and the Greeks during the later part of the reign of Cyrus and during the reign of his successor Cambyses but little is known. The islands of the eastern Aegean, with the exception of Samos, seem to have fallen early under Persian rule. A certain Polycrates ruled at Samos as tyrant for some years, and used the wealth he acquired in trade in carrying out some great architectural and engineering works. But about 424 he fell into the hands of the Persians and was put to death. In 516 a Persian force captured the island. Thus Persian rule now extended to a line drawn north and south through the middle of the Aegean. Cambyses had died in 522, and had: been succeeded by a pretender who was slain by certain Persian nobles, of whom the leader, Reign

os

4

peoples which they had brought into subjection; for it was a system which recognized the wisdom, if not the justice, of respecting the rights of subjects of various races, and of allowing them as much local freedom as was consistent with the calls which the

to have been harsh in their rule. Tribute had to be paid; but not

Assyrian kingdom which had ruled and terrorized Asia for centuries came to an end with the fall of Nineveh in 612 B.c. Of it the Greeks knew little or nothing. Only the Greeks of Cyprus had come into contact with it, and that only on one brief occasion. It had never ruled within the peninsula of Asia Minor. For half a century after the fall of Nineveh the old dominions of Assyria were divided between two Powers, the Median and Babylonian kingdoms. The Median monarchy conceived ambitions beyond the Taurus, so that a war arose between it ‘and Lydia, which was brought to a practical, though not formal, conclusion by that strange incident on the Halys in 585, when the armies, prepared for battle, withdrew from the unfought fight in consequence of an eclipse of the sun. Freed from danger from the east, Lydia turned her attention westwards, and in the next 4o years brought into subjection those Greek cities of the Asiatic coast of the Aegean on whose liberties the Lydian kings had been making desultory attacks for more than a century past.

Dàrius, succeeded to the throne.

he establishéd is all the more remarkable because it is in Strong contrast with the crude and often barbarous methods of gover. ment which races ruling before him in the East had applied to the

their own race, who were indeed agents of Persia, but do not seem

famous schoolmaster. There is a Latin gradus by C. D. Yonge (1850); English-Latin by A. C. Ainger and H. G. Wintle (1890); Greek by J. Brasse (1828) and E. Maltby (1815), bishop of Durham.

WARS,

war, and in peace a ruler and organizer such as the world was never to see till the days of Augustus. The system of government which

interests of the empire as a whole made upon them. The Greek cities were left with considerable local autonomy under tyrants of

was compiled in 1702 by the Jesuit Paul Aler (1656-1727), a

GRAECO-PERSIAN

WARS

`

of Darius.—Everything that ig known of ‘him suggests

Scythian Expedition.—Either before or after Darius’ acces-

sion the Persians had acquired two têtes-du-pont in Europe, the Thracian Chersonese (Gallipoli peninsula), and Byzantium. This may have signified nothing more than a desire to control the narrow passages of the Hellespont and Bosporus. But somewhere about 512 Darius took a step which has seemed to some writers, ancient and modern, to have signified a deliberate policy of extend-

ing the empire into Europe. This is what is known as the Scythian

expedition.

For this incident Herodotus is the chief authority

among ancient writers, though Ctesias and Strabo contribute matter of importance. The outstanding element in the ancient tradition is that the expedition was directed against the Scyths. Darius may have wished to teach that people the lesson that they must keep their hands off Asia and Asiatic kingdoms. It was much easier to attack the Scyths through Thrace than through the twofold barrier of the Armenian mountains and the Caucasus. Misled, it would seem, by exaggerated reports of some disaster

having overtaken the Persians in Scythia, the Greek cities of the Propontis region, which had submitted to Darius on his march northwards, revolted; so, when Darius himself returned to Asia, he left Megabazus in Europe to deal with those towns. Herodotus represents him as having subdued all Thrace, a statement inconsistent with the story of some years later; nor is the story of Macedonia having given the earth and water of submission at this time quite free from suspicion. The only element in the story of

this aftermath of the Scythian expedition which lends colouring to the Greek conception of its having been preparatory to a future advance into Europe, that is to say, against Greece, is the tale of what happened at Myrcinus. That leads to the next act in the Perso-Greek tragedy—the Ionian revolt. A certain Histiaeus, tyrant of Miletus, had been rewarded for his services in the Scythian expedition by the grant of Myrcinus, a town which commanded the narrow route along the north Aegean coast which was practically the only line of communication from the Hellespont region westwards. When he proceeded to fortify this place the suspicions of Megabazus were aroused. Representations made by him to Darius caused the latter to recall

Histiaeus and to take him with him to Susa, where he would be out of mischief. Histiaeus did not like detention at Susa, and was anxious to get back to his own people. But, before he took any measures to bring about his return, certain other events of is significance in the relations between Persia and Greece took place. |

Political Movements

at Athens.—In

sro the Athenians,

aided by the Spartans, had expelled the tyrant Hippias, who had alienated the sympathies of Sparta by making an alliance with its sworn foe Argos. The expulsion of the tyrant Hippias: was followed by a struggle at Athens between the oligarchs, or, more probably, the conservative! element and the extreme democrats, The term “conservative” in relation to Athenian politics will be

used hereafter

to’ denominate

the moderate

democrats

at’ Athens

that Darius. was one of the greatest men that the ancient world together with the oligarchs, who voted with the moderates because preduced; at least capable—perhaps great—as a commander in the oligarchical vote was too small to carry any policy. )

GRAECO-PERSIAN which Sparta intervened in a half-hearted and ineffective way on behalf of the former, a half-heartedness due to the fact that a strong party at Sparta was opposed to incurring obligations abroad which might keep Spartan troops away from home; and events at Athens had shown that an oligarchy could only be maintained

by something like permanent military support from Sparta. But to the democrats it seemed as if they had to face political foes who

were backed by the strongest military power in Greece, against which no alliance with any other Greek State would be of effective value. Thus they turned to Persia for support, having no suspicion that Persia had any designs on the Greeks in Europe. An embassy was sent to Artaphernes, the satrap of Sardis, asking for an alliance. He demanded earth and water from the envoys, which they gave, evidently under the impression that it was part of the contract of alliance. Artaphernes did not regard it in that light;

but assumed that the Athenians had accepted subjection to the Great King. Not till the time of Marathon were the Athenians un-

deceived on this point. The date of this embassy is not known;

but it must have been about 507. Matters became complicated a year or two later when Artaphernes took up the cause of the exiled Hippias, and demanded of the Athenians that they should receive him back as tyrant. The Athenian democrats who had expelled him had to swallow that bitter pill as the price of the continuance of the supposed alliance, for politics at Athens were finely balanced. The ‘Ionian Revolt.—Such was the position when Histiaeus at Susa found means of intervening in the affairs of the Greek cities of the Asiatic coast. His hope was that if Persia had trouble in those parts he might be sent down to settle it. It is evident, however, from incidental references in Herodotus’ account of the

preliminaries to the Ionian revolt that, before Histiaeus moved, a conspiracy had been formed. The prime mover in the matter was a certairi Aristagoras, a cousin and son-in-law of Histiaeus, and his successor in the tyranny of Miletus. Certain exiles from Naxos applied to him for help against political opponents. The main difficulty of the conspirators would be the question of getting together at the outset of the revolt such a force as could cope successfully with the Persian fleet. To the astute Aristagoras the affair of Naxos afforded such an opportunity, for, if Artaphernes could be induced to take up the matter, he would almost certainly mobilize an Ionian Greek fleet. Artaphernes was quite ready to add Naxos to the empire of the Great King, and did mobilize the Greek fleet, whereon someone—almost certainly Aristagoras— warned the Naxians of what was impending and they, being prepared, beat off the attack. Aristagoras came back with the fleet, apparently a disgraced man, but, in fact, a man who had got what he wanted. Just about that time, says Herodotus, he received from Histiaeus at Susa a message tattooed on the head of a slave urging revolt. The first act of Aristagoras and the conspirators was to seize certain tyrants who were on the fleet and to depose the rest. This must have taken place in the autumn of 499. Then Aristagoras went off to Greece to get help. Sparta refused assistance; but at Athens, where the conservatives were for the moment controlling affairs, he was offered help. The story of the revolt, as told by Herodotus, shows that it was a brave venture bravely

carried out; it took all the power of Persia six years to suppress the effort. :

In the spring of 498 twenty ships frem Athens and five from Eretria in Euboea arrived on the Asiatic coast. The hoplites which they brought over seem to have taken part in a march on Sardes, which was partly taken. The danger to Sardes, so Plutarch says, forced Artaphernes to raise the siege of Miletus and come to the rescue of his capital. The Greeks had to fall back to the sea, and were, according to Herodotus, badly defeated near Ephesus. Subsequent events suggest that he exaggerated the disaster. Be that as it may, the Athenian fleet sailed home shortly afterwards, recalled, it may be presumed, by the democrats who had once more got control of affairs. So the year closed’ for the rebels. They opened the next year 497 by sending their fleet to Byzantium and winning it and the cities of the Propontis over to their side. The absence of the Persian fleet from Herodotus’ story of the revolt: up to this time is perhaps to be explained by a story preserved ‘by

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5O

Plutarch to the effect that the Ionians had defeated that fleet in a battle off the Pamphylian coast. This had probably taken place in the summer or autumn of 498, and it would account for the unimpeded action of the Ionian fleet in 497. The news of the revolt of Ionia had stirred the Cypriote Greeks to action. The Greeks proceeded to attack Amathus, the stronghold of the Phoenician minority in the island. Onesilus, the leader of the revolt, sent urgent messages to the Ionians for help. Before coming to the aid of the Cypriote Greeks the Ionian fleet brought about the revolt of Caria, a formidable addition to the resources of the rebels. The Hellespontine and Carian ventures must have taken some time, so that it is not possible to put the arrival of the Ionian fleet at Cyprus earlier than the late summer

of 497.

In a sense it arrived too late, for a Phoenician fleet had shipped a Persian force over to the island, and, though the fleet gained another naval yictory over the Phoenicians, treachery in the Greek land force led to disaster,'and by the beginning of 496 the island was again in the hands of the Persians. After the recapture of Cyprus by the Persians the chronology of the revolt, always shadowy, vanishes for some years into thin air. One thing seems certain—that the spread of the revolt in 497 must have called for great efforts on the part of Persia. It was not till 496 that Persia was ready. In the earlier half of that year Daurises seems to have subdued the Asiatic side of the Propontis. The Greeks on the European side and the Thracians behind them seem to have thrown off whatever allegiance they had had to Persia at the time when north-west Asia Minor revolted. Caria, with a population which had apparently for some centuries past made a living by fighting the battles of others, was a much more serious problem for Persia. Three great battles took place there, the first on the Marsyas river, in which the Carians were defeated;

the second shortly afterwards at again defeated, and a third near a terrible defeat on the Persians. it would seem, in the campaigning

Labraunda, in which they were Pedasus, in which they inflicted These three battles took place, season of 496. It was probably after the two defeats in Caria that Aristagoras proposed and carried out the plan of establishing, in case of the failure of the revolt, ʻa refuge for the surviving rebels at that Myrcinus on the Strymon which had been granted to Histiaeus. But there he and all his company perished in battle with the Thracians. Just about the time of Aristagoras’ death Histiaeus arrived at Sardes. His own plan had so far worked excellently, in that he had won his escape from Susa by persuading Darius to let him go down to the coast and settle the revolt; but on his arrival there he found that nobody trusted him.

At last the Mytilenians gave

him eight ships with which he set himself up as a pirate in the Propontis in the rebel interests, making things unpleasant for the merchant ships of any city which showed a tendency to weaken in its enthusiasm for the continuation of the revolt. These doings of Histiaeus form probably the sum of all that Herodotus has to tell of the events of the revolt in 495. In 494 the Persians began to besiege Miletus as being the true centre of the revolt. Nothing further is told of the fate of Caria, save that after the fall of Miletus some of its cities submitted, while some were subdued by the Persians. To aid in the attack on Miletus the Persians brought up a large fleet composed of Phoenician, Cilician, Cypriote and Egyptian contingents, numbering in all 600 vessels. Against this the rebels put to sea with 353 ships, Miletus, Chios, Lesbos and Samos furnishing the largest contingents. The fight took place at Ladé off Miletus. The story of it as told by Herodotus is much distorted by anti-Ionian bias; but the battle ended in a great defeat of the Greeks. This defeat was practically the end of the revolt. Miletus fell late in 494. Histiaeus was finally caught and executed ,by Artaphernes. After that the Persians spent part of 493 in extinguishing the dying embers of the rising. : Even from Herodotus’ account it is clear that the revolt was one of the most glorious incidents in the story of the Greek race. It took the Persians six.years to suppress it, and taxed severely the resources of the greatest empire of the time. > ata i

v

Very little is known. of the history of Athens during these years; but what is known suggests that a lively and varying struggle for supremacy was going on between the ultra-democrats and

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the conservatives. The end of the revolt in 493 brought it indirectly to a climax. Phrynichus, in his play, The Capture of Miletus, attacked the democrats who five years before had withdrawn Athenian aid from the rebels, and was prosecuted and fined for so doing. Also Miltiades returned a fugitive from his tyranny in the Thracian Chersonese and was prosecuted by the democrats for tyranny, but acquitted. This acquittal was a conservative victory of such a decisive character that that party seems under the leadership of Miltiades to have controlled Athenian affairs up to the time of Marathon three years later.

Mardonius in Thrace.—After sweeping up the mess in Asia

in 493 the Persians proceeded in the next year to bring Thrace and Macedonia once more under their control; but the expedition of 492 was not confined to these limited aims. It was commanded by Mardonius who had been appointed to supreme authority in the control of this extreme western part of the empire, He seems also to have received at Susa orders for the settlement of affairs in the Asiatic Greek cities, a settlement showing a policy which aimed at the abolition of the recent discontents. But when it comes to the expedition into Europe it is clear that its object was larger than the mere re-establishment of Persian authority in Thrace and Macedonia. Herodotus says that it was aimed at Athens and Eretria in punishment for the aid they had sent to the Ionian rebels. That it was intended to advance beyond Macedonia is shown by the fact that the disaster which stopped its further progress took place after Macedonia had been pacified. That it was an expedition of great magnitude and importance is shown

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place the Persians took ship across the Euripus and landed on the plain of Marathon 24m. north-east of Athens. There can be little doubt that the strategy of the Persians in the

brief campaign which ensued in Attica was dictated by the as-

sumption that they would receive considerable aid from their yltra-democratic sympathizers. The country party, the moderate

democrats, from which the hoplite force was mainly drawn, seem

to have been aware that the ultra-democrats were prepared to support the invaders. The latter were probably hampered by the presence of the hoplite force in Athens, and the suggestion of the landing at Marathon, at the extreme end of Attica, may have come from them. When the news of the landing reached Athens a council of war was held. A message had already been sent to Sparta for assistance, a natural measure on the part of those conservatives

who had looked for, and to a certain extent obtained aid from Sparta in the internal political struggles of the last 20 years. The council of war was composed of the polemarch and the ten generals, the commanders of the regiments of the ten tribes. Herodotus reads into the Athenian army organization of 490 that of the time at which he wrote, some 30 or 40 years later. The application in 487 of the lot to the election of archons rendered it thenceforth impossible to entrust the supreme military command

to the polemarch; and thereafter the direction of military and

naval affairs passed to the board of ten generals, and the command

on active service to one or more appointed for the expedition or campaign. But at the time of Marathon the polemarch still had the supreme command in battle, though the strategy of a camby the employment of the fleet to co-operate with the land army. paign was decided by a council of war in which the generals had The expedition of 492 seems to have aimed at a large, perhaps each ah equal vote with the polemarch. It is evident from the complete, conquest of Greece. It was brought to an end by a great story that the council was at first very nervous about leaving Athens for Marathon. But this nervousness seems to have vanished; disaster to the fleet in a storm off Mt. Athos. But Darius did not forget Athens and Eretria. They at least and the army marched out. Moreover, no movement of the ultramust be taught the lesson that it did not pay to interfere with democrats took place, though their leaders, the Alcmaeonid family, Persian rule on the east side of the Aegean. The year 49x passed did not renounce their connection with Persia. Battle of Marathon.—Miltiades was not commander-in-chief without movement on the part of Persia; but in 490 came the of the Athenian forces, though the council of war adopted his famous Marathonian expedition. The Marathon Expedition.—The story of Marathon soon advice and design. He may have advised the march of the became a legend, a legend in which the truth was both exagger- Athenians from Athens to Marathon. He was almost certainly the ated and suppressed. The most important suppression was the suc- conceiver of the strategy they adopted when they got there. The cessful elimination from the tale of the part which the Athenian council of war decided that it was safe for thé hoplite force to ultra-democrats had played in the matter. On the side of exagger- leave Athens for Marathon, and thither it went. The Persians, who ation the magnitude of the Persian numbers was multiplied many did not as yet know the change of feeling among their quondam times. As far as numbers are concerned the only trustworthy ele- friends at Athens, regarded the Athenians as having fallen into the ment in the legend is that the army was transported across the trap set for them—as having left Athens exposed to a surprise atAegean in 600 ships. That may be an overstatement; but it is not tack which would be supported by sympathizers within the city. likely to be an understatement. It would imply that the land It may be assumed that Miltiades’ idea was that, as the Persian force cannot have been more than 60,000, and possibly not more army had landed at Marathon, it could not, if the Athenians were there, either re-embark the army without exposing a covering force than 40,000. Since the return of Miltiades in 493 the Athenian ultra-demo- to attack and possible destruction, or advance on Athens without crats had been viewing with apprehension the possibility of an fighting its way through one or other of the narrow passages which oligarchical reaction. Now, if ever, was that alliance [sic] with led from the plain to Athens. That is why, in accordance with his Persia, which had been made with a view to provide. against such advice, the Athenian army remained inactive at Marathon until a contingency, to bear fruit. Therefore they regarded the expedi- the Persians developed one of these two designs. On arriving at tion as in their interest, and were quite ready to co-operate with it. Marathon the Athenians took up a position at the Heracleum, a Even Herodotus cannot disguise the fact, though he tries to tone sanctuary and precinct the remains of which have been discovered it down in the interests of the democracy of 30 or 40 years later. high up the valley now called the valley of Vrana, but called in Pindar and Aristophanes, however, backed by the evidence of the old times the Aulon or Funnel. Here they were amid rugged hills 20 years preceding Marathon, make the situation clear. on the actual upper road to Athens, and within striking distance— In the course of its passage across the Aegean the expedition about two miles—of any force which either tried to cover an em» attacked Naxos and did damage there; but the inhabitants escaped barkment or attempted to use the lower road. Either here or at to the hills. Delos was treated with respect, for the Persians did Athens 1,000 Plataeans had joined them, assistance sent in gratinot wish to arouse the whole Greek world against them. Then, tude for the protection which Athens had given to Plataea agamst after visiting some other islands, they came to Eretria. In answer Thebes for some 29 years past. Then ensued some days of inacto an appeal for help the Athenians ordered the 4,000 Athenian tivity, the Athenians waiting for the Persians to move, and for the KAnpodxo. (allotment holders) who bad been settled in Chalcis arrival of the promised Spartan assistance, the Persians for a 51gafter its capture in 506 to go to the assistance of Eretria. This nal that their partisans in Athens were ready. But the Persians they did not do, urging, so Herodotus relates, certain excuses moved before the signal came, anxious to decide the matter before which are not very credible. The siege of Eretria only lasted six the Spartans arrived. The Persian plan was to re-embark a part of days. The resistance was brave; but then the Persians got into the their army under the protection of a covering force, and, while the town-—through treachery, so Herodotus says. It was destroyed, latter held the Athenians at Marathon, to land at Phalerum and and the inhabitants were carried away to be eventually settled at make a dash on Athens. So soon as the design developed its genArdericca near the mouth of the Euphrates. After capturing the eral nature must have become clear to the Athenian command;

GRAECO-PERSIAN also it was quite evident that the Athenian army must be back at Athens before the Persians landed at Phalerum.

That being so, the Athenians attacked the Persian covering force without delay. The remains of the mound which was raised over the Athenian dead after the battle show that the covering force

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593

fleet. The silver mines at Laurium were bringing in a much larger income than aforetime to the State, an income which Themistocles proposed to use in the building of a great fleet instead of distributing it in doles among the citizens. There were political circumstances which were probably the real efficient cause of the support given by democracy to his naval

was drawn up between the lower end of the Aulon and the sea with its back to the latter. Down the Aulon the Athenians advanced and took up battle formation at the mouth of the valley, probably

policy. If the democratic position had been an anxious one before

For the

lowing for the fact that Miltiades had in 489 prejudiced conserva-

about three quarters of a mile from the Persian front.

actual tactics in the battle the polemarch Callimachus, who took the unusual step of strengthening both wings and weakening

the centre, with the idea, actually realized in the course of the battle, that the enemy’s centre would force back the Athenian

Marathon, it was certainly still more anxious afterwards, even al-

tive supremacy by his failure at Paros. Sparta was still to all appearance ready to support the conservatives, and the democrats had lost the support of Persia. There was nothing in Greece to substitute for it, A great fleet would give security for the vital

centre, follow it up, and so expose both its flanks to attack by the import of foreign corn; but it could also be used to cut off the suptroops massed on the Athenian wings. ply: in other words the crews of the fleet would have the last say As has been said, the battle developed as Callimachus had fore- on the fate of Attica, and any oligarchy which might be set up

seen. The enemy drove in the Athenian centre with their own cen-

there could be starved to death. During those years, there came to Greece reports of great preparations being made in Asia for a repeated attack on the Greeks of Europe. on which, after a struggle, most of them managed to escape. That Preparations of Xerxes.—Xerxes had inherited the policy of the battle was not by any means a walk-over for the Athenians is Darius, and from the time when in 484 the revolt of Egypt was clear from their own account of it. Later tradition represented the Suppressed, he began preparations for a grand attack on the numbers of the Athenians as 10,000, which was probably the truth. Greeks of Europe. By the autumn of 481 all was ready for an adThe number of the Persians was exaggerated at discretion. The vance, Athens had no delusions on the object of the expedition. Persian losses are said to have amounted to 6,400, a loss which| Corinth and Aegina with their trade connections with Asia would must have fallen mainly on the centre, and perhaps included nearly be in a position to ascertain the truth, and it was perhaps Corinth the whole of it. If this number be accepted, and be taken as about that convinced Sparta of it. The Peloponnese, with the excepone-third of the Persian troops in the battle, then their total num- tion of Argos, took the patriotic side. Boeotia, so Herodotus says, ber was about 20,000. medized outright, a statement which Plutarch (De Herodoti

tre which, advancing in pursuit, was defeated and apparently wiped out by the Athenian wings. The rest of the army fled to the ships,

From Marathon the Athenians marched with all speed to Athens in order to anticipate the arrival of the Persian fleet and the rest

of the Persian army at Phalerum. The latter did not attempt a landing. The rapid movements of the Athenian army had rendered their plan hopeless, and so they sailed back to Asia. The expected signal came late—probably after the battle was already engaged. After the Athenian army arrived in Athens the promised force from Sparta, 2,000 strong, arrived at the city. The battle made an enormous, indeed an exaggerated, impression on the Greek mind. This great Persia, which to the Greek stood for all that was great in the contemporary world, had been defeated in battle by a Greek State which was at the time hardly a first-class Power in contemporary Greece. The Athenian State had suddenly emerged from a position of second-rate obscurity into a blaze of reputation. Exaggerated or not, Marathon was a great victory, and mM one sense epoch-making in the history of warfare. It demonstrated the superiority of the Greek hoplite over any form of soldiery that Persia could put into the field. Nevertheless, the glory of Marathon nearly proved the undoing of Greece, in that it made the Greek world incredulous as to the reality and the extent of the danger which threatened it from Persia ten years later, so’ that it was caught only half prepared to meet it. The Ten Years After Marathon.—(f the history of Greece in the decade following Marathon very little is known, and of that’ little less still has a bearing on the relations between the Greek and the Persian. Aegina, jealous of the growth of Athenian rivalry in trade, renews a war with Athens which the events of 490 had inter-

rupted. Miltiades comes to political ruin the year after Marathon;

and a miscellaneous list of prominent Athenian politicians are ostracized in the years which follow. The legislation of 487, to which reference has been made already, brings about a change in the Athenian military and naval organization. Then comes the great increase of the Athenian fleet-—of which more later. That Darius intended to take vengeance for Marathon is undoubtedly the case. He lost no. time in beginning preparations with that end in view. Their magnitude prolonged them, and Greece was saved by a revolt in Egypt which broke out in 486. It was not suppressed

till 484, and Darius had died the previous year.

During these years there had been coming to the front in the

ultra-democratic party a new leader not of the Alcmaeonid family.

Themistocles had been archon in 493; but his name does not come Into prominence until the second half of this decade, when he comes to the front as the advocate of the increase of the Athenian

Malignitate 31) indignantly denies. Phocis took the patriotic side because, so Herodotus says, the Thessalians took the other. In Thessaly the feudal barons, led by the Aleuadae of Larissa, medized; but the mass of the population took the other side.

Corcyra was inclined to be neutral. The Sicilian cities had their hands full with a Carthaginian attack arranged by Persia.

Meanwhile Xerxes had marched from Sardes to the Hellespont, where he had caused two bridges to be constructed, a considerable engineering feat across a wide strait with a strong current: also a canal had been cut across the peninsula of Mt. Athos to avoid the stormy and ill-omened passage round the cape. Its line is traceable at the present day. Greek Plans of Defence.—The Greek council of war now knew that no help was to be expected from outside Greece; so it planned the defence on that assumption. As in the expedition of 492 the Persian strategy centred on the co-operation between army and fleet. The plan’s one drawback was that it limited the mobility of the fleet, since it had to keep in close touch with the army. That the Greeks recognized this is apparent from their designs, even if they were not unanimous as to how and where they should be carried out. That lack of unanimity came nigh to bringing the cause of the Greeks to ruin. There was only one State north of the isthmus, Athens, which really counted in the defence. The minor Peloponnesian States were therefore anxious to concentrate the defence at the isthmus, and there can be little doubt that Sparta and Corinth were in sympathy with them. According to this design Athens was to sacrifice her territory for the time being, and her population was to take refuge in Peloponnese. With this intent the Peloponnesians set about fortifying In feverish haste the four and a half miles breadth of isthmus. It is plain that the Athenians refused to assent to a plan which involved at least the temporary sacrifice and devastation of their territory. It is also plain that the Peloponnesians or, at any rate, the Spartans, knowing that the Athenian fleet was necessary even for a defence of the isthmus, made a show of falling in with the Athenian designs. The co-operation of fleet and army in the Persian attack rendered a similar co-operation necessary on the part of the defence. But it is possible that the question arose whether the main effort of the Greeks should be on land or on sea. Physiography decided the question. The passage from the north frontier of Thessaly to the isthmus is, owing to the difficult nature of the country, a well-defined line, which offers no alternatives save in Thessaly

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itself. There it is possible, in passing from Larissa to Thermopy- Sparta of the truth: “the Mede had time to come from the ends lae to go either via Halos and Larissa Cremaste to Lamia, or to of the earth to Peloponnese ere any force of yours worthy of the take a more inland route over the pass of Thaumacium. South of name went out to meet him,” said a speaker to the Spartans Thermopylae the line is single, through Thermopylae and a low some 50 years later (Thuc. i. 69). passage through the Oeta range near Abae; then by the narrow While these things had been going on at Thermopylae the passage between the foot of Helicon and Lake Copais, and so Greek fleet in the north Euripus had successfully prevented the by one of the passes of Mt. Cithaeron—preferably the Dryos- Persian fleet from landing troops behind the pass, and had, gencephalae—into the Megarid and Attica. There were various de- erally speaking, tried conclusions with the enemy. The Persian fensible points on this route: at Tempe, where, however, the fleet had suffered greatly in a storm near Cape Sepias off the very narrow passage through that valley could be turned; at mouth of the Euripus, and in a later storm a Persian detachment Thermopylae, where a turning movement involved’ great diff- of 200 vessels had been wrecked in the Hollows of Euboea. After culty and danger; and at the narrow strip of traversable ground the disaster at Thermopylae the Greek fleet withdrew southwards in Boeotia on the route between Coronea and Haliartus. By sea, to the strait of Salamis on the Attic coast. Athenian Retirement to Salamis.—That the Athenians had on the other hand, there was no place where the passage of the Persians could be blocked. The Euripus could be turned by expected the defence of the pass to be a real effort on the part of passing outside Euboea. The Athenian plan of campaign assumed the land army is evident from the fact that they did not until rightly that, if either arm of the invaders’ force could be brought after the disaster take any measures to secure the safety of their to a stand, the other would be brought to a stand also. Physiog- people. Moreover, Herodotus says that, even after the disaster, raphy determined that this could only be done in the case of they had expected a Greek army to oppose the Persians in Boeotia. the army. At the same time the Greek fleet would have to co- The miscalculation was such that, though some of the Attic operate with the Greek army to prevent the landing of troops population could be shipped over the Saronic gulf to Troezen, a in the rear of any position the latter might take up. Had this de- large number could only, owing to lack of time, be transferred sign been carried out it is probable that the invaders would never to the island of Salamis, less than a mile from the Attic coast. have got south of Thermopylae. That it was not carried out was That was why the fleet went to the Salamis strait. The refugees due to the Peloponnesian dislike of any defence north of the in the island had to be protected. The fleet in the strait did not isthmus, and to the further fact that, when forced into compli- in any sense cover the fortifications at the isthmus 30 miles away. ance with the Athenian designs, their compliance was at best The Persian fleet might have ignored it, and sailed on to land half-hearted. troops south of the fortifications, in which case the Greek fleet The first attempt at land defence was made at Tempe, where would have been forced to give battle in open waters, which was the Peneius river breaks through the mountains between Ossa what the Persians wished to force it to do, and exactly what the and Olympus. The available passage is very narrow indeed. more intelligent of the commanders of the Greek fleet wished to To this place they despatched 10,000 hoplites. This must have avoid. That the subsequent battle in the strait was brought about been in the spring of 480. The Thessalian commons had begged by Themistocles is doubtless a fact; but Eurybiades, the Spartan them to come thither. But, says Herodotus, the Greeks found commander-in-chief of the Greeks, seems to have shared his that the pass could be turned by a route through Gonnos, and views. The enemy’s fleet was not merely superior in numbers to so gave up the idea of defending it, and so the Greek army and that of the Greeks, but some of its contingents, especially the fleet went back to Attica and the isthmus. Phoenician, must have been superior to it in manoeuvring power. Battle of Thermopylae——There must have been much con- The great Athenian contingent of 200 ships, more than half of troversy as to the next line of defence to be adopted; but the the 366 triremes in the fleet, was manned by imperfectly trained views of the Athenians again prevailed, and it was determined crews. Even after the disasters at the Sepiad strand and in the to send a force to Thermopylae, and the fleet to the north Euri- Hollows of Euboea, the Persian probably outnumbered the Greek pus to cover the rear of the defenders of the pass. The tale fleet by two to one. With regard to the army, calculations of a of this episode of the war as told by Herodotus, a Spartan version more convincing kind may be made which reckon the total numof a story of which there was much that the Spartan Government bers at this period of the war at about 400,000 fighting men. The would be glad to conceal, is one of the strangest in literature. passage of the Persian army from Thermopylae to Attica was So far as it goes it is true. Only 7,300 men, nearly all hoplites, marked by a raid on Delphi. A considerable interval must have were sent to defend the pass. About 4,000 came from the intervened between its departure from Artemisium and its arPeloponnese, and the rest from Phocis and Boeotia. No Athenians rival at the bay of Phalerum on the Attic coast, a few miles could be spared, for, now that the 200 vessels of the fleet were outside the eastern end of Salamis strait. It put in there, not mobilized, all the Athenian hoplites would be serving as marines apparently with any intent of attacking the Greeks, but to afford aboard the fleet. This land force was but a fraction of what supplies to the Persian army in Attica. Battle of Salamis.—The extant evidence as to what occurred the Peloponnesians could put into the field. This force, says Herodotus, was represented by Leonidas, the Spartan king, as at Salamis is contained in Herodotus and Diodorus together with a sort of vanguard of a larger army; but no other troops were a few but important details which may be gathered from the ever sent, not even when Leonidas sent an urgent message asking Persae of Aeschylus. Diodorus’ version is plagiarized from for reinforcements. Ephorus, whose story, though not so dramatic as that of HerodLeonidas was, however, prepared to make a desperate defence otus, gives what is probably a more correct account ofthe course of the pass; and it might have succeeded had not the Phocians of events in and before the great fight. The transhipment of the who guarded the very narrow path of the Anopaea been taken population to Troezen or Salamis seems to have been all but comunawares. The Middle Gate of Thermopylae was at that day of plete. A few, indeed, seem to have deliberately remained behind on such a nature that the front of an attacking force could only the Acropolis. The Greeks inside the strait of Salamis were In be a few men wide. The light-armed Persian or the Persian bow- a very divided state of mind. The Peloponnesian contingents in men could not make any impression on a Greek hoplite force in the fleet wanted naturally to sail to the isthmus; but any move such a strong position. The path of the Anopaea was a mere thither without the Athenian contingent would have been suicidal. forest track on which a small force could have stopped an army. As far as the Athenians were concerned it was plain that they The defence of Thermopylae showed the grandeur of the Spartan could not desert the refugees on the island of Salamis. At the nature at its best; but for the Spartan Government it was fortu- same time if the fleet remained in the strait the Persians would nate that the circumstances of the battle made it possible for it to be able to land troops behind the isthrnus defence, which would give its own version of a very embarrassing story. The Greek have been a capital disaster to the Greek cause. Strategically the world all but accepted in full a tale which redounded to the position of the Greeks before the battle of Salamis was a Very glory:-of the.Greek race as a whole; but there were those who, in desperate one. There was only one way out, and Themistocles

moraents of irritation and candour, were inclined to remind

saw it—to induce the Persians to attack the Greek fleet in the

GRAECO-PERSIAN strait. The less experienced seamen had to make up for inferior skill by resorting to boarding tactics, which could only be really effective in narrow waters.

Moreover, the Persian superiority in

numbers would be discounted if the battle were fought on a necessarily narrow front. In view of these considerations, Themistocles took what was the desperate measure of simulating treachery by sending a mes-

sage to Xerxes saying that the Greek fleet was ready to betray the Greek cause. This message reached Xerxes in the late afternoon

of the day preceding the battle.

Unfortunately for the Persian

he had had too many experiences of treachery within the ranks of

Greek opponents to suspect the genuineness of the message; and so, early in the night, Xerxes moved the main part of his fleet from Phalerum bay to the eastern entrance of Salamis strait, to a line of which the small island of Psyttaleia formed more or less the centre. To prevent any escape of the Greeks through the western strait of Salamis he sent the Egyptian squadron of 200 vessels to block its passage. What actually took place on the

day of battle may be deduced from the Persae.

The Persian

fleet had to advance into the strait. Up to that time it had been hidden from the Greeks by the promontory of Cynosura; but the latter were aware that they were shut in, since Aristides had arrived at Salamis from Aegina during the night, and had informed them of the Persian movement. North of Psyttaleia the strait of Salamis turns at right angles

from north to west, and thus the Persian fleet, advancing on both sides of Psyttaleia, had to execute a wheeling movement. The strait after turning becomes somewhat narrower, a fact for which the Persians do not seem to have allowed, so that when they tried to advance into the inner strait with as broad a front as they had had when south of Psyttaleia a certain amount of confusion arose. It was during this confusion that the Greeks, who had advanced eastwards down the inner strait, attacked. Everything must have been in favour of the Greeks. The two fleets must have become almost’ literally jammed in the strait to the north of Cynosura, and that would favour the boarding tactics of the Greeks who had on their vessels hoplites serving as marines. Of the details of the fight a few are related by Herodotus, but they are rather picturesque stories than real contributions to its history. Before the day was done the Persians had been either driven, or forced to retire, from the strait. The Greeks themselves seem not to have realized the extent of their victory until, shortly afterwards, the Persian fleet retired altogether from European waters and their army fell back northwards, part of it to winter in Thessaly with a view to further attack next year, part of it to Asia. Though Salamis was not decisive of the war, for the attack of Mardonius in 479 was very formidable, yet it is one of the decisive battles of the world in that, had it turned out otherwise, Greece would have fallen under the dominion of -Persia. When the Greeks discovered that the Persian fleet had retreated they sailed as far as Andros. Proposals were made to break down the Hellespont bridges; but these were overruled. _ In this same year Gelon of Syracuse inflicted on the Carthaginlan invaders of Sicily such a defeat that, had he followed it up on the African coast, the career of Carthage might have come to an end. Thus the great scheme of Persia had failed in both east and west. When the year 479 opened, the Persian. fleet seems to have been on the Ionian coast with a view to preventing any movement of revolt in the Ionian cities. Mardonius was in Thessaly with an army which Greek authors reckoned at 400,000 men. Half that number would probably be nearer the truth. In the campaign

of 480 Themistocles had held supreme command of the Athenian

contingents, both naval and military; but in 479 he vanishes from the picture. No Greek author gives any explanation of his disappearance.

Battle of Plataea—In the spring the Persians seem to have made, through a certain Alexander of Macedon, an attempt to detach Athens from the Greek cause. Sparta intervened, per-

haps superfluously, and the attempt came to nothing. Then Mar-

donius started from Thessaly on his march south. It is evident that at the back of what follows is a resuscitation of the Pelopon-

WARS

595

nesian design to concentrate the land defence at the isthmus. Sparta) was reluctant to move northwards, but fearing that Athens might desert the Greek cause, the Spartans, whose army was mobilized, made a surprise march northwards at the very time that an Athenian embassy was at Sparta imploring them to act. But meanwhile Mardonius had overrun Attica. When, however, he heard that the Greek army was marching north he retreated to Boeotia with a base at Thebes. The Peloponnesian contingents of the Greek army now moved north from the isthmus, advancing to Eleusis, where the Athenian army met them. Then the whole force marched through the Dryoscephalae pass into Boeotia, and took up a position low down on the north side of the pass. Here the position was across a valley, the Greek centre being on low ground, and the wings on higher ground on either side. The position was close to the little town of Erythrae. The Persians were encamped on the Asopus river about three miles north of this point. The Persian cavalry assailed the Megarians in the Greek centre but the Athenians went to their help, and the cavalry attack was driven off. During the night the Greeks moved in a north-north-westerly direction to a hollow on the north side of which rose a ridge, the Asopus ridge. The Persians got wind of the movement, and moved up the Asopus to a position fronting the Greeks. About this time reinforcements were coming in which raised the numbers of the Greek army to

a total of 108,200.

The number of hoplites, the real fighting

force, was about 39,000. The Persians numbered about 200,000. With them, however, were some Phocians and a large force of Thebans. A position of stalemate then supervened, neither side attempting anything for eight days. Then, as the Greeks were some two miles from the passes which debouch on to the field, the Persians began to send cavalry round their flanks, which attacked and interfered with the Greek provision trains. Then came a grand attack by the Persian cavalry which harassed the Greeks with long-range missiles, and destroyed the spring of Gargaphia on which the Greeks were dependent for water. It lay in a hollow behind the Greek line. The Greek position on the Asopus ridge became untenable, and a retreat was necessary. The new position which was to be taken up was at the “island,” which is a mound on a ridge at the foot of Cithaeron about a mile east of the town of Plataea, and almost surrounded by two branches of the Oeroé river. But, though the army generally was to make for this position, it is evident from what followed that the Spartans were to go in the first place to the relief of the Greek baggage trains in the passes. As the retreat was to be made at night there was every possibility of confusion. The Greek centre started first, but missed the “Island” and arrived at the town of Plataea. The Spartans started later south-south-east towards the pass of Dryoscephalae. The Athenians, who had waited for the Spartans to move, then started for the “island.” Neither the Spartans nor the Athenians reached their objectives, for the Spartans, after they had gone a little more than a mile from the summit of the Asopus ridge, were assailed by the Persian cavalry and brought to a standstill at a point near a temple of Eleusinian Demeter, which stood on the ridge next east of the Asopus ridge. Mardonius seems to have thought that the Greek retirement meant defeat, and to have determined to make the rout complete. So long as the Persian cavalry employed missiles the Spartans suffered considerable loss. Then the Persian infantry came up. The battle was an unequal one, for the lightarmed Persian had no chance against the hoplite. In the mélée Mardonius himself perished, and eventually the Persians were driven back in rout and tried to take refuge in their camp. Meanwhile the Athenians on the Greek left had started for the “island.” They had only reached the plain south-west of the Asopus ridge when they received a message from the Spartans asking for assistance, and seem to have started off,in their direction. But in the hollow south of the Asopus ridge they were assailed by the Greeks who were fighting on the Persian side. They defeated the Thebans after an obstinate fight. The Greek centre at Plataea had by this time received news of the two battles, and part of it

seems to have hurried to aid the Spartans, while the other part went to help the Athenians. The latter were badly cut up by the

GRAECO-TURKISH

596

Theban cavalry, and so never reached the Athenians, while the former may possibly have taken part in the last stages of the fight beneath the temple of Demeter. The last phase of the battle was a combined assault by the Greeks on the Persian camp and a general massacre of the enemy, 30,000 of whom are said to have perished. The Greeks celebrated their victory by dedicating to Delphi a tenth of the spoils and setting up the famous serpent column surmounted by a bowl, the remains of which still survive at Constantinople. The leaders of the medizing party at Thebes they captured and executed. Plataea set the seal on Salamis. The two battles saved Hellenism in Europe from becoming orientalized, and thus modified the history of the world. Naval Operations in the Aegean: Mycalé.—While these things were taking place in European Greece, a Greek fleet was operating on the Asiatic coast of the Aegean. The Ionians had appealed for help. The fleet was commanded by the Spartan Leutychides. For some unknown reason the Phoenician contingent of the Persian fleet had been sent home, and therefore the weakened remnant dared not try conclusions with the Greeks on the open sea. They sought refuge at Mycalé where was a strong land army which had been overawing the Greek cities. As the Persians declined a naval battle, Leutychides disembarked his troops and attacked them on land. The result was an obstinate battle but a great Greek victory to which the Ionian contingent on the Persian side contributed by turning against their masters. From that time forward the fate of the Greek cities of Asia became a factor in

the relations between Persia and the European Greeks. The year 478 was spent partly in the reconstitution of Attica and in that rebuilding of the walls of Athens which the Spartans would have prevented had they not been tricked by Themistocles. The Delian Confederacy.—As far as the patriotic Greeks were concerned the action of the Ionians at Mycalé had practically committed them to the liberation of the Greek cities of Asia from Persian rule, and so the war had to be carried on in the form

of an attack on the Persian hold on the Greek cities of the Aegean,

WAR

pendices in W. W. Tarn, ‘The Fleet of Xerxes,” Jour. Hell, Studies (1908). Marathon: H. G. Lolling, “Zur Topographie von Marathon”.

Ath. Mith, i, p. 67 seq. (1876). Salamis: J. B. Bury, “Aristide

at Salamis,” Class. Rev., X„ p. 414 f. (1896); W. W. Goodwin, “The

Battle of Salamis,’ Papers of Amer. School at Athens, i. (188s) Plataea: G. B. Grundy, The Topography of the Battle of Platea

(addit. publictn. of Royal Geographical Society, 1894). For maps

see Grundy, Persian War (above); felder, vol. iv., 1-4 (1924).

J. Kromayer,

Antike Schlachi. . B.G.G)

GRAECO-TURKISH WAR, 1897. This war between Greece and Turkey (see Greece: Modern History) involved two practically distinct campaigns, in Thessaly and in Epirus, Upon the Thessalian frontier the Turks, early in March, had concentrated six divisions (about 58,000 men), 1,500 cavalry and 156 guns, under Edhem Pasha. A seventh division was rendered

available a little later. infantry, 800 cavalry both sides there was a frontier. The Turkish 1877-78, had became

The Greeks numbered about 4: 000

and 96 guns, under the crown prince. Qn considerable dispersion of forces along the navy, an important factor in the war of paralytic ten years later, and the Greek

squadron held complete command of the sea. Expeditionary forces directed against the Turkish line of communications might have influenced the course of the campaign; but for such work the Greeks were quite unprepared, and beyond bombarding one

or two insignificant ports on the coast-line, and aiding the transport of troops from Athens to Volo, the navy accomplished nothing. On April 9 and ro Greek irregulars crossed the frontier, either with a view to provoke hostilities or in the hope of fomenting a rising in Macedonia. On the 16th and 17th some fighting occurred, in which Greek regulars took part; and on the 18th Edhem Pasha, whose headquarters had for some time been established at Elassona, ordered a general advance. The Turkish plan was to turn the Greek left and to bring on a decisive action, but this was not carried out. In the centre the Turks occupied the Meluna pass on the roth, and the way was practically open to Larissa. The Turkish right wing, however, moving on Damani and the Reveni pass, encountered resistance, and the left wing was temporarily checked by the Greeks among the mountains near Nezeros. At Mati, covering the road to Tyrnavo, the Greeks entrenched themselves. Here sharp fighting occurred on the azst and 22nd, during which the Greeks sought to turn the right flank

the Propontis and Cyprus. Pausanias the Spartan who had commanded at Plataea led in 478 what was probably a very miscellaneous fleet drawn from the Greek mainland and islands in an attack on the Persian possessions. Under his command Cyprus and Byzantium were taken, the former a base for Persian attack of the superior Turkish central column. By the 23rd the Turkish on the Aegean, the latter the key to the corn route from the forces had drawn together, and the Greeks were threatened on Euxine. At Byzantium Pausanias developed certain strange habits both flanks. In the evening a general retreat was ordered, and the which the Greek patriots interpreted as medism. Sparta recalled loose discipline of the Greek army was at once manifested. him, and sent out a successor whom the Greeks refused to accept Rumours of disaster spread among the ranks, and wild panic as commander; and so the leadership passed to Athens. Sparta ‘supervened. There was nothing to prevent an orderly retirement withdrew from the war, and it is probable that all the other States upon Larissa, which had been fortified and provisioned, and which of the mainland save Athens withdrew at this time. With the new offered a good defensive position. The general débdcle could not, league came the tribute from those States which paid Athens to however, be arrested, and the mass of the Greek army fled southfurnish ships and crews on their behalf, an ever-increasing number wards to Pharsala. There was no pursuit, and the Turkish comas time went on. How long it took to set free the Greek cities mander-in-chief did not reach Larissa till the 27th, Thus ended of the Asiatic coast is not known. It is probable that one of the first phase of the war, in which the Greeks showed tenacity in the main motives of the campaigning was the complete restoration defence, which proved fruitless by reason of initially bad strategic of the passage through the Hellespont and Bosporus to the Euxine dispositions entailing far too great dispersion, and also because corn region. The restiveness of the allies culminating in the revolt there was no plan of action beyond a general desire to. avoid of Naxos in 467, shows that there were many of them who thought risking a defeat which might prevent the expected risings m that the danger from Persia was over by that time. Whatever may Macedonia and elsewhere. The handling of the Turkish army have been the case before 466 the battle of the Eurymedon in showed little skill or enterprise. l Larissa being abandoned, Velestino, the junction of the Thessathat year put Persia completely out of action as far as the Aegean was concerned. That great victory by land and sea was‘ less dra- lian railways, where there was a strong position covering Volo, matic and less decisive of the future than Salamis had been; but seemed to be the natural rallying point for the Greek army. Here for so years after the battle Persia left Greece alone. Still the the support of the fleet would have been secured, and a Turkish experience of 50 years later was to show that those members of the advance across the Othrys range upon Athens could not have league who supposed that the danger from Persia was over for ever taken place until the flanking position had been .captured. were mistaken. It was the continued existence of the great Athe- Whether by direction or by natural impulse, however, the mass of nian fleet which kept the Persians from interfering in Greek affairs. the Greek troops made for Pharsala, where some order was TeWithin a brief period after its destruction at Syracuse the inter- established. The importance of Velestino was recognized by sendference began again, and within 30 years of that time Persia ing a brigade thither by railway from Pharsala, and the inferior had become arbiter even in the internal politics of Greece. Greek army was thus split into two portions, separated by nearly ' Brsrrocrapuy.—General:

G. B. Grundy,

The

Great Persian War

(London, 1907); M, Cary and I, A, R. Munre, Cambridge Ancient History, vol. iv., pp. 212-345 (1926). Special points: appendices in

W. W. How and J. Wells, Commentary on Herodotus (Oxford, 1912) ; appendices in R. W. Macan, Herodotus (London, 1895-1908); ap-

4om.

A Turkish reconnaissance

on Velestino was repulsed, but

on May 5 the Greeks were driven from their positions in front

of Pharsala by three divisions. Further fighting followed on the 6th, and in the evening the Greek army retired in fair order upon

GRAEVIUS—GRAFFITO Domokos.

It was intended to turn the Greek left with the first

division under Hairi Pasha, but the flanking force did not arrive in time to bring about a decisive result. The abandonment of Pharsala involved that of Velestino. Again delaying, Edhem Pasha did not attack Domokos till the 17th, giving the Greeks time to entrench their positions. The attack was delivered in three columns, of which the right was checked and the centre failed to take the Greek trenches and suffered much loss. The left

column, however, menaced the line of retreat, and the Greek army abandoned the whole position during the night. No effective stand was made at the Furka pass, which was evacuated on the following night. Col. Smolenski, who arrived on the 18th from

Velestino, was directed to hold the pass of Thermopylae. The Greek forces being much demoralized, the intervention of the tsar was invoked by telegraph; and the latter sent a personal appeal to the sultan, who directed a suspension of hostilities. On the 2oth an armistice was arranged.

In Epirus at the outbreak of war about 15,000 Greeks under Col. Manos occupied a line of defence from Arta to Peta. The Turks, about 28,000 strong, under Achmet Hifsi Pasha, were distributed mainly at Iannina, Pentepagadia, and in front of Arta.

On April 18 the Turks commenced a three days’ bombardment of

Arta; but successive attempts to take the bridge were repulsed, and during the night of the 21st they retired on Philippiada, 26m. distant, which was attacked and occupied by Col. Manos on the 23rd, The Greeks then advanced to Pentepagadia, but the posi-

tion held by their advanced force near Homopulos was attacked

on the 28th and 29th, and no Greek reinforcements were forthcoming when needed. The Evzones made a good defence, but were driven back by superior force, and a retreat was ordered, which quickly degenerated into panic-stricken flight to and across the Arta. Reinforcements were sent to Arta from Athens, and on May 12 another incursion into Turkish territory began, the apparent object being to occupy a portion of the country in view of

597

His two most important

works

are the Thesaurus

antiquitatum

Romanarum (1694-99), and the Thesaurus antiquitatum et historiarum Italiae published after his death, and continued by the elder Burmann (1704-25). His editions of the classics, although they marked a distinct advance in scholarship, are now for the most part superseded.

GRAF,

ARTURO

(1848-1913), Italian poet, of German

extraction, was born at Athens. He was educated at Naples university and lectured on Italian literature in Rome, till in 1882 he was appointed professor at Turin. His volumes of verse— Medusa (1880), Poesie ¢ novelle (1874), Dopo il tramonto versi

(1893), Morgana (1901), Le Danaidi (1897; enlarged ed. 1905), Rime della selva (1906 )—give him a high place among the lyrical poets of his century. A good selection, Poesie, appeared in 1915. Of his numerous prose works may be mentioned Roma nella memoria e nelle immaginazioni del medio evo (2 vols., 1882—83). Graf was possessed by a pessimism deeper than that of Leopardi, on whom some of his best critical work was done in his Foscolo, Manzoni, Leopardi (1898). He died at Turin on May 29, 1913. See Sartori Treves, Arturo Graf, romanziere e poeta (1904); M. Morandi, Arturo Graf (Rome, 1921) ; R. Rizzo, Pessimismo e spiritualismo nell’ opera poetica di Arturo Graf (Catania, 1921).

GRAF,

KARL

HEINRICH

(1815-1869),

German

Old

Testament scholar and orientalist, was born at Miilhausen in Alsace on Feb. 28, 1815, and was educated at Strasbourg. After holding various teaching posts, he was made instructor in French and Hebrew at the Landesschule of Meissen, and in 1852 professor. He died on July 16, 1869. Graf was one of the chief founders of Old Testament criticism. See T. K. Cheyne, Founders of Old Testament Criticism and O. Pfleiderer, Development of Theoldgy (1890).

GRAF

or GRAFF, URS

(1893);

(c. 1485-1527), Swiss draughts-

would shortly end. The advance was made in three columns, while

man, engraver and goldsmith. He was born at Solothurn, the son of the goldsmith Hugo Graf, and probably studied under his father and then at Basle. His art is inspired by that of Durer and of Baldung Griin. After a period of travel he settled in Basle in 1509. In 1514 he executed a reliquary of St. Bernard for the monastery of St. Urban. This, his chief work as a gold-

2,500 Epirote volunteers were landed near the mouth of the Luro river with the idea of cutting off the Turkish garrison of Prevesa. The centre column attacked the Turks near Strevina on the 13th, but although the Greeks fought well, they ultimately had to retreat. The volunteers landed at the mouth of the Luro, were

appeared. Graf is best known for his drawings, executed in sure and bold line work. A hundred woodcuts for which he made the drawings; a number of engravings, etchings and niellos, and some 200 drawings by his hand are extant. Most of his work is

the breakdown in Thessaly and the probability that hostilities

attacked and routed with heavy loss.

The campaign in Epirus thus failed as completely as that in

smith, was sold by the city of Lucerne in 1850 and has since dis-

dated and signed by his monogram. GRAFE, ALBRECHT VON (1828-1870), German oculist,

Thessaly. Under the terms of the treaty of peace, signed on Sept. 20, and arranged by the European Powers, Turkey obtained an indemnity of £T'4,000,000 and a rectification of the Thessalian frontier, carrying with it some strategic advantage. History records few more unjustifiable wars than that which Greece gtatuitously provoked. The Greek troops on several occasions showed tenacity and endurance, but discipline and cohesion were manifestly wanting. Many of the officers were incapable; the campaign was gravely mismanaged; and politics, which led to the

was born on May 22, 1828. He studied medicine in Berlin, Vienna,

war, impeded its operations. On the other hand, the fruits of the German tuition, which began in 1880, and received a powerful stimulus by the appointment of Gen. von der Goltz in 1883, were shown in the Turkish army. The mobilization and concentra-

iritis, iridochoroiditis and glaucoma (1855-62), his improvement

tion was on the whole smoothly carried out, the young school of German-trained officers displayed ability, and the artillery at Pharsala and Domokos was well handled. The superior leading was, however, not conspicuously successful; and while the rank

an authority on diseases of the nerves and brain.

and file again showed excellent military qualities, political condiions and the Oriental predilection for half-measures and for denying full responsibility and full powers to commanders in the

field enfeebled the conduct of the campaign.

(G. S. C.)

GRAEVIUS (properly Graeve or GREFFE), JOHANN GEORG (1632-1703), German classical scholar and critic, was born at Naumburg, Saxony, on. Jan; 29, 1632. After holding

Prague, Paris, London, Dublin and Edinburgh, specializing in ophthalmology, and soon became one of the greatest of eye surgeons. After practising from 1850 in his private institution for the treatment of the eye, he was appointed teacher of ophthalmology in Berlin university in 1853 and professor in 1858. Von Grife began in 1855 to issue the Archiv fiir Ophthalmologie, which contains most of his important discoveries including his

introduction of the operation of iridectomy in the treatment of of the treatment of cataract (1865-68) and his demonstration that often blindness and visual defects connected with cerebral

disorders are traceable to optic neuritis (1860).

Gräfe was also

See Alfred Grafe, Ein Wort der Erimnerung an Albrecht von Grdfe (Halle, 1870), and E. Michaelis, Albrecht von Gräfe (1877).

GRAFE, KARL FERDINAND VON (1787-840), German surgeon, was born at Warsaw on Mar. 8, 1787. He studied medicine at Halle and Leipzig, and in 1810 became professor of

surgery at Berlin, and during the war with Napoleon, superintendent of the military hospitals. He died at Hanover on July 4, r840.

Gräfe did much to reform army hospitals and improve

the treatment of wounds, but he is chiefly noted as being the founder of modern plastic surgery.

other appointments, he became, in 1662, professor at Utrecht,

See E. Michaelis, K. F. von Gräfe (i840).

where he died Jan. 1t, 1703. Graevius had a high reputation as a teacher. He was honoured with special recognition by Louis XIV.;

GRAFFITO, plural grafiti, the Italian word meaning “‘scrib-

and was a particular favourite of William III. of England, who made him historiographer royal.

.

bling” or “scratching” (graffiare, to scribble, Gr. ypddev), adopted by archaeologists as a general term for the casual writings, rude drawings and markings on ancient buildings, in distinction

GRAFLY—GRAFTING

598

from the deliberate writings known as “inscriptions.” ‘These “grafiti,” either scratched on stone or plaster by a sharp instrument or, more rarely, written in red chalk or black charcoal, are found in great abundance, e.g., on the monuments of ancient Egypt. The best-known “graffiti” have been collected by R. Garrucci (Grafiti di Pompei, Paris, 1856), and L. Correra (“Graffiti di Roma” in Bolletino della commissione municipale archaeologica Rome, 1893; see also Corp. Ins. Lat. iv., Berlin, 1871). The subject matter of these scribblings includes scrawls by boys, street idlers and the casual “tripper,” of rude caricatures, election addresses and lines of poetry. Apparently private owners of property felt the nuisance of the defacement of their walls; at Rome near the Porta Portuensis was found an inscription begging people not to scribble (scariphare) on the walls. Graffiti are important to the palaeographer and the philologist as illustrating the forms and corruptions of the various alphabets and languages used by the people, and may guide the archaeologist to the date of the building; but they are chiefly valuable for the light they throw on the everyday life of the “man in the street”? of the period, and for the intimate details of customs and institutions. The graffiti dealing with the gladiatorial shows at Pompeii are in this respect particularly noteworthy (see Garrucci, op. cit., Pls. x—xiv.; A. Mau, Pompeii in Leben und Kunst, and ed., 1908, ch. xxx.). In 1866 in the Trastevere quarter of Rome was discovered the guard-house (excubitorium) of the seventh cohort of the city police (vigiles), the walls being covered by the scribblings of the guards (W. Henzen, “L? Escubitorio della Settima coorte dei Vigili” in Boll. Inst., 1867, and Annali

IN ANIMALS

species than pieces belonging to different species. In the warmblooded animals difficulties may arise even when two individuals of the same species are united by grafting, owing to blood incom. patibility. With adult specimens of cold-blooded vertebrates this difficulty is less, and in their earlier stages and in invertebrate animals there seems to be little inconvenience from this source In some types it is possible to join species belonging to different

PINNING (OF UNROLLED HYypRAS WITH INSECT-Pins}

~~ PARAFFINE-BED (FOR UNITING PIECES OF Potyps)

AUTOPHORIC CLUTCHING OF Dis¢ (SHADED) BY ANTEDON

FIXATION BY WIRE OR GLASS RODS (TADPOLES IN GLASS Dish)

Inst., 1874; see also R. Lanciani, Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries, 230, and Ruins and Excavations of Ancient Rome, 1897, 548). The most famous graffito is that generally

accepted as representing a caricature of Christ upon the cross,

BANDAGING WITH earn PARAFFINE

ee

found on the walls of the Domus Gelotiana on the Palatine in

(PUPAE OF MOTHS)

1857, and now preserved in the Kircherian Museum of the Colle-

gio Romano.

(See Ferd. Becker, Das Spottcrucifix der rémischen

Katserpaliste, Breslau, 1866; F. X. Kraus, Das Spottcrucifix vom Palatin, Freiburg in Breisgau, 1872; and Visconti and Lanciani,

RTT

Guida del Palatino.)

GRAFLY,

CHARLES

(1862-1929),

American

Earuwonus.swetesmrenes

sculptor,

was born at Philadelphia, Pa., on Dec. 3, 1862. He was a pupil of the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, and of Henri M. Chapu and Jean Dampt, and the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris. He received an honourable mention in the Paris salon of 1891 for his “Mauvais Présage,”’ now at the Detroit Museum of Fine Arts, a gold medal at the Paris Exposition in 1900, and medals at Chicago (1893), Atlanta (1895) and Philadelphia (the gold medal of honour, Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts) in 1899. In 1892 he became instructor in sculpture at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, also filling the same chair at the Drexel Institute, Philadelphia. He was elected a full member of the National Academy of Design in 1905. He has received a number of gold medals at various exhibits. His better-known works include: “General Reynolds,” Fairmount park, Philadelphia; “Fountain of Man”: “From Generation to

Generation”; “Symbol of Life”; “Vulture of War”; “England”

and “France” ‘for the New York custom house; “Pioneer Mother Monument,” San Francisco; “Meade Memorial,” Washington, D.C.; and many portrait busts. He died on May 5, 19209.

GRAFRATH, 2 town in Rhenish Prussia, on the Itterbach,

14m. E. of Diisseldorf. Pop. (1925) 10,585. There was an abbey here from 1185 to 1803. The chief industries are iron and steel, and weaving is carried on.

GRAFT HYBRIDS: see CHIMAERA. GRAFTING IN ANIMALS. Every gardener is well ac-

quainted with grafting in plants, But it is less. well-known that pieces of animals too may be joined in permanent union. Grafting in animals is practised mainly for scientific purposes or for the restoration of weakened or lost parts. Therefore graft and stock are not always taken from different species (heteroplastic trans-

plantation) or races (alleloplestic), but may belong to samples of the same-species and race (homoplastic) or even to one individual (autoplastic). It is as‘a rule. easier to join pieces of the same

POCKETING OF -OVARY (SHADED) IN TUBE OF RAT

`

THE TECHNIQUE

poer

OF GRAFTING

TRIANGULAR MOUNTING OF BLOOD- VESSELS

(GRAFTING IN MAMMALS)

AS PRACTISED

ON ANIMALS

classes (dysplastic transplantation), e.g., amphibians and fish. The degree to which grafting may be carried on depends, too, on the injury a given animal can endure. Developed vertebrates will not stand the stoppage of their circulation and breathing inevitable with the removal of the head. But in embryos of frogs, before the circulation of blood has started, the head-region may be grafted on to the body even of another species, and such compound monsters may even pass metamorphosis. As insects do not need their heads for breathing, and circulation continues without the head being present, grafting of the head is possible even in the

imaginal instar, but it is not yet clear whether function is restored.

There is no doubt that in lower organisms, such as worms, the

head or other body-region can be grafted with functional success. Lengthened individuals may be obtained in embryos of amphib-

ians, tadpoles of abnormal length resulting. Two warm-blooded

animals may be joined by bridges of tissue containing bloodvessels and nerves. Side-to-side “Parabiosis” of this kind'has been effected in rats, and reminds one of the “Siamese twins.” Parabiotic’ grafts have also been effected in frogs, newts, butterfly pupae, earthworms and hydrae, |

GRAFTING

IN ANIMALS

In certain cases the technique of grafting is even simpler in animals than in plants; when the opportunity is given for the stock to grip the graft by its own means, not even tying or gluing

is required (autophoric method).

Thus the sea-lily Antedon, a

relative of the starfish, bears a central disc easily detached. If another disc taken, let us say, from a specimen of different colour,

be inserted into the groove left after the removal of the central disc, it will be clutched and kept in place by the tentacles sur-

rounding this spot. There is nothing mysterious about this reaction as the tentacles also fold over the disc in the normal animal.

In the case of the vertebrate eye an implanted eye-ball will keep

in place by friction and the closing of the eyelids. To prevent these from opening prematurely, a fine pin or a silk stitch can be applied. Eyes can also be grafted in forms (e.g., fish and tadpoles), which have no eyelids and have no means of pawing at the replanted eyes. Replantation of eyes has been successfully achieved in several species of fresh-water fish, newts, salamanders,

frogs, toads, rats and in a rabbit.

But only. in very rare cases

does sight return. Endeavours to apply grafting of eyes to restore vision to domestic animals have hitherto been unsuccessful. The ‘lens alone may be grafted autophorically. The lens is extracted as in the operation for cataract. In fish, with cataract, the damaged lens, easily recognized by its opacity, is removed and

a transparent lens from the eye of a healthy fish is slipped through the slit made by the operator’s knife and is retained by the cornea. Transplantation of the lens in warm-blooded animals has not yet been recorded. Grafting of limbs, arm or leg, may be done in young tailed amphibians by inserting freshly detached limbs between the muscles of the shoulder pit or inguinal region, the contraction of the muscles holding them in place. In warmblooded animals, however, this method is not practicable and one has to resort to uniting every blood-vessel and nerve-trunk by stitching with catgut or silk. A special technique has been devised

599

colour. But no sign has ever been observed of the host being able to change the tissues of the graft so as to assume a new specificity. The inability of the stock to change inherent differences applies also to merely individual characters. Newts or frogs of the same species differ in the rate of heart-beat. If the heart be extracted from one individual and grafted into the intestine of another, it retains its original rhythm of beating. When different stages of animals undergoing metamorphosis are used as stock and graft, an interesting point occurs: the eye of a caterpillar grafted on to the abdomen of the metamorphosis into the eye of the or salamander larva, grafted to the morphosize into the eye of the adult

when stock and graft have been taken from individuals of equal size, stage and age, but also from those differing in these aspects

to a wide degree. The explanation in amphibians is that metamorphosis is produced by the internal secretion of a gland, the thyroid; this secretion passes not only to the host but also to the graft. Metamorphosis sets in, not because the stage of the grafted eye has been suited to the stage of the host, but because the graft receives the same agency as the host at the same time. In insects some similar but as yet unknown agency is presumably at work. Functioning of Grafts—As the host may in this manner modify the graft, so, too, the graft can by internal secretion modREPLANTED {RIGHT EYE OF DARK AXOLOTL TO ALBINOTIC SPECIMEN'S

HEAD)

DEPLANTED (RIGHT EYE OF DARK AXOLOTL TO ALBINOTIC SPECIMEN’S BACK)

for this purpose. The suturing of nerves, however, in transplanting mammals’ limbs has not proved satisfactory; no return of motility being secured. In cold-blooded animals sewing is widely used. Chrysalids of butterflies and moths have been united by girdles of paraffin after cutting on ice. Small sea or freshwater animals can be fixed in grooves of wax and covered by slips of glass or metal (silver, lead) so that the two cut ends touch each other; they then become united by the pressure. In this manner tadpoles, planarians and hydras may be dealt with. A convenient method of joining two or more pieces of hydra has been found by threading them on fine bristle. When the thread is taken out of the water, a drop of water remains on the grafts and draws them together by surface-tension. Influence of Host.—Diverse scientific problems may be attacked by animal grafting. One (which has also occupied the minds of many laymen), is the question as to the influence of a foster-mother on the characteristics

of her nurslings.

same species will develop at butterfly; the eye of a newt back of its neck, will metaform. This happens not only

TANDEM {TAIL TO HEAD UNION OF MOTH'S PUPAE)

OPPOSED (HEAD TO HEAD UNION OF MOTH’S PUPAE)

INVERTED (BACK TO BACK UNION OF MOTH'S PUPAE)

PARABIOTIC (SIDE TO SIDE UNION OF MOTH’S PUPAE)

Ovaries

COMPLANTED (HYDRAS); TECHNIQUE SEE FIGURE B

of one female mammal may be grafted into another previously

.

spayed female, and their eggs then fertilized by a chosen male.

Then one can decide if the young show the characteristics one would predict from the crossing of this male with the female that has provided the ovary, or whether traits of the foster mother also appear.

No

ASSOCIATED (INSERTION OF HYDRA TURNED INSIDE-OUT INTO ANOTHER)

These experiments have furnished no sure evidence

of the latter ever taking place. In some series apparent exceptions

to this law have been observed, but it could be shown that in these cases either the races employed were not pure, or that

REVERSED

(RIGHT LEG oF NEWT

™ GRAFTED BY INSERTION OF FOOT: END INTO BODY-FLANK)

regeneration of ovarian tissue had occurred in the foster-mother,

the eggs fertilized by the male being derived from this source. This latter error is avoided by. grafting ovaries inside the uterine horn and closing its end by a stitch. Thus eggs of the regenerating ovaries are prevented from passing into the tube. Much the same problem confronts us when parts of the body of an animal are grafted on to individuals of another race or species. Can the specific characters in the graft be changed by the influence of the host? Such an influence has been observed in a few special cases, but it is only colour that has spread from the stock into the graft, e.g., from a black axolotl to a pink eye grafted into its back from an albino of the same species. Here merely chemicals

have diffused withóut altering the faculty of the graft to produce

FIG. 2,—THE POSITIONS AND ORIENTATION OF GRAFTS IN ANIMALS , ify the host. In recent years numerous experiments have been performed in grafting ovaries or testes into castrated vertebrates, females or males: the engrafted individuals displayed more or less distinctly the characters of the sex from which they had received the germinal glands by transplantation (see Sex). By joining embryos of amphibians the sex of one partner, usually the female, is changed. An analogous case is found, when the posterior half of a male Hydra with functional testes is grafted on to the anterior half of a female. In all these cases the function of the graft is presumably established by diffusion of hormones. It

600

GRAFTON

is the same with grafts of other glands of internal secretion. If, on the contrary, such parts of the body as require nervous connection for their normal function, are to be used in grafting, their function will only be completely restored, if the nerves of

graft and stock unite. When the head of one earthworm, for instance, has been joined to the body of another, the movements of this compound will at first be irregular, the ingestion of food impossible. But later co-ordinate movements reappear, and food is taken in. Microscopical examination then reveals continuity of nerve-cord between the grafted head and the stock, In amphibian larvae limbs grafted by the autophoric method may regain motility. Curiously enough, it seems as if the connection of one nerve-trunk of the host’s limb with the graft is enough for restoring all kinds of motility to the transplanted limb, although several nerve-trunks normally run to different parts of the limb. As with motility, the return of sensation also depends on the regeneration of nerves. Special tests must be applied to prove return of eyesight after replantation of the eye described above. In fish and newts return of vision can be demonstrated by holding a wriggling worm behind the glass aquarium. If the animal can see, It will strike at the glass trying to catch the prey; a blind one

tion” to an abnormal situation makes restoration of Sight impossible. The orientation in which the components meet js only of consequence for function, not for morphology. When the poste-

rior half of a tadpole is joined to the anterior of another in

normal orientation, all parts will be able to function. If, on the contrary, two posterior halves are joined with their anterior cut surfaces together, the compound will not be able to take in food

as a mouth is lacking and will not be formed. If anterior halves

are joined by their posterior cut surface, the two heads will pull in opposite directions and often tear asunder. The Orientation of the grafted parts towards each other need not only be “normal” or “opposite,” as in our last mentioned examples. Two animals grafted on to each other with their backs or bellies united, are termed “inverted” grafts. If a limb be cut off and, after removal of its distal tip, grafted with the latter end directed towards the body, we have an instance of “reversed” transplantation. In hydras other possibilities of grafting have been invented: if the body be slit lengthwise, the animal can be unrolled completely, By putting one unrolled hydra on the other with their interior sides towards each other, and pinning ‘the edges together for a short time, the two hydras will be united lengthwise by this

will take no notice. In rats, jumping tests may be resorted to, “conplantation.” By turning one hydra inside as blind ones will not jump from a height. This evidence of it into the body-channel of a second polyp an out and inserting “association” is

return of vision has been corroborated by microscopical examination of the retina and optic nerve in the grafted eyes. Antagonism of Graft and Re-growth.—Although a certain amount of regenerative capacity must reside in the tissues of stock and graft, if they are to unite, the possibility of grafting in a given species or stage is by no means parallel to its regenerative potentialities. Forms with a high regenerative capacity are often very difficult to unite permanently by grafting because a bud of regenerating tissue may appear on the host’s cut surface, before the graft has become firmly attached, This often happens when two headless Hydrae are grafted together. Each forms a new head at the line of union and the animals separate again as two complete beings. It is not necessary for permanent union, that the stock should be able to regenerate the organ which the graft represents. As examples of this we may take the eyes of frogs or rats, which cannot of course be regenerated by these animals. On the other hand structures may be difficult to graft, although easily regenerated in the same species: the legs of the crayfish furnish an instance of this kind. Neither is the regenerative capacity of the graft essential for its permanent fixation. Pieces of young stages transplanted on older animals of the same kind will be resorbed, whilst the same part taken from an older stage will keep permanently attached, although its regenerative faculty is less. It has, indeed, recently been established that a graft will usually hold better on a weakened stock. Probably the latter cannot resorb or destroy the intruder as quickly as a vigorous host, thus giving the graft a better chance to “take.” The different regions of a developing embryo or animal body exert an influence on such parts as have not yet reached the same stage of differentiation. (See DEpIFFERENTIATION, EXPERIMENTAL EmBRYOLOGY). If a hydra is deprived of its tentacular ring and inserted with this cut surface into the side of another hydra, nearly all the trunk of the former can be removed, without pre-

venting the inserted head region from drawing material from the

effected. Finally by pressing hydras through a cloth and mixing the dissociated parts complex hydras of “mosaic” character were

obtained. When two different kinds or species of fresh-water polyp have

been grafted, the behaviour of the compound as regards asexual reproduction by budding can be studied. Although both kinds

used may enter into a bud, in time the specific tissues will separate and no permanent “chimera” can be created. Such experi-

ments are especially striking when the two species differ in colour. In higher animals without asexual reproduction, buds of chimerical character may be obtained by grafting regenerating tissue, for instance from the member of a black axolotl on to the regener-

ating member of a white specimen. If in this way half of the regenerating bud has been changed, the leg will show a “sectorial chimera.” When the bud of one type is overgrown by the skin of the host, a “‘periclinal chimera” results. In any case each cell only produces cells with the character of the species or race it has been taken from, as in “mosaic chimeras” with irregular mixture. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—W,

Goetsch,

Tierkonstruktionen,

neue

Ergebnisse

der experimentellen Zoologie (München, 1925); H. Przibram, “Tierpiropfung, Die Transplantation der Kérperabschnitte, Organe und Keime,” Die Wissenschaft No, 75 (Brunswick, 1926); “Transplanta-

tion and Regeneration, their bearing on Developmental Mechanics,” British Journal of Experimental Biology TII., 313 (1926); H. F. 0. Haberland, Die operative Technik des Tierexperimentes (1926). (See

REGENERATION IN ANIMALS.)

(

GRAFTON, DUKES OF. The English dukes of Grafton

are descended from Henry Frrzroy (1663—1690), thę natural son of Charles II. by Barbara Villiers (countess of Castlemaine and duchess of Cleveland), In 1672 Henry was married to the daughter and heiress of the earl of Arlington and created earl of Euston; in 1675 he was created duke of Grafton. At James II.’s coronation he was lord high constable. In the Monmouth rebellion he commanded the royal troops in Somersetshire; but in 1688, with

Churchill

(duke of Marlborough), he seceded to William of

side of the larger component, the head “dominating” the flank. Orange. He died of a wound received at the storming of Cork. In planarians, newts and tadpoles, regeneration-buds in a suffiAucustus Henry Firzroy, 3rd duke of Grafton (1735-1811), ciently early stage will develop into any structure, in place of grandson of the preceding, was educated at Westminster and Camwhich they have been grafted. Such a regenerating “blastema” bridge. In 1765 he was secretary of State under the marquis of derived from the tail of a newt will develop into a limb if grafted Rockingham; but he retired next year, and Pitt (becoming earl on the cut stump of the latter. But in the lizard the regenerating of Chatham) formed a ministry in which Grafton was first lord tail blastema is not changed, even if grafted in place of a fore-leg of the treasury (1766) but only nominally prime minister, until Chatham’s illness at the end of 1767. Political differentes and the (see HETEROMORPHOSIS and REGENERATION IN ANIMALS). As soon as differentiation sets in, the regenerating tissues will attacks of “Junius” Jed to his resignation in Jan, 1770. He was no longer be influenced by the site on which they are grafted. lord privy sea] in Lord North’s ministry (1771), but resigned in They then conform to the general rule, that the form of a body- 1775, being in favour of conciliatory action towards the American region or organ will not be changed by transplantation. Eyes colonists. In the Rockingham ministry of 1782 he was again lord may not only be grafted into eyesockets, but also to the neck or privy seal. In later years he was a prominent Unitarian. . back of salamanders; the main difference being, that in the case BiBtioGRAPHY.—The 3rd duke left in manuscript a Memoir of bis of “replantation” function may be restored, whereas ‘“deplanta- public career, of which extracts have been printed in P. H. Stanhope, 5th Earl, History of England (1836—s4); H. Walpole, Memoirs 0

GRAFTON— GRAHAM George III. (Appendix, vol. iv., 1845); J. Campbell, Lives of the Chancellors (1845-69).

GRAFTON,

RICHARD

(d. 1572), English printer and

chronicler, was born probably about 1513. He received the freedom of the Grocers’ Company in 1534. In 1537 Grafton undertook, in conjunction with Edward Whitchurch, to produce a modified version of Coverdale’s bible, generally known as Matthew’s Bible (Antwerp, 1537). He went to Paris to reprint Coverdale’s revised edition (1538). There Whitchurch and he began to print the folio known as the Great Bible by special licence ob-

tained by Henry VIII. from the French Government.

Suddenly,

however, the work was officially stopped and the presses seized. Grafton fled, but Thomas Cromwell eventually bought the presses and type, and the printing was completed in England. The Great Bible was reprinted several times under his direction, the last occasion being 1553. In 1544 Grafton and Whitchurch secured the exclusive right of printing church service books, and on the accession of Edward VI., he was appointed king’s printer. In this

capacity he produced The Booke of the Common Praier and Ad-

ministracion of the Sacramentes, and other Rites and Ceremonies

of the Churche: after the Use of the Churche of Englande (1549 seg.), and Actes of Parliament (1552 and 1553). In 1553 he

printed Lady Jane Grey’s proclamation

and signed himself the

queen’s printer. For this he was imprisoned for a short time, and he seems thereafter to have retired from active business. His

historical works include a continuation (1543) of Hardyng’s Chronicle from the beginning of the reign of Edward IV. down to Grafton’s own times.

He seems to have taken liberties with the

original. After he retired from the printing business he published An Abridgement of the Chronicles of England (1562), Manuell of the Chronicles of England (1565), Chronicle at large and meere Historye of the Affayres of England (1568). In 1553-54 and 1556-57 he represented the City in parliament, and in 1562-63

60.r

Grafton was settled about 1852, incorporated in 1856 and chartered as a city in 1890.

GRAHAM,

SIR GERALD

(1831-1899), British general,

was born on June 27, 1831, at Acton, Middlesex, and educated at Dresden and Woolwich academy. He entered the Royal Engineers in 1850, and served through the Russian War of 1854, being awarded the V.C. He fought in the China War of 1860, and was promoted brevet lieutenant-colonel and given the C.B. for his part in the storming of the Taku forts and the entry into Peking. He was promoted major-general in 1881, and commanded the advanced force in Egypt in 1882. In 1884 he commanded the expedition to the eastern Sudan. In 1885 he commanded the Suakin expedition, advancing the railway from Suakin to Otao, when the expedition was withdrawn. He three times received the thanks of parliament, and was given the G.C.M.G. and the G.C.B. He died on Dec. 17, 1899. He published a translation of

Goetze’s Operations of the German Engineers in 1870~71 (1875) and Last Words with Gordon (1887). GRAHAM, SIR JAMES ROBERT GEORGE, Bart. (1792~1861), British statesman, son of Sir James Graham and Lady Catherine Stewart, daughter of John, 7th earl of Galloway, was born on June 1, 1792 at Naworth, Cumberland. He was educated at Dalston, Westminster school and Christ Church, Oxford (1810-12). He sat in parliament from 1818 to 1820, but made ho serious mark in politics until 1826, when his pamphlet Corn and Currency foreshadowed his career as an advanced liberal. He was returned in 1826 as Liberal M.P. for Carlisle, a seat which he exchanged in 1827 for the county of Cumberland. In 1830 he moved

for the reduction of official salaries.

In Earl

Grey’s administration of Nov. 1830, he was made first lord of the Admiralty, with a seat in the cabinet, and introduced many financial reforms in his department. Graham served on the Committee of four which prepared the first Reform Bill. From he sat for Coventry. 1832—37 he sat again for the county of Cumberland. See J. A. Kingdon, Richard Grafton, Citizen and Grocer of London, In 1834 dissensions on the Irish church question led to his etc. (1901), in continuation of Incidents in the Lives of T. Poyntz withdrawal, with Lord Stanley, from the ministry. He was again and R. Grafton (1895). returned for Cumberland in 1835, but ih 14837 lost his seat on GRAFTON, a city of Clarence county, New South Wales, account of his growing sympathy with the Conservatives. In lying on the Clarence river, at a distance of 45 m. from its mouth, 1838 he was elécted for Pembroke, and in 1841 for Dorchester. 342 m. N.E. of Sydney. Pop. (1925) 6,220. The city became a He held office as home secretary under Peel (1841-46), but his municipality in 1850. The river is navigable from the sea to the character hardly fitted him for a post requiring tact and an town for ships of moderate burden, and for small vessels to a point equable temperament. His treatment of the representatives from 35 m. beyond it. The entrance to the river has been artificially scotland was partly responsible for the ‘dissatisfaction which improved. Grafton is the seat of the Anglican joint-bishopric of resulted in the secession of the Free Kirk. During his term of Grafton and Armidale, and of a Roman Catholic bishopric created office he became increasingly unpopular, and failed to carry in 1888, both of which have cathedrals. Dairy-farming and sugar- through several reforms which he attempted. In 1844 the degrowing are important industries, and there are several sugar-mills tention and opening of letters at the post-office on his warrant in the neighbourhood. Tobacco, cereals and fruits are also grown. raised a storm of public indignation against Graham, though this There is rail-connection with Brisbane, etc. action was taken at the request of Lord Aberdeen, then foreign GRAFTON, a town of Worcester county, Massachusetts, secretary. An unsuccessful attempt was made to abolish the US.A., 8m. S.E. of Worcester; served by the Boston and Albany home secretary’s power in this respect. In 1846 famine threatened and the New York, New Haven and Hartford railways. The popu- Ireland as the result of a potato disease, and Gtaham’s agreement lation (about 30% foreign-born white) was 7,030 in 1930. The with Peel that the duty on imported corn could not be maintained several villages are residential suburbs of Worcester, and there are alienated the Tories. Graham was out of office from Peel’s cotton and woollen mills, a shoe factory and other manufacturing resignation in 1846 to 1852, and on Peel’s death in 1850 he beindustries. Within the present limits of the town was an Indian came prominent among the Peelites. In 1852 Graham again reprevillage where John Eliot soon after 1651 organized the third of sented Carlisle, and was again given his post at the admiralty in his bands of “praying Indians.” The Massachusetts general court Lord Aberdeen’s coalition Government. Graham took office again granted to the Indians (1654) 4 sq.m. for their exclusive use. under Lord Palmerston, but resigned when he found that there In 1718 they sold a small farm to the first white settler, and in was a cabinet majority in favour of the establishment of a com1728 a large tract to a group of colonists. The town was incor- mittee of inquiry, to which he was opposed in principle in time porated in 1735 and named after the second duke of Grafton. The of war. Graham successfully resisted an attempt to oppose his last of the pure-blooded Indians died about 1825. election in 1857, but took little active part in politics from that GRAFTON, a city of northern West Virginia, U.S.A., 85m. S. time until his retirement in 1861. He died on Oct. 25, 186x. See W. MacCullagh Torrens, Life and Times of Sir James Graham of Pittsburgh, on the Tygart river, at an altitude of r,oooft.; the county seat of Taylor county. It is on Féderal highway 50 and is (1863); H. Lonsdale, Worthies of Cumberland (6 vols., 1867-75) ; C. served by the Baltimore and Ohio railroad. The population was S. Parker, Life of Sir James Graham (1907). 8,517 in 1920 (95% native white) and was 7,737 in 1930 by the GRAHAM, afterwards CUNNINGHAME-GRAHAM,

Federal census. It is in a coal-mining and lumbering region, and

ROBERT

works and other factories. There is a national cemetery here, with 1,322 graves. The West Virginia Reform school is 4m. west.

Graham of Gartmore and Lady Margaret Cunninghame. He started life as a planter in Jamaica, where he was for a time receiver-general. In 1784 he was elected rector of Glasgow uni-

has large railroad shops, flour mills, sawmills, glass and pottery

(d. 14797?), Scottish poet, was the son of Nicholas

GRAHAM—GRAIL

602

versity, and from 1794 to 1796 he was M.P. for Stirlingshire. Politically he is remembered as the mover of a Bill of Rights, in which the Reform bill of 1832 was foreshadowed, and as an ardent advocate of the ideals of the French Revolution; but it is for his lyrics, the best known of which is “If Doughty Deeds My Lady Please,” that he has remained famous.

GRAHAM,

THOMAS

(1805-1869), British chemist, born

at Glasgow, was educated at Glasgow University. He was professor of chemistry in the Anderson Institution, Edinburgh (1830-

37), then at University College, London (1837-55), and master of the Mint (1855-69). He was F.R.S. (1836), and one of the founders of the London Chemical and the Cavendish Societies. His first paper, published in 1826, dealt with the absorption of gases by liquids, and the first of his important memoirs on gaseous diffusion appeared in 1829. By measuring the rate at which gases diffuse through a plug of plaster of Paris, Graham developed the law, known by his name, “that the diffusion rate of gases is inversely as the square root of their density.” (See Drirrusion.) He further studied the flow of gases through fine tubes, and by effusion through a minute hole in a platinum disc; he found that the relative rates of effusion of gases are, like their rates of diffusion, inversely proportional to the square roots of the densities. His early work led him to examine the diffusion of one liquid into another, and as a result of the experiments he divided bodies into two classes—crystalloids, such as common salt, and colloids, of which gum arabic is a type—the former having high and the latter low diffusibility; this division has since been modified. Graham observed that in the passage through a parchment membrane these differences still held, and so was led to devise a method —“‘dialysis’’—for the separation of colloids from crystalloids. He also proved that the process of liquid diffusion causes partial decomposition of certain chemical compounds, the potassium sulphate, for instance, being separated from the aluminium sulphate in alum by the higher diffusibility of the former salt. In 1833 Graham studied the three forms of phosphoric acid (ortho, pyro and meta); the differences between them were attributed to the fact that they contained different amounts of basic water, replaceable by metallic oxides, united with a given quantity of phosphoric anhydride. From this work the important concept of polybasic acids developed (see Acip). In 1835 he published the results of an examination of the properties of water of crystallization as a: constituent of salts; definite compounds of salts and alcohol, analogous to hydrates, can be obtained, and these were called “alcoholates.” : BrsirocrapuHy.—Graham’s Elements of Chemistry, first published in 1833, went through several editions, and also appeared in German, remodelled under J. Otto’s direction. His Chemical and Physical Researches were collected by Dr. James Young and Dr. Angus Smith and printed “for presentation only” at Edinburgh in 1876, Dr. Smith contributing a valuable preface and analysis of its contents. See also T. E. Thorpe, Essays in Historical Chemistry (1902).

GRAHAME-WHITE,

CLAUDE

(1879-

), English

aviator and engineer, was born on Aug. 21, 1879. He was educated at Bedford and studied engineering. He owned one of the first petrol-driven motor cars in England, and worked at a motor engineering business in London until he became interested in aeronautics in. 1909. In that year he gained ‘an aviator’s certificate of proficiency, being the first Englishman to do so, and in the following year he entered for many flying races both in Europe and in America, where he won the Gordon Bennett Cup. He founded the first British flying school at Pau, in France, in

1909, and in the following year joined a company to run the Hendon aerodrome of London. At the outbreak of war in 1914 he resigned from his position of flight commander, and superin-

tended the construction of Government aeroplanes.

He wrote

‘many treatises on aircraft, dealing with its history, its technical development, and its use in warfare. Among the most important

are. The Aeroplane; Past, Present and Future (1911); The Aeroplane in War (1912); Our First Airways, their Organization, Equipment and Finance (1918).

' GRAHAMSTOWN,

a town in South Africa, 33° 19’ S., 26°

3t E.:; alt. 1,769. White pop. (1926), 7,648; coloured, 7,860. It

is 106 m. from Port Elizabeth and is reached by a branch line from Alice Dale, on the main Port Elizabeth-Pretoria line. The first settlement, established here in 1812, near the headwater of the Kowie river, and on the slopes of the Zuurberg, was a milita post, founded by Col. John Graham, to hold in check the Kafr tribes, who were pushing south-westward. The town is named after its founder. After the arrival of the 1820 settlers, the site was chosen as a central rallying-point in case of need. Since that time, in spite of its present somewhat isolated position, Grahamstown has retained its importance. It is the capital of the Eastern Province of Cape Colony, and here the Eastern Province law

courts are placed.

It is also the seat of Anglican and Roman

Catholic bishops. The town is pleasantly laid out with broad, straight streets, often lined with trees. It is often regarded as the most English town in Cape Colony. The slopes of the neighbouring ridge are planted with trees, and from the top a magnifcent view of the surrounding country can be obtained, a view of much geological interest. The town is also an important educational centre. It has several good schools, and atraining college,

The Rhodes university college, a constituent college of the University of South Africa, stands in its own grounds, and is equipped with fine hostels, college buildings and playing fields. Among the public buildings mention may be made of St. George’s cathedral (Anglican), built from designs by Sir Gilbert Scott, St. Patrick’s

cathedral (R.C.), and the commemoration

chapel (Wesleyan),

erected in 1845 by the British 1820 settlers.

The Albany museum

ranks high in South Africa for its examples of South African fauna and its collection representing early African pe

R. U.S.)

GRAIL, THE HOLY, the famous talisman of Arthurian romance, the object of quest on the part of the knights of the Round Table. It is mainly, if not wholly, known to English readers through the medium of Malory’s translation of the

French Quéte del Saint Graal, where it is the cup or chalice of the Last Supper, in which the blood which flowed from the wounds of the crucified Saviour has been miraculously preserved. Students of the original romances are aware that there is in these texts an extraordinary diversity of statement as to the origin and nature of the Grail, and that it is extremely difficult to determine the precise value of the differing versions. The word grail undoubtedly originally signified dish; we read in an early French text of “boars’ heads on grails of silver,” and Robert de Borron, the author of the first Christian Grail romance, represents it as the dish on which, at the Last Supper, the Paschal Lamb was served. Helinandus describes it as a “wide and somewhat shallow dish.” This is certainly the primary sense of the word, which later on became attached to the varying man-

ifestations of this mysterious object. Thus it may be a direct food-providing talisman, as in the version attributed to the Welshman, Bleheris (probably identical with the Bledhericus to whom

Giraldus Cambrensis refers as “famosus ille fabulator”).

Here the king and his guests are fed by the “rich” Grail, which acts automatically, “sans serjant et sans seneschal,” the butlers providing the wine. Or it may be indirectly such a talisman, as in the Perceval romances and the Galahad Queste, where its appearance synchronizes with the feast provided, but we are not told that it is, as in the first case, the actual source of the food. It may be a crystal vase, filled with blood, from which the Fisher

king drinks, through a golden reed (Diu Crône, first visit) or a reliquary containing the Host (ibid., second visit). It may be a cup or dish, accompanied by a lance, which bleeds into it (Bleheris and Perlesvaus); the dish of the Last Supper (Borron's Joseph), or the cup (Queste). It may-be a stone, as in the Parzival; or its place in procession may be taken, as in the Welsh Peredur, by a bleeding head on a dish. The task of the critic to discover a solution which shall admit of all these diverse objects being one and the same, all equally “the Grail.” Modern criticism is gradually arriving at the conclusion that there 1s only

one solution which will meet these apparently contradictory de

mands: that which lies in the direction of what is now termed the

“ritual” origin, rather than in that of purely Christian legend

or modified folk-tale.

The theory of a Christian origin, once very

603

GRAIN—GRAINGER generally accepted, has now been practically abandoned in face of the fact that no story of Joseph of Arimathea and the Grail exists in any legendary; it makes its first appearance in the romance of Joseph of Arimathea by Robert de Borron, composed in the closing years of the 12th century, and by no means the earliest Grail romance. The connection of Joseph with Glastonbury, still credited in some circles, is even later, and is obviously imitated from the much earlier “Saint Sang” legend of Fescamp, of which

Nicodemus is the protagonist. Glastonbury and Fescamp were alike Benedictine foundations, both enjoyed royal patronage, and their abbots were closely connected by family ties both with each other and with the royal family of England. The Joseph-Glaston-

bury story, which in its earliest form knows nothing of the Grail, is thus easily to be accounted for. The folk-tale theory has more in its favour, as there are undoubted folklore features in some of the romances, such as, ¢.g., the food-providing powers of the

Grail, but we have no popular tale, even fragmentary, which provides us with the requisite mise-en-scène. On the other hand, it is now very generally recognized that the machinery of the earlier romances—the Fisher king, sick, wounded or in extreme old age, whose incapacity entails disastrous consequences upon his land and folk, both alike ceasing to be fruitful; the quester, whose task is to heal the king, and restore fruitfulness to the land—bear a striking resemblance to the cults associated with such deities as Tammuz, Adonis and Attis, the.object of which was the renewal of vegetation and the preservation of life. Further, we now know that a certain early Christian sect, the Naassenes, identified the Logos of the Christian worship with these earlier deities, practised a triple initiation into the sources of life, physical and spiritual, and boldly

proclaimed themselves to be “alone the true Christians, accomplishing the mystery at the Third Gate.” The evidence for the connection between Christianity and the Attis cult in particular is clear, and has been commented upon by A. B. Cook in the sec-

ond volume of his monumental work on Zeus. Scholarly opinion is steadily coming round to the view that the only interpretation of the obscurities and apparent contradictions of the Grail story is to regard it as the confused record of a form of worship, semiChristian, semi-Pagan, at one time practised in these islands, the central object of which was initiation into the sources of life, physical and spiritual. This, and this alone, will account for the diverse forms assumed by the Grail, the symbol of that source. Thus is may be the dish from which the worshippers partook of the communal feast; it may be the cup in juxtaposition with the lance, symbols of the male and female energies, source of physical life, and well known phallic emblems. It may be the “Holy” Grail, source of spiritual life, the form of which is not defined, and which is wrought of no material substance—“ ’twas not of wood, nor of any manner of metal, nor was it in any wise of stone, nor of horn, nor of bone”; it is a spiritual object, to be spiritually discerned, but always, and under any form, a source of life. Thus Wolfram’s stone, the mere sight of which preserves all inhabitants of the Grail castle, not only in life, but in youth, is what is popularly known as “the philosopher’s stone,” that stone of the alchemist which was the source of all life. Even the bleeding head of Peredur may be interpreted on the same lines. A passage in the York Breviary, for the Feast of the Beheading of St. John the Baptist, states: “Caput Johannis in disco signat Corpus Christi quo pascimur in sancto altari.” When the Grail had once been elevated to the purely Christian orthodox plane, as was done by Borron, and became the source, no longer of physical, but of spiritual life, such a substitution, by one familiar with the York Breviary, was possible, even as the author

of Wolfram’s source, or one before him, had introduced the alchemical stone. As the record of the perennial, too often unsuc-

cessful, quest for the source of life, all the puzzling features of the Grail story are capable of satisfactory explanation. There is no other clue to the maze. l The versions of the Grail Quest which have come down to us are (a) those of which Gawain is the hero: the version by Bleheris, incorporated in the first continuation of Chrétien de Troyes’ Perceval, and Diu Créne, a long and rambling series of Gawain

adventures, the source of which is unknown. (b) The important group of which Perceval is the central figure: the Conte del Graal or Perceval of Chrétien, with its three continuations, respectively due to Wauchier de Denain, Gerbert (probably Gerbert de Montreuil, author of Le Roman de la Violette), and Manessier; the Perceval of Robert de Borron; Perlesvaus, by an unknown writer, and Parzival, by Wolfram von Eschenbach, the finest romance of the cycle. Of the three continuations of Chrétien’s poem that of Gerbert is the most interesting, as it witnesses to the existence of a tradition connecting the Swan Knight with the Grail hero, a tradition known also to Wolfram and to the author of Sone de Nansai, and familiar to the present generation through

the medium of Wagner’s Lohengrin.

(c) The latest of the Grail

romances is the Queste, or Quéte del Saint Graal, a section of the prose Lancelot, known to English readers through the medium of Malory’s translation. Thus we have two romances of which Gawain is the hero; seven, if we include the three continuations of Chrétien, connected with Perceval; one only which knows Galahad, with Perceval as a good second. To treat Galahad as Grail hero par excellence, as is too often done, is a grave mistake. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The great bulk of the Grail literature still awaits adequate editing. The Conte del Graal or Perceval of Chrétien is still only available in Potvin’s edition (6 vols. 1866-71). This is not a critical edition, and the ms. selected, that of Mons, is unfortunately the least reliable of the extant texts. The Gerbert continuation, which exists in only two mss., has been edited by Dr. Mary Williams for Les Classiques Français du Moyen Age. So far only two of the three volumes announced have appeared. The same series includes an edition of La Quête del Saint Graal (Galahad Quest) by A. Pauphilet, and an edition of Borron’s Jaseph by W. A. Nitze. A critical edition of the Perlesvaus, under the direction of W. A. Nitze, is about to be published by the Carnegie trustees. The text of the Modena ms. of Borron’s Perceval (a superior text to the Didot) was published by J. L. Weston, in vol. ii. of The Legend of Sir Perceval (1909). Diu Créne is still only available in Scholl’s edition (Stuttgart, 1852). Three of the Gawain Grail visits (Bleheris, prose Lancelot, and Diu Créne second visit) have been translated by J. L. Weston, in vol. vi. of Arthurian Romances. The Parzival is that one of the

Grail texts which

has been

most

thoroughly

studied.

available version for popular use is that by Bartsch

The

(Deutsche

most

Clas-

siker des Mittelalters), which has recently been revised; otber editions are by Lachmann (1891) and E. Martin (1903). There is an English translation by J. L. Weston, Parzival, a Knighily Epic (1894). The Perlesvaus, has been translated by Dr. Sebastian Evans, Tke High History of the Holy Grail (1898). A translation of the Galahad Queste will be found in Malory (Books XIII-XVIII). For general treatment of the subject see J. L. Weston, From Ritual to Romance (1920); J. D. Bruce, The Evolution of Arthurian Romance (1923); J. Armitage Robinson, Two Glastonbury Legends (1926); R. S. Loomis, Celtic Myth and Arthurian Romance (Columbia University Press, 1927). (J.L. W.

the seed, or “fruit,” of cereals, and hence cereal plants generally (from Lat. granum, seed). (See GRAIN PropucTION.) The word is also used of the malt refuse of brewing and

distilling, and of many hard rounded small particles, such as “grains” of sand, salt, gold, gunpowder, etc. A “grain” is also the

smallest unit of weight, both in Great Britain and the United States of America. Its origin is supposed to be the weight of a

grain of wheat. The troy grain=,;,7 Of a lb., the avoirdupois grain=,%, of a lb. In diamond weighing the grain=4 of the carat=-7925 of the troy grain. The word “grains” was early used of the small seed-like insects supposed formerly to be the berries of trees, from which a scarlet dye was extracted (see CoCHINEAL and Kermes). The imitating in paint of the grain of wood is known as “graining” (see PAINTER-WoRK).

GRAIN ELEVATORS: see Granarms. GRAINGER, PERCY ALDRIDGE (1882), Australian pianist and composer, was born at Brighton, Melbourne, on July 8, 1882. He studied with Louis Pabst in Melbourne, with Kwast at Dr. Hoch’s conservatorium, Frankfurt, and later with Busoni. From 1900 to 1915 he lived in London, during which

period he made extensive concert tours and also collected the folk-tunes of which his very effective arrangements

are widely

known. In 1915 he settled in the United States. His compositions include: Molly on the Shore for orch., small orch., strings; Shepherd’s. Hey for orch., also for 12 voices; Mock: Morris, sm. orch., strings; Irish Tune from County Derry, strings and horns, strings only; Clog Dance: Handel in the Strand, piano and

GRAINING—GRAIN

604

PRODUCTION

strings; paraphrase on the “Flower Waltz” from Cassenozsette, Tschaikovsky, for piano; choruses with instruments; Brigg Fair, tenor solo and mixed chorus.

GRAINING: see PAINTER-WoRK.

GRAIN PRODUCTION AND TRADE. No one can study the international trade in grain without noticing the great changes that have occurred in modern times and that are still occurring. Since the closing years of the last century there have been developments which may affect the dietary and economic conditions of the various races of mankind; these later developments will be discussed and illustrated in subsequent sections of this article. If we take a longer survey of the position, we find that one of the most striking features is the gradual displacement of rye by wheat in the dietary of the European races. The displacement is still only partial, but it is progressing steadily, and it would seem as if wheat would become the staple bread-stuff of the Caucasian peoples and perhaps of some at least of the races

of the Orient. In a somewhat similar way maize appears to be taking the place of oats and barley as a cattle-food, but here too the displacement is only partial. Development in the growing of grain is certainly not standing still, but the rate of development will have to be rapid and continuous if it is to keep pace with the ever increasing demand. Plant breeders the world over are aiming to provide growers with better yielding seed and hardier species of grain, but their work is necessarily slow. We may be sure,

however, that the last word in the breeding of new plants has not yet been said, and it would be venturesome to say it is outside the bounds of possibility for some new plant to be evolved which may even displace wheat as the chief bread-grain of civilised man. In another direction too there have been developments; synthetic commodities are being manufactured on a large scale. The French

chemist Berthelot held the opinion that synthetic wheat and flour

are within the bounds of possibility and put his belief on record in the following words :—~‘‘The day is perhaps near when the progress of chemistry will make it possible to manufacture foodstuffs economically. When that day arrives the cultivation of wheat and the raising of cattle will meet with the fate that we have seen

fall upon the cultivation of madder. There will be immense shifting of interests, but the masses will profit by the change.” The World’s Wheat.—Wheat can be truly described as the most important of all crops, for it provides the staff of life for

all the more advanced and progressive people of the world. It has certainly been known to man for 5,000 years and has always accompanied him in his forward march, The crop responds readily to generous and careful treatment and herein lies a great hope of increasing supplies. If the enormous areas now producing eight to twelve bushels per acre could be so cultivated that they produced twenty or even thirty bushels per acre, the world would certainly be relieved for many decades of all anxiety about the supply of

bread.

As an instance of what can be produced on good land

under favourable conditions, there is on record the sworn state-

ment of a Canadian farmer of the Peace River district, that in 1927 he harvested 85 bushels per acre from twenty acres of summer fallow land. On the other hand, without man’s care and cultivation wheat dies out completely.

The statistics of wheat production are of deep interest: Wheat Crops of the World (in thousands of quarters of 48olb.) 1890

1900

1913

1926

1927

Europe (without Russia). . . | 137,400 | 138,870 | 153,700 | 150,140 | 157,800

North America South America Australasia India and Japan

Africa

Total

SE

56,700 | 80,500] 124,300 | 6,400 9,100 | 18,000] 4,900 6,900 | 13,600] 39,000 | 33,800| 48,300]

6,200}

7860|

13,400]

156,100 | 164,500 31,100} 34,200 21,400| 14,600 45;460| 45,400

12,520|

13,300

(without

Russia) Russia

241,600 | 277,630 | 371,300 | 416,720 | 429,800 *28,000 |**53,000 |{122,000 |tror,200 | tos,000

Grand total 269,600 | 330,036 | 493,300 | 517,920 | 524,800 *60 governments; **71 governments; +73 governments; frecotds of r

Soviet Russia.

AND

TRADE

In addition to the crops given in the table, there are others concerning which no reliable statistics are available. These include

those of Mexico (about 2,000,000qrs.), Turkey (about 5o00..

oooqrs.), Manchuria (about 2,500,000qrs.), China (80,000 oooqrs.), Persia (2,000,000ġrs.). The figures given in brackets

are unauthoritative estimates of outturn which have been issued

from time to time. There are also crops such as those of Kenya

Brazil and Peru, which may increase, but are at present quite

unimportant. Adjustment of Supply to Demand.—It was said of old that while the earth remained seed time and harvest should not cease and the experience of mankind proves how well the promise has been fulfilled. At each season’s end, the world’s reserves of foodstuffs are found to be just sufficient to provide for any brief seasonal interval. This fact is not a little curious in, the case of a plant like wheat, seeing that in one country, or in one season, it will yield ten bushels per acre and in another twenty bushels, Yet no instance can be adduced where the world’s crop of one season has been found to be anything like double the size of the next preceding or next subsequent crop; though on the other hand there are many instances where the crop of one country in one

year, compared with another year, may be startlingly deficient or excessive. It can be stated as a fact, that the average world’s production of a ten years’ period is found to be equal to the average world’s

requirements of the same period. The consumption of any importing country can be ascertained approximately by adding the

imports to the home crop; in the case of exporting countries, the

home consumption is found by deducting the exports from the quantity grown. The World’s Maize.—We pass to the statistics of the crops of maize or Indian corn, commonly called “corn” in America. The Maize Crop of the World (in thousands of quarters of 48olb.}

Europe

Russia). United States . Argentina Africa . , British India . Total

1890

1900

IQIS

1926

1927

39,000 172,000 5:500

54:390 255,000 7,000 5,000

79,400 285,000

Q1,700 308,600

25,700

32,600 13,600

73,500 325,000 37,400 18,000

(including

4,700

11,300

229,200 | 328,000 | 410,906

435,500 | 463,900

*This official estimate probably not high enough—subsequent shipments indicate a crop of about 42,000,000qrs.

This cereal is also grown in a number of countries which do not publish regular information about production, or for which it is not possible -to obtain comparable statistics. The most important are: Dutch East Indies about 8,000,oocqrs., Philippine Islands about 2,000,000qrs., Mexico 11,000,o00qrs. Australia grows a small crop and other small crops are those of Peru, Brazil, New Zealand and Uruguay. Maize is usually considered a secondary or coarse grain and

rated as feeding-stuff, but it is used as human food by many millions of people in tropical climates and in the southeast of Europe; it is also much used for food in Italy and the United States. Dari or Kaffirkorn is used with maize in tropical climates and largely grown in countries which do not compile statistics of production, such as the Sudan, Syria and Persia, but there are crops, such as those of South Africa and the United States, of

which the outturns are definitely known. Maize is not a bread grain and therefore cannot rank with wheat as human food but it is a crop of the greatest importance to the human race. Like

wheat, it emerged with man from unrecorded history and depends

oh man’s care for its continued existence.

There is no known

wild maize, although it was reported that a kind of grass with large seeds was discovered in America might have been the parent of maize.

some

time ago, which

The yield of maize in America is 25 bushels per acre compared

with 144 bushels of wheat and 20% of barley; in Argentine 26 bushels per acre against 12 of wheat, while good European crops

GRAIN

PRODUCTION

will give 32 bushels of maize against 20 of wheat from adjoining lands. (All comparisons are made in bushels of Golb. weight.)

It is safe to predict that maize will continue to be grown as long as meat, milk and eggs are popular articles of diet.

The World’s Barley.—The available statistics of barley production are as follow: Barley Crops of the World (in thousands of quarters of 4oolb.) 1890 e

T900

1913

India, Japan and Korea booa Southern Hemi-

sphere.

.

à.

Total (without Russia)

the north, or south of the equator

English farmers obtained in 1927 over 10/— per 1ralb. for Nate samples and expressed themselves as satisfied with the price. t can perhaps be said there has been no general or serious reduc-

tion in oats growing in recent years and no such reduction appears likely if this cereal will fetch as much money as wheat. Expressed in units of 6olb., oats do not always yield so well

1926

1927

31 of wheat. In France the yields are 20% units of 6olb. for both

62,600] 70,000] 9,600 | 27,200]

8,500]

82,770! 35,610]

80,700 42,700

9,000]

12,400]

7,840]

9,700

25,300 | 24,500|

33,500|

30,720|

27,600

2,400|

3,900]

3,000

1,100

1,200

94,300 | 106,900 | 145,500 | 160,840 | 163,700

Russia

*21,200 | 128,300 |**69,000 | [31,000 | $28,000

Grand Total

the best oats grow towards towards the south.

605

wheat and oats; but in the United States oats make a much better . | 48,700] 10,700

North Africa .

TRADE

as wheat, the figures for Great Britain being 25 of oats against

(without

poor North America

AND

. | rr5,500 | 135,200 | 185,500 | 191,840 | 191,790

*6o governments; [71 governments; **72 governments; [Soviet Russia.

This table does not give a full list of the world’s barley crops,

relative showing with 17 units against 144 units of wheat. The World’ s Rye.—The statistics aof rye production follow:

here

Rye Crops of the World (in thousands of quarters of 48o0lb.) a Se

ussia).

1900 ee

North America

Argentina

IQI3

1926

1927

64,600 | 74,700]

95,600]

3,300

83,880]

5,100

92,600

6,270

9,100

ee 32300

;

Total _ (without Russia) Russia

k

100

400

390

860

67,900 | 78,100 | 101,100! 90,540 | 102,560 *87,500 |f117,000 |§116,000 |tras,o00 |t100,000

Grand total the two chief omissions being those of Asia Minor and Iraq, both 1553400 | 195,100 | 217,100 | 195,540 | 202,560 of which are important in the international trade, especially the *60 governments; f7o governments; §73 governments; {Soviet Russia. latter which, together with Persia, in 1927 furnished more feeding grows Minor Asia country. other any _ than Rye is a very valuable bread grain, but its cultivation is not Britain Great to barley moderate quantities of fine malting barley. Palestine and Syria increasing. The figures given in the crop table seem to contrai dict this statement, for fair aggregate increases are shown since also grow barley on a small scale, Barley is of ancient lineage, probably the equal of wheat in 1900, apart from Russia. It is quite true that larger crops are cing grown in North America, and Argentina has made a small this respect; it is of the greatest importance to agriculture and cattle raising. There has been curtailment of cultivation in Russia, extension of her rye acreage, but Europe is not growing more rye, but the crop is holding its own in other lands and tending to in- or if there is any increase it is. not important. The European crop, crease. The experience of 1927 however proved that supplies are exclusive of Russia, shows a bigger total than in the former years, not fully equal to requirements and the scarcity is likely to be- but previous to 1914 Poland and the small Baltic States (Estonia, come more evident as time goes on. This remark applies both to Lithuania, Latvia) were all included in Russia. It cannot be malting and feeding sorts, the supply of the former having been doubted that rye will continue to be cultivated in northerly rereduced by the unseasonable weather of the European summer gions, for at present there is nothing to replace it as a bread grain. of 1927, Rye is not a heavy yielding grain, the outturn in Germany Barley is a dual purpose grain; it is used for malting and distilling and also for animal food, being especially valuable for averaging 21 bushels per acre compared with 26 bushels of wheat; fattening pigs. The best qualities are bought for malting pur- in the United States the yield is 12 bushels compared with 144 poses, the lower ones go to the distillers, and the poorest sorts bushels of wheat; the comparisons are made in bushels of 60 Jb. are ground up for meal. The average barley yield in Great BritTHE GRAIN MARKET ain, expressed in bushels of 6olb. is 27; in the United States 204; in Germany 23. , Developments in grain trading since war control was removed The World’s Oats.—The following table gives the available in Great Britain have resulted in a reduced volume of trade on figures for oats: the London market, which was formerly pre-eminent in this business by reason of the large surplus supplies which the United The Oat Crops of the World Kingdom imported, the financial facilities available in London, (in thousands of quarters of 32elb.) together with well-placed ports of call in the South of England 1900 IQI3 1926 1927 and Ireland to which laden ships could be sent to await orders. Among the causes of reduction are the larger imports made by Europe (without Continental countries and the efforts of exporters to sell direct to Russia) . : 128,500 134,600 191,600 IQI,Q00 184,200 93,000 155,000 163,700 164,900 North America the importers; the formation of farmers’ pools in Canada and 59,400 Southern HemiTT

sphere,

|ATA

TD

ES | eS

a

ain

on

, ID, |

Total (without Russia) . .

Russia

Grand total

NT

|

ST

te

190,100 | 231,800 | 356,500

3553300

*79,000 | T99,000 260,100 | 321,800

{90,000

455,490

*60 governments; +71 governments; §73 governments; {Soviet Russia, In addition to the crops included in the above table there are a

few others but they are unimportant. The oats crop can be described as the friend of the poor man and the good servant of his richer neighbour. It grows and flourishes where sunshine is scanty and the land not very fertile, but

at the same time it well repays the care of the good farmer and

brings forth heavier yields on the better soils. Speaking generally,

Australia which seek to obtain higher prices for growers by cutting out merchants and brokers—where possible the pools sell | full cargoes direct to millers; the formation of millers’ combines with the object of buying large quantities direct from shippers, both brokers and merchants being ignored in these operations,

Movements of Wheat.—The statistics in the table on the

next page show the world’s commerce in wheat. Exports of wheat have nearly doubled since 1900-01. The new

competitors for a share of the international trade have not only supplied all the additional exports, but also made good the loss of most of the European supply. There is plenty of additional land in Canada, Argentina and Australia to enable shippers to sell still larger quantities, and there are millions of potential buyers and consumers in Asia and Africa, but they have yet to acquire a taste for wheaten bread and sufficient money to pay for it, Altera-

GRAIN

606

PRODUCTION

Igoo—-1 sla

Russia . Danubian countries . Canada ; United States Argentina Australia . India

9,600] 19,200

——

o

1923-4 | 1924-5 | 1926-7

100

5,000! 7,500 700 . | 2,900! 11,800 | 18,700] 28,100] 13,400 | 33,000] 5,000] 10,300 | 16,700] . 4] 2,300| 6,600] 11,000] 600] 6,200 200|

2,900

300|

6,200

2,100] 1,800 43,100] 24,300} 15,700] 31,700] 21,500] 15,300] 10,500] 15,200] 3,300] 6,500)

2,700 36,800 24,800 17,400 13,000 1,000

Total all exporting countries (including other minor countries not mentioned above) .

6,000} 7

76,000 | 83,000 | 100,000} $ 39 3

9

96,000 | 105,000 3

Net Imports of Wheat & Flour (Reckoned as Wheat) (in thousands of quarters of 48olb.) AveragejA verage

IQO9—I4| 1919—22

Importing countries of Europe Non-European countries .

1924-5

48,000] 65,000 | 72,000 | 70,000|

II,000

81,000

15,000

Total Imports British Isles . France . :

Italy . Belgium

.

Holland.

Germany Czechoslovakia Greece . Egypt Japan

23,300 1,500 4,700

4,900

2,000 6,200

8o00

300 300

25,900 73300 TI,300 4,100 2,400 6,800 1,800 1,400 1,100 1,300

8,000 8,800 5,000 3:300 3:700 2,600 2,300 1,000 3,800

The figures for the war years are necessarily countries.

TRADE

and No. 1, No. 2 and No. 3 Manitoba to afford a definite basis of transactions. In this respect the business in North American

Net Exports of Wheat & Flour (Reckoned as Wheat) (in thousands of quarters of 48olb.)

Area

AND

II,O000 4,900 33400 10,100 2,700 2,600 1,100 2,000

incomplete for some

grain is done on terms differing from those adopted by othe exporting countries.

United

States and

Canadian

Trading—In

the United

States and in Canada the system of government inspection of grain for settling grades is very efficient, and the certificate of

the government inspector is accepted as final. By far the greater part of the grain business in the United States is in connection with produce intended for national consumption or manufacture and the terms agreeable to American buyers have therefore to be accepted by importers. In Canada the relative size of overseas trade is much greater, but the system of inspection and grading is even more precise than in the United States and is frankly accepted by importers. In dealing with Argentina, whence the tropical passage may cause the grain to deteriorate on the voyage the contract’s basis throws this risk on the shoulders of the

exporter and wheat is sold with a guarantee of natural weight and good condition to be verified at discharge of the grain. Wheat from Australia is sold as average at time of shipment about equal to the official standard, and somewhat similar stipulations are made in the special contract form for Indian wheat, with a guarantee in case of damage by weevil, or deterioration by the excessive mixture of barley or any other extraneous matter. Russian wheat is now sold on sample. The practice of grading wheat and other grain has spread from

North America to other countries, but lacking the complete elevator systems, these cannot deal with all their crops on the basis of grades. Millers’ Purchases.—By far the larger portion of the world’s wheat crop finds its way to the flour mill although some considerable quantity is used for cattle or poultry food. The miller is in most cases the original buyer of grain for British ports, to be discharged direct from the ship into his warehouse communicating with the mill, by grain elevators and conveyors. In the British grain trade today there is very little scope for the merchant who formerly purchased a wheat cargo for apportionment in suitable quantities amongst the smaller mills.

Futures.—Apart from direct sales of overseas wheat to millers, considerable business is done by traders who buy wheat for shiptions in the sources of supply have been many and varied within ment and, either immediately or later, sell a similar quantity for the memory of the oldest traders. Baltic ports were once important delivery at a future period. This future delivery trading, known shippers, but they were pushed out of the trade by South Russia also as marché à terme or mercado á término, originated in the and the Eastern states of America, then came California and United States and has been established at Liverpool for over India, and finally the great inland States of America, the vast half a century. It was adopted at Buenos Aires in 1908 and is prairies of Canada, the fertile plains of Argentina and the vast now carried on at Winnipeg. There are future delivery exchanges, spaces of Australia, measured in millons of square miles. including grain contracts at several other American markets, also London Corn Trade Association.—The usages and terms of at Paris, Berlin, Rotterdam, Genoa, Milan, etc. At Chicago futures the London market are matters within the competence of the trading is established for wheat, maize, oats, barley and rye, at London Corn Trade Association, a corporate body including mem- Winnipeg for wheat, oats, barley and rye; at Buenos Aires for bers of all grain trade firms of consequence in Great Britain, on wheat, maize and oats; in Liverpool wheat absorbs the chief attenthe Continent of Europe, and among exporters of North and South tion and this is also the case in other big markets. It may be America, of India, Australia and Africa. Brokers and traders in considered as essential that, to avoid cornering, a future delivery all the principal ports of Britain find it advantageous to belong exchange should have an ample available supply of such qualities to this Association. Most of those. not strictly connected with of wheat as are in favour with millers; in other words, the exLondon are members of their own local associations, of which the change should be located on a main route of transit between the Liverpool Corn Trade Association is the most important, followed grower and the consumer. Unless this condition is fulfilled the by those of Hull, Bristol, Leith, Antwerp, Hamburg, Genoa, etc. business organization seldom succeeds. The main object of these associations is the protection of the By means of one or other of these exchanges the farmer can, common interests, by defining terms of contract, by providing if he chooses to do so, sell his crop of wheat whenever the price for arbitration in cases of dispute, and by taking measures to suits him, months before it is ready for the reaper, and thus pracuphold the rights of traders against infringement. tically eliminate any risk of falling prices. The miller who has The predominance of North America in the grain markets of purchased a cargo of wheat can sell an equal quantity in the form the world is an outstanding fact, and it is not too much to say of contracts for future delivery. Naturally he will not find this ‘that the wheat quotations of Chicago andi Winnipeg are those course desirable unless there is an apparent profit between the

‘most ‘regarded as deciding the course of the world’s grain trade price paid for his cargo, and that obtainable for future delivery from day to day; but it must be said that the importance of of wheat. The miller has to buy wheat for his mill, and if be ‘Buenos Aires quotations is steadily increasing as' Argentina crops

‘bécome greater and trade in River Plate produce steadily expands. ‘Im some seasons the Chicago. price is all-important; in others it shares supremacy with Winnipeg. The qualities quoted are so well known that it is needful‘only to mention No. 2 Hard Winter,

makes contracts for future delivery his next enterprise: is to sell

the flour to be manufactured later, and, as he achieves this, to ‘buy in his wheat contracts. He thus makes four transactions in place of the simple purchase of wheat abroad and the sale. of flour at home. Te

GRAIN

PRODUCTION

AND

TRADE

PLATE

Td ES ala ig

PHOTOGRAPHS,

EWING

GALLOWAY

LARGE

SCALE

METHODS

OF STORING

1. Modern grain elevator built by the State of Louisiana Its storage capacity is over 2,500,000 bushels, and pacity 7,200 bu. per hour. Elevator (left) consists crete bins, open at the top and filled through chutes is unloaded from barges or railroad cars by suction elevator,

then

loaded

into

ocean

steamers

AND

at New Orleans. its sacking caof tubular con(fig. 3). Grain tubes, stored in

for shipment

to

foreign

markets 2. Grain elevator along the Lake Erie waterfront at Buffalo, to which wheat is shipped by steamer from Duluth and other Great Lake ports, for transport by the barge canal to Atlantic ports. The illustration shows (centre) concrete bins and (right) covered elevators

3. Interior of upper

structure

of the elevator

in fig. 1, showing

chutes

SHIPPING

GRAIN

IN THE

UNITED

STATES

which distribute grain Into the round bins. The chutes and can be turned to reach several bins in their radius

are jointed

4. Suction unloader removing grain from a steel barge for storage in waterfront elevator. A barge can be emptied In a few minutes by this method 5. Filling a barge with wheat in St. Louls, for shipment via the Mississippi river to New Orleans. Covered bins, fitted with weather-proof hatches, keep the wheat in prime condition during shipment 6. Blackboard located on the scale floor of a large grain elevator in Jersey City, showing complete record of the bin number, kind of grain and date of storage. Circle indicates the bins, contents of which may be weighed on one scale

GRAIN

PRODUCTION

AND

TRADE

607

Settlement of Price Differences.—Future trading involves,

Barley Movements.—The statistics of the commerce in barley

in effect, a daily settlement by seller and buyer alike of the dif-

are of great interest to those acquainted with the trade since 1goo.

ference in price arising from market fluctuations, and a payment

Exports of Barley (in thousands of quarters of 4oolb.)

by both parties at the time of making the contracts of a cash margin according to the regulations which form part of the contract stipulations. The penalty for non-payment of difference at

the appointed time is the immediate sale or purchase, as the case

may be, of all contracts standing in the name of the defaulting member in the clearing house registry.

The latest futures market to be established is at Johannesburg im South Africa, where trading is done in maize only. The wheats tenderable against the Liverpool future delivery (Graded Wheat) contract are Canadian Spring Wheat; American Red Wheat and Spring Wheat; Soft Winter Wheat and Hard Winter Wheat, Argentine Wheat (northern type and southern

IQOO-I Russia Poland í Balkan countries North America .

North Africa Argentina . . Czechoslovakia .

Hungary . .f Other countries

4,900 2,000 goo goo

|IQIO-11 23,900

3,400 1,300 1,000

1,400 | xr,000 1,700 | 1,600

type) and Australian wheat; but no wheat in tenderable which is unsuitable for general milling purposes.

Imports of Barley by Chief Receiving Countries (in thousands of quarters of 4oolb.)

Movements of Maize.—There have been great changes in the sources of supply of this cereal, but on the whole the trade has flourished. Exports of Maize (in thousands of quarters of 48olb.)

Average IQO0—I|TOQIO—11/1916 to 1920

Argentina

._

Balkan countries

4,000 5,500

9,500 7,100 6,900 5:300 800 2,100

10,300

Poea United Kingdom and Ireland Holland

Belgium France

The moderate exports in 1900-01 were below the average of that period, for Russia and Balkan countries alone were then averaging shipments of about 10,000,c00qrs. yearly. By 1910-11 ss 700 100 700 . the Russian trade had reached its highest point and a very active shipping business was being done, The great bulk of the Russian 29,900] 31,700 | 15,800 Total barley went to Germany, to feed the herds of pigs on which the Germans relied to provide the fats and meats which formed such Imports of Maize (in thousands of quarters of 48olb.) a large part of their dietary. But the war cut off the Russian supply almost as completely as if it did not exist, and the blank Average shown for the period 1916-20 testifies to a complete stagnation IQOO—I|1gIoO—-11/1916 to] 1923-4 | 1925-6 of the trade even in the years immediately subsequent to the war. The war being followed by revolution in Russia, when trading was United Kingdom subsequently resumed it was soon found that the former supplies and Ireland 13,200 were not forthcoming; to add to the scarcity the Soviet govern6,400 Germany ment advised the peasants to grow wheat instead of feeding gram, 1,600 Holland 1,400 France . probably for financial reasons, because the sale of a cargo of 1,700 Belgium wheat around 50/— per 48olb. brings much more money into the Denmark . 500 treasury than the sale of a cargo of feeding barley around Italy . . I,I00 30/—. The malting barley supply is furnished by other and widely Czechoslovakia separated lands, of which the chief are California and Chili, but Scandinavia TOO smaller quantities are obtained from Asia Minor and Australia, Maize growers have grumbled at the prices obtained but they and lower qualities from India, Canada and North Africa. On the British markets the supplies of home grown and foreign have continued to ship. In the case of Argentina the quantities exported have steadily grown until the trade is now on a vast barley used to be about equal in quantity, so that brewers and scale, and moreover it appears likely to increase. The British maltsters could select the desired quality from either source, but Empire does not figure prominently as a maize exporter. The times have changed and in 1927 foreign descriptions were much African supplies are uncertain, the Canadian climate is not suit- less than the home crops, to the great advantage of the British able, and Australia finds the international price too low. India grower. The suitability of barley for malting is one of the technican consume all the home crop in a normal year. As maize con- cal studies of the grain trade and a really accurate judgment on tains a larger percentage of moisture than wheat, it is more likely a particular sample is not an easy matter. Of the feeding barley to spoil if shipped soon after harvest, or during the germinating trade in Great Britain, Bristol is the chief centre. Sales are always made per 4colb. and the contracts expressly stipulate that season. The units for maize sales on the international market are a imported barley shall not contain more than a fixed percentage quarter of 48olb. or a metric ton of 1,000 kilos (2,204-6lb.). of foreign matter, e.g., 3% or 5%. It was found necessary many American maize is sold on grade, the certificate of the U.S. grader years ago to fix definitely the amount of foreign matter tolerated, being final. Argentine maize is sold as fair average quality and because at one time it seemed the Russian peasant was trying-to shippers guarantee the outturn weight of the bags on arrival at ship the family acres to importing countries and charge them as this'side, and of course the quality and condition must be right barley. ; The higher qualities of malting and distilling barleys are-mostly to conform to the description “fair average.” South African and Kenya maize are also graded by the Government and sales are sold: per 448lb. the lower qualities per 4oolb. but this rule is not made on the basis of the official inspection certificate. The unit adhered to strictly, for so-called Chilian Forage is sold per 448lb. for “futures” (forward deliveries) and spot sales in Liverpool is and on the other hand some good Asia Minor sorts are sold per oolb. es a Toolb.; in America the bushel of 56lb. is the legal unit. In South Africa and East Africa the bag of 200lb. is always employed for g Movements of Oats.—The world’s commerce in oats is shown 2 > l statistics and sales. 7 in the following tables: United States

Russia . South Africa Other countries

19,600 700

4,100

GRAIN

608

PRODUCTION

Exports of Oats (in thousands of quarters of 320lb.)

A

IQO0O~E |IQIO-z7 SS

Argentina . . North America Russia ;

Poland

Balkan countries

ES |

1923-4 | 1925-6 | 1926-7

Ee

|

3:100 | 3,300] 900] 9,500]

i

t0;809

NE

| NS

3,800] 3,800] o0

3,500] 6,200] IOO

490

300

y

I,200

Other countries _ Total

|

1,500]

1,000]

|a

4,000 1,600 100

Joo]

2,500}

800 a

1,600]

1,000

17,000 | 17,500 | 13,900 | t1,400 | 12,400

47,500

Imports of Oats by Chief Receiving Countries (in thousands of quarters of 320lb.) Ig00-1 |IQIO-II Average 1923-4 | 1925-6 | 1926-7 1916-20

United Kingdom and Ireland Germany Holland

Belgium France

Italy

eaten ema e

8,200 2,900 900 400 2,300 200

5,700

3:400

3,900

500 800 4,000 1,100

200 200 4,000

600

2,800

3,190 2,100 700 1,000 '

600 200

2,100

1,300 800

600

1,700 I,100 700 600 106 800

AND

TRADE

The international trade was never greatly interested ip the rye business. In pre-war time Russia was the chief source of supply and Germany the chief buyer, but when the latter had à good harvest her exports exceeded her imports. A good deal of the rye was exported across Russia’s land frontiers and the bulk of the trade was done direct between shippers in Russian ports and trading centres and German importing houses. The United States is now the chief exporter of rye and seems likely to hold that position although Canada and Argentina are competing. But the trade does not expand nor is there any expectation that it will grow in the coming years. It may perhaps remain as at present on the other hand there is no indication of any appreciable use of rye as a bread grain amongst people who hitherto have used other food. It is fairly common for France, Italy and some Other countries to decree the admixture of a percentage of rye flour with wheaten flour, but this is increase by compulsion, for the millers stop the practice immediately they are free to do 80.

Czechoslovakia, Austria, Holland, Denmark and Scandinavia all import fair quantities. Rye is sold on British markets per quarter of 48olb. and on the

Continent the units are the quintal (220-46lb.) and the metric ton of ten quintals. In North America rye is graded officially in

the same

way as other grain and is there sold per bushel of

561b. British Sources of Grain Supply.—In the following tabular

statements

are shown the countries which

furnished the grain

The international trade in oats has decreased in recent years and the figures of exports and imports in the table show that the

and flour imported by Great Britain and Ireland in 190-62 and

those handled formerly. The contract terms for the sale of Argentine and North American oats are the same as for other grain.

supply. It will be noted that whereas British imports of flour, maize, barley and oats had fallen in the latter year, imports of wheat had risen.

quantities exchanged on the world market are only one half of

Sales on the international market are now all made per quarter of 320lb., or metric tons of 2,204-6lb,; previous to the war the size of the quarter varied, some qualities being always sold at 304lb. and some at 320lb. British oats are sold per cwt. of r12lb. or per quarter of 3cwt., the former being the only legal unit. The unit in North America is a bushel of 32lb., so that 10 bushels make one quarter of 32olb.

The British trade in oats is chiefly in home grown grain; of the country’s ordinary requirements over 80% is produced in the British Isles, and a very large proportion is used locally for dairying or other cattle food and horse provender.,

Movements of Rye.—Next follow the figures for the world’s

commerce in rye:

Exports of Rye (in thousands of quarters of 48o0lb.)

North America

2,800

Russia

2,000 800

6,206

Poland Balkan States

300

I,500

IOO

Argentina . Hungary . .

Other countries

Ioo

400

300

400

700 600

100

3,200 1,900 400 300 790 IyIOO

I0,300

6,000 | 7,600

(in thousands of quarters of 48olb.)

‘d Holland

Scandinavia

.

Denmark Finland France BA Czechoslovakia

i

|a

È

aam

fa

| segaran

1,000 109 1,200 1,300 | ¥,t00 | 600 | 1,500 | r,100 866 | 260 | 3,260 | 1,606 496 ees as 1660 | 1,100 400 na

600 |

$ s4 *Smaill exports in these years.

300

i3

200

700

Atlantic ú America 7,169,600} 6,173,200] 1,015,800] 78,800| 299,900 Pacific America 2,677,000] 95,400 739,900 Russian Empire 691,200] 28,900] 1,420,300] 2,460,500 | 3,757,000 Dominion of Canada 11,895,800] 1674,400 80,700 12,300] 148,100 ArgentinaUruguay . | 1,368,700] 124,700 | 2,814,500 6,500; 309,800 Commonwealth of Australia . | 1,727,300} 114,300 si goo India 1,686,500 Da 39,100 2,700 1,800 Rumania 290,900] 10,500] 4,598,000] 1,351,200] 381,300 Bulgaria 109,000 135,606] 44,800 2,400

Turkey in Asia Turkey in Europe

100

800

57,709]

Empire . Francé >. .

Chii

ungary

.

300 900

860 600 450 S00

.

¥;200|

288,500

4,700

1,400] .

43,100 a

IOO 41,800]

couhtriés

1,600]

sts

78,800

10,700]

be 26, 700

7,400

6,400

0,000

oe

86,406

74,500 63,100 54,000

sy

16,300

192,606 | t,r51,600 46,000| 48,700

P

ots

1,300] .

1800

bs IO

Denmark

Totals.

69,300

8,200] :

be

a

71,700|

12,400 291,560

a

.

125,700

4,600)

Holland .

Mordécto. Algeria . Tripoli . Other

924,200|

262,900)

21,400

New Zealand.

405,200]

100]

ue

.

1,000

22,400

rman

Norway

. z | 1925~6 g | t926+7 Í Igoo-t |Igro+x1 Average| 1915-20 1923-4 |CN

Wheat Flour Maize | Barley | Oats (qrs. (sacks (qrs. (qrs. (qrs. 48olb.) | 280lb.) | 48olb.) | 4oolb.) | 320lb.)

Belgium Egypt . . Sweden and

Imports of Rye by Chief Receiving Countries

Tas

Imports from Various Countries into Great Britain and Ireland 1901-02

si les

D

| Total

1926-27, with the quantities received ffom each source of

2,900|

4,800]

bs

13,900 sa

109,300

16,300

44,300

8,000

S

8,900

|17,726,too| 7,885,500 |10,831;400] 6,416,600 | 6,227,200

*Somie of this may have been produced in Canada; tsome of this may have been produced in the U.S.A.

GRAIN

Maize | Barley Oats (sacks qr. (qr. (qr. 28olb.) | 48o0lb.) | 4oolb.) S5clb) leat rieVe eee [*8,587,500)"1,296,000] 150,500| 1,212,500] 109,500

OI ek United States

Canada . Argentina

17,795;500|[2,175,500] 2,000| +437,500| 31773;000] 314,000) 7,451,000} 80,9000]

Australia

563,500

Russia . British India Germany

.

T

334,000 707,500 Si

142,000] ag 500

584,000 18,500 2,500

2,500)

57,000

9,500

500

17,000

14,500

509

5,000

500}

49,500]

284,500

ie 405,000 dy

1,000 1,500 63,500 3,000

oe 6,000 Sus $2

Uruguay

9,500 eh 71,000

9,500

Irish Free

State .

28,500

Denmark Poland . Rumania France .

te

= 27,500

Sweden .

és

Persia Italy Latvia Egypt

53,500

500] I,500 29,500

Belgium . Netherlands

PRODUCTION

ka 9,000 6,000 .

;

3,500

Madagascar . Turkey in Asia Turkey in Europe . Kenya Colony South Africa Port. East Africa ili Spain Czechoslovakia North Africa . Mesopotamia. AustriaHungary . New Zealand. Brazil n Other countries Totals.

ay

27,000

232,000 as i

ni

be 104,500 1,500 222,500 41,000

15,500| 6,000

1,000 500 500

S 3,500

2,50ọỌ|

12,000

= 2,500

1,000

is

se

287,500] je

374,Q00 si

54,500 122,000 262,000

we 3,500 gis 1,500 i

8,000

1,000

*Some of this may have been produced in Canada; fsome of this may have been produced in U.S.A.

Factors of the British Loaf.—The average quartern loaf sold in Great Britain at the beginning of the century and in.1927 was made from wheat grown in the following countries and in the TURE. )

{See also FLOUR AND FLOUR MANUFAC4

or expressed

OF GRAIN

the table on the next page are those current on Nov. 15. This

date is selected because at that time all the important crops of the world have been harvested and their outturns officially estimated; in the case of the southern hemisphere, the crops are sufficiently advanced to permit of reasonably accurate forecasts of outturn, so that the new supplies have exerted their influence on the leading markets, although not their full influence, which is felt later on when the movement is in full swing throughout the whole world. English Wheat Prices.—There are records of the prices of

English wheat dating back to 1656, the figures for the more distant years having been originally published by Mr. T. Smith, Melford, The records start with 38/2 in 1656; in the fifty years 1678 to 1727 the average was 40/8; 1728 to 1777, 37/0; 1778 to 1827, 66/9; 1828 to 1877, 54/6; 1878 to 1927, 39/9,—all per

The highest point in recent times was

81/1, the average for the year 1920, and the lowest point was 26/9 in the year 1903. FREIGHTS

transport costs gave British farmers an effective protection of about 10/— per quarter. Sir J. Caird writing in 1880 put the figure lower than this, however, and reckoned 30/— per ton or about 6/6 per quarter. But events proved that even the latter figure was

much too high for by rgoo the average freight on the wheat imports of the British Isles was no more than 3/6 per quarter. It was higher in 1927, namely 4/7 per ar., but this must be considered a modest advance, especially as much greater quantities are now coming on long voyages from Vancouver and Australia. The following tabular statements illustrate the points mentioned :— Quantity of Wheat and Wheaten flour (as wheat) imporied into the United Kingdom from various sources during the calendar year 1927, together with the average rate of freight.

Quantities

Countries of origin

qrs. 480lb.

Russia

1926-27

or expressed . in percentages 28 17 28

Ocean freight Total cost of to United ocean Kingdom per 48olb.

carriage

£ Atlantic America Pacific America

723793950

Pacific Canada.

Average Content of Quariern Loaf IgoI-02 IgoI-02

PRICES

The comparative prices of wheat and feeding grain given in

Many years ago the belief was held rather widely that ocean

24,910,500] 4,481,000} 8,550,500 | 3,594,000 | 1,937,000

proportions mentioned.

609

same time try to export. A good trade is done by the big exporters with Africa, the Orient, East and West Indies, Central and South America.

GRAIN

4,500 500

16,000

TRADE

quarter of 489 pounds,

500

1,000 1,000

AND

i

y

.

Atlantic Canada... Argentina and Uruguay . Belgium . . . ., India Holland Persia

Germany

:

.

Australia . Other countries

2,849,050

1,044,700

574500 7:950,000 4,928,000 52,500 1,170,000 37,000 23,500 80,000 4,234,000 143,500

86,200 1,093,100

T5552,909 :

.

4

767,800 509,100

1,396,300

4,000 263,300 1,800 52399 7:009

I,817,109

DN NYHOHBRHPRUNHWUN NOADWOGOBHRH ONO 14,300

2

Argentina

.

Russia a a ee Rumania and Bulgaria ` Others tae > ate

The Flour Trade.—The British trade in imported flour was at

one time important and represented as much as 25% of the total British supplies, but now it is only 10.4%, and the reduced trade

is maintained with difficulty owing to the fierce competition of British millers. The United States and Canada are the main sources of supply with Australia a bad third. The United States

and Canada ship to free trade Holland and a few other Continental countries, but foreign flour is mostly barred out by high Import tariffs. Practically every civilized country being overmilled, all, or nearly all, protect their home markets and at the

Total

30,965 OQO

£7,070,090

A comparison of the figures for 1927 with those of 1900 shows how greatly British Empire supplies have increased since the beginning of the twentieth century, a result largely due to the modern development of transportation.

Between the years 1872 and rgoo freights declined about 2/r1 per qr. (480lb.) but this was a mere trifle compared with the fall of wheat prices. From rg0o to 1927 freights rose about 1/1 per qr. but wheat in Liverpool rose no less than 21/— per quarter. It is an indisputable fact that freights influence grain prices, but the latter are affected so strongly by supply and demand that usually the resulting price movements quite overshadow any fluctuations caused by variations in freight rates. The following data

AND

PRODUCTION

GRAIN

610

TRADE

Quotations of 15th November

Maize

Wheat

Chicago No. 2 Red

Winnipeg No. xr. N.

winter (cents per bushel futures) IQI

i

IQI5 m9t6

D

1923,

Feodine Chi. : lings per 400 Ib. EorANE CE.)

aoe a tiata (shillings er 2olb. C C.if.) P 3201b.

ae,

London La Plata

Home-grown | (shillings per . ib (shillings per 48olb. Cif) 48olb. spot)

———$

ee

LL

34

46

IIQ

3I

21

20

16

35

25

28

24

e

. .

; . .

108 184

»56 77

53 69

76 83 62

70 72 73

38 60 75 90 65

40 62

217 223 227

104 200 221 224 224

42 77 73

32 4I 61 64 sÅ

. . .

. ` $

188 IIQ II7

21I III 106

118 5I 53

90 46 42

55 32 35

64 3I 20

40 24 24

-

+

a T9024 I925 > 1926,

1027,

|

83

II4

5

178 480lb. spot) `

(shillings per

TT

rte

|

England and Wales

Oats

m

IQl7 1918. . I9IQ 1920 IQ2I IQ22

A

Manitoba (cents per bushel futures)

88

;

5

.

&

TR

|

ong eens trae

. ao

Barley

Percentage

.

IOS

à

y >

ao è

eS advance

1913 to 1927

46

40

144

167 I40 140

48

73

130

trom

97

156 164 138

Quantities grs. 48olb.

Kingdom

Atlantic America South Russia Pacific America Canada . Rumania a Argentina and Uruguay . France a ee ee Bulgaria and Rumelia India . i Austria-Hungaria Chii . . . North Russia Germany . Australasia Minor countries

Total

IL,171,I00 569,000 2,389,900 1,877,100 176,400 4,322,300 251,900 30,600 2,200 389,300 600 462,700 438,700 883,900 225,100

23,190,800

s è d. 2 3 2 2 8 I 2 8 2 6 4 to I 3 2 6 4 o I 9 de I 6 I 6 6 2

5 6

52

70

62

47

42

ne

. Calendar | Price per | By lake | By lake year bushel | and canal | and rail

EAG £ 1,257,100 62,000 966,000 250,000 22,000 1,045,000 16,000 4,000 400 34,000 a 35,000 33,000

284,000 28,000

Aggregate cost of carriage

d.

£

“a Qa PRWwWvHwWoan

3,040,000 5,420,000 3,041,000 3,825,000 3,258,000 4,036,000 7,070,000

American Interior Freights.——As Great Britain and Ireland still draw large supplies from the United States, transport charges from Chicago to New York and thence to Liverpool have a direct bearing on prices at which exporting firms can offer to sell to importers. The following data give the price of the grain and the transport charges to Liverpool from Chicago. As Canada 1s. 1028. the leading grain exporter, it is of interest to compare her transport rates with those of the United States. In;1924 Mr. E. J. Horning, chief of the Internal Trade Division of the. Dominion Bureau of Statistics, issued a statement of the cost, of transporting 1,000 bushels of wheat from the centre of

28 23 24.

Annual Average Freight Rates on Wheat from Chicago via New York to Liverpool: 1881 to 1924 (average rates per bushel)

All rail

:

New York to Liverpool steamer

$ 1881

IQOL IQII I9I4 IQ2I 1922 1923 1924

cents 8°19 5°14

5°35 5°3t 10-29 11°63 10:94 8-67

cents

cents IO4. 5°57 5°23

14°4

9°02 7:80 7°80 17°16 16°15

6°54

I0‘OL II*93 12°43 10*92

I3'I5 13°15

fa may be noted that the rates in 1924 differed very little from those oft

1881.

Canada to Liverpool and his figures are shown in the statement given below:

6d | £4,036,500

9,469,000

14,850,000 16,229,000 25,197,000 23,431,000 23,196,000 30,965,000

26

44

bearing on the subject is partly taken from the Corn Trade Year Book:— freight United Kingdom Ocean to United annual imports Kingdom wheat and flour qrs. Per qr.

34

5o

Average

3s

32

30 28 33

Ocean freightiTotal cost of to United

per 48olb.

21

44 36 32

1900

. of origin . Countries

28

37

54 48 54

62 56 59

Dollars

Items

eu ale,

; is Freight by rail .. : Freight by inland waters . Ocean freight E E S Commission, profits, fees, loading and other handling charges . Insurance . . . . ‘

I50°00 82°92 62°10

Total

87:03 15°26

Cents per} Per cent

bushel | of total 38 2I I5

‘ :

22 4

397°31

The rate of 8-3 cents per bushel for water carriage, that is from the head of the Lakes to Montreal, compares with 8-67 cents

in the United States for transporting the same unit from Chicago

to New York, the distance for each voyage being practically the same. Comparative figures published in 1925 gave more definite

information on the point of land carriage. The charge for hauling 100 pounds for 650 miles in Canada was 22$c. compared with 32¢. in the United States; for hauling the same quantity a thousand miles, the charge in Canada was 23 cents against 43 cents in the United States, the latter haul being from a point in Montana to Duluth, but this rate evidently was not universal, for grain was hauled the thousand miles between Chicago and New York, all

rail, for the equivalent of 21-9 cents per 100 pounds. BrsriocrarHy.—American Institute of Agriculture: H. B. Price, Private Exchange and State Grain Inspection (1922), andand_ Market

Grades and Classes of Grain (1923); R. W. Chapin, Milling and

Manufacture

of Grain and

Grain Products

(1923); J. P. Haynes

Transportation of Grain (1923); J. H. MacMillan and B. L. Hargs:

Pr

GRAINS

OF PARADISE—GRAMMAR

Financing the Grain Industry (1923) ; J. M. Mehl, Co-operative Grain Marketing (1923); L. Sayre, Terminal Markets and Grain Exchanges

(1923); B. W. Snow, How to Interpret Grain Market Reports and Statistics (1923); W. J. Spillman, Picture of the Grain Industry (1923); J. H. Barnes, Exporting Grain and Cereal Products (1924);

J. D. Black, Cost of Marketing Grain (1924); U.S. Department of

Agriculture: E. G. Boerner, Handbook

of Official Grain Standards

jor Wheat, Shelled Corn, Oats and Rye (1924); U.S. Federal Trade Commission, Report on M ethods and Operations of Grain Exporters

(1924) ; U.S. Supt. of doc., Grain Futures Administration; Trading in

Grain Futures (1924) ; International Institute of Agriculture, International Year-books of Agricultural Statistics, 1909 to 1921, and 1924 to 1925 (Rome, 1921 and 1925) ; International (Monthly) Crop Reports

and Agricultural Statistics (1925); Chicago Board of Trade, Annual Report of Trade and Commerce

(1924); Memoria del Directorio del

Mercado & Término de Buenos Aires, Ejerciciones de 1920 hasta 1925 (Buenos Aires, 1925) ; London Corn Trade Association, Books of Con-

tract Forms (1924~25); Liverpool Corn Trade Association, Annual

Reports and Clearing House Regulations. Statistical abstract of the United States, and Broomhall’s Corn Trade Year-book. (G.J.S.B.)

GRAINS

OF PARADISE,

the seeds of Amomum Mele-

gueta, a reed-like plant of the Zingiberaceae family, also called guinea grains and Melegueta pepper. It is a native of tropical western Africa, and of Prince’s and St. Thomas’s islands in the Gulf of Guinea, and cultivated in other tropical countries. The seeds are contained in the acid pulp of the fruit and have a glossy

dark-brown husk, with a conical light-coloured membranous caruncle at the base and a white kernel. They contain a neutral essential oil, having an aromatic, not acrid taste and an intensely pungent, viscid, brown resin. Grains of paradise were formerly officinal in British pharmacopoeias, and in the 13th and succeeding centuries were used as a drug and a spice, the wine known as hippocras being flavoured with them and with ginger and cinnamon. They are now exported almost exclusively from the Gold Coast.

GRAM or GRAMME, the unit of weight in the metric sys-

tem, equivalent to 15-4323564 grains avoirdupois or to 0-2572 drachms (drams) or to 0-7716 scruples. This metric unit is very nearly equal (it was intended to be exactly equal) to the weight in a vacuum of one cubic centimetre of pure water at maximum density. See MEASURES AND WEIGHTS.

GRAM

or Cuicx-pra, called also Egyptian pea or Bengal

gram, Cicer arictinum, so named

from the resemblance of its

seed to a ram’s head. It is a member of the family Leguminosae, largely cultivated as a pulse-food in the south of Europe, Egypt and western Asia as far as India, but is not known undoubtedly

wild. The plant is an annual herb with flexuose branches, and alternately arranged pinnately compound leaves, with small, oval leaflets. The flowers are borne singly in the leaf-axils on a stalk about half the length of the leaf and jointed and bent in the middle; the corolla is blue-purple. The inflated pod, x to r$ in. long, contains two roundish seeds. It was cultivated by the Greeks in Homer’s time under the name erebinthos. Alphonse de

Candolle (Origin of Cultivated Plants) suggests that the plant originally grew wild in the countries to the south of the Caucasus and to the north of Persia. In the East the seeds are eaten raw or cooked in various ways, both ripe and unripe, and when roasted and ground serve the same purposes as. ordinary flour. In Europe the seeds are used as an ingredient in soups.

The seed of Phaseolus Mungo, or green gram, a form of which plant with black seeds is termed black gram, is an important article of diet among the labouring classes in India. A variety, var

radiatus, also known as green gram, is perhaps the most esteemed of the leguminous plants of India, where the meal of its seed enters into the composition of the more delicate cakes and dishes. Horse gram, Dolichos biflorus, which supplies in Madras the place of the chick-pea, affords seed which, when boiled, is extensively employed as a food for horses and cattle in south India, where also it is eaten in curries. See H. Drury, The Useful Plants: of India (1873); U. C. Dutt, Materia Medica of the Hindus (Calcutta, 1877); G. Watt, Dictionary of the Economic Products of India (1890).

GRAMINEAE, in botany, the grass family (see Grasses), comprising about 450 genera and 4,500 species. RAMM AR. According to the definition of the late Dr. Henry Sweet a grammar gives the general facts of language,

611

while a dictionary deals with the special facts of language. But the two domains frequently overlap, so that one and the same fact finds its place in the grammar as well as in the dictionary;

this is because in order to state a rule correctly we must also

state its limitations, z.¢., the special cases in which it does not hold good. If we give the rule that English substantives form their plurals in -s, we must add that besides this regular formation we have the irregular plurals men, women, oxen, etc. And as languages are not constructed after ideal patterns, such exceptions to the rules must necessarily take up much space in all books on grammar. To the ordinary man, grammar means a set of more or less arbitrary rules which he has to observe if he wants to speak or write correctly. This is especially the case if he is engaged in the study of a foreign language, but he is often led to the same point of view by the grammar of his own native language, as taught in schools. Grammar treated in this way may be called normative or prescriptive grammar. But to the scientific grammarian the subject has a different aspect: to him the rules are not what he has to observe but what he observes (in a different sense) when he examines the way in which speakers and writers belonging to a particular community or nation actually use their mother-tongue. His attitude towards linguistic phenomena is therefore much more that of a naturalist observing the facts of nature; he stands more objectively outside the language he is studying, and perhaps never has to form one single sentence in it for himself. This we term descriptive grammar. The grammatical observer, like the observer in other fields, seeks, wherever possible, to go beyond the mere facts in order to find their explanation. This is the function of comparative

historical grammar, a creation of the roth century (see PurtoLocy). Many things which seem strange from the point of view of merely descriptive grammar find their natural explanation when viewed in the light of earlier periods of the same language or of related languages. Take such an abnormal plural as

feet from foot: the historian finds that its long vowel goes back through a regular phonetic development to an earlier o¢@ which, wherever it was found, was treated in the same way (thus in feed, green, sweet) and like other 0e’s was a mutated form of a still earlier 6—the vowel that is better preserved in the singular foot, where, however, it has now been shortened and raised. ‘The mutation was here, as elsewhere, due to the existence of an earlier i in the final syllable, which was dropped in all analogous cases.

Now we know that the ending in the plural in the earliest Germanic was very often -iz, which corresponds toa still earlier -es, preserved in Latin and Greek; the form feet, which from the one-sided Modern English point of view was an isolated fact, is thus seen to correspond to the Greek plural rdédes and to be connected with that form through a long series of perfectly normal historical changes, which do not only affect such plural forms but find parallels in other words as well. The historical and comparative method of explaining grammatical facts has been carried to a rare degree of perfection, but it is clear that it can only be employed to the full where we have early linguistic documents of the same language or of nearly related languages to refer to. The

great majority of languages are only known to us in quite recent

stages; here, however, a similar method of explanation may be used if there are other now existing languages that are akin to that we are examining, and the comparative method then sometimes allows us within certain limits to reconstruct a common basis from which the several languages have started, as with the numerous African languages known as Bantu. Grammatical reconstructions should always be made with great caution, for the ways in which languages develop are not always easy to calculate. We may take the Romanic languages (Italian, French, Spanish, etc.) as a test case: all these languages have been known to us for several centuries; now in some cases it would be possible from existing forms in them to infer what the common basis must have been, and the forms thus reconstructed would agree pretty closely with the forms of what we know to have been the basis, namely Latin; but the method fails utterly,

"pe

612

GRAMMAR

as has been well remarked, with regard to many other forms: no one would be able, for instance, to conclude from the forms of Romanic substantives that Latin had ever had an accusative in -m, for the only remnant is French rien from Latin rem “a thing”

—and that now means “nothing” and can no longer be called an accusative. The method of comparative grammar was especially developed in the study of our own family of languages, the Aryan or IndoEuropean family (g.v.), and at a certain stage of its development scholars were naturally tempted to dwell on and to a certain

of the usual plural form: it is the old dual in -a, which is extended

to three and four. In dealing with any definite period of a language it is important

to state exactly which categories are found and which not, Qi

English had, but Modern English has not, a dative case. When the old forms were given up in the Middle English Period, traces

of them were still preserved in some survivals, e.g., in Chaucer of towne (with e pronounced as a separate syllable), yeer by yere by weste; a few isolated remnants exist still, though no longer

felt as separate case-forms: alive=“on life” (dat.), Atterbury “at the (dat.) borough.” In a sentence like “he gave his children food” or a phrase like “from his children,” Old English used the to one or a few of them. There was always a tendency to think form cildrum, while the form was cildru in the nominative and that these were survivals of primitive common phenomena which accusative plural. Now the distinction has disappeared. To say were lost in the other languages of the group. This may be true that English still uses a dative case in these combinations is just in some cases, but more often we see that something found in as unhistorical as to say that Normandy and Massachusetts still one language only is a recent development that has really noth- form parts of tbe British Empire. This does not, of course ing to do with the rest of the family and may constitute a new amount to denying that children in the sentence above is an in. grammatical type or phenomenon. Comparative grammar should direct. object, to be distinguished from the direct object (food), therefore always be supplemented by separative grammar which If we were to speak of a dative case here we might just as well does full justice to what is peculiar to each separate language and say that in “Tom and Mary are children” the last word is gramtreats each on its own merits. ; matically in the dual number, but who would say this? Differences of Structure—Languages differ very considerA word or form belonging to one grammatical category may ably in their grammatical structure; subtle nuances which in one in course of time be shifted insensibly into another one, Thus language are considered absolutely necessary are utterly dis- near at first was the comparative of nigh, with a superlative nex; ; regarded in others. Things which we should naturally look upon but in such a sentence as “Come near!” the meaning might be as belonging necessarily to the grammar of any language, are in equally well taken as “closer” or “close,” and thus the word other languages either not expressed at all or expressed by means passed into its modern use as a “positive” and it became possithat are utterly different from ours. We have separate forms for ble to form a new comparative and superlative nearer, nearest, the superlative, but French simply uses the comparative form while the old superlative next was specialized in its use, and nigh with a defining word: mon meilleur ami, “my best friend,” la became obsolete. chose la plus nécessaire, “the most necessary thing.” Semitic New grammatical categories may develop; examples are the verbs originally had no indications of the three time distinc- English “expanded” or “progressive” tenses: he is running, wos tions, past, present and future, but possessed two forms that running, has been running, etc., as distinct from ke runs, ron, showed whether an action was completed or not, no matter has run, The distinction between “absolute? (primary) and whether it was in the past, present or future time—distinctions “conjoint” (adjunctive) possessive pronouns, e.g., mine, yours as which were later partly utilized to show time relations as well. distinct from my, your, is another case in point. There is in some Chinese substantives have no separate forms for singular and languages a tendency in regard to personal pronouns to merge plural, and their verbs none for different tenses. Inversely, where the distinction of nominative and objective in that of conjoint and we have only one “third person,” American Indian languages absolute, the old nominative being used only when it stands in very carefully distinguish between the first and second “third immediate connection with a verb as subject, and the old objecperson” mentioned; the English sentence “John tald Robert’s tive in all other positions, This has become the rule in French, son that he must help him” is capable of six different meanings where je is used only in combinations like je dis, dis-je (I say, which in Chippeway would be carefully distinguished by different say I) and mot, which is the stressed form of the accusative me, forms of the pronouns for “he” and “him.” Many languages is found in c’est moi and Qui Fa dit? Moi (Who said it? I). In have separate reflexive pronouns, like Latin se, himself, herself, Italian we see similar tendencies, and in modern colloquial Engthemselves, suus his, her, their (own); these indicate identity lish me tends to supersede the literary Z in It is me and Who's with the subject of the sentence, but their sphere of application there? Me. l varies very considerably from one language to another; someAs languages are thus seen to be in constant flux, and as gramtimes they refer to all three persons, sometimes only to the third, matical categories may to a certain extent change from language sometimes only to the singular, not to the plural, etc. In the to language and even from one period to another—and as exotic oldest English we find siz as a reflexive possessive pronoun, but and “savage” languages possess many categories unknown to our afterwards this solitary survival of the reflexive pronouns begin- European languages, it will easily be understood how injurious it ning with s disappeared from English, while such forms are still is to a scientific conception of grammar to measure it always and found in German, Scandinavian, etc. everywhere by the same standard. But that is what grammarians Thus not only separate grammatical forms, but whole gram- of former centuries and even recent writers have been and are matical categories may be dropped in course of time. Generally in the habit of doing; for Latin was for centuries the only lanthis does not take place all at once but gradually, those forms guage studied grammatically, and its privileged position made which are in constant use being sometimes preserved for a long people think it a pattern by which to measure all other languages. time after the others have been given up. The old Aryan (Indo- Not only those languages that were similar in structure to Latin, European) languages had separate forms for the dual number, but even the most heterogeneous languages were indiscriminately distinct from the plural, but that distinction has been nearly saddled with the elaborate Latin system of tenses and moods. extent exaggerate those features that were common to these languages, and to take less account of features which were peculiar

universally lost. In Greek the dual was an archaism in Homer, though it lived on as a colloquialism in Attic till finally jt disappeared there too, In the oldest English a few pronominal

and by means of such Procrustean methods the actual facts of

use. In Russian the dual, which ended in -a, has left some curious traces which are no longer felt as a separate number: some words denoting parts of the body which are found in pairs, form theix plural in -2: glasa eyes, roga horns, etc.: after the numerals 2, 3,4 a form that looks like a genitive singular ís used instead

gth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, “The endeavour to find the distinctions of Latin grammar in that of English has only resulted in grotesque errors, and a total misapprehension of the usage of the English language.” Happily things are improving very

many languages were distorted and misrepresented.

Discrimina-

tions which had no foundation in reality were nevertheless insisted forms such as sc us two, inc you two, are the only survivals of on, while discriminations that happened to be non-existent in a separate dual, and from about 1250 they go completely out of Latin were apt to be overlooked. As A. H. Sayce writes in the

considerably in this respect.

GRAMMAR Spoken and Written Language—A modem philologist always looks upon the spoken language as the essential thing to

study; in languages with a traditional spelling he must constantly be on his guard against misconceptions arising from that

source. To the uniform English plural ending in the written words kings, dukes, princes correspond three different forms in the spoken language; on the other hand the French forms (je) donne, (tu) donnes, (ils) donnent, though differently spelt, are

the same in sound, and thus in numerous cases. Many things of

great grammatical importance, like intonation, stress, etc., are not shown in our traditional spellings. Grammars of spoken as distinct from written English have been written by Henry Sweet and Harold Palmer. Dialect grammars and grammars of the

languages of uncivilized races deal of necessity only with spoken ds.

613

“I saw that he came,” etc. There is no hard-and-fast distinction between full and empty words; ¢o in “I give food to the poor” has still something of its local meaning found in “go to London,” etc.

(3) Prefixes, e.g., for- in forbid, be- in besiege. (4) Infzes, e.g., n in Latin vinco, cf. the perfect vici, English stand, cf. stood, messenger, cf. message. (5) Suffixes, e.g., -ness in goodness, -en in blacken; these cannot be separated from such “inflexional endings” as -s in kings, -en in oxen. (3) (4) (5) together may be termed affixes. The origin of some of these is quite obvious: they were at one time independent words joined to other words like those in (1). A word may easily be accentually subordinated to another with which it is continu-

ally combined, especially if the combination acquires a meaning of its own, independent of that of each element, as in blackbird : Most grammars, at any rate most of those dealing with our in postman, the vowel of the second element is obscured, and in own family of speech, are built up in the traditional way with other cases further phonetic changes take place; gentlemanlike and gentlemanly show two stages in the development of a suffix the following main divisions:— I. Phonology. This treats of the general theory of the sounds from what was originally an independent word; for- in forgive is and sound-combinations of the language concerned, and expounds an old preposition, though perhaps not exactly identical with the ordinary for; be- is a weakened form of by. But it is not all the orthography, where there is occasion. II. Accidence or Morphology, the theory of forms (German affixes that originate in this manner from independent words: Formenlehre is a better term than those used in English). This -en in oxen originally belonged to the stem of the word in all its generally treats of the traditional “parts of speech” in their usual forms, and it was only through the accident of this syllable havorder, substantives, adjectives, etc. The main subject is the ing been lost in the singular, but not in the plural, that it came changes words undergo in flexion, paradigms being given which to be felt as an affix to denote the plural number. The origin of show all the forms of one and the same typical word; but the’ most of our affixes is hopelessly obscure. (6) Change in intonation, stress or quantity, e.g., Ves? with point of view is not pursued consistently, for under “numerals” we generally find an enumeration of all these words in their a rising tone in a question, Yes with a falling tone as an affirmanatural order, though most of them are subject to no formal tive answer; object with varying stress according as it is a substantive or a verb. changes. (7) Consonantal changes, e.g., send, sent; half, halve; use as III. Word-formation, dealing with prefixes, suffixes and other means of forming one word from another. a substantive with unvoiced, as a verb with voiced consonant.

=

THE SYSTEM OF GRAMMAR

IV. Syntax, generally in its first part taking the parts of speech separately as in IT. and stating the rules for the use of each case, tense, mood, etc. A second part then deals with word-order, etc. This system, which varies a good deal in details, has been repeatedly criticized (by J. Ries, Noreen, Jespersen), but no other systern has been universally accepted. In France, F. Brunot has proposed basing the teaching of grammar not, as is usually done, on the forms from which the pupils proceed to their syntactical use, but on the Inner meanings expressed by grammatical phenomena, stating in each case secondarily the external forms, etc., which are used to express them. As a matter of fact, grammatical phenomena can be viewed from two different angles: one that of the hearer (reader), to whom a certain series of sounds (letters) is presented, the inner meaning of which it is his task to understand: he begins from the outside and moves inwards; the other that of the speaker (writer): he has certain ideas which he wants to communicate to others; he therefore has to choose the forms (sounds, etc.) that serve best to express these ideas: he moves from within to without.

(8) Vocalic changes, e.g., feed, fed; see, saw; man, men; drink, drank, drunk. (6) (7) (8) are phonetic changes, which may be due to the most different causes; some are recent, others go back to the most remote times; some have only in various circuitous ways acquired significative grammatical importance.

(9) Combined changes, affixes like those in (3) (4) (5) being joined to phonetic changes like those in (6) (7) (8). Examples: forgot (3) (8), forgotten (3) (8) (5), drunken (5) (8), halves

(5) (7), men’s (5) (8), won't (5) (7) (8).

(ro) Supplementing with different stems: J, me, we, us; am, is, was, been; good, better. Some languages make a more extensive use of some of these grammatical means than of others. Chinese uses scarcely anything but word order and empty words: some languages are predominantly prefix-languages, as for instance, the Bantu family; others predominantly sufħx-languages, e.g., Eskimo and Turkish. As will be seen from the examples, English uses all these means freely, though there are few examples of infixes. We are thus led to the following two main divisions of gramWe must here mention a classification of all the languages of mar: I. The theory of Forms. II. The theory of Notions. Both the world according to their morphological system, which played i with the same grammatical facts but from opposite points a great rôle in the discussions of the 19th century, but has now of view. been given up as superficial, namely, into (1) isolating languages I, The Theory of Forms.—The following is a systematic or root-languages like Chinese, (2) agglutinative languages like survey of the external means used in languages for grammatical Finnish and Turkish, which use affixes, but have no internal purposes. changes in the roots, (3) flexional languages like those of the Ar(1) A simple sequence of words. This is seen, for instance, in yan and Semitic families. The last were also supposed to have compound substantives like post-office. The importance of the gone through the isolating and agglutinative stages in their preorder in which words are arranged, is seen in cases like garden- historical development, while Chinese was thought to represent flower and flower-garden, where the first element limits and de- the earliest childlike linguistic structure. The latter supposition fines the meaning of the second, and in the distinction between has been shown to be wrong, as the earliest Chinese in some rePaul loves Ann and Ann loves Paul, where word-order shows spects was “flexional,” and those hundreds of languages that were Which is subject and which object. formerly classed together as “agglutinative” represent the most (2) “Empty words,” i.e., words which have no proper mean- diverse types of morphological structure. The world is more coming of their own, but merely serve to indicate the relations of plex than our ancestors imagined. other words. Examples: of in “the father of the boy” (=the Ii, The Theory of Notions.—A comprehensive system of all boy’s father), “the City of Rome,” “that scoundrel of a servant”; the notions that find expression in language would be impractito in “I want to hear,” “he refused food to the poor”; that in cable on account of the infinite complexity of mental and physi-

GRAMMAR

614

cal phenomena. But we are here concerned with those notions only that have found grammatical expression, and this makes our task somewhat less difficult, though far from easy. The following necessarily very brief survey does not claim to be either complete or final. (1) Parts of speech. It is usual to divide words grammatically into the following classes and to define them somewhat as is here (very succinctly) indicated :— (a) Substantives—denoting “‘persons” and “things.” (6) Adjectives—showing qualities. Substantives and adjectives are often classed together as “nouns,” but many grammarians make the term “noun” equivalent to “substantives,” and do not comprise under it adjectives. (c) Pronouns—used instead of nouns “to designate a person or thing already mentioned or known or forming the subject of inquiry.” Various well-known subclasses: personal, demonstrative, relative, interrogative, indefinite. The so-called articles, as well as numerals, are best treated as

subdivisions of pronouns. (d) Verbs—denoting actions, states or happenings.

(e} Adverbs—serving to modify adjectives or verbs.

woman were masculine; mht night, ecg edge, hand feminine: and treow tree, gear year, blod blood, wif wife neuter. This word. gender, which is still found in German, and which influenced the

flexion of the words and the form of the article and adjective

belonging to them, disappeared gradually from English in the Middle English period. In Semitic languages, the sex of the subject influences the form of the verb.

(4) Number. On the dual number see above. The distinction between “one” and “more than one” is very easy from a no. tional point of view, but not always so easy grammatically, partly because some things may be looked upon either as units (as German brille) or as composite (Engl. spectacles), partly from

other causes. A collective is a word which though singular ip form denotes a plurality, hence such anomalies as twenty police:

cf. also “my family is an old one” and “my family are early risers.” Number properly belongs to primaries only, but many languages require secondaries to agree in number with their primaries, e.g., those trees, and German die hohen baume the big trees, where in English the article and adjective are invariable. In English verbs the distinction has been given up in all past

tenses, e.g., he went, they went (except he was, they were), in (f) Prepositions—marking relations between words. the present tense it is preserved in the third person only: J go, we (g) Conjunctions—used to connect clauses or to co- go; he goes, they go. ordinate words in the same clause. (5) Person, że., the distinction between the speaker, the (k) Interjections—ejaculations, standing outside ordinary person (or persons) addressed, and what is neither speaker nor sentences. spoken to. The distinction is shown in pronouns and in many This division and the definitions usually given have, however, languages also in the verb. The plural “we” does not mean two been subjected to severe criticism and should not be taken at their “or more “first persons,” but “I-~you” or “I-+some one or more face value. One of the chief difficulties with substantives is the persons besides,” and some languages make a distinction accordexistence of such words as arrival and kindness, which are un- ing as the second person is included or not. Such a pronoun as doubtedly substantives and are treated grammatically as such, French on, Engl. one, may be considered a “common person.” but cannot be termed names of “things”; they represent “nexus” (On reflexive pronouns, see above.) (see p. 615). Adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions are best (6) Space. Some languages have different forms according classed together as “particles.” to distance from the speaker, etc. Case-forms denoting existence (2) Rank. While the division under (1) concerns words sep- in or at a place and movement to, towards or from a place are arately, we here have a distinction that has regard to words or very frequent. In our languages, with a view to greater preword-groups in combinations, namely into: cision, such case-forms were frequently supplemented by ad(a) Primary verbs, and these in time became prepositions governing the cases (6) Secondary which at first were sufficient in themselves to denote the spatial (c) Tertiary—words or word-groups. relation; eventually the case-endings were often dropped as superThe three ranks to some extent, but only to some extent, fluous. correspond to substantives, adjectives and adverbs respectively. (7) Time. With substantives the same means (case-forms, secondary elements serve to modify or delimit primaries, tertiary adverbs, prepositions) as are used to indicate spatial relations are elements to modify or delimit secondaries, as will be seen from as a rule also used to denote time relations. But with verbs the following examples in which those words or groups are itali- many, or perhaps most, languages have separate means of denotcized which belong to the rank under which they are classed:— ing time-relations, which cannot surprise us, as the idea of time (a) The King’s palace. The King arrived. I know when he is naturally associated with that of action or happening. But arrived. while the notional division of time into past, present and future (b) The King’s palace. A big palace. The palace that he is quite simple, mankind has not, as a rule, found correspondingly built. simple grammatical expressions for time and its subdivisions, (c) A really big palace. I was present when ke arrived. such distinctions as that between permanent and transitory, or The combination of a primary and a secondary element in the between finished and unfinished, or between once and repeatedly, way exemplified under (0) is termed junction; the adjective or or between stability and change, or between resultative and non(relative) clause standing as secondary is called an adjunct. resultative action being often inextricably connected with real Tertiaries are also termed subjunects. time-indications in the “tenses” of verbs. Expressions for the (3) Other classifications. Many languages classify words in future are often much more vague than those for the past, and such a way that a class is indicated either in the word itself or frequently expressions which at first had and still to some extent in the form required in those adjuncts, ete., which belong to it. have the meaning of volition or obligation or motion are made Sometimes the distinction is into animate and inanimate, some- to do duty as a kind of future tense, as in “he will come,” “I shall times mto big and small things, sometimes into male, female and come,” “they are going to start” (French “on va partir”), ete. sexless; but. such distinctions are rarely indicated with what we Some languages have very elaborate tense systems with separate should call consistency; some languages, for instance, that have forms for imperfect, aorist, perfect, pluperfect, future in the past, the main distinction “animate: inanimate,” reckon certain parts etc., others rely more on the context or on adverbs for such of the human body as animate, others as inanimate. Sometimes nuances, if they are conceived at all.

it is Impossible to see what is really the notional basis of a classiication, When the distinction is connected with sex, as in most

of the Aryan languages, we speak of gender; but the actual distmction between masculine, feminine and neuter gender does not correspond at all exactly with that between male and female beings end sexless things; very often it is impossible to discern

(8) Comparison. The superlative (“strongest,” etc.) is really a kind of comparative: “he is the strongest of the boys” means the same thing as “he is stronger than the other boys,” the difference being only that the result in the former sentence 1$

stated with regard to all boys, himself included, while in the

latter he is excluded. A comparison results in expression of in-

so word belongs to one gender rather than to another. In equality or equality, as in “he is stronger than X” (a), “he Is a5 ae

EIRE z j

3 SLI

, for instance, stan stone, daeg day, Sager, wifmann g

strong as X” (b), “he is less strong than X” (c); of these (a)

GRAMME—GRAMONT

615

and (c) are closely connected as they both denote inequality and | things which have relation to junction (the chief use of the gentherefore use the comparative. Many languages even for this| itive is to make a word the adjunct of another word), to space sense use the positive form and say “strong from X” or the like. | (the so-called locative cases) and to nexus (nominative to denote

(9) Nexus. This is a comprehensive term for the combination

of two words (or word-groups) which stand to another in the relation of subject to predicate. The simplest case is a sentence with a subject and a verb, as “the doctor arrived” or with a

subject, an “empty” verb (“copula”) and a predicative, as “the doctor is clever.” Compare also sentences without a verb like

“Happy the man who... .” and “He a doctor!”

There are

other cases of nexus, in which the nexus does not in the same way as here form a whole sentence, but only part of one, as in “the doctor’s arrival,” “the doctor’s cleverness,” “(I saw) the doctor arrive,” “(we thought) the doctor clever,” “(we count on)

the doctor to arrive,” “(he slept with) the window open,” “every thing considered (he must be clever).” A nexus of a different kind exists between a verb and its object, as in “we saw the doctor,” or its two objects, as in “we offered the doctor money.” Further, the theory of nexus leads to a contemplation of the relation between the active and the passive

expression for one and the same thought: what in the active turn is an object, is made into a subject in the passive tur:

“the

doctor was seen (by us),” “money was offered (to) the doctor,” “the doctor was offered money.” (:o) Affirmation and negation. In some languages the verb has special forms for negation:

this is to a certain extent true of

English, especially in its colloquial form: won’t, cf. will, shan’t, cf. shall; note also the use of the auxiliary do in most negative sentences which contain no other auxiliary: “The doctor did not

arrive.”

(11) Subjective attitude of the speaker.

By the side of

simple (“flat”) assertions we find others in which the speaker does not want to commit himself, but speaks with a certain hesitation, doubt, hope or fear, and such emotional repressions often manifest themselves grammatically, either in particles like Greek åy or in special forms of the verb (chiefly the subjunctive mood). The same means are frequently applied in conditioned clauses, which range from those in which doubt is not expressed at all or slightly hinted at, to those in which unreality is expressly indicated. In the latter kind some languages use a special conjunction, while others show that “the condition is rejected” by shifting the mood into the subjunctive and the tense into the preterite or by the latter means alone. In connection with this must be mentioned the expression of diffidence or modesty in questions like “Could you (Would you) lend me a pound?” as against the simple and direct “Can you (Will you) . . .?” and the difference between the unrealizable wish in “Would be were still alive!” and the realizable wish in “May he be still alive!”

the subject, accusative and dative, for various kinds of objects). Here, as elsewhere, we see that linguistic phenomena are capable of being viewed from different angles and that they present all kinds of intersections and overlappings. In the treatment of each particular language we meet with units which are units neither from the purely formal nor from the purely notional point of view, but which nevertheless must be taken together as what might be called functional units. Take the English preterite: it is not a formal unit, because it is formed in different ways: ended from end, sent from send, thought from think, put from put, saw from see, was from be, etc. Neither is it a notional unit, for sometimes it indicates the past time pure and simple, sometimes unreality (“if he came”), or modesty

(“Could you. . . .?”) or even future time (“it is time you went to bed”), and it has even more spheres of application. Yet all these formal and notional things go together and form one separate unit in English grammar, which is different from such units in any foreign grammar as in some ways correspond to it: in French, for instance, we have two or three tenses (je fimissais and je jinis or colloquially j’ai fini corresponding to J ended), each of which is a unit in the same way as the English preterite is. But all the units we arrive at through our analysis of grammatical phenomena are at best symbols or shadowings of the innermost notional categories.

Se

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—H. Sweet, A New English Grammar, Logical and Historical (1892); F. Brunot, La Pensée et la Langue (1922); A. Noreen, Einjührung in die Wissenschaftlicke Betracktung der Sprache (1923); O. Jespersen, Tke Philosophy of Grammar (1924); R. Lenz, La Oracion y sus Partes (1925); A. Sechehaye, Essa sur la Structure Logique de la Phrase (1926). (O. J)

GRAMME: see Gram. GRAMMICHELE, a town of Sicily, province of Catania, 55

m. S.W. of it by rail and 31 m. direct. Pop. (1921) 23,169 (town), 24,767 (commune). It was built in 1693, after the destruction by an earthquake of the old town of Occhiala to the north; the latter, on account of the similarity of name, is generally identified with Echetla, a frontier city in the time of Hieron IT. GRAMONT, ANTOINE AGENOR ALFRED, Drc pe, Duc pE GUICHE, PRINCE DE BmaAcHE .(1819-1880}, French diplomatist and statesman, was born in Paris on Aug. 14, 1819, of a family originally royalist, though the younger members were Bonapartist. Antoine was educated at the Ecole Polytechnique, but entered the diplomatic service. His promotion began with the accession of Louis Napoleon to the supreme power. He was successively minister plenipotentiary at Cassel and Stuttgart (1852), at Turin (1853), ambassador at Rome (1857) and at (r2) Relation to the will of the hearer. In one class of utter- Vienna (1861). On May 15, 1870 he was appointed minister of ances (ordinary statements and exclamations, for example) the foreign affairs in the Ollivier cabinet, and was thus concerned in speaker does not want to influence the will of the hearer. The the bungling of the negotiations between France and Prussia arisaim of another class is to influence the will of the hearer, that is, ing out of the candidature of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern for to make him do something. This may be effected by requests, the throne of Spain, which led to the disastrous war of 1870-71. which range from brutal commands or orders through demands, The famous declaration read by Gramont in the Chamber on implorations, invitations, etc., to the most humble entreaty or July 6, the “threat with the hand on the sword-hilt,” as Bismarck supplication. One of the linguistic forms for requests is the im- called it, was the joint work of the whole cabinet; the original perative, other forms are seen in “One minute!” and “Hands off!” draft presented by Gramont was judged to be too “elliptical” in Questions belong to requests, as they imply a request (command, its conclusion and not sufficiently vigorous. The history of the prayer, etc.) to give the original speaker a piece of information. affair is given in detail by Emile Ollivier himself in his Empire They are of two distinct kinds according to the existence or non- libéral (vol. xii., 1909). It was Gramont who pointed out to the existence of an “unknown quantity” expressed by means of an emperor, on the evening of the r2th, the dubious circumstances interrogative pronoun or adverb: “Who said that?” “What did he of the act of renunciation of the prince of Hohenlohe-Sigmaringen say?” and “When did he say that?” are examples of one kind, on behalf of his son, and on the same night, without informing “Did he say that?” of the other kind. Questions, and requests Ollivier, he despatched to Benedetti at Ems the fatal telegram generally, are naturally liable to those influences which were dealt demanding the king of Prussia’s guarantee that the candidature with under (xr); questions are likewise notionally related to would not be revived. The supreme responsibility for this act negations, whence they often employ similar grammatical means; must rest with the emperor, “who imposed it by an exercise of this is seen, for instance, in the English use of the auxiliary do personal power on the only one of his ministers who could have m both kinds of sentences, lent himself to such a forgetfulness of the safeguards of a paraThe system here given shows how a notional arrangement leads mentary régime.” says Ollivier. ss to the separation of things which in the ordinary grammatical Gramont resigned office with the rest of the Ollivier ministry stem are placed together. Under case, accordingly, we have (Aug. 9), and after the revolution of September he went to Eng-

GRAMONT—GRAMOPHONE

616

land, returning after the war to Paris, where he died on Jan. 18, 1880. He published various apologies for his policy in 1870, notably La France et la Prusse avant la guerre (1872).

parchment or gold-beater’s skin stretched over the end of a short brass cylinder about two inches in diameter. In the centre of the membrane there was a steel needle having a chisel-edge, ang à

subject of the famous Memoirs, came of a noble Gascon family, said to have been of Basque origin. His grandmother, Diane d’Andouins, comtesse de Gramont, was “la belle Corisande,” a mistress of Henry IV. The grandson assumed that his father Antoine II. de Gramont, viceroy of Navarre, was the son of

the other end of the spring being clamped to the edge of the brass cylinder. The recorder was then so placed beside the large cylinder that the sharp edge of the needle ran in the middle of the spiral groove when the cylinder was rotated. The cylinder was covered

GRAMONT,

PHILIBERT,

Comte pe (1621-1707), the

Henry IV. Philibert was educated for the church at the collège of Pau, in Béarn, but he joined the army of Prince Thomas of

Savoy, then besieging Trino in Piedmont. He afterwards served under his elder half-brother, Antoine, marshal de Gramont, and the prince of Condé. He favoured Condé’s party at the beginning of the Fronde, but changed sides before he was too severely compromised. During the Commonwealth he visited England, and in 1662 was exiled from Paris for paying court to Mademoiselle de la Motte Houdancourt, one of the king’s mistresses. He found a congenial atmosphere at the court of Charles IJ., and married in Londọn, under pressure from her twọ brothers, Elizabeth Hamilton, the sister of his future biographer and one of the great beauties of the English court. In 1664 he was allowed to return to France. He revisited England in 1670 in connection with the sale of Dunkirk, and again in 1671 and 1676. In 1688 he was sent

by Louis XIV, to congratulate James II. on the birth of an heir. In 1696 he had a dangerous illness, during which he became reconciled to the church. He was 80 years old when he supplied bis brother-in-law, Anthony Hamilton, with the materials for his Mémoires. He died on Jan. 10, 1707, and the Mémoires appeared six years later.

Hamilton’s portrait of Gramont is drawn with such skill that the count, in spite of his biographer’s candour, imposes by his grand air on the reader much as he did on his contemporaries. The book is the most entertaining of contemporary memoirs, and gives a vivid, truthful, and graceful description of the licentious court of Charles II. His scandalous tongue knew no restraint, and he was a privileged person who was allowed to state even the most unpleasing truths to Louis XIV. Saint-Simon in his memoirs describes the relief felt at court when the old man’s death was announced, See also HAMILTON, ANTHONY.

stiff piece of spring steel was soldered to the needle near its point

with a sheet of tin-foil. During rotation of the cylinder, the sharp edge of the marker indented the tin-foil into the spiral groove.

and when the membrane was caused to vibrate by sounds being

thrown into the short cylinder by a funnel-shaped opening, the

variations of pressure corresponding to each vibration caused the marker to make indentations of varying depth on the tin-foil in the

bottom of the groove. These indentations corresponded to the sound-waves. To reproduce the sounds a second marker was caused to pass over the grooves of the cylinder, the marker being

alternately elevated or depressed according to the nature of the indentations, and so transmitting to its membrane vibrations coy. responding after a fashion to those which it was originally made to execute, These were then communicated to the air, so that the sound previously given to the “phonograph”

(as Edison termed

his invention) was reproduced in a crude but unmistakable manner. Many improvements were attempted. In Edison’s wax-cylinder phonograph, and in the “graphophone” of Graham Bell and C. S, Tainter, the sound record was produced by cutting instead of indenting an up-and-down line in the record material. Reprodurtions were made by an electro-deposition process similar to that used later for disc records, Machines employing cylindrical rectords of the phonograph type enjoyed a wide popularity for many years. But the non-linear relation between the driving force and

the amplitude of the cut, inherent in this method, led to the adoption of means whereby the resistance of the record material to the motion of the cutting stylus was made more uniform, while the movement of the diaphragm in reproduction was positively con-

trolled by the record, and was not at times wholly dependent on

Mémoires de la vie du comte de Grammont were printed in Holland

with the inscription Cologne, 1713. Other editions followed in 1715 and 1716, An Eng. trs. by Mr. [Abel] Boyer (1714) was supplemented by a “compleat key” in 1719. The Mémoires “augmentées de notes et d’éclaircissemens” were edited by Horace Walpole in 1772. Among

more modern editions are those by Sir Walter Scott (1846), frequently

reprinted; by H. Vizetelly (1889), and G. G. Goodwin (1903). See also R. Clark, Anthony Hamilton, Author of Memoirs of Count

WINDING

Gramont (1921).

GRAMOPHONE. An instrument for reproducing sound (Gr. Ypapupa, letter, wxh, sound), by transmitting to the air the mechanical vibrations of a stylus in contact with a sinuous groove in a moving record. In a wider sense the term might be applied to any instrument for the recording or subsequent reproduction of sound. As long ago as in 1857 Leon Scott had, by the invention of the “Phonautograph,” provided means whereby visual records could be made of the vibrations of a diaphragm, but it was not until 1877 that the first “Talking Machine” was patented. Scott’s Phonautograph consisted of a thin membrane, to which a delicate

lever was attached. The membrane was stretched over the narrow

end of a parabaloidal funnel, while the end of the lever was brought against the surface of a cylinder covered with paper on which soot had been deposited. The cylinder was fixed on a fine screw which moved horizontally when the cylinder was rotated. The marker thus described a spiral line on the blackened surface. When sounds were transmitted to the membrane and the cylinder was rotated the oscillations of the marker were recorded. Thus

tracings of the vibrations were obtained (Comptes Rendus 53 p. 108). The actual audible reproduction of recorded sound was firstaccomplished by T. A. Edison in 1876, the first patent specification being dated January 1877. In this instrument a spirel groove was cut on a brass drum fixed on a horizontal screw,

so that when the drum was rotated it moved from right toleft, as

in the Phonantogreph.

FIG, 1.--DIAGRAM SHOWING A GRAMOPHONE OF THE EQUIVALENT ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

The Inductance (m,) represents the mass of the armature, which, when acted

on by the magnetic field, forms the driving portion of the mechanical system.

(0,) Condenser showing the compliance of the shaft connecting the armature

to the stylus holder.

(m.) Mass of the stylus and its holder, (cg) Compil-

anes of the shaft connecting

the stylus holder with

fits into the rubber damping element.

the metal

piece whish

(m3) Mass of this metal piece. (R}

Damping slement, The two condansers, shawn dotted and unlabelled, represent the effect of the magnetic fleld on the armature and the restoring force of the balancing springs which hold the armature in its central position

the elasticity of the diaphragm, as in the phonograph. These improvements were introduced in 1887 by Emile Berliner. Berliner

named his instrument the “gramophone,”

In the first drawing of

his original patent specification, a cylindrical record, consisting of a strip of paper, coated with a layer of lamp-black and stretched round a drum, is used. Movement of the recording stylus is horizontal and causes the removal of the lamp~black from the surface

in a sinuous, spiral line. For purposes of reproduction he copied the record in a resisting material, either mechanically, or by en

The recorder consisted of a membrane of graving or etching, and this gave him a permanent record, eon-

GRAMOPHONE sisting of a wavy grooved line in a strip of copper, nickel or other

material. To reproduce the sounds recorded, this strip was in turn

stretched round a drum, the point of the stylus placed in the

groove, and the drum rotated. Thus the first of Berliner’s inventions was virtually to provide means whereby Scott Phonautoph records could be reproduced.

In this connection it is to be

noted that eleven years previously Charles Cros, a Frenchman, had deposited with the Academie des Sciences, Paris, a sealed packet

3 5 20

D §10

< a

190

500

Cycles per Second

1000

Fig. 2.—CURVE A SHOWS CURRENT IN THE SERIES BRANCHES OF A LOW-PASS FILTER AS A FUNCTION OF PITCH. CURVE B, CALIBRATION OF A RECORD INSTRUMENT containing a suggestion for doing this very same thing, though he cannot be said to In the second Berliner’s patent offers advantage with a semi-fluid

have carried his ideas very far. or improved form of gramophone described in specification, a flat record is used which, he says, for copying purposes. A glass disc is covered coating of ink or paint, in which the stylus cuts

a sinuous spiral running from the outer edge of the record to the

centre, or Vice versa.

A turntable carries the record disc, and is

rotated by any suitable means.

Berliner’s next step was to make a record in a solid material by direct etching. To this end he coated a disc or cylinder of zinc

or glass with some substance which, while offering little resistance

to the movements of the recording stylus, resisted the chemical action of acids. The coating he preferred consisted of beeswax dissolved in benzine. When the recording stylus had traced out its line on the record, and exposed the solid disc below, the latter was etched, and a permanent record produced. Copies could be made by the galvano-plastic process, by making a matrix, and impressing

discs of hard rubber or the like. Owing to the undercutting of the protective coating by the acid a very rough record resulted, and it was not until the end of 1897 that the manufacture of disc records became a commercial success. The technique of record-making was now briefly as follows :— Early Methods of Recording—The players or singers were placed immediately before the mouth of a horn, which was used to concentrate the sound energy on the recording diaphragm. Singers were instructed to draw away from the horn at the moment of singing loud notes, in order to prevent “blasting.” Orchestras were small; the players were crowded together and in some cases were given instruments of special construction to make up for the deficiencies in their number. The horn (or horns, for sometimes there were several) protruded through a screen, on the opposite side of which was the recording machine, carrying

a disc-shaped blank of wax-like material, on which the recording stylus traced its spiral. From this disc, a solid metal negative or matrix was obtained by electro-deposition. Copies of the original record were then pressed from this matrix in a material which, while normally hard, became plastic under heat.

_ About this time a number of inventors began to turn their atten-

ton to the improvement of the reproducing machine. Successive stages of development are well illustrated by an interesting series of machines exhibited at the Science Museum of London, be-

ginning with an early Berliner disc machine with metal diaphragm

sound-box and hand-drive. Mechanical governing was introduced in 1896 and by the end of the century a clockwork machine, mtended solely for reproduction, was made. This was provided with a celluloid diaphragm, but two years later mica was being

617

ments controlled by delicate springs. It was found that better reproduction resulted from the use of larger horns, and when these became too heavy for their weight to be carried by the record they were removed from the sound-box and fixed to a bracket on the machine cabinet, the sound-box being connected to the small end of the horn by a piece of straight tubing known as a “tone-arm.”’ This arrangement gave rise to increased distortion of the soundwaves, until steps were taken to design the tone-arm as a tapering continuation of the horn. The appearance of the horn being looked upon by the public with disfavour, it became inverted and was placed inside the cabinet. From ro1o onwards this type of construction was generally preferred for domestic use. Position of the Gramophone in 1925.—Such, then, was the typical reproducing instrument of 1925. Much painstaking work had enabled machines and records to be produced which were capable of yielding results acceptable to music-lovers. But knowledge of the fundamental principles was so imperfect that there was nothing in the nature of a standardized basis of recording to give results of uniform quality. It was necessary to introduce deliberate errors into one part of the system to compensate for errors in another part, and progress was naturally slow and unsatisfactory. The neglect of the industry to institute proper scientific research into the all-important problems of acoustics and vibrational mechanics might have indefinitely retarded its growth, for it cannot be said that any obvious improvement had been overlooked. When help came, it was from another quarter. The problems of electrical communication by line and radio had been intensively studied for many years by experts equipped with measuring instruments of a sensitivity and accuracy then unknown in acoustic research. Microphones (q.v.) and amplifiers

(g.v.) of high quality were developed in connection with telephony

and broadcasting, and were now available for the gramophone. It was therefore no longer necessary for the recording stylus to be actuated directly by the acoustic output of the performers themselves, grouped closely round the mouth of a horn. The performers could now be permitted to carry on their work in front of the microphone in commodious studios resembling more nearly the normal conditions of musical performance or even in the actual concert-hall. The existence of amplifiers also made possible the use of quality-correcting devices which, even if it had been feasible to apply them in the acoustic recording process, would have unduly attenuated a motive energy already far too weak for many requirements. On the reproducing side, the proper function of a horn in communicating to the air the vibrations of a diaphragm had been investigated by A. G. Webster, who, in an important paper’, outlined the properties of a logarithmic horn and also drew attention to the advantages to be derived by applying the conception of electrical impedance to acoustic and mechanical systems. The logarithmic horn was studied in detail by Hanna and Slepian, by P. B. Flanders, and by H. C. Harrison!, What remained to be done was to devise a systematic linkage between the microphone and the recording stylus, and between the reproducing point and the mouth of the horn, of such a kind as take the fullest

advantage of these new components. Theory of Modern Gramophone Design. Electro-mechanicel Analogy—A mathematical statement of the behaviour of

mechanical and electrical systems discloses the existence of a re-

markable analogy between such quantities as mass and compliance (z.2., reciprocal stiffness) on the one hand, and inductance and

capacity on the other. For example, the kinetic energy of a particle of mass M moving with velocity V is 44£V?, while the electrical energy in an inductance L carrying a current 7 is 417°, Again, the potential energy of a compliance C exerting a force F is 4CF2; that of a condenser of capacity C charged to a potential V is $CP.

The logical necessity for the existence of such an analogy can be deduced from the observed phenomena of wave motion in me-

chanical and electrical systems: A highly important feature of the d. By 1905, a type of sound-box had been evolved, the use of development of some of the later recording and reproducing

which persisted without radical change for twenty years. A mica

bragm was held lightly at its edges by hollow rubber gaskets,

the fulcrum of the lever connecting the centre of the diaphragm

ta the needle-point being formed by knife-edges, and its moye-

instruments has been their quantitative design as imitations of electrical circuits, it having so happened that the science of

electrical wave transmission had by this time outstripped the 1See bibliography.

GRAMOPHONE

618

knowledge of oscillation mechanics. As previously mentioned, A. G. Webster had in rorg already suggested the conception of mechanical and acoustic impedance as an aid to correct design. In 1926 J. P. Maxfield and H. C. Harrison published an account of their work in designing complete recording and reproducing systems as analogues of the electric wave filters invented by G. A. Campbell in 19173. Such filters are ideally composed of infinitely repeated similar sections, each section comprising one or more series and shunt elements. Structures of this type have in general one or more transmission bands of zero attenuation and one or more bands having infinite attenuation; in gramophone technique single band-pass filters are of chief interest, as will be seen later. Suppression of all but the first few sections of such an ideal structure does not seriously affect its properties so long as a suitable terminating resistance is applied. Without this termination the structure reduces to an assembly of n similar tuned circuits having collectively n diferent natural frequencies. Multi-resonant mechanical systems can, by the employment of damping and at the expense of efficiency, be designed to have excellent frequency characteristics, but the behaviour of such systems is best considered after that of a true mechanical band-pass filter has been thoroughly grasped. Frequency Requirements of a Recording System-——The eficiency with which a sound of any given pitch is radiated from a horn is independent of the intensity of the sound. This relation may be expressed in the form P=ky? where P is the power radiated, V the R.M.S. velocity of the air particles, and k a constant which may be defined as the radiation resistance of the horn at a particular frequency. When making records intended for mechanical reproduction, therefore, it is seen that, for correct balance, the recording tool should be made to move at constant maximum velocity at all frequencies. Under these conditions, for a given sound intensity, the amplitude of the cut is inversely proportional to the frequency. Whatever may be the degree of coarseness of the spiral record trace, therefore, there must be some limit of frequency below which it is impossible to maintain a constant velocity without encroaching on the adjacent groove. Also, an upper frequency limit is imposed by the physical dimensions of the reproducing point, which is unable to follow the grooves when, at very high frequencies, their radius of curvature becomes extremely small. Maxfield and Harrison-considered this matter and adopted a frequency characteristic of the uniform velocity type between the frequencies of 200 and about 4,0900 cycles per second. Below 200 the system was modihed to operate at approximately constant amplitude and above 4,000 at approximately constant acceleration. In this manner they were able to extend the range of frequencies recorded to 30 and to 1ọ,000 cycles, with some falling off towards these two opposite extremes.

Appiications of the Theory.—In the design of their recording and reproducing systems, Maxfield and Harrison made use of the following table of corresponding mechanical and electrical quantities: Mechanical, Force (dynes) Velocity (cm/sec)

Displacement (cm)

Impedance (dyne sec/cm) Resistance (dyne sec/cm) (or mechanical ohms) Reactance (dyne sec/cm) (or mechanical ohms) Mass (gms) Compliance (cm/dyne)

g

ea

e.

E

y

I

anh azar

2

Y

*

smooth out these irregularities, with the result that the musical compass of the gramophone, and its fidelity to the Original sounds within that compass, were greatly increased. Maxfield-Harrison Recorder and Gramophone.—fig, I is

a diagrammatic representation of a Maxfield and Harrison re. cording instrument and of the equivalent electrical circuit. This

instrument is a mechanical filter of the low-pass type, provided that the two undesignated condensers are omitted. In this par-

ticular case the filter has three sections and a terminating re-

sistance. In designing mechanical analogues of such a system, the problem is threefold; first, that of arranging the parts so that they form repeated filter sections; second, determining the magnitude of these parts so that the separate sections all have the same characteristics; third, providing the proper resistance termination, This last requirement was found specially difficult to meet owing to the lack of satisfactory non-reactive mechanical resistances, In the recorder illustrated, Maxfield and Harrison made use of a

rubber rod along which the vibrations travel torsionally with heavy attenuation. A correctly designed three-section filter would

secure a sensitiveness at the various pitches as represented by curve A in fig. 2. The actual recorder, however, owing to the

presence of the two undesignated condensers shown in fig, r has a loss of response at the low pitch end as indicated by curve B (fig. 2). This loss is deliberately introduced in order to limit the amplitude, as previously explained. The power required to actuate this recorder is only a fraction of a watt, whereas a damped resonant system may therefore require a power of several watts.

Maxfield-Harrison Gramophone.—The analogy between the mechanical and electrical filter is more perfectly shown in the reproducing equipment. The principle of “matched impedance” is of fundamental importance in the design of machines for mechanical reproduction, for here there are no amplifiers to make good the losses incurred in suppressing resonances. In applying the principle it was necessary to take into consideration the behaviour of an air-chamber behind the diaphragm and to determine its equivalent electrical elements before formulating the design. Fig. 3 shows a section of the Maxfield-Harrison sound

DIAPHRAGM COMPLIANCE

SPIDER ARM COMPLIANCE

SPIDER MASS

LEVER ARM COMPLIANCE -4 UPPER PART OF LEVER ARM

CONSTANT LATERAL VELOCITY RECORD

(ohms)

Inductance (henries) Capacity (farads)

lara propertiesaaol of electrical Eed toutetaneaa E `

}

and greatly limited the

Resistance (ohms)

Reactance

rigid support by a series capacity. By proportioning the parts of

+See

resonances

of musical tones which could be covered. By properly proportion. ing the parts of each system, Maxfield and Harrison were able to

Impedance (ohms)

sented by a shunt capacity, and between a moving member and a

a

introducing numerous

Electrical. Electromotive Force (volts) Current (amperes) Charge (coulombs)

In deriving the equivalent circuit of any mechanical device, a compliance between two consecutive moving members is repre-

ectrical network, an filter circuits can be simulated.

The matter may be put somewhat differently as follows. In the older recording and reproducing systems there were numerous abrupt changes in the nature of the path along which the vibra. tions were conducted from the mouth of the recording hor to the record and back again to the listener. This had the effect of

FIG.

3.—SECTIONAL

DRAWING

OF A SOUND

BOX

box. Superimposed on each component the equivalent electrical component is shown, while in fig. 4 the mechanical elements are arranged diagrammatically for comparison with a simple form of electrical filter, combining two sections of low pass construction with a single band-pass element. As the series (diaphragm) compliance is so large that the low frequency cut-off which rt causes lies well below that created by the horn, an inappreciable error is introduced in using for design purposes formulae of low

pass filters, In an ordinary electrical filter, any section thr

the centre of the series impedances divides the filter Inte two

GRAMOPHONE

619

parts, the impedances of which, looking forward and backward { former ratio of 4,500 sex, was

therefore incorporated to produce the from the line of section, are matched. In this sound box two : necessary resistance. transformers are used, the needle arm with its lever action and the The terminating resistance of the filter is provided by the horn, ratio of the areas of diaphragm to horn opening. Each of these which is of the logarithmic type. There are two fundamental steps up the velocity and hence in usual nomenclature would be constants of such a horn. The first is the area of the large end described as a step-down transformer. The matching of impe- and the second is the rate of teper. The area of the mouth deoR

dances by equivalent transformers is one of the chief points in the

ELECTRICAL FILTER

SOUND BOX FILTER CONSTANT LATERAL VELOCITY RECORD

NEEDLE COMPLIANCE

termines the lowest frequency which is radiated satisfactorily. The energy of the frequencies below this is largely reflected if it is permitted to reach the mouth. From the equations given by Webster it can be shown that all logarithmic horns have a lowfrequency cut-off which is determined by the rate of taper. It is, therefore, possible to build a horn in which the lowest frequencies are prevented from reaching the mouth and so undergoing reflection, while all frequencies above the cut-off value are radiated. Such a horn will have no marked fundamental reso-

nance and will behave substantially as a pure acoustic resistance LEVER ARM TRANSFORMER

as required by the theory. Since the characteristics of the horn are determined by the area of its mouth and by its rate of taper, the length of the horn is determined by the area of the small end. This in turn is determined by the mechanical impedance and effective area of the system which it is terminating. It is seen, therefore, that the length of the horn should not be considered as a fundamental constant. Where it has been necessary to make a folded horn, difficulties have been encountered in

LEVER ARM MASS LEVER ARM COMPLIANCE

"3 SPIDER MASS SPIDER ARM COMPLIANCE DIAPHRAGM MASS

settling the proper shape that this should take in order that its

DIAPHRAGM COMPLIANCE Ait CHAMBER COMPLIANCE Alm CHAMBER TRANSFORMER HORN IMPEDANCE

Fig. 4.-——-ELECTRICAL EQUIVALENT OF THE SOUND BOX COMPARED WITH TRE COMPONENTS OF A SIMPLE FORM OF ELECTRICAL FILTER, COMBINING TWO SECTIONS OF LOW-PASS CONSTRUCTION WITH A SINGLE BAND-PASS ELEMENT

design of this sound box. In fig. 4 the record is to be regarded as the approximate equivalent of a constant current electrical generator, whose impedance is infinite. That this is not strictly true is evident from the fact that some record wear still occurs, but in spite of the increased amplitude of cut in records made by the electrical processes, less wear occurs with this type of sound box than with the earlier records and instruments. The two formulae on which the design is based are as follows:

ry/

1

k=.) uC M

i

performance may approximate to that of a straight exponential horn. In practice a number of assumptions have been made which although not rigorously correct, have permitted the construction of compact horns having approximately the same properties as a straight logarithmic horn. Outline of Modern Record Manufacture—Some of the details of record manufacture are known only to the trade, but the following is a general description of the procedure. The dispositions of the performers, microphones, etc. are similar to those used in Broadcasting, z.¢., they may be located in a public auditorium or in special studios. In the latter case, such reverberation or echo effect as is desired is obtained by adjusting the amount of acoustic damping material in the studio, or by the use of an auxiliary microphone, placed in a separate “Echo room” containing a loud-speaker coupled through an amplifier to the microphone in the main studio. The output from the microphone or microphones is in most cases passed through a series of distortionless amplifying stages direct to the recorder, which is provided with a V-shaped cutting tool. The record blank is a tablet of a soapy wax, carried on a horizontal table which is rotated with uniform angular velocity by a weight-driven motor. As the table rotates it also travels laterally at a uniform speed, being carried on a revolving threaded

spindle. The cutting point is lowered so as to enter the surface of the blank to a depth of a few mils, and as the machine runs it cuts a fine spiral groove of uniform depth, running from the cirI whence C= aye (3) cumference of the blank to within 2 or 3 inches of the centre. The lateral travel of the turntable is such that a record having about where f,=the cut-off frequency of a transmission system in roo grooves to the inch is made. cycles per second; C=the shunt compliance per section in cenThe record so prepared is dusted with graphite to make it timetres per dynes; M =the series mass per section in grams; electrically conductive, and is then slowly rotated in a copperse=the value of the characteristic impedance over the greater plating bath. A homogeneous deposit of copper having thus been part of the band range. grown, it was at one time usual to take “dubs” or impresses in It was found possible to make a satisfactory diaphragm of wax from the resulting negative. From this in turn one or more efective area 13 sq.cm. with a mass of 0-186 grams; this value working matrices were made, from which the records were pressed. was therefore taken for M. The cut-off frequency was chosen as More recently, however, it has become standard practice to grow 5,000, 4 compromise between the highest frequency occurring in a whole series of negatives upon the original record, thereby the record and the increase in surface-noise when the cut-off fre- obviating any necessity for a second wax impression. quency is raised. Using these arbitrary values for two of the variTwo classes of materials are used in the manufacture of the ables, equation (3) above shows that the values of all the equal common. breakable type of record, viz.—resins and gums (of shunt compliances and series masses in fig. 4 are determined; while which the principal example is shellac); and various mineral by substituting these values in equation (2) the characteristic im- fillers, which are used to lower the cost of production and to give pedance of the system can be computed. For this particular increased resistance. From this material, records are pressed from design it is 2,920 mechanical ohms. Maxfield and Harrison made the matrices in steam-heated hydraulic presses. experiments from which it was calculated that for the reproduc‘Flexible records, composed principally of celluloid, are also Hon to be sufficiently loud the radiation resistance of the entire made. They are exceptionally free from surface noise but have

%2=

T

(2)

system (7.¢., the impedance as viewed from the record) should approximately 4,500 mechanical ohms. A lever-arm trans-

hitherto proved inferior to wax in wear-resisting qualities. Methods of Measurement.—Side by side with the introduc-

GRAMOPHONE

620

tion of electrical recording methods, and of reproducing mechanisms based on electrical theory, there have also been developed

electrical methods for the measurement of mechanical impedance and for determining the acoustic output of a gramophone at any given frequency. The masses and compliances of the various members of a recorder or sound-box assembly are seldom separately located but are usually distributed in a complex manner.

under test, which is placed in a special room with heavy acoustic damping. The sound from the machine is picked up by a cal. brated microphone which is swung from side to side during the

test in order to nullify any effects due to standing waves in the room. The microphone is connected to an amplifier of which the

performance is known, and the output from this is taken thro a low-pass filter and a variable resistive network to a thermionic

voltmeter. The acoustic output of the gramophone at any fre. quency is measured by the amount of attenuation it is necessa to introduce into the resistive network in order to obtain a stand.

ard reading on the voltmeter. A low-pass filter is necessary in order to eliminate from the measurement the effect of any har. monic frequencies which may be accidentally present in the record and radiated by the machine. The voltmeter is given a very slow natural period in order to obtain a mean value of the output from the swinging microphone. Fig. 6 shows the frequency response curves for two gramophones. The dotted curve is of a machine of 1897, with massive

moving parts and short conical horn. The full line curve is of a 1928 cabinet model, designed according to electrical analogies as

the equivalent of a band pass filter. In this diagram the abscissae are frequencies plotted on a logarithmic scale and the ordinates

represent the gain or amplification required to bring the output up to an arbitrary energy level. These are plotted in transmission units, which are defined as ro logio E/E’, where E is the energy output and E’ is a standard energy level. The transmission unit scale is roughly proportional to the audible value of the sound. Three units represent a noticeable change in intensity. Electrical Reproduction.—If the sound-box of a gramophone

is removed and replaced by a device which generates a fluctuating

voltage, the instantaneous values of which are proportional to those of the air pressures originally impressed on the recording microphone, it is possible to obtain a telephonic version of the FIG. 5.--IMPEDOMETER, PEDANCE

FOR

THE

MEASUREMENT

OF

MECHANICAL

IM-

Cage C is driven by the coil and magnet system D. If the quartz strip is

fixed to the cage at P, and the forces at each end of the strip are dependent upon the known mass M and the unknown impedance L, piezo-electric

changes are liberated on the silvered electrodes and conveyed to separate

amplifiers

A, A.

From

C,R,0, the unknown

the figure obtained

in the cathode-ray

60

oscillograph

impedance may be determined

Moreover, they cannot at once be determined by static measurements alone. It is necessary to have some means for measuring the mechanical impedance of the parts in the degrees of freedom in which it is desired that they shall operate, as well as in those

directions in which they should not be permitted to vibrate. Fig. 5 shows diagrammatically a method of making such measurements. A known mass M is attached to one end of a quartz strip, the other end of which is fixed to the driving point of the impedance Z under examination. The strip is rigidly fastened at its centre P to a cage C which can be driven at any desired frequency by an electro-magnetic coil and magnet system D. Near each end of the strip the two faces are silvered and connected through an amplifier A to one pair of plates of a cathode-ray oscillograph (see INSTRUMENTS, ELECTRICAL). The natural frequency of the strip being made high in comparison with the frequencies of operation, the piezo-electric effect (see ELECTRICITY)

liberates on the electrodes at each end instantaneous charges whose magnitudes are proportional to those of the mechanical forces set up by the known mass and the unknown impedance respectively. The cathode beam is acted upon by these two forces at right angles to each other. From the resultant figure it is therefore possible to determine the relative phase and magnitude of the force exerted by the impedance under measurement. For example, if the impedance is purely reactive a straight line figure is produced; if resistive, the combination of forces due to the mass and to this resistance will give rise to an elliptical figure. The instrument, which is termed an “Impedometer,” is likely to be of value in the further practical applications of Maxfield and Harrison’s ideas, especially in the search for suitable non-reactive mechanical

resistances. A method which is used for obtaining the curve of response of a gramophone is as follows :— A number of records are made on a constant-velocity basis, of pure tones of given intensity. These are played on the machine

70

80

S

U. GAIN T.

>

?

>

anne

4

Yaun ee, ae

eon e wre #

Gey

100

otaan Enu aa um ay Th an Uuy

4.

110 8 2 Q

©

O

FREQUENCY

FIG. 6.—-GRAPH GRAMOPHONES

O

©

©

8

sh

©

O

o

Q

N

SHOWING

O

O

CYCLES PER SECOND

FREQUENCY-RESPONSE

CURVES

FOR

TWO

original performance. The output from the pick-up device may be passed through an amplifier to one or more loud-speakers; hence, almost any desired volume may be obtained, and electrical cor-

rection circuits introduced if required for any purpose. A variety of pick-up devices have been utilised, but whether

they comprise a moving-iron or a moving-coil system, an electrostatic arrangement or a piezo-electric crystal, there is in every case a reactive load due to the mass and compliance of the moving parts, so that it is generally necessary to apply some form of damping. The lateral forces which act on the needle during reproduction (apart from that which urges it towards the centre of the record)

GRAMOPHONE are, first, a steady force, due to the fact that a line passing through the needle-point and the axis of rotation of the tone-arm cannot be exactly tangential to the record groove; and second,

62I

case the microphone is caused to produce a varying magnetic feld, which rotates the plane of polarisation of a beam of light after passing through a Nicol prism. Hence the amount of light

a force due to the vibratory motion of the needle-point. The first which will pass through a second Nicol prism or analyser to the of these can easily be kept within reasonable limits by careful

design. The second may be regarded as the mechanical equivalent

of an alternating voltage applied to a network—z.e., there can be

any phase-relation with the current, which is here analogous to velocity. If the force and velocity are 90 deg. out of phase, no useful work is done, and the load is then purely reactive. Such a load would be furnished in electrical parlance by a pure inductance or pure capacity; mechanically, by a pure mass or compliance.

In the older gramophones the load on the needle-point was extremely destructive to the record. There were numerous resonances, and the load, which was purely resistive only at the peaks, was elsewhere almost wholly reactive. Under such conditions a

large proportion of the energy is reflected back into the record

groove result across of the

with a difference of phase which in some cases may even in the needle leaving the grooves altogether and cutting them, with disastrous effects on the life and reproduction record. It is, as a matter of fact, only possible to con-

struct a mechanical system which shall not be harmful to records if it is substantially resistive over a wide frequency range, t.e., if it is a network correctly terminated by a resistance equal to its

characteristic impedance. We have seen in the case of a sound-box that this resistance is provided by the horn. In the case of an electrical reproducer a difficulty arises owing to the fact that it is not required to do work, but only to generate variations of electric potential. It has been stated that the provision of a pure mechanical resistance is not a simple matter. The use of rubber, for example, introduces a reactive component which is large compared with its resistance, and may lead to very heavy record wear if other compliances are added. Long-playing Records.—There are several ways in which the

playing time of a disc record of given diameter may be increased. In one method the principle of recording and reproducing with the turntables rotating at constant angular velocity is abandoned in favour of some other type of motion; for example, a constant

linear velocity of the record relative to the needle.

Using the

former method, it is necessary to make the minimum linear velocity (when the needle is near the centre) great enough to ensure proper recording of the high frequencies. In all other parts of the record the velocity is then unnecessarily high. If the record is made with varying angular velocity, some form of governor or

variable gear must be linked with the tone-arm of the reproducing machine to control the speed of the turntable, and care must be taken to ensure that the power is adequate to drive the record under all conditions.

:

A second method of increasing the playing time, which could be combined with the above, consists in cutting the record with uniform amplitude instead of with uniform velocity, and correcting for the error by a suitable reproducing system. In the case of electrical reproduction this can easily be arranged; moreover it is permissible to reduce the amplitude down to any point where the tatio of surface noise to music is still reasonably small. In this

way a much larger number of grooves may be included in the

record. But records so made would be unsuitable fer use with mechanical instruments of the type described in this article.

Light Recording.—Recently a number of sound-reproducing

systems have been devised for use in conjunction with synchronised motion-pictures. In some cases a disc record with electrical reproducing equipment has been used, while in others the

sound is recorded on a moving photographic film, either on a narrow strip beside the picture or else on a separate film. These records may be of constant density and variable width, or the

photographic film is controlled. The record may be reproduced by passing it between a light source and some form of light sensitive cell, from which, after amplification, a powerful audiofrequency current is obtained. This current may in turn be used to operate one or more loud-speakers, or alternatively, using an electromagnetic recorder, an ordinary wax disc record may be cut in which case the speed may be lowered with a corresponding reduction of some of the difficulties in mechanical recording. By so transferring the film record, however, many of the potential advantages of light recording, such as freedom from noise and ability

to deal with the highest frequencies, are sacrificed. Brsriocrarpxy—J. P. Maxfield and H. C. Harrison, “Methods of High Quality Recording and Reproducing of Music and Speech Based on Telephone Research,” Trans., A.LE.E. (1926); A. G. Webster, “Acoustical Impedance and Theory of Horns and Phonograph,” Prac. Nat, Acad. of Science (1919) ; Hanna and Slepian, The Function and Design of Horns for Loud Speakers (1924); L. N. Reddie, “The Gramophone, and the Mechanical Recording and Reproduction of Musical Sounds,” Journal, Royal Soc. Arts, vol. 56, p. 633; A. Whitaker, “Progress in the Recording and Reproduction of Sound,” Journal of Scientific Instruments, vol. 5, p. 35 (1928); H. Fletcher, “Physical Criterion for Determining the Pitch of a Musical Tone,” Phys. Rev., vol. 23, no. 3 (March 1924); E. C. Wente, “Condenser Transmitter as a Uniformly sensitive instrument for Measuring Sound Intensity,” Phys. Rev., vol. ro (19147); I. B. Crandall, “Air-Damped Vibrating Systems,” Phys. Rev., vol. rz (1918) ; E. C. Wente, “Electrostatic Transmitter,” Phys. Rev., vol. 19 (1922); W. H. Martin and H. Fletcher, “High Quality Transmission and Reproduction of Speech and Music,” Trans. A.LE.E., vol. 43, p. 384 (1924); I. B. Crandall, Theory of Vibrating Systems and Sound (1927); I. W. Green and J. P. Maxfield, “Public Address Systems,” Trans. A.L.E.E., vol. 43, Pp.

64 (1923) ; G. A. Campbell, “On Loaded Lines in Telephonic Transmission,” Phil. Mag. (March 1903), and “Physical Theory of the Electric Wave Filter,” Bell System Technical Journal (Nov. 1922), see also US. Patent 1227113 and 1227114; O. J. Zobel, “Transmission Characteristics of Electric Wave Filters,” Bell System Technical Journal (Oct. 1924); K. S. Johnson, “Transmission Circuits for Telephonic Communication” (1925); W. P. Mason, “Propagation Characteristics of Sound Tubes and Acoustic Filters,” Phys Rev., vol. 31, p. 283 (1928) ; and “The Regular Combination of Acoustic Elements,” Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 6, p. 258 (1927); C. F. Sacia, “Speech Power and Energy,” Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 4, p. 627 (1925); C. F. Sacia and C. J. Beck, “The Power of Fundamental Speech Sounds,” Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 5, p. 393 (1926); J.C. res “The Loudness of a Sound and its Physical Stimulus,” Phys. Rev., vol. 26, p. 507 (1926) ; E. W. Kellogg, “Electrical Reproduction of Phonograph Records,” Journal A.I.E.E. vol. 46, p. 104t (1927); C. W. Rice and E. W. Kellogg, “Notes on the Development of a New Type of

Hornless Loud Speaker,” Journal A.J.E.E. vol. 44, p. 982 (1925); C. R. Hanna, “Loud Speakers of High Efficiency and Load Capacity,”

Journal A.LE.E., vol. 47, p. 253 (1928); A. H. Davis, “Some Acoustical phenomena illustrated by ripples; Transmission through Quincke Filters, Curved Conduits and Vibrating Partitions,” Proc, Pkys. Soc., vol. 40, Pp. 90 (1928). (R. P. G. D.)

GRAMOPHONE MUSIC Gramophone music as a thing to be taken seriously by cultivated musicians has been a matter of slow growth and development. Invented as a by-product of telephone research, reared in the atmosphere of booths, side-shows and acrimonious litigation, a horror to eye and ear, this crazy, ridiculous machine, that contained none the less such remarkable potentialities, won its way to the recognition of the astute and the respectable through even longer years of ignominy and disrepute than the, at first, equally crude and grotesque motor car. Even now, in 1928, the gramophone suffers from two major

disadvantages which have dogged it from the start. It stili cannot reproduce sounds quite faithfully; and it (excepting a few

electric record changing machines) requires mechanical attention, disadvantages that have caused the hostility of critics and teachers the sound pressure. They are made by means of a beam of light who, almost without exception—and the exceptions, Sir Walford density of the photographic image may vary in accordance with

which is deflected (e.g., by a galvanometer) or caused to fluctuate

im Intensity before reaching the film. Among other methods of

Producing a fluctuating beam, use may be made of mechanically or electrically operated shutters, microphone-controlled gas glow

lamps, or the Kerr or Faraday effects in liquids. In the latter

Davies, Mr. Robin Legge and Mr. Percy Scholes especially in England, deserve the gratitude of millions—cast for long years a supercilious, perhaps sometimes a nervous, eye upon the gradual

evolution of the present standard of gramophone reproduction. The three outstanding landmarks in the past have been, first,

GRAMPIANS—GRAMPUS

622

the records made by Caruso, and the other “celebrities” of the early catalogues of the Gramophone Company (H.M.V.); secondly, the adoption of the Columbia “silent surface” in 1922,

which converted the music-loving public; and thirdly, the use of the microphone, which superseded the “acoustic” system of recording in 1925. It is probably just to anticipate a fourth landmark, the perfection of electrical reproduction in place of the present tone-arm and sound-box. If the handicap of surface noise is ignored, it would be idle to suggest that the music lover in 1923 or even earlier could not collect a very substantial nucleus of good music on gramophone records. Most of the celebrated conductors—Toscanini, Nikisch,

Wood,

Coates,

Ronald—with

singers such as Meiba,

Patti, Destinn, Bispham, Elwes, Caruso, Battistini, Santley and Edward Lloyd, and instrumentalists such as Kreisler, Kubelik, Casals, Paderewski, Busoni, Joachim, Ysaye, had made records; it was possible to procure at least fifteen more or less complete chamber music works played by such distinguished bodies as the Flonzaley, Léner and London String Quartets; and records of still wider scope, such as complete operas and oratorios

(Elijah for example) were available.

It was about this period that the late Arthur Clutton Brock wrote one of his last essays entitled “The Psychology of the Gramophone,” in which he confessed that “always with the Gramophone we have to make allowances; and these are most easily made when others help us to make them unconsciously. . .- There are qualities of the orchestra,” he added, “that never survive on the gramophone, the sharpness of attack on the strings, the clearness of their different parts, and the full distinction between strings and wood wind; pizzicato is usually unpleasant, seeming to intrude between you and the rest of the music; while all the bass parts are apt to be a mere rumble.” Clutton Brock also added that sometimes by playing an orchestral record with the thinnest possible needle he could persuade himself that he had produced “‘a delicate, distant kind of fairy music, something not at all like the actual orchestra, but with an original quality of its own.” From these quotations it is possible to perceive a kind of romantic despair, acquiescing in the limitations of the gramophone and attempting to find a new quality of pleasure in its very imperfections. Against this tendency the “realists” opposed a feverish energy in experiments with soundboxes and gramophone design in general, coupled with a constant demand for the recording of classical masterpieces without “cuts”; but it was not till the benefits of the research work done in radio laboratories were felt that the gramophone and the record as we know them today were developed by anything but the most

empirical methods. No one in his senses would claim that he no longer had to

“make allowances” for the gramophone; but musical critics of high standing have been astounded by the rapid progress made. At present the library of gramophone records has reached vast proportions, the Beethoven and Schubert centenaries adding

of the great classical works as a standard of perfection inetagj.

cable from his mind. The limitations of recording hitherto have often led to faulty tempi, to the distortion of orchestral balance

and the like, with the result that the bottled fruit may some. times

have, not so much

lost flavour,

as acquired an eyag.

gerated flavour. None the less it may be said that the Stage of commercial barbarism and academic snobbishness has now been passed, and that the inherent disadvantages of the gramophone have been, if not completely, at any rate to a great extent, sur. mounted. It is now possible to obtain satisfactory, if not abso. lutely perfect, records of Wagner’s works made actually at Bay-

reuth; of symphonies played by full-sized orchestras, not in studios, but in the leading concert halls; of the famous organists

playing in their own cathedrals; of stage performances of opera or oratorio, and even of important open-air events, so that it is true to say today that wherever a microphone can be installed

(C. Mac.; C. Sto.) a gramophone record can be made. GRAMPIANS, THE, a mass of mountains in central Scot-

land, occupying the area between a line drawn from Dumbarton. shire to the North sea at Stonehaven, and the valley of the Spey

or even Glenmore (the Caledonian canal). Their trend is from south-west to north-east, the southern face forming the natural division between the Lowlands and Highlands. They lie in the shires of Argyll, Dumbarton, Stirling, Perth, Forfar, Kincardine, Aberdeen, Banff and Inverness. Among the highest summits are Ben Nevis, Ben Macdhui and Cairngorm, Ben Lawers, Ben More, Ben Alder, Ben Cruachan and Ben Lomond. The principal rivers flowing from the watershed northward are the Findhorn,

Spey, Don, Dee and their tributaries, and southward the South Esk, Tay and Forth with their affluents. On the north the mass is wild and rugged; on the south the slope is often gentle, affording excellent pasture in many places. Both sections contain some of the finest deer-forests in Scotland. The rocks consist chiefly of granite, gneiss, schists, quartzite, porphyry and diorite. Their fastnesses were inhabited by the northern Picts, the Caledonians who, under Galgacus, were defeated by Agricola in A.D. 84 at Mons Graupius—the false reading of which, Grampius, has been perpetuated in the name of the mountains. This site has not been ascertained. ,

GRAMPOUND,

a small market town, Cornwall, England,

g m. N.E. of Truro, and 2 m. from its station (Grampound Road) on the G.W. railway. Pop. (1921) 419. On the river Fal, it retains an ancient town hall; there is a good market cross; and in the neighbourhood, along the Fal, are several early earth-

works. Grampound (Ponsmure, Graundpont, Grauntpount, Graundpond) and the hundred, manor and vill of Tibeste were

formerly closely associated. At the time of the Domesday Tibeste was granted to the count of Mortain. The burgensic character of Ponsmure first appears in 1299. John of Eltham (1334) granted to the burgesses the whole town of Grauntpount. This grant was confirmed in 1378 as well as two fairs at the feasts of St. Peter in Cathedra and St. Barnabas, both of which are

still held, and a Tuesday market

(now held on Friday). Two

a notable contribution. At least a hundred albums of symphonies

members were summoned to parliament by Edward VI. in 1553.

and concertos and of chamber music are now available, and it is not uncommon to hear of record libraries containing from four to seven thousand discs of good music. The educational uses of gramophone records are also becoming more and more widely recognised. The Gramophone Company has its own education department with a staff of lecturers: the Columbia Company publishes records for the International Educational Association; research work in phonetics and anthropology is carried on with recording apparatus; “courses” in foreign languages have a large and eager public; and such institutions

The venality of the electors (about 50) became notorious. In

as the National Gramophonic Society of England, with similar bodies in the United States and in Japan, for the recording of unusual works for distribution to their members, are eloquent

evidence of the part which the gramophone is able to play in the musical culture of communities and of the individual.

The only dangers that threaten are that the listener may insensibly be trained to accept distortions for facts and that he

may accept mot quite perfect interpretations and performances

1821 the borough was disfranchised.

GRAMPUS

(Orcinus orca), a cetacean belonging to the

Delphinidae or dolphin family, characterized by its rounded head without distinct beak, high dorsal fin and large conical teeth. The upper parts are nearly uniform glossy black, with a white eyestripe and the under parts white. The animal is also known as

the “killer,” in allusion to its ferocity in attacking its prey, which

consists of fishes, seals, porpoises, and the smaller dolphins. It is very voracious. In the Antarctic several will combine to break

the ice in order to throw their prey (and, it is said, even men) into the water where they can kill it. These cetaceans sometimes hunt in packs and commit great havoc among the belugas (¢.v.)

and other whales. The grampus inhabits both northern and south-

ern regions, and is by no means uncommon in British waters. The number of species is doubtful, but only one is usually recognized, Grampus is used as the generic name of Risso’s dolphin. (See CETACEA.)

GRANADA

623

the Genil and the Guadiana join the Guadalquivir GRANADA, LUIS DE (1504-1588), Spanish preacher and | tricts. Both Summer drought predominates and only the province. the | outside

ascetic writer, was born of poor parents at Granada. He became mountain slopes are forested, mainly with pine trees. The soil a Dominican and after studying at Valladolid, was appointed | high basins north of the Sierra is, however, fertile, that rocurator at Granada. Seven years later he was elected prior |of the Granada being considered the richest in the whole of the convent of Scala Caeli in the mountains of Cordova, where |of the Vega of from the days of the Moors it has been systematiand , peninsula | He . preachers Spanish of he became one of the most famous and goats are reared in the Sierra and Sheep irrigated. cally went to Portugal in 1555 and became provincial of his order, | is obtained from the upland areas. Fine alabaster, declining the offer of the archbishopric of Braga but accepting the | esparto grass precious stones occur in the mountains behind other and jasper | requeen the , position of confessor and counsellor to Catherine little worked. The only important industry is are but gent. At the expiration of his provincialship, he retired to the | Granada, developed rapidly after the loss of the SpanThis refining. sugar | teachmystical His died. he where Dominican convent at Lisbon, the Philippine Islands in 1898, with the conand Indies West ish | s, ing was said to be heretical, and his famous Gia de Peccadore competition, and there are now factories in in decrease sequent | tongue, European every nearly into translated which has been in the Vega and along the coast. Apart especially towns, many | 1559. in prayer, on was put on the Index together with his book traversing the province, which are excelhighways great the from | In 1576 the prohibition was removed and his works became much ill-kept. The main Madrid—Malaga— and few are roads the lent, | of Peter St. and Teresa St. Sales, de Francis prized by St. passes through the capital. At Moreda a line railway Algeciras Alcantara. south-east to Almeria, passing through Guadix, junction The collected works appeared in 9 vols. at Antwerp in 1578. See | branches and through La Calahorra, where a short line runs out Murcia, for | RousseP. ; (1639) Granada de L. Monoz, La Vida y virtudes de Luis coast,

A line connects Granada with Motril on the lot, Mystiques espagnoles (1867); Fitzmaurice Kelly, Hist. of Spanish | to Alquife. and an electric railway runs from the capital up into the Sierra Lit. (1926). GRANADA,

one of the chief cities of Nicaragua, Central |Nevada.

The chief towns are Granada, the capital (pop. 1920,

Motril (16,809), Guadix (16,241), America, capital of the province of the same name, and the 503,368), Loja (20,493), (11,729) and Alhama de Granada Montefrio (1,935), Baza | the Managua, of S.E. m. 36 terminus of the Pacific railroad. It is are described in separate articles. Other towns national capital, and 118 m. from Corinto, the chief Pacific port (7,591). These s are Ilora (11,179), Huéscar (9,102), inhabitant 7,000 over of | population Granada’s railroad. the of and the northern terminus Almuñécar (8,022), Santafé (7.951), (8,796), te Pinos-Puen | above ft. 180 was in 1928 about 15,000, and it lies at an altitude of Puebla de don Fadrique (7,887) and (7,908), sea-level, on the shores of Lake Nicaragua where steamers and | CWlar de Baza Anpatusia and, for the history of also (See (7,685). Albuñol the for remarkable is It launches connect it with the lake towns. Granada below.)

the city of considerable number of Roman Catholic churches, schools and| the ancient kingdom, capital of the province, and formerly of the the A, GRANAD AmerCentral of University s pretentiou institutions, including the in southern Spain; on the Madrid-GranadaGranada, of kingdom ica, on the shores of the lake; is the seat of a bishop, and as | (1920), 103,368. Granada is well situated, Pop. railway. Algeciras | politics n Nicaragua in party ve Conservati the of rs the headquarte on the north-western slope of the Sierra sea, the above ft. 2,195 | The is closely linked with the religious interests of the country. fertile lowlands known as the Vega de the g overlookin city itself is laid out like most Spanish towns, on a rectangular | Nevada, overshadowed by the peaks of Veleta and west the on Granada | include but story, one mostly are houses the “srid-iron” style; (11,427 ft.) on the south-east. The Mulhacén and ft.) (11,338 | churches many fine old mansions dating from colonial times, the the river Genil, the Roman Simgilzs is city the of are massive and some of them ornate. The city lies back from | southern limit stream flowing westward from the swift a Shenil, Moorish and | (called Granada near islands the shore of the lake, whose clustered le volume of water in summer, considerab a with Nevada, Sierra | “los Diamantes” or “the Diamonds”) are the recreational resort thawed. Its tributary the Darro, the Roman have snows the when | of most and centre trading important an is of the city. Granada Hadarro, enters Granada on the east, flows the old families there are engaged in commerce. The products of | Salon and Moorish from east to west, and then turns sharply mile a of the locality are cattle and hides, cacao, sugar, cotton, indigo, | for upwards main river, which is spanned by a bridge the join to southward alcohol and coffee. confluence. The waters of the Darro are of point the above just | de Granada was founded in 1523 by Francisco Fernandez works along its lower course, and irrigation by reduced much | and life ive Conservat the of centre the Cérdova, early became and partly covered with a canalized been has it city the within keen a been has trade of the region, and from earliest times political and trade rival of Leén (q.v.), further north, the centre roof. Granada comprises three main divisions, the Antequervela, the of the Liberal party, and now a more populous and prosperous

capital, Managua (g.v.) | Albaicin and Granada properly so-called.

The first division,

The present from Antequera in 1410, consists of the was founded between the two older cities as a political compro- | founded by refugees Darro, besides a small area on its right, the by enclosed districts | many Caribbean the mise. Granada was raided by pirates from on the east by the gardens and bounded is It bank. times in the 17th century and in 1606 it was sacked and burned. | or western celebrated of all the monumost the (g.v.), Alhambra the of hill the Granada made filibuster, William Walker (q.v.), the American (Moorish Rabed al BayaAlbaicin The Moors. the by left ments | period centre of his attacks and his headquarters during the t of the Antequeruela. north-wes les ’ Quarter”) (1855-59) when he was active in Nicaragua, and as leader of the | zin, “Falconers the Antequeruela, and of north is so-called, properly Granada, 1855. in Liberals sacked and partially burned Granada it has

business rival of Granada.

‘The origin of its name is obscure; GRANADA, a maritime province of southern Spain, formed | west of the Albaicin. from granada, a pomegranate, in allusion derived sometimes been | centre formerly and Andalusia, to in 1833 of districts belonging ate trees in the neighbourhood. A pomegran of abundance the to | area, of the ancient kingdom of Granada. Pop. (1920) 573,682; 4,838 sq. miles.

on the city arms. The Moors, however, Granada is bounded on the north by Cordova, | pomegranate appears or Karnatiah-cl-Yahud, and possibly Karnattah Granada called the by south Almeria, by Murcia and

Jaén and Albacete, east Mediterranean sea, and west by Malaga. It includes the western

and loftier portion of the Sierra Nevada (q.v.), a vast ridge rising

the name is composed of the Arabic words kurn, “a hill,” and

nattah, “stranger” —the “‘city” or “hill of strangers.”

Granada is the see of an archbishop. Its cathedral, begun in parallel to the sea and attaining its greatest altitudes in the Cerro de Siloe, and finished only in 1703, is profusely de Mulhacén (11,427 ft.) and Picacho de la Veleta (11,338 ft.), |1529 by Diego jasper and coloured marbles, and surmounted with d ornamente the as such ranges, which overlook the city of Granada. Lesser contains many paintings and sculptures interior The dome. a Sierras of Parapanda, Alhama, Almijara, Harana or Baeza, adjoin by 7), the architect of the fine west (1601-166 Cano Alonso by | principal three the rise the main ridge. In this central watershed one of the numerous chapels, known In artists, other and facade, | the to tivers of the province. Southward flows the Guadalféo Real}, is the tomb of Ferdinand (Capilla Mediterranean, westward the Genil, and northward the Guadiana | as the Chapel Royal united Spain. The Cartuja, ,or of rulers first the Isabella, and | disern north-east the Menor and its many tributaries draining

624

GRANADOS

CAMPINA—GRANARIES

Carthusian monastery north of the city, was built in 1516 in memory of the Great Captain, Gonzalo de Córdoba (1453-1515), whose tomb is in the convent of San Jerónimo. After the Alhambra, and such adjacent buildings as the Generalife and Torres Bermejas, which are more fitly described in connection with it, the principal Moorish antiquities of Granada are the 13th-century villa known as the Cuarto Real de San Domingo, admirably preserved, and surrounded by beautiful gardens; the Alcazar de Genil, built in the middle of the r4th century as a palace for the Moorish queens; and the Casa del Cabildo, a university of the same period, converted into a warehouse in the 19th century. Granada has an active trade in the agricultural produce of the Vega, and manufactures liqueurs, soap, paper and coarse linen and woollen fabrics. History.—The identity of Granada with the Iberian city of Iliberrts or Jliberri, which afterwards became a flourishing Roman colony, has never been fully established; but Roman tombs, coins, inscriptions, etc., have been discovered in the neighbourhood.

Under the caliphs of Cordova the family of the Zeri, Ziri or Zeiri maintained itself as the ruling dynasty until rogo; it was then displaced by the Almohades, who were in turn overthrown

by the Almoravides, in r154. The dominion of the Almoravides continued unbroken, save for an interval of one year (1160-61), until 1229. From 1229 to 1238 Granada formed part of the kingdom of Murcia; but in the last-named year it passed into the hands of Abu Abdullah Mohammed Ibn Al Ahmar, prince of Jaen and founder of the dynasty of the Nasrides. Al Ahmar was deprived of Jaen in 1246, but united Granada, Almeria and Malaga under his sceptre, and made peace with Castile. Al Ahmar and his successors ruled over Granada until 1492, in an unbroken line of 25 sovereigns. Their encouragement of commerce--notably the silk trade with Italy-~rendered Granada the wealthiest of Spanish cities; their patronage of art, literature and science attracted many

learned Muslims such as the historian Ibn Khaldun and the geographer Ibn Batuta, to their court, and resulted in a brilliant civilization, of which the Alhambra is the supreme monument. The two noble families of the Zegri and the Beni Serraj, better known in history and legend as the Abencerrages (q.v.), encroached greatly upon the royal prerogatives during the middle years of the 15th century. A crisis arose in 1462, resulting in the dethronement of Abu Nasr Saad, and the accession of his son, Muley Abu’l Hassan, whose name is preserved in that of Mulhacen, the loftiest peak of the Sierra Nevada. Muley Hassan weakened his position by resigning Malaga to his brother Ez Zagal, and incurred the enmity of his first wife, Aisha, by marrying a beautiful Spanish slave, Isabella de Solis, who had adopted the creed of Islam and taken the name of Zorayah, “morning star.”? Aisha or Ayesha, who thus saw her sons Abu Abdullah Mohammed (Boabdil} and Yusuf in danger of being supplanted, appealed to the Abencerrages. (See ALHAMBRA.) In 1482 Boabdil succeeded in deposing his father, who fled to Malaga, but the gradual advance of the Christians under Ferdinand and Isabella forced him to resign the task of defence into the more warlike hands of Muley Hassan and Ez Zagal (1483-86). In 1491 Boabdil was compelled

to sign away his kingdom; and on Jan. 2, 1492, the Spanish army entered Granada, and the Moorish power in Spain was ended.

GRANADOS

CAMPINA,

ENRIQUE

(1867-1916),

Spanish pianist and composer, was born at Lerida on July 29, 1867. After studying in Barcelona under Pujol and Pedrell he went to Paris, where he worked chiefly under de Bériot. In 1898

his first opera, Maria del Carmen, was produced in Madrid. Two years later he founded the Sociedad de Conciertos Clásicos and, in rgor, the Academia Granados. He had a brilliant career as a pianist, playing chiefly in France and Spain but visiting America in 1915 and in 1916, when his opera Goyescas was performed in New York. On his return home he met his death on the “Sussex,”

which was sunk in the Channel by a German submarine on March 24. His most characteristic writing is to be found in his piano music, which is full of the colour and rhythm of Spanish folktunes. Especially in the Goyescas—two sets of pieces from which he took the material for his opera of that mame—he produced melodies of great beauty, drawing his inspiration from Goya’s

paintings and tapestries and the life of the period in Madrid

Among his other piano compositions are: 12 Spanish dances: children’s pieces; six pieces based on Spanish popular songs: romantic scenes; poetic scenes; book of hours and impromptus. His operas include: Picarol, Gaziel, Liliana, Petrarca and Follet. He also wrote a symphonic poem: Nit del Mort and several orchestral suites; an “Oriental” for oboe and strings; a collection of canciones amatorias and another of seven Tonadillas for the voice

GRANARIES AND GRAIN ELEVATORS. With the

disappearance of the old type of granary, the term grain elevator has in the United States and Canada almost wholly ousted the

older term. A modern granary, with its elaborate organizations, may be likened to a scientific development of the fundamental theory laid down by Joseph of Old in Egypt. In modern civiliza. tion granaries play probably the most important part in the world’s economy, since they are instrumental in distributing the daily bread from the sparsely populated new countries where production, on the virgin soil, is greater than the consumption, to the densely populated old countries, where conditions are re. versed. Beyond the obvious purpose of providing safe storage, modern granaries provide automatic handling for the grain to and from storage with a maximum of speed and a minimum of cost. An outstanding advantage of the system is that a farmer can store his wheat or maize at a moderate rate and can get an

advance on his warrant if he is in want of money.

Moreover,

a holder of wheat in a Chicago granary can withdraw wheat of similar grade from one in New York, thus saving freight, America is the home of great granaries, which are called “ele. vators” in that country, but it is not generally known that a certain Robert Dunbar, a native of Carabee, Fifeshire, Scotland, designed the first modern type of granary at Buffalo, where he had settled in 1834. Granary Building Materials—Until within a few years of the close of the roth century silo granaries were in vogue, built of timber on the crib system, somewhat after the fashion of blockhouses; the silos, however, were of sawn timber, generally about raft. square, and the planks were nailed one on top of the other overlapping at the corners, beginning at the base with those of

6 to roin. width, and finishing at the top with those of 4 inches. This construction was quite satisfactory, but the high cost and growing scarcity of timber necessitated the use of other materials. During the opening years of the 2oth century cylindrical steel silos were built with conical or flat bases, the former being constructed of steel and the latter of concrete. This type of granary is comparatively cheap and the weight of the structure is light relative to the amount of grain stored. Formerly all steel silos were built with riveted joints, but bolts are now largely used, the cost of erection being thereby considerably reduced, since skilled riveters are no longer required to put the tanks together on the site. Steel was soon ousted by tiles reinforced by steel rods for square silos and rings for circular ones. The concrete type of granary is the most recent and by far the most satisfactory form of construction, and the majority of large granaries built of late years are of this type. They are proof against both frre and vermin and have the advantages of utility, longevity and economy.

Granaries are built with what is known as a cupola which is

erected above the silos; in the early days this, too, was built of timber. It consists of one or more working floors where the elevator tops and the band conveyors are located and manipulated. Nowadays these cupolas are also built of ferro-concrete. The development in the mechanical equipment since 1896 must be likewise recorded. This is in keeping with the general progress in engineering practice by which all industries have more or less benefited during the period in question. It is now customary, with the advent of the individual motor, to drive each conveyor or elevator unit by a separate motor through silent chain and double helical speed reduction gear instead of, as formerly, all machines being driven by means of ropes and countershafts from one prime mover on the ground floor. This means great saving of space, increase of storage room, altogether greater compactness, convenience of operation with a minimum of manual attention

GRANARIES and better facilities for dust elimination.

AND

GRAIN

The very latest im-

provement noted is the employment of roller bearings on all of the machinery. At the No. 3 Montreal Granary, where all these mechanical im-

provements are in use, a saving of one-third in driving power has been effected over all of the earlier and the more cumbersome methods.

Risk of Explosion.—One phase of the granary problem has

hitherto been barely touched

upon,

and that is safeguarding

against explosions. So far, the only precautions taken have been the adoption of numerous methods of ventilation and dust collection. Such apparent neglect is only due to the fact that an ex-

plosion was scarcely ever heard of in connection with the earlier and relatively smaller granaries. Then came a rude awakening.

Since 1916, 26 serious explosions have occurred, involving the loss of 67 lives, injuries to 72 persons and great monetary loss. The

risk of explosion can never be entirely eliminated, because grain cannot be handled without the creation of dust, and dust when mixed with air in a certain proportion must constitute an explosive mixture which, on being brought into contact with some external source of heat equal to the ignition temperature, causes catastrophe. A broken electric light bulb, or even a static spark, would be sufficient.

While the developments enumerated above have improved the general condition

of granaries, they have incidentally reduced

the risk of explosion by lessening the possibility of producing static sparks. The introduction of roller bearings has minimized

the danger due to overheated bearings, and the increased size of main-bucket-elevator head-pulleys has practically excluded elevator chokes with their inevitable production of dust. It has only recently been fully recognized that granary engineers should take measures to reduce the risk of explosion when designing a granary. The John S. Metcalf Co. Ltd., of Montreal, have realized that though an initial explosion is often only a small affair, it may give rise to a second, and even to a third, each one increasing in extent and violence. They have therefore in the construction of the Port of Montreal granary, concentrated on the prevention or localization of the initial explosion. To this end they

ELEVATORS

625

quently the question of foundations is at all times of the greatest importance. Harbour Commissioners of Montreal Granary No. 3.— This granary is of concrete construction and it has a total capacity of 2,000,000 bushels; it has been specially designed

with the view of guarding against explosions. Each department of the plant is segregated to form an isolated unit. The receivinghouse, for instance, which is perhaps the dustiest section, and therefore the place where explosions would be most likely to occur, stands quite apart from the granary proper. The unloading of the grain cars on their arrival at the granary is accomplished by a dumping process in which the car is first lifted and simultaneously tilted forward, then rocked endwise. With this, the unloading of a 60-ton car takes only seven minutes, and one such car dumper can unload from seven to ten 2,000-bushel cars per hour. The granary itself is divided into two units, each having a stotage capacity of one million bushels, and separated from the working house, which is located between them, by substantial concrete walls. The only apertures in these walls are small openings for the belt conveyors to pass through, and those for the necessary iron doors. Moreover, the lowest floor of the working house is on a level with the floor above the silo cells, while the space between the working house and ground level (about rooft.) is entirely open, allowing the elevator legs to pass through. In these circumstances, should an explosion occur in the receiving house it would spend itself locally, since the only connections

between it and the working floors are the elevator legs which are in the vast open space between the working floors and the ground. The casings, of light steel sheets, are carried up to a considerable height in the open, so that an explosion would blow them out and escape before it reached the building above. An

explosion on either of the working floors would be kept from spreading to the adjacent granaries by the concrete walls, which

would, at the same time, protect the working house if an explosion occurred in either of the two granaries. As an additional precaution, every bucket elevator and every silo cell has a separate vent through the roof to the open. The numerous windows are have segregated the granary into smaller units, thereby reducing all hinged from the top and swing outwards with the least pressure from the inside. Practically speaking, all avenues through which the danger to a possible minimum, as will be seen later. Fortunately, Great Britain has not suffered from any serious an explosion can spread are closed. The risk of explosion is explosion, probably on account of the fact that about 75% of further reduced by the provision of roller bearings on all the imported wheat is used, which has already passed through granaries machines, for the true rolling motion reduces friction to a miniin the countries where it has been grown, so that a goodly percent- mum and prevents heating of the journals. Lubricating difficulties age of dust has already been eliminated. Another reason for this immunity from explosions is probably that the British granaries are smaller. In Great Britain there are climatic difficulties in the way of storing the native grain on a large scale. To preserve newly harvested grain in good condition it should be kept as far as possible from moisture and heat, because it has a tendency to sweat when brought into a warehouse, and in this condition will easily heat, such heating, if allowed to continue, impairing the quality of the grain. These difficulties have been largely overcome by frequently transferring it from one silo to another. Modern granaries are all built on the same fundamental plan and the mechanical equipment for receiving and discharging grain

is similar in all of them. For taking in rail-borne grain the mechanical handling equipment consists essentially of truckunloading devices, bucket elevators and band conveyors; while in addition to these both barge elevators and pneumatic grainhandling plant are employed, principally for transferring grain from vessels to granaries. In most cases it is necessary to receive and distribute grain by both rail and waterways, and since the railway system is the more flexible, most of the important granaries are located on the waterside, where large vessels may be berthed for the discharging and receiving of the grain, while the railway sidings on the land side connect the granaries with the chief lines in the district. The Montreal granaries, for instance,

are connected with the lines which traverse the Canadian wheat

helt—Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta. Granaries as a rule are enormously heavy and the soil on Which they are constructed is in many cases alluvial, corise-

are likewise overcome,

since roller bearings require very little

lubricant and that only periodically. As a matter of fact there are over 53,000 Hyatt roller bearings in this plant, and the motors installed for the conveyors are of one-third less power than those formerly employed when bearings of solid type were used. Moreover, reduction of strain permits the use of lighter and less costly conveyor belts. Durban Terminal Granary—This large granary installa-

tion is an enterprise of the Government of the Union of South Africa; it has a storage capacity of 42,000 short tons of maize, but provision has been made to increase the capacity to a total of 78.000 tons. The building is of ferro-concrete and structural steel and comprises a main working house and several annexes. The working house block is ro4ft. long by yoft. wide and is divided into 8g rectangular storage silos with a total capacity of 15,000 tons. A basement working floor beneath the silos, and likewise one immediately above them, accommodate the band conveyors for distributing and withdrawing grain to and from the silos. Above the silos is a cupola, to the highest point of which the four main

intake elevators reach. Accommodation is provided in this cupola for the weighing machines with their receiving and delivery hoppers, from the latter of which maize is spouted on to the distributing barid conveyors as well as on to the transverse conveyors, which communicate with the storage annexe. This consists of 50 hoppered cylindrical silos, each 18ft. in diameter, and 36 interspace bins with a total capacity of 27,000 tens. These are of the same depth as the others, just over goft., and are constructed of ferro-concrete 7in. thick. Their tops, ke those of the silos in

CHACO

GRANBY—GRAN

626

the working house, are covered by a reinforced concrete floor. ` side of the dock grain can be taken from ships while general

The structure above the annexe is of steel, with brickwork between | cargo is being discharged. The conveyors in these subways can the steel uprights. Galleries of reinforced concrete connect the ; be fed from numerous points along the quay. With the layout of annexe at the top with the working house, while in the basement | these conveyors six separate streams of grain can be carried to connection is afforded by underground tunnels. Alongside the | the granary at the same time, and as each conveyor can handie working house is a track shed, 188ft. long by 7oft. wide, which | 200 tons per hour, the plant has an hourly intake capacity of extends over four rail tracks and in which the operation of un- | 1,200 tons.

The subway conveyors

feed cross conveyors in the

loading the wagons takes place. basement of the granary, these, in turn, feeding the six receiyj Since damp or dirty grain has occasionally to be stored, means | elevators. The grain is conveyed to the top of the cupola by

have been provided for drying and cleaning it. These operations | these elevators and delivered into automatic weighing machines. are carried out in a ferro-concrete annexe, ssft. long by rsft. | whence it passes into a steel hopper below. From this the grain

wide. The drying plant is capable of evaporating from 4% to 5% , is led by an elaborate system of spouts to the distributing con. of moisture from the grain at the rate of 600 bushels per hour. | veyors over the silos, or, as an alternative, to a conveyor on the

The cleaning machinery has a combined capacity of 3,600 bushels | floor above the bins, which in turn feeds to the sacking and shipper hour. ping bins on the west side.

The grain is delivered at the track shed in bulk wagons of 45 | The silos round the four sides of the building, 8: in number, tons capacity, which are spotted by electric capstans and end- | are divided into upper and lower parts by a sloping cross division tipped by four hydraulically operated tipplers, one of which works | inserted at a sufficient height to afford delivery by gravity from in connection with each of the four railway lines. The grain is | the upper part to the sacking sheds, and from the lower for tipped into four under-rail hoppers, each of a capacity of 40 tons. |shipping the grain. Sacking sheds are provided on all four sides

Beneath these hoppers are four band conveyors to receive and | of the granary, and are so built that wheat may be sacked of

deliver the grain to the four main elevators which deposit it at |from any number of points at the same time. Railway wagons the top of the building, whence it is conveyed, via weighing ma- | can be brought in and loaded on three sides of the granary under

chines, spouting and conveyors, into any silo in the working house | the sacking shed floors. A very complete dust collecting system or storage annexe. The capacity of this intake plant is 1,000 tons | is provided, which includes exhausters from the garners above the per hour if the supply is uninterrupted.

The contents of any of | weighers,

while

“sweep-ups”’

are

provided

on all floors. The

(G. F. Z.) the silos can be transferred to the shipping silos adjoining by band | installation is electrically driven throughout. GRANBY, JOHN MANNERS, Marovess or (172:conveyors and the five shipping elevators; or alternatively, they|

may be delivered from the hoppers below the weighing machines | 1770), British soldier, the eldest son of the third duke of Rutin the cupola by means of spouts. A shipping conveyor in the ' land, was born in 4721, educated at Eton and Trinity college, working house, a conveyor affording a connection between this ,Cambridge, and elected M.P. for Grantham in 1741. Four years and the shipping conveyor in the inclined gantry, and quay con- | later he received a commission as colonel of a regiment raised

veyors in the gallery, the latter running parallel with the quay | to assist in quelling the Highland revolt of 1745. This corps

alongside which the ships are unloaded, provide loading facilities ' never got beyond Newcastle, but as a volunteer on the duke of

for water transport. Grain can likewise be taken from the silos | Cumberland’s staff, Granby saw active service in the last stages in the annexe by means of tunnel conveyors. From the quay | of the insurrection. He was in the Flanders campaign of 1747, conveyors grain is delivered into the holds of vessels through |was promoted major-general in 1755, and three years later was loading-out shoots, which can be raised, lowered or telescoped, | appointed colonel of the Royal Horse Guards (Blues). He had and which are so hinged that they can be swung through an angle |, married the daughter of the duke of Somerset, and in 1754 had of fully one hundred and eighty degrees.

The shipping galleries | begun his parliamentary

connection

with

Cambridgeshire,

for

as well as their supporting trestles are constructed of structural | which county he sat until his death. Dispatched to Germany in steel. These gantries are covered in with galvanized corrugated | 1758, he was present at the battle of Minden, and later succeeded

steel sheets and have cement floors.

The loading-out capacity is | to the command

of the British contingent after Lord Sackville’s

the same as that of the intake plant; że., 1,000 tons per hour. | disgrace. On July 31, 1760, Granby stormed Warburg at the head Grain can also be loaded, either loose or in sacks, into rail or road | of the British cavalry, capturing 1,500 men and ten pieces of wagons in the track shed through special loading shoots, either | artillery. A year later (July 15, 1761) the British defended the heights of Vellinghausen with great bravery, and in the last cam-

from the working house or from the centre tower on the quay.

For the purpose of removing the dust from all points where | paign, at Gravenstein and Wilhelmsthal, Homburg and Cassel, grain is fed on to, or delivered from, conveyors and elevators, as |Granby’s men bore the brunt of the fighting and earned the well as from the various tunnels, two dust extracting systems and | greatest share of the glory. one dust removal system with incinerator and packing machine | Returning to England in 1763 the marquess found himself have been provided. The whole of the machinery is driven by | the popular hero of the war. He was appointed to the Ordnance electric motors, fitted with starters which can be operated from | on July 1, 1763, and three years later he became commander-in-

various points in the building. A thermometer system has been | chief. In this position he was attacked by “Junius.” He died fitted, which enables the temperature of the grain at various | at Scarborough on Oct. 18, 1770. depths in each of the silos to be indicated on a dial in the granary | Two portraits of Granby were painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds,

oes

No. 2 Granary,

-

Manchester

Ship Canal—It

a

.

u

tee aes hyae a, Se os r

is of rein- which took his name and had his porta

forced concrete and has a storage capacity of 40,000 tons.

It

sign-board., ;

-

comprises 260 storage bins and 81 shipping silos, as well as distrib- | GRAN CHACO, an extensive region in the heart of South

uting, weighing and loading-out floors. The building block is |America belonging to the La Plata basin, stretching from 20° to 2gsit. long and 165ft. wide, the total height from the quay level | 29° S. lat. Its area is estimated at 300,000 sq. miles. The greater to the top of the cupola being 168 feet. The cupola is 238ft. long | part is covered with marshes, lagoons and dense tropical jungle and 37ft. wide and rises, with its four floors, to a height of 7oft. | and forest, and is still unexplored.

above the silos.

On its southern and western

borders there are extensive tracts of open woodland, intermingled

General cargo, as well as grain, can be simultaneously discharged | with grassy plains, while on the northern side in Bolivia are large

ivem ships in No. 9 dock.

Grain is conveyed from the ships to | areas of open country subject to inundations in the rainy season.

the granary on belt conveyors in subways on both north and | It is traversed by two great rivers, the Pilcomayo and Bermejo. south quays. That below the north quay extends about soft. |whose sluggish courses are not navigable, The greater part of its along the dock from the granary, so that two full cargoes of grain| territory is occupied by nomadic tribes of Indians, some of whom

canbe uploaded simultaneously. The south subway extends the| are still unsubdued, while others like the Matacos, are sometimes fall Iength of five berths and is about half-a-mile long. On this | to be found on neighbouring sugar estates and estancias as labow-

GRAND

ALLIANCE

627

ers during the busy season. The forest wealth of the Chaco region | called them, and were waged with the object of adding a codicil is incalculable, consisting of a great variety of palms and valuable to the treaty of peace that had closed the last incident. Other causes contributed to stifle the former vigour of war. cabinet woods, building timber, etc. Its extensive tracts of quebracho colorado (Loxopterygium Lorenizit) are of very great Campaigns were no longer conducted by armies of ten to thirty yalue because of its use in tanning leather. Both the wood and its thousand men. Large regular armies had come into fashion, and, extract are largely exported. Its possession was the cause of as Guibert points out, instead of small armies charged with grand

serious dispute and armed conflict between Bolivia and Paraguay in the winter of 1928.

GRAND

ALLIANCE,

WAR

OF THE

(alternatively

called the War of the League of Augsburg), the third! of the great

aggressive wars waged by Louis XIV. of France against Spain, the Empire, Great Britain, Holland and other states. The two earlier wars, which are redeemed from oblivion by the fact that in them three great captains, Turenne, Conde and Montecucculi, played leading parts, are described in the article DutcH Wars. In the third war the leading figures are: Henri de MontmorencyBoutteville, duke of Luxemburg, the former aide-de-camp of Condé and heir to his daring method of warfare; William of Orange, who had fought against both Condé and Luxemburg in

the earlier wars, and was now king of England; Vauban, the founder of the sciences of fortification and siegecraft, and Catinat, the follower of Turenne’s cautious and systematic strategy, who was the first commoner to receive high command in the army of

Louis XIV. But as soldiers, these men—except Vauban—are overshadowed by the great figures of the preceding generation, and except for a half-dozen outstanding episodes, the war of 1689-97 was an affair of positions and chess-board manoeuvres. It was within these years that the art and practice of war began to crystallize into the form called “linear” in its strategic and tactical aspect,

and

“cabinet-war”

in its political and

moral

aspect. In the Dutch wars, and in the minor wars that preceded the formation of the League of Augsburg, there were still survivals of the loose organization, violence and wasteful barbarity typical of the Thirty Years’ War; and even in the War of the Grand Alliance (in its earlier years) occasional brutalities and devastations showed that the old spirit died hard. But outrages that would have been borne in dumb misery in the old

days now provoked loud indignation, and when the fierce Louvois disappeared from the scene it became generally understood that barbarity was impolitic, not only as alienating popular sympathies, but also as rendering operations a physical impossibility for want of supplies. Character of the War.—Thus in 1700, so far from terrorizing the country people Into submission, armies systematically conciliated them by paying cash and bringing trade into the country. Formerly, wars had been fought to compel a people to abjure their faith or to change sides in some personal or dynastic quarrel. But since 1648 this had no longer been the case. The Peace of Westphalia established the general relationship of kings, priests and peoples on a basis that was not really shaken until the French Revolution, and in the intervening 140 years the peoples at large,

except at the highest and gravest moments (as in Germany in 1689, France in 1709 and Prussia in 1757) held aloof from active participation in politics and war. This was the beginning of the theory that war was an affair of the regular forces only, and that intervention in it by the civil population was a punishable offence. Thus wars became the business of the professional soldiers in the king’s own service, and the scarcity and costliness of these soldiers combined with the purely political character of the quarrels that arose to reduce a campaign from an “intense and passionate drama” to a humdrum affair, to which only rarely a few men of

genius imparted some degree of vigour, and which in the main was an attempt to gain small ends by a small expenditure of force and with the minimum of risk. As-between a prince and his subjects there were still quarrels that stirred the average man——the Dragonnades, for instance, or the English Revolution—but foreign wars were “a stronger form of diplomatic notes,” as Clausewitz

operations we find grand armies charged with small operations. The average general, under the prevailing conditions of supply and armament, was not equal to the task of commanding such armies. Any real concentration of the great forces that Louis ATV. had created was therefore out of the question, and the field armies split into six or eight independent fractions, each charged with operations on a particular theatre of war. From such a policy nothing remotely resembling the overthrow of a great power could be expected to be gained. The one tangible asset, In view of future peace negotiations, was therefore a fortress, and it was on the preservation or capture of fortresses that operations in all these wars chiefly turned. The idea of the decisive battle for its own sake, as a settlement of the quarrel, was far distant; for, Strictly speaking, there was no quarrel, and to use up highly trained and exceedingly expensive soldiers in gaining by brute force an advantage that might equally well be obtained by chicanery was regarded as foolish. The fortress was, moreover, of immediate as well as contingent value to a state at war. A century of constant warfare had impoverished middle Europe, and armies had to spread over a large area if they desired to “live on the country.” This was dangerous in the face of the enemy (cf. the Peninsular War), and it was also uneconomical. The only way to prevent the country people from sending their produce into the fortresses for safety was to announce beforehand that cash would be paid, at a high rate, for whatever the army needed. But even promises rarely brought this about, and to live at all, whether on supplies brought up from the home country and stored in magazines (which had to be guarded) or on local resources, an army had as a rule to maintain or to capture a large fortress. Sieges, therefore, and limited manoeuvres are the features of this form of war, wherein armies progressed not with the giant strides of Napoleonic war, but in a succession of short hops from one foothold to the next. The general character of the war being borne in mind, nine-tenths of its marches and manoeuvres can be almost “taken as read”; the remaining tenth, the exceptional and abnormal part of it, alone possesses an interest for modern readers. in pursuance of a new aggressive policy in Germany, Louis XIV. sent bis troops, as a diplomatic menace rather than for conquest, Into that country in the autumn of 1688. Some of their raiding parties plundered the country as far south as Augsburg, for the political intent of their advance suggested terrorism rather than conciliation as the best method. The League of Augsburg at once took up the challenge, and the addition of new members (Treaty of Vienna, May 1689) converted it into the “Grand Alliance” of Spain, Holland, Sweden, Savoy and certain Italian states, Great Britain, the emperor, the elector of Brandenburg, etc. “Those who condemned the king for raising up so many enemies, admired him for having so fully prepared to defend himself and even to forestall them,” says Voltaire. Louvois had in fact completed the work of organizing the French army on a regular and permanent basis, and had made it not merely the best, but also by far the most numerous in Europe, for Louis disposed in 1688 of no fewer than 375,000 soldiers and 60,000 sailors. The infantry was uniformed and drilled, and the socket bayonet and the flint-lock musket had been introduced. The only relic of the old armament was the pike, which was retained for one-quarter of the foot, though it had been discarded by the Imperialists in

1The name “Grand Alliance” is applied to the coalition against

the course of the Turkish wars described below. The first artillery regiment was created in 1684, to replace the former semi-civilian organization by a body of artillerymen susceptible of uniform training and amenable to discipline and orders. Devastation of the Palatinate, 1689.—In 1689 Louis had six

only waged the war dealt with in the present article, but (with only t modifications and with practically unbroken continuity) the

armies on foot. That in Germany, which had executed the raid of the previous autumn, was not in a position to resist the prin-

Louis XIV. begun by the League of Augsburg.

This coalition not

War of the Spanise Succession (g.v.) that followed.

cipal army of the coalition so far from support. Louvois therefore

628

GRAND

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ordered it to lay waste the Palatinate, and the devastation of the country around Heidelberg, Mannheim, Spires, Oppenheim and Worms was pitilessly and methodically carried into effect in January and February. There had been devastations in previous wars, even the high-minded Turenne had used the argument of fire and sword to terrify a population or á prince, while the whole story of the last ten years of the great war had been one of incendiary armies leaving traces of their passage that it took a century to remove. But here the devastation was 4 purely military measure, executed systematically over a given strategic front for no other purpose than to delay the advance of the enemy’s army. It differed from the method of Turenne or Cromwell in that the sufferers were not those people whom it was the purpose of the war to reduce to submission, but others who had no interest in the quarrel. It differed from Wellington’s laying waste of Portugal in 1810 in that it was not done for the defence of the Palatinate against a national enemy, but because the Palatinate was where it was. The feudal theory that every subject of a prince at war was an armed vassal, and therefore an enemy of the prince’s enemy, had in practice been obsolete for two centuries past; by 1690 the organization of war, its causes, its methods and its Instruments had passed out of touch with the people at large, and it had become thoroughly understood that the army alone was concerned with the army’s business. Thus it was that this devastation excited universal reprobation, and that in the words of a modern French writer, the “idea of Germany came to birth in the flames of the Palatinate.” As a military measure even, it was unprofitable; for it became impossible for Marshal Duras, the French commander, to hold out on the east side of the middle Rhine, and he could think of nothing better to do than to go farther south and to ravage Baden and the Breisgau, which was not even a military necessity. The grand army of the Allies, coming farther north, was practically unopposed. Charles of Lorraine and the elector of Bavaria— lately comrades in the Turkish war (see below)—invested Mainz, the elector of Brandenburg, Bonn. Mainz, valiantly defended by Nicolas du Blé, marquis d’Uxelles, had to surrender on Sept. 8. The governor of Bonn, baron d’Asfeld, not in the least intimidated by the bombardment, held out till the army that had taken Mainz reinforced the elector of Brandenburg, and then, rejecting the hard terms of surrender offered him by the latter, he fell in resisting a last assault on Oct. 12. Only 850 men out of his 6,000 were left to surrender on the 16th, and the duke of Lorraine, less truculent than the elector, escorted them safely to Thionville. Boufflers, with another of Louis’s armies, operated from Luxemburg (captured by the French in 1684 and since held) towards the Rhine, but was unable to relieve either Mainz or Bonn.

In the Low Countries the French marshal d'Humières, being in superior force, had obtained special permission to offer battle to the Allies. Leaving the garrison of Lille and Tournay to amuse the Spaniards, he hurried from Maubeuge to oppose the Dutch. Coming upon their army (commanded by the prince of Waldeck) in position behind the river Heure, with an advanced post in the little walled town of Walcourt, he flung his advanced guard against the bridge and fortifications of this place to clear the way for his deployment beyond the river Heure (Aug. 27). After wasting a thousand brave men in this attempt, to whose repulse

a British regiment, the Coldstream Guards, contributed, he drew back. For a few days the two armies remained face to face, cannonading one another at intervals, but no further fighting occurred.

Humiéres returned to the region of the Scheldt fortresses, and Waldeck to Brussels. For the others of Louis’s six armies the year’s campaign passed off quite uneventfully.

The War in Ireland, 1689-1691.—Simultaneously with these

operations, the Jacobite cause was being fought to an issue in Ireland. War began early in 1689 with desultory engagements between the Orangemen of the north and the Irish regular army, most of which the earl of Tyrconnel had induced to declare for King James. The northern struggle after a time condensed itself mio the defence of Derry and Enniskillen. The siege of the former place, begun by James himself and carried on by the French general Rosen, lasted ros days. In marked contrast to the

sieges of the continent, this was resisted by the townsmen them. selves, under the leadership of the clergyman

George Walker

But the relieving force (consisting of two frigates, a supply ship and a force under Major-general Percy Kirke) was dilatory, ang

it was not until the defenders were in the last extremity that

Kirke actually broke through the blockade (July 31). Enniskillen was less closely invested, and its inhabitants, organized by Col. Wolseley and other officers sent by Kirke, actually kept the open

field and defeated the Jacobites at Newton Butler (July 31). 4 few days later the Jacobite army withdrew from the north. But

it was long before an adequate army could be sent over from England to deal with it. Marshal Schomberg (q.v.), one of the

most distinguished soldiers of the time, who had been expelled

from the French service as a Huguenot, was indeed sent over in August, but the army he brought, some 10,000 strong, was com-

posed of raw recruits, and when it was assembled in camp at Dundalk to be trained for its work, it was quickly ruined by an epidemic of fever. But James failed to take advantage of his opportunity to renew the war in the north, and the relics of Schomberg’s army wintered in security, covered by the Enniskillen troops. In the spring of 1690, however, more troops, this time experienced regiments from Holland, Denmark and Branden. burg, were sent, and in June, Schomberg in Ireland and Majorgeneral Scravemotre in Chester having thoroughly organized and equipped the field army, King William assumed the command himself. Five days after his arrival he began his advance from Loughbrickland near Newry, and on July 1 he engaged James's main army on the river Boyne, close to Drogheda. Schomberg

was killed and William himself wounded, but the Irish army was routed. No stand was made by the defeated party either in the Dublin or in the Waterford district. Lauzun, the commander of the French auxiliary corps in James’s army, and Tyrconnel both discountenanced any attempt to defend Limerick, where the

Jacobite forces had reassembled; but Patrick Sarsfield (earl of Lucan), as the spokesman of the younger and more ardent of the Irish officers, pleaded for its retention. He was left, therefore, to hold Limerick, while Tyrconnel and Lauzun moved northward into Galway. Here, as in the north, the quarrel enlisted the active sympathies of the people against the invader, and Sarsfield not only surprised and destroyed the artillery train of William’s army, but repulsed every assault made on the walls that Lauzun

had said “could be battered down by rotten apples.” William gave up the siege on Aug. 30. The failure was, however, compensated in a measure by the arrival in Ireland of an expedition under Lord Marlborough, which captured Cork and ‘Kinsale, and next year (1691) the Jacobite cause was finally crushed by William’s general Ginckell in the battle of Aughrim in Galway (July 12), in which St. Ruth, the French commander, was killed and the Jacobite army dissipated. Ginckell, following up his victory, besieged Limerick afresh. Tyrconnel died of apoplexy while organizing the defence, and this time the town was invested by sea as well as by land. After six weeks’ resistance the defenders offered to capitulate, and with the signing of the treaty of Limerick on Oct. 1, the Irish war came to an end. Sarsfield and the most energetic of King James’s supporters retired to France and were

there formed into the famous “Irish brigade.”

Fleurus, 1690.—The campaign of 1690 on the continent of

Europe is marked by two battles, one of which, Luxemburg’s vic-

tory of Fleurus (g.v.) belongs to the category of the world’s great battles.

The conditions in which it was fought, however,

were in closer accord with the general spirit of the war than was the decision that arose out of them. Luxemburg had a powerful enemy in Louvois, and he had consequently been allotted only an insignificant part in the first campaign. But after the disasters

of 1689 Louis re-arranged the commands on the north-east frontier so as to allow Humiéres, Luxemburg and Boufflers to combine

for united action. “I will take care that Louvois plays fair,” Louis said to the duke when he gave him his letters of service.

Though apparently Luxemburg was not authorized to order such a combination himself, as senior officer he would automatically

take command if it came about. The whole force available was

GRAND

ALLIANCE

probably close on 100,000, but not half of these were present at the decisive battle, though Luxemburg certainly practised the

629

much pomp by Louis XIV. himself, with Boufflers and Vauban under him. On its surrender (April 8}, Louis returned to Ver-

sailles and divided his army between Boufflers and Luxemburg, the former of whom departed to the Meuse. There he attempted dauphin, assisted by the duc de Lorge, held the middle Rhine, by bombardment to enforce the surrender of Liége, but had ta deand Catinat the Alps, while other forces were in Roussillon, etc., sist when the elector of Brandenburg threatened Dinant. The as before. Catinat’s operations are briefly described below. Those principal armies on either side faced one another under the comof the others need no description, for though the Allies formed a mand respectively of William III. and of Luxemburg. The Allies plan for a grand concentric advance on Paris, the preliminaries were first concentrated to the south of Namur, and Luxemburg to this advance were so numerous and so closely interdependent hurried thither, but neither party found any tempting opporthat on the most favourable estimate the winter would necessarily tunity for battle, and when the cavalry had consumed all the find the Allied armies many leagues short of Paris. In fact, the forage available in the district, the two armies edged away gradRhine offensive collapsed when Charles of Lorraine died (April ually towards Flanders. The war of manoeuvre continued, with a 17), and the reconquest of his lost duchy ceased to be a direct slight advantage on Luxembureg’s side, until September, when object of the war. William returned to England, leaving Waldeck in command of Luxemburg began operations by drawing in from the Sambre the Allied army, with orders to distribute it in winter quarters country, where he had hitherto been stationed, to the Scheldt amongst the garrison towns. This gave the momentary opporand “eating up” the country between Oudenarde and Ghent in tunity for which Luxemburg had been watching, and at Leuze the face of a Spanish army concentrated at the latter place (Sept. 20) he fell upon the cavalry of Waldeck’s rearguard and (May 15~June 12). He then left Humiéres with a containing drove it back in disorder with heavy losses until the pursuit was force in the Scheldt region and hurried back to the Sambre to checked by the Allied infantry. In 1692! the Rhine campaign was no more decisive than before, interpose between the Allied army under Waldeck and the fortress of Dinant which Waldeck was credited with the intention of be- although Lorge made a successful raid into Wiirttemberg in Sepsieging. His march from Tournay to Gerpinnes was counted a tember and foraged his cavalry in German territory till the apmodel of skill—the locus classicus for the maxim that ruled till proach of winter. The Spanish campaign was unimportant, but the advent of Napoleon—“march always in the order in which on the Alpine side the Allies under the duke of Savoy drove back you encamp, or purpose to encamp, or fight.” For four days the Catinat into Dauphiné, which they ravaged with fire and sword. army marched across country in close order, covered in all direc- But the French peasantry were quicker to take arms than the tions by reconnoitring cavalry and advanced, flank and rear Germans, and, inspired by the local gentry—amongst whom guards, Under these conditions eleven miles a day was practically figured the heroine, Philis de la Tour du Pin (1645-1708), daughforced marching, and on arriving at Jeumont-sur-Sambre the ter of the marquis de la Charce—they beset every road with such army was given three days’ rest. Then followed a few leisurely success that the small regular army of the invaders was powermarches in the direction of Charleroi, during which a detachment less. Brought practically to a standstill, the Allies soon conof Boufflers’s army came in, and the cavalry explored the country sumed the provisions that could be gathered in, and then, fearing to the north. On news of the enemy’s army being at Trazegnies, lest the snow should close the passes behind them, retreated. Siege of Namur, 1692.—In the Low Countries the campaign Luxemburg hurried across a ford of the Sambre above Charleroi, but this proved to be a detachment only, and soon information as before began with a great siege. Louis and Vauban invested came in that Waldeck was encamped near Fleurus. Luxemburg Namur on May 26. The place was defended by the prince de knew that the enemy was marking time till the troops of Liége Brabançon and Coehoorn (g.v.), Vauban’s rival in the science and the Brandenburgers from the Rhine were near enough to co- of fortification. Luxemburg, with a small army, manoeuvred to operate in the Dinant enterprise, and he determined to fight a cover the siege against William IIL.’s army at Louvain. The battle at once. He moved to Velaine, and thence, on July 1, place fell on June 5,? after a very few days of Vauban’s “regular” forward to Fleurus, there winning one of the most brilliant vic- attack, but the citadel held out until the 23rd. Then, as before, tories in the history of the Royal army. But Luxemburg was not Louis returned to Versailles, giving injunctions to Luxemburg to allowed to pursue his advantage. Thus Waldeck reformed his “preserve the strong places and the country, while opposing the army in peace at Brussels, where William III. of England soon enemy’s enterprises and subsistmg the army at his expense.” afterwards assumed command of the Allied forces in the Nether- This negative policy, contrary to expectation, led to a hard-fought lands, and Luxemburg and the other marshals stood fast for the battle. William, as a ruse, announced his intention of retaking rest of the campaign, being forbidden to advance until Catinat— Namur, but set his army in motion for Flanders and the sea-coast fortresses held by the French. Luxemburg, warned in time, hurin Italy—should have won a battle. Staffarda.—-In this quarter the armed neutrality of the duke ried towards the Scheldt, and the two armies were soon face to of Savoy had long disquieted the French court. In consequence, face again, Luxemburg about Steenkirk, William in front of Hal. a French army under Catinat had for some time been maintained William then formed the plan of surprising Luxemburg’s right on the Alpine frontier, and in the summer of 1690 Louis XIV. wing before it could be supported by the rest of his army, relying sent an ultimatum to Victor Amadeus to compel him to take one chiefly on false information that a detected spy at his headquarters utmost “economy of force” as this was understood in those days (see also NEERWINDEN). On the remaining theatres of war, the

side or the other actively and openly. The result was that Victor

was forced to send, to mislead the French.

But Luxemburg, al-

from the Spaniards and Austrians in the Milanese. Catinat thereupon advanced into Piedmont, and won, principally by virtue

his initial apathy, and, enabled by his outpost reports to divine his opponent’s plan, met it (Aug. 3) by a swift concentration of his army, against which the Allies, whose advance and deployment

Emmanuel threw in his lot with the Allies and obtained help though ill in bed when William’s advance was reported, shook off

of his own watchfulness and the high efficiency of his troops, the

important victory of Staffarda (Aug. 18, 1690).

This did not,

however, enable him to overrun Piedmont, and as the duke was soon reinforced, he had to be content with the methodical conquest

of a few frontier districts. On the side of Spain, a small French army under the duc de Noailles passed into Catalonia and there lived at the enemy’s expense for the duration of the campaign. In these theatres of war, and on the Rhine, where the disunion of the German princes prevented vigorous action, the following year, 1691, was uneventful.

But in the Netherlands there

were a siege, a war of manoeuvres, and a cavalry combat, each m its way somewhat remarkable. The siege was that of Mons, which, like many sieges in the previous wars, was conducted with

had been mismanaged, were powerless (see STEENKIRE). almost accidental battle and neither attempted to resultless trial of strength. into their winter quarters

In this

both sides suffered enormous losses, bring about, or even to risk, a second Only after the armies had broken up was an abortive attempt on Charleroi

made, by Boufflers, at Louis’ orders. In 1693, the culminating point of the war was reached. It began with a winter enterprise that at least indicated the MLouvois died in July 169r.

2A few days before this the great naval reverse of La Hogue put

a end to the projects of invading England hitherto entertained at ersaflles.

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aggressive spirit of the French generals. The grand army in the Netherlands this year numbered 120,000, to oppose whom William HI. had only some 40,000 at hand. But after reviewing this large force at Gembloux, Louis was driven to break it up, in order io send 30,000 under the dauphin to Germany, where Lorge had captured Heidelberg and seemed able, if reinforced, to overrun south Germany. But the imperial general Prince Louis of Baden took up a position near Heilbronn so strong that the dauphin and Lorge did not venture to attack him. Thus King Louis sacrificed a reality to a dream, and for the third time lost the opportunity, for which he always longed, of commanding in chief in a great battle. He himself, to judge by his letter to Monsieur on June 8, regarded his action as a sacrifice of personal dreams to tangible realities. And, before the event falsified predictions, there was much to be said for the course he took, which accorded better with the prevailing system of war than a Fleurus or a Neerwinden. In this system of war the rival armies, as armies, were almost in a state of equilibrium, and more was to be expected from an army dealing with something dissimilar to itself—a fortress or a patch of land or a convoy—than from its collision with another army of equal force. Neerwinden and Marsagiia—Thus Luxemburg obtained his last and greatest opportunity. He was still superior in numbers, but William at Louvain had the advantage of position. The former, given more latitude by his master this year, threatened Liége, drew William over to its defence and then advanced to attack him. The Allies, however, retired to a strongly entrenched position around Neerwinden in which they were attacked by Luxemburg on July 29. The long and doubtful battle ended in a brilliant victory for Luxemburg, but his exhausted army could not pursue far; William was as unshaken and determined as ever; and the campaign closed, not with a treaty of peace, but with a

few manoeuyres which, by inducing William to believe in an attack on Ath, enabled Luxemburg to besiege and capture Char-

leroi (October). Neerwinden was not the only French victory of the year. Catinat, advancing to the relief of Pinerolo (Pignerol), which the duke of Savoy was besieging, took up a position north of the village of Marsaglia (q.v.). Here on Oct. 4 the duke of Savoy attacked him front to front. But the greatly superior regimental efficiency of the French, and Catinat’s minute attention to details in arraying them, gave the newly created marshal a victory that was a not unworthy pendant to Neerwinden. The Piedmontese and their allies lost, it is said, 10,000 killed, wounded and prisoners, as against Catinat’s 1,800. But here, too, the results were trifling, and this year of victory is remembered chiefly as the year in which “people perished of want to the accompaniment of Te Deums.” In 1694 (late in the season owing to the prevailing distress and

famine) Louis opened a fresh campaign in the Netherlands. The

armies were larger and more ineffective than ever, and William offered no further opportunities to his formidable opponent. In September, after inducing William to desist from his intention of

besieging Dunkirk by appearing on his flank with a mass of cavalry, which had ridden from the Meuse, room., in four days, Luxemburg gave up his command. He died on Jan. 4, and with him the tradition of the Condé school of warfare disappeared from Europe. In Catalonia de Noailles gained some success. In 1695 William found Marshal Villeroi a far less formidable opponent than Luxemburg had been, and easily succeeded in keeping him in Flanders while a corps of the Allies invested Namur. Coehoorn directed the siege-works, and, as in 1692, but with sides reversed, the defenders were progressively dislodged,

the citadel itself being stormed by the “British grenadiers,” as the song commemorates, on Aug. 30. |

By 1696 necessity had compelled Louis to renounce his vague -and indefinite offensive policy, and he now frankly restricted his

efforts to the maintenance of what he had won in the preceding campaigns. In this new policy he met with much success. His marshals held their various spheres of operations without allow-

ing the Allies to inflict any material injury, and also preserved

French soil from the burden of their own maintenance. In this, as before, they were powerfully assisted by the disunion and

divided counsels of their heterogeneous enemies.

Ip Piedmont

Catinat crowned his work by making peace and alliance with the duke of Savoy. The last campaign was in 1697. Catinat and

Vauban besieged Ath. This siege was perhaps the most regular and methodical of the great engineer’s career. It lasted 23 days and cost the assailants only 5o men. King William did not stir

from his entrenched position at Brussels. Lastly, in Aug. 1607

Vendôme, Noailles’ successor, captured Barcelona.

The peace of

Ryswijk, signed on Oct. 30, closed this war by practically restoring the status quo ante; but neither the ambitions of Louis nor the Grand Alliance that opposed them ceased to have force, and three years later the struggle began anew (see SPANISH Suc.

CESSION, WAR OF THE).

Austro-Turkish

Wars, 1682-99.—Concurrently with these

campaigns, the emperor had been engaged in a much more serious war on his eastern marches against the old enemy, the Turks This war arose in 1682 out of internal disturbances in Hungary, The campaign of the following year is memorable for al] time as the last great wave of Turkish invasion. Mohammed IV. advanced from Belgrade in May, with 200,000 men, drove back the small imperial army of Prince Charles of Lorraine, and early in July invested Vienna itself. The two months’ defence of

Vienna and the brilliant victory of the relieving army led by John

Sobieski, king of Poland, and Prince Charles on Sept. 12, 1683, were events which, besides their intrinsic importance, possess the romantic interest of an old knightly crusade against the heathen.

But the course of the war, after the tide of invasion had ebbed,

differed little from the wars of contemporary western Europe. Turkey figured rather as a factor in the balance of power than as

the “infidel,” and although the battles and sieges in Hungary were characterized by the bitter personal hostility of Christian to Turk which had no counterpart in the West, the war as a whole was as

methodical and tedious as any Rhine or Low Countries campaign.

After gradually advancing his position in 1684-85, in 1686 Charles, assisted by the elector Max Emanuel of Bavaria, besieged and stormed Budapest (Sept. 2). In 1687 they followed up their success by a great victory at Mohacz (Aug. 12). In 1688 the Austrians advanced still further, took Belgrade and entered Bosnia. Next year, in spite of the outbreak of a general European war, the margrave Louis of Baden, who afterward became one of the most celebrated of the methodical generals of the day, managed to win a battle at Nisch (Sept. 24), to capture Widin

(Oct. 14) and to advance to the Balkans, but in 1690, more troops having to be withdrawn for the European war, the imperialist generals lost Nisch, Widin and Belgrade one after the other. The new tide, however, was stopped, and several years of desultory

war followed, until in 1697 the young Prince Eugene was appointed to command the imperialists and won a great and decisive

victory at Zenta on the Theiss (Sept. rr). This induced a last

general advance of the Germans eastward, which was definitely successful and brought about the peace of Carlowitz (Jan. ie (C. F. NAVAL OPERATIONS

The naval war opened with desultory fighting early in 1688,

but nothing of importance happened till after William of Orange’s successful expedition to England in November, which gave him strategic control of the English fleet and the whole anti-French

alliance.

In March 1689, Louis XIV. sent the exiled King James IL of England over to Ireland, to conduct guerilla operations against

the Protestant forces of the new government.

Admiral Arthur

Herbert was unable to put to sea in time to stop him, and also

failed to intercept reinforcements of 6,000 troops protected by & French fleet under Chateaurenault.

He found them, however, ia

Bantry Bay on May 1, 1689, but in the action which followed be

made little impression, chiefly owing to the reaction of internal politics on the morale and administration of his fleet, The French,

however, did not press the Irish campaign; and after the relief

of Londonderry on June 28 by Leake’s ships, James’ position de-

teriorated and English troops were able to cross from unopposed. Early in 1690 Louis XIV. ordered the Toulon feet

GRAND

BY COURTESY

OF

THE

US.

GEGLOGICAL

SURVEY;

PHOTOGRAPHS,

THE

(1,

3,

GRAND

4}

E.

C.

KOLB,

CANYON

CANYON

(2,

6)

E. C. LA

OF THE

1. Topographic engineer at work below Boulder Rapid in Marble Gorge 2. Fern Glen Canyon as it enters the Grand Canyon below Havasu Creek 3. A rodman at Sheer Wall Rapid

RUE,

(5)

PLATE

LEWIS

COLORADO

R.

FREEMAN

RIVER

4, Marble Gorge, showing sheer walls 2,000 ft. high 5. Looking down Separation Rapid 6. Bright Angel Suspension Bridge in the Grand Canyon

GRAND

CANARY—GRAND

to Brest, where it arrived after eluding an Anglo-Dutch squadron. The whole French fleet of 70 of the line then came up Channel under the Comte de Tourville and met the main Anglo-Dutch fleet

off the Isle of Wight under Herbert, now Lord Torrington, who had only 55 of the line. Torrington at once retired, not wishing

to engage unless very favourably placed, and all the time seeking an opportunity to slip round to westward of the French and so cut them off from home. However, in deference to the wishes of the Council of Regency, he forced an action on June 30 off Beachy Head and fought for many hours against his superior and well-ordered enemy, but was prevented from obtaining any defi-

nite successes by the impetuous conduct of his Dutch allies. Meanwhile, with naval assistance, William ITI. completely routed the Franco-Irish forces in the Boyne campaign.

During 169: Tourville contented himself with operations against English and Dutch commerce, and it was not till 1692 that he was ordered to attack the English fleet with the idea of covering the transport of an invading army across the Channel.

This time

he had only 44 of the line against the Anglo-Dutch fleet of gg

under Admiral Edward Russell, but on finding them off Cape Barfleur on May 19, he engaged without the least hesitation. Fickle winds and occasional fog assisted him, and after fighting

for seven hours, without losing a ship, he began to withdraw. The allies pursued and his fleet was completely dispersed and

routed, 12 of the line, which had taken refuge in the bay of La Hogue, being destroyed on the nights of May 23 and 24 bya light

squadron under Admiral Rooke (see La Hocve, Battie or, for

A account of the Barfleur campaign). The French now entirely abandoned fleet operations, and again turned their attention to commerce destruction. In this they were very successful, for the allies failed to exercise their undoubted command of the sea, and in June 1693 the outwardbound Smyrna convoy of some 4oo ships, under a weak escort, was attacked by Tourville off Lagos, and 80 ships were lost.

Raids were, therefore, attempted on French bases, of which those on Brest in 1694 and Dunkirk in 1695 were the most important, but in most cases the French were well prepared and the attempts failed. French stations in the West Indies, Nova Scotia and on the West African coast were also attacked from 1690-93. In the concluding stages of the war, William III. initiated a concentration of Anglo-Dutch forces in the Mediterranean under

Russell, who in 1694 drove the French from Barcelona, Spain having joined the allies. William now ordered Russell to winter his fleet at Cadiz, and though in the spring of 1695 it failed to attack Toulon owing to the defection of Savoy, French Mediterranean trade was temporarily ruined. Rooke was now left in command and again wintered at Cadiz, but early in 1696, Louis XIV. feinted with another invasion scheme and got Châteaurenault’s Toulon fleet safely into Brest. All English forces were therefore concentrated in the Channel, and Rooke was recalled, thus ending the service of the new Mediterranean fleet, as the war reached its close. BrariocrarHy.—W. Laird Clowes, The Royal Navy, vol. ii. (1898) ; Sir Julian Corbett, England in the Mediterranean (1903); Geoffrey Callender, Sea Kings of Britain, vol. ii. (1907); S. Lacour Gayet, La Marine Militaire sous Louis XIII. et Louis XIV. (1911).

(G. A. R. C.; W. C. B. T.)

GRAND CANARY (Gran Canaria}, an island forming part of the Spanish archipelago of the Canary islands (g.v.}. Pop. (r900) 127,471; area, 523 sq.m. Grand Canary, the most fertile island of the group, is nearly circular in shape, with a diameter of 24m. and a circumference of 75 m. The highest peak, Los Pezos, ig 6,400 ft. Large tracts are covered with native pine (P. canari-

CANYON

631

northern boundary of Arizona, to Grand Wash Cliffs, near the Nevada line, a distance of about 280 miles. Its most impressively beautiful part, ros m. long, lies within the Grand Canyon National Park. In its general colour the canyon is a dull red that glows when lit by the sun, but it displays the parallel edges of beds of many-coloured rocks, whose varied tints give it wonderful! diversity—pale buff and grey, delicate green and pink, and, in its depths, chocolate-brown, slate-grey and other sombre hues. Its distances are often suffused with a transparent blue-purple haze that contrasts with the deep green of the pine trees on its rim and the intense blue of the sky. The first white man to behold the Grand Canyon was Garcia López de Cárdenas, who had been sent from Zuni, New Mexico, to find a river far to the west, the existence of which had been learned from the natives. In 1854 Lieut. A. W. Whipple followed the lower course of the Colorado river as far up as the’

mouth of Diamond creek. In 1857 Lieut. J. C. Ives travelled through the gorge of Diamond creek and eastward to Havasu canyon, the San Francisco mountains, the Little Colorado and the country of the Hopi Indians. The first graphic and geological description of the Grand Canyon was given by Prof. John S. Newberry. It remained for Maj. John W. Powell to make the first voyage through the depths of the canyon. He embarked in May 1869 at the bridge of the Union Pacific railroad over the Green river, in Wyoming, with nine companions, in four small rowboats. After a perilous trip through turbulent rapids, covering three months, during which four of his men deserted, he emerged safely from. the lower end of the canyon. He put an end to many myths, including one about an underground ‘“‘lost course” of the river. In 1870, under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution, Powell set out to explore the Colorade more thoroughly. For several years he carried on geographic, geologic and ethnologic studies in the region, and supervised the preparation of the first map of it. In 1923 a Government expedition led by Col. C. H. Birdseye, descended the Colorado in boats from Lee’s Ferry to the mouth of the canyon to find sites for dams and to complete the survey of the profile of the river. Accurate maps have now been prepared. The Grand Canyon is cut in a plateau that stands 5,000 to g,000 ft. above sea-level, a region of mesas and buttes diversified by lava flows, masses of intrusive rocks and hills composed of volcanic ash. The plateau slopes in general south-westward, but the continuity of its surface is broken by terraces that represent either folds or faults in the beds of rock. Only its higher surfaces are covered with forests, but even these are traversed by no perennial streams, and the rocks are generally bare of soil or of vegetation. In the bottom of the canyon the heat is intense in summer and frost is rare in winter. Here is a sparse growth of desert bushes and cactus, of Spanish bayonet and of agave or “the century plant,” but only along the courses of a few rivulets. Parts of the upper terraces bear clumps of juniper and gnarled piñon. The Coconino plateau, which borders the canyon on the south at altitudes ranging from 6,000 to 7,000 ft. above sea-level, receives enough precipitation in snow and showers to sustain an open forest of juniper and pifion, and on its higher parts there are groves of tall, straight yellow pines. The Kaibab platean, which stands on the north side of the canyon, at altitudes ranging from 8,000 to 9,000 ft. above sea-level, has a mountain rlimate, snowy and severe in winter, agreeably cool in summer. .It bears majestic forests of yellow pine, with which is mixed some Engle-

ensis). Las Palmas (pop. 44,517), the capital, is described in a separate article.

mann spruce.

Scrub oak and cottonwood grow in the ‘bottoms

Colorado river into the high plateau in the northern part of

sands of deer and, outside of the national park, herds of cattle find grazing ground. oS

of the shallow dry washes on the plateau and clumps of aspen Ene

GRAND CANYON, THE, an immense gorge cut by the the grassy glades and natural “parks” in the valleys, where thou-

Arizona, U.S.A. It is a broad, intricately sculptured chasm that contains between its outer walls a multitude of imposing peaks

and buttes, of canyons within a canyon and of complex ramifying

guiches and ravines. It ranges in width from 5 to 15 m., its greatest depths lie more than a mile below its rim and it extends ma winding course from the head of Marble Gorge, near the keg e

oe

The Grand Canyon was formed by the ceaseless flow of the

silt-laden Colorado river, by the storm waters that occasionally

fall into the canyon, and by “weathéering* processes. The, most

effective of these agencies has beem the river itself. Although the Colorado river has been the principal agent that eh ged

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A

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aaa

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by the increase

in licensed

vehicles

during recent

years,

these

having grown from 875,700 In 1921 to 1,729,000 in 1926. | The table shows imports and exports from 1913 and 1919: f | Motor Cars and Chassis (Value in millions of £) !

! Imports | PE A Cars ' Chassis No. t No. £

Si 3:53 1,366

e

technique,

The very rapid increase in the demand for motor cars is shown

|OO

en-

gines (including marine).

0o

|

|

.

xports

Steam

Motor

|

lower-powered and less costly product, in the later years.

woodworking)

|

. | Chassis | | 425 355

Complete

516,000

5,490,000

tools

i

Including production in Ireland)

4,265,000

gines

Metal working

Motor cars (including commercial cars)

ewe

en-

Textile machinery, exclud|

£

1913

t

6,820

Igig

.

4,305

1920 . | 33,332

r921 . | 7:397 1922

ter

b3

I

7:958

2,240

105 | 12,106

r8 | 4069

1-9

07

43}

rz]

. | 14,315

25 | 8517

15 |

1924 . | 14,717 1925 | 33507 1926 . | 12,718

30 | 12,459 63 | 15,778 24 | 10,174 36

1923. | 17,109

|)| r927

° 10,340

29 | 12,627

13,3590

D7]

Exports ee Chassis

Cars No. 75595

I,gl4

5309

2,721 19034

4232

£ rå

10

39]

23| 3]

No. 1.234

678

3,524

£ Ors

œs

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ro

1107

OF

r32 23

1B | 12,754 22| 19313 r4 | 16007

rọ

2,022

37 | 2,905 Sx | 9735 38 | 16,38r

16 |) «17,877

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34 38

GREAT

/ o6

~~

BRITAIN

The steady growth of exports and recent decline of imports are |s sale and piece-goods'made on commission in 1924 and 1907 Were :-— remarkable. This industry has had the advantage of a protec- |as follows iive duty, imported motor cars, motor cycles and accessories having been liable to duty from Sept. 29, rgr5, until Aug. I, 1924, and on and after July 1, 1925. Imported commercial vehicles were exempt until April 30, 1926, inclusive, but have been dutiable since May 1, 1926. Shipbuilding.

Quantity

Net selling| value

1,000 1,000 linear yd. sq.yd. Saha aes

1924 .

1907

5,425,961

.

neti

, Cwt.

£ bee att

5,843,491 | 10,271,427

7,076,203

si

156,712,000 |

;

81,578,000 ||

The total of other products of the cotton weaving trade, includ-

ing artificial silk goods other than apparel were :—

Total value of output on ships in regard to all classes, meludibg repair work ;

Net Selling Value

51,225,000 | 37,091,000

Persons employed in Gt. Britain

176,525

188,312

1924

{12,543,000

1907

9,751,000

Cotton Piece Goods. _The following are the export figures for | piece goods for 1913, 1925 and 1927. Quantity

Selling

Quantity

tons

value

tons

£

Cement for building and engineering

~

3,143,000 | 6,705,000

2,877,000 | 3,439,000

tween the years 1924 and 1907, since no particulars were recorded in the latter year of the output of yarn used for manufacturing |

£

7:075:252,000 Sq.yd. 4,435 ,01 7,000

972775855

The following are the import figures for piece goods for 1913, 1925 and 1927.

purposes by the spinning firms. The figures for 1924 are as follows:—

Kind of goods

Total

Goods made and

make of

sold or added to

tities

ing value

i aor

No. 40 Counts over

|

tities

EEOAE

1,000 Ib. | r,000 Ib.

i work one

1,000 lb.

1,009,154 | 1,066,672 |109,390,000]

310,037 | 363,627) 55,833

a

4,664

1,946,000 À

a

dm

SS. RA ES SRS (Including production in Ireland)

.

1924

Drugs, medicines and medicinal prep-

9,074,000

1924, Great Britain . 1907, United Kingdom

Selling value| Selling value

Kinds of goods

Total value of goods made and work done

For Chemical Manufactures and Products other than Drugs and Dyestuffs 10,186,000

Persons employed

Imports Exports

69,210 68,168

Non-fetrous Metals.—Copper and Brass Trades Rolling and Casting). Total value of goods made and work done . . Other non-ferrous Metals (smelting, rolling and casting)

I9I3

1925

1927

Value £ 6,898,926

Value £ 7,969,285

Value £ 9,055,300 15,756,723

13,638,696.

15,720,93 I

For Dyes and Dyestuffs

1913

(Smelting, 924

£

21,351,000 31,222,000

Comparable figures for 1907 are not available. It is believed, however, that there was an increase of more than 50% in volume, in products of brass and other copper alloys. Also there was a substantial increase in the production of lead, tin, manufactures of tin, and also a large increase in the production of aluminium.

1925

É

£

3,082,916 311,386

2,152,862 918,867

For Drugs, Medicines and Medicinal Prepurations

1913 £ 1,984,637 2,351,781

Imports Exports

1925 1927 £ £ 2,340,231 | 1,930,901 3,125,238 | 2,992,540

For Miscellaneous Products

(Painters, Colours and Materials not elsewhere specified)

Persons Employed Brass, copper, etc. Other metals . Finished Brass Trades Value of goods made and work done . Figures for those sections of the trade in regard to which comparable statistics are available . 3 g Persons Employed

1913

25,328 20,544

Imports

$10,432,000

£

Exports

7,592,000

33,184

The following are the import and export figures for copper, brass and other non-ferrous metals for the years, 1913, 1925, I927.——

Copper and Brass Trades eee

í

xports.

.

1913

1925

1927

£

£

£

11,064,013

para

o

se

EE

.

.

5:796,664

1755172

Imports . Exports. . . Fintshed Brass Trades Particulars of finished brass goods imported and

22,100,862

29,034,516

os non-Ferrous r

Metal

| exported are not recorded

in such a form as to be

| used in relation to production,

652392439

aes

10,079,686

876,260

a

23,520,155 12,749,773

1925

£

£

1,369,316

1,924,IT5

35231,525

1927

f

1,909,860

3,854,166 | 3,036,113

This industry has shown a continuous improvement in processes and technique since the war, some striking development having taken place notably in connection with dyestuffs, fine chemicals and the production of synthetic ammonia. An interesting and important development was the formation in 1927 of Imperial Chemical Industries, Ltd., a combination of Messrs. Brunner Mond and Co., Ltd., The United Alkali Com-

pany, Ltd. and the British Dyestuffs Corporation, Ltd. This concern with a capital of about £57,000,000 is evidently destined to play a dominant part in the British chemical industry. Timber Trades . Total value of goods made and work done, 1924 .

Manufactures of timber. Including sawmill products

.

.

. a

. .

The comparable figures for r907 are unobtainable, different products having been included under the various headings for that year, but the total value of the products then returned under those headings were

This probably shows that there has been some small see) in the yolume of production of the trade as a whole.

£29,063,000

25,600,000 15,028,000

16,068,000

GREAT 24

5

6

1907

>

à

6

©

©

©

5

eo

In regard to

ee amoi

+

+

4

eo

5

+

Persons Employed «68,638

4

74,580

BRITAIN

Persons Employed 1924

e

1907

of timber there are said to

be 3,000,000 acres of private woodlands in Great Britain, but not

129 ee ee e

i

;

;

:

constituting Great Britain and Ireland, only 4,180 square miles or 4.356 is occupied by trees; of this only 3,860 or 3-2% is given

japanned or enamelle are vamished, papanne

2,290 sq. m. in England. 1,240

,,

,, Scotland.

Products

na

hap

oe

.

.

,

So

&

. .

.

established a forestry commission charged with the duty of de- || Machinery accessories of hide

..

and velum. ee faste products.

The policy decided on by this commission was to plant 150,000 || Work done for the trade. acres, but owing partly to the necessity of creating small holdings will avail for the planting of more than 140,000 acres in addition to bearing the cost of educational research work. The import and export figures for wood and timber are as follows :— ao ~ a 25 Hewn

`

Imports Exports... |

|

|Imports

Sawn

Exports

.

i

.

i

a. .

.

T

Exports

£

t

T

4s

t

11,905,000 897,000

5,057,000 299,000

453,000

114,000

560,000

681,000

362,000

230,000

1,492,000 | 1,139,000

y

585,000

ie =

. |

.

'

186,000

t

73,900

I04,000

91,000

41,000

54,000

|

316,000

sees

587,000* ——————

304,000"

32,948,000 | 18,202,000

*A mount received for work done.

The following are the import and export figures for the years 1913, 1925 and 1927 for leather (dressed and undressed) :— 1913 1925 Ee Imports

10,572,100

Exports . (United Kingdom)

1927

13,001,131

3,467,388

|

For leather manufactures (except apparel) ae

.

°

orts King . E United ERS

°

|

E

j

; | 1,810,852 5

15,486,752

513371727

0,728,030

.

1,076,010

eae

1,730,170 1730;

2,419,274 | 4,038,867 t

1,616,604 1

Persons Em ployed 30,458 28,671

1924 . 1907 .

*Imports of sawn, planed or dressed £21,034,635. tValue of exports small.

89,000

245,000 os dee

Total value

31,647,919 | 35,701,943

:

Planed or Dressed

Imports

5

4,398,478 | 3,563,957 | 2,545,239 t Î t

8,646,000

.

.

accessories of leather

and made the commission a grant of £3,500,000 for this purpose. || Other products .

1907 £

. | 15,026,000

ae

wt, . Wool 330 4,: 4, Ireland. Hair . The Government in 1919 by the Forestry Act of that year || Hides and skins,pickled, etc. .

as an essential part of the scheme it is not expected that the money

124,800

1924 £

than varnished,

Machinery belting Hat leather

the productions and supply : of timber veloping afforestation and e

147,300

‘

Selling value |Selling value

Leather, undressed

as merchantable forest, distributed as follows:

-

Leather Trades,

half of this acreage is productive. We are actually utilising 55,000,000 cubic feet of this timber annually, and not much more than 12,000 acres are being planted annually. The consumption is therefore greatly exceeding replacement.

According to another calculation of the 119.470 square miles

ee ee ee

Rubber.—The Site of sodas oe asa work done in 1924 was Furniture, Cabinet-making and Upholstery Trades. £23,309,000, including the following details for rubber tyres, an 1924 1907 industry increasing in importance with the growing motor and | | | | cycle trades. Total value of goods made and work done ae eee ee ee £31,130,000 | £11,681,000 Production 1924 Kind of goods Persons employed 82,841 74,119 Quantity Value

The Import and Export figures for Furniture and Cabinet Ware

No. (a) Pneumatic

Imports

Exports

1913

1925

1927

£ 446,037 1,274,759

£

£

668,821 1,200,256

858,722

1,232,427

Boot and Shoe Trades.

(i.) Outer covers Motor car Motor cycle. Cycle . (ii.) Inner tubes

hicles

Total value of goods made and work done. . . i

e

;

with 1907 is an

£55,384,000 | £22,747,000

.

United Kingdom)

:

`

839, 133

4,104,276

397,700

2,059,000

owing to differences of clas-

The following are the import and export figures for rubber 1913

|

leather) :-—

.

4,913,000 616,000 1,231,000 1,218,000

tyres and tubes for the years 1913, 1925 and 1927:—

The following are the import and export figures for the years

orts

1,927,100 632,100 5,500,800 7,237,400

sihcation.

1913, 1925 and 1927 for boots and shoes (mainly or wholly of

1913 £

|

1 43

(b) Solid tyres For mechanically piopelea veComparison

oe

£

Rubber tyres and tubes

are ių—

1925 £ I 426,929

4,638,951

1927 I 867,286

4:595:573

es

ad Kingdom)

O24 o

1907 5g

a’, wt

E “7s 2,778,949 1,294,197

1925

w 3,867,632 4,079,244

1927

es 3:1 27,027 31743,033

Persons Employed

46,565

24,030

BRITAIN

GREAT

710 Paint, Colour and Varnish Trades. |

IO24

Total val off goods ds made mad and d workk ‘otal value done.

;

;

|

1907

Products

:

i

17,062,000

8,562,000

Imports.

mg

Exports

(United Kingdom)

{

te

ees:

ok.

.

we

1,309,316

1,924,115

1,909,860

3,354,100

3,930,113

ce

we

h

water

gas

BR ee Gn Ae

Coke and breeze

Tar

.

.

AION: Tons

Sulphate of ammonia

Benzol and toluol

ee i

4

Pitcher

£3,840

.

.

ET

17912,0090) Tons

i

106 122

635,000

127,000

104,000

Gal.

Gal.

Tons

Tons

126

46,000 | 4,426

SONR

85,000 |

Gal.

other heavy coal tar oils

154

7:412,000

1,953,000

Tar oil, creosote oil,and

Bricks, Roofing ana Street Paving Tiles.

EE

800,000

Empbloved

e

pare

A

7,852,000

f

By-products:

P

1907.

pacesries and

2

- | 3,231,525

1907

Thou.

The following are the import and export figures for paint and ee for the years 1913, 1925 and 1927 a varnish 1925 1927 £

1924

134

Gal.

ee

7,856,000

ake

The industry is about equally divided between companies and

Selling value |Selling value || 14-41 authorities and very little change has occurred in this

i £ Bricks of brick earth and fireclay . Roofing and street paving tiles

ee

respect during the period.

$

14,305,000 1,989,000

Persons Employed

6,209,000 536,000

1924 1907

The following are the import and export figures for the years

Imports Exports

. .

. .

2..

“(United Kingdom)

1025

£ 5,537 365,485

£ 448,544 37,840

.

.

20,537

Ex sal peas nite

648,873

285,361

1. Statutory

ye

git

:

:

‘

s

a

ae Printing and Bookbinding

2. Undertakings generating for use wholly or mainly in connection with railways and tramways. 3. Power equipments maintained by industrial services.

All three classes were covered by the census of production in

1907 and 1924, the returns for the last section, however, though

believed to be fairly representative, being less complete than those for sections (1) and (2).

553,908

The total amount of electricity generated by undertakings in

f

.

ao

| Units

Total value of ne done.

145 ae

Taia

Local authorities Companies. .

ee -~

£

made and work

T se

Se

ee

.

r Bae “Output of jeran

*

| Total value of output.

oor à

oe

oe

:

ef

3

ad suariodieals made T

se

. . . aaa’

|

3

great in1007 T

in 1924. in 1907.

. .

oe

kt

a

Oe

Persons Employed eet :

a .

.

757,298, eas, B.T. 220,810,000) Units

Selling value

Electricity supplied in 1924

For public lighting For traction .

.

Quantity

.

For power and manufacturmestic purposes.

Tons

aa

P

a

Gas Works Undertakings—The product

m

.

supply at uniform

BAL units 74,872 627,046

£ 718,000 2,993,000

d. 2°3 II

1,951,576

9,352,000

I2

794,079 | 14,396,000

p4

413,381 ,

1,812,000

II

864,520

5,250,000

r5

charges, where it is impos-

rap aeand ee ogeesheets) 2 aai. | 779,000 | 18,937,000 | 529,000 and

a

837,046 545,055

The following table honi the digtcibution of electricity supplied in 1924 by class (r) undertakings:

ing purposes

ok

. | 4,128,873 : 2,255,567

aa

.

For private lighting and do-

te

United Kingdom

44,954,000 | 12,940,000

Tinplates.

1924 1907 CS

Great Britain

and for class 2 concerns,

Persons Employed | hl i ao

Se

=

6,384,440 | 1,432,101

8,238,000

»

=

65,354

;

;

1924

i.

for public utility pur-

class rıduring the two census years were in thousands of B.T. P

:

:

generating

£ 708,064 42,642

Aingcom

.

undertakings

poses.

Persons Employed 1924

08 gat 80,633

a

1927

1,118,417

526,815

a

Britain by three main types of undertakings:

For Roofing and Street Paving, Floor, Wall and Hearth Tiles

Imports

E

Generation of Electricity.—Electricity iis generated in Great

1913, 1925 and 1927 for bricks of brick earth and clay:— 1913

o a

sible to separate the pur-

. Horposes purposes ie separately distinguished

.

oyed -| | Bulk supplies to authorised 2068 distributors. .

of the gas indus-

try for 1924 and 1907 are shown in the following table:—

' 2,808,000

o8

of electricity supplied . | 5,577,994 | 37,329,000

1-6

Total quantity and value

852,520

'

|

GREAT

BRITAIN

g

711

Companies

Quantity of electricity generated

|

Local authorities

1924. B.T. units

| 1907 | B.T. units

1924 B.T. units

1907 B.T. units

2,255,567,000

| 545,055,000*

4, 128,843,000

887,046,000*

|

£ Total selling value of electricity supplied . Cost of new construction and repair work carried out Cost of materials purchased and used . : f Net output (z.e., value of electricity supplied less cost of materials used) .

13,242,000 3,073,000 5,520,000 7,713,000 Number 15,520

|

| Average number of persons employed

.

Net output per head of persons employed Capacity of engines, etc. Prime movers: Steam reciprocating . Steam turbines . Other .

Total | Electric generators

£

| |

oi

3,145,000} 775,000 1,174,000 1,071,000 Number 8,335

£

24,087,000 7,521,000 9,725,000 14,362,000 Number 31,217

£

5,590,000} 1,500,000 2,085,000 3,505,000 Number 13,557

£

407

237

460

257

H.-p. 125,380 1,481,989 72,910

H.-p. 321,124 226,773 15,960

H.-p. 350,985 3,309,866 40,736

H.-p. 768,098 192,208 6,771

1,680,288

563,857

3,701,587

967,977

Kw. 1,222,282

Kw. 376,649

Kw. 2,720,891

Kw. 625,315

*Including production in Ireland. fincluding electricity used in the works of the generating undertakings.

while the following table gives some general statistics of importance for the same class of undertakings: The great changes at work in the industry are studied elsewhere in the article ELectriciry Suppty: Commercial Aspects. BrpriocrapHy.—Census of Production (1907); Third Census of Production (1924, preliminary reports); Board of Trade Annual Statement of Trade of the United Kingdom; and other publications referred to under separate headings.

SECTION

4: EXTERNAL

industry and trade in 1925. The first table gives the values of net imports, exports and re-exports, first total and then divided into the three main classes, I. food, drink and tobacco, II. raw materials and articles wholly or mainly unmanufactured, III. articles wholly or mainly manufactured. The second table, which relates only to the years from 1900 onward, shows the same items ; at the average values of 1913 and also the percentage variation, _ taking 1913 as roo.

COMMERCE

EXTERNAL TRADE OF THE UNITED KINGDOM Vet Imports, British Exports, and Re-exports During the Years

British commerce received an enormous development after the first quarter of the 19th century. In 1826 the aggregate value of the imports into and exports from the United Kingdom amounted to no more than £88,758,678; while the total rose to £110,559,538 in 1836 and to £205,625,831 in 1846. In 1856 the aggregate of imports and exports had risen to £311,764,507, in 1866 to £534,195,956 and in 1876 to £631,931,305. Thus the commercial transactions of the United Kingdom with foreign states and British colonies increased more than sevenfold in the course of fifty years. The important fact in connection with the foreign commerce of the United Kingdom is that there has been a steady increase in imports, but there has been no corresponding steady increase in exports of British produce and manufactures. Many industries. which formerly were mainly in British hands, have been developed on the continent of Europe, in America and, to some extent in the East. The movement began in 1872. Up to that time the exports of British home produce bad kept on increasing with the imports, although at a lesser rate, and far inferior aggregate value; but a change took place in the latter year. While the imports continued their upward course, gradually rising from £354,693,624 in 1872 to £375,154,703 in 1876, the exports of British produce fell from £256,257,347 in 1872 to £200,639,204 in 1876. The decline in exports, regular and steady throughout the period, and with a tendency to become more pronounced every year, affected all the principal articles of British home produce. The value of the cotton manufactures exported sank from £80,164,155 in 1872 to £67,641,268 in 1876; woollen fabrics from £38.493,411 to £23,020,719; iron and steel from £35,996,167 to £20,737,410, coals from £10,442,321 to £8,904,463; machinery from £8,201,112 to £7,210,426; and linen manufactures from £10,956,761 to £7,070,149. The decline during the four years, it will be seen, was greatest in all textile manufactures and

least in coal and machinery.

I87 51927

A. TOTAL TRADE—ALL CLASSES

British exports

Net imports

1875-79 Pre-War (annual

average)

War

Post-War

1880-84 1885-890 1890-94

1895-99

1900-04 1905-09 IQIO-I3

| 1914-18 1919 1920 ro2L 1922 1923 1924

1925 1926 1927

{Excluding ships

319,5090

343,600

318,800 357,055 392,704 446,040 522,116

exports

£1,000’s 201,500 234,300

£1,000's

£1,000's

226,200

not

234,450 237,830

available

282,761

6,469

Par-

466,125

8,117 8,112

896,925

467,664

2,410

1,461,410

796,310 1,307,915 672,774

2,328

1,709,896 978,581 899,404 977,682 1,137;409

689,521

757,558 7951445

1,166,678 1,115,866 1,096,324

767,105 648,417

55,500

ticulars

369,225

616,090

Re-

Ships

64,000 60,900

01,537

60,318

67,379 |

85,159

106,958

73 W545

164,740 223,753

20,554

30,626 29,986 9.700 59522 6,276

794,574

4,630

45531

106,919

103,605

118,544 139,970 154,037 £25,495 | 123,063

B. Crass I. Food, Drink and Tobacco Period

1875-79

1880-84

Net imports

British exports

Re-exparts

£1,000’s

£1,000's

£1,000's

Particulars not available

Pre-War

(annual

average)

10,223

11,612

214,895

!

OAT NEI PO trent rec en nO NC AR ET A EE TET TSS IAS OT EE SC OIE SITIONS ICCC EL LIE OE eA

_ The external trade of the United Kingdom from 1875 onward is shown by the following tables, which are based on tables given | in the Survey of Overseas Markets issued by the committee on |

169,085

183,888

IQIO-13 1914-18

234,283

263,104 414,289

12,287

11,757

15,8

11,045

31,647 22.436 |

14,890 14,659

21,

12,092

GREAT

712

BRITAIN EXTERNAL TRADE OF THE UNITED Kincpom Net Imports, British Exports and Re-exports, 1900-27

B. Crass I. Food, Drink and Tobacco—Continued Net British

ane oe

kD

675:779

335771

719,713

Net imports

46,094

44,344 56,958 34,987

36,301

21,757 24,543 29,849 32,136

503,422

50,457

26,367

52,280

wd

n Value mil. £

Perio

,

;

: Period

:

Net

British

Eee £1,000's

ome £1,000’s

.

1005-00

160,867

23,702

IQIO-I3

.

614°9 | 93°3 | 493°L | 93°9|

105°3|

ober

88:0]

99:6]

go

462-4]

£1,000’s

47972 | 91:2] 102-3 505°6 | 96-3 | 109-8}

I19ī9

48,401

101,965

258,170

130,809

323,792

106,482

280,716

76,356

eee

‘

Ships

{1,000’s

£1,000’s

£1,000’s

í

59,300

178,100

Pre-War | 1885-89 .

66,800

average) | 1895-99 . | 94,331 1900-04 . | 113,444

206,400

$

a

196,900

199,289

e

14,174

199,649 224,619

14,981 . 6,469 | 18,963 24,515 28,661

8,117 8,112

1914-18

207,336

372,881

2,410

21,467

257,542 399,791

639,156

2,328

1,093,186

217,939

558,263

30,626

38,413 53:649

538,538

29,986

579,257

9,700

26,542 26,821 27,164

610,332 534,711

6,276

33,743 31,458

266,031 288,173 289,501 2972272

son with earlier years

291,308

613,304 559,434

26,554

52552

4,630 4,532

74°5|

89-0)

85:8 ọ6ọ

81-3

75°5 | 99°2|

gos

Rel:

R el.

figs. | Value|

figs.

1,137°6 | 100-0 | 801-0 | 100-0 | 130'9 | roo

£181°5 108-8 795° r 99°3 137-4 1,236°4. | 108-7 | 710 71 120°0|

1927

1,266 2}

.

Period

SLIG

with that of 1913 is becoming more and more uncertain. The Board of Trade has therefore evaluated the foreign trade declared figures for 1925 to 1927 at 1924 average prices and therefore the figures for the years 1925 to 1927 inclusive are compared with

those for 1924. Those figures from 1900 to 1924 have been con-

verted to 19:3 values and the index numbers are relative to

British e

Rela-

orts

Rela-

figures | nil. £ figures "% | ror3= 1913=

"|

Ves

classification Old classification New

P

Value | tive | value | .tive :

|

o8: 3 85-7

111r°3 | 81g°5 | 102°3 | 126-3 | 903

Net imports

25,181 255135

changes which have occurred during recent years in the of many descriptions of goods imported and exported by the fact that trade with the Irish Free State is now as external trade, comparison of our overseas trade

1913 as 100.

396°5|

192 5 192

In connection with the following tables it should be noted that owing to character and also recorded

7oz-1 | 106°4|

94:0}

exports

368,932

229,855

compari-}/

£1,000's

125,063 150,332

202,928

proximately || 625°7 | 94°6| 301-4|

1924

1905-09 . IQIO-13 .

.

Adjusted ap:

for

77:0)

80-1 | 106-21

Re-

Excluding ships

(amnual | 1890-94 . | 75,850 |

719:5 | ro9'r | 4206|

mil. £ |1924=| mil. £|1924= mil. £ |x924=| 100 IOO 100

Net imports

1880-84. | 64,700

641-7 | 973 |404°4|

Rel:

British exports

1

784 l

go-4 | 785 81-s |

s4of

Value | figs. | Value}

D. Crass III. Ariicles Wholly or Mainly Manufactured ss 3 Petiod

;

cee

i

859|

70°9} 99-0] 578:8 | 87-8] 372-2 | 49°38 484:2 | 73°5| 261-7] | 86-01 570°r | 86-5 | 361-8} 68-9] 89-3]

591:4 | 89°7 | 288-2]

.

1923 {cluding trade]| ; with Irish} 1924| Free State r924

a ro0-2

659°2 | 100-0 | 525°3 | 100-0 | 109°6 | roor9

.. 1920 1921 1922

1923

145,516 63,595

2433275

Post-War

Post-War

828| 933)

57354 | 87-0]

III,29I

2870425 220,757

IQIQ 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927

62-2) 785l

590:9 | 89-6| 636-3 | 96:5}

45,686

195,400 271,408

| 75-6 | Sex

523°

IQII 1912

23,316 23,081 37,981

110,209 112,242 135,471

(ann Anan al | 1890-94 1895-99 & 1900-04

1875-79

; bs 79°4 | 320l arza] 356-8 | 84s

.

1910

34,901 335431 375183

l

o

I00

Re-exports

Particulars not available

average)

1913 =

1900-04

1913

1875-79

1880-34 Pre-War | 1885-89

Re-exports

pO

po ota’ Rela. he ive | 0E Yane ae f Valo fi iren ures: mil. £| ures | mil. £ ie 199

106s 00.

Wholly or Mainly

aS

5

exports

1913 =

26,523 Annual average

:

C. Crass II. Rew M oin

British

:

30,221

37:399

450,124 484,321 541,279 537,069 512,816

A. TOTAL TRADE. ALL CLASSES

43:340

50,936

536,785

Post-War

Re-exports

A |A

| NN

|

GREAT British exports | Re-exports

Relative

Relative

Relative

1913 = 100 |

1913= 100

Period |Value|sgures |Value|sgures| Value|gures ;

y

š

1013 = 100

Annual average: 1900-04 .

i

158°5

1905-09 . IQlO-13 .

728 | 422

6o-4 | 45°

o4

| 279°3 2047

82-3 | 56-6 9o | 64°7

8o-g | 51-1 92°6 | Ór

79°8 92°9

1910

IQI‘O

87-7 | 61-7

88-2 | 548

85°5

IQI2

218-5 | 100-3 | 644

g2-r | 64:9

1OI°3

1913

206-2 | 100-0 | 66-2 | rI00-0 | 63-7 | 00-0

1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924

207°3 194-4 127°3 163:9 163:6 18§-7

1911

191-4 | 87-9 | 62°38 | 89-9 | 56:9 | 88-8

1913

217:8 | roo-0 | 69-9 | Io0-0 | 64-0 | I00°0

| | | | | |

1005 943 6r7 79°5 7993 900o

| | | | | |

34°7 31:7 299 626 7rI 59-2

| | | | |

Rel.

525 | 479 | 45° | 94°7 | 1074 | 8074 |

464 53°0 47°5 542 55°6 59°5

| | | | | |

Rel.

728 83:2 746 85-2 8yr 934 Rel.

Value | fgs. | Value | figs. | Value | figs.

mil. £ | rọ24= | mil. £ | 1924= | mil. £ | 1924= I0o

100

713

in other countries, which thus become increasingly consumers of

C. Crass II. Raw Materials and Artieles Wholly or Mainly Unmanufactured Net imports

BRITAIN

Too

our coal and exporters instead of importers of manufactured articles. The figures for the post-war period show the tremendous inflation of prices in 1919 and 1920 when imports, exceeding by almost 23 and 3 times respectively the average value of the imports for the years 1910-13, represented really only about 89-7 and 87-8 of the actual value of 1913 imports. The post-war figures show an even greater relative increase in imports than the pre-war figures, Imports for 1924 being 104-4% of the 1913 volume, and exports 75-5% only, a somewhat disquieting phenomenon, especially when it is observed that imports of food, drink and tobacco are 125% on 1913, of manufactured articles 105°, and of raw materials (the basis of British manufactures) only 90-1%. The situation is not, however, without encouraging features. It will be seen that in volume our total exports of 1927 showed an increase, not only on those of the abnormal year 1926, but also on 1925 and 1924. The actual balance of trade was also more favourable than in any of the preceding three years. The

Board of Trade estimate of the net balance for 1927 was £96,000,000 as against a deficit of £7,000,000 in 1926 and surpluses of £54,000,000 and £86,000,000 in 1925 and 1924 respectively. Another and more satisfactory feature, which is shown in the following table, is the relatively greater increase in out trade with our own empire than in that with foreign countries, though the volume of re-exports to the empire has fallen slightly. Class of trade

1Or3 Tama

1924

323°8 | 100-0 | 106-5 | 100-0 | 76-2 | 100-0

1925

345°5 | 106-8 | 95°3 | 80°5 | 75°7 | 90°3

1926 1927

386-1 | r19'2 | 58-8 366-1 | rr3-r | 97°8

s5-2 | 68-4 gor-8 | 73-2

89°9 96-1

Imports from:

£1,000}

Foreign countries | 577,544]

British

All

1925 Å eee

|

a

a,

ar

{1,000 | £1,000 | cent | cent | cent

898,798]

IQI IQI] 378,535!

i

1927 | 1923 | 1925 | 1927 a

860,042] 316,073]

75-13]

24:87]

70°37]

29:63)

73°13

26-87

768,735, 1,277:333|1,176,115| 100+00| 100-00} TOO-00

Exports (British produce): British exports RelaPeriod

re

Annual average: 1000—04 . I9Q5-09 . IQio-I3 .

I9IO

.

wt,

IQIr

.

`

2646 327°5 3874 À

I9I2

tive figures 1913> 100

Relaoe

tive figures 19013 = 100

64°3 | 24-6 83:6 79°6 | 28-8 97°8 O4°2 | 3OI | 1923

364°3

88-6 | 310 | 105°3

377°0

gr-6 | 30°3

102°9

396-9 | 965 | 2977 | r009

1913

411-4 | 100-0 | 29°5 | r000

1913

413-8 | I00°0 | 29°5 | r000

1919

Foreign countries | 329,944| British ay 195,310} All ss 525,254|

445,899} 287,264] 733,163}

386,535, 62-82| 6o-82| 57'44 286,427] 37°18} 39°18] 42-56 672,962! 100-00} r00-00] 100-00

127,914! I5,I159| 143,073]

ror,o98| 87-58) 89-40] 88-92 12,509) 12°42] roo! 11-08 I13,697| 100-00] ro0°a0) 100-00)

Exports (imported merchandise) to: Foreign countries | 95,957} British 4 13,610] All j I109,567|

The following table shows the geographical distribution of British trade for the years 1913, 1925, 1926 and 1927. Both the import and export trades with Europe have declined, though reexports have increased. Imports from all other divisions have increased in value, as have exports to Africa, North America and Australasia,

2344 | 566 | 179 | Gos

1920 IQ2I 1922

316-4 210I 274°6

764 | 200 50:8 | 15°7 66-4 | 176

708 533 59°38

Europe Africa

1923

303°5 | 73°3 | 19°5

66-0

Be

1924

325-1

|

Rel.

78:6 | 248

Rel. |

84-0

Rel.

Value | figs. | Value | figs. | Value | figs.

Se 6-1 7°7 6-7 T'I

mil, £ | 1924= | mil. £ | 1924= | mil. £ | 1924= 100 100 100

1924 | 1925

1926 1927

266-0 | roo-o | 618-9 | roœo | 33:7 | 1000 298-4 | 112°2 | 627:9 | I0or4 | 3ro

gig

341:6 | 128-4 | 646-1 | ro4'4 | 26-9

79:8

317:7 | IX9°4 | 5815 | 939 | 25°7

76°3

These figures show a steady upward movement in both Imports, Exports and Re-exports up till the outbreak of the War, subject to a decline in the five years 1885 to 18809. The sub-divided figures show a more rapid increase in imports than in exports of articles mainly manufactured, and conversely,

2 more rapid increase in exports of raw materials. These tendencies, no doubt, being both due to the gradual growth of manufacturing

The next table shows amounts, in thousands, of trade with foreign countries for the years 1913, 1925, 1926 and 1927.

714

GREAT Imports from

(a) European countries

&a |a¢£ a

eee

aa

France Italy

BRITAIN

-

Switzerland

Spain Portugal .

Exports to

£

£

a aa a a

|

£

64,753

69,941

32,396

38,673

25,213

30,161

19,436

15,77

16,858

14,640

18,979

10,603

13,621

22,192 5,608

9,728 6,053

12,715 8,427 19,662

8,951 7,055

15,013

12,308 8,033

44,206

26,343

42,825

1,285 2,212 586

a 1,80 655

1,273 2.421 e

6,058

3:398

4:759

33574

2,406

11,070

10,033

13,693

14,412

23,057 0,299

20,734 5,384

4,212

23,426

36,236

45,214

49,960

13,528

30,411

48,156

72,685

59,025

40,677

Jugo-Slavia Austria Hungary .

.

es

R 7,706 2,202

es 2,59 476

405 2,391 273

485 2,434 410

3,102

2,587

3,007

4,481 2,537

1,105

847

952

1,232

2,414

Rumania

-

i

F

.

.

Tursxey (European)

Russia

Finland Poland Sweden Norway

.

2,037

Denmark.

10,920

2,278

32,425"

24,053

49,303

47,960

319,407

442,050

ae ie 14,213 7,437 27,913

9,361

2,672

32,887"

.

Netherlands

10,737

40,271

.

|EN, EE i

71,980

:

Greece

£

8,131

15,976 3,898

Czecho-Slovakia

£

49,498

Germany.

Belgium .

|

13,223 5,143 21,317 12,973

65,535

459,780

1,947

3,071

18,103

8,705

z4 si 8,220 6,147

3:959 3,70 11,508 8,104

61,940

22,794

459,028

193,938

50,013

6,195

1,560

.

29,698*

15,902 8,100 25,264 12,920

62,000

y

2,376

13,285 8,525 21,427 12,184

9,204

6,061

7,648

16,901

1,330

1,836

2,613

2,682

2,403

7,718*

6,570"

2,772 2,471 8,052 6,916

3:234 5,316 9,654 7,456

36,526

26,754

30,032

2532799

175,846

220,472

10,987

8,715

9,785

*Including Esthonia, Latvia and Lithuania. (b) Non-European countries

143,854 3:675

United States. Cuba ; Mexico

Argentine Brazil Chile Peru. . Uruguay.

42,485 . .

Japan,

Chima . . Turkey (Asiatic)

Egypt

.

1,880

.

Other countries

e

E : . . . . .

.

CS

à

172,747 118,938 99,882

190,383*

88,441*

77,098

.

103,962 87,504

*From Apr. 1, 1923, exclusive of passengers who departed from or arrived at ports in the Irish Free State.

Relief of Unemployment.—Prior to 1911, assistance to the unemployed had only been given by the poor law authorities in the form of relief on the ground of destitution. In that year was passed the first Unemployment Insurance Act. It covered only 24 million workpeople, out of some 14 millions, being confined to the building, woodworking, engineering and shipbuilding trades, which were at that time peculiarly affected by unemployment. The premium under the scheme was contributed compulsorily by the employer, the workman, and the State in equal shares, and benefit was at the rate of 7/— per week. In 1916 the scope of the Act was extended so as to cover certain trades which had been excessively expanded to meet the war emergency, against the anticipated post-war deflation, and in 1918, an Emergency Act was passed to provide relief for all persons thrown out of employment by the cessation of the war; this scheme was not covered by premium contributions, and it was ultimately succeeded by a new Unemployment Insurance Act of 1920. This Act covered about 12,000,000 persons, 3.¢., speaking generally, all industrial workers with the exception of agricultural and domestic employees.

The State’s contribution was reduced to about $ of the contribution of employer and employee, and rates of benefit were to be 15/— a week for men, 12/— a week for women, and at half those rates for workers under 18. There was a waiting period of three days before benefit could be claimed and payment was limited to 15 weeks in any one year and one week for each 6 weeks contributions. Moreover, the claimant had to show that he had endeavoured but been unable to obtain suitable employment. There were also certain other disqualifications, e.g., if the loss of work was due to a Trade Dispute at the place of employment, dismissal for misconduct, etc. The Act enabled industries which

complied with certain conditions to contract out of its obligations. These various limitations were thought to be too rigid for the time, since they came into operation just at the time of the 1921 shanp, and various acts were passed during 1921 relaxing and varying its provisions, an important new element being introduced in powers conferred on the Minister of Labour to pay “yaxeovenanted benefit.” The scheme thus ceased to be a genuine insurance scheme, and could only be financed by borrowing from

BRITAIN the Treasury on the security of future contributions. In spite of these relaxations, however, the scheme was not sufficient com.

pletely to cover the situation.

The uninsured trades, persons jp

insured trades who could not comply with the conditions entitling them to benefit, and persons whose circumstances rendered the rates of benefit insufficient, had recourse to poor law relief. Ip other words, the poor law made good the gaps in the insurance

scheme. The following figures for the months of April, May and June give some idea of the situation in the year succeeding the coming into force of the 1921 Act.

England and Wales

| April

May

Average number of persons insured | under Unemployment Insurance Acts (whether in receipt of unemployment insurance benefit or aan) and wives and dependent

children, who received relief in their own homes . . Average number of other persons ordinarily engaged in some regular occupation, but not insured, and wives and dependent children, who received relief in their own homes

912,323 | 961,153 | 1,090,488

63,512

62,760

£950,611 | £984,803 |£1,554,015 (4 weeks)|

(4 weeks)!

Total payment to insured persons », uninsured persons .

(5 weeks)

£3,261,170 259,159

As unemployment fell, however, the need for emergency measures became less acute, and it was felt that the time had come to overhaul the Acts and make the scheme a genuine insurance scheme once more. The Government, therefore, passed the Unemployment Insurance Act, 1927, which contains the following provisions: It abolished the distinction between “‘standard”’ and “extended” benefit, and with it the discretionary power of the minister to place restrictions on the grant of them. The rates of contribution for young men and young women between the ages of 18 and 21 were to be 6d. a week for men and sd. a week for women, from the employed person; 7d. and 6d. from the employer, and 54d. and 33d. from the State. The weekly rate of benefit for men with no adult dependents was reduced from 18/— to 17/—, while the rate of benefit in respect of an adult dependent was increased from 5/— to 7/-. Rates of benefit between the ages of 16 and 21 were to be as follows :— Aged 16 but under 18 years. Boys 6/~ Girls » 8 4 » I9 „ Young men ro/— Young women

5/8/-

9

IQ

55

»

20

y

3

»

12/—

3

»

10/—

»

20

y

9

2l

y

99

”

14/~

”

29.

12/-

After a transitional period, it would be a condition of payment that at least 30 contributions had been paid in the 2 years preceding the date of claim, and the rule limiting the payment of standard benefit to one week of benefit to every 6 contributions, subject to a maximum of 26 weeks of benefit in a benefit year would cease to have effect. Finally, the power of the Ministry of Labour to permit of contracting out, was to cease, but the position of the two existing schemes, namely, those for the banking industry and the insurance industry, was preserved. Another method adopted by the State to deal with the problem

of unemployment was the provision and subsidising of relief work in various forms. The classes of work included road work, land drainage, water supply, forestry, etc., while there were two schemes designed for the general stimulation of trade, że., the “trade facilities” and “export credit” schemes.

Trade Facilities.—The first of these was introduced in 1921, and empowered the Treasury to guarantee the interest and capital of loans raised for the purpose of capital expenditure, calculated to promote employment. This scheme has been periodically renewed, but will lapse shortly. The guarantees have been practically confined to public utility undertakings, and the total amount of those given up to March 31, 1927 was £74,251,780.

GREAT

BRITAIN

Wales and Females

Numbers engaged in each industry

Industry r88r

Total aged 10 years and over Total occupied e

Agriculture

.

.

1891

Igor

rort (a)

torr (b)

. | 19,306,000 . | 11,162,000

22,054,000 12,752,000

25,324,000 14,329,000

28,519,000 16,284,000

28,519,000 16,284,000

31,046,000 17,178,000

1,353,000 509,000

1,285,000

1,198,000 791,000

1,297,000 1,028,000

1,230,000 1,127,000

1,124,000 1,286,000

796,000

941,000 1,058,000

1,232,000 995,000 529,000 210,000 1,025,000 391,000 217,000

1,506,000 1,123,000 005,000 223,000 1,044,000 410,000 ad

1,516,000 | 1,174,000 628,000 | 233,000 | 1,050,000 401,000 337,000 108,000 861,000 1,127,000 455,000 291,000 284,000

2,420,000 1,142,000 596,000

Ne

Mining and Quarrying

:

;

s

:

s

:

i

Manufacture of Metals (not precious), Machines, Implements,

Conveyances . onthe, Sa. Ze Manufacture of Textiles, including . Cotton Doa Wool and Worsted Manufacture of Textile Goods and Clothing . including Dressmaking and Millinery Manufacture of Food. . .

;

: 3

630,000

997,000 488,000 222,000

546,000 242,000

2

Building, Decorating and Contracting Transport and Communications, including Railways .

I ,052,000

Roads Water National Government and Defence . Local Government . . . .,. . |. , Personal Service (including Hotels) and including Private Personal Service

961,000

“wy

414,000

489,000

2,452,000 1,527,000

hy A V I

PU AU eU ey U U U

?

EU AU eo oy os U A U mm

ey ow eu wJeu ew su ow

Note: The figures for 1881-1011 (first column) exclude clerks, carmen, and certain other occupations common to all industries. column) and x921 include all persons engaged in the industry.

Export Credit.—The export credit scheme was initiated in 1920, and has been amended several times to meet the difficulties disclosed by experience of its operation. Under this scheme the

Department of Overseas Trade was authorised to grant exporters credits in connexion with exports to foreign countries, and to insure risks not otherwise insurable on reasonable terms.

The total amounts of the credits guaranteed since the inception of the scheme up to Dec. 31, 1927, are as follows:— Under the Guarantee scheme which became operative on July 1, 1921 . wae Ae = te wn . £6,260,568 Under the Exports Credit Guarantee scheme operative from July 1, 1926 y i . : Applications approved . - £2,439,814 Guarantees given . £ 851,475

Population and Employment.—The

preceding table shows

the Population in the Census years 188z to 1921 and the total number of persons occupied in those years, together with the number of persons occupied in the most important industries. This table is extracted from one appearing on page 418 of The Survey of Industrial Relations issued by the committee on industry and trade, in 1926. Industrial and Geographical Distribution of Population. —Great difficulty exists in comparing the distribution of the population at different periods, owing to the fact that the classifications adopted in the decennial census have varied and to the fact that Scotland is dealt with on a different basis to England

and Wales. Professor Bowley has, however, made a valuable study of the figures of the censuses for 1911 and 1921 for England and Wales (see London and Cambridge Economic Service Special Memoranda 17 and 17A, London School of Economics). In his first memorandum he makes a fuller analysis of the numbers occupied in the principal industries in rg11 and 1921 respectively.

|

10921

237,000

815,000 LQI,000 378,000 117,000

758,000

1,204,000 549,000 297,000 330,000 647,000 689,000 2,025,000 1,232,000

rorr (second

It will be observed that the year 1921 was the first year of the

great post-war depression, and therefore not very typical. Many

tendencies which have since developed more fully were scarcely

traceable at that time. The second table does, however, give an

indication of the transference of industry from the north to the south, which is still in progress. The rate of increase in the London and home counties area is larger than in any other district, and this is most noticeable in the engineering groups of industries, while there is a considerable decrease in the textile group in Lancashire and Yorkshire. The following table founded on one given in the M imstry of Labour Gazette for Nov. 1927, shows the total numbers of insured persons in each of the divisions in which the country is divided for the purpose of the Unemployment Insurance Acts in July 1923 and July 1927, with the percentage variation :—

Division

Estimated number of insured

Percentage

persons

increase on the esti-

July 1923

July 1927

Per Nos.

S. Eastern . S. Westem . | Midlands.’ N. Eastern. N. Westem. Wales . Scotland . N. Ireland . Total

cent off tal

7'6 66] ©7|

756,000] 767,000)

. . | 2,682,000]

—._ | 1,964,000] . | 2,071,000] 618,000} 1,288,000] 252,800; kkka

14°83]

Nos.

bers insured |

{cent of

1,783,420]

a

- |£1,402,800) 100°O |12,003,900

July 1923 July 1927

f 7-3] 6%

875,680] 832,980)

plus ,, » » » » 4, » p

14-9

17-2] 2,024,720, 18-21 2,148,190] 5'4] 629,190} 31-3 | 1,305,720] 2'2

n

mated num-

Per

16-9 17-9 5-2] 109 I| A

a

7-29 15-83 8°60 6°03

3'00 3°73 1-82 D38 O47

|

plus 5-27

This may be compared with the table just given. Professor Bowley points out that the total number of males increased 6% and that The southern divisions (London. S.E., S.W., and Midland) conof females 5% in the ten years. Attention is called to the marked tained 47% of the insured population of Great Britain and N. decrease of those engaged in personal services, the decrease in Ireland in July 1927, as against 45-7% in July 1923, and shows an the textile trades, chiefly in cotton, in clothing industries, and in increase of 8.32% during the period as against an increase of woodworking and building. On the other hand, very large in- 5-279 for the whole of the territory. Brsriocrapay.—W. T. Layton, An Introduction to the Study of creases are found in metals and metal producing (which include engineering and shipbuilding) chemical products and in Govern- Prices; Quarterly Economic Supplements of the Federation of British Industries (Jan. 29, 1924 to Dec. 31, ment services, and sport and entertainment. have perhaps some social significance.

These two last items

Professor Bowley in his second memorandum compares the position in the two census years, 1911 and 1921 of the chief industries by county groups, and according to sex. This table is

on the next page.

1927); Board of Trade Journal, Ministry of Labour Gazette Committee on Industry and Trade Survey of Industrial Relations (1926) ; The Third Winter of Unemployment (1922); Unemployment Insurance Acts (1911 & 1927); Trade Facilities Acts (1921 to 1926); Reports of Export Credits Guarantee Department (E. C. G, r. H. M. Stationery Office}: and London and rin Economic Service (Memoranda No. 17 and 17[a], A. L, Bowley).

GREAT BRITAIN

724

Males

Thousands and decimals; e.g., 15-5 stands for 15,500

berland | StaffordNorthum-

London, Middlesex

England

k

Durham

RR

|

TS

|i

| iS

|

LL

Leicester,

Nottinghamshire

ne

shire

Cumberland

Herts.

eroy,

ae

Ee

Westmorland,

Derb

War-

shire,

erand,

.

Cheshire’ | Yorkshire

oe : peek ae

and Wales

Indust

.

> | Lancashire

LLL LT

IOLI | 192I | TOIT | 1921 | IgIX | 192K | TOIL | IQ2I | IQII | 92I

Coal and Shale Mines

885 | 990]

Brick, Earthenware, China . Chemical Products. Iron and Steel Manufacturing . . . Tinplate, etc.. Engineering and Shipbuilding Ă

Electrical Apparatus

:

Vehicles . Precious Metals, Watches. All other Metal Trades" Textile Manufactures . Bleaching, Dyeing, etc. Tanners, Fur, Leather

Goods...

wt

Tailors . Boots Other Clothing tries . . Timber . : Furniture

me

A

Indus:

; ;

Other Wood Industries Food Preparation .

..

| 104:9 | 109°7 | 138-3 | 1595°8 | 208-0 | 223°5

135 | 128 | 5-5 | 165] 107 | 148 | 31°8| 40°6|

1O9°4| 36:0]

I9°2| 5œ6j|

17°3 | r6 4-0] r99

165 | 28

10-6] 2°2

16-8] 2-7

634| -2

9g6:0| “4

629 | 84s | 80-2 | 127-9 | 157°5 | 1940|

oroj]

998|

187 | 3264}

Iq:2]

232 34

69 | 4271

i

“4,

280}

39°8|

st 47 | 139] 337 | 340 | 493| 439 | 400 70 78 80 1*6

t-2] “I

6:9 5°9

5°6 6-3

77 2-1

7°6 29

21-6] “1

24:8 “2

3°6 ee

6-8 vi

r0o2:6 | 1374|

45°4|

568|

32-2]

38-8

52°9|

84-8]

rer]

229

-7| x97] 170 x3] I1r:7 | 124-4] 2°4 OL] IOQ} 4 Q -9

8 10-8 40°r] 6-3

“5 7°6 344 9'2

30]

38|

22°7

4°4

79|

12°7 2-8 2-6 8-1 7-1 495) 4r5| 4r] 552| 558| 9-5 | 240-8 | 214-3 | 125-4 | 1179 t4] 487| 45-7) I9°7| 20°9

8 1g] 2-4 -2

15-5]

30°7|

68:5 | 20-2]

4go-3|

45-9]

3:3]

66|

106°6 | 125-1

9:6]

2-7 |

20°5

3'5

68

58 | 224|

197|

8-4]

8-5]

82

5-9

1'8

1-7 | Ios

ser

27

2*2

I3 172

126 | 5œ2| 146 | 31-8]

sr-x} 2472|

20-5] 16-9}

Ig9°9| 13°3]

Iīgoj 13:8

r82 oF

5'0 4°6

3:8 3°2

6-9 9'7

6-1 7°31

4°6 26°7}

4°L 25-2

43 58 86

40} Ir-6] 76 | 16-6} go | 363|

Iroj 19°2 26-4]

Ir3 8-7 1-7]

8-7 9-6

8 6-4

5 6-3

2f 4°0

.. 4°9 2'r

2°5 3°7

1-8 4°2

I-I 2°

I-O 2°4 2-7

162

183 | 84-4]

93-1]

19°38}

75

Printing, Stationery, etc.

..

IQII | 1921

58 | 270]

. | 315 | 326|

92°22]

20-7]

84] 78| 22-0] 469|

128|

89⁄3

|4510]

8&0 5°7 74| 4:0 Ir8 | 124 264] 264]

2-7 21 3°6 97

5'0 6-6 8-9 307|

14|

4°5

91|

3°7 5°1 9°6 3rojļ|

2-8 3°5 7'I

I22|

2°6 7'0

Ior

Total in Industries named above

._. | 4,220 | 4,809 | 640-0 | 728-5 | 854-9 | 912-8 | 651:9 | 708:2 | 401°5 | 455°0 | 499°2 | 567-1 | 286-8 | 316-6 | 325-2 | 358-2

Females

Thousands and decimals; e.g., 29-3 stands for 29,300 Stafford-

Tie,

Derby,

eae Westmor-, C land, umberland

Warwickshire ? Worcesterchire

Leicester, Notting& hamshire

a

Yorkshi Caer

Lancashire, Cheshire

England | Surrey, Kent,| and Wales Essex and Herefordshire

Industry

IQII | IQ21 | IQII | 1021 | IQIr | 1921 RS

Brick, Earthenware, I : : Chiina i . Chemical Products Electrical Apparatus Vehicles .

Precious

Metals,

Watches, etc.

parro ae a etal

other

Trades.

Textile Manufacture Bleaching, Dyeing, etc. Tanners, Fur, Leather ao

Dressmakers

TS |NN

| TS

|

-7 2I Io4 | 194 | 5'8 | 18-7 “9 5'5 I°7

2°8

9-6 | 215

|

I5

8-3 | Lo2 173°9 115°9 Se

tionery.

Food Preparation . Total in the Industries named above .

|a

|

-3

'I

4°8

6-1

Il‘2 | 13:0

“I

‘I

9'8 | 21-6

44:6 | 67°2

I°g

4°7

I'o 2'4 8 77°73 | 55-9 | O12 2°4

.

Ie

15 1:9

9} ars

rer are

16:6 | 20:3 | 76°8 | 76-0 -2 “2 I.2 4'7

6-4 32°9

te

Iq] I2

41:8 | 49-9 | 13:6 | r55 | 73|

6

i 4°7

ro 1-6

77

37:1 | 5177 | 27°90 | 33:6 | 16-2 | 19-6

|5391 |55577 |268-7 | 276+5

I-

| oraaa

o T'O 1°6

5 | 16-7

.

m

a

6

2

|

3 “4 -6

5:3

|3571

TS| Ls

ee ae 2O 7o 7-8 | 16-3

44°5 | 32-7 | 28-3 | 23-2

363-7

ES |

5°9 9 I5

?

37i 570

|

“5

ve

6-0} 3°5 '

IQII | IQ2r | IQII | rọ21 | IQII | r921 |I

3'2 'I "3

“4

I7

Radnor, Brecknock, Carmarthen ý Pembroke. Cardigan

3'3

I2-Q | II-3 | 36zr-2 |348-5 | 153°4 | 149°5 7 5 8-1 | 23-9 I3 .2

5°9

tries

| AS

| Glamorgan,

6r | r49 roj 83 “5 2I

Other Clothing Indus-

Furniture. Other Wood Industries` | Printing, Pinding; a

E o

Monmouth,

Northum-

London,

Middlesex,

8-9

roj ro}

75}

4°5 261 .

eee

6-5

5°6

r ró

83]

4 "4

40)

29|

|2194 |r308

$:

Q

.

“2 2

572

"ó ‘I

6 ee "I I42 | 235 | Ir'9

.

eel

too | r22 |

185er

3 22 ó

3°3

aaa

.

‘I

"I

Pa 4°I

“4 7

48]

50]

o

‘9

6

“I

`I 3

6j

rr

36]

35

|1357 | 333 | 244

|

GREAT SECTION

9: HOUSING

BRITAIN

‘~Ahy (ni

l

One of the greatest social problems has always been to ensure | that an increasing population was adequately housed.

Even before

According to the census of 1911 no fewer than yy of the population were living in overcrowded conditions, z.e., more than two to a

room (including living rooms). The shortage extended to both town and country and in addition a number of the working class houses in occupation were dilapidated and insanitary, large areas in many cities being characterised as slum areas. At the end of the World War, there was estimated to be a shortage of houses of between

300,000

and

400,000,

in addition

to considerable

arrears of work to be done in slum clearance and making good defective dwellings. This deficit had arisen from two causes. There had been a distinct slowing up of the normal rate of building from 1910 to 1914, and during the war very few working class houses were built at all. The estimated normal annual re-

quirements to meet the natural increase of the population are “0,000 new houses and 30,000 to replace those which go out of use for various causes. The position at the conclusion of hostilities was further complicated by the great shortage of building materials and building trade workers, with a concomitant rise in the cost of building. Therefore not only was there a severe shortage of houses, but it seemed impossible that houses to make good this shortage could be supplied by normal methods at rents which would be within the means of the working classes to pay and which would adequately remunerate the capital expended. It was generally felt that to leave the solution of this problem to the play of ordinary economic forces would involve an intolerable strain upon the health and social stability of the nation and it became necessary to take special measures. Local authorities had already under existing legislation (the principal acts being the Housing Act of 1890 and

the Housing and Town Planning Act of 1909) considerable powers of providing for the working classes, and improving the standard of existing houses. On July 31, 1919 was passed a new act, which completely transformed the position of those authorities, converting what had been a power into a positive obligation, and enabling the State to reimburse them all expenditure exceeding

Out of other

Out of loans

the war British housing fell sadly short of the ideal standard.

£ 131,717 4,843,386 52,209,823

1918-19 1919-20 1920-21 1021-22 1922-23 1923-24

81,725,737 29,644,089 11,301,844

1924-25

capital

moneys

£ 131,717 4,843,386 52,340,001

(a)

(b) 130, 178

81,913,703 29,841,457

(b) 187,966

(b) 197,368

|(b) 626,282

11,928,126

24,268,378 | 1,149,407 | 25,417,785

(a) Capital expenditure (if any) other than out ofloans is for these two years included in column 2 above, separate particulars not having been obtained. (b) For all local authorities except rural district councils, whose capio s other than out of loans (if any) is included in column2 above

In regard to actual house construction the total number of houses built in England and Wales between the armistice and March 31, 1927 was as follows:— State assisted

1920

.

8,546 ese

ao 1923

.

1924,

.

Unassisted

1925 .

1926 , 1927

e

Totals

.

.

2]

|

Total

53,500* | 251,988

18,664.

67,546

86,210

67,669

69,220

136,889

106,987 153:779

| 66,439 |63,850|

173,426 217,629

545,287

| 320,855 320,855

866,142

*Separate figures are not available for the years 1920-23 and the number is based partly on an estimate.

The number and nature of the houses built during the last 12 months of this period was as shown in the following table:—

|

the produce of a penny rate, incurred for this purpose.

Half year ended

| sept. 30

| March March sr 31 | |M

Total

Under the combined provisions of subsequent legislation, the ordinary rates of Exchequer grant payable to local authorities and other bodies in respect of qualified houses were as follows :—

State assisted houses

|

£6 per house per annum for 20 years in respect of houses not subject to the special conditions as to rents, etc., prescribed by section

1923

| . |

531 TO

|

34,732

|

37,361

74,093

38,085

; §

40,f00

| | 73,485

540

|

655

3 of the 1924 Act. £9 per house per annum

for 40 years

for houses subject to the

special conditions and situated in a non-agricultural parish. £12,108 per house per annum for 4o years for houses subject to the special conditions and situated in an agricultural parish as defined by Section 2 (2) of the 1924 Act.

1. Local authorities igig Act.

Totals . 2. Private enterprise 1923 Act 1924

Totals

Up to Nov. 12, 1927 a total of £58,900,669 had been paid by the Government in respect of housing schemes under these Acts. while the total expenditure on housing of local authorities in England and Wales for the years 1918~1925 was as the following table shows:

»

»

;

.

i

Total assisted Unassisted houses Grand totals

38,631

EAA a i 755363 | 31,200

.|

106,563

| 351. | 0,484=

|

|PoE 4ht,055 eee

“Bud 16 32,050 |

111,066

|

|į

882 14,121

1,201

79,686

:

1533779 63,850

| 217,629

The proportion of houses built with State assistance and by private enterprise between 1923 and 1927 was as follows:-—

Expenditure from revenue Year

Maintenance and other expenses

(x)

(2)

|

£ i819.

wt

406,123

oe chars’ g

(3)

(4)

£

£

696,361

1,102,484

1919-20 1920-21 1921-22 1922-23

746,304 717,559 1,463,863 1,334,250 2,820,490 4,154,740 1,896,213 8,094,575 9,990,738 2,042,235 | 11,752,319 | 14:394.554

1923-24

2,993,427

12,662,227

Houses built by private enterprise

Total

15,655,054

ys

Houses built bylocal

|! Without | Authortties state W ith state

W ith state | assistance

1923-24

4,301

1924-25

47:045

1926-27

79,636

1925726

62,709

assistance

67,546

69,220

66,439

63,850

assistance

14,353

20,624

44,218

74,093

It remains to add that the rate of construction was well main-

1924—25 3:949:242 | 13,387,705 | 17:336:947 tained through 1927, the millionth house being completed in *“Loan charges” comprises interest, repayments of principal otherwise | September, and the total between Jan. r, rgrg and Dec. 31, 1927, ' being 1,062,629. than out of sinking funds, and payments into sinking funds.

726

GREAT BRITAIN

BisLiocrapHy.—Memorandum

by the Advisory Housing Panel on

Suvings Certificates Issued up to March 31, ro27

the Emergency Reconstruction Problems (Ministry of Reconstruction, Cd. 9087, 1918) ; Housing in England and Wales (Ministry of Reconstruction, 1918); Annual Reports of the Mmistry of Health; and

publications of the National Housing and Town Planning Council.

Actual senna sub|

SECTION 10:; SAVINGS

l

6 neers

after de-

,

The establishment of the savings bank in Great Britain dates

= Net amount | subscribed ductin

certifi& Perer ate |ete TePayments ea

|j/—--__E

from The date The

the year 1799, when the first private bank was founded. £ £ post office savings banks were founded in 1861, at which || From commencement to March 31, 1917 | 75,607,798 74,487,067 there were over £40,000,000 invested in the trustee banks. || April x, r917 to March 31, 1918 . . | 66,514,526 | 63,262,760 | Government institutions gradually overhauled the other sys4 i o a a ae p eee Ta tem, and at the end of the century, whereas the trustee banks n OLIO, 4, 3L IQ2I . 41,195,948 11,454,703 had only increased their deposits to about so millions, the post » I, IQ2I „ 5, 33,1922 . . | 93,338,708] 57,145 067 office banks had over 140 million deposits. » 1,1922 4, 4, 3, ay ee 1I,708,246 Thei iate developmentis shown by the following table :— 7 47,1023 » =» = 3 + #4 2200,520 | 12,293,020 ae

=

ee

ie

p

p €posl

.

.

32,225,544

2,696,253

eeI, 1927

.

‘

35,115,030 31,024,51

6,737,550 2

630,247,017

of offices

£

371,823,329

1, 1924

5,

Lra

ae

i

SOA ST j 37523331

Total from commencement to March

in each account

£

.. . .

3I, 1925

»

Average | AV

| Average ¢ | balance | number

accounts

»

ae,,eae S 9»a I, 1920

a

7

4 Average>

| pres B

Year ending 31st December

1863—68 1869-74 1875-80 1881-85

See

31,

;

1927

Another

š

.

a

.

.

repository of savings which should be mentioned is

603,000 7:009,9000 | II 3299 || the building society. dThe societies in 1925 18,000,000 | 13 35 35 | 4,498 b th total bassetsF of these £16 the number ot members 1,133,281. . | 1,889,000 | 29,000,000 | 15 12 5 | 5,742 || Was Ż109,100,000, and . | 3,088,000 | 42,000,000 | 13 rr 3| 7,348 Efforts have been made to estimate the total of national sav1,373,000

:

ee

dy

r8g1-95—ti(«“

spear

ee

Between the foundation

I3 Iő I0

3,000,000 | I4

5,776,000

:

7

o|

9023

Ings and to compare the post-war with the pre-war rate of sav-

Io,

ing. These must be more or less conjectural.

According to the

committee on industry and trade (Factors in Industrial and Commercial E ficiency, 1927, p. 55) -the national savings immediately

of the banks and the end of 1899,

upwards of £648,000,000 inclusive of interest was credited to depositors, of which £474,000,000 was withdrawn. There were 232,634,596 deposits, 81,804,509 withdrawals, 27,071,556 accounts opened and 18,631,573 accounts closed. The cross entries, or inStances where the account is operated upon at a different office

before the war amounted to between £380 and £400 millions per

annum. At the price level of 1925 that would have amounted to between £600 and £650 millions. The actual savings of 1925 were estimated by different authorities at £400, £450, and £500 millions. Taking everything into consideration, therefore, it seems probable that the deficiency in the rate of saving in 1925 was at the rate of about £150 millions per annum.

from that at which it was opened, amounted to 33%. It is chiefly in respect of this facility that the post office savings bank enjoys its advantage over the trustee savings bank. BrsLiocraAPHY.—Eleventh Annual Report of the National Savings In 1905, 16,320,204 deposits were made, amounting to £42,- Committee (1927); information supplied by the National Savings 300,617. In the same year the withdrawals numbered 7,155,282, Committee; Speech of the chairman at the annual meeting of the the total sum withdrawn being £42.096,037. The interest credited United Kingdom Provident Institution (March 16, 1927) ; Committee to depositors was £3,567,206, and the total sum standing to their on Industry and Trade, Factors in Industrial and Commercial Efficiency (1927); and publications of Trustees Savings Banks Assocredit on Dec. 31, 1905, was £152,111,140. ciation. (C. Tx.) The following are the figures for the total amount standing to AGRICULTURE the credit of depositors at the end of 1914 and in certain of the In spite of the rapid growth of manufactures and commerce years succeeding the war:—— Increase | 12 Great Britain during the past hundred years, agriculture reor Decrease | mains the largest industry of the country. It employs over one nT I

Year

E mors.

Amount

www

193I 1923

wk. ana

1925

s

1926

.

e

.

i

2 ld 234,033,322

wet

a

e

o

a

a

g

a

.

Jo

264. '50,5 28 273,070,983

19°8 7I

285,491,388

o5

283,658,447

and a quarter million persons.

12S LO-1E

e tota areaoF 56,200,000 acres. The agricultural output Great Britain in 1925 was probably worth £275,000,000.

III

The last year no doubt showed the effect of the coal stoppage. During the World War great efforts were made to increase the volume of national savings, and iñ`xrọr6 the national savings movement was instituted in order to find some means whereby the resources of the small investor could be made available to the State~in the national emergency. The instrument adopted -was the “war savings certificate,” a British Government security,

registered and non-negotiable, and accumulating compound

The area devoted to it is about

four-fifths1 of thef6country’s land—over 45,100,000 acres ontot out ofof th RR

in-

terest over a fixed period free of income tax. After the end of the war the war savings committee and war savings certificate dropped the word “war” from their titles and became part of a national savings organisation which now embraces local committees, savings associations, regional conferences and a national savings assembly which meets annually. The certificate now costs

16/— and its value after ro years is 24/~. Certificates are repay-

able at any time at the option of the holder, but owing to the exemption from income tax, it has been thought necessary to limit

the individual holding to soo. The following figures show the actual amounts subscribed under the scheme year by year, and the net amounts subscribed after deducting repayments:—

o

The agricultural land is classified into three groups—arable, permanent grass and uncultivated rough grazings. The following table shows the area of each in 1926:— (Thousands of Acres) Great Britain

Scotland ShSPSS

Arable land

g

GSniacerces?

i

-Permanent'grass7 =., Rough grazings Do o$ Total

` The total distribution and Wales. agriculture type, while

.

;

i

:

-a a

h

3,194

anrAAROP

13:742

1,499 9,710

16,627 14,774

14,403

45,143

area in each category is not very dissimilar, but the varies considerably as between Scotland and England In Scotland over two-thirds of the land used for is uncultivated rough grazings, mostly of mountain more than two-thirds of the cultivated area is arable

land; in England and Wales three-fifths of the cultivated ‘area is under permanent grass and only one-sixth of the total agricultural land is rough grazings. In these circumstances the number of persons employed per acre is much lower in Scotland than in England and Wales.

eea -teanmperkinanepbepii ff a r A R E

GREAT Apart from the period of the World War, when special efforts were made to produce as much home-grown corn as possible, economic influences have for many years led to the laying down of arable land to permanent grass. The increased production of corn in the new countries of the world caused prices of corn to fall and the production of meat and milk to become relatively

more profitable. The extent to which arable cultivation has been reduced between 1871 and 1926 may be seen from the following

figures :— (Thousands

|

ea Average of Years

os

14,766 13,747 12,676 11,914

Scotland

erma-

oe

nent grass

| | | |

12,799 13,838 15,116 15,545

of Acres)

erma-

ae

1871-75 1881-85 1891-95 1gOI-O5

-| .| .| .|

| | | |

3,476 3,604 3,543 3,463

1921-25

. | I1,144 | 14,805 | 3,298

: Great Britain

nent grass

| | | |

1,085 1,195 1,356 1,429

3

erma-

| Arable | “nent grass

| | | |

18,242 17,351 16,219 15,377

| | | |

12,884 15,033 16,472 16,974

IQII-I5 . | 13,13 | 16,013 | 3,313 | 1.494 | 14,444 | 17,507

1926

1,422 | 14,442 | 16,227

10,548 | 15,128 | 3,194 | 3,499 | 13,742 | 16,627

The reduction in the arable area has been relatively less rapid in Scotland than in England and Wales, possibly owing to the fact that much of Scotland’s arable land would very quickly revert to rough grazings if left for many years under grass. Changes have, however, been much less marked in some parts of England than in others, the eastern counties, where rainfall is small and good permanent pasture is difficult to maintain, showing the smallest decreases in arable land. Areas Devoted to Chief Crops.—The three chief corn crops have not shared equally in the reduction of the corn area; indeed,

the area under oats increased, the decrease being confined to wheat and barley. In the fifty years from 1871-75 to 1921-25 the area under wheat was reduced by about one-half and that of barley by over one-third, while the acreage of oats was increased by one-eighth. The heavy reduction in the wheat acreage, as compared with other cereals, was no doubt mainly a result of the greater fall in price of this grain, while the increase in the acreage of oats was apparently due to the substitution of this crop for other cereals, as the bulk of it is used for feeding to stock on farms and its selling value is not the chief consideration. The relatively low prices for grain crops since 1921, as compared with most other classes of farm produce, have led to further reductions in the area of corn. Acreage of Corn Crops in Great Britain

Wheat Barley

Oats

.

Total corn crops (includ-

ing rye, beans and peas)

Average

Average

1871-75

1921-5

1926

(Thousands of Acres) 3:527 1,803 1,646 2,367 1,510 1,270 2,072 3,009 2,804

9,518

6,922

6,225

BRITAIN

727

The area devoted to potatoes has not followed the decline in the arable area, but has increased during the past 50 years. This increase in the potato acreage has been necessary to meet the requirements of the rising population. Potatoes are grown most extensively in Lancashire and Cheshire in the west of England and in the south of Lincoln and the Isle of Ely in the east. In the last 50 years the acreage of potatoes has changed little in Lancashire and Cheshire, but in the eastern counties named above and in the adjoining counties the acreage has been trebled during that period. Potatoes are also an important crop in some of the eastern counties of Scotland. The acreage of mangolds has been maintained. owing to the value of this crop as have increased, On are expensive crops to damage by pests

a food for dairy cattle. the numbers of which the other hand, turnips and swedes, which to grow and are more liable than mangolds and adverse weather conditions, have been grown on rapidly declining areas, so that they now occupy little more than one-half the area of so years ago. The acreage of clover and rotation grasses has shown comparatively little reduction. With the aid of the sugar subsidy sugar beet has become a crop of importance in the last few years. Acreage of Certain Arable Crops and Bare Follow in Great Britain Average | Average 187I-75

Potatoes : Turnips and swedes Mangolds . Sugar beet. . . Clover and rotation grasses. Bare fallow

550 2,129

.

340 ae

4389 623

|

1921-25

(Thousands of acres) 652 1,240 t

` T

|}

3901

23

4017 44I

*Increased to 233,000 acres in 1927.

Yields.—The crop statistics provide little evidence that there has been any appreciable change in the productivity of the land since produce statistics were first collected in 1885. The returns show that average yields rose somewhat until the first decade of the zoth century, after which they fell away, although since the war they seem to be recovering. In the Report on the agricultural output of England and Wales published early in 1927 it is stated that: “For practically all farm crops except potatoes the period of maximum yield was approximately the ten-year period 1901-10, and especially the latter half of the period, in which it was rare to find any crop yielding in any year less than the average for the previous

decade. For this the weather must have been mainly responsible as also for the falling off which occurred shortly before the outbreak

of war. Subsequently, yields were probably affected by war conditions owing to the shortage of labour and fertilisers, but since the end of the war there has been an apparent recovery. ... Although this variation in yields is of interest it appears in the main to be due to climatic conditions over which the farmer has no control. There is no evidence of a general increase in the actual productivity of crops nor the reverse, as one would hesitate to attribute the declining average yields of recent years to any cause other than the weather and to some extent, war conditions. In the case of wheat, beans and mangolds, notwithstanding the decline in recent years, the general level is still well above that of the early years, a condition which does not, however, apply to other crops, particularly barley.”

The average yields per acre of the chief crops in Great Britain Nearly one-half of the total acreage of wheat in Great Britain have been as follows:— is to be found in the ten eastern counties of England from the 1917—26 1gOI-LO East Riding to the Thames as far inland as Bedford and Huntingdon, while over one-half of the barley acreage is in the same ten Cwt. Cwt. counties. The acreage of oats on the other hand is fairly evenly 174 I17°5 16-0 distributed throughout the country, this being by far the chief TA°3 corn crop in the west and north where the total arable area is 16-2 smallest. The density of the wheat crop is greatest in Cambridge 14°6 Peas . . and Huntingdon, and passing from these counties it becomes 30I Seed hay . gradually less dense in all directions except for two or three 238 Meadow hay Hops . g'o counties in the east of Scotland in which appreciable areas are Tons grown. Barley is most densely grown in Norfolk and Rutland, 6 Potatoes . . . and generally is a much more important crop along the seaboard Turnips and swedes Idg from the Thames to the Moray firth than in the middle or west 200 Mangolds . of the country.

GREAT

728

Live Stock.—With the conversion of arable land to grass live stock have become of increasing importance in the agriculture of Great Britain, but the increase has been confined to cattle. Pigs have fluctuated about a mean which has shown little change, though there is some evidence of an increase since the Great War, while sheep have more or less steadily declined in numbers. Cattle —Cattle occupy a predominating position in British agriculture, accounting for about 40% of the total output from the farms of Great Britain. In the 50 years from 1871-75 to 1921~25 the total number of cattle increased by 20%, while the increase in the dairy herd was even greater, the addition being nearly 40 per cent. In neither case, however, did the increase keep pace with the increase in population, the number of the dairy herd per 1,000 of population being 10% less and of other cattle about 209 less in the later than in the earlier period. The needs of the increasing population for fresh milk were met by the additions to the dairy herd, but this was not the case as regards butter and cheese, of which more has been imported as the years have advanced. Similarly more and more beef has been imported to supply the increased demand. The numbers of cattle in Great Britain during the 55 years 1871~1926 have been as follows :— (Thousands)

Average of years

1871-75 1881-85

1891-95

LQOI-O5 | IQLI—I5 1921-25 1926

Cows and heifers! in milk or in calf

2,204 2,353 2,562

Other cattle

3,509 3:757 4,078 4,147 4,272 3:942

4,244

Total cattle

5,813

6,110 6,640

6,774 7,097 6,995 7:451

The check in the increase in the number of cattle in 1921-25 resulted from an extensive slaughter of calves at the end of the war food control, due primarily to the decontrol of veal prices in advance of those of other meat, but since 1921 there have been increases each year, and in 1926 the number was the largest ever recorded. The density of cattle on the land is naturally larger in the grass areas of the west of the country than in the east; for example, Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex and Cambridge in England, and Berwick, Roxburgh and Selkirk in Scotland have fewer than 140 cattle per 1,000 ac., whilst the north-western counties of England and Wales as far south as Salop and Staffs, one or two of the south-western counties of England (notably Cornwall), and some of the south-western counties of Scotland have over 300 cattle per 1,000 acres of cultivated land. The greatest concentration of dairy cattle is in Cheshire, where there are 250 per 1,000 ac. of land, and the group of counties centred on Cheshire—including Flint, Lancashire, Derby and Stafford—forms an area in which dairying is more intensive than in any other part of the country. Somerset, Dorset and Wiltshire in the south-west of England, and Ayr, Lanark and Wigtown in the south-west of Scotland are also areas where dairying is carried on very largely, there being over 150 dairy cattle per 1,000 ac. in each of these counties. Many counties on the eastern side of the country, on the other hand, have fewer than 50 dairy cattle per 1,000 ac. of cultivated land. Increases in the number of dairy cattle have taken place in all parts of the country during the past so years. Sheep.—The number of sheep in Great Britain, though fluctuating to some extent, has on the whole declined during the so years 1871-75 to 1921-25. The ravages of liver fluke and unfavour-

able weather in the first decade of this period caused a sharp fall which was subsequently partially recovered, while the numbers were reduced very sharply towards the end of the war, and imme-

diately thereafter, since when there has been a good recovery. Between 1920 and 1926 the flocks of the country have been increased by 4,320,000 or 22 per cent. Changes in the number of sheep in different parts of Great Britain have, however, varied consider-

ably, as will be seen from the following table:—

BRITAIN (Thousands)

Number of sheep England 1871-75 1881-85

1891-95 TQOI-O5

en

IQII-I5 1921-25 1926 .

7 | Wales

| Scotland

Great | Britain

18,518

3,111

7,161

28,700

15,683

2,748

6,883

25,314

16,535 14,752

14,069

3,336 |

3:719

3:790

10,788

3,597

12,722

4,137

27,280

7409

7,178

25,649

24,874

7,015

6,826 7:203

21,211 24,062

During the 50 years covered by the table the numbers of sheep have been maintained in Scotland and increased in Wales, the whole of the reduction being confined to England. A sub-division of the figures for England, however, shows that there was practically no reduction in the northern counties, while in the eastern counties the numbers in 1921-25 were less than one-third those of 1871—75, and in every other part of England except the south-west the decreases were 50% or more during the same period. The reduction in the sheep population, therefore, has been most drastic in the arable counties, and sheep breeding has made headway or at least held its own in those areas where costs are low owing to the existence of extensive rough grazings on hill land. The sheep population is naturally most dense in the mountain districts, in several counties reaching up to one per acre of the total agricultural area, including rough grazings, while in some parts of the eastern coun-

a pa

ties they run lower than one for every 10 acres.

In very few

counties, however, are sheep much more dense on the ground than in Kent, where there are rro per 100 ac., the marsh lands of that county being very heavily stocked with sheep. Pigs——Since pigs may be bred much more quickly than other farm live stock there are relatively much more rapid changes in the numbers from year to year, and consequently sharper rises and falls in prices. During the past 50 years the numbers have moved up and down with fair regularity every five years, with little change in the general level. 1871-75 . 1881-85. 1891-95 . IQOI-05 .

Number of Pigs in Great Britain 2,485,000 IQII-I5 . 2,433,000 IQ21~25 2,483,000 1926 2,491,000

2,585,000 2,825,000 2,345,000

The high average in 1921-25 may indicate that pig-keeping is likely to be increased as compared with earlier years, but the number in 1926 was no higher than the minima of some pre-war cycles. Pigs are kept much more largely in the eastern counties of Eng-

land than in most other districts, though in Cornwall, Kent, Isle of Wight, Cheshire and Flint there are comparatively large numbers. The numbers in Scotland are relatively small, the average being only about 150,000. Poultry.—There are many more poultry on the farms of Great

Britain than formerly. The earliest figures available relate to when there were 32,360,000 fowls in Great Britain; in 1926 were 41,600,000. Lancashire stands easily first in point of bers, having nearly 6 birds per acre of cultivated land in while East Sussex comes second with only slightly over acre.

1908, there num1926; 2 per

Value of Agricultural Output.—The Ministry of Agricul-

ture estimated that the value of the farm produce sold off farms

or consumed in farm households in 1925 in England and Wales was £225,000,000, and if similar figures were available for Scotland

it would probably be found that the value of the agricultural output of Great Britain would be in the neighbourhood of £270,000,ooo to £280,000,000, Of this output live stock and live stock

products account for the bulk—at least 70 per cent. (For other particulars see AGRICULTURE, CENSUS OF.) It should be explained that the sums received from the sale of live stock and live stock products have to cover the cost of grow-

ing those corn, root and fodder crops used for feeding to live stock,

and it is only those proportions of the crops which are sold off the

farms which are valued as crops in the above figures,

ea er TE SARIS Ae Prt Peete a esia TT A CN Sela Pa Se er SE SD AAA PR SR I

GREAT

CIRCLE—GREATHEAD

Sizes of Agricultural Holdings.—The total number of agricultural holdings in Great Britain in 1926 was 478,655, of which about 312,275 were of under 50 acres of cultivated land. The numbers in each of several size groups are as follows:— Number and Size of Holdings in Great Britain Above

zx and not exceeding

”

S»

»

me | ROR

”

5 acres 20

O1,154

»

131,350*

as

f

50

5;

”

50

y

9

2

IOO

5;

71,250

x3

IOO

;;

9»

”

5,

37,774

„

300 acres

a

i30

Total.

wh. . 35 .

150

3

7

300

(op,

*Approximate.

89,771*

42,326 15,030

478,655

While it is true that there are some 50,000 to 60,000 holdings of

agricultural land which are separately included in the agricultural

749

which £815 millions was the value of the land, including farm houses and buildings, and £365 millions the working capital of the occupiers of the land. Assuming similar figures per acre for Scotland, for cultivated land and rough grazings respectively, the total capital invested in the whole of Great Britain in agriculture would amount to nearly £1,500 millions. (R. Rs.; H. C. L.)

GREAT CIRCLE.

The circle in which a sphere is cut by a

plane is called a “great circle,” when the cutting plane passes through the centre of sphere. Treating the earth as a sphere, the meridians of longitude are all great circles. Of the parallels of latitude, the equator only is a great circle. The shortest line joining any two points is an arc of a great circle.

For “great

circle sailing,” see NAVIGATION.

GREAT DIVIDING RANGE, a name given to the east-

ern and south-eastern highlands of Australia. It is applicable in so far as it forms the main water-shed between coastwards and inward-flowing drainage on these sides, but misleading in that the highlands in question are a belt of plateaux rather than mountain

returns without being economic farm units, since they are small pieces of land attached to residential properties, or detached fields separately returned, etc., the figures in the table indicate the very large number of separate farm units in the country. Since 1895 ranges in the ordinary sense. (See AUSTRALIA.) there has been a fairly steady reduction in the number of holdings. GREAT FALLS, the second largest city of Montana, U.S.A., especially in those under 20 acres in extent, but as very many of riom. N.E. of Helena, at an altitude of 3,300ft., on the Missouri these are not economic farm units and there are indications that river, opposite the mouth of the Sun river, xom. above the falls the number of such holdings has declined rapidly in recent years, it of the Missouri (92ft. high) from which it derives its name; a is not possible to estimate whether the number of economic small port of entry and the county seat of Cascade county. It is on holdings has increased or decreased. Since 1895 there has been no Federal highways 87 and 91, and is served by the Chicago, Milvery marked change in the number of holdings of from 20 to 300 waukee, St. Paul and Pacific and the Great Northern railways. acres, but the number above 300 acres has declined steadily. A Pop. 24,121 in 1920 (19-4% foreign-born white}, and in 1930 was classification of the holdings above 20 acres in extent in England 28,822 by the Federal census. The area of the city is 8 sq.m. and Wales (excluding certain special types of holding), accounting It has a fine system of parks, connected by 15m. of boulevards. for over 93% of the whole of the agricultural land, shows that The assessed valuation of property in 1927 was $74,187,310. The holdings consisting mainly of grass land (70% or over of per- region is rich in minerals of many kinds, including oil, and is the manent grass) are the most numerous. In 1925 there were in most productive agricultural and stock-raising area of the State. England and Wales 104,200 grass holdings, 72,900 mixed holdings, Great Falls is an important distributing, commercial, financial and and 39,600 arable holdings of over 20 acres. The average size manufacturing centre. It is the headquarters of the customs disof the grass holdings was, however, only 90 acres whereas mixed trict of Montana and Idaho, which in 1926 had exports valued at holdings averaged 130 acres and arable holdings 140 acres each. $6,736,337, and imports amounting to $3,468,489. Bank clearings Fruit and vegetable farms, of which the bulk are of less than 20 for 1927 were $55,408,891. Shipments of wool amount to 7,000,acres, though over 500 exceed roo acres, numbered 28,400; and ooolb. annually. There is a Federal land office in the city. Of poultry farms, which are also usually small, averaging only 7 348,000 potential h.p., 165,000 has been developed. The manuacres each, numbered 4,500. Of the total number of holdings facturing industries include oil refineries, railroad shops, packing about 33 per cent, comprising a fairly similar percentage of the plants, and the electrolytic plant of the Anaconda Copper Mining total acreage of cultivated land, are owned by the occupiers. Company, which performs the final step in the process begun at Persons Employed.—From the statistics which are available the reduction works in Anaconda on ores from the Montana and it Is not easy to arrive at the number of people engaged in agri- Idaho mines. The aggregate output of the factories within the culture. For example, there are many occupiers of agricultural city in 1927 was valued at $11,765.000. holdings of an economic nature whose main source of income is Lewis and Clark visited this neighbourhood in 1805, and held from other employment, and they would not describe themselves here (it is claimed) the first 4th of July celebration west of as farmers in the census enumeration. Further, many workers, especially females, who are employed very largely on farm work describe themselves as general labourers, and in the case of women as married women. Until 1921 all gardeners, including domestic and jobbing gardeners, were included in the population census with market gardeners. It is clear, however, from the population censuses of the past 50 years that the number of persons employed in agriculture (excluding horticulture) in Great Britain has declined considerably, from about 1,500,000 in 1871 to about 1,100,000 in 1921. This reduction was probably the result of several causes, among which the decrease of arable cultivation and the increased use of machinery are no doubt the most important. An estimate made by the Ministry of Agriculture in

1925 put the number of persons employed in agriculture and horticulture in England and Wales at 1,100,000, of whom 800,000 were employees, and 300,000 farmers, market gardeners, nurserymen, etc., occupying agricultural holdings. Of the employees about 700,000 were males and about 100,000 females. A similar estimate for Scotland would probably be in the neighbourhood of 180,000, of whom about 125,000 would be employees and about 55,000 to 60,000 occupiers of holdings. The total number of persons engaged in agriculture in Great Britain is thus nearly 1,300,000.

Capital

Invested.—The

Lake Superior. The city was founded in 1883, by Paris Gibson of St. Paul, Minn., and was incorporated in 1888. In 1890 the population was 3,979; in I900, 14,930. There are many points of

scenic interest near by, including the Rainbow falls (48ft. high), the the the the gal.

Belt mountains, and the Sun River valley. Within 40m. to S.W. and the S.E. respectively are the Lewis and Clark and Jeferson National forests. In the city is Giant spring, one of largest in the world, which has a daily flow of 388,000,000 of water, at a temperature of 52° F the year round.

GREAT

HARWOOD,

urban district, Clitheroe parliamen-

tary division, Lancashire, England, 44 m. N.E. of Blackburn, on the L.M.S. railway. Pop. (1931), 12,787. The inhabitants are employed in cotton mills and collieries in the vicinity. GREATHEAD, JAMES HENRY (1844-96), British

engineer, was born at Grahamstown, South Africa, on Aug. 6, 1844. He learned the shield system of tunnelling which bears his name from P. W. Barlow, who proposed to build underground railways in London on this system. In r869 Greathead built a subway under the Thames near the Tower. He invented, among other things, the “Ejector” fire-hydrant. The Greathead shield system was used in constructing the City and South London railway, which was opened in 1890. Greathead was also concerned capital invested in agriculture in with the Waterloo and City and the Central London underground

England and Wales was estimated in 1925 at £1,180 millions, of | railways. He died at Streatham, London, on Oct. 21, 1896.

GREAT

730

LAKES

GREAT LAKES, THE. The Great Lakes and their connect-

mainder in vessels of the United States. Traffic through the De.

ing waterways are in general along the boundary between the United States and Canada between 75° and 92° W. of Greenwich. In 1909 the United States and Great Britain signed a treaty known as the “Boundary Waters Treaty,” whereby the waters between the United States and Canada were guaranteed free and open to the inhabitants of both countries on equal terms, and principles governing the use of boundary waters were laid down. An international joint commission consisting of three members from Canada and three members from the United States was established. Neither the United States nor Canada has found it necessary or desirable to organize any defences on the boundary between the two countries or maintain ships of war in the Great Lakes for over roo years. The channels in the connecting waterways and the sailing courses in the open lakes cross and recross the international boundary many times. The Great Lakes and their connecting waterways are the most important unit of inland waterway transportation in the world, and have been of great economic importance in the development of the North American continent. Their drainage basin has an area of about 300,000 sq.m., approximately 60% lying within the United States. The water surface of the lakes and rivers themselves covers 96,000 square miles. The total distance, measured along the steamer track from Duluth to the outlet of Lake Ontario, is 1,160 miles. Their outlet to the Atlantic ocean is through the St. Lawrence river. Dimensions, elevations and other descriptive details of each of the lakes and connecting waterways are given in the following table, the data being derived from the bulletin and charts of the U.S. Lake Survey:

troit river in 1926 amounted to 95,003,604 tons, valued at $1,179,944,762. Package freight has not developed in anything like the same proportions as has bulk freight, the total on the lakes averaging about 2,500,000 tons per annum. Connecting Waterways (see table).—The critical points in

the navigation of the lakes ąre the connecting waterways. The

BY

COURTESY

OF

THE

WHALE-BACKED

CANADIAN

NATIONAL

OIL-TANKER

RAILWAYS

SPECIALLY

BUILT

Lakes ES

Superior . Michigan Huron. St. Clair .

Erie

Ontario

.

350 307 206 26

;

|

HS | a

24X

|

57

9,940

53

Rivers

34,690

7,540

34,640

Length TL

St.Mary’s . . . . Straits of Mackinac . . St. Clair me «i. te. Detroit . ; i ; Upper Niagara . . . Lower Niagara St. Lawrence (to Montreal)

. ). . . 2 g . .. o Oy

ate Sn:

Square miles | Square miles 31,810 80,700 22,400 69,040 23,010 72,600 460 6,420

118 IOI 24

193

Total area of basin

TTT

Least width flv

a

THE

GREAT

LAKES

through the Sault Ste. Marie canal being greater in tonnage than that through the Suez canal. A distinct type of ship, similar to that shown, has bean evolved for carrying oil, grain and mineral ore on the lakes

channels in their waterways are exceptionally free from silting.

Periodic dredging is necessary at a few localities only. On account of the great volumes of commerce, and of the many miles of Mean

Area of water surface

FOR

Ships of 10,000 tons’ capacity traverse the Great Lakes, the annual shipping

Maximum | elevation | Ordinary recorded approved | fluctuations; depth

Sman

low water

| aa

1,180 870 750 26 2I0 738

pie geen

jwater surface

Èa

601-6 579°6 579°6 573°8 570°8 244°5

navigation | navigation |

2'5 2:8 26 asd 3:0 3°3

pela Hicaine of

ee

re

ater

April 23 April 12 April 6 March 30 March 29 April 5

Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec.

9 15 17 18 17 18

: Greatest width

re depth Limiting at low water

Current in i navigated portions

, Discharge at mean stage

Feet

Miles per hour

2I

I-35

Cubic foot seconds*

SRS

Miles

Feet

Feet

63 30 40 31 20 I5 179

300 10,900 800 1,900 1,500 2I0 1,200

100,000 5,100 19,000 8,000 2,600

24,000

40,000

IIo 20 22 10-23 30 14

a

a I-5 1-6 I-7 I-23

47,000 203,000 208,000 207,000 207,000

1-6

240,000

“In its original condition the mean stage discharge of the St. Mary’s river was about 78,000 cu.ft. per second. The flow of this river is now entirely controlled by regulating works.

Traffic.—During the 1926 navigation season 137,000,000 tons of freight, valued at over $2,000,000,000, moved over the Great Lakes. This commerce consists primarily of bulk freight such as iron ore, wheat, limestone and coal. The cost of transporting freight on the bulk carriers of the Great Lakes is cheaper than that of any other inland transportation for equal haul in the world. Freight rates are from one-seventh to one-tenth of the rates per ton mile for similar transportation on the railroads of the country. The tonnage passing through the locks at Sault Ste. Marie is steadily increasing. The average for the years 1922-26 was 80,000,000 tons, while for the years 1917 to 1921 it was 74,000,000 tons. In 1926 it amounted to a total of 85,679,087 tons of freight, valued at $1,063,875,987. Of this traffic 10,374,000 tons was down-bound grain, 57,549,700 tons was iron ore down-bound, and 14,439,000 toms was coal up~bound. About 50% of the grain, 1% of the iron ore and §% of the coal was carried in Canadian vessels. the re-

channel with a narrow margin between keel and channel bottom, extensive sweeping is done annually to ensure that channels in hard bottom are free from accidental obstructions. The Lake Carriers’ Association, a federation including nearly all the owners of freight-carriers on the lakes, have formed an efficient system of communication and supervision which permits them to take advantage of water conditions and load their vessels to the greatest possible depth. The deepening and widening of the connecting channels authorized some years ago have practically been com-

pleted; and at many of the most critical points, such as the Neebish channels below Sault Ste. Marie and the channels between Lakes Huron and Erie, separate up-bound and down-bound pas-

Sageways are maintained. On the upper lakes the minimum width of channels used for two-way traffic is sooft., whereas 300ft. is

the least width of channel now used for one-way traffic. Towards the close of the navigation season, the blockade of one-way chan-

GREAT

LAKES

73%

nels in the St. Mary’s river by ice is a fairly frequent occurrence. | will admit the largest freighters to Lake Ontario and the St. LawThe excavated portions of the channels have an aggregate length rence river above Ogdensburg and open these waters to the highly

of about 82m., much of which is in rock and boulder bottom. Their cost to June 30, 1927, including the cost of St. Mary’s Falls canal and locks, but excluding maintenance, has been $44,754,832.83. The project depths of these channels range from 20 to 23ft. below datum. The only portions having a project depth of 2oft. lie in soft bottom, and im these reaches the available depth has been increased by the wash from the propellers of the procession of vessels passing through them. Little if any of the channel has actually a depth less than 21ft. below datum. The dimensions of the locks in the St. Mary’s Falls are as follows: g

Length ites

Name of

Beiren

lock

Weitzel* Poe

g

.

515 800

Usable

length

Width

lower

upper | lower

sil | sill

480 773 to

Depth P | Depth p on on

go

16

| 12-6

60 at gates 100

22

18

24°5 24°5

24°5T 24°57

gate

677 to

intermediate gate

Davis Fourth

Canadian

1,350 1,350

Qoo

1,300 1,300

860

80 80

60

| 18-2

18-2

Note tr} All lengths are given in feet.

(2) All depths and lift are in feet and are referred to datum, which is 6o1-r above and 580-6 below the locks, respectively, corresponding to Lake Superior datum of 601-6 and Lake Huron datum of 579-6. *Not used at present. }Depth over lock floors, which are higher than lower sills.

The total expenditures by the United States upon connecting channels and harbours, amounting to over $160,000,000, are more than paid for each year by the present savings in transportation costs effected. Studies made in 1928 by the U.S. war department will undoubtedly lead to the deepening of inter-lake channels, but no work has been authorized by the U.S. Congress. To deepen all down-bound channels to permit their use by vessels of 24ft. draft when lake levels are at datum will cost about $26,000,000. Upbound channels will cost $z1,000,000 for similar deepening. The costs for 22ft. draft are $16,000,000 and $7,000,000 respectively. Between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario where the Welland canal overcomes the falls and rapids of the Niagara river navigation is still restricted to a 14ft. draft. This canal has 25 lift locks, with a total lift of 3263 feet. These locks are each 27o0ft. long (usable length about 255ft.) by 45ft. wide, and were designed to have 14ft. depth on the sills. The Dominion of Canada is now constructing a new Welland canal which will admit the largest existing lake freighters. The southern portion of the new canal is chiefly an enlargement of the old canal. The northern portion follows a new location entering Lake Ontario at Port Weller about 3m. E. of the terminus of the old canal. The new canal will be 25m. long, with a total lockage of 3264 feet. It will have four single locks, one flight of three double locks, and one guard lock. The locks have a usable length of 82oft., a clear width of 80ft., and 30ft. depth of water on the sill at lowest lake stages. All locks have a lift of

about 46 feet. The gates are of the mitring type. The canal prism is 200ft. wide at the bottom, 31oft. wide at the water line, and from 25 to 263ft. deep at low water. All masonry structures are so designed as to allow an ultimate deepening to 3oft. at low

developed commerce of the upper lakes. Harbours.—Originally the mouths of rivers were used as harbours on the lakes. It was necessary to dig out the bars which usually formed at the lake entrance, and later piers were constructed at river mouths which contracted the area of flow and tended to keep the channels scoured out. Still later, breakwaters were built in the lakes to protect pier entrances from wave action. As conditions became more congested in the rivers, the breakwaters were extended to form large outer harbours. These structures were originally stone-filled timber cribs, the tops of which, after the timber decayed, were replaced by concrete or stone. The more recently constructed breakwaters are formed of a line of concrete caissons sunk side by side, or of a long rubble mound composed of stones varying from half a ton to ro and 12 tons in weight, more or less carefully placed. Some of these outer harbours are as much as four and five miles long and afford ample protection to the largest lake vessels. Maintenance dredging must be carried on at all times in most of the harbours of the Great Lakes. About 65 harbours on the upper lakes (excluding Lake Ontario) have an authorized project depth of 19ft. or more at low water; many others have been improved so as to be available for smaller vessels. Carriers.—The aggregate gross registered tonnage in 1927 of the entire lake fleet, including both United States and Canadian vessels, vessels in the package and automobile trade, barges, etc., but excluding passenger steamers and car ferries, is given in the report of the Lake Carriers’ Association as 2,887,427 gross registered tons, The number of vessels was 765. During the five year period 1922—26 there were built 30 new bulk freight-carriers with a carrying capacity, on 20ft. draft, of 395,192 net tons. During the same period r2 steel bulk freighters were lost on the lakes, eight of which had a carrying capacity in excess of 3,000 gross tons each. The standard bulk freight-carrier on the lakes (except Ontario) is a vessel with machinery in the stern, navigating bridge far forward and quarters for crew both forward and aft. The vessel is long, narrow and deep, with maximum possible cargo capacity for its displacement. The cargo is open, without intermediate decks, but is usually divided into three compartments by cross bulkheads. Cargo is handled through large hatches extending nearly full width of the deck spaced uniformly at reft. or 24ft. centres. This type of freighter is generally regarded as the most economical bulk freight-carrier yet devised and while admirably suited for the lakes’ trade is not suitable for ocean navigation. The standard bulk freighter has no equipment for handling cargo although some self-unloaders, largely used for carrying limestone, have been developed. The larger freighters have engines of about 2,500 hp. and are designed with a cargo-carrying capacity of from 13,000 to 15,000 net tons and for a speed of about 10-5 statute miles per hour. The largest boat on the lakes in 633ft. long, 7oft. in beam and 29ft. moulded depth. Except for several motor ships with diesel engines there has been no marked change in the type of freighters built in recent years. The highly specialized freighthandling equipment at the terminals has resulted in remarkable economies in loading and unloading and quick turn round for vessels, The record for handling cargo between shore and ship is

r64min. for loading 12,508 tons of ore, and 3hr. and 5min. for unloading the same cargo. The package and passenger-carrying steamers are in general of the same design as boats in coastwise service along the Atlantic seaboard. The car ferries are strongly built and maintain service throughout the entire year,

About 30 important passenger lines are in regular operation upon the Upper Great Lakes, exclusive of the companies operating

day-excursion boats and passenger ferries. Most of these lines operate only during the navigation season, although in certain inconstruction of this canal was commenced in 1913. It was largely stances, notably in the case of the Pere Marquette Line steamers suspended during the World War, but was later resumed, and it is which operate across Lake Michigan, passenger service is mainestimated that the canal will be opened to navigation about 1930. tained throughout the year. Several of the lines offer especially In the past more than 90% of the freight movement of the Great good passenger accommodations and attractive long-distance Lakes and all of the large vessels have been confined to the lakes cruises. Other lines operating between important cities, notably above the Niagara river. The opening of the new Welland canal those running between Detroit, Cleveland and Buffalo, in overnight

water. The estimated total cost of the canal is $115,600,000.

The

GREAT

734

service, carry a heavy passenger traffic in luxurious boats, some of which are of exceptionally large size. Two of the latest passenger steamers, the “Greater Detroit” and “Greater Buffalo,” are said to be the largest inland waterway passenger steamers in the world. They are steel vessels of the side-wheel type, 55oft. length overall; width, over guards, rooft.; draft, 16ft.; speed, 21 statute miles per hour. Sleeping accommodations are provided for 1,200 passengers. These boats are in operation between Detroit and Buffalo. Passenger steamers usually have accommodations for automobiles and for a limited amount of express freight. Diversions.—The period of low rainfall occurring during the years just prior to 1926 brought down the levels of the lakes and with other factors created new low levels. The minimum recorded monthly mean levels during the navigation season since 1860, taking the latter as from May to November inclusive, were as follows: Low level

(May 1926)

Lake Superior

Lake Michigan Lake Huron. Lake Erie .

. .

(Nov. 1925) f ,, 1925) (4, 1925)

600-2 577°7 5777 57045

Standard datum 601-6

579°6

579°6

570°8

For all the lakes except Lake Superior the standard datum planes are two feet below the mean level of these lakes for the period 1860-75. The datum plane for Lake Superior is one foot below the mean level of that lake for the same period. The datum planes were intended to represent low-water conditions, but not the extreme minimum lake levels during the navigation season. At the time of their adoption the minimum recorded monthly mean levels during the navigation season had been below datum as follows: on Lake Superior o-8ft., Lakes Michigan and Huron o-sft., Lake Erie o-rft. and Lake Ontario 1-1 feet. The effect of the present diversions and outlet changes is estimated as follows:

LAKES to permit the Chicago sanitary commission to prepare plans and

construct works necessary to take the place of the prevailing system of sewage disposal, temporary authority to divert 8,500 cu.ft

of water per second from Lake Michigan was granted by the U.S

War Department for a period of five years under certain condi.

tions, which, when carried out, will permit the reduction and per.

haps the eventual discontinuance of the diversion for sewage pur-

poses. The question is of importance because of the enormous losses claimed by shipping interests on account of lower water.

levels.

The matter is again before the Supreme Court of the

United States as a result of an action brought by some of the States to restrain the Chicago drainage district from diverting water from Lake Michigan. The report to the court made by former chief justice, Chas. E. Hughes, who was designated as

special master, was to the effect that the permit granted by the War Department

is valid and effective according to its terms,

Final decision in the matter has not been made. Outlets to the Sea.—The Chicago drainage canal from Lake Michigan at Chicago to Joliet, Ill., the Illinois and Michigan canal from Joliet to La Salle, Ill., and the improved waterways of the Illinois and Mississippi rivers, give a continuous water route from Lake Michigan to the Gulf of Mexico. This route, however, will accommodate at present only very small, shallow-draft boats, and is but little used. The various Federal, State and other agencies concerned are now engaged in works that will deepen this through

waterway to nine feet. The U.S. War Department engineers have surveyed and studied several routes for a canal between Lake Erie and the Ohio river, but these reports have to date been unfavourable. It was found that the benefits would be out of proportion to the cost, which would be in excess of $100,000,000 for oft depths. Unfavourable reports have also been made on a proposed ship canal following in general the line of the New York State barge canal. The New York State barge canal has replaced the old Erie canal. Tt connects with the Great Lakes at Tonawanda on Niagara river, and at Oswego on Lake Ontario. The present r2ft. depth of canal is designed for use by barges and boats drawing 10% feet. Effect, in feet, SOUL OE ci Jecels ol Lles The St. Lawrence river from its source at the outlet of Lake diversion Cause Ontario to the Atlantic at Belle Isle strait is 1,184m. in length. cubic feet per second For purposes of navigation the river may be considered in three portions: the broad estuary below Father Point, 661m. in length; Diversion Chicago sanitary disthe section 342m. in length from Father Point to Montreal which trict and City of Chicago has been improved for navigation by ocean vessels; and the sec(average 1921-25) 8,660 tion 181m. in length between Montreal and Lake Ontario, in Welland canal which there is a fall of approximately 225ft., and which has been Black Rock canal. ; 1,000 Changes in St. Clair river . canalized at all rapids and is available for small vessels of r4ft. draft. The problem of providing a channel through the St. LawTotal . rence for ocean shipping is now the subject of negotiation between Upon the opening of the new Welland ship canal the lowering of the Canadian and U.S. Governments. (See St. LAWRENCE RIver.} By treaty stipulation the amount of water that may be diverted Lake Erie, due to increased diversion for navigation purposes, will be increased to o-7 foot. Any additional deepening of channels in from the Niagara river for power purposes has been limited to St. Clair river will further lower the levels of Lakes Huron and 36,000 cu.ft. per sec. on the Canadian side and 20,000 cu.ft. per sec. on the United States side. Of the Canadian diversion all but Michigan. A dike on which sluice gates are installed has been con- about 10,000 cu.ft. per sec. is used by the Hydro-electric Power structed across the St. Mary’s river near Sault Ste. Marie. The Commission of Ontario in three plants, the largest of which, near gates are operated under the supervision of an international board Queenstown, has a gross head of over 300ft. and develops about of control in order to maintain water-levels in Lake Superior and 450,000 h.p. from the nine turbo-generators installed. Of the to compensate for diversions on both the Canadian and the American diversion practically all the water is utilized by one concern with an installation of 560,000 horse-power. Three of the American sides at Sault Ste. Marie for power purposes. units of the latter company are rated at 70,000 h.p. each and are The construction of compensating works in the Niagara and St. Clair rivers, designed to raise the level of Lake Erie by o-7 foot the largest hydro-electric units in existence. At all the plants. and of Lakes Huron and Michigan by one foot, have been recom- electricity is generated at 11,000 volts, 25 cycles. Much is used mended by a joint board of engineers appointed by the Canadian in nearby electro-chemical industries for the manufacture of and U.S. Governments. The locks include a series of submerged aluminium, ferro-silicon, carborundum, artificial graphite, liquid The rock sills in St. Clair river with crests 31ft. below datum, and a chlorine, calcium carbide, cyanamide and other products. timber crib dike, stone weir and submerged rock sills in the remainder is transmitted to various cities for miscellaneous uses. The maximum distance to which this power is transmitted Is Niagara river, The question of diversion of water from Lake Michigan into somewhat in excess of 200 miles. BrsriocrarHy.—Annual Report, chief of engineers, U.S. army; the Chicago drainage canal for the purpose of sewage disposal has Lake Survey; Transportation on the Great not been settled. The Supreme Court of the United States Charts and Bulletins of theprinting office (1926); Report of InternaU.S. Government decided against the Chicago drainage district in a suit instituted to Lakes, tional Joint Board of Engineers, U.S. Government printing office enjoin the district against withdrawing water. However. in order | (1927); Document No. 288, Goth U.S. Congress, 1st Session; Annual

GREAT

MOTHER

Report, Lake Carriers’ Association; Great Lakes Commerce, by Fay, Spofford and Thorndyke, consulting engineers. E. Ja.)

GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS, the ancient OrientalGreek-Roman deity commonly known as Cybele (q.v.) in Greek and Latin literature from the time of Pindar. She was also known under many other names, some of which were derived from

famous places of worship: as Dindymene from Mt. Dindymon. Cybele is her favourite name in ancient and modern literature, while Great Mother of the Gods, or Great Idaean Mother of

the Gods (Mater Deum Magna, Mater Deum Magna Idaea), the most frequently recurring epigraphical title, was her ordinary official designation. The legends agree in locating the rise of the worship of the Great Mother in Asia Minor, in the region of loosely defined geographical limits which comprised the Phrygian empire of

prehistoric times and was more extensive than the Roman province of Phrygia. Her best known early seats of worship were Mt. Ida, Mt. Sipylus, Cyzicus, Sardis, and Pessinus, the lastnamed city, in Galatia near the borders of Roman Phrygia, finally becoming the strongest centre of the cult. But the existence of numerous very similar non-Phrygian deities indicates that she was merely the Phrygian form of the nature deity of all Asia Minor. From Asia Minor, the cult of the Great Mother spread first to Greek territory. It found its way into Thrace at an early date, was known in Boeotia by Pindar in the 6th century, and entered Attica near the beginning of the 4th century. At Peiraeus, where it probably arrived by way of the Aegean islands, it existed privately in a fully developed state, that is, accompanied by the worship of Attis (q.v.), at the beginning of the 4th century, and

publicly two centuries later. The Greeks from the first saw in the Great Mother a resemblance to their own Rhea, and finally identified the two completely, though the Asiatic peculiarities of the cult were never universally popular with them. In her less Asiatic aspect; z.¢., without Attis, she was sometimes identified with Ge and Demeter. It was in this phase that she was worshipped in the Métroéon at Athens. In 204 B.c., in obedience to the Sibylline prophecy which said that whenever an enemy from abroad should make war on Italy he could be expelled and conquered if the Idaean Mother were brought to Rome from Pessinus, the cult of the Great Mother, together with her sacred symbol, a small meteoric stone reputed to have fallen from the heavens, was transferred to Rome and established in a temple on the Palatine (Livy xxix. 10-14). Her identification by the Romans with Maia, Ops, Rhea, Tellus, and Ceres contributed to the establishment of her worship on a firm footing. By the end of the republic it had attained prominence, and under the empire it became one of the three most important cults in the Roman world, the other two being those of Mithras and Isis. Epigraphic and numismatic evidence prove it to have penetrated from Rome as a centre to the remotest provinces. During the brief revival of paganism under Eugenius in A.D. 394, occurred the last appearance of the cult in history. Besides the temple on the Palatine, there also existed minor shrines of the Great

Mother

in the present

Piazza

S. Pietro,

on the Sacra Via on the north slope of the Palatine, near the junction of the Almo and the Tiber rivers, south of the city

(ibid., 311-14). In all her aspects, Roman, Greek, and Oriental, the Great Mother was characterized by essentially the same qualities. Most

prominent among them was her universal motherhood. She was the great parent of gods and men, as well as of the lower orders of creation. Especial emphasis was placed upon her maternity over wild nature. She was called the Mountain Mother; her sanctuaries were almost invariably upon mountains, and frequently in caves; lions were her faithful companions. Her especial affinity with wild nature was manifested by the orgiastic character of her worship. Her attendants, the Corybantes, were wild, half demonic beings.

Her priests, the Galli, were eunuchs

OF THE

GODS

733

culmination in self-scourging, self-laceration, or exhaustion. Selfemasculation sometimes accompanied this delirium of worship on the part of candidates for the priesthood. Though her cult sometimes existed by itself, in its fully developed state the worship of the Great Mother was accompanied by that of Attis (q.v.). The cult of Attis never existed independently. There is no positive evidence to prove the existence of the cult publicly in this phase in Greece before the 2nd century B.C., nor in Rome before the empire, though it may have existed in private. The philosophers of the late Roman empire interpreted the Attis legend as symbolizing the relations of Mother Earth to her children the fruits. In this interpretation they were not far wrong. for Cybele and all her kind are embodiments of the earth’s fertility. At Rome the immediate direction of the cult of the Great Mother devolved upon the high priest, Archigallus, called Atts, a high priestess, Sacerdos Afaxima, and its support was derived, at least in part, from a popular contribution, the stips. Besides other priests, priestesses, and minor officials, such as musicians, curator, etc., there were certain colleges connected with the ad-

ministration of the cult, called canmophori (reed-bearers) and dendrophorit (branch-bearers). The quindecimvirs exercised a general supervision over this as over all other authorized foreign

cults. Roman citizens were at first forbidden to take part in its

ceremonies, and the ban was not removed until the time of the empire. The main public event in the worship of the Great Mother was the annual festival, which took place originally April 4, and was followed next day by the Afegalesia, games instituted in her honour on the introduction of the cult. Under the empire, from Claudius on, the Megalesta lasted six days, April 4 to ro, and the original one day of the religious festival became an annual cycle of festivals extending from March 15-27, in the following order:

(1) March 15, Canna intrat, the sacrifice of a six-year-old bull, the high priest, a priestess and the cannophori officiating, the last named carrying reeds in procession in commemoration of the exposure of the infant Attis on the reedy banks of the stream Gallus in Phrygia. (2) March 22, Arbor intrat, the bearing in procession of the sacred pine, emblem of Attis’ self-mutilation, death and immortality, to the temple on the Palatine, the symbol of the Mother’s cave, by the dendrophori, a guild of workmen who made the Mother, among other deities, a patron. (3) March 24, Dies sanguinis, a day of mourning, fasting and abstinence, especially sexual, commemorating the sorrow of the Mother for Attis. The frenzied dance and self-laceration of the priests and the self-mutilation of neophytes, were special features

of the day. The taurobolium

(q.v.) was often performed on

this day, on which probably took place the initiation of mystics. See also CRIOBOLIUM. (4) March 25, Hilaria. All mourning was put off, and good

cheer reigned in token of the return of the sun and spring, which

was symbolized by the renewal of Attis’s life. (5) March 26, Requietio, a day of rest and quiet. (6) March 27, Lavatia, the crowning ceremony of the cycle. The silver statue of the goddess, with the sacred meteoric stone, the Acus, set in its head, was borne in gorgeous procession and bathed in the Almo, the remainder of the day being given up to rejoicing and entertainment, especially dramatic representation of the legend of the deities of the day. The Great Mother is especially prominent in the art of the empire. No work of the first class, however, was inspired by her. She appears usually with mural crown and veil, well draped, seated on a throne, and accompanied by two lions. Other attributes which often appear are the patera, tympanum, cymbals, sceptre, garlands, and fruits. Attis and his attributes, the pine, Phrygian cap, pedum, syrinx, and torch, also appear. In literature she is the subject of frequent mention, but no surviving

Together with priestesses, they celebrated her rites with wild

work of importance, with the exception of Catullus Ixiii., is due to her inspiration. Her importance in the history of religion is

music and dancing until their frenzied excitement found its

very great, for her cult, like the other mystic worships, at once

attired in female garb, with long hair fragrant with ointment.

/ 34+

p

GREAT

NORTHERN

RY.—GREAT

formed a rival to Christianity and acted as a stepping stone to it. (See MYSTERY.)

Brptiocrapuy.—Grant Showerman, “The Great Mother of the Gods,” Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin, No. 43; Philology and Literature Series, vol. I. No. 3 (Madison, 1901); Hugo Hepding, Attis, seine Mythen und seme Kult (Giessen, 1903); H. Graillot, Le culte de Cybèle dans empire ramain (Paris, 1912), good bibliography; Rapp, Roschers Ausführliches, Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie s.v. “Kybele”; Drexler, ibid. s.v. “Meter.” See Romay RELIGION, GREEK RELIGION, and ATTIS.

GREAT NORTHERN RAILWAY COMPANY. The Great Northern’s genealogy began in 1857 with the chartering of the Minnesota and Pacific railway by the State of Minnesota, a road that was soon taken over by the St. Paul and Pacific railway. Ten miles of actual railroad were then built between St. Paul and St. Anthony, now Minneapolis, upon which service was established in 1862, the frst in the North-west.

In 1875, Mr. J. J. Hill and a group of associates began reorganizing the St. Paul and Pacific, then in the hands of receivers, into the St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba railway. Under the leadership of Mr. Hill this new road expanded rapidly, despite the lack of Government aid then considered so essential to the construction of new lines. By 1888 the line reached central Montana and five years later the Rockies had been crossed. through the elusive Marias Pass and service established between the Twin Cities and Puget Sound. It was during this latter period that the present Great Northern Railway Company was formed. In 1928 the Great Northern ranked among the leading railroads of the United States. It operated 8,312 m. of line, covering a territory extending from the Great Lakes to the Pacific ocean. It also owned a ‘half interest in the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy railroad, and in the Spokane, Portland and Seattle Ry. Easy grades and low mountain crossings, only 5,213 ft. in the Rockies and 2,883 ft. in the Cascades, mark the main line of the Great Northern. It keeps in service over 1,200 locomotives, 1,200 passenger cars and approximately 55,000 freight cars. Its freight service varies from the branch line way freight to the fast through freights operating between the Twin Cities and Puget Sound. Its passenger service ranges from short haul transporta-

REBELLION

addition, bourgeois, while the soldiers of fortune from the German wars felt all the regular’s contempt for citizen militia. Thus in the

first episodes of the First Civil War moral superiority tended to be on the side of the king. On the other side, the causes of the quarrel were primarily and apparently political, ultimately ang

really religious, and thus the elements of resistance in the Parliament and the nation were at first confused, and, later, strong and direct.

Democracy, moderate republicanism and the simple desire for constitutional guarantees could hardly make head of themselves against the various forces of royalism, for the most moderate men

of either party were sufficiently in sympathy to admit compromise.

But the backbone of resistance was the Puritan element,

and this waging war at first with the rest on the political issue soon (as the Royalists anticipated) brought the religious issue tọ the front. The Presbyterian system, even more rigid than that of Laud and the bishops—whom no man on either side supported save Charles himself—was destined to be supplanted by the Inde

pendents and their ideal of free conscience, but for a generation before the war broke out it had disciplined and trained the middle

classes of the nation (who furnished the bulk of the rebel infantry, and later of the cavalry also) to centre their whole will-

power on the attainment of their ideals. The ideals changed during the struggle, but not the capacity for striving for them, and the men capable of the effort finally came to the front and imposed their ideals on the rest by the force of their trained wills. Material force was throughout on the side of the Parliamentary party. They controlled the navy, the nucleus of an army which was in process of being organized for the Irish war, and nearly all the financial resources of the country.

They had the sympathies

of most of the large towns, where the trained bands, drilled once a month, provided cadres for new regiments. Further, by recognizing the inevitable, they gained a start in war preparations which they never lost. The earls of Warwick, Essex and Manchester, and other nobles and gentry of their party, possessed great wealth and territorial influence. (N.B. The names of Parliamentarians and Covenantors are in italics for simplicity of distinction.) Charles, on the other hand, although he could, by means of the tion by rail motor cars and branch line trains to fast transcon- “press” and the lords-lieutenant, raise men without authority tinental service between Chicago and the Pacific coast. from Parliament, could not raise taxes to support them, and was The Great Northern also provides bus service on highways dependent on the financial support of his chief adherents, such through a subsidiary, the Northland Transportation Company. as the earls of Newcastle and Derby. Both parties raised men The Northland had in 1928 over 3,000 m. of bus routes, mainly when and where they could, each claiming that the law was on its in Minnesota and Wisconsin, and was rapidly extending its service. side—for England was already a law-abiding nation—and acting (R. Bv.) in virtue of legal instruments. These were, on the side of the GREAT REBELLION (1642-52), a generic name for the Parliament, its own recent “Militia Ordinance”; on that of the civil wars in England and Scotland, which began with the raising king, the old-fashioned “Commissions of Array.” In Cornwall of King Charles I.’s standard at Nottingham on Aug. 22, 1642, the Royalist leader, Sir Ralph Hopton, indicted the enemy heand ended with the surrender of Dunottar Castle to the Parlia- fore the grand jury of the county as disturbers of the peace, and ment’s troops in May 1652. It is usual to classify these wars into had the posse comitatus called out to expel them. The local forces the First Civil War of 1642-46, and the Second Civil War of in fact were everywhere employed by whichever side could, by pro1648~52. During most of this time another civil war was raging ducing valid written authority, induce them to assemble. in Ireland. Its incidents had little or no connection with those of The Royalist and Parliamentarian Armies.—This thread the Great Rebellion, but its results influenced the struggle in of local feeling and respect for the laws runs through the earlier England to a considerable extent. operations of both sides almost irrespective of the main principles at stake. Many a promising scheme failed because of the relucFIRST CIVIL WAR (1642—46) tance of the militiamen to serve beyond the limits of their own It is Impossible rightly to understand the events of this most county, and, as the offensive lay with the king, his cause naturally national of all English wars without some knowledge of the motive suffered far more therefrom than that of the enemy. But the real forces on both sides. On the side of the king were enlisted the spirit of the struggle was very different. Anything which tended deep-seated loyalty which was the result of two centuries of to prolong the struggle, or seemed like want of energy and effective royal protection, the pure cavalier spirit foreshadowing avoidance of a decision, was bitterly resented by the men of both the courtier era of Charles IL, but still strongly tinged with the sides, who had their hearts in the quarrel and had not as yet old feudal indiscipline, the militarism of an expert soldier nobility, learned by the severe lesson of Edgehill that raw armies cannot well represented by Prince Rupert, and lastly a widespread dis- bring wars to a speedy issue. In France and Germany the pro-

trust of extreme Puritanism, which appeared unreasonable to Lord Falkland and other philosophic statesmen and intolerable to every other class of Royalists. The foot of the Royal armies was ani-

mated in the main by the first and last of these motives; in the

eyes of the sturdy rustics who followed their squires to the war the enemy were rebels and fanatics. To the cavalry, which was composed largely of the higher social orders, the rebels were, in

longation of a war meant continued employment for the soldiers but in England “we never encamped or entrenched . . . or lay

fenced with rivers or defiles. . . . “ ‘Twas the general maxim of

the war—Where is the enemy? Let us go and fight them. Or. - if the enemy was coming. . . . Why, what should be done! Draw

out into the fields and fight them.” This passage from the Memoirs of a Cavalier, ascribed to Defoe, though not contem-

GREAT

REBELLION

porary evidence, is an admirable summary of the character of the Civil War. Even when in the end a regular professional army is evolved—as in the case of Napoleon’s army—the original decision-compelling spirit permeated the whole organization. From

the first the professional soldiers of fortune, be their advice good or bad, are looked upon with suspicion, and nearly all those Englishmen who loved war for its own sake were too closely concerned for the welfare of their country to attempt the methods of the

Thirty Years’ War in England. The formal organization of both armies was based on the Swedish model, which had become the pattern of Europe after the victories of Gustavus Adolphus, and

gave better scope for the moral of the individual than the oldfashioned Spanish and Dutch formations in which the man in the ranks was a highly finished automaton. Campaign of 1642.—When the king raised his standard at Nottingham on Aug. 22, 1642, war was already in progress on 2 small or to above midst

scale in many districts, each side endeavouring to secure, deny to the enemy, fortified country houses, territory, and all arms and money. Peace negotiations went on in the of these minor events until there came from the Parliament

an ultimatum so aggressive as to fix the warlike purpose of the still vacillating court at Nottingham, and, in the country at large, to convert many thousands of waverers to active Royalism. Ere long Charles—who hitherto had less than 1,500 men—was at the head of an army which, though very deficient in arms and equipment, was not greatly inferior in numbers or enthusiasm to that of the Parliament. The latter (20,000 strong exclusive of detachments) was organized during July, August and September about London, and moved thence to Northampton under the command of Robert, earl of Essex. At this moment the military situation was as follows. Lord Hertford in south Wales, Sir Ralph Hopton in Cornwall, and the

young earl of Derby in Lancashire, and small parties in almost

every county of the west and the midlands, were in arms for the king. North of the Tees, the earl of Newcastle, a great territorial magnate, was raising troops and supplies for the king, while Queen Henrietta Maria was busy in Holland arranging for the importation of war material and money. In Yorkshire opinion was divided, the royal cause being strongest in York and the North Riding, that of the Parliamentary party in the clothing towns of the West Riding and also in the important seaport of Hull. The Yorkshire gentry made an attempt to neutralize the county, but a local struggle soon began, and Newcastle thereupon

prepared to invade Yorkshire. The whole of the south and east as well as parts of the midlands and the west and the important towns of Bristol and Gloucester were on the side of the Parliament. A small Royalist force was compelled to evacuate Oxford on Sept. 10. . On Sept. 13 the main campaign opened. The king—in order to find recruits amongst his sympathizers and arms in the armouries of the Derbyshire and Staffordshire trained bands, and also to be in touch with his disciplined regiments in Ireland by way of Chester—moved westward to Shrewsbury, Essex following suit by marching from Northampton to Worcester. Near the lastnamed town a sharp cavalry engagement (Powick Bridge) took place on the 23rd between the advanced cavalry of Essex’s army and a force under Prince Rupert which was engaged in protecting the retirement of the Oxford detachment. The result of the fight was the instantaneous overthrow of the rebel cavalry, and this gave the Royalist troopers a confidence in themselves and in their brilliant leader which was not destined to be shaken until they met Cromwell’s Tronsides. Rupert soon withdrew to Shrewsbury, where he found many

Royalist officers eager to attack Essex’s new position at Worcester.

But the road to London now lay open and it was decided to take tt, The intention was not to avoid a battle, for the Royalist generals desired to fight Essex before he grew too strong, and the temper of both sides made it impossible to postpone the decision; in Clarendon’s words, “it was considered more counsellable to

march towards London, it being morally sure that the earl of Essex would put himself in their way,” and accordingly the army

left Shrewsbury on Oct. 12, gaining two days’ start of the enemy,

735

and moved south-east via Bridgnorth, Birmingham and Kenilworth. This had the desired effect. Parliament, alarmed for its own safety, sent repeated orders to Essex to find the king and

bring him to battle. Alarm gave place to determination when it was discovered that Charles was enlisting papists and seeking foreign aid. The militia of the home counties was called out, a second army under the earl of Warwick was formed round the nucleus of the London trained bands, and Essex, straining every nerve to regain touch with the enemy, reached Kineton, where he was only 7 m. from the king’s headquarters at Edgecote, on the 22nd. Battle of Edgehill—Rupert promptly reported the enemy’s presence, and his confidence dominated the irresolution of the king and the caution of Lord Lindsey, the nominal commander-inchief. Both sides had marched widely dispersed in order to live, and the rapidity with which, having the clearer purpose, the Royalists drew together helped considerably to neutralize Essex’s superior numbers. During the morning of the 23rd the Royalists formed in battle order on the brow of Edgehill facing towards Kineton. Essex, experienced soldier as he was, had distrusted his own raw army too much to force a decision earlier in the month, when the king was weak; he now found Charles in a strong position with an equal force to his own 14,000, and some of his regiments were still some miles distant. But he advanced beyond Kineton, and the enemy promptly left their strong position and came down io the foot of the hill, for, situated as they were, they had either to fight wherever they could induce the enemy to engage, or to starve in the midst of hostile garrisons. Rupert was on the right of the king’s army with the greater part of the horse. Lord Lindsey and Sir Jacob Astley in the centre with the foot, Lord Wilmot (with whom rode the earl of Forth, the principal military adviser of the king) with a smaller body of cavalry on the left. In rear of the centre were the king and a small reserve, Essex's order was similar. Rupert charged as soon as his wing was deployed and before the infantry of either side was ready. Taking

ground to his right front and then wheeling inwards at full speed he instantly rode down the Parliamentary horse opposed to him. Some infantry regiments of Essex’s left centre shared the same fate as their cavalry. On the other wing Forth and Wilmot likewise swept away all that they could see of the enemy’s cavalry, and the undisciplined Royalists of both wings pursued the fugitives in wild disorder up to Kineton, where they were

severely handled by John Hampden's infantry brigade (which was escorting the artillery and baggage of Essex’s army). Rupert brought back only a few rallied squadrons to the battlefield, and in the meantime affairs there had gone badly for the king. The right and centre of the Parliamentary foot (the left having been brought to a halt by Rupert’s charge) advanced with great resolution, and being at least as ardent as, and much better armed than, Lindsey’s men, engaged them fiercely and slowly gained ground. Only the best regiments on either side, however, maintained their order, and the decision of the infantry battle was achieved mainly by a few Parliamentary squadrons. One regiment of Essex’s right wing only had been the target of Wilmot’s charge, the other two had been at the moment invisible, and, as every Royalist troop on the ground, even the king’s guards, had joined in the mad ride to Kineton, these, Essex's life-guard, and some troops that had rallied from the effect of Rupert’s charge—amongst them Captain Over Cromwell’s—were the only cavalry still present. All these joined with decisive effect in the attack on the left of the royal infantry. The king’s line was steadily rolled up from left to right, the Parliamentary troopers captured his guns and regiment after regiment broke up. Charles himself stood calmly in the thick of the fight, but he had not the skill to direct it. The royal standard was taken

and retaken, Lindsey and Sir Edmund Verney, the standardbearer, being killed, By the time that Rupert returned both sides were incapable of further effort and disillusioned as to the prospect of ending the war at a blow.

On the 24th Essex retired, leaving Charles to claim the victory and to reap its results. Banbury and Oxford were reoccupied by the Royalists, and by the 28th Charles was marching down the

736

GREAT

REBELLION

Thames valley on London. Negotiations were reopened, and a peace party rapidly formed itself in London and Westminster. Yet field fortifications sprang up around London, and when

Rupert stormed and sacked Brentford on the 12th of November the trained bands moved out at once and took up a position at Turnham Green, barring the king’s advance. Hampden, with something of the fire and energy of his cousin Cromwell, urged

Essex to turn both flanks of the royal army via Acton and Kingston, but experienced professional soldiers urged him not to trust the London men to hold their ground while the rest manoeuvred. Hampden’s advice was undoubtedly premature. A Sedan or Worcester was not within the power of the Parliamentarians of 1642, for, in Napoleon’s words, “one only manoeuvres around a fixed point,” and the city levies at that time were certainly not, vis-d-vis Rupert’s cavalry, a fixed point. As a matter of fact, after a slight cannonade at Turnham Green on the 13th, Hssex’s two-to-one numerical superiority of itself induced the king to retire to Reading. Turnham Green has justly been called the Valmy of the English Civil War. Like Valmy, without

being a battle, it was a victory, and the tide of invasion came thus far, ebbed, and never returned. The Winter of 1642-43—In the winter, while Essex lay inactive at Windsor, Charles by degrees consolidated his position

in the region of Oxford. The city was fortified as a reduit for the whole area, and Reading, Wallingford, Abingdon, Brill, Banbury and Marlborough constituted a complete defensive ring which was developed by the creation of smaller posts from time to time. In the north and west, winter campaigns were actively carried on. “Jt is summer in Yorkshire, summer in Devon, and cold winter at Windsor,” said one of Essex’s critics. At the beginning of December Newcastle crossed the Tees, defeated Hotham, the Parliamentary commander in the North Riding, and relieved the pressure on York. Lord Fairfax and his son Sir Thomas, who

commanded for the Parliament in Yorkshire, had to retire to the district between Hull and Selby, and Newcastle was free to turn his attention to the Puritan “clothing towns” of the West Riding —Leeds, Halifax and Bradford. The townsmen, however, showed a determined front, the younger Fairfax with a picked body of cavalry rode through Newcastle’s lines to help them, and about the end of January the earl gave up the attempt to reduce the towns. He continued his march southward, however, and gained ground for the king as far as Newark, so as to be in touch with the Royalists of Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire and Leicestershire, and to prepare the way for further advance when the queen’s convoy should arrive from over-seas. : In the west Sir Ralph Hopton and his friends, having obtained a true bill from the grand jury against the Parliamentary disturbers of the peace, placed themselves at the head of the county militia and drove the rebels from Cornwall,after which they raised a small force for general service and invaded Devonshire (November 1642). Subsequently a Parliamentary army under the earl of

Stamford was withdrawn from South Wales to engage Hopton, who had to retire into Cornwall.

There, however, the Royalist

general was free to employ the militia again, and thus reinforced he won a victory over a part of Stamford’s forces at Bradock Down near Liskeard (Jan. 19, 1643) and resumed the offensive. About the same time Hertford, no longer opposed by Stamford, brought over the South Wales Royalists to Oxford, and the fortified area around that place was widened by the capture of Cirencester on Feb. 2. Gloucester and Bristol were now the only

important garrisons of the Roundheads in the west. In the midlands, in spite of a Parliamentary victory won by Sir William Brereton at Nantwich on Jan. 28, the Royalists of Shropshire, Staffordshire and Leicestershire soon extended their influence through Ashby-de-la-Zouch into Nottinghamshire and joined hands with their friends at Newark. Further, around Chester a

new Royalist army was being formed under Lord Byron, and all the efforts of Brereton and of Sir John Gell, the leading supporter

of the Parliament in Derbyshire, were required to hold their own, even. before Newcastie’s army was added to the list of their Lord Brooke, who commanded for the Parliament in Warwick-

shire and Staffordshire and was looked on by many ag Esseq’s eventual successor, was killed in besieging Lichfield cathedral op March 2, and, though the cathedral soon capitulated, Gelj Brereton were severely handled in the indecisive battle of Hopton

Heath near Stafford on March 19, and Prince Rupert, after an

abortive raid on Bristol (March 7), marched rapidly northward storming Birmingham en route, and recaptured Lichfield cathedral. He was, however, soon recalled to Oxford to take part in the main campaign.

The position of affairs for the Parliament

was perhaps at its worst in January. The Royalist successes of

November and December, the ever-present dread of foreign intervention, and the burden of new taxation which the Paria. ment now found itself compelled to impose, disheartened its supporters. Disorders broke out in London, and, while the more

determined of the rebels began thus early to think of calling in the military assistance of the Scots, the majority were for peace on any conditions. But soon the position improved somewhat: Stamford in the west and Brereton and Gell in the midlands, though hard pressed, were at any rate in arms and undefeated, Newcastle had failed to conquer the West Riding, and Sir William Waller, who had cleared Hampshire and Wiltshire of “malig. nants,” entered Gloucestershire early in March, destroyed a small Royalist force at Highnam (March 24), and secured Bristol and Gloucester for the Parliament. Finally, some of Charles’s own intrigues opportunely coming to light, the waverers, seeing the impossibility of plain dealing with the court, rallied again to the party of resistance, and the series

of negotiations called by the name of the Treaty of Oxford closed in April with no more result than those which had preceded Edgehill and Turnham Green. About this time too, following and improving upon the example of Newcastle in the north, Parliament ordered the formation of the celebrated “associations” or groups of counties banded together by mutual consent for defence. The most powerful and best organized of these was that of the eastern counties (headquarters Cambridge), where the danger of attack from the north was near enough to induce great energy in the preparations for meeting it, and at the same time too distant effectively to interfere with these preparations. Above all, the Eastern Association was from the first guided and inspired by Colonel Cromwell. The Plan of Campaign, 1643.—The king’s plan of operations for the next campaign, which was perhaps inspired from abroad, was more elaborate than the simple “point” of 1642. The king’s army, based on the fortified area around Oxford, was counted sufficient to use up Essex’s forces. On either hand, therefore, in Yorkshire and in the west, the Royalist armies were to fight their way inwards towards London, after which all three armies, converging on that place in due season, were to cut off its supplies and its sea-borne revenue and to starve the rebellion into surrender. The condition of this threefold advance was of course that the enemy should not be able to defeat the armies in detail, z.e., that he should be fixed and held in the Thames valley; this secured, there was no purely military objection against operating in separate armies from the circumference towards the centre. It was on the rock of local feeling that the

king’s plan came to grief. Even after the arrival of the queen and her convoy, Newcastle had to allow her to proceed with a small force, and to remain behind with the main body, because of

Lancashire and the West Riding, and above all because the port of Hull, in the hands of the Fairfaxes, constituted a menace that the Royalists of the East Riding refused to ignore. Hopton’s advance too, undertaken without the Cornish levies, was checked in the action of Sourton Down (Dartmoor) on April 25, and on

the same day Waller captured Hereford.

Essex had already left

Windsor to undertake the siege of Reading, the most important point in the circle of fortresses round Oxford, which after a vain

attempt at relief surrendered to him on April 26. Thus the openIng operations were unfavourable, not indeed so far as to require the scheme to be abandoned, but at least delaying the development until the campaigning season was far advanced.

Victories of Hopton.—Affairs improved in May. The queen's long-expected convoy arrived at Woodstock on the 13th. The

GREAT

REBELLION

earl of Stamford’s army, which had again entered Cornwall, was attacked in its selected position at Stratton and practically annihilated by Hopton (May 16). This brilliant victory was due

above all to Sir Bevil Grenville and the lithe Cornishmen, who, though but 2.400 against 5,400 and destitute of artillery, stormed

“Stamford Hill,” killed 300 of the enemy, and captured 1,700 more with all their guns, colours and baggage. Devon was at once overrun by the victors. Essex’s army, for want of material

resources, had had to be content with the capture of Reading, and

a Royalist force under Hertford and Prince Maurice (Rupert’s brother) moved out as far as Salisbury to hold out a hand to their friends in Devonshire, while Waller, the only Parliamentary commander left in the field in the west, had to abandon his conquests in the Severn valley to oppose the further progress of his intimate friend and present enemy, Hopton. Early in June Hertford and Hopton united at Chard and rapidly moved, with some cavalry skirmishing, towards Bath, where Wallers army lay.

Avoiding the barrier of the Mendips, they moved round via Frome to the Avon, But Waller, thus cut off from London and threatened with investment, acted with great skill, and some days of manoeuvres and skirmishing followed, after which Hertford and Hopton found themselves on the north side of Bath facing Waller's entrenched position on the top of Lansdown Hill. This position the Royalists stormed on July 5. The battle of Lansdown was a second Stratton for the Cornishmen, but this time the enemy was of different quality and far differently led, and they had to mourn the loss of Sir Bevil Grenville and the greater part of their whole force. At dusk both sides stood on the flat summit of the hill, still fring into one another with such energy as was not yet expended, and in the night Waller drew off his men into Bath. “We were glad they were gone,” wrote a Royalist officer, “for if they had not, I know who had within the hour.” Next day Hopton was severely injured by the explosion of a wagon containing the reserve ammunition, and the Royalists, finding their victory profitless, moved eastward to Devizes, closely followed by the enemy. On July 10 Waller took post on Roundway Down, overlooking

737

Hull itself narrowly escaped capture by the queen’s forces through the treachery of Sir John Hotham, the governor, and his son, the commander of the Lincolnshire Parliamentarians.

The

latter had been placed under arrest at the instance of Cromwell and of Colonel Hutchinson, the governor of Nottingham Castle; he escaped to Hull, but both father and son were seized by the citizens and afterwards executed. More serious than an isolated act of treachery was the far-reaching Royalist plot that had been detected in Parliament itself, for complicity in which Lord Conway, Edmund Waller the poet, and several members of both Houses were arrested. The safety of Hull was of no avail for the West Riding towns, and the Fairfaxes underwent a decisive defeat at Adwalton (Atherton) Moor near Bradford on June 30. After this, by way of Lincolnshire, they escaped to Hull and reorganized the defence of that place. The West Riding perforce submitted. The queen herself with a second convoy and a small army under Henry (Lord) Jermyn soon moved via Newark, Ashbyde-la-Zouch, Lichfield and other Royalist garrisons to Oxford, where she joined her husband on July rg. But Newcastle (now a marquis) was not yet ready for his part in the programme. The Yorkshire troops would not march on London while the enemy was master of Hull, and by this time there was a solid barrier between the royal army of the north and the capital. Roundway Down and Adwalton Moor were not after all destined to be fatal, though peace riots in London, dissensions in the Houses, and quarrels amongst the generals were their immediate consequences. A new factor had arisen in the war—the Eastern Association.

Cromwell and the Eastern Association.—This had already

intervened to help in the siege of Reading and had sent troops to the abortive gathering at Nottingham, besides clearing its own ground of “malignants.” From the first Cromwell was the dominant influence. Fresh from Edgehill, he had told Hampden, “You must get men of a spirit that is likely to go as far as gentlemen will go,” not “old decayed serving-men, tapsters and such kind of fellows to encounter gentlemen that have honour and Devizes, and captured a Royalist ammunition column from Ox- courage and resolution in them,” and in January 1643 he had gone ford. On the 11th he came down and invested Hopton’s foot in to his own county to “raise such men as had the fear of God Devizes itself, while the Royalist cavalry, Hertford and Maurice before them and made some conscience of what they did.” These with them, rode away towards Salisbury. But although the siege men, once found, were willing, for the cause, to submit to a was pressed with such vigour that an assault was fixed for the rigorous training and an iron discipline such as other troops, evening of the 13th, the Cornishmen, Hopton directing the de- fighting for honour only or for profit only, could not be brought fence from his bed, held out stubbornly, and on the afternoon to endure. The result was soon apparent. As early as the 13th of July 13 Prince Maurice’s horsemen appeared on Roundway of May, Cromwell’s regiment of horse—recruited from the horseDown, having ridden to Oxford, picked up reinforcements there, loving yeomen of the eastern counties—demonstrated its suand returned at full speed to save their comrades. Wallers army periority in the field in a skirmish near Grantham, and in the tried its best, but some of its elements were of doubtful quality irregular fighting in Lincolnshire during June and July these and the ground was all in Maurice’s favour. The battle did not Puritan troopers distinguished themselves by long and rapid last long. The combined attack of the Oxford force from Round- marches that may bear comparison with almost any in the history way and of Hopton’s men from the town practically annihilated of the mounted arm. When Cromwells second opportunity came Waller’s army. Very soon afterwards Rupert came up with fresh at Gainsborough on July 28, the “Lincolneer” horse who were Royalist forces, and the combined armies moved westward. under his orders were fired by the example of Cromwell’s own Bristol, the second port of the kingdom, was their objective, and regiment, and Cromwell, directing the whole with skill, and above in four days from the opening of the siege it was in their hands all with energy, utterly routed the Royalist horse and killed their (July 26), Waller with the beaten remnant of his army at Bath general, Charles Cavendish. being powerless to intervene. The effect of this blow was felt In the meantime the army of Essex had been inactive. After even in Dorsetshire. Within three weeks of the surrender Prince the fall of Reading a serious epidemic of sickness had reduced Maurice with a body of fast-moving cavalry overran that county it to impotence. On June 18 the Parliamentary cavalry was almost unopposed. routed and John Hampden mortally wounded at Chalgrove Field Adwalton Moor.—Newcastle meanwhile had resumed opera- near Chiselhampton, and when at last Essex, having obtained the tions against the clothing towns, this time with success. The desired reinforcements, moved against Oxford from the AylesFairfaxes had been fighting in the West Riding since January bury side, he found his men demoralized by inaction, and before with such troops from the Hull region as they had been able to the menace of Rupert’s cavalry, to which he had nothing to opbring across Newcastle’s lines. They and the townsmen together pose, he withdrew to Bedfordshire (July). He made no attempt were too weak for Newcastle’s increasing forces, and an attempt to intercept the march of the queen’s convoys, he had permitted was made to relieve them by bringing up the Parliament’s forces the Oxford army, which he should have held fast, to intervene in Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Lincolnshire and the Eastern effectually in the midlands, the west and the south-west, and

Association. But local interests prevailed again, in spite of Cromwels presence, and after assembling at Nottingham, the midland rebels quietly dispersed to their several counties (June 2).

The Fairfaxes were left to their fate, and about the same time

Waller might well complain that Essex, who still held Reading

and the Chilterns, had given him neither active nor passive support in the critical days preceding Roundway Down. Still only

a few voices were raised to demand his removal, and he was

738

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shortly to have ån opportunity of proving himself in an active campaign. The centre and the right of the three Royalist armies

rearguard skirmish at Aldermaston, and so ended one of the mog

had for a moment (Roundway to Bristol) united to crush Waller, but their concentration was short-lived. Plymouth was to Hopton's men what Hull was to Newcastle's—they would not march on London until the menace tọ their homes was removed. Fur-

dramatic episodes of English history. Hull and Winceby.—Meanwhile the siege of Hull had com.

menced. The Eastern Association forces under Manchester promptly moved up into Lincolnshire, the foot besieging Lynn

ther, there were dissensions among the generals which Charles was too weak to crush, and consequently the original plan reappears—the main Royalist army to operate in the centre, Hopton’s (now Maurice's) on the rigbt, Newcastle on the left towards London. While waiting for the fall of Hull and Plymouth, Charles naturally decided to make the best use of his time by reducing Gloucester, the one great fortress of the Parliament in the west. Siege and Relief of Gloucester—This decision quickly brought on a crisis. While the earl of Manchester (with Cromwell as his lieutenant-general) was appointed to head the forces of the Eastern Association against Newcastle, and Waller was given a new army wherewith again to engage Hopton and Maurice, the task of saving Gloucester from the king’s army fell to Essex, who was heavily reinforced and drew his army together for action in the last days of August. Resort was had to the press-gang to fill the ranks, recruiting for Wallers new army was stopped, and London sent six regiments of trained bands to the front, closing the shops so that every man should be free to take his part in what was thought to be the supreme trial of strength. On the 26th, all being ready, Essex started. Through Aylesbury and round the north side of Oxford to Stow-on-the-Wold the army moved resolutely, not deterred by want of food and rest, or by the attacks of Rupert’s and Wilmot’s horse on its flank. On Sept. 5, just as Gloucester was at the end of its resources, the siege was suddenly raised and the Royalists drew off to Painswick, for Essex had reached Cheltenham and the danger was over. Then, the field armies being again face to face and free to move, there followed a series of skilful manoeuvres in the Severn and Avon valleys, at the end of which the Parliamentary army gained a long start on its homeward road via Cricklade, Hungerford and Reading. But the Royalist cavalry under Rupert, followed rapidly by Charles and the main body from Evesham, strained every nerve to head off Essex at Newbury, and after a sharp skirmish on Aldbourne Chase on Sept. 18 succeeded in doing so. On the 19th the whole Royal army was drawn up, facing west, with its right on Newbury and its left on Enborne Heath. Essex’s men knew that evening that they would have to break through by force—there was no suggestion of surrender.

(which surrendered on Sept. 16) while the horse rode into the northern part of the county to give a hand to the Fairfaxes. Fortunately the sea communications of Hull were open. On Sept. 38

First Battle of Newbury, September 20, 1643.—The ground

was densely intersected by hedges except in front of the Royalists’ left centre (Newbury Wash) and left (Enborne Heath), and, practically, Essex’s army was never formed in line of battle, for each unit was thrown into the fight as it came up its own road or lane. On the left wing, in spite of the Royalist counterstrokes, the attack had the best of it, capturing field after field, and thus gradually gaining ground to the front. Here Lord Falkland was killed. On the Reading road itself Essex did not succeed in deploying on to the open ground on Newbury Wash, but victoriously repelled the royal horse when it charged up to the lanes and hedges held by his foot. On the extreme right of the Parliamentary army, which stood in the open ground of Enborne Heath, took place a famous incident. Here two of the London regiments, fresh to war as they were, were exposed to a trial as severe as that which broke down the veteran Spanish infantry at Rocroi in this same year. Rupert and the Royalist horse again and again charged up to the squares of pikes, and between each charge his

guns tried to disorder the Londoners, but it was not until the advance of the royal infantry that the trained bands retired, slowly and in magnificent order, to the edge of the heath. The result of it all was that Essex’s army had fought its hardest and failed to break the opposing line. But the Royalists had suffered 50 heavily, and above all the valour displayed by the rebels had

50 profoundly impressed them, that they were glad to give up the disputed road and withdraw into Newbury. Essex thereupon pur-

sued his march, Reading was reached on the 22nd after a smal}

part of the cavalry in Hull was ferried over to Barton, and the

rest under Sir Thomas Fairfax went by sea to Saltfleet a few days later, the whole joining Cromwell near Spilsby.

In return,

the old Lord Fairfax, who remained in Hull, received infantry reinforcements and a quantity of ammunition and stores from the Eastern Association. On Oct. 11 Cromwell and Fairfax together won a brilliant cavalry action at Winceby, driving the Royalist horse in confusion before them to Newark, and on the same day

Newcastle’s army around Hull, which had suffered terribly from

the hardships of continuous siege work, was attacked by the garrison and so severely handled that next day the siege was

given up. Later, Manchester retook Lincoln and Gainsborough, and thus Lincolnshire, which had been almost entirely in Newcastle’s hands before he was compelled to undertake the siege of Hull, was added in fact as well as in name to the Eastern Assoclation.

Elsewhere, in the reaction after the crisis of Newbury, the war languished. The city regiments went home, leaving Essex too weak to hold Reading, which the Royalists reoccupied on Oct. 3. At this the Londoners offered to serve again, and actually took part in a minor campaign around Newport Pagnell, which town Rupert attempted to fortify as a menace to the Eastern Association and its communications with London. Essex was successful in preventing this, but his London regiments again went home, and

Waller’s new army in Hampshire failed lamentably in an attempt on Basing House (Nov. 7), the London trained bands deserting en bloc. Shortly afterwards Arundel surrendered to a force under Sir Ralph, now Lord Hopton (Dec. 9). The “Irish Cessation” and the Solemn League and Cove-

nant.—Politically, these months were the turning-point of the war. In Ireland, the king’s lieutenant, by order of his master, made a truce with the Irish rebels (Sept. 15). Charles’s chief object was to set free his army to fight in England, but it was believed universally that Irish regiments—in plain words, papists in arms——would shortly follow. Under these circumstances his act united against him nearly every class in Protestant England,

above all brought into the English quarrel the armed strength cf Presbyterian Scotland. Yet Charles, still trusting to intrigue and diplomacy to keep Scotland in check, deliberately rejected the advice of Montrose, his greatest and most faithful lieutenant, who wished to give the Scots employment for their army at home. Only ten days after the “Irish cessation,” the Parliament at West-

minster swore to the Solemn League and Covenant, and the die was cast. It is true that even a semblance of Presbyterian theoc-

racy put the “Independents” on their guard and definitely raised the question of freedom of conscience, and that secret negotiations were opened between the Independents and Charles on that basis, but they soon discovered that the king was merely using them as instruments to bring about the betrayal of Aylesbury and other small rebel posts. All parties found it convenient to interpret the Covenant liberally for the present, and at the beginning of 1644 the Parliamentary party showed so united a front that even Pym’s death (Dec. 8, 1643) hardly affected its resolution to continue the struggle. The troops from Ireland, thus obtained at the cost of an enormous political blunder, proved to be untrustworthy after all. Those serving in Hopton’s army were “mutinous and shrewdly infected with the rebellious humour of England.” When Waller's Londoners surprised and routed a Royalist detachment at Alton (December 13, 1643), half the prisoners took the Covenant. Hopton had to retire, and on Jan. 6, 1644 Waller recaptured Arundel. Byron’s Cheshire army was in no better case. Newcastle’s retreat

from Hull and the loss of Gainsborough had completely changed

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the situation in the midlands, Brereton was joined by the younger Fairfax from Lincolnshire, and the Royalists were severely defeated for a second time at Nantwich (January 25). As at Alton, the majority of Monk) took the In Lancashire, as Lincolnshire, the

the prisoners (amongst them Colonel George Covenant and entered the Parliamentary army. in Cheshire, Staffordshire, Nottinghamshire and cause of the Parliament was in the ascendant.

Resistance revived in the West Riding towns, Lord Fairfax was again in the field in the East Riding, and even Newark was closely besieged by Sar John Meldrum.

More important news came in

from the north. The advanced guard of the Scottish army had passed the Tweed on Jan. r9 and the marquis of Newcastle with the remnant of his army would soon be attacked in front and

rear at once.

Newark and Cheriton (March 1644).—As in 1643, Rupert

was soon on his way to the north to retrieve the fortunes of his

side. Moving by the Welsh border, and gathering up garrisons and recruits snowball-wise as he marched, he went first to Cheshire to give a hand to Byron, and then, with the utmost speed, he made for Newark. On March 20, 1644 he bivouacked at Bingham, and on the 21st he not only relieved Newark but routed the besiegers’ cavalry. On the 22nd Meldrum’s position was so hopeless that he capitulated on terms. But, brilliant soldier as he was, the prince was unable to do more than raid a few Parliamentary posts around Lincoln, after which he had to return his borrowed forces to their various garrisons and go back to Wales—laden indeed with captured pikes and muskets—to raise a permanent field army. Nor could he be in all places at once. Newcastle was clamorous for aid. In Lancashire, only the countess of Derby, in Lathom House, held out for the king, and her husband pressed Rupert to go to her relief. Once, too, the prince was ordered back to Oxford to furnish a travelling escort for the queen, who shortly after this gave birth to her youngest child and returned to France. The order was countermanded within a few hours, it is true, but

Charles had good reason for avoiding detachments from his own

739

in the fruitless siege of Lyme Regis, Gloucester was again a centre of activity and counterbalanced Newark, and the situation in the north was practically desperate. Rupert himself came to Oxford (April 25) to urge that his new army should be kept free to march to aid Newcastle, who was now threatened—owing to the abandonment of the enemy’s original, plan—by Manchester as well as by Fairfax and Leven. There was no further talk of the concentric advance of three armies on London. The fiery prince and the methodical earl of Brentford (Forth) were at one at least In recommending that the Oxford area with its own garrison and a mobile force in addition should be the pivot of the field armies’ operations. Rupert, needing above all adequate time for the development of the northern offensive, was not in favour of abandoning any of the barriers to Essex’s advance. Brentford, on the other hand, thought it advisable to contract the lines of defence, and Charles, as usual undecided, agreed to Rupert’s scheme and executed Brentford’s. Reading, therefore, was dismantled early in May, and Abingdon given up shortly afterwards.

Cropredy Bridge.—It was now possible for the enemy

to

approach Oxford, and Abingdon was no sooner evacuated than (May 26) Waller’s and Essex’s armies united there—still, unfortunately for their cause, under separate commanders. From Abingdon Essex moved direct on Oxford, Waller towards Wantage, where he could give a hand to Massey, the energetic governor of

Gloucester. Affairs seemed so bad in the west (Maurice with a whole army was still vainly besieging the single line of low breastworks that constituted the fortress of Lyme) that the king despatched Hopton to take charge of Bristol. Nor were things much better at Oxford; the barriers of time and space and the supply area had been deliberately given up to the enemy, and Charles was practically forced to undertake extensive field operations with no hope of success save in consequence of the enemy’s mistakes. The enemy, as it happened, did not disappoint him. The king, probably advised by Brentford, conducted a skilful war of manoeuvre in the area defined by Stourbridge, Gloucester,

army. On March 29, Hopton had undergone a severe defeat at Abingdon and Northampton, at the end of which Essex, leaving Cheriton near New Alresford. In the preliminary manoeuvres and Waller to the secondary work, as he conceived it, of keeping the in the opening stages of the battle the advantage lay with the king away from Oxford and reducing that fortress, marched off Royalists. But Royalist indiscipline ruined everything. A young into the west with most of the general service troops to repeat at cavalry colonel charged in defiance of orders, a fresh engagement Lyme Regis his Gloucester exploit of 1643. At one moment, inopened, and at the last moment Waller snatched a victory out of deed, Charles (then in Bewdley) rose to the idea of marching defeat. Worse than this was the news from Yorkshire and Scot- north to join Rupert and Newcastle, but he soon made up his land. Charles had at last assented to Montrose’s plan and mind to return to Oxford. From Bewdley, therefore, he moved promised him the title of marquis, but the first attempt to raise to Buckingham—the distant threat on London producing another the Royalist standard in Scotland gave no omen of its later evanescent citizen army drawn from six counties under Majortriumphs. In Yorkshire Sir Thomas Fairfax, advancing from General Browne—and Waller followed him closely. When the Lancashire through the West Riding, joined his father. Selby king turned upon Browne’s motley host, Waller appeared in time was stormed on April rr, and thereupon Newcastle, who had been to avert disaster, and the two drmies worked away to the upper manoeuvring against the Scots in Durham, hastily drew back, sent Cherwell. Brentford and Waller were excellent strategists of the his cavalry away, and shut himself up with his foot in York. Two 17th century type, and neither would fight a pitched battle without days later the Scottish general, Alexander Leslie, Lord Leven, every chance in his favour. Eventually on June 29 the Royalists joined the Fatrfaxes and prepared to invest that city. were successful in a series of minor fights about Cropredy Bridge, Plans of Campaign for 1644.—The original plan of the and the result was, in accordance with continental custom, adParliamentary “Committee of Both Kingdoms,” which directed mitted to be an important victory, though Waller’s main army the military and civil policy of the allies after the fashion of a drew off unharmed. In the meantime, Essex had relieved Lyme modern cabinet, was to combine Essex’s and Manchester’s armies (June 15) and occupied Weymouth, and was preparing to go in an attack upon the king’s army, Aylesbury being appointed as farther. The two rebel armies were now indeed separate. Waller the place of concentration. Waller’s troops were to continue to had been left to do as best he could, and a worse fate was soon drive back Hopton and to reconquer the west, Fairfax and the to overtake the cautious earl. Scots to invest Newcastle’s army, while in the midlands Brereton Campaign of Marston Moor.—During these manoeuvres the and the Lincolnshire rebels could be counted upon to neutralize, northern campaign had been fought to an issue. Rupert’s courage the one Byron, the others the Newark Royalists. But Waller, once and energy were more likely to command success in the English more deserted by his trained bands, was unable to profit by his Civil War than all the conscientious caution of an Essex or a victory of Cheriton, and retired to Farnham. Manchester, too, B.entford. On May 16 he left Shrewsbury to fight his way through was delayed because the Eastern Association was still suffering hostile country to Lancashire, where he hoped to re-establish the from the effects of Rupert’s Newark exploit—Lincoln, abandoned Derby influence and raise new forces. Stockport was plundered by the rebels on that occasion, was not reoccupied till May 6. on the 25th, the besiegers of Lathom House utterly defeated ‘at

Moreover, Essex found himself compelled to defend his conduct and motives to the Committee of Both Kingdoms, and as usual was straitened for men and money. But though there were grave elements of weakness on the other side, the Royalists considered their own position to be hopeless. Prince Maurice was engaged

Bolton on the 28th. Soon afterwards he received a large reinforcement under General Goring, which included 5,000 of New-

castle’s cavalry. The capture of the almost defenceless town of Liverpool—undertaken as usual to allay local fears—did not delay Rupert more than three or four days, and he then turned

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towards the Yorkshire border with greatly augmented forces. On June x4 he received a despatch from the king, the gist of which was that there was a time-limit imposed on the northern enterprise. If York were lost or did not need his help, Rupert was to make all haste southward via Worcester. ‘If York be relieved and you beat the rebels’ armies of both kingdoms, then, but otherways not, I may possibly make a shift upon the defensive to spin out time until you come to assist me.”

of enforcing a peace such as Cromwell and his friends desired There was this important difference, however, between Waller’,

idea and Cromwell’s achievement—that the professional soldiers

of the New Model were disciplined, led, and in all things inspired by “godly” officers. Godliness, devotion to the cause, and eff. ciency were indeed the only criteria Cromwell applied in choosing officers. Long before this he had warned the Scottish major.

general Lawrence Crawford that the precise colour of a man’s

Charles did manage to “spin out time.” But it was of capital

religious opinions mattered nothing compared with his devotion importance that Rupert had to do his work upon York and the to them, and had told the committee of Suffolk, “I had rather allied army in the shortest possible time, and that, according to have a plain russet-coated captain that knows what he fights for the despatch, there were only two ways of saving the royal cause, and loves what he knows than that which you call a ‘gentleman’ “having relieved York by beating the Scots,” or marching with and is nothing else. I honour a gentleman that is so indeed all speed to Worcester. Rupert’s duty, interpreted through the . . . but seeing it was necessary the work must go on, better plain medium of his temperament, was clear enough. Newcastle still men than none.” If “men of honour and birth” possessed the held out, his men having been encouraged by a small success on essentials of godliness, devotion and capacity, Cromwell June 17, and Rupert reached Knaresborough on the goth. At ferred them, and as a fact only seven out of thirty-seven of the once Leven, Fairfax and Manchester broke up the siege of York superior officers of the original New Model were not of gentle and moved out to meet him. But the prince, moving still at high birth. Lostwithiel.—But all this was as yet in the future. Essex’s speed, rode round their right flank via Boroughbridge and Thornton Bridge and entered York on the north side. Newcastle tried military promenade in the west of England was the subject of to dissuade Rupert from fighting, but his record as a general was immediate interest. At first successful, this general penetrated to scarcely convincing as to the value of his advice. Rupert curtly Plymouth, whence, securely based as he thought, he could overreplied that he had orders to fight, and the Royalists moved out run Devon. Unfortunately for him he was persuaded to overrun towards Marston Moor (g.v.) on the morning of July 2, 1644. Cornwall as well. At once the Cornishmen rose, as they had risen The Parliamentary commanders, fearing a fresh manoeuvre, had under Hopton, and the king was soon on the march from the already begun to retire towards Tadcaster, but as soon as it be- Oxford region, disregarding the armed mobs under Waller and came evident that a battle was impending they turned back. The Browne. Their state reflected the general languishing of the war battle of Marston Moor began about four in the afternoon. It spirit on both sides, not on one only, as Charles discovered when was the first real trial of strength between the best elements on he learned that Lord Wilmot, the lieutenant-general of his horse, either side, and it ended before night with the complete victory was In correspondence with Essex. Wilmot was of course placed of the Parliamentary armies. The Royalist cause in the north under arrest, and was replaced by the dissolute General Goring. collapsed once for all, Newcastle fled to the continent, and only But it was unpleasantly evident that even gay cavaliers of the Rupert, resolute as ever, extricated 6,000 cavalry from the dé- type of Wilmot had lost the ideals for which they fought, and bécle and rode away whence he had come, still the dominant had come to believe that the realm would never be at peace while Charles was king. Henceforward it will be found that the Royalfigure of the war. Independency.—-The victory gave the Parliament entire con- ist foot, now a thoroughly professional force, is superior in qualtrol of the north, but it did not lead to the definitive solution of ity to the once superb cavalry, and that not merely because its the political problem, and in fact, on the question of Charles’s opportunities for plunder, etc., are more limited. Materially, however, the immediate victory was undeniably place In a new constitution, the victorious generals quarrelled even before York had surrendered. Within three weeks of the with the Royalists. After a brief period of manoeuvre, the Parliabattle the great army was broken up. The Yorkshire troops pro- mentary army, now far from Plymouth found itself surrounded ceeded to conquer the isolated Royalist posts in their country, the and starving at Lostwithiel, on the Fowey river, without hope of Scots marched off to besiege Newcastle-on-Tyne and to hold in assistance. The horse cut its way out through the investing circle check a nascent Royalist army in Westmorland. Rupert in Lan- of posts, Essex himself escaped by sea, but Major-General Skipcashire they neglected entirely. Manchester and Cromwell, al- pon, his second in command, had to surrender with the whole of ready estranged, marched away into the Eastern Association. the foot on Sept. 2. The officers and men were allowed to go free There, for want of an enemy to fight their army was forced to to Portsmouth, but their arms, guns and munitions were the spoil be idle, and Cromwell and the ever-growing Independent element of the victors. There was now no trustworthy field force in arms quickly came to suspect their commander of lukewarmness in the for the Parliament south of the Humber, for even the Eastern cause. Waller’s army, too, was spiritless and immobile. On July Association army was distracted by its religious differences, which 2, despairing of the existing military system, he made to the had now at last come definitely to the front and absorbed the Committee of Both Kingdoms the first suggestion of the New political dispute in a wider issue. Cromwell already proposed to Model. “My lords,” he wrote, “till you have an army merely abolish the peerage, the members of which were inclined to make your own, that you may command, it is .. . impossible to do a hollow peace, and had ceased to pay the least respect to his anything of importance.” Browne’s trained band army was per- general, Manchester, whose scheme for the solution of the quarrel haps the most ill-behaved of all—once the soldiers attempted to was an impossible combination of Charles and Presbyterianism. murder their own general. Parliament in alarm set about the Manchester for his part sank into a state of mere obstinacy, reformation of a new general service force (July 12), but mean- fusing to move against Rupert, even to besiege Newark, and actime both WaNer’s and Browne’s armies (at Abingdon and Read- tually threatened to hang Colonel Lilburne for capturing a Royal-

ing respectively) ignominiously collapsed by mutiny and deser-

ist castle without orders.

tion. It was evident that the people at large, with their respect for the law and their anxiety for their own homes, were tired of the war. Only those men—such as Cromwell—who had set their hearts

bury, a most important point in the Oxford circle, and Basing

on fighting out the quarrel of conscience, kept steadfastly to their

purpose.

Cromwell himself had already decided that the king

himself must be deprived of his authority, and his supporters were equally convinced. But they were relatively few. Even the Easterm Association trained bands had joined in the disaffection in Waller’s army, and that unfortunate general’s suggestion of a professional army, with all its dangers, indicated thé only means

Operations of Essex’s, Waller’s and Manchester’s Armies. —After the success of Lostwithiel there was little to detain Charles’s main army in the extreme west, and meanwhile Ban-

House (near Basingstoke) were in danger of capture. Waler, who had organized a small force of reliable troops, had already sent cavalry into Dorsetshire with the idea of assisting Essex, and he now came himself with reinforcements to prevent, so far as lay in his power, the king’s return to the Thames valley. Charles was accompanied of course only by his permanent forces and

by parts of Prince Maurice’s and Hopton’s armies—the Cornish

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levies had as usual scattered as soon as the war receded from their borders. Manchester slowly advanced to Reading, Essex

gradually reorganized his broken army at Portsmouth, while Waller, far out to the west at Shaftesbury, endeavoured to gain the necessary time and space for a general concentration in Wiltshire, where Charles would be far from Oxford and Basing

and, in addition, outnumbered by two to one. But the work of

rearming Essex’s troops proceeded slowly for want of money, and Manchester peevishly refused to be hurried either by his more vigorous subordinates or by the Committee of Both Kingdoms, saying that the army of the Eastern Association was for the guard of its own employers and not for general service. He pleaded the renewed activity of the Newark Royalists as his excuse, forgetting that Newark would have been in his hands ere

this had he chosen to move thither instead of lying idle for two months. As to the higher command, things had come to such a pass that, when the three armies at last united, a council of war, consisting of three army commanders, several senior officers, and two civilian delegates from the Committee, was constituted. When the vote of the majority had determined what was to be done, Essex, as lord general of the Parliament’s first army, was to issue the necessary orders for the whole. Under such conditions it was not likely that Waller’s hopes of a great battle at Shaftesbury would be realized. On Oct. 8 he fell back, the royal army following him step by step and finally reaching Whitchurch on Oct. 20. Menchester arrived at Basingstoke on the 17th, Waller on the roth and Essex on the 21st. Charles had found that he could not relieve Basing (a mile or two from Basingstoke) without risking a battle with the enemy between himself and Oxford; his policy was'still, as before Marston Moor, to “spin out time” until Rupert came back from the north; he therefore took the Newbury road and relieved Donnington Castle near Newbury on the 22nd. Three days later Banbury too was relieved by a force which could now be spared from the Oxford garrison. But for once the council of war on the other side was for fighting a battle, and the Parliamentary armies, their spirits revived by the prospect of action and by the news of the fall of Newcastle and the defeat of a sally from Newark, marched briskly. On the 26th they appeared north of Newbury on the Oxford road. Like Essex in 1643, Charles found himself headed off from the shelter of friendly fortresses, but beyond this fact there is little similarity between the two battles of Newbury, for the Royalists in the first case merely drew a barrier across Essex’s path. On the

present occasion the eager Parliamentarians made no attempt to force the king to attack them; they were well content to attack him in his chosen position themselves, especially as he was better off for supplies and quarters than they. Second Newbury.—The second battle of Newbury is remarkable as being the first great manoeuvre-battle (as distinct from

“pitched” battle) of the Civil War. A preliminary reconnaissance

by the Parliamentary leaders (Essex was not present, owing to

illness) established the fact that the king’s infantry held a strong line of defence behind the Lambourn brook from Shaw (inclusive) to Donnington (exclusive), Shaw House and adjacent buildings being held as an advanced post. In rear of the centre, in open ground just north of Newbury, lay the bulk of the royal cavalry. In the left rear of the main line, and separated from it by more than a thousand yards, lay Prince Maurice’s corps at Speen, advanced troops on the high ground west of that village, but Donnington Castle, under its energetic governor Sir John Boys, formed a strong post covering this gap with artillery fire. The Parliamentary leaders had no intention of flinging their men away in a frontal attack on the line of the Lambourn, and a flank attack from the east side could hardly succeed owing to the

obstacle presented by the confluence of the Lambourn and the Kennet, hence they decided on a wide turning movement via Chieveley, Winterbourne and Wickham Heath, against Prince Maurice’s position—a decision which, daring and energetic as it was, led only to a modified success, for reasons which will appear. The flank march, out of range of the castle, was conducted with

punctuality and precision. The troops composing it were drawn

741

from all three armies and led by the best fighting generals, Waller, Cromwell, and Essex’s subordinates Balfour and Skippon.

Manchester at Clay Hill was to stand fast until the turning movement had developed, and to make a vigorous holding attack on Shaw House as soon as Wallers guns were heard at Speen. But there was no ‘commander-in-chief to co-ordinate the movements of the two widely separated corps, and consequently no co-operation. Wallers attack was not unexpected, and Prince Maurice had made ready to meet him. Vet the first rush of the rebels carried the,entrenchments of Speen Hill, and Speen itself, though stoutly defended, fell into their hands within an hour, Essex’s

infantry recapturing here some of the guns they had had to surrender at Lostwithiel. But meantime Manchester, in spite of the entreaties of his staff, had not stirred from Clay Hill. He had made one false attack already early in the morning, and been severely handled, and he was aware of his own deficiencies as a general. A year before this he would have asked for and acted upon the advice of a capable soldier, such as Cromwell or Crawford, but now his mind was warped by a desire for peace on any terms, and he sought only to avoid defeat pending a happy solu-

tion of the quarrel. Those who sought to gain peace through vic-

tory were meanwhile driving Maurice back from hedge to hedge towards the open ground at Newbury, but every attempt to emerge from the lanes and fields was repulsed by the royal cavalry, and indeed by every available man and horse, for Charles’s officers had gauged Manchester’s intentions, and almost stripped the front of its defenders to stop Waller’s advance. Nightfall put an end to the struggle around Newbury, and then—too late

—Manchester ordered the attack on Shaw House. It failed completely in spite of the gallantry of his men, and darkness being then complete it was not renewed.

In its general course the battle closely resembled that of Freiburg (q.v.), fought the same year on the Rhine. But, if Waller’s part in the battle corresponded in a measure to Turenne’s, Manchester was unequal to playing the part of Condé, and consequently the results, in the case of the French won by three days’ hard fighting, and even then comparatively small, were in the case of the English practically nil. During the night the royal army quietly marched away through the gap between WalUer’s and Manchester’s troops. The heavy artillery and stores were left in Donnington Castle, Charles himself with a small escort rode off to the north-west to meet Rupert, and the main body gained Wallingford unmolested. An attempt at pursuit was made by Waller and Cromwell with all the cavalry they could lay hands on, but it was unsupported, for the council of war had decided to content itself with besieging Donnington Castle. A little later, after a brief and half-hearted attempt to move towards Oxford, it referred to the Committee for further instructions. Within the month Charles, having joined Rupert at Oxford and made him general of the Royalist forces vice Brentford, reappeared in the neighbourhood of Newbury. Donnington Castle was again relieved (Noy. 9) under the eyes of the Parliamentary army, which was in such a miserable condition that even Cromwell was against fighting, and some manoeuvres followed, in the course of which Charles relieved Basing House and the Parliamentary armies fell back, not in the best order, to Reading. The season for field warfare was now far spent, and the royal army retired to enjoy good quarters and plentiful supplies around Oxford. The Self-denying Ordinance.—On the other side, the dissensions between the generals had become flagrant and public, and it was no longer possible for the Houses of Parliament to ignore the fact that the army must be radically reformed. Cromwel and Waller from their places in parliament attacked Manchester's conduct, and their attack ultimately became, so far as Cromwell was concerned, an attack on the Lords, most of whom held the same views as Manchester, and on the Scots, who attempted to bring Cromwell to trial as an “incendiary.” At the crisis of their bitter controversy Cromwell suddenly proposed to stifle all animosities by the resignation of all officers who were members of either House, a proposal which affected himself not less than Essex and Manchester. The first “self-denying ordinance” was

moved on Dec. 9, and provided that “no member of either house

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shall have or execute any office or command ....,” etc. This was not accepted by the Lords, and in the end a second “self-denying ordinance” was agreed to (April 3, 1645), whereby all the persons concerned were to resign, but without prejudice to their reappointment. Simultaneously with this, the formation of the New Model was at last definitely taken into consideration. ‘The last exploit of Waller, who was not re-employed after the passing of the ordinance, was the relief of Taunton, then besieged by General Goring’s army. Cromwell served as his lieutenant-general on this occasion, and we have Waller’s own testimony that he was in all things a wise, capable and respectful subordinate. Under a leader of the stamp of Haller, Cromwell was well satisfied to obey, knowing the cause to be in good hands. Decline of the Royalist Cause—A raid of Goring’s horse from the west into Surrey and an unsuccessful attack on General Browne at Abingdon were the chief enterprises undertaken on the side of the Royalists during the early winter. It was no longer “summer in Devon, summer in Yorkshire” as in January 1643. An ever-growing section of Royalists, amongst whom Rupert himself was soon to be numbered, were for peace; many scores of loyalist gentlemen, impoverished by the loss of three years’ rents of their estates and hopeless of ultimate victory, were making their way to Westminster to give in their submission to the Parliament and to pay their fines. The new plan, suggested probably by Rupert, had already been tried with strategical success in the summer campaign of 1644. As we have seen, it consisted essen-

tially in using Oxford as the centre of a circle and striking out radially at any favourable target—‘‘manoeuvring about a fixed point,” as Napoleon called it. It was significant of the decline of the Royalist cause that the ‘‘fixed point” had been in 1643 the king’s field army, based indeed on its great entrenched camp, Banbury-Cirencester-Reading-Oxford, but free to move and to hold the enemy wherever met, while now it was the entrenched camp itself, weakened by the loss or abandonment of its outer posts, and without the power of binding the enemy if they chose to ignore its

existence, that conditioned the scope and duration of the single remaining field army’s enterprises. The New Model Ordinance—For the present, however, Charles’s cause was crumbling more from internal weakness than from the blows of the enemy. Fresh negotiations for peace which opened on Jan. 29 at Uxbridge (by the name of which place they are known to history) occupied the attention of the Scots and their Presbyterian friends, the rise of Independency and of Cromwell was a further distraction, and over the new army and the Seltdenying Ordinance the Lords and Commons were seriously at variance. But in February a fresh mutiny in Waller’s command struck alarm into the hearts of the disputants. The “treaty” of Uxbridge came to the same end as the treaty of Oxford in 1643, and a settlement as to army reform was achieved on Feb. 15. Though it was only on March 25 that the second modified form of the ordinance was agreed to by both Houses, Sir Thomas Fairfax and Philip Skippon (who were not members of parliament) had been approved as lord general and major-general (of the infantry) respectively of the new army as early as Jan. 21. The post of Heutenant-general and cavalry commander was for the moment left vacant, but there was little doubt as to who would eventually occupy it. Victories of Montrose—In Scotland, meanwhile, Montrose was winning victories which amazed the people of the two king-

doms. Montrose’s royalism differed from that of Englishmen of the 17th century less than from that of their forefathers under Henry VIIL and Elizabeth. To him the king was the protector of his people against Presbyterian theocracy, scarcely less offensive to him than the Inquisition itself, and the feudal oppression of the great nobles. Little as this ideal corresponded to the Charles of reality, it inspired in Montrose not merely ramantic heroism but a force of leadership which was sufficient to carry to victory the nobles and gentry, the wild Highlanders and the experienced professional soldiers who at various times and places constituted his little armies. His first unsuccessful enterprise has been mentioned above, It seemed, in the early stages of his second attempt (Au-

gust 1644), as if failure were again inevitable, for the gentry of the

northern Lowlands were overawed by the prevailing party ang resented the leadership of a lesser noble, even though he were the king’s lieutenant over all Scotland. Disappointed of support where he most expected it, Montrose then turned to the Highlands, At

Blair Athol he gathered his first army of Royalist clansmen, and good fortune gave him also a nucleus of trained troops. A force of disciplined experienced soldiers (chiefly Irish Macdonalds ang commanded by Alastair of that name) had been sent over from Ireland earlier in the year, and, after ravaging the glens of their hereditary enemies the Campbells, had attempted without success now here, now there, to gather the other clans in the king’s name. Their hand was against every man’s, and when he finally arrived in Badenoch, Alastair Macdonald was glad to protect himself by

submitting to the authority of the king’s lieutenant.

There were three hostile armies to be dealt with, besides— ultimately—the main Covenanting army far away in England. The duke of Argyll, the head of the Campbells, had an army of his own clan and of Lowland Covenanter levies, Lord Elcho with an-

other Lowland army lay near Perth, and Lord Balfour of Burleigh was collecting a third (also composed of Lowlanders) at Aberdeen.

Montrose turned upon £icho first, and found him at Tippermuir

near Perth on the 1st of September 1644. The Royalists were about 3,000 strong and entirely foot, only Montrose himself and two others being mounted, while Eicho had about 7,000 of all arms. But Eicho’s townsmen found that pike and musket were clumsy weapons in inexperienced hands, and, like Mackay’s regulars at Killiecrankie fifty years later, they wholly failed to stop the rush of the Highland swordsmen. Many hundreds were killed in the pursuit, and Montrose slept in Perth that night, having thus accounted for one of his enemies.

Balfour of Burleigh was to be his next victim, and he started for Aberdeen on the 4th. As he marched, his Highlanders slipped away to place their booty in security. But the Macdonald regulars remained with him, and as he passed along the coast some of the gentry came in, though the great clan of the Gordons was at present too far divided in sentiment to take his part. Lord Lewis Gordon and some Gordon horse were even in Balfour’s army. On the other hand, the earl of Airlie brought in forty-four horsemen, and Montrose was thus able to constitute two wings of cavalry on the day of battle. The Covenanters were about 2,500 strong and drawn up on a slope above the How Burn just outside Aberdeen (Sept. 13, 1644). Montrose, after clearing away the enemy’s skirmishers, drew up his army in front of the opposing line, the foot in the centre, the forty-four mounted men, with musketeers to support them, on either flank. The hostile left-wing cavalry charged piecemeal, and some bodies of troops did not engage at all. On the other wing, however, Montrose was for a moment hard pressed by a force of the enemy that attempted to work round to his rear. But he brought over the small band of mounted men that constituted his right wing cavalry, and also some musketeers from the centre, and destroyed the assailants, and when the illled left wing of the Covenanters charged again, during the absence of the cavalry, they were mown down by the close-range volleys of Macdonald’s musketeers. Shortly afterwards the centre of Balfour’s army yielded to pressure and fled in disorder. Aberdeen was sacked by order of Montrose, whose drummer had been murdered while delivering a message under a flag of truce to the magistrates. Inverlochy.—Only Argyll now remained to be dealt with. The Campbells were fighting men from birth, like Montrose’s own men, and had few townsmen serving with them. Still there were enough of the latter and of the impedimenta of regular warfare with him to prevent Argyll from overtaking his agile enemy, and ultimately after a “hide-and-seek” in the districts of Rothiemurchus, Blair Athol, Banchory and Strathbogie, Montrose stood to fight at Fyvie Castle, repulsed Argyll’s attack on that place and slipped away again to Rothiemurchus. There he was joined hy

Camerons and Macdonalds from all quarters for a grand raid on the Campbell country; he himself wished to march into the Lowlands, well knowing that he could not achieve the decision in the Grampians, but he had to bow, not for the first time nor the last, to local importunity. The raid was duly executed, and the Camp-

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743

hells’ boast, “It’s a far cry to Loch Awe,” availed them little. In December and January the Campbell lands were thoroughly and

Taunton still remained unrelieved, and Goring’s horse still rode all over Dorsetshire when the New Model at last took the field.

mercilessly devastated, and Montrose then retired slowly to Loch

Rupert’s Northern March.—In the midlands and Lancashire the Royalist horse, as ill-behaved even as Goring’s men, were

Ness, where the bulk of his army as usual dispersed to store away its plunder.

Argyll, with such Highland and Lowland forces as he could

collect after the disaster, followed Montrose towards Lochaber, while the Seaforths and other northern clans marched to Loch Ness. Caught between them, Montrose attacked the nearest. The Royalists crossed the hills into Glen Roy, worked thence along the northern face of Ben Nevis, and descended like an avalanche

upon Argylls forces at Inverlochy (Feb. 2, 1645). As usual, the

Lowland regiments gave way at once—Montrose had managed in all this to keep with him a few cavalry—and it was then the turn of the Campbells. Argyll escaped in a boat, but his clan, as a fighting force, was practically annihilated, and Montrose, having won four victories in these six winter months, rested his men and exultingly promised Charles that he would come to his assistance with a brave army before the end of the summer. Organization of the New Model Army.—To return to the New Model. Its first necessity was regular pay; its first duty to serve wherever it might be sent. Of the three armies that had fought at Newbury only one, Essex’s, was in a true sense a general service force, and only one, Manchester’s, was paid with any regularity. Wallers army was no better paid than Essex’s and no more free from local ties than Manchester’s. It was therefore broken up early in April, and only 600 of its infantry passed into the New Model. Essex’s men, on the other hand, wanted but regular pay and strict officers to make them excellent soldiers, and their own major-general, Skippon, managed by tact and his personal popularity to persuade the bulk of the men to rejoin. Manchesters army, in which Cromwell had been the guiding influence from first to last, was naturally the backbone of the New Model. Early in April Essex, Manchester and Waller resigned their commissions, and such of their forces as were not embodied in the new army were sent to do local duties, for minor armies were still maintained, General Poyniz’s in the north midlands, General Afassey’s in the Severn valley, a large force in the Eastern Association, General Browne’s in Buckinghamshire, etc., besides the Scots in the north. The New Model originally consisted of 14,400 foot and 7,700 horse and dragoons. Of the infantry only 6,000 came from the combined armies, the rest being new recruits furnished by the press. The Puritans had by now disappeared almost entirely from the ranks of.the infantry. Per contra the officers and sergeants and the troopers of the horse were the sternest Puritans of all, the survivors of three years of a disheartening war. There was considerable trouble during the first months of Fairfax’s command, and discipline had to be enforced with unusual sternness. As for the enemy, Oxford was openly contemptuous of “the rebels’ new brutish general” and his men, who seemed hardly likely to succeed where Essex and Waller had failed. But the effect of the Parliament’s having “an army all its own” was soon to be apparent. First Operations of 1645.—On the Royalist side the campaign

directly responsible for the ignominious failure with which the king’s main army began its year’s work. Prince Maurice was joined at Ludlow by Rupert and part of his Oxford army early in March, and the brothers drove off Brereton from the siege of Beeston Castle and relieved the pressure on Lord Byron in Cheshire. So great was the danger of Rupert’s again invading Lancashire and Yorkshire that all available forces in the north, English and Scots, were ordered to march against him. But at this moment the prince was called back to clear his line of retreat on Oxford. The Herefordshire and Worcestershire peasantry, weary of military exactions, were in arms, and though they would not join the Parliament, and for the most part dispersed after stating their grievances, the main enterprise was wrecked. This was but one of many ill-armed crowds—‘Clubmen” as they were called—that assembled to enforce peace on both parties. A few regular soldiers

were sufficient to disperse them in all cases, but their attempt to establish a third party in England was morally as significant as it was materially futile. The Royalists were now fighting with the courage of despair; those who still fought against Charles did so with the full determination to ensure the triumph of their cause, and with the conviction that the only possible way was the annihilation of the enemy’s forces, but the majority were so weary of the war that the earl of Manchester’s Presbyterian royalism— which had contributed so materially to the prolongation of the struggle—would probably have been accepted by four-fifths of all England as the basis of a peace. It was, in fact, in the face of almost universal opposition that Fairfax and Cromwell and their friends at Westminster guided the cause of their weaker comrades to complete victory. Cromwell’s Raid.—Having without difficulty rid himself of

the Clubmen, Rupert was eager to resume his march into the north. It is unlikely that he wished to join Montrose, though Charles himself favoured that plan, but he certainly intended to fight the Scottish army, more especially as after Inverlochy it had been called upon to detach a large force to deal with Montrose. But this time there was no Royalist army in the north to provide infantry and guns for a pitched battle, and Rupert had perforce to wait near Hereford till the main body, and in particular the artillery train, could come from Oxford and join him. It was on the march of the artillery train to Hereford that the first operations of the New Model centred. The infantry was not yet ready to move, in spite of all Fazrfax’s and Skippon’s efforts, and it became necessary to send the cavalry by itself to prevent Rupert from gaining a start. Cromwell, then under Waller’s command,

had come to Windsor to resign his commission as required by the Self-denying Ordinance. Instead, he was placed at the head of a brigade of his own old soldiers, with orders to stop the march of the artillery train. On April 23 he started from Watlington north-westward. At dawn on the 24th he routed a detachment of Royalist horse at Islip. On the same day, though he had no guns

of 1645 opened in the west, whither the young prince of Wales

and only a few firearms in the whole force, he terrified the gov-

(Charles II.) was sent with Hyde (later earl of Clarendon), Hop-

ernor of Bletchingdon House into surrender. Riding thence to Witney, Cromweli won another cavalry fight at Bampton-in-the Bush on the 27th, and attacked Faringdon House, though without success, on the zogth. Thence he marched at leisure to Newbury. He had done his work thoroughly. He had demoralized the Royalist cavalry, and, above all, had carried off every horse on the country-side. To all Rupert’s entreaties Charles could only reply that the guns could not be moved till May 7, and he even sum-

ton and others as his advisers. General (Lord) Goring, however, now in command of the Royalist field forces in this quarter, was truculent, insubordinate and dissolute, though on the rare occasions when he did his duty he displayed a certain degree of skill

and leadership, and the influence of the prince’s counsellors was

but small. As usual, operations began with the sieges necessary to conciliate local feeling. Plymouth and Lyme were blocked up, and Taunton again invested. The reinforcement thrown into the

last place by Waller and Cromwell was dismissed by Blake (then

a colonel in command of the fortress and afterwards the great ad-

miral of the Commonwealth), and after many adventures rejoined Waller and Cromwell. The latter generals, who had not yet laid down their commissions, then engaged Goring for some weeks,

but neither side having infantry or artillery, and both finding subsistence difficult in February and March and in country that had been fought over for two years past, no results were to be expected.

moned Goring’s cavalry from the west to make good his losses. Divergent Purposes.—Cromwell’s success thus forced the king to concentrate his various armies in the neighbourhood of Oxford, and the New Model had, so Fairfax and Cromwell hoped,

found its target. But the Committee of Both Kingdoms on the one side, and Charles, Rupert and Goring on the other, held different views, On May r Fairfax, having been ordered to relieve Taunton, set out from Windsor for the long march to that place; meeting Cromwell at Newbury on the 2nd, he directed the lieu-

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tenant-general to watch the movements of the king’s army, and himself marched on to Blandford, which he reached on May 7. Thus Fairfex and the main army of the Parliament were marching

away in the west while Cromwell’s detachment was left, as Waller had been left the previous year, to hold the king as best he could.

On the very evening that Cromwell’s raid ended, the leading troops of Goring’s command destroyed part of Cromwells own regiment near Faringdon, and on the 3rd Rupert and Maurice appeared with a force of all arms at Burford. Yet the Committee of Both Kingdoms, though aware on the 29th of Goring’s move, only made up its mind to stop Fairfax on the 3rd, and did not send off orders till the sth. These orders were to the effect that a detach-

ment was to be sent to the relief of Taunton, and that the main army was to return. Fairfax gladly obeyed, but long before he came up to the Thames valley the situation was again changed. Rupert, now in possession of the guns and their teams, urged upon his uncle the resumption of the northern enterprise, calculating that with Fairfax in Somersetshire, Oxford was safe. Charles accordingly marched out of Oxford on the 7th towards Stow-onthe-Wold, on the very day, as it chanced, that Fairfax began his return march from Blandford. But Goring and most of the other generals were for a march into the west, in the hope of dealing with Fairfax as they had dealt with Essex in 1644. The armies therefore parted as Essex and Waller had parted at the same place in 1644, Rupert and the king to march northward, Goring to return to his independent command in the west. Rupert, not unnaturally wishing to keep his influence with the king and his authority as general of the king’s army unimpaired by Goring’s notorious indiscipline, made no attempt to prevent the separation, which in the event proved wholly unprofitable. The flying column from Blandford relieved Taunton long before Goring’s return to the west, and Colonel Weldon and Colonel Graves, its commanders, set him at defiance even in the open country. As for Fairfax, he was out of Goring’s reach preparing for the siege of Oxford. Charles in the Midlands—On the other side also the generals were working by data that had ceased to have any value. Fairfax’s siege of Oxford, ordered by the Committee on the roth of May, and persisted in after it was known that the king was on the move, was the second great blunder of the year and was hardly redeemed, as a military measure, by the visionary scheme of assembling the Scots, the Yorkshiremen and the midland

forces to oppose the king. It is hard to understand how, having created a new model army “all its own” for general service, the Parliament at ance tied it down to a local enterprise, and trusted an improvised army of local troops to fight the enemy’s main army. In reality the Committee seems to have been misled by false information ta the effect that Goring and the governor of Oxford were about to declare for the Parliament, but had they not

despatched Fot fox to the relief of Taunton in the first instance the necessity for such intrigues would not have arisen. However, Fairfax obeyed orders, invested Ozford, and, so far as he was able without a proper siege train, besieged it for two weeks, while Charles and Rupert ranged the midlands unopposed. At the end

of that time came news so alarming that the Committee hastily abdicated their control over military operations and gave Fairfax a free hand. “Black Tom” gladly and instantly abandoned the siege and marched northward to give battle to the king. Meanwhile Charles and Rupert were moving northward. On May 11 they reached Droitwich, whence after two days’ rest they marched against Brereton. The latter burriedly raised the sieges he had on hand, and called upon Yorkshire and the Scottish army there for aid. But only the old Lord Fairfox and the Yorkshiremen responded. Leven had just heard of new victories won by Montrose, and could do no more than draw his army and his guns over the Pennine chain into Westmorland in the hope of being in time to bar the king’s march on Scotland via Carlisle. Dundee.—Afiter the destruction of the Campbells at Inverlochy, Montrose had cleared away the rest of his enemies without dificulty. He now gained a respectable force of cavalry by the adhesion of Lord Gordon and many of his clan, and this reinforcement was the more necessary as detachments from Lesers army under Baillie and Hurry—idisciplined infantry and

cavalry——were on the march ta meet him. The Royalists marched by Elgin and through the Gordon country to Aberdeen, ang thence across the Esk to Coupar-Angus, where Baillie and HUrry

were encountered.

A war of manoeuvre followed, in which

thwarted every effort of the Royalists to break through into, the Lowlands, but in the end retired into Fife. Montrose thereupon marched into the hills with the intention of reaching the upper Forth and thence the Lowlands, for he did not disguise from himself the fact that there, and not in the Highlands, would the

quarrel be decided, and was sanguine—over-sanguine, as the event proved—as to the support he would obtain from those who hated the kirk and its system. But he had called to his aid the semi-barbarous Highlanders, and however much the Lowlands resented a Presbyterian inquisition, they hated and feared the

Highland clans beyond all else. He was equally disappointed in his own army. For a war of positions the Highlanders had neither aptitude nor inclination, and at Dunkeld the greater part of them went home. If the small remnant was to be kept to its duty,

plunder must be found, and the best objective was the town of Dundee. With a small force of 750 foot and horse Montrose brilliantly surprised that place on April 4, but Baillie and Hurry were not far distant, and before Montrose’s men had time to plunder the prize they were collected ta face the enemy. Montrose’s retreat from Dundee was considered a model opera-

tion by foreign students of the art of war (then almost as numerous as now), and what surprised them most was that Montrose could rally his men after a sack had begun. The retreat itself was remarkable enough. Bailie moved parallel to Montrose on his left flank towards Arbroath, constantly heading him off from the hills and attempting to pin him against the sea. Montrose, however, halted in the dark so as to let Baillie get ahead of him and then turned sharply back, crossed Bazllze’s track, and made for the hills. Baillie soon realized what had happened and turned back also, but an hour too late. By the 6th the Royalists were again safe in the broken country of the Esk valley. But Montrose cherished no illusions as to joining the king at once; all he could do, he now wrote, was to neutralize as many of the enemy's forces as possible. :

Auldearn.—For a time he wandered in the Highlands seeking recruits. But soon he learned that Bailie and Hurry had divided their forces, the former remaining about Perth and Stirling to observe him, the latter going north to suppress the Gordons. Strategy and policy combined to make Hurry the objective of the next expedition. But the soldier of fortune who commanded the Covenanters at Aberdeen was no mean antagonist. March-

ing at once with a large army (formed on the nucleus of his own trained troops and for the rest composed of clansmen and volunteers) Hurry advanced to Elgin, took contact with Montrose there, and, gradually and skilfully retiring, drew him into the hostile country round Inverness. Montrose fell into the trap, and Hurry took his measures to surprise him at Auldearn so successfully that (May 9) Montrose, even though the indiscipline of some of Hurry’s young soldiers during the night march gave him the alarm, had barely time to form up before the enemy was upon him. But the best strategy is of no avail when the battle

it produces goes against the strategist, and Montrose’s tactical skill was never

more

conspicuous than at Auldearn.

Alastair

Macdonald with most of the Royalist infantry and the Royal standard was posted to the right (north) of the village to draw upon himself the weight of Hurry’s attack; only enough men were posted in the village itself to shaw that it was occupied, and on the south side, out of sight, was Montrose himself with a body of foot and all the Gordon horse. It was the prototype, ou

a small scale, of Austerlitz. Macdonald resisted sturdily white Montrose edged away from the scene of action, and at the right moment and not before, though Macdonald had been driven back on the village and was fighting for life amongst the gardens and enclosures, Montrose let loose Lord Gordon’s cavalry. These,

abandoning for once the pistol tactics of their time,

home with the sword, The enemy’s right wing cavalry wes scattered in an instant, the nearest infantry was promptly ridden down, and soon Hwurry’s army had ceased to exist.

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Campaign of Naseby.—If the news of Auldearn brought Leven to the region of Carlisle, it had little effect on his English allies. Fairfax was not yet released from the siege of Oxford, in spite of the protests of the Scottish representatives in London. Massey, the active and successful governor of Gloucester, was placed in command of a field force on May 25, but he was to lead it against, not the king, but Goring. At that moment the military situation once more changed abruptly. Charles, instead of continuing his march on to Lancashire, turned due eastward towards Derbyshire. The alarm at Westminster when this new

development was reported was such that Cromwell, in spite of the Self-Denying Ordinance, was sent to raise an army for the defence of the Eastern Association. Yet the Royalists had no intentions in that direction. Conflicting reports as to the condition of Oxford reached the royal headquarters in the last week of May, and the eastward march was made chiefly to “spin out time” until it could be known whether it would be necessary to return to Oxford, or whether it was still possible to fight Leven in Yorkshire—his move into Westmorland was not yet known— and invade Scotland by the easy east coast route. Goring’s return to the west had already been countermanded and he had been directed to march to Harborough, while the South Wales Royalists were also called in towards Leicester. Later orders (May 26) directed him to Newbury, whence he was to feel the strength of the enemy’s positions around Oxford. It is hardly necessary toa say that Goring found good military reasons for continuing his independent operations, and marched off towards Taunton regardless of the order. He redressed the balance there for the moment by overawing Massey's weak force,

745

under arms, and from time to time to the political exigencies of the growing quarrel between Presbyterians and Independents. As to the latter, within a few days of Naseby, the Scots rejoiced that the “back of the malignants was broken,” and demanded reinforcements as a precaution against “the insolence of others,” ie., Cromwell and the Independents—“to whom alone the Lord has given the victory of that day.” Leven had by now returned to Yorkshire, and a fortnight after Naseby, after a long and honourable defence by Sir Thomas Glemham, Carlisle fell to David Leslie’s besieging corps. Leicester was reoccupied by Fairfax on the 18th, and on the 20th Leven’s army, moving slowly southward, reached Mansfeld. This move was undertaken largely for political reasons, t.¢., to restore the Presbyterian balance as against the victorious New Model. Fairfax’s army was intended by its founders ta be a specifically English army and Cromwell for one would have em-

ployed it against the Scots almost as readily as against malignants. But for the moment the advance of the northern army was of the highest military importance, for Fairfax was thereby set free from the necessity of undertaking sieges. Moreover, the publication of the king’s papers taken at Naseby gave Fairfax’s troops a measure of official and popular support which a month before they could not have been said to possess, for it was now obvious that they represented the armed force of England against the Irish, Danes, French, Lorrainers, etc., whom Charles had for three years been endeavouring to let loose on English soil. Even the Presbyterians abandoned

for the time any attempt

to ne-

gotiate with the king, and advocated a vigorous prosecution of the war. Fairfax’s Western Campaign.—This, in the hands of Foirfax and his purse profited considerably by fresh opportunities for extortion, but he and his men were not at Naseby. Meanwhile and Cromwell, was likely to be effective. While the king and the king, at the geographical centre of England, found an im- Rupert, with the remnant of their cavalry, hurried inte South portant and wealthy town at his mercy. Rupert, always for Wales to join Sir Charles Gerard’s troops and to raise fresh inaction, took the opportunity, and Leicester was stormed and fantry, Fairfax decided that Goring’s was the most important thoroughly pillaged on the night of May 30-31. There was the Royalist army in the field, and turned to the west, reaching usual panic at Westminster, but, unfortunately for Charles, it Lechlade on the 26th, less than a fortnight after the battle of resulted in Fairfax being directed to abandon the siege of Oxford Naseby. Qne last attempt was made to dictate the plan of and given carte blanche ta bring the Royal army to battle wher- campaign from Westminster, but the Committee refused to pass on the directions of the Houses, and he remained free to deal ever it was met. On his side the king had, after the capture of Leicester, ac- with Goring as he desired. Time pressed; Charles in Monmouthcepted the advice of those who feared for the safety of Oxford shire and Rupert at Bristol were well placed for a junction with —Rupert, though commander-in-chief, was unable to insist on Goring, which would have given them a united army 15,000 the northern enterprise—-and had marched to Daventry, where strong. Taunton, in spite of Massey’s efforts to keep the field, he halted to throw supplies into Oxford. Thus Fairfax in his turn was again besieged, and in Wilts and Dorset numerous bands was free to move, thanks to the insubordination of Goring, who of Clubmen were on foot which the king’s officers were doing would neither relieve Oxford nor join the king for an attack on their best to turn into troops for their master, But the process the New Model. The Parliamentary general moved from Oxford of collecting a fresh royal army was slow, and Goring and his towards Northampton so as to cover the Eastern Association. subordinate, Sir Richard Grenville, were alienating the king’s On June x12 the two armies were only a few miles apart, Fairfax most devoted adherents by their rapacity, cruelty and debauchery. at Kislingbury, Charles at Daventry, and, though the Royalists Moreover, Goring had no desire to lose the Independent command turned northward again on the 13th to resume the Yorkshire he had extorted at Stow-on-the-Wold in May. Still, it was clear project under the very eyes of the enemy, Fairfax followed close. that he must be disposed of as quickly as possible, and Fairfax On the night of the 13th Charles slept at Lubenham, Fazrfax at requested the Houses to take other measures against the king Guilsborough. Cromwell, just appointed lieutenant-general of (June 26). This they did by paying up the arrears due to Leven’s the New Model, had ridden into camp on the morning of the army and bringing it to the Severn valley. On July 8 Laven 13th with fresh cavalry from the eastern counties, Colonel Rossiter reached Alcester, bringing with him a Parliamentarian force from came up with more from Lincolnshire on the morning of the Derbyshire under Sir John Gell. The design was to besiege battle, and it was with an incontestable superiority of mumbers Hereford. Langport.-By that time Fairfax and Goring were at close and an overwhelming moral advantage that Fairfax fought at Naseby (¢.v.) on June 14. The result of the battle, this time a quarters. The Royalist general’s line of defence faced west along decisive battle, was the annihilation of the royal army. Part of the Yeo and the Parrett between Yeovil and Bridgwater, and the cavalry escaped, a small fraction of it in tolerable order, but thus barred the direct route to Taunton. Fatrfax, however, the guns and the baggage train were taken, and, above all, the marched from Lechlade via Marlborough and Blandford—hinsplendid Royal infantry were killed or taken prisoners to a man. dered only by Clubmen—to the friendly posts of Dorchester and Effects of Naseby.—After Naseby, though the war dragged Lyme, and with these as his centre of operations he was able to on for another year, the king never succeeded in raising an army turn the headwaters of Goring’s river-line via Beaminster and as good as, or even more numerous than, that which Fatrfax’s Crewkerne. The Royalists at once abandoned the south and army had so heavily outnumbered on June 14. That the fruits west side of the rivers—the siege of Tammton had already been. of the victory could not be gathered in a few weeks was due to a given up—and passed over to the north and east bank. Bridgvariety of hindrances rather than to direct opposition—to the water was the right of this second line as it had been the left of absence of rapid means of communication, the paucity of the the first; the new left was at Ilchester. Goring could thus forces engaged on both sides relatively to the total numbers remain in touch with Charles in South Wales through Bristol,

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and the siege of Taunton having been given up there was no longer any incentive for remaining on the wrong side of the water-line. But his army was thoroughly demoralized by its own licence

and indiscipline, and the swift, handy and resolute regiments of the New Model made short work of its strong positions. On July 7, demonstrating against the points of passage between Ilchester and Langport, Fairfax secretly occupied Yeovil. The post at that place, which had been the right of Goring’s first position, had, perhaps rightly, been withdrawn to Ilchester when the second position was taken up, and Fairfax repaired the bridge without interruption. Goring showed himself unequal to the new situation. He might, if sober, make a good plan when the enemy was not present to disturb him, and he certainly led cavalry charges with boldness and skill. But of strategy in front of the enemy he was incapable. On the news from Yeovil he abandoned the line of the Yeo as far as Langport without striking a blow, and Fairfax, having nothing to gain by continuing his détour through Yeovil, came back and quietly crossed at Long Sutton,

west of Ilchester (July 9). Goring had by now formed a new plan. A strong rear-guard was posted at Langport and on high ground east and north-east of it to hold Fairfax, and he himself with the cavalry rode off early on the 8th to try and surprise Taunton. This place was no longer protected by Massey’s little army, which Fairfax had called up to assist his own. But Fairfax who was not yet across Long Sutton bridge, heard of Goring’s raid in good time, and sent Massey after him with a body of horse. Massey surprised a large party of the Royalists at Ilminster on the 9th, wounded Goring himself, and pursued the fugitives up to the south-eastern edge of Langport. On the roth Fairfax’s advanced guard, led by Major Bethel of Cromwell’s own regiment, brilliantly stormed the position of Goring’s rearguard east of Langport, and the cavalry of the New Model, led by Cromwell himself, swept in pursuit right up to the gates of Bridgwater, where Goring’s army, dismayed and on the point of collapse, was more or less rallied. Thence Goring himself retired to Barnstaple. His army, under the regimental officers, defended itself in Bridgwater resolutely till July 23, when it capitulated. The fall of Bridgwater gave Fairfax complete control of Somerset and Dorset from Lyme to the Bristol channel. Even in the unlikely event of Goring’s raising a fresh army, he would now have to break through towards Bristol by open force, and a battle between Goring and Fairfax could only have one result. Thus Charles had perforce to give up his intention of joining Goring— his recruiting operations in South Wales had not been so successful as he hoped, owing to the apathy of the people and the vigour of the local Parliamentary leaders—and to resume the northern enterprise begun in the spring.

Schemes of Lord Digby.—This time Rupert would not be with him. The prince, now despairing of success and hoping only for a peace on the best terms procurable, listlessly returned to his governorship of Bristol and prepared to meet Fazrfax’s impending attack. The influence of Rupert was supplanted by that of Lord Digby. As sanguine as Charles and far more energetic, he was for the rest of the campaign the guiding spirit of the

Royalists, but as a civilian he offended the officers by constituting himself a sort of confidential military secretary to the king, and he was distrusted by all sections of Royalists for his reckless optimism. The resumption of the northern enterprise, opposed by Rupert and directly inspired by Digby, led to nothing. Charles marched by Bridgnorth, Lichfield and Ashbourne to Doncaster, where, on Aug. 18, he was met by great numbers of Yorkshire gentlemen with promises of fresh recruits. For a moment the outlook was bright, for the Derbyshire men with Gell were far away at Worcester with Leven, the Yorkshire Parliamentarians engaged in besieging Scarborough Castle, Pontefract and other posts. But two days later he heard that David Leslie with the cavalry of Leven’s army was coming up behind him, and that, the Yorkshire sieges being now ended, Major-General Poyntz’s force lay in his front. It Was now impossible to wait for the new levies, and reluctantly the

king turned back to Oxford, raiding Huntingdonshire and other parts of the bated Eastern Association en route.

Montrose’s Last Victories.—David Leslie did not pursue him Montrose, though the king did not yet know it, had won two more

battles, and was practically master of all Scotland. After Auldearn

he had turned to meet Bazllie’s army in Strathspey, and by superior

mobility and skill forced that commander to keep at a respectfy]

distance. He then turned upon a new army which Lindsay, titular

earl of Crawford, was betook himself to a the Highlands to find mostly dispersed on

forming in Forfarshire, but that commander safe distance, and Montrose withdrew into recruits (June). The victors of Auldearn had the usual errand, and he was now deserted

by most of the Gordons, who were recalled by the chief of their

clan, the marquess of Huntly, in spite of the indignant remon-

strances of Huntly’s heir, Lord Gordon, who was Montrose’s warmest admirer. Baillie now approached again, but he was weakened by having to find trained troops to stiffen Lindsay’s levies, and a strong force of the Gordons had now been persuaded to rejoin Montrose. ; The two armies met in battle near Alford on the Don; little can

be said of the engagement save that Montrose had to fight cautiously and tentatively as at Aberdeen, not in the decision-forcing

spirit of Auldearn, and that in the end Baillie’s cavalry gave way and his infantry was cut down as it stood. Lord Gordon was amongst the Royalist dead (July 2). The plunder was put away in the glens before any attempt was made to go forward, and thus the

Covenanters had leisure to form a numerous, if not very coherent, army on the nucleus of Lindsay’s troops. Baillie, much against his

will, was continued in the command, with a council of war (chiefly of nobles whom Montrose had already defeated, such as Argyll,

Elcho and Balfour) to direct his every movement.

Montrose,

when rejoined by the Highlanders, moved to meet him, and in the last week of July and the early part of August there were manoeuvres and minor engagements round Perth. About Aug. 7 Montrose suddenly slipped away into the Lowlands, heading for Glasgow. Thereupon another Covenanting army began to assemble in Clydesdale. But it was clear that Montrose could beat mere levies, and Baillie, though without authority and despairing of success, hurried after him. Montrose then, having drawn Bazllie’s Fifeshire militia far enough from home to ensure their being discontented, turned upon them on Aug. 14 near Kilsyth. Bazllie protested against fighting, but his aristocratic masters of the council of war decided to cut off Montrose from the hills by turning his left wing. The Royalist general seized the opportunity, and his advance caught them in the very act of making a flank march (August 15). The head of the Covenanters’ column was met and stopped by the furious attack of the Gordon infantry, and Alastair Macdonald led the men of his own name and the Macleans against its flank. A breach was made in the centre of Baillie’s army at the first rush and then Montrose sent in the Gordon and Ogilvy horse. The leading half of the column was surrounded, broken up and annihilated. The rear half, seeing the fate of its comrades, took to flight, but in vain, for the Highlanders pursued à outrance. Only about one hundred Covenanting infantry out of six thousand escaped. Montrose was now indeed the king’s lieutenant in all Scotland. Fall of Bristol.—But Charles was in no case to resume his northern march. Fairfax and the New Model, after reducing Bridgwater, had turned back to clear away the Dorsetshire Clubmen

and to besiege Sherborne Castle. On the completion of this task, it had been decided to besiege Bristol, and on Aug. 23—while the king’s army was still in Huntingdon, and Goring was trying to

raise a new army to replace the one he had lost at Langport and Bridgwater—the city was invested. In these urgent circumstances Charles left Oxford for the west only a day or two after he had come in from the Eastern Association raid. Calculating that Rupert could hold out longest, he first moved to the relief of Worcester, around which place Leven’s Scots, no longer having Leslie’s cavalry with them to find supplies, were more occupied with plundering their immediate neighbourhood for food than with the siege works. Worcester was relieved on Sept. 1 by the king. David Leslie with all his cavalry was already on the march to meet Montrose, and Leven had no alternative but to draw off

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his infantry without fighting. Charles entered Worcester on the gth, but he found that he could no longer expect recruits from South Wales. Worse was to come. A few hours later, on the night

of the gth-zoth, Pazrfax’s army stormed Bristol. Rupert had long realized the hopelessness of further fighting—the very summons to surrender sent in by Fairfax placed the fate of Bristol on the

political issue—the lines of defence around the place were too extensive for his small force, and on the rrth he surrendered on terms. He was escorted to Oxford with his men, conversing as he rode with the officers of the escort about peace and the future of his adopted country. Charles, almost stunned by the suddenness of the catastrophe, dismissed his nephew from all his offices and ordered him to leave

England, and for almost the last time called upon Goring to rejoin the main army—if a tiny force of raw infantry and disheartened cavalry can be so called—in the neighbourhood of Raglan. But before Goring could be brought to withdraw his objections Charles had again turned northward towards Montrose. A weary march through the Welsh hills brought the royal army on Sept. 22 to the

neighbourhood of Chester. Charles himself with one body entered the city, which was partially invested by the Parliamentarian colonel Michael Jones, and the rest under Sir Marmaduke Langdale was sent to take Jones’s lines in reverse. But at the opportune moment Poyntz’s forces, which had followed the king’s

movements since he left Doncaster in the middle of August, appeared in rear of Langdale, and defeated him in the battle of Rowton Heath (Sept. 24), while at the same time a sortie of the king’s troops from Chester was repulsed by Jones. Thereupon the royal army withdrew to Denbigh, and Chester, the only important seaport remaining to connect Charles with Ireland, was again besieged. Philiphaugh.—Nor was Montrose’s position, even after Kilsyth, encouraging, in spite of the persistent rumours of fighting in Westmorland that reached Charles and Digby. Glasgow and Edinburgh were indeed occupied, and a parliament summoned in the king’s name. But Montrose had now to choose between Highlanders and Lowlanders. The former, strictly kept away from all that was worth plundering, rapidly vanished, even Alastair Macdonald going with the rest. Without the Macdonalds and the Gordons, Montrose’s military and political resettlement of Scotland could only be shadowy, and when he demanded support from the sturdy middle classes of the Lowlands, it was not forgotten that he had led Highlanders to the sack of Lowland towns. Thus his new supporters could only come from amongst the discontented and undisciplined Border lords and gentry, and long before these moved to join him the romantic conquest of Scotland was over. On Sept. 6 David Leske had recrossed the frontier with his cavalry and some infantry he had picked up on the way through northern England. Early on the morning of the 13th he surprised Montrose at Philiphaugh near Selkirk. The king’s lieutenant had only 650 men against 4,000, and the battle did not last long. Montrose escaped with a few of his principal adherents, but his little army was annihilated. Of the veteran Macdonald infantry, 500 strong that morning, 250 were killed in the battle and the remainder put to death after accepting quarter. The Irish, even when they bore a Scottish name, were, by Scotsmen even more than Englishmen, regarded as beasts to be knocked on the head. After Naseby the Irishwomen found in the king’s camp were branded by order of Fairfax; after Philiphaugh more than 300 women, wives or followers of Macdonald’s men, were butchered. Montrose’s Highlanders at their worst were no more cruel than the sober soldiers of the kirk. Digby’s Northern Expedition.—Charles received the news of Philiphaugh on Sept. 28, and gave orders that the west should

be abandoned, the prince of Wales should be sent to France, and Goring should bring up what forces he could to the Oxford region. On Oct. 4 Charles himself reached Newark (whither he had marched from Denbigh after revictualling Chester and suffering the defeat of Rowton Heath). The intention to go to Montrose was of course given up, at any rate for the present, and he was merely waiting for Goring and the Royalist militia of the west—

747

each in its own way a broken reed ciliation was patched up between court remained at Newark for over return to Oxford another Royalist

to lean upon. A hollow reconCharles and Rupert, and the a month. Before it set out to force had been destroyed.

On Oct. 14, receiving information that Montrose had raised a new army, the king permitted Langdale’s northern troops to make a fresh attempt to reach Scotland. At Langdale’s request Digby was appointed to command in this enterprise, and, civilian though he was, he led it boldly and skilfully. His immediate opponent was Poyntz, who had followed the king step by step from Doncaster to Chester and back to Welbeck, and he.succeeded on the

15th in surprising Poyntz’s entire force of foot at Sherburn. Poyntz’s cavalry were soon after this reported approaching from the south, and Digby hoped to trap them also. At first all went well and body after body of the rebels was routed.

But by a

singular mischance the Royalist main body mistook the Parliamentary squadrons in flight through Sherburn for friends, and believing all was lost took flight also. Thus Digby’s cavalry fled as fast as Poyntz’s and in the same direction, and the latter, coming to their senses first, drove the Royalist horse in wild confusion as far as Skipton. Lord Digby was still sanguine and from Skipton he actually penetrated as far as Dumfries. But whether Montrose’s new army was or was not in the Lowlands, it was certain that Leven and Leslie were on the Border, and the adventure soon came to an end. Digby, with the mere handful of men remaining to him, was driven back into Cumberland, and on Oct. 24, his army having entirely disappeared, he took ship with his officers for the Isle of Man. Poyntz had not followed him beyond Skipton, and was now watching the king from Nottingham, while Rossiter with the Lincoln troops was posted at Grantham. The king’s chances of escaping from Newark were becoming smaller day by day, and they were not improved by a violent dispute between him and Rupert, Maurice, Lord Gerard and Sir Richard Willis, at the end of which these officers and many others rode away to ask the Parliament for leave to go over-seas. The pretext of the quarrel mattered little, the distinction between the views of Charles and Digby on the one hand and Rupert and his friends on the other was fundamental—to the latter peace had become a political as well as a military necessity. Meanwhile South Wales, with the single exception of Raglan Castle, had been overrun by the Parliamentarians. Everywhere the Royalist posts were falling. The New Model, no longer fearing Goring, had divided, Fairfax reducing the garrisons of Dorset and Devon, Cromwell those of Hampshire. Amongst the latter was the famous Basing House, which was stormed at dawn on Oct. 14 and burnt to the ground. Cromwell, his work finished, returned to headquarters, and the army wintered in the neighbourhood of Crediton. End of the First War.—The military events of 1646 call for no comment. The only field army remaining to the king was Goring’s, and though Hopton, who sorrowfully accepted the command after Goring’s departure, tried at the last moment to

revive the memories and the local patriotism of 1643, it was of no

use to fight against the New Model with the armed rabble that

Goring turned over to him. Dartmouth surrendered on Jan. 18, Hopton was defeated at Torrington on Feb. 16, and surrendered the remnant of his worthless army on March 14. Exeter fell on April 13. Elsewhere, Hereford was taken on Dec. 17, 1645, and the last battle of the war was fought and lost at Stow-on-the-Wold by Lord Astley on March 21, 1646. Newark and Oxford fell respectively on May 6 and June 24. On August 3: Montrose

escaped from the Highlands. On the roth of the same month Raglan Castle surrendered, and the last Royalist post of all, Harlech Castle, maintained the useless struggle until March

13,

1647. Charles himself, after leaving Newark in November 1645, had spent the winter in and around Oxford, whence, after an adventurous journey, he came to the camp of the Scottish army at Southwell on May 5, 1646.

SECOND CIVIL WAR (1648-52) The close of the First Civil War left England and Scotland in

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the hands potentially of any one of the four parties or any combination of two or more that should prove strong enough to dom-

inate the rest. Armed political Royalism was indeed at an end, but Charles, though practically a prisoner, considered himself and was, almost to the last, considered by the rest as necessary to ensure the success of whichever amongst the other three parties could came to terms with him. Thus he passed successively into the hands of the Scots, the Parliament and the New Model, trying to reverse the verdict of arms by coquetting with each in turn. (From this point onwards the names of the Scots Covenanters,

formerly the allies of the Parliamentarians, but now their opponents are not italicized.) The Presbyterians and the Scots, after Cornet Joyce of Fairfax’s horse seized upon the person of the king for the army (June 3, 1647), began at once to prepare for a fresh civil war, this time against Independency, as embodied in the New Model—henceforward called the Army. After making use of its sword, its opponents attempted to disband it, to send it on foreign service, to cut off its arrears of pay, with the result that it was exasperated beyond control, and remembering not merely its grievances but also the principle for which it had fought, soon became the most powerful political party in the realm. From 1646 to 1648 the breach between army and parliament widened day by day until finally the Presbyterian party, combined with the Scots and the remaining Royalists, felt itself strong enough to begin a second civil war.

The English War.—In February 1648 Colonel Poyer, the Parliamentary governor of Pembroke Castle, refused to hand over his command to one of Fairfax’s officers, and he was soon joined by some hundreds of officers and men, who mutinied, ostensibly for arrears of pay, but really with political objects. At the end of March, encouraged by minor successes, Poyer openly declared for the king. Disbanded soldiers continued to join him in April, all South Wales revolted, and eventually he was joined by Major-General Laugharne, his district commander, and Colonel Powel. In April also news came that the Scots were arming and that Berwick and Carlisle had been seized by the English Royalists. Cromwell was at once sent off at the head of a strong detachment to deal with Laugharne and Poyer, but before he arrived Laugharne had been severely defeated by Colonel

Horton at St. Fagans (May 8). The English Presbyterians found it difficult to reconcile their principles with their allies when it appeared that the prisoners taken at St. Fagans bore “We long to see our King” on their hats; very soon in fact the English war became almost purely a Royalist revolt, and the war in the north an attempt to enforce a mixture of Royalism and Presbyterianism on Englishmen by means of a Scottish army. The former were disturbers of the peace and no -more, Nearly all the Royalists who had fought in the First Civil War had given their parole not to bear arms against the Parliament, and many honourable Royalists, foremost amongst them the old Lord Astley, who had fought the last battle for the king in 1646, refused to break their word by taking any part in the second war. Those who did so, and by implication those who

abetted them in doing so, were likely to be treated with the utmost rigour if captured, for the army was in a less placable mood in 1648 than in 1645, and had already determined to “call Charles Stuart, that man of blood, to an account for the blood

he had shed.” On May 21 Kent rose in revolt in the king’s name. A few days later a most serious blow to the Independents was struck by the defection of the navy, from command

of which

they had removed Vice-Admiral Batten, as being a Presbyterian.

Though a former lord high admiral, the earl of Warwick, also a Presbyterian, was brought back to the service, it was not long before the navy made a purely Royalist declaration and placed itself under the command of the prince of Wales. But Fairfax had a clearer view and a clearer purpose than the distracted Parliament. He moved quickly into Kent, and on the evening of June r stormed Maidstone by open force, after which the local levies dispersed to their homes, and the more determined Royalists, after a futile attempt to induce the City of London to

declare for them, fled into Essex. In Cornwall, Northamptonshire, North Wales and Lincolnshire the revolt collapsed as easily.

Only in South Wales, Essex and the north of England was there

serious fighting. In the first of these districts Cromwell rapidly reduced all the fortresses except Pembroke, where Laugharne Poyer and Powel held out with the desperate courage of deserters.

In the north, Pontefract was surprised by the Royalists, and shortly afterwards Scarborough Castle declared for the king.

Fairfax, after his success at Maidstone and the pacification of Kent, turned northward to reduce Essex, where, under their ardent, experienced and popular leader Sir Charles Lucas, the

Royalists were in arms in great numbers. He soon drove the enemy into Colchester, but the first attack on the town was

repulsed and he had to settle down to a long and wearisome siege en règle. A Surrey rising, remembered only for the death of the

young and gallant Lord Francis Villiers in a skirmish at Kingston

(July 7), collapsed almost as soon as it had gathered force, and its leaders, the duke of Buckingham and the earl of Holland, escaped, after another attempt to induce London to declare for them, to St. Albans and St. Neots, where Holland was taken prisoner. Buckingham escaped overseas. Lambert in the North-—By July 10 therefore the military situation was well defined. Cromwell held Pembroke, Fairfax Colchester, Lambert Pontefract under siege; elsewhere all serious local risings had collapsed, and the Scottish army had crossed the Border. It is on the adventures of the latter that the interest of the war centres. It was by no means the veteran army of Leven, which had long been disbanded. For the most part it consisted of raw levies, and as the kirk had refused to sanction the enterprise of the Scottish parliament, David Leslie and thousands of

experienced officers and men declined to serve. The duke of Hamilton proved to be a poor substitute for Leslie; his army, too, was so ill provided that as soon as England was invaded it began to plunder the countryside for the bare means of sustenance. Major-General Lambert, a brilliant young general of 29, was more than equal to the situation. He had already left the sieges

of Pontefract and Scarborough to Colonel Rossiter, and hurried

into Cumberland to deal with the English Royalists under Sir Marmaduke Langdale. With his cavalry he got into touch with the enemy about Carlisle and slowly fell back, fighting small rearguard actions to annoy the enemy and gain time, to Bowes and Barnard Castle. Langdale did not follow him into the mountains, but occupied himself in gathering recruits and supplies of material and food for the Scots. Lambert, reinforced from the midlands, reappeared early in June and drove him back to Carlisle with his work half finished. About the same time the local horse of Durham and Northumberland were put into the field by Si A. Hesilrige, governor of Newcastle, and under the command of Colonel Robert Lilburne won a considerable success

(June 30)

at the river Coquet. This reverse, coupled with the existence of Langdale’s force on the Cumberland side, practically compelled Hamilton to choose the west coast route for his advance, and his army began slowly to move down the long couloir between the mountains and the sea. The campaign which followed is one of the most brilliant in English history. Campaign of Preston —On July 8 the Scots, with Langdale as advanced guard, were about Carlisle, and reinforcements from Ulster were expected daily. Lambert’s horse were at Penrith, Hexham and Newcastle, too weak to fight and having only skilful leading and rapidity of movement to enable them to gain time. Far away to the south Cromwell was still tied down before Pembroke, Fairfax before Colchester. Elsewhere the rebellion, which had been put down by rapidity of action rather than sheer weight

of numbers, smouldered, and Prince Charles and the fleet cruised along the Essex coast. Cromwell and Lambert, however, understood each other perfectly, while the Scottish commanders quarrelled with Langdale and each other. Appleby Castle surrendered

to the Scots on July 31, whereat Lambert, who was still hanging on to the flank of the Scottish advance, fell back from Barnard Castle to Richmond so as to close Wensleydale against any attempt of the invaders to march on Pontefract. All the restless energy of Langdale’s horse was unable to dislodge him from the passes or find out what was behind that impenetrable cavalry screen.

GREAT

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The crisis was now at hand. Cromwell had received the surrender of Pembroke on the 11th, and had marched off, with his men unpaid, ragged and shoeless, at full speed through the midlands. Rains and storms delayed his march, but he knew that Hamilton in the broken ground of Westmorland was still worse

off. Shoes from Northampton and stockings from Coventry met him at Nottingham, and, gathering up the local levies as he went, he made for Doncaster, where he arrived on Aug. 8, having gained six days in advance of the time he had allowed himself for the march. He then called up artillery from Hull, exchanged his local levies for the regulars who were besieging Pontefract, and set off to meet Lambert. On the 12th he was at Wetherby, Lambert with horse and foot at Otley, Langdale at Skipton and Gargrave, Hamilton at Lancaster, and Sir George Monro with the Scots

from Ulster and the Carlisle Royalists (organized as a separate command owing to friction between Monro and the generals of the main army) at Hornby. On the 13th, while Cromwell was

marching to join Lambert at Otley, the Scottish leaders were still disputing as to whether they should make for Pontefract or continue through Lancashire so as to join Lord Byron and the Cheshire Royalists. Preston Fight.—On the r4th Cromwell and Lambert were at Skipton, on the 15th at Gisburn, and on the 16th they marched down the valley of the Ribble towards Preston with full knowl-

edge of the enemy’s dispositions and full determination to attack him. They had with them horse and foot not only of the army, but also of the militia of Yorkshire,

Durham, Northumberland

and Lancashire, and withal were heavily outnumbered, having only 8,600 men against perhaps 20,000 of Hamilton’s command. But the latter were scattered for convenience of supply along the road from Lancaster, through Preston, towards Wigan, Langdale’s corps having thus become the left flank guard instead of the advanced guard. Langdale called in his advanced parties, perhaps with a view to resuming the duties of advanced guard, on the night of the 13th, and collected them near Longridge. It is not

clear whether he reported Cromwell’s advance, but, if he did, Hamilton ignored the report, for on the 17th Monro was half a day’s march to the north, Langdale east of Preston, and the main army strung out on the Wigan road, Major-General Baillie with a

body of foot. the rear of the column, being still in Preston. Hamilton, yielding to the importunity of his lieutenant-general, the earl of Callendar, sent Baillie across the Ribble to follow the

main body just as Langdale, with 3,000 foot and soo horse only, met the first shock of Cromwell’s attack on Preston Moor. Hamilton, like Charles at Edgehill, passively shared in, without directing, the battle, and, though Langdale’s men fought magnificently, they were after four hours’ struggle driven to the Ribble. Baillie attempted to cover the Ribble and Darwen bridges on the Wigan road, but Cromwell had forced his way across both before nightfall. Pursuit was at once undertaken, and not relaxed until Hamilton had been driven through Wigan and Winwick to Uttoxeter and Ashbourne. There, pressed furiously in rear by Cromwell’s horse and held up in front by the militia of the midlands, the remnant of the Scottish army laid down its arms on Aug. 25. Various attempts were made to raise the Royalist standard in Wales and elswhere, but Preston was the death-blow. On Aug. 28, starving and hopeless of relief, the Colchester Royalists surrendered to Lord Fairfax. The victors in the Second Civil War were not merciful to those who had brought war into the land again. On the evening of the surrender of Colchester, Sir Charles Lucas and Sir George Lisle were shot. Laugharne, Poyer and Powel were sentenced to death, but Poyer alone was executed on April 25, 1649, being the victim selected by lot. Of five prominent Royalist peers who had fallen into the hands of the Parliament, three, the duke of Hamilton, the earl of Holland and Lord Capel, one of the Colchester prisoners and a man of high character, were beheaded at Westminster on March 9. Above all, after long hesitations, even after renewal of negotiations, the

warrant,

and

749

Charles

was

beheaded

at Whitehall

on

Jan. 30..

Cromwell in Ireland.—The campaign of Preston was undertaken under the direction of the Scottish parliament, not the kirk, and it needed the execution of the king to bring about a union of all Scottish parties against the English Independents. Even so, Charles II. in exile had to submit to long negotiations and hard conditions before he was allowed to put himself at the head of the Scottish armies. The marquis of Huntly was executed for taking up arms for the king on March 22, 1649. Montrose, under

Charles’s

directions,

made

a last attempt

to rally the

Scottish Royalists early in 1650. But Charles merely used Montrose as a threat to obtain better conditions for himself from the Covenanters, and when the noblest of all the Royalists was defeated (Carbisdale, April 27), delivered up to his pursuers (May 4), and executed (May 21, 1650), he was not ashamed to give way to the demands of the Covenanters, and to place himself at the head of Montrose’s executioners. His father, whatever his faults, had at least chosen to die for an ideal, the Church of England. Charles II. now proposed to regain the throne by allow-

ing Scotland to impose Presbyterianism on England, and dismissed all the faithful Cavaliers who had followed him to exile. Meanwhile, Ireland, in which a fresh war, with openly antiEnglish and anti-Protestant objects, had broken out in 1648, was thoroughly reduced to order by Cromwell, who beat down all resistance by his skill, and even more by his ruthless severity, in a brief campaign of nine months (battle of Rathmines near Dublin, won by Colonel Michael Jones, Aug. 2, 1649; storming of Drogheda, Sept. 11, and of Wexford, Oct. rz, by Cromwell; capture of Kilkenny, March 28, 1650, and of Clonmel, May 10). Cromwell returned to England at the end of May 1650, and on June 26 Fairfax, who had been anxious and uneasy since the execution of the king, resigned the command-in-chief of the army to his lieutenant-general. The pretext, rather than the reason, of Fairfax’s resignation was his unwillingness to lead an English army to reduce Scotland.

The Invasion of Scotland.—This important step had been resolved upon as soon as it was clear that Charles II. would come to terms with the Covenanters. From this point the Second Civil War becomes a war of England against Scotland. Here at least the Independents carried the whole of England with them. No Englishman cared to accept a settlement at the hands of a victorious foreign army, and on June 28, five days after Charles II. had sworn to the Covenant, the new lord general was on his way to the Border to take command of the English army. About the

same time a new militia act was passed that was destined to give full and decisive effect to the national spirit of England in the

great final campaign of the war. Meanwhile the motto frappes fort, frappez vite was carried out at once by the regular forces. On July 19, 1650 Cromwell made the final arrangements at Berwick-on-Tweed. Major-General Harrison, a gallant soldier and an extreme Independent, was to command the regular and auxiliary forces left in England, and to secure the Commonwealth against Royalists and Presbyterians. Cromwell took with him Fleetwood as lieutenant-general and Lambert as major-general, and his forces numbered about 10,000 foot and 5,000 horse. His

opponent David Leslie (his comrade of Marston Moor} had a much larger force, but its degree of training was inferior, it was more than tainted by the political dissensions of the people at large, and it was, in great part at any rate, raised by forced enlistment. On July 22 Cromwell crossed the Tweed. He marched on Edinburgh by the sea coast, through Dunbar, Haddington and Musselburgh, living almost entirely on supplies landed by the fleet which accompanied bim—for the country itself was incapable

of supporting even a small army—and on the zogth he found Leslie’s army drawn up and entrenched in a position extending from Leith to Edinburgh

Operations Around Edinburgh.—The same day a sharp but indecisive fight took place on the lower slopes of Arthur’s Seat, after which Cromwell, having felt the strength of Leslie’s line,

army and the Independents “purged” the House of their ill- drew back to Musselburgh. Leslie’s horse followed him up sharply, wishers, and created a court for the trial and sentence of the king. and another action was fought, after which the Scots assaulted The more resolute of the judges nerved the rest to sign the death- Musselburgh without success. Militarily Leslie had the best of

759

GREAT

REBELLION

it in these affairs, but it was precisely this moment that the kirk party chose to institute a searching three days’ examination of the political and religious sentiments of his army. The result was that the army was “purged” of 80 officers and 3,000 soldiers as it lay within musket shot of the enemy. Cromwell was more con-

cerned, however, with the supply question than with the distracted army of the Scots. On Aug. 6 he had to fall back as far as Dunbar to enable the fleet to land supplies in safety, the port of Musselburgh being unsafe in the violent and stormy weather which prevailed. He soon returned to Musselburgh and prepared to force Leslie to battle. In preparation for an extended manoeuvre three days’ rations were served out. Tents were also issued, perhaps for the first time in the civil wars, for it was a regular professional army, which had to be cared for, made comfortable and economized, that was now carrying on the work of the volunteers of the first war. Even after Cromwell started on his manoeuvre, the Scottish army was still in the midst of its political troubles, and, certain though he was that nothing but victory in the field would give an assured peace, he was obliged to intervene in the confused negotiations of the various Scottish parties. At last, however, Charles IT. made a show of agreeing to the demands of his strange supporters, and Leslie was free to move. Cromwell had now entered the hill country, with a view to occupying Queensferry and thus blocking up Edinburgh. Leslie had the shorter road and barred the way at Corstorphine Hill (Aug. 21). Cromwell, though now far from his base, manoeuvred again to his right, Leslie meeting him once more at Gogar (Aug. 27). The Scottish lines at that point were strong enough to dismay even Cromwell, and the manoeuvre on Queensferry was at last given up. It had cost the English army severe losses in sick, and much suffering in the autumn nights on the bleak hillsides.

Dunbar.—On the 28th Cromwell fell back on Musselburgh, and on the gist, after embarking his non-effective men to Dunbar, Leslie followed him up, and wished to fight a battle at Dunbar on Sunday, Sept. 1. But again the kirk intervened, this time to forbid Leslie to break the Sabbath, and the unfortunate Scottish commander could only establish himself on Doon Hill (see DuNBAR) and send a force to Cockburnspath to bar the Berwick road. He had now 23,000 men to Cromwells 11,000, and proposed, faute de mieux, to starve Cromwell into surrender. But the English army was composed of “ragged soldiers with bright muskets,” and had a great captain of undisputed authority at their head. Leslie’s, on the other hand, had lost such discipline as it had ever possessed, and was now, under outside influences, thoroughly disintegrated. Cromwell wrote home, indeed, that he

was “upon an engagement very difficult,” but, desperate as his position seemed, he felt the pulse of his opponent and steadily refused to take his army away by sea. He had not to wait long. It was now the turn of Leslie’s men on the hillside to endure pa-

tiently privation and exposure, and after one night’s bivouac, Leslie, too readily inferring that the enemy was about to escape by sea, came down to fight. The battle of Dunbar (q.v.) opened in the early morning of Sept. 3. It was the most brilliant of Cromwell's victories. Before the sun was high in the heavens the Scottish army had ceased to exist. Royalism in Scotland—After Dunbar it was easy for the victorious army to overrun southern Scotland, more especially as the dissensions of the enemy were embittered by the defeat of which they had been the prime cause. The kirk indeed put Dunbar to the account of its own remissness in not purging their army more thoroughly, but, as Cromwell wrote on Sept. 4, the kirk had “done its do.” “I believe their king will set up on his own score,” he continued, and indeed, now that the army of the kirk was destroyed and they themselves were secure behind the Forth and based on the friendly Highlands, Charles and the Cavaliers were im a position not only to defy Cromwell, but also to force the Scottish national spirit of resistance to the invader into a purely Royalist channel. Cromwell had only received a few drafts

and reinforcements from England, and for the present he could but block up Edinburgh Castle (which surrendered on Christmas eve), and ‘try to bring up adequate forces and material for the

siege of Stirling—an attempt which was frustrated by the bad. ness of the roads and the violence of the weather. The rest of the early winter of 1650 was thus occupied in semi-military, semj.

political operations between detachments of the English arm and certain armed forces of the kirk party which still maintaineg

a precarious existence in the western Lowlands, and in police work against the moss-troopers of the Border counties.

Early in

February 1651, still in the midst of terrible weather, Cromwe})

made another resolute but futile attempt to reach Stirling. This time he himself fell sick, and also his losses had to be made good by drafts of recruits from England, many of whom came most

unwillingly to serve in the cold wet bivouacs that had been reported. The tents were evidently not for cross-country manoeuvres manoeuvres, as we have seen, often général ordinaire of the 17th and manoeuvres on a smaller scale so as

issued for regular marches. against the enemy. ‘These took several days. The bon 18th centuries framed his not to expose his expensive

and highly trained soldiers to discomfort and the consequent temptation to desert. The English Militia.—About this time there occurred in England two events which had a most important bearing on the campaign. The first was the detection of a widespread RoyalistPresbyterian conspiracy—how widespread no one knew, for those of its promoters who were captured and executed certainly formed but a small fraction of the whole number. Harrison was ordered to Lancashire in April to watch the north Welsh, Isle of Man and Border Royalists, and military precautions were taken in various parts of England. The second was the revival of the militia. Since 1644 there had been no general employment of

local forces, the quarrel having fallen into the hands of the regular armies by force of circumstances. The New Model, though a

national army, resembled Wellington’s Peninsular army more than

the soldiers of the French Revolution and the American Civil War. It was now engaged in prosecuting a war of aggression against the hereditary foe over the Border—strictly the task of a professional army with a national basis. The militia was indeed raw and untrained.

Some of the Essex men

“‘fell flat on their

faces on the sound of a cannon.” In the north of England Harrison complained to Cromwell of the “badness” of his men, and the lord general sympathized, having “had much such stuff” sent him to make good the losses in trained men. His recruits were unwilling drafts for foreign service, but in England the new levies were trusted to defend their homes, and the militia was soon triumphantly to justify its existence on the day of Worcester. Inverkeithing.—While David Leslie organized and drilled the king’s new army beyond the Forth, Cromwell was, slowly and with frequent relapses, recovering from his illness. The English army marched to Glasgow in April, then returned to Edinburgh. The motives of the march and that of the return are alike obscure, but it may be conjectured that, the forces in England under Harrison having now assembled in Lancashire, the EdinburghNewcastle-York road had to be covered by the main army. Be this as it may, Cromwells health again broke down and his life was despaired of. Only late in Jume were operations actively resumed between Stirling and Linlithgow. At first Cromwell

sought without success to bring Leslie to battle, but he stormed Callendar House near Falkirk on July 13, and on July 16 he began the execution of a brilliant and successful manoeuvre. A force from Queensferry, covered by the English fleet, was thrown across the Firth of Forth to Northferry. Lambert followed with reinforcements, and defeated a detachment of Leslie’s army at Inverkeithing, on the 20th. Leslie drew back at once, but managed to fnd a fresh strong position in front of Stirling, whence

he defied Cromwell again. At this juncture Cromwell prepared to pass his whole army across the firth. His contemplated manoeuvre of course gave up to the enemy all the roads into England, and before undertaking it the lord general held a consultation with Harrison, as the result of which that officer took over the direct defence of the whole Border. But his mind was made up even before this, for on the

day he met Harrison at Linlithgow three-quarters of his whole army had already crossed into Fife. Burntisland, surrendered to

GREAT

REBELLION

Lambert on the 29th, gave Cromwell a good harbour upon which

to base his subsequent movements. On July 30 the English marched upon Perth, and the investment of this place, the key to Leslie’s supply area, forced the crisis at once. Whether Leslie would have preferred to manoeuvre Cromwell from his vantage-

ground or not is immaterial; the young king and the now predominant Royalist element at headquarters seized the longawaited opportunity at once, and on the 31st, leaving Cromwell to his own devices, the royal army marched southward to raise

the royal standard in England. The Third Scottish Invasion of England.—Then began the last and most thrilling campaign of the Great Rebellion. Charles II. expected complete success. In Scotland, vis-a-vis the extreme Covenanters, he was a king on conditions, and he was glad enough

to find himself in England with some thirty solidly organized regiments under Royalist officers and with no regular army in front

of him. He hoped, too, to rally not merely the old faithful Royal-

ists, but also the overwhelming numerical strength of the English Presbyterians to his standard. His army was kept well in hand, no excesses were allowed, and in a week the Royalists covered 15o m. On Aug. 8 the troops were given a well-earned rest between Penrith and Kendal. But the Royalists were mistaken in supposing that the enemy was taken aback by their new move. Everything had been foreseen both by Cromwell and by the Council of State in Westminster. The latter had called out the greater part of the militia on the 7th. Lieutenant-General Fleetwood began to draw to-

gether the midland contingents at Banbury, the London trained bands turned out for field service no fewer than 14,000 strong. Every suspected Royalist was closely watched, and the magazines of arms in the country-houses of the gentry were for the most part removed into the strong places. On his part Cromwell had quietly made his preparations. Perth passed into his hands on Aug. 2, and he brought back his army to Leith by the sth.

Thence he despatched Lambert with a cavalry corps to harass the invaders. Harrison was already at Newcastle picking the best of the county mounted troops to add to his own regulars. On the gth Charles was at Kendal, Lambert hovering in his rear, and Herrisom marching swiftly to bar his way at the Mersey. Fairfax emerged for a moment from his retirement to organize the Yorkshire levies, and the best of these as well as of the Lancashire,

Cheshire and Staffordshire militias were directed upon Warrington, which point Harrison reached on the rsth, a few hours in

front of Charles’s advanced guard. Lambert, too, slipping round the left flank of the enemy, joined Harrison, and the English fell back (16th), slowly and without letting themselves be drawn into a fight, along the London road. Campaign of Worcester.—Cromwel] meanwhile, leaving Monk with the least efficient regiments to carry on the war in Scotland, had reached the Tyne in seven days, and thence, marching 20 m. a day in extreme heat—with the country people carry-

734

father had been based on Oxford, Charles II. hoped, not unnaturally, to deal with an Independent minority more effectually

than Charles I. had done with a Parliamentary majority of the people of England. But even the pure Royalism which now ruled in the invading army could not alter the fact that it was a Scottish army, and it was not an Independent faction but all England that took arms against it. Charles arrived at Worcester on Aug. 22, and spent five days in resting the troops, preparing for further operations, and gathering and arming the few recruits who came in. It is unnecessary to argue that the delay was fatal; it was a necessity of the case foreseen and accepted when the march to Worcester had been decided upon, and had the other course, that of marching on London via Lichfield, been taken the battle would have been fought three days earlier with the same result. As affairs turned out Cromwell merely shifted the area of his concentration two marches to the south-west, to Evesham. Early on the 28th Lam-

bert surprised the passage of the Severn at Upton, 6 m. below Worcester, and in the action which followed Massey was severely wounded. Fleetwood followed Lambert. The enemy was now only 16,000 strong and disheartened by the apathy with which they had been received in districts formerly all their own. Cromwell, for the first and last time in his military career, had a two-to-one numerical superiority. The “Crowning Mercy.”—He took his measures deliberately. Lilburne from Lancashire and Major Mercer with the Worcestershire horse were to secure Bewdley Bridge on the enemy’s line of retreat. Lambert and Fleetwood were to force their way across the Teme (a little river on which Rupert had won his first

victory in 1642) and attack St. John’s, the western suburb of Worcester. Cromwell himself and the main army were to attack the town itself. On Sept. 3, the anniversary of Dunbar, the programme was carried out exactly. Fleetwood forced the passage of the Teme, and the bridging train (which had been carefully organized for the purpose) bridged both the Teme and the Severn. Then Cromwell on tbe left bank and Fleetwood on the right swept in a semicircle 4 m. long up to Worcester. Every hedgerow was contested by the stubborn Royalists, but Fleetwood’s men would not be denied, and Cromwell’s extreme right on the eastern side of the town repelled, after three hours’ hard fighting, the last desperate attempt of the Royalists to break out. It was indeed, as a German critic, Hoenig, has pointed out, the prototype of Sedan. Everywhere the defences were stormed as darkness came on, regulars and militia fighting with equal gallan-

try, and the few thousands of the Royalists who escaped during the night were easily captured by Lilburne and Mercer, or by the militia which watched every road in Yorkshire and Lancashire. Even the country people brought in scores of prisoners, for officers and men alike, stunned by the suddenness of the disaster, offered no resistance.

Charles escaped after many adventures, but he was one of the

ing their arms and equipment—the regulars entered Ferrybridge few men in his army who regained a place of saféty. The Parliaon the roth, at which date Lambert, Harrison and the north- mentary militia were sent home within a week. Cromwell, who western militia were about Congleton. The lord general had had ridiculed “such stuff” six months ago, knew them better now. during his march thrown out successively two flying columns “Your new raised forces,” he wrote to the House, “did perform under Colonel Lilburne to deal with the Lancashire Royalists singular good service, for which they deserve a very high estimaunder the earl of Derby. ZLilburne entirely routed the enemy at tion and acknowledgment.” Worcester resembled Sedan in much Wigan on Aug. 25. It seemed probable that a great battle would more than outward form. Both were fought by “nations in arms,” take place between Lichfield and Coventry about Aug. 25 or 26, by citizen soldiers who had their hearts in the struggle, and could and. that Cromwell, Harrison, Lambert and Fleetwood would all be trusted not only to fight their hardest but to march their best. take part in it. But the scene and the date of the dénouement Only with such troops would a general dare to place a deep river were changed by the enemy’s movements. Shortly after leaving between the two halves of his army or to send away detachments Warrington the young king had resolved to abandon the direct beforehand to reap the fruits of victory, in certain anticipation of march on London and to make for the Severn valley, where his winning the victory with the remainder. The sense of duty which father had found the most constant and the most numerous adher- the raw militia possessed in so high a degree, ensured the arrival ents in the first war, and which had been the centre of gravity of and the action of every column at the appointed time and place. the English Royalist movement of 1648. Sir Edward Massey, The result was, in brief, one of those rare victories in which a formerly the Parliamentary governor of Gloucester, was now with pursuit is superfluous—a “crowning mercy,” as Cromwell called Charles, and it was hoped that he would induce his fellow-Pres- it. There is little of note in the closing operations. Monk had byterians to take arms. The military quality of the Welsh border completed his task by May 1652; and Scotland, which had twice Royalists was well proved, that of the Gloucestershire Presbyte- attempted to impose its will on England, found itself reduced to rians not less so, and, based on Gloucester and Worcester as his the position of an English province under martial law. |

754

GREAT

SALT

LAKE—GREAT

Bistiocrapay.—Earl of Clarendon, The History of the Rebellion {Oxford, 1702-04, ed. W. D. Macray, Oxford, 1888) ; R. Baillie, Letters and Journals (Bannatyne Society, 1841); T. Carlyle, Cromwells Letters and Speeches (new edition, S. C. Lomas, London, r904) ; Fairfax Correspondence (ed. R. Bell, London, 1849); E. Borlace, History of the Irish Rebellion (London, 1695); R. Bellings, Fragmentum historicum, or ithe .. . War in Ireland (London, 1772); J. Heath, Chronicle of the late Intestine War (London, 1676) ; Military Memoir of Colonel Birch (Camden Saciety, new series, vol. vii., 1873); Autobiography of Captain John Hodgson (edition of 1882); Papers on the ear! of Manchester, Camden Society, vol. viii, and English Historical Review, vol. iii.; J. Ricraft, Survey of England’s Champions (1647, reprinted, London, 1828) ; ed. E. Warburton, Memoirs of Prince Rupert and the Cavaliers (London, 1849) ; J. Vicars, Jehovah-Jireh (1644), and England’s Worthies (1647), the latter reprinted in 1843; Anthony a Wood, History and Antiquities of the University of Oxford (ed. J. Gutch, Oxford, 1792-95}; Margaret, duchess of Newcastle, Life of William Cavendish, Duke of Newcastle (ed. C. H. Firth, London, 1886) ; Lucy Hutchinson, Memoir of the Life of Colonel Hutchinson (ed. C. H. Firth, Oxford, 1896); Memoirs of Edward Ludlow (ed. C. H. Firth, Oxford, 1892); S. Ashe and W. Goode, The Services of the Earl of Manchester's Army (London, 1644); H. Cary, Memorials of the Great Civil War (London, 1842); Patrick Gordon, Passages from the Diary of Patrick Gardon (Spalding Club, Aberdeen, 1859); J. Gwynne, Military Memoirs of tke Civil War (ed. Sir W. Scott, Edinburgh, 1822); Narratives of Hamiltons Expedition, r648 (C. H. Firth, Scottish Historical Society; Edinburgh, rgo4); Lord Hopton, Belum Civile (Somerset Record Society, London, 1902); risk War of r64r (Camden Society, old series, vol. xiv., 1841) ; Iter Carolinum, Marches of Charles I. z64r—-1649 (London, 1660) ; Hugh Peters, Reports from the Armies af Fairfax and Cromwell (London, 1645-46) ; “Journal of the Marches of Prince Rupert” (ed. C. H. Firth, Engl. Historical Review, 1898); J. Sprigge, Anglia Rediviva (London, 1847, reprinted Oxford, 1854); R. Symonds, Diary of the Marches of the Royal Army, 1644-1645 (ed. C. E. Long, Camden Society, old series, 1859) ; J. Corbet, The Military Government of Gloucester (London, 1645); M. Carter, Expeditions of Kent, Essex and Colchester (London, 1650); Tracts relating to the Civil War in Lancashire (ed. G. Ormerod, Chetham Society, London, 1844) ; Discourse of the War in Lancashire (ed. W. Beament, Chetham Society, London, 1864); Sir M. Langdale, The late Fight at Preston

(London, 1648); Journal of the Siege of Lathom House

(London,

1823); J. Rushworth, The Storming of Bristol (London, 1648); S. R. Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War (London, 1886) and History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate (London, 1903) ; C. H. Firth, Oliver Cromwell (New York and London, 1900), Cromwell’s Army (London, 1902) ; “The Raising of the Ironsides,” Transactions R. Hist. Society, 1899 and x190z; papers in English Historical Review, and memoirs of the leading personages of the period in Dictionary of National Biography; T. S. Baldock, Cromwell as æ Soldier (London, r899); F. Hoenig, Olver Cromwell (Berlin, 1887—89); Sir J. Maclean, Memoirs of the Family of Poyntz (Exeter, 1886); Sir C. Markham, Life of Fairfax (London, 1870); M. Napier, Life and Times of Montrose (Edinburgh, 1840) ; W. B. Devereux, Lives of the Earls of Essex fLondon, 1853}; W. G. Ross, Mil. Engineering in the Civil War (RE. Professional Papers, 1887) ; “The Battle of Naseby,” Englisk Historical Review, 1888; Oliver Cromwell and his Ironsides (Chatham, 1869}; F. N. Maude, Cavalry, its Past and Future (London, 1903); E. Scott, Rupert, Prince Palatine (London, 1899); M. Stace, Cromwelliana

(London, 1870); C. S. Terry, Life and Campaigns of Alexander Leslie,

Earl of Levex (London, 1899); Madame H. de Witt, The Lady of Lathom (London, 1869) ; F. Maseres, Tracts relating to the Civil War

(London, 1815) ; P. A. Charrier, Cromwell (London, 1903), also

paper

in Royal United Service Institution Journal, 1906; T. old and W. G. Ross, “Edgehill,” English Historical Review, 1887; The History of Basing House (Basingstoke, 1869); E. Broxap, “The Sieges of Hull,” Englisk Historical Review, 1905; J. Willis Bund, Tke Civil War in Worcestershire (Birmingham, 1905) ; ÇC. Coates, History of Reading (London, 1802); F. Drake, Eboracum: History of the City of York (London, 1736) ; N. Drake, Siege of Pontefract Castle (Surtees Society Miscellanea, London, 1861); G. N. Godwin, The Civil War in Hampshire (2nd ed., London, 1904); J. F. Hollings, Leicester during the Civil War (Leicester, 1840); R. Holmes, Sieges of Pontefract Castle

(Pontefract, 1887) ; A. Kingston, East Anglia and the Civil War (Lon-

don, 1897); H. E. Malden, “Maidstone, 1648,” English Hist. Review, 1892; W. Money, Battles of Newbury (Newbury, 1884) ; J. R. Phillips,

The Civil War in Wales and the Marches (London, 1874) ; G. Rigaud, Lines round Oxford (1880); G. Roberts, History of Lyme (London, 1834); [R. Robinson] Sieges of Bristol (Bristol, 1868) ; [J. H. Round] History of Colchester Castle (Colchester, 1882) and “The Case of Lucas and Lisle,” Transactions of R. Historical Society, 1894; R. R. Sharpe, London and the Kingdom (London, 1894); I. Tullie, Siege of Carlisle (1840); E. A. Walford, “Edgehill,” English Hist. Review, 1905; J. Washbourne, Bibliotheca Gloucesirensis (Gloucester, 1825); J. Webb, Civil War in Herefordshire (London, 1879). (C. F. A.)

GREAT SALT LAKE, a large body of shallow, briny water

in north-western Utah, U.S.A., situated about 4,200 ft. above sea-level. The lake was first accurately described by John C.

SLAVE

LAKE

Frémont in 1845, and was carefully surveyed in 1849 and 185g

by Capt. Howard Stansbury. The lake and the surrounding region were studied in 1890 by G. K. Gilbert, who gave a detailed description of it and of an earlier and greater lake, Lake Bonne. vile (see Uran) that covered its site and a large adjacent area Great Salt Lake has no outlet and is fed chiefly by the Jordan, Weber and Bear rivers, which flow from the mountains east and south-east of the lake. Since 1850 its area has varied from 1,759

to about 1,500 varied from 25 due to melting inflow of water

sq.m., its present area, and its mean depth has to 15 feet. The seasonal variation in its level, snow on the mountains, is about 16 inches. The and the area of the lake have been diminished

by irrigation, which increases evaporation.

The salinity of the

lake increases as its area decreases. The water has contained from 14 to 23% of saline matter, principally sodium chloride. Its average salinity is now nearly six times that of the ocean. It contains also sodium sulphate and other minerals. Although the waters of the Jordan, Weber and Bear rivers are considered fresh, they carry into the lake enough mineral matter to keep its water nearly at the point of saturation. When the temperature of the water falls below 20° F the salt begins to be precipitated. Salt is obtained from the lake and marketed profitably, but not in quantities large enough to reduce perceptibly the salinity of the water. The lake contains several islands and is crossed west of Ogden by the Southern Pacific raijway, over what is called the Lucin cut-off, a trestle and a gravel fll about 27 m. long. Its bed consists mainly of sand, but along its shores there are crusts of common salt, sodium sulphate and gypsum. The specific gravity of the water is so great that a swimmer can not sink in it. In the lake are a few species of seaweed (algae), the larvae of two genera of flies (Ephydra and Tipula), an insect belonging to the genus Corixa and a brine

shrimp (Artemia).

Lake Bonneville was more than 1,000 ft. above the level of Great Salt Lake, and lasted long enough to form beaches that can still be plainly traced. Below the Bonneville terraces there are others, the most conspicuous of which form what is called the Provo shore line, which is 625 ft. above the present level of Great Salt Lake. See I. C. Russell, Lakes of North America (New York, 1895); J. E. Talmage, The Great Salt Lake, Present and Past (Salt Lake City,

1900); G. K. Gilbert sketch in U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 61a,

pp. 94-96 (Washington rors).

GREAT

(G. McL. Wo.)

SERPENT MOUND.

A remarkable prehistoric

earthwork, so called from its shape, on a narrow crescentic spur, about roo ft. high, flanked by Brush creek and East creek, in Adams county, Ohio. Commencing with the partly obliterated head, at the very point of the spur, and proceeding to the tail, one comes to an enlargement, suggestive of the enlarged neck of the cobra, formed by an outer wall on each side beginning at the small head and uniting in the rear. Within this area is a wall, oval in plan, enclosing a low mound 15 ft. in diameter. In each side of the outer wall is an opening or gateway, and behind the interior oval is a slightly curved cross-wall. From the union of the main walls to the end of the tail the serpent body is represented by a single embankment, fairly uniform in size, but diminishing gradually toward the tip, having serpentine bends and ending with a coil of two complete turns. Following the curves and bends the entire length of the structure is 1,330 ft. and its width 15 to 20 feet. The height of the embankment probably never exceeded 4 feet. The most reasonable suggestion respecting the enlargement and its inner oval is that when the neck and head are restored, the oval marks the position of the heart of the reptile and in all probability was the place where were performed the ceremonies in connection with the strange structure.

GREAT

SLAVE LAKE

(Artraruscow), a lake of Mac-

kenzie district, Canada. It is situated between 606° so’ and 62° 55° N. and 108° 40’ and 117° W., at an altitude of 391 ft. above the sea. It is 325 m. long, from 15 to so m. wide, and includes an area of 9,770 sq.m. The water is very clear and deep. Its coast line is irregular and deeply indented by large bays, and its northeastern shores are rugged and mountainous. The western shores

GREAT

SOUTHERN

are well wooded, chiefly with spruce, bui the northern and eastern are dreary and barren. It is navigable from about the ist of

July to the end of October. The bulk of its water empties by the Mackenzie river into the Arctic Ocean. It was discovered in 1771

by Samuel Hearne. GREAT SOUTHERN OCEAN, the name given to the belt of water which extends almost continuously round the globe be-

tween the parallel of 40° S. and the Antarctic Circle (664° S.). The fact that the southern extremity of South America is the

only land extending into this belt gives it special physical impor-

OCEAN—GREECE

7953

the roth century, and was declared a kingdom in 1830. Initially it consisted of a small area within the narrowed and dissected

tongue of land which prolongs the Balkan peninsula to the south, together with some of the islands of the Aegean Sea. It did not include even the greater part of the lands where Greeks predominated in the population, and where the Greek mode of life was that best adapted to the natural conditions. Nor, as the sequel showed, did it contain productive areas enough to form the economic basis of an independent unit in the modern world. In the period between the date of the founding of the kingdom and 1923,

when by the Treaty of Lausanne new changes were made in the frontiers, the Greek state underwent a progressive, though not regard it as a separate ocean from which the Atlantic, Pacific and uninterrupted, process of territorial expansion. Although that expansion took place at the expense of Turkey, it was not, as Indian Oceans may be said to radiate. (See OCEAN.) might be supposed, only a process of “redeeming” more and more GREAT WAR, THE, 1914-1918: see Wortp War. GREAT WESTERN RAILWAY COMPANY. A Greeks from the control of Turkish overlords. Such an extension British railway company, which was incorporated in 1835 to over lands occupied predominantly by peoples of Greek sympaconstruct a line of railway between Bristol and London, now thies did occur, though it was not complete. In addition, particuserves the territory embraced within a triangle bounded by lines larly in the period which opened with the Balkan wars of 1912-3, drawn from London to Liverpool, Liverpool to Penzance, and there was a spread into areas, such as Macedonia and Thrace, Penzance to London. Its headquarters are at Paddington station, where the Greek element was far from being the only one, and which is the London terminus of the railway. The capital of the where the national sympathies of the existing inhabitants were not company exceeds 152 millions sterling and its trains run over regarded as of prime importance. The possession of these areas 8,916 miles of track along which there are about 1,500 stations did, however, offer certain well-marked economic advantages; in and halts. The rolling stock consists of approximately 4,000 particular they include plains and basins capable of large-scale locomotives, 10,000 passenger train vehicles, and 88,000 freight grain production. The result is that the Greece whose frontiers train vehicles. The staff numbers 110,849. During the year 1927 were delimited by a long series of treaties, culminating in that of the railway carried 130 million passengers and 78 million tons of Lausanne, is not geographically a unit. Modern Position.—Almost as important are the facts that, by freight. The fastest “start to stop” train run in the British Isles (Swindon to London) runs at 61-8 m.p.h. and the famous “non- the beginning of the year 1925, all the lands included within the stop” run by the Cornish Riviera express (London to Plymouth, Hellenic Republic, which was established in 1924, were inhabited by a predominantly Greek population, and that only comparatively 2282 m.) is accomplished in four hours. The locomotive, carriage and wagon works of the railway are small numbers of Greeks lived outside their limits. This was the at Swindon. About 13,000 persons are employed there, and the result of vast migrations which, beginning with the Balkan wars, annual wage bill is over £2,000,000. The company operates steam- culminated in the period 1922-4, when some 1,350,000 Greek ship services between Fishguard and Ireland and to the Channel refugees were ejected from Asia Minor, and bad to fnd homes within the Greek state. Many of these have been settled in Islands. (F. J. C. PR) tance in relation to tides and currents, and its position with reference to the Antarctic Ocean and continent makes it convenient to

GREBE,

the name for aquatic birds of the family Podi-

cipedidae, containing several genera including Podiceps and Centropelma. Grebes are distinguished by the rudimentary tail, the legs placed far back on the body for diving, the flattened tarsi to diminish water resistance, and the elongated toes furnished with broad lobes of skin in lieu of webs. Of the five European species, P. ruficollis is the well-known

little grebe or dabchick, which has a wide range in the Old World.

The great crested grebe (P. cristatus) is also a wide-ranging species. The subarctic red-necked grehe (P. griseigena) inhabits Europe and America, as does P. auritus, the horned or Slavonian grebe. Various other species inhabit North America, among which may be mentioned the western grebe (Aechmophorus occidentalis) with a long slender neck and black and white plumage; and the

pied-billed grebe (Podilymbus podiceps), the best known grebe in eastern U.S.A. Seyeral more are found in South America, of which the most remarkable is the flightless C. micropterus of Lake Titicaca, The plumage, short and close, is usually some shade of brown above, white and glossy below. All species of Podiceps are good

flyers. The nest consists of a mass of water-weeds, in a shallow cup on which the chalky white eggs are laid, the parent covering

them before leaving the nest. The eggs are usually quite wet, but the heat of the decaying vegetation helps to keep the temperature up, The young are clad in striped black, white, and brown down. The parents are often seen carrying the young on their back. If danger threatens they take them under their wings and dive

with them. Most species develop special nuptial adornments in the spring in both sexes, in the form of crests or tufts, and very remarkable

Greek Macedonia and Greek Thrace, from which large numbers of Turks were removed to Anatolia. There þad been earlier migrations within the peninsula also which had reduced the number of non-Greek peoples within these areas. These enforced movements, which brought most of the scattered Greeks of the Near East within the ring-fence of the enlarged

Greek state, were a complete reversal of a long historical process, for, from the Classical Period onwards, the lands which are geographically Greek have always been centres of dispersion; a movement inwards towards a centre is quite a new phenomenon in

Greek history. The two outstanding features of Greece as delimited in the post-war period are thus that it contains a predominantly Greek population settled within an area not all of which is suitable for the characteristic modes of life, or has a tradition of Greek culture, Further, while in the earlier stages of its existence Modern Greece contained a proportion only of the Greeks of the Mediterranean area, the majority of these now live within its borders, Before the years when frontiers in what had been Turkish lands began to change with startling rapidity, there were two groups of Greeks, those of the kingdom, and those living in other lands to whom the kingdom represented an idealised motherland. Since the end of 1924 the numbers of the latter have been greatly diminished and the two groups are faced with the need of living together within a limited and yet diverse territory. Greece has an area of about 50,000 sq. miles, not much less than

that of England, and an estimated population of about 64 millions. It is thus scantily peopled, as indeed one would expect from its generally mountainous and barren nature. In the island

of Crete it extends south of lat. 35°, and in Thrace approaches though it does not reach lat. 42°. Its northern limit thus reaches the latitude of Rome, its southern that of Sfax on the east coast

mutual courtship ceremonies have been described (see Courtof Tunisia, and the Peloponnesus or Morea corresponds in position SHIP OF ANIMALS). to the island of Sicily, The first Greece, that of 1830, lay wholly GRECO, EL: see THEOTOCOPULI, GREECE, in the modern sense, is a state which obtained its in latitudes corresponding to those of the extreme south of independence from Turkey by force of arms in the earlier part of peninsular Italy and the island of Sicily.

LoF

GREECE

Original Greece.—That original Greece consisted of (1) The

[ISLANDS

ment of the islands, combined with the nature of the prevaijj

Peloponnesus, the almost insular prolongation of the Greek peninsula proper, to which it is attached only by the low and narrow Isthmus of Corinth, now cut through by the Corinth Canal; (2) a part of the Greek peninsula proper; (3) certain of the Aegean

winds, made primitive navigation easy. Commodities with which to trade, and an environment which encouraged the growth of a sea-faring population, might not have sufficed, however, to give the men of Syros (Syra) and the other islands their significance

islands. Till the troubled period which began with the Balkan wars the additions were comparatively small. The most notable

Among these were such facts as that the resources of the islands

were the Ionian islands (1864), and the plain of Thessaly (1878), in the northern transitional area where the Greek peninsula begins to merge into the wider one to the north. The last period brought the addition of more islands, including the large one of Crete, and of the northern continental strip from the line of the lower

as traders and middlemen had it not been for subsidiary causes

are strictly limited, even when supplemented by fishing, so that a powerful motive existed for developing sea-trade; that ease of

navigation is not limited to the archipelago but is characteristic of a wider surrounding area; and that the lands which can thus be

reached have both greater and more varied resources. Thus there

Maritsa westward to the shores of the Ionian Sea. It brought also the bid for a part of the western shore of Asia Minor, and the failure of that bid, with the resultant expulsion of the Asiatic

was not only the possibility of multiple contacts with other peoples, but a willingness to learn, a susceptibility to new ideas. were conditions of survival. Even in the Copper Age the islanders

Greeks. Up to 1913 Turkey was the enemy, and the struggle was in essence one to free from its grasp territories which from the Turkish standpoint were purely marginal and relatively insignificant. In the later period not only was Turkey fighting for her existence but the Greek advance to the north brought them into direct contact—and sometimes conflict—with the Balkan nations of Serbia and Bulgaria and the incipient Albanian nation. Nor were these states the only ones. In so complex and interlocked a grouping of political units as is Modern Europe no set of small states can be allowed to work out its destiny unhampered by external interference; at every stage the greater powers took a hand if not always in the fray at least in the settlements. The frontiers of Greéce were thus fixed as the result of the interaction of two sets of forces, the Greek national spirit acting from within and the pressure of other peoples imposing checks from without. That national spirit again was in origin a response to a definite and highly peculiar set of natural conditions which prevail in parts of the areas surrounding the Aegean. Any account of the geography of the Greek lands should start from the region where these conditions show their fullest development, and where therefore the characteristically Greek spirit may be expected in its most typical form. The Greek Islands.—There can be no doubt as to the position of this region. From, the very beginnings of history that particular type of culture which for convenience we call Greek, using the word in a very wide and generalised form, has been maritime, and certain islands and island groups bave printed it with its most distinctive features. One island group in particular must be noted. To the south of the Aegean, forming a broken bridge between the Greek mainland and Asia Minor, lies a roughly circular archipelago of small islands, the Cyclades. Nearly in the centre of the group lies the small island of Syros (Syra) with the very much smaller and rocky island of Delos to the east of it. Much further to the south, separated by an island-free stretch of sea, lies an island festoon, forming an interrupted semi-circle between the extreme south of the Peloponnesus and the south-east of Asia Minor. Crete, the central, and by far the largest island of the festoon, may, in relation to the Cyclades, be regarded as “continental.” It has an area of 3,328 sq.miles, while Naxos, the largest of the Cyclades, extends only to 173 sq.m., Syros to 31 sq.m. and the islet of Little Delos only covers about xr sq.m. If Crete was the seat of the development of the first great Aegean civilization, that of the Minoan period, yet it may be said that the culture type received a great part of its specific imprint in the smaller islands. Particularly significant in this connection is the way in which Syros (Syra) and Delos leap into prominence at successive periods of history. In the Aegean Copper Age (3000-2400 B.C.) the Cyclades, with Syros as the commercial capital, were a great centre of Aegean trade. That trade had a varied basis. In the first place the islands contain a variety of useful rocks and minerals, some of which have a limited distribution of Mediterranean Lands.

had learnt to stimulate trade by working up their own raw material, and their weapons, their pottery, their marble vases and figurines were widely distributed.

That first predominance of Syros (Syra) as a Cycladean centre was lost as Crete rose to greatness in the Bronze Age, and the

main seaways shifted further south.

It has, however, been gen-

erally true that whenever there is no part of the surrounding area

of outstanding importance then the advantages of the central position of the Cyclades display themselves by the rise of a great mart within. Thus during the earlier part of the 19th century, when Athens and its port of Piraeus were slowly recovering from the effects of Turkish misrule, it was on Syra that one of the chief

ports of the Eastern Mediterranean was established.

Its impor-

tance only declined as the Piraeus developed. Delos, sacred formerly to Apollo, whose reputed birthplace it was, but of no importance except for its harbour, shows similar conditions. In

the 5th century B.c. it was the centre of the marine confederacy

established under the presidency of Athens. Some centuries later it became a great trade centre, especially. for the slave trade. During the Turkish period both Syra and Delos became centres of piracy, piracy being a natural development under unfavourable conditions in areas which in happier times are foci of legitimate trade. That the same qualities which made the Aegean folk great sea-traders made them also effective pirates is shown by the characteristic habit of building the villages on sites relatively remote from the sea and out of sight from it—so as to offer no temptation to the passing sea-brigand, and give to the inhabitants a chance of a warning before an attack. . Greek Culture and its Geographical Basis.—If then the Cyclades may be regarded as the source from which some of the essential elements of Greek culture flowed, a question arises as to the characters to which they owe this distinction. Not, it seems clear, only to the island position combined with Mediterranean relief, natural vegetation and climate; for a similar combination occurs in, e.g., the Dalmatian islands where an indigenous culture of high standard did not arise. Nor can it be associated directly with the Mediterranean crop plants and methods of cultivation, for the plants can be grown, by identical methods, in many other parts of the Mediterranean Lands. Nor can the importance of the varied, if limited, mineral resources be over-emphasised, for Sardinia and Corsica show that parts of the western Mediterranean have equally varied and more extensive deposits. The root of the matter is to be sought in the combination of ease of movement over the sea, and the diversity and natural advantages of the regions which could be reached by sea-routes. Both require fuller analysis. The Aegean is characterised both by its multiplicity of islands and by the articulation of its eastern and western shores. Of the islands the Cyclades and the southern semi-circle have been

already noted.

The Northern Sporades, or “scattered islands,”

may be mentioned as another group which, with Lemnos and other Particularly notable are the obsidian of Melos, so important in islands to the north-east, form a third broken bridge between early days since the flint of other parts of Europe is absent in the European and Asiatic shores, of special importance because Mediterranean Lands; the marble of Paros and Naxos and the it leads, as it were, to the entrance to the Dardanelles and thus latter's emery; the metallic ores of Seriphos of which the small to the Black Sea. In addition to these linking belts both shores supplies of copper were especially valuable in early days; and the show a multiplicity of coastal islands and peninsulas. The former, widely distributed potter’s clay. Second the number and arrange- as is notably the case with the large island of Euboea off the coast

ISLANDS]

GREECE

of Greece, may be separated by channels so narrow as to appear part of the mainland; the latter are complex and diversified,

enclosing sheltered gulfs and bays. Everywhere, that is to say, the land is deeply inter-penetrated by the sea; everywhere havens

innumerable are available. Here then is no empty, inhospitable sea. Further, the climate is highly favourable to the sailor, at least

during the summer season.

Fog is rare and the bright sunshine

means that the alternation of land and sea breezes takes place with

great regularity. The land breeze will take the mariner out of his

haven in the early morning before the sun has come to its strength, and the sea breeze can be used to bring him back to his own or another harbour. These alternating air currents prevail in the neighbourhood of land, that is, aid the sailor at the two critical

points of his course. But in the open the dominant summer winds,

particularly in July and August, are those northerly ones which the Ancient Greeks called Etesian. In the Aegean the Etesian wind has a north-easterly direction, and its late summer strength is

important because it brings home adventurers who have gone in search of the corn, the fish and the furs of the Black Sea Lands. More than this, the wind sets going currents which, flowing from north to south in the centre, with a return in the opposite direction along the coasts, facilitate to-and-fro journeys. Finally, winds and currents alike bring traffic from the Cyclades to Crete. But Crete is already outside the Aegean air circulation, and more exposed to the winds which blow down the west coast of the Greek

peninsula and are chiefly north-westerly. Those winds carry ships towards Egypt and the Asiatic margin. Crete faces northward to the Aegean world and to the wider and contrasted worlds which can be reached from its north-eastern corner; eastward lie the copper island of Cyprus and the Syrian shore; southward is Africa and that great centre of early civiliza-

tion, Egypt. It was certainly the great intermediary by which the culture of the Orient was transmitted to Europe, but it was through the intervention of the smaller Aegean islands that that culture was adapted and diversified, introduced into the coastal

areas of the adjacent mainlands and became essentially Greek. The Greek Lands.—Beginning then with this conception of Greek culture as an island product, limited in its development on the smaller islands by want of space, and spreading inevitably into those parts of the surrounding lands which were sufficiently penetrated by the sea to show certain island features, we are in a position to make an intelligible survey of the areas politically

Greek. 1. The Islands.—The islands form naturally a first division. While the Cyclades and the Northern Sporades formed part of the first Greece of 1830, and the Ionian islands, from Corfu in the north through the currant-producing islands ending in Zante, formerly a British protectorate, were ceded in 1863 and handed over in 1864, the fate of the others was not decided till the first quarter of the present century. Crete was ceded by Turkey finally in 1913. The previous year, during the war between Turkey and Italy, the large island of Rhodes, off south-western Asia Minor, and the twelve smaller neighbouring islands forming the Dodecanese, were occupied by the latter power, and remain in its possession. Greek claims to the remaining Aegean islands have been admitted with the exception of Imbros, Tenedos and the small Rabbit islands, retained by Turkey as a necessary part of the defences of the Dardanelles. With these exceptions all the Aegean islands are now politically Greek. They have always been very definitely Greek so far as population is concerned, for the possible modes of life, including cultivation of the garden type, fishing and sea-trading are those for which the Greeks show more aptitude than any other of the Near Eastern peoples. Nor is there, as in parts of the Greek mainland, any considerable stretch of territory where these occupations are excluded, which might invite settlement by non-Greek peoples. In many cases also the islands enjoyed a relative free-

dom during the Turkish period which helped to maintain a national spirit, and enabled the islanders to carry on their tradi-

tional role of guardians and disseminators of the characteristic culture. Even the migrations constantly tending to take place—

733

inward as conditions proved particularly intolerable on the mainlands east or west, outward, as when Athens and the Piraeus were able to take over much of the trade of Syra—were but a repetition of those which had occurred throughout historical time. The Ionian islands include Corfu, Leukas (Santa Maura), Cephalonia, Ithaka and Zante, with others. They owe their importance primarily to the fact that Cephalonia, Ithaka and Zante, with parts of the adjacent mainland, constitute tHe main currant-producing area of the world. The plant requires for complete success a delicate combination of conditions of soil and climate, the former requiring to be dry, stony and lime-containing, and this comparatively small strip of country is very favourable. It is hardly too much to say that at the outset Modern Greece had its basis in the currant trade, hence the intense desire for the incorporation of the Ionian islands. But dependence on a luxury product of this kind involves great risk, especially when the area of production is so small; for a long period the whole economic life of Greece depended on the currant crop, itself limited to a small part of the state territories, and there forming practically the only crop. The question at once arises why the typical Mediterranean products, which form important articles of export from such countries as Italy, Spain and the Atlas lands, were not also available in quantity in Greece. Such products are yielded by many of the islands, both Ionian and Aegean, in considerable amount. On the other hand production, in relation to home demand, is generally limited on the mainland, so that much of that demand has to be met by island produce, thus reducing the surplus available for export. In detail it may be noted that the olive, though widespread, is most extensively grown in the Peloponnesus and the Ionian islands. Olive oil stands third in the list of exports, but by value it ranks much lower than currants, owing to the fact that it is used universally in the Greek lands, and not all of these can supply their own needs. Wine is even more widely produced, though again the islands rank high among the producing areas. Some, such as Cephalonia in the Ionian group, and Santorin, Melos and Naxos in the Cyclades, yield wines which are of value in external commerce, but most of the Greek wines are of poor quality, and rendered distasteful to non-Greek palates by the addition of resin obtained from the Aleppo pine. This addition increases its keeping and, it is said, also its thirst-quenching qualities, but practically limits its consumption to Greek lands. Oranges and other citrus fruits are produced especially in Corfu, where the moist climate and mild winters are very favourable, also in some of the Cyclades, such as Naxos, in the Peloponnesus, especially the south, as well as in Chios and Crete. But as we have seen the last two did not become Greek till the present century, and production on the Greek mainland is generally not extensive, except in the south of the Peloponnesus. The line marking the northern limit of the tree in the mainland runs surprisingly far south, for it crosses Attica, some 5° lat. south of the orange-producing region of the French Riviera. This is associated with the absence of any transverse mountain range in the Greek peninsula to give protection from continental winds. Greece as a whole is thus not one of the great orange-exporting countries of the Mediterranean, and this is true generally of other fruits, despite their wide extension, particularly in the islands. The crop which ranks in the post-war period as most important so far as the export trade is concerned is, curiously enough, tobacco, exports of tobacco greatly exceeding those of currants. If the Greek extension northwards had as one of its prime motives the desire to obtain cereal-producing lands to supplement the small yield of the Greek lands proper, another reason, equally important, was the need of obtaining areas which would produce tobacco as an article of export. Parts of Macedonia are particularly well suited to tobacco production, but it is very interesting to find that the cultivation of the plant is spreading in the islands, sometimes at the expense of the vine. This must be regarded as a reflex effect on the old lands of the acquisition of the new, for the cultivation of “Turkish” tobacco was well established

756

GREECE

in the northern areas before it became Greek. In the Cyclades, Amorgos produces tobacco for export, and great efforts are being made to extend its cultivation to Chios. Generally it may be said that the islands produce among them all the characteristic Greek crops, but with the exception of currants, olive oil and as yet small amounts of tobacco, the greater part of their agricultural produce is absorbed by the home market. If peace can be preserved, however, it is to be expected that the islands off the west coast of Asia Minor which became Greek at the last settlement, may increase their productivity to a notable extent. Chios, which is reputed to be the most fertile of all the Aegean islands, and showed a considerable increase of population at the census of 1920, is a case in point. 2. The Peloponnesus—This may be compared to a hand, at-

tached to the arm-like Greek peninsula by an almost severed wrist. The thumb is formed by the Argolis peninsula, and while the fifth finger is missing, the other three are represented by elongated promontories, separated by the Gulfs of Laconia and Messenia. Between the most easterly of these promontories and the Argolis peninsula, with its girdle of islands, lies the Gulf of Nauplia. To the north the Gulf of Patras, widening beyond the narrows of the Strait of Lepanto into the Gulf of Corinth, is separated from the head of the Gulf of Aegina, or Saronic Gulf, by the isthmus of Corinth, about 34 m. wide at its narrowest point, and falling to some 260 ft. above sea-level. Since even in ancient times small boats could be dragged across the portage of the isthmus, the Peloponnesus was always potentially an island, and with the piercing of the Corinth canal it has become actually insular. Further, no point within it is much more than 30 m. from the nearest sea.

It is all the more curious to find that in the life of the area the sea has counted for relatively little, and that in some respects it is more “continental,” more Balkan, than are the parts of Central Greece lying to the north of the Gulf of Corinth. The ap-

pearance of an Albanian element in the population may be as-

sociated with the presence of a central upland block, repeating many of the characters of the mountains which traverse the whole western side of the Balkan peninsula. But a small-scale relief map shows, particularly to the west, to the north and to the east at the head of the Gulf of Nauplia, coastal plains, and these one would expect to be in close connection with the sea. But except to the north, where the Gulf of Corinth with its ports gives free access to seaways, and, if to a more limited extent, in the east where Argolis juts out into the Aegean, pointing to the

Cyclades and Crete, a certain remoteness from the main currents of Greek life, a remoteness summed up in the ancient contrast between Athens and Sparta, is characteristic. This has its geographical basis in the difficulty in making effective contact with the sea. Good ports are few and not always well placed in relation to areas of settlement. The land also tends to fall into series of compartments, more or less sharply separated from one another. Even where, as in the case of the basin of Sparta, these take the form of fertile lowlands relatively near the coast, there are barriers to free communication which, however insignificant

in themselves, have acted as checks ta the transport of goods. Generally we may say that the characteristic settlement of main-

land Greece, well exemplified by Athens, consists of three elements, 2 rock of refuge, a productive plain and a port on the margin of the plain. But in the Peloponnesus the third element is either absent, or has only rarely a close relation to the other

[THE PELOPONNESYS

streams tend to flow underground for much of their course, the water disappearing into great chasms, so that there is no surface

flow to the sea. All the usual features of karst lands are present. Thus where the surface is covered by non-porous material, de.

rived from impure limestone rocks after the carbonate has heen

removed in solution, water is held up in lakes, such as those of

Peneus and Stymphalus, or in swamps.

The water level in the

swamps varies with the height of the underground water-table and maize can be sown on the wet land, to ripen as the water drains away in full summer. Springs are also abundant at the base of the rocks which surround the polyen, or basins, with their

covering of red earth. These basins tend to occur in rows, and in classical times each was the site of a settlement, placed where

spring water was available, and maintained by the produce of the lands. To-day only Tripolitsa is of any importance, and it con. tains but 14,000 inhabitants. It lies on the railway which crosses

the Peloponnesus diagonally, connecting Corinth with the port of Kalamata on the Messenian Gulf.

The basins generally yield

wheat and maize in the damper areas, slopes and fruit-trees, which are of the than the Mediterranean type because 1,800 ft.). The aloofness of this part marked.

with vines on the drier Central European rather of the elevation (over of Arcadia is thus well

Western Arcadia, despite the fact that a greater variety of rocks is present, limestones ceasing to predominate, is in scarcely better case. It has a normal river system, being drained by the

Alpheus and its numerous tributaries.

This has encroached to

some extent on the gathering ground of the Eurotas, the only other considerable river of the Peloponnesus, which flows south-

ward through the basin of Sparta to the Gulf of Laconia. The Alpheus, after leaving Arcadia, enters the Ionian Sea through Elis and Achaia. It does not, however, connect western Arcadia with the sea, for both the main stream and its tributaries pass through steep-sided gorges, which form a great obstacle to communication. Though there are fertile sections on the course of the streams, western Arcadia as a whole is a poor country, mostly devoted to stock-raising, especially of sheep, and with remnants only of its ancient forests. To the north-west lies the department of Elis and Achaia, hilly in the interior but with a fairly extensive coastal plain. This forms an important part of the currant-producing lands of Greece, but in classical times was aloof and neglected. The ancient town of Qlympia, on the lower Alpheus, reminds us that it was neutral ground, on which the various Greek peoples could meet in friendly rivalry. Patras (62,000) has taken over under modern conditions the earlier function of Corinth, to which it is connected by a railway. It is the largest town in the Peloponnesus. Passing eastwards along the Gulf we come to the terraced area of Corinth, typically Greek in that the productive lands lie in close relation to the sea. In early days Corinth had a double importance in its command both of a seaway and a land route. So long as the journey round Cape Matapan in the south represented a dangerous adventure, its possible avoidance by the isthmus portage had a value which it lost with improvements in methods of navigation. The town at the same time guarded the road into the Peloponnesus from the north. The Argolis peninsula is for the most part barren and moun» tainous, though the islands and some fertile areas at its extremity had importance in classical times. Its great interest, however,

lies in the fertile though dry Argos basin at the head of the Gulf. This plain, despite the low rainfall due to the sheltered position, The central upland is mainly though not wholly included in and the limited possibilities of irrigation, has always been imthe modern department of Arcadia, and is surrounded by a peri- portant. It is on the road to the north, for a pass leads over to pheral zone in which lowland basins alternate with mountains and Corinth; the ruins of Mycene and Tiryns recall the fact that it uplands. This peripheral belt is included in the departments of is within reach of Crete, while the modern town of Argos stands Corinth and Argolis to the north-east and Achaia and Elis to the on the site of the ancient one. The port of Nauplia (7,000) was north-west, with those of Laconia and Messenia to the south. the first capital of Modern Greece. Along the northern border of Arcadia lie three mountain groups, The hill country of central Arcadia is continued southwards ali rising well above 7,000 ft., forming, from west to east, Olonos, into two ranges which form the promontories bounding the Gulf Chelmo and Zirie. To the south of this mountain belt there of Laconia. The eastern range, the Malevo or Parnon, does not stretches in eastern Arcadia an upland area of markedly karstic rise much above 6,000 ft., but the western, the Taygetus, bears characters. Owing to the presence of the limestone rocks the in Hagios Elias (7,904 ft.) the culminating point of the Pelopontwo.

CENTRAL REGION]

GREECE

757

nesus, and is peculiarly bare, barren and rocky. Between the two | increased the area of cultivatable ground. A further point of inwhat was probably once a continuation of the Gulf has been filled terest is that the depression to which it owes its origin is as it

however, a continuous plain, for a rocky bar, cut through by the

were continued beyond the central backbone, on the western side of the peninsula. There, in south-western Aetolia, is a lowland

lower and less continuous than those of Laconia. Pylos or Navarino, on the western coast of the most westerly promontory, has a fine harbour, little used because of the small hinterland. In Messenia the climate is milder and moister than in Laconia and much of the region is of great productivity. Currants are extensively produced, also mulberry trees, olives, figs, oranges and there

of the Gulf of Aegina and on its islands. If modern sea-traffic is concentrated on the Piraeus, in early times it was of much importance that the men of Attica could not only reach the sea at many points, but that the sea once reached was rich in sheltered havens. Athens, at the time of the foundation of Modern Greece, was

up by the waste brought down by the Eurotas river. It is not,

traversed by the river Aspropotamus, and the lagoon coast of Missolonghi tells the same story of faulting and depression. At plain. The basin of Sparta, now as always the heart of Laconia, the base of the Othrys range, again, a third area of depression is small, under 50 sq.m. in extent, ringed round by mountains, is traversed by the river Spercheios which enters the Gulf of but fertile and well-watered by the springs which bubble up at Lamia. This has likewise its counterpart on the west in the Gulf the base of the encircling rocks. The nearest road to the sea of Arta, with its surrounding lowland. All these three areas of depression include fertile lands, prois by a difficult route across the Taygetus to the Messenian port of Kalamata, while the apparently direct route by the river is ducing the usual Greek crops, all contain modern towns, someimpeded by the rocky bar already mentioned. Further the Gulf times replacing old ones but often on the same site. But the coast is unsuited for the establishment of a good port, and the plain of Attica with the town of Athens may be taken as illusinsignificant one of Gythion is some distance to the west of the trating the main features. The plain consists essentially of the basins of Athens and EleuEurotas mouth. The Aegean coast of the eastern promontory is steep and inhospitable. Sparta has thus always been isolated, and sis, both fertile. Very important are the limestone hills which rise despite the fertility of its basin, which yields olives with oranges above the surface of the plain, one of which forms the Acropolis. Since, further, the limestones overlie non-porous rocks, and and other fruits, it is now merely a small town. Messenia is a softened, more open repetition of Laconia, with springs tend to gush out at the junction, there was, at least in a westward outlook. The river Psamios represents as it were the early days, an adequate water-supply. The topography of the Eurotas, and there is a similar if less marked division into an hills to the north, combined with the nature of the double isthmus upper and a lower basin. But in addition to Kalamata (25,000) of Megara and Corinth, separated by an intervening hill belt, within the Gulf of Messenia, there are ports on the western coast, forces the land road from the north to pass through the plain. which is not inaccessible, for the mountains of Messenia are Even more important is the wealth of ports on the north coast

stream in a gorge, divides the upper basin, containing the town of Sparta, from a swampy and unhealthy, though fertile coastal

are even some date palms. Kalamata is the capital and has im-

portant oil and wine industries.

3. Central Greece—This region extends from the great depression marked by the Gulfs of Corinth and Aegina to where the transverse Othrys range forms the southern boundary of the plains of Thessaly. It presents at first sight an appearance of great complexity, especially on the east, where the great island of Euboea is separated from the mainland by the Gulf of Petalia and by a series of channels which at Chalkis narrow to the width of a river. But three quite simple sets of facts give the key to the structure. In the centre is a mountain backbone, forming the continuation of the Pindus range. Its constituent elements have a general north-to-south direction, and are broken off sharply to the south in the region of the narrows which separate the wider Gulfs of Patras and Corinth. Eastwards three ridges come off this main chain nearly at right angles. The most northerly is the

already-mentioned Othrys range. Then comes Mt. Oeta (7,080 ft.), which is continued into a lower ridge extending in a south-

easterly direction through Phocis. Further south a longer ridge may be regarded as having its origin in Mt. Parnassus (8,064 ft.), and being continued through Helicon and the lower mountains which separate the lowlands of Attica from those of Boeotia. The ridge then bends southward to end in the promontory of Sunium. Parnassus is separated by a narrow valley, containing the temple town of Delphi, from the loftier Giona (8,242 ft.) to the west, the highest mountain of the first Greece. These two sets of mountain ridges may be regarded as forming the skeleton of Central Greece. The third important structural element is constituted by a series of transverse depressions, partly filed up by recent deposits, and then forming the sites of the

chief settlements since early days. They are best considered in relation to the transverse ridges, along whose margins they lie. The most southerly is the plain of Attica, lying at the base of the ridge which extends south-eastwards from Parnassus.

Bordering

as it does the Gulf of Aegina it shows a wonderful combination of advantages. North of the ridge, and south of that which forms a continuation of the Oeta massif, lies the plain of Boeotia. It

is less favourably placed than that of Attica, in particular because it does not confront the open sea but only the channels due to the presence of the island of Euboea.

It is, however, fairly

extensive, and the draining of the former L. Copais has notably 4

a miserable village, while the Piraeus consisted of only a few huts. Within a period of less than one hundred years it grew to be a great modern town with a population approaching 400,000. As compared with Patras, the other chief port of the old Greece, and that from which a considerable part of the exports is sent out, the Piraeus receives 60% of the total import trade of Greece. If on the one hand the regular steamship services with Constantinople and Smyrna go far to explain the direction of Greek ambitions, the extent of the connections throughout the whole Mediterranean Sea helps to explain that intense interest in politics with which the modern Greeks are reproached. The linking of the town to the main railway system of Europe has not altered the fact that its prime importance is a centre of sea-traffic and that in a part of the world where political frontiers have shown great instability. It is but natural that the modern men of Athens should be more intent on discussing ways and means of taking advantage of the constant changes in the surrounding lands than in cultivating a garden now too small te provide much for the dense population which occupies it. Athens and the Piraeus form now practically a twin city, which shows the beginnings at least of considerable industries. The tendency for these to be established near the port is due to the fact that whether they depend mainly upon home-produced raw material or that obtained from non-Greek lands, this tends to be sea-borne. Among the industries which are developing rapidly are textiles, including cotton, woollen and silk goods: leather goods; soap and candles, based on local supplies of olive oil; metallurgical industries, based largely on island products; chemicals, including fertilisers, phosphates being largely imported from Tunisia; the beginnings of an engineering industry, and so forth. 4. Northern Greece -—North of a line from the Gulf of Arta to the crest of the Othrys range a material change occurs in the characters of the lands. It has been expressed by saying that to the south is the land of olive groves, to the north that of oak forests: to the south are skies eternally blue, to the north those dimmed by cloud in summer no less than in winter. As a picturesque statement of a contrast the statement may serve, for already there is something continental in the landscape, a replacement of the Greek multiplicity of detail by broader structural features. No minute study of the map is needed to bring out the fundamental division into an eastern and a western sec-

758

GREECE

[NORTHERN REGION

tion. The western, mountainous, aloof, backward, forms Epirus, Nor does that difference consist mainly, as one might Suppose, “the continent,” passing without natural division line into South- in the open access to the sea, symbolised by the size of the town ern Albania. Eastward, mountains and hills ring round the broad and port of Salonika. Salonika (263,000), second only in size plains of Thessaly, productive but giving a less full life to their to Athens, and the only other large town of the republic, did not cultivators than do the smaller basins of Central Greece; largely in the days before the Greek occupation owe its importance to cut off from the sea despite their extensive river system; ac- the surrounding plain, fertile and potentially productive as that cessible, if with some difficulty, both from the north and the plain is. It was the convergence of internal lines of communica. south by land; forming granaries eagerly fought for and held tion upon the plain, the distant rather than the immediate hinterwith tenacity by often alien overlords. Even the productivity land, which determined the rise of a notable port here. Even itself is clouded by a doubt. The multifarious crops of the true the existing railway connections—to Belgrade via Uskub to the Greek lands have the great advantage that no natural calamity north; to Monastir to the north-west; to Constantinople to the can diminish the yield of all throughout the long growing sea- east; to Athens via Larissa to the south—hardly give an adequate son. But Thessaly, with its wider spaces, its fewer but more ex- picture of the extent to which it is the natural outlet of the tensively cultivated crops, shares already the continental risk greater part of the Balkan peninsula. It is a point of convergence of crop failure, for the weather prevailing during a short period of land-ways as Athens is a centre of sea~ways. Its significance determines whether there shall be famine or plenty. is increased by the fact that the other north Aegean ports are Little need be said of Epirus. It is mainly an upland, karstic poor in themselves, and have only difficult access to the interior. area, fitted especially for sheep-rearing, and showing all the usual Prior to the Balkan wars the racial patchwork of Turkish Macekarstic features. There is a considerable Albanian, and also a donia was reflected in the jumble of nationaliti es in Salonika, Vlach element in the population, but neither people presents a where Jews of Spanish descent formed the largest single element “racial” problem, as their members are easily assimilated by the in a community which included representatives of all the Balkan Greeks. The coast is inhospitable so that there are no ports of peoples and foreigners in addition. It was described indeed as a any significance, and internal communication, as usual in karstic kind of permanent fair, set up in a convenient spot, but areas, is difficult. As exceptions to the general statement that little relation to its immediate surroundings. Though some having 70,000 the land is mainly fitted for pastoral industries, the fairly exten- Jews are said to remain, the population is now mainly Greek, and, sive plains which fringe the north shore of the Gulf of Arta may as we have already seen, this is true also of the comparatively be noted. There are also upland basins which include fertile narrow strip which extends eastward to the Maritsa line. From lands, the most important being that in which stands Jannina, a large part of its former hinterland Salonika, despite the Yugothe departmental capital. It is placed on the shores of a con- slav Free Zone, is now cut off by political frontiers, siderable lake, which has the usual karstic feature of varying The Salonika plain is traversed by the Lower Vardar and its greatly in extent and depth at the different seasons of the year, numerous tributaries, and it is to the size of the river that it owes as the level of the ground water in the surrounding limestones its importance, owing to the way in which the main stream and the varies. As usual maize is grown on the lands which are submerged tributaries open up lines of communicatio n. Otherwise it does in winter and dry out in full summer: the fact is interesting not differ greatly, save in size, from the similar but smaller basins because it must mean that such areas can support a denser popu- further east, such as those of Seres and Drama. Each member lation than in the days before the discovery of America brought of the series shows much the same features—a low region, floored this useful cereal to the Old World. by waste from. the surrounding hills, usually marshy and malarious, Thessaly consists essentially. of two lowland basins, the western but suitable for the production of wheat and tobacco, particularly centring round Trikkala (24,000) and the eastern round Larissa in the Drama basin, with maize, rice in the marshy areas, cotton (27,000). The two basins afe linked by the Peneios river which and other crops. The higher, drier lands around yield vines and cuts through the rocky ridge which separates them. But after fruit-trees, mulberry trees for silkworm rearing and so forth. its north-easterly course through the Larissa plain the river is Even within the uplands proper, particularly that very extensive constrained to cut through the wider and higher upland which tract of upland which extends westward from the edge of the Separates the plain from the sea. This it does in the beautiful Salonika plain, basins occur in which a certain amount of cultivaVale of Tempe, lying between the great massif of Mt. Olympus tion can be carried on. (9,793 ft.) to the north, and the much lower Ossa to. the south. Salonika lies well to the east of the marshy Vardar delta, in Still further south the same ridge bears Pelion on its surface, a little bay at the base of the mountainous and trident-shaped and is continued into the Magnesian peninsula, which bends round Khalkidike peninsula. The most easterly of the prongs of the in a hook-shaped promontory, almost enclosing the circular Gulf trident, that of Athos, bears the monasteries and hermitages of of Volo. That Gulf is itself a depression comparable to the two Mount Athos, forming an ecclesiastical quasi-republic, a relic of plains, but smaller and flooded with sea-water, and it has a mediaeval Byzantinism on the edge of a world which is rapidly similar upland rim. By its northern side stands the port of Volo, growing modern. All the monks belong to the Orthodox Church, communicating by passes across the rim both with Trikkala and but though Greek communities predominate, Russian, Serbian and with

Larissa, and thus serving both. The main railway is forced close to the coast by the Olympus massif, but thereafter traverses the Larissa plain and enters Central Greece after crossing the Othrys range. Olympus itself is an outpost of the Macedonian upland, and separates the basins of Thessaly from the more important plain which centres round the great port of Salonika. Geographically, indeed, Thessaly, with its great estates, worked by poverty-stricken peasants, who still keep memories of the Turkish period, marks the transition to troubled Macedonia, with all its unsolved problems. Politically also it may be said that the inclusion of Thessaly within Modern Greece provided part of the stimulus which led to the Greek advance into Macedonia and ‘Thrace, regarded as Stages on the way to Constantinople. ' 5. Greek Macedonia and Thrace—These new and truly con-

timental lands, which have not yet adjusted themselves to the changed conditions resulting from the Turkish retreat, may be saidte have their heart in the plain of Salonika. Structurally the

prada 19 Comparable ta Thessaly, but a Thessaly with a difference.

Bulgarian ones also occur, The religious, to the number of about 5,000 (1920 census), till their own lands, and through the Turkish period were guardians of the Byzantine tradition. Many of the monasteries are rich, owning fiefs on the mainland, and the usual accusations of ignorance, idleness and intrigue have been brought against their occupants. But there is certainly something of the picturesque in this apposition of a modern and intensely realistic town, the object of many ambitions, and a remnant of the idealism of the Middle Ages. A depression, marked by lakes, leads directly eastwards from Salonika across the base of the Khalkidike peninsula, but the main railway finds an exit at the north-eastern angle of the plain, and enters the lower Struma valley, which forms the productive

basin of Seres. This has no port of its own, but the next basin, that of Drama, though not drained seawards by a river, has a fair port in Kavala, greatly coveted by the Bulgars. Opposite

lies the wooded island of Thasos. From Drama the railway, by a

somewhat difficult route over the rim of the basin, reaches the valley of the Mesta river, often regarded as forming the eastern

GREECE

DEFENCE]

limit of Macedonia.

159

Beyond, in Western or Greek Thrace, lies a | ments; or by the voluntary enlistment between the ages of 19

lowland area with a fairly dense population and having as port the poor harbour of Dedeagats, which was for a time Bulgarian..

The Lower Maritsa forms the boundary with Turkey, but the town of Adrianople has been returned to that Power. Here then, against a meaningless river frontier, ends a Greece which is inhabited by Greeks and yet not wholly Greek, a Greece blocked in its ambition of an advance to Constantinople, which has seen its nationals expelled from those parts of coastal Asia

and 25 of young men holding a leaving certificate from a secondary school, or a diploma of law.

These become respectively

non-commissioned or commissioned officers in the gendarmerie in due course. Their numbers do not exceed about 400 out of each class of army recruits.

Strength and Organization.—The budget effectives in the

Greek army in 1927 numbered 67,121, including 7,121 officers (38

Generals, 136 Colonels). The organization on a peace footing provides for 4 army corps (headquarters at Athens, Larissa, population. What the future may hold none can say; but there Salonika and Kavalla). 9 infantry divisions are with the army can be no doubt of the interest of the problems involved. Here corps, and 2 divisions and an extra brigade directly under the we have a culture of essentially island origin renewing through ministry of war. There are also 2 cavalry divisions and an air the ages the perpetual effort to find a broader basis on the force. An infantry regiment contains 2 battalions, each of four adjacent mainlands, continually falling back as the peoples of companies, of which one is a machine-gun company. A cavalry the interior of those mainlands react. As a new element in that regiment is divided into two half-regiments each of 2 squadrons oft-renewed struggle we have the modern conception of the and a machine-gun group. There are 11 regiments of mountain national state, with its supposedly homogeneous population, its artillery armed with guns and howitzers of various patterns Minor where they formed the most progressive element in the

needs for surplus wealth to be expended in armaments. An appar-

(Schneider,

ently simple solution, based on the famous principle of nationality, has been arrived at—Greece has obtained new lands capable of yielding a surplus, the extra-territorial Greeks have been thrust within them, the non-Greek peoples removed. Is the solution a real one? Is there not a profound irony in the thought that part of the stimulus which led to its adoption came from an overseas land whose inhabitants have taken as their own basal principle that not race—whatever race may mean—not country of origin, but a life lived in common within a definite part of the earth’s surface is what makes a nation? (M.I. N.)

65mm. to ro5mm.; 4 regiments of field artillery (75 mm. Schneider, 77mm. Krupp); and 3 regiments of heavy artillery armed with Schneider and Skoda guns and howitzers of 150 to 155mm. calibre. The Engineers include 3 regiments of sappers, 1 telegraph and 1 railway regiment and a pontoon battalion. There are also the usual services and departments, medical, supply and transport, pay, veterinary, etc. The minister of war is the supreme head of the army in time of peace. His ministry includes a secretariat and departments, each under a director, for dealing with the separate arms and services, including a director for the gendarmerie. The minister is assisted by a chief of the general staff, with deputy and 4 departments, under whom there are I1 permanent inspectors of the different branches of the army. For army officers there is a higher military training centre to train Colonels and Lieut.-colonels for higher command; a military academy for Majors and Captains for service on the staff (2 years course); and a Special school for officers of each arm of the service (5 to 6 months course). There is also a Military academy for cadets (4 years course), and one for non-commissioned officers aspiring to commissions (2 years course). There are special schools for army medical services, for reserve officers and for physical training; a school for army artificers and a preparatory school for non-commissioned officers. The gendarmerie has its own special school (2 years course). In the war ministry there is a department of aviation, under

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—(1)

General descriptions: T. Fischer in Kirchoff's

Länderkunde der Europa (1893) ; A. Philippson, Das Mittelmeergebiet (4th edition, 1922); O. Maull, Griechisches Mittelmeergebiet (1922, bibl.) ; see also Griechenland in Andree’s Geographie des Welthandels, I. (1926, bibl.); Ancel, Peuples et Nations des Balkans (1926, bibl. of

French works only). (2) Political, Social and Economic Problems: Handbooks prepared under Direction of Historical Section of Foreign

Office, Greece, No. 18, Islands of N. and E. Aegean, No. 64, Macedonia, No. 21 (published 1¢20, written earlier, bibl. mainly historical and economic) ; E. Bouchié de Belle, La Macédoine et les Macédoniens (1922) ; A. A. Pallis, “Racial Migrations in the Balkans,” Geographical Journal, LXVI. (1925). DEFENCE

The complicated tale of Greek diplomacy and military action in the World War is told elsewhere. The victory of the allies over the central powers and the defeat of the Turkish armies in the field was followed by a Greek military occupation in Asia Minor during the long delay which ensued in concluding a peace treaty with Turkey. During that period the Greek army suffered disaster ending in hurried embarkation at Smyrna, as the result of an offensive against the reconstituted Turkish army. From that disaster recovery has been slow, and delayed by political changes and unrest. With an area of 140,135 square kilometres, Greece now has land frontiers extending only for 1,121 kilometres, but a very long coast-line with numerous harbours and inlets rendering the country particularly vulnerable to inroads from the sea, a point that has been realized since the influence of sea-power over the military situation in Greece was illustrated by the battle of Navarino (1827). Present-day

Army:

Recruitment

and

Service—Every

citizen is now liable to military service, extending from Jan. r in the year of his 20th birthday to the same date in the year of his 4gth birthday. Certain exemptions are allowed for family or professional reasons, or for physical unfitness. Voluntary enlistment is permitted, from the 18th birthday, to those not deprived of civil rights. The annual enrolment of recruits in the northern provinces takes place in April; in the southern provinces in October. There are 33 recruiting districts, each for one regiment of infantry. These are grouped in divisional or brigade recruiting areas, and these again into army-corps recruiting regions. Service with the

Schneider-Danglis,

and Skoda)

of calibres

from

a director. The air force itself is at present (1928) being reorganized. There are 3 air regiments, an independent flying group, an air-park and a flying school. An air regiment contains two

air-groups, each of 2 flights and an aircraft-park. The types of machines in use at present are the Bréguet XIV. and XIX., the Mars and the Henriot. See also the League of Nations Armaments Year-book

(1928).

(G. G. A.)

Navy.—The history of the Greek Navy is intimately associated with that of the nation, and the rise and fall of ancient Greece is a classic example of the value of sea power. In modern times the varying fortunes of Greece have been largely the outcome of political unrest which has been reflected in the vacillating attitude of successive governments towards the fleet. Within the eight years 1921~28, successive Hellenic Govern-

ments have appealed for and been granted the assistance of three separate British naval missions. The work of two of these missions was somewhat suddenly terminated by a change of those governments’ policy; whereby much of the good derived from the labour of the British advisers was lost. Of late, however, with the assistance of the third mission, there has been a fairly steady effort to make the fleet more efficient. colours in the regular army is for 18 months, followed by 19$ None of the ships are very modern, but some of the more imyears in the first, and 8 years in the second reserve. Recruiting portant of them have been refitted, whilst training is being brought in the gendarmerie, which is organized and trained on a military into line with British methods, so far as they can be made applibasis and is under the ministry of war for these purposes, is by cable. In 1928 the Greek Navy consisted of two battleships, bought voluntary enlistment for 3 years of men under 30; by re-enlist-

GREECE

760

[FINANCE

from the United States in 1914, the “Kilkis” (ex “Mississippi”

special mention as having been introduced by the refugees from

and “Lemnos” (ex “Idaho”), completed in 1908, since reconditioned; three very old battleships used as training schools; one armoured cruiser “Giorgios Averoff” (1910); one cruiser mine-layer; 11 destroyers; 12 torpedo and patrol boats; six submarines and some small auxiliary vessels. (E. A.)

Turkey.

GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION ECONOMY AND FINANCE Area and Population.—The area of Greece at the beginning

Soap, chemicals, leather, cigarettes and building mate-

rials are manufactured in considerable quantity and there are

numerous minor industries. Labour is protected by special legislation dealing with hours

the health and security of workmen, compensation for accidents

wage disputes, employment of women and children, etc., and the resolutions of the Washington Labour Conference are observed,

Commerce and Transport.—The principal articles of export are tobacco, currants, olive oil and wine. Cereals take the first place among the imports, followed by textiles, coal, sugar and a

of the twentieth century was about 24,400 square miles. The variety of other commodities. The imports largely exceed the Balkan wars of 1912~13 resulted in the addition of New Greece, exports, the difference being accounted for by shipping and com. consisting of Macedonia, Epirus, Crete and a numbe: of islands in mercial profits, by remittances from Greeks in other countries, by the Aegean, with an area of about 21,600 square miles, making the interest on investments held abroad, and by the influx of public total area of the country about 46,c00 square miles in I9gI4. and private capital into the country. After the World War, Greece occupied Thrace and a part of the The railway system has been linked up with those of Europe vilayet of Aidin in Asia Minor, and these occupations were con- since 1916, via Salonika-Nish-Belgrade. Commercial air services firmed by the treaties of Neuilly and Sèvres, But, as the result connecting Athens with Brindisi and Constantinople were estabof the Asia Minor campaign, Greece in 1922 evacuated Asia Minor lished in 1927; and the mercantile marine is considerable, its and Eastern Thrace in favour of Turkey, and by the treaty of range of activity extending far beyond the limits of the special Lausanne in 1923, she also retroceded Imbros and Tenedos. The commerce of the country, thus contributing in no small degree area of Greece after these changes, is (1928) about 49,000 sq.m. to the national resources. The population of Old Greece (census of 1907) was 2,631,952, Public Finance.—Taxation is heavy, and import and conand that of New Greece (census of 1913) was 2,101,014. A cen- sumption duties form the mainstay of the revenue, in contrast sus taken in 1920 gave the total population as 5,536,375, includ- with the yield from direct taxes which is relatively small. The ing Thrace. An estimate which allows, on the one hand, for the public debt charge absorbs about one third of the total. A large subsequent loss of territory and for the transfer of the Muslim part of the debt is secured by assigned revenues under the coninhabitants of Greece to Turkey, and, on the other hand, for the trol of the International Financial Commission, established in influx of some 1,400,000 refugees from Turkey after the war in 1898. Asia Minor, and for natural increase, would place the population The economic situation of Greece during the early years of in 1928 in the neighbourhood of 6,400,000. the present century, up to the outbreak of the Balkan War in 1912, The various racial migrations which have been brought about was marked by a steady if moderate progress. Industrial enterby the wars from 1912 onwards, whether voluntary or compulsory, prises for local purposes were established in considerable number. involving the transfer, in either direction, of nearly 2,500,000 Communications by road and railway were extended, and large Greeks, Bulgarians and Turks, have had the result of introducing additions were made to the mercantile marine. The premium on homogeneity in the regions affected, where before there was great gold gradually declined, and finally disappeared in 1909. By the diversity. Thus the proportion of Greeks in the population of Valaoritis law of xoro, providing for the automatic issue and withMacedonia and Western Thrace, which stood at 43 and 36 per cent drawal of notes against gold or foreign exchange, the currency before the Balkan wars, was in 1925, 88 and 62 per cent. was definitely stabilized at par on the gold exchange system, to the Of Greek populations abroad the most important now remaining great advantage of the general economy and the credit of the are those in Constantinople, the Dodecanese, Cyprus, Egypt and country. the United States. Fresh emigration to the latter country has been The state of the public finances, though less satisfactory, alse reduced to insignificant proportions by the restrictions imposed in showed signs of improvement at the latter end of the period. A 1921. The remittances to the mother country from Greeks estab- series of deficits from 1907 to 1909 had to be met out of a portion lished abroad form a considerable item in the annual trade balance. of the proceeds of a new foreign loan raised for this and other Agriculture.—Greece is mainly an agricultural country, about purposes in rgro. At the same time, a programme of fresh taxathree quarters of its population being occupied in agricultural pur- tion was introduced, including income tax and succession duties, suits. Owing however to its mountainous conformation, only 22 with the result that the accounts up to 1912 showed a substantial per cent of the area is cultivated, while 32 per cent is occupied surplus of revenue over expenditure. The varying interest on the by meadows and pasturage and 13 per cent by woods and forests. old gold loans, payable out of surplus revenues in the hands of the The greater part of the cultivated area is devoted to cereals, International Financial Commission, marked a sensible upward of which, however, the production is far from sufficient for the progress, consumption of the country. Considerable surfaces are also taken The Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913 threw a considerable strain up by olive trees and vines, while certain districts are affected to on the resources and finances of Greece, which was, however, rethe two valuable products, tobacco and currants, for which Greece lieved in some measure by the material assistance rendered by is specially known and which form the staple of her export. Figs, Greeks abroad. Immediate war expenses were defrayed chiefly out oranges and other fruit are plentiful. Cotton and rice are culti- of the balance of the rgro loan and the proceeds of various provivated on a small scale. sional loans, which were liquidated by means of a new consolidated

Minerals.—The country has a large variety of mineral deposits, but they are worked only te a moderate extent. The principal

loan issued in 1914, and taken up for the greater part in Paris and

minerals are lignite, iron, iron pyrites, magnesite, chromite, lead and Naxos emery, as well as the famous marbles. Marine salt is produced in large quantities for home consumption.

International Financial Commission, an institution which, though regarded as an encroachment on the sovereign rights of the coun-

Industry.—The development of industry on a large scale is hindered by lack of a native coal supply and by scarcity of capital But high protective duties and the influx of refugee labour have combined with other factors to give it a considerable impetus of recent years, In order of importance, the first place is occupied by the manufacture of alimentary products, olive oil, wine, spirits, flour, confectionery, etc. Next in order are cotton, wool, silk, jute and other textiles, among which the carpet industry deserves

London.

This loan was secured on the revenues assigned to the

try, has been found useful on repeated occasions as a means of

providing security for fresh loans. The economic strength of Greece was greatly enhanced by the acquisition of territories of

both actual and potential value, including the important port of Salonika, the rich tobacco-growing districts of Drama Kavalla and extensive fertile areas in Macedonia.

and

The World War.—aAfter the outbreak of the World War, and

during the period of neutrality of Greece, which lasted from 1914

until 1917, there was a considerable accumulation of private werltb

FINANCE]

GREECE

in the form of foreign balances, arising out of shipping and other profits which it was difficult, owing to war restrictions, to realize in actual goods. At the same time the country suffered severely from internal conflicts, from the economic blockade of Old Greece

in 1916-7 and from the prolonged mobilization and war preparations. Noteworthy economic events during this period were: the

law of 1915 facilitating the formation of co-operative societies; the connection, in 1916, of the railway system of Greece with those of Europe; and the agrarian legislation of 1917, which provided for the expropriation of large estates in favour of the peasants,

and at the same time prohibited the alienation or mortgage of the

peasants’ holdings and their subdivision at death.

The entry of Greece into the War in 1917 involved a large increase in military and naval expenditure. Fresh taxation was imposed, including a tax on War profits, and a certain sum was raised by an internal loan and by the issue of National Defence

bills. But the bulk of the funds required was provided by advances in kind from the Allied Powers and by credits opened by the latter for expenditure in Greece, against which payments were effected in notes by the Greek Government. These credits were treated as cover for the note issue. The very considerable expansion in the

paper currency which resulted from these arrangements did not cause at first too heavy a demand for exchange, for the factors which contributed to strengthen the foreign balances during the

period of neutrality continued to operate until the end of the War.

Thus the internal war expenditure of Greece and part of that of the Allies as well, was defrayed for the time being out of the resources of the country. With the close of the War, however, and the suppression of restrictions on trade, the accumulated purchasing power of the country made itself felt in a large demand for foreign goods.

Large purchases of Greek and other securities were made in foreign markets, and the depreciating currencies of Europe offered an attractive field for the speculator. The resultant pressure on the exchange funds of the note-issue was so great that before the end of rọrọ the available reserves were exhausted, the exchanges began to fall away from the gold parity, and the Valaoritis law became a dead letter. In the course of 1920 a portion of the Allied credits was realized, but this was quickly absorbed by purchases of supplies, and the excess of imports reached unprecedented proportions. Effects of the Graeco-Turkish War.—At the same time, the Govt. found itself involved in fresh liabilities in connection with the military operations in Asia Minor. To raise the considerable funds required, recourse was had to a large internal lottery loan, to issues of National Defence bills, to loans from the National Bank and, finally, to inflationary issues of paper money. The fall in the exchanges was accelerated by the withdrawal of financial support and credits by the Allies on the return of King Constantine in 1920. By the end of that year the drachma had lost 60% of its gold value. This depreciation of the currency reacted unfavourably on the budget, while the prosecution of the Asia Minor campaign entailed ever-increasing expenditure. In 1921 and 1922 issues of paper money and National Defence bills were effected on a large scale, without authority from the International Financial Commission, taxes were raised and a forced loan was extracted from note-holders by compelling them to surrender onehalf of each note in exchange for a government bond. The dis-

761

assistance of foreign countries, especially of England and America. Inder the auspices of the League of Nations an independent refugee settlement commission was set up in 1923, for the establishment of the refugees, and a refugee loan was issued in 1924, in London, New York and Athens, guaranteed by revenues assigned to the International Financial Commission. Meanwhile, the Govt. made strenuous efforts to put its finances in order. Considerable fresh taxation was imposed in 1923, including a capital levy to be spread over five years, which has given very mediocre results. The floating debt was largely increased in 1923 and 1924. A fresh uncovered issue of paper money was made in 1923, and at the same time a law was passed authorizing further issues against cover in funds abroad. The exchange, after violent fluctuations, settled down in 1924 to about one-tenth of the gold parity. By 1925 the public finances had so far recovered that the Govt. was able to allocate special revenues to the reduction of the floating debt, and to present a balanced budget. But this equilibrium was disturbed by fresh expenditure, for military and other purposes, under the Pangalos regime, and by a renewed fall in the exchanges, due to an inflationary banking policy. In 1926, a second forced loan was raised from noteholders, who were compelled to surrender one quarter of each note in exchange for a government bond, and a third forced loan from holders of National Defence bills, who had to accept a tenyear bond in exchange for one half of these bills at maturity. But such measures, while providing temporary relief for the situation, did nothing to correct the current deficit, which, in spite of additional taxation, continued to increase. The exchanges took a fresh turn for the worse, the drachma falling to one eighteenth of its gold parity, as a result of the general lack of confidence, which made itself felt also in the domain of commerce and industry. Severe money stringency prevailed, the rate of interest rose to very high levels, and many concerns found themselves in difficulties due to overtrading and immobilization of capital during the previous few years. Financial Reconstruction.—The new coalition Govt. which came into power in Dec. 1926 took vigorous measures to redress the financial situation. By means of fresh taxation, reductions in expenditure and postponement of certain liabilities, the Budget estimates were balanced. The aid of the League of Nations was invoked with a view to obtaining a loan for the liquidation of arrears, the further settlement of refugees and the stabilization of the currency. The approval of the League was given to a loan for this threefold object, subject to the adoption of a scheme of banking and monetary reform, involving the establishment of an independent central bank of issue on modern lines and the introduction of a new fiduciary system. The loan was issued on advantageous terms early in 1928, the main portion being taken up in London and New York. Meanwhile the war debts to Great Britain and the United States were funded on terms satisfactory

to the country, the settlement of the latter bemg coupled with

the grant of a new loan from the United States Govt. to supplement that floated under the auspices of the League of Nations. The effects of this successful financial policy made themselves felt in all directions. The prestige and credit of the country enjoyed a marked enhancement. The exchanges recovered and remained stable at about one fifteenth of gold parity. Renewal of confidence showed itself in the attraction of capital from abroad, aster in Asia Minor in 1922 reduced the finances and credit of in easier rates of interest, and in an improvement in the state of the country to the lowest ebb, and by the end of the year its commerce and industry. General Survey.—The country as a whole showed remarksecurities were quoted on the international markets at prices yielding 20% to the investor, while the drachma had lost 94% able powers of recuperation after a period of ten years of war, of its gold value. This collapse of the monetary unit, with the defrayed largely out of her own resources, and culminating in a concomitant rise in the price-level, profoundly disturbed eco- great national disaster. The refugee population tended to become nomic conditions throughout the country, and caused serious an asset instead of a burden. The expropriation of agricultural losses among particular sections of the community. The bulk properties for the benefit of refugee and other peasants was accelof the public debt being on a gold basis, the real charge of its erated, on terms very unfavourable to the owners, by special service on the state finances was not greatly reduced by the legislation. The settlement of refugees on the land extended the cultivated area and increased the production of crops, while large depreciation. (See also DRACH™MA.)

Refugee Settlement.—The influx from Asia Minor and Thrace

of a vast number of destitute refugees threw a fresh burden on the resources of the country, and enlisted the sympathy and

numbers found employment in other occupations and gave an im-

petus to the nascent industries of the country. The consuming power of the population increased both absolutely and per capita.

GREECE

702

The mercantile marine, which had been reduced by nearly two thirds during the war through sales and enemy action, was restored to its original strength. There was a considerable expansion in building, industrial and other enterprise. Numerous projects were undertaken, with the aid of foreign capital, for the improvement of railways, roads and works of development. Finally, 1928 found Greece in process of achieving financial stability, though burdened with an increased public debt and future liabilities, which involved heavy taxation and severe restriction of expenditure. The extrication of the country from its embarrassments was due in no small measure to the beneficent intervention of the League of Nations.

Statistical Comparisons.—The following statistical table sum-

marizes the changes in some of the salient economic and financial features of Greece over the interval from 1914 to 1927-28. The figures in drachmas must be considered in relation to the depreciation of the currency. IQI4 Area (sq.m.) . Population : o