Encyclopaedia Britannica [31, 10 ed.]

Table of contents :
Cover
Title
Principal Contents
Prefatory Essay
MOS
MOT
MUS
MYE
NAT
NAV
NEM
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NEW
NIG
NOR
NUB
OAK
OHL
ORD
ORD
ORL
OYS
PAL
PAL
PAP
PAR
PAT
PAT
PAT
PAT
PAT
PEN
PER
PET
PHA
PHO
PHO
PHY
PHY
PHY
PIS
PLU
POL
POR
POS
POU
POY
Contributors

Citation preview

THE NEW VOLUMES OF THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BBITANNICA

THE

NEW VOLUMES OF THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA CONSTITUTING IN COMBINATION WITH THE EXISTING VOLUMES OF THE NINTH EDITION

THE TENTH EDITION OF THAT WORK, AND ALSO SUPPLYING

A NEW, DISTINCTIVE, AND INDEPENDENT

LIBRARY OF REFERENCE DEALING WITH RECENT EVENTS AND DEVELOPMENTS

i

THE

SEVENTH

OF THE

NEW VOLUMES,

BEING

VOLUME XXXI OF THE COMPLETE WORK

PUBLISHED BY

ADAM & CHARLES . BLACK, EDINBURGH & LONDON . . .

‘THE TIMES’ . . PRINTING HOUSE SQUARE, LONDON MC Mil

THE EDITORS ARTHUR T. HADLEY,

SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE,

LL.D.,

PRESIDENT OP YALE.

K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O.

HUGH CHISHOLM, B.A. (TORMERLY SCHOLAR OP C.C.C. OXFORD)

THE DEPARTMENTAL EDITORS FOR LAW AND GOVERNMENT : THE HON.

Deputy

SIR JOHN SCOTT,

FOR GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTICS :

FOR ZOOLOGY: G.

HERBERT FOWLER, PH.D.

K.C.M.G.,

Judge-Advocate-General.

J. SCOTT LL.D.,

KELTIE,

F.S.S.,

FOR NAVAL AFFAIRS:

F.S.A.SCOT.,

Sec. Roy. Geog. Soc.

JAS. RICHARD THURSFIELD, M.A.

FOR MILITARY AFFAIRS:

FOR BIOGRAPHY:

FOR ASTRONOMY:

SIR GEORGE SYDENHAM CLARKE, K.C.M.G.,

RICHARD GARNETT, C.B., LL.D.

F.R.S.

SIMON NEWCOMB, PH.D., LL.D.

FOR LITERATURE:

FOR MEDICAL SCIENCE :

FOR MATHEMATICS :

EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D.

D. NOEL PATON, M.D., B.SC., F.R.C.P.ED. JOSEPH

FOR THEOLOGY: REV. W. E. COLLINS, M.A., Prof, of Ecclesiastical Hist, at King’s Coll., Lond. FOR MINING: HENRY M. HOWE, A.M., Prof, of Metallurgy at Columbia University.

LARMOR,

M.A.,

D.SC., SEC.R.S.,

University Lecturer in Mathematics, Cambridge. FOR ELECTRICITY : J. A. FLEMING, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S., Prof, of Electrical Engineering, Univ. Coll., London. FOR ART:

FOR BOTANY : D. H. SCOTT, M.A., PH.D., F.R.S., Hon. Keeper, Jodrell Laboratory, Kew.

M. H.

SPIELMANN,

Editor of

the Maga-

zine of Art.

FOR ECONOMICS : WYNNARD HOOPER, M.A.

FOR RAILWAYS: MAJOR HENRY G. PROUT, Editor of Railroad Gazette, N.Y. FOR MUSIC: J. A.

FULLER MAITLAND, M.A., F.S.A.

FOR GAMES AND SPORTS: Editor of the hadmin-

ALFRED WATSON,

ton Library.

THE ASSOCIATE EDITOES PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, H. M. ROSS, B.A.

DR. JUR.

FRANKLIN H. HOOPER, A.B. E. H. WILLIAMS, M.D.

THE SUB-EDITOES JAMES A. MANSON.

G. B. LYNES,

Copyright, 1902, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.

A.M.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. VOLUME XXXI (MOSAIC—PREVESA). PRINCIPAL

CONTENTS.

PREFATORY ESSAY: THE INFLUENCE OF COMMERCE ON INTERNATIONAL CONFLICT. FREDERICK GREENWOOD.

MOSAIC. Sir W. B. RICHMOND, R.A., K.C.B. MOSQUITOES. F. Y. THEOBALD, M.A., Zoologist to the South-Eastern Agricultural College. MOTION, LAWS OF. W. H. MACAULAY, Fellow and Lecturer of King’s College, Cambridge. MOTOR VEHICLES. Light, Hon. C. S. ROLLS ; Heavy, H. S. HELE-SHAW, F.R.S., Professor of Engineering in University College, Liverpool. MOUNTAINEERING. Sir W. MARTIN CONWAY, President of the Alpine Club. MURAL DECORATION. WALTER CRANE, formerly Principal of Royal College of Art, South Kensington. MUSEUMS. Lord BALCARRES, M.P., F.S.A. MUSIC. J. A. FULLER MAITLAND, M.A., F.S.A., Author of “ Masters of German Music.” MUSIC HALLS. JOHN HOLLINGSHEAD. MYCENAEAN CIVILIZATION. D. G. HOGARTH, M.A., Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford, Director of the Cretan Exploration Fund. MYRIAPODA. F. G. SINCLAIR, M.A., F.L.S. NiEGELI.

SYDNEY

HOWARD

VINES,

D.SC.,

F.R.S.,

Sherardian Professor of Botany, Oxford University. NAPIER OF MAGDALA. Col. R. H. VETCH, R.E., C.B. NATAL. Geography, C. J. BIRD, C.M.G., Principal Undersecretary of Natal; History, ALFRED P. HILLIER, M.D., Author of “South African Studies.” NATIONAL DEBT. HUGH CHISHOLM. NATIONAL DEBT CONVERSIONS. Sir E. W. HAMILTON, K.C.B., K.C.V.O., Assistant Secretary to the Treasury, and W. BLAIN. NATURALISM. JAMES WARD, D.SC., LL.D., Professor of Mental Philosophy, Cambridge University. NAUCRATIS. ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, Yates Professor of Archaiology, University College, London. NAVIES. Lord BRASSEY and Lieut. CARLYON W. BELLAIRS, R.N. NAVIGATION. Capt. W. R. MARTIN, R.N. NEBRASKA. The Hon. J. STERLING MORTON (the late), sometime Pres, of Nebraska State Historical Society. NEGLIGENCE. A. LLEWELYN DAVIES, Barrister-at-Law. NEGRO. Professor A. H. KEANE, F.R.G.S. ; in U.S.A., W. H. BALDWIN, Jr. NEMATODA, NEMERTINA. A. E. SHIRLEY, F.Z.S., Lecturer in Advanced Morphology of the Invertebrata, Cambridge University. NESFIELD. J. M. BRYDON (the late). NESTORIANS. J. ATHELSTAN RILEY, M.A., Author of “Athos, or the Mountain of the Monks.” NEUTRALITY. THOMAS BARCLAY, Ph. D., Vice-President of the International Law Association. NEWFOUNDLAND. Geography, D. W. PROWSE, K.C., D.C.L., formerly Judge of the Central District Court of Newfoundland ; Recent History, BECKLES WILLSON. NEW GUINEA. H. 0. FORBES, LL.D., Author of “A Naturalist’s Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago ” ; German, Count JOACHIM VON PFEIL ; Dutch, H. TIEDEMANN.

NEW HAMPSHIRE. Prof. J. K. LORD, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire. NEW JERSEY. AUSTIN SCOTT, Ph.D., LL.D., President of Rutgers College, Rutgers, New Jersey. NEWMAN, JOHN HENRY. The Rev. A. W. HUTTON, M.A., Editor of Newman’s “Lives of the English Saints.” NEW MEXICO. Hon. L. BRADFORD PRINCE, LL.D., ex-Governor of the State of New Mexico. NEW ORLEANS. G. W. CABLE, D.L., Author of “ Old Creole Days,” &c. NEW SOUTH WALES. Geography, T. A. COGHLAN, Government Statistician of New South Wales; History, G. C. LEVEY, C.M.G. NEWSPAPERS. General Statistics, G. F. BARWICK and DORSET ECCLES, British Museum ; London Journalism, HUGH CHISHOLM ; Halfpenny Press, ALFRED C. HARMSWORTH ; British Provincial Newspapers, W. WETHERALL ; Hlustrated Journalism, CLEMENT K.

SHORTER ;

United States,

Hon.

WHITELAW

REID,

LL.D., Editor of the “New York Tribune” ; France, M. PAUL VILLARS. NEW YORK, STATE. JOHN BASSETT MOORE, LL.D., Professor of International Law, Columbia University, N.Y. NEW YORK, CITY. ALBERT SHAW, Ph.D., Editor of the “ American Monthly Review of Reviews.” NEW ZEALAND. The Hon. W. PEMBER REEVES, AgentGeneral for New Zealand. NIAGARA. G. K. GILBERT, U.S. Geological Survey. NICARAGUA. The Hon. W. W. ROCKHILL, I. P. A. RENWICK, LL.B., and C. E. AKERS. NICOBAR ISLANDS. Lieut.-Colonel Sir R. C. TEMPLE, Bt., C.I.E., Chief Commissioner of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. NIETZSCHE. F. C. S. SCHILLER, M.A., Fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. NIGER, NIGERIA. EDWARD HEAWOOD, M.A., Librarian to the Royal Geographical Society. NIHILISM. Sir D. MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O. NIJNI NOVGOROD. Prince KROPOTKIN. NORTH CAROLINA. J. S. BASSETT, Ph.D., Professor of History, Trinity College, North Carolina. NORTH DAKOTA. WEBSTER MERRIFIELD, LL.D., President of the State University of North Dakota. NORTH SEA. H-. N. DICKSON, Lecturer in Physical Geography, Oxford University. NORWAY. Geography and Statistics, J. T. BEALBY ; Recent History, H. L. BRJEKSTAD ; Literature, EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. NUBAR PASHA. C. F. MOBERLY BELL, Author of “Khedives and Pashas,” &c. NUMBER. G. B. MATTHEWS, F.R.S. NUMISMATICS. Coins, H. A. GRUEBER, F.S.A., Assistant Keeper of Coins and Medals, British Museum ; Medals, M. H. SPIELMANN, Editor of “Magazine of Art.” OBSERVATORY. J. L. E. DREYER, Director of Armagh Observatory. OBSTETRICS. A. R. SIMPSON, M.D., Professor of Midwifery, Edinburgh University. OCCLEVE. W. S. M'CORMICK, M.A., Professor of English, St Andrews University. OCEANOGRAPHY. H. R. MILL, D.SC., F.R.G.S. OHIO. HENRY E. BOURNE, Professor of History, Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio. OKLAHOMA. C. H. FITCH, Topographer, U.S. Geological Survey. OLD-AGE PENSIONS. T. MACKAY, LL.D., Author of “Methods of Social Reform.” OLD CATHOLICS. The Rev. Chancellor J. J. LIAS, M. A. OLIPHANT, LAURENCE. The Right Hon. Sir M. E. GRANT DUFF, G.C.S.I., F.R.S. ORANGE RIVER COLONY. Geography, Professor A. H. KEANE, F.R.G.S. ; History, ALFRED P. HILLIER, M.D. ORDERS. P. A. ASHWORTH, Dr. Juris. ORDNANCE. Naval, Commander S. FREEMANTLE, R.N.; Guns, Major C. P. MARTEL, R.A., Secretary to the Ordnance Committee; Ammunition, Capt. T. H. CROZIER, R. A., Professor of Artillery, Ordnance College, Woolwich ; Carriages, Capt. C. R. B. OWEN, R.A., Assistant-Superintendent, Royal Carriage Department, Woolwich Arsenal; U.S.A., Capt. C. B. WHEELER, War Department, Washington ; Foreign Powers, Capt. C. ORDE-BROWNE (the late), R.A., Author of “Armour and its Attack by Artillery. ” ORE-DRESSING. R. H. RICHARDS, B.Sc., Professor of Mining, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. OREGON. Hon. C. B. BELLINGER, Judge of the U.S. District Court, District of Oregon. ORINOCO. Colonel G. E. CHURCH. ORNAMENT. LEWIS F. DAY, Examiner for Art, Board of Education. ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH. The Rev. W. E. COLLINS, Professor of Ecclesiastical History, King's College, London.

VI

CONTENTS

pine Commission ; History, JOHN FOREMAN, F.R.G.S., Author of “The Philippine Islands.” PHILLIPS, WENDELL. THOMAS WENTWORTH HIGGIN SON, LL.D., Author “ Biography of Wendell Phillips.” PHILOLOGY. PETER GILES, M.A., Reader in Comparative Philology, Cambridge University. PHONOGRAPH. J. G. M‘KENDRICK, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology, Glasgow University. PHOTOGRAPHY. Scientific, Sir W. DE W. ABNEY, K.C.B., F.R.S. ; Apparatus, Maj.-Gen. J. WATERHOUSE ; Pictorial, A. HORSLEY HINTON, Author ot “ Practical Pictorial Photography.” PHOTOMETRY (STELLAR). H. H. TURNER, D.SC., F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Astronomy, Oxford. PHYLLOXERA. W. E. GARRETT FISHER, M.A. PHYSIOLOGY. General, MAX VERWORN, M.D., Ph.D., Professor of Physiology, Jena ; Nutrition, D. NOEL PATON, M.D., B.Sc. ; Animal Heat, M. S. PEMBREY, M.D. ; Vascular System, LEONARD E. HILL, M.B., F.R.S., Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons; Respiration, J. S. HALDANE, M.D., F.R.S., Lecturer on Physiology, Oxford University ; Muscle and Nerve, C. S. SHERRINGTON, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology, University College, Liverpool; Special Senses, J. G. M‘KENDRICK, M.D.,. F.R.S., Professor BLOWITZ. of Physiology, Glasgow University. PARKMAN. JOHN FISKE, LL.D. (the late), Author ot PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS. J. REYNOLDS GREEN, “The Discovery of America,” &c. D.Sc., F.R.S., Prof, of Botany, Pharmaceutical Society. PARLIAMENT. Sir ARCHIBALD MILMAN, K.C.B. (the PIANO. A. J. HIPKINS, F.S. A., Author of “A Description late), Clerk of the House of Commons, and F. C. and History of the Pianoforte.” HOLLAND, Public Bill Office. PIERSON, H. H. J. A. FULLER MAITLAND, M.A. PARNELL. J. R. THURSEIELD, M. A., formerly Fellow of PIGMENTS. A. H. CHURCH, D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Jesus College, Oxford. Chemistry, Royal Academy of Arts. PARTNERSHIP. The Hon. WALTER B. BINDLEY. PILOTS. G. G. PHILLIMORE, B.C.L., Barrister-at-Law, PASTEL. M. H. SPIELMANN. and Capt. J. WHITLY DIXON, R.N. PASTEUR. Sir HENRY ROSCOE, F.R.S., Vice-Chancellor, PISCICULTURE. J. T. CUNNINGHAM, Author of “MarUniversity of London. ketable Marine Fishes of the British Isles.” PATAGONIA. FRANCESCO P. MORENO, Author of La PITCH, MUSICAL. A. J. HIPKINS, F.S.A. Plata ** PITTSBURG. J. F. HUDSON, Editor of the “ Pittsburg PATENTS. A. WOOD RENTON, Puisne Judge, Mauritius. Dispatch.” PATER, WALTER. ARTHUR WAUGH. PLAGUE. A. SHADWELL, M.D. PATHOLOGY. General, D. J. HAMILTON, M.B., ProPLANARIANS. F. W. GAMBLE. fessor of Pathology, Aberdeen University ; Parasitic PLATE RIVER. Colonel G. E. CHURCH. Diseases, G. SIMS WOODHEAD, M.D., Professor of PNEUMATIC DESPATCH. H. R. KEMPE, Principal Pathology, Cambridge University ; Neuropathology, Technical Officer, Telegraph Dept., British Post Office. F. W. MOTT, M.D., F.R.S., Pathologist to the London PNEUMATIC TOOLS. F. A. HALSEY, Assistant Editor County Asylums ; Digestive Organs, A. L. GILLESPIE, of the “American Machinist.” F. R.C.P.Ed., Author Arctic of “Manual of Modern Gastric POLAR REGIONS. Exploration, Sir CLEMENTS Methods ” ; Respiratory Organs, THOMAS HARRIS, R. MARKHAM, K.C.B., F.R.S., President of the Royal M.D. ; Blood, G. L. GULLAND, M.D. ; Circulation, Geographical Society; Arctic Ocean, FRIDTJOF NANSEN, G. A. GIBSON, M.D. ; Metabolic Diseases and Fever, D.Sc., LL.D. ; Antarctic Regions, H. R. MILL, D.SC., D. NOEL PATON, M.D. ; Kidneys, J. R. BRADFORD, F.R.G.S. M.D., F.R.S. ; Skin, NORMAN WALKER, M.B., Author POLICE. W. F. CRAIES, Barrister-at-Law. of “An Introduction to Dermatology”; Eye, G. A. POLYTECHNICS. Sir JOSHUA G. FITCH, LL.D., formerly BERRY, M.B., Author of “ Diseases of the Eye.” Chief Inspector of Training Colleges. PATHOLOGY OF PLANTS. H. MARSHALL WARD, POLYZOA. S. F. HARMER, D.SC., F.R.S., Superintendent D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Botany, Cambridge. of the Museum of Zoology, Cambridge University. PATMORE, COVENTRY. ARTHUR WAUGH. POOR LAWS. T. MACKAY, LL.D. PATTISON, MARK. A. C. BENSON, M.A. POPULATION. J. A. BAINES, Hon. Sec. Royal Statistical PAULICIANS. The Rev. L. PULLAN, Fellow of St Society. John’s College, Oxford, and Rev. Prof. W. E. COLLINS. PORTER, ADMIRAL. G. B. LYNES, A.M. PAULINE EPISTLES. R. J. KNOWLING, D.D., Professor PORTO RICO. ROBERT T. HILL, U.S. Geological Survey, of New Testament Exegesis, King’s College, London. Author of “ Cuba, Porto Rico, and other Islands of thePAWNBROKING. J. G. PENDEREL-BRODHURST. West Indies,” and C. E. AKERS. PENNSYLVANIA. Hon. TALCOTT WILLIAMS, Editor of PORTRAITURE. Sir GEORGE REID, LL.D., President, the “ Philadelphia Press.” Royal Scottish Academy. PENSIONS, U.S. A. Hon. H. CLAY EVANS, formerly U.S. PORTUGAL. Geography and Statistics, Capt. E. DE, Commissioner of Pensions. VASCONCELLOS, Secretary of the Lisbon Geographical PERIODICALS. H. R. TEDDER, F.S. A., Librarian of the Athenaeum Club. POST-OFFICE. HENRY HIGGS, LL.B., F.S.S.; United' PERIPATUS. ADAM SEDGWICK, F.R.S., University States, E. J. HARRINGTON. Reader in Animal Morphology, Cambridge. POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. WILLIAM BURTON, C.B., PERSIA. Gen. A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. Author of “ Materials and Designs in Pottery.” PERU. The Hon. W. W. ROCKHILL, I. P. A. RENWICK, POULTRY AND POULTRY FARMING. LEWIS WRIGHT, LL.B., and C. E. AKERS. Author of “The New Book of Poultry.” PETROLEUM. Industry, BOVERTON REDWOOD, Author POWER TRANSMISSION. Electric, Louis BELL, Author of “A Treatise on Petroleum ” ; Fuel, Sir FORTESCUE of “Electric Power Transmission” ; Hydraulic, E. B. FLANNERY, M. P., formerly President of the Institution ELLINGTON, Chief Engineer of the London Hydraulic of Marine Engineers ; Illumination, VIVIAN B. LEWES, Power Company ; Pneumatic, A. DE W. FOOTE. Professor of Chemistry, Royal Naval College, Greenwich. PRAYERS FOR THE DEAD. The Rev. W. 0. BURROWS, PHARMACOLOGY. RALPH STOCKMAN, M.D., Professor formerly Principal of Leeds Clergy School. of Materia Medica and Therapeutics, Glasgow. PRESBYTERIANISM. Great Britain, Rev. WILLIAM PHILADELPHIA. C. H. HVRT, Director of the PennYOUNG, Joint Secretary of the Religious Tract Societ} r sylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia. United States, the Rev. CHARLES A. DICKEY, D.D,„ PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. Geography and Statistics, ProModerator of the General Assembly, 1900. fessor D. C. WORCESTER, Member of the U.S. Philip-

O’SHANASSY. G. C. LEVEY, C.M.G. OWEN, SIR RICHARD. A. S. WOODWARD, F.R.S., Keeper of Geology, Natural History Museum. ONUS. Sir T. H. HOLDICH, K.C.I.E. OYSTER INDUSTRY. Dr H. M. SMITH, U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Washington. PACIFIC BLOCKADE. THOMAS BARCLAY, Ph.D. PACIFIC OCEAN. H. N. DICKSON, B.SC., F.R.G.S. PAGET, SIR J. STEPHEN PAGET, F.R.C.S. PALEOBOTANY. Palceozoic, D. H. SCOTT, F.R.S., Honorary Keeper, Jodrell Laboratory, Kew ; Mesozoic, A. C. SEWARD, F.R.S., Lecturer in Botany, Cambridge University ; Tertiary, CLEMENT REID, F.R.S., Geolooist on Survey of England and Wales. PALEOGRAPHY. Sir E. MAUNDE THOMPSON, K.C.B., D.C.L., Director of the British Museum. PALESTINE. Major-General Sir C. W. WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. PAMIRS. SirT. H. HOLDICH, K.C.I.E. PAPER. J. W. WYATT, A.M.I.C.E., Author of the “Art of Making Paper.” PARAGUAY. The Hon. W. W. ROCKHILL, I. P. A. RENWICA, LL.B., and C. E. AKERS. PARIS. Statistical, GASTON MEISSAS ; History, M. DE

1

PEEFATOEY ESSAY. THE INFLUENCE OP COMMERCE ON INTERNATIONAL CONFLICT. By Frederick Greenwood.

T

RADE is almost as old as the beginnings of human speech, and may be counted among the first and best uses to which speech was turned. When we think of the conditions amid which it arose in the still most fascinating guise of barter, what a pity it seems that there was no mind wise enough to understand what had happened, no fancy bright enough to catch and reflect the beauty of its promise ! The practice began, we may suppose, in the village communities of the time as a neighbourly convenience, since every exchange of what was needed less for what was wanted more struck out the spark of pleased surprise which to this day makes the happiest bargains. A far greater pleasure was missed by those first bargainers for want of wit to comprehend it. Men were already men and far The earliest advanced from all other creatures, but yet were incapable of knowing what an immensity of Qf trade. change began with acquisition by barter, and too insensitive to feel or to care for the distance at which it placed them from the brutes, though by one remove alone. Its infancy being so purely innocent, in a world all rapine for both man and beast, the goodness that came in the train of its material advantage must have seemed to any high human intelligence the promise of a heaven-for-earth transformation. But no such intelligence existed to mark the change, dwell upon its meanings, mark its potentialities, and blamelessly commit the mistake that was made hundreds of thousands of years afterwards with no excuse whatever. For, take any great intellect that we know of, suppose it at work at the time when acquisition by barter crept in upon acquisition by capture and robbery, and we see that such a mind might be pardoned for prophesying complete regeneration for mankind. If he saw in this simple innovation something that we might compare with another Speaking of the Word as in the Book of Genesis, still he might be pardoned. For he himself would have known no other dispensation on earth than that which included man in one order of life with the beasts, if not in one law of being, and he can have seen no such means of departure from that state as he discovered when mine became thine and thine became mine to the profit and pleasure of both. This was indeed to go upon new paths altogether, and thence toward others yet more remote from the dread domain of tooth and claw. Following upon the invention of barter, many undreamt-of kinds of good, as great as or far greater than itself, would have been apparent at once to a divining intelligence; and as the moral good which accompanies material advantage may be counted upon more surely than any other, and since barter was all innocence at the beginning and seemingly incapable of vice, prediction that mankind would be led to its utmost perfection by trade might have been uttered by the wisest in those days. The truth, then, seems to be that wisdom was saved from disappointment in this momentous particular by having no existence. Trade prospered and no doubt did great things in ages impenetrably

vm

PREFATORY ESSAY

dark; but we must believe that before there was brain enough m any head to breed reasoned dreams of the future of mankind, trade had revealed its demerits and insufficiency. That, however, is to speak in the ordinary loose way. Like many other things that we accuse of degrading or otherwise damaging the mind of man, trade is in no way harmful of itself, but only as offering employment and satisfaction for some of the worst as well as the most wholesome cravings of human nature. Morally, it was at its best at first, or so it is reasonable to think; for we have actual observation to go by besides wellgrounded conjecture. The earliest or almost the earliest conditions of trade have lasted here and there to our own time. The trappers of the Hudson’s Bay Company found them in North America; they were little changed in the South Sea Islands when our traffic began there; so they remain in Africa among peoples and tribes in various stages of advancement from the man-brute borderland. And when we mark what barter is among such peoples, we must conclude that it has least guile where intelligence is most rudimentary. There we see where the fault lies if barter has achieved no such mission as, at its beginning, might have seemed worthy of Providential design, and was even thought capable of after aaes of failure from its high possibilities as a civilizing agency. Yet its achievements for good (the ’acknowledgment is unnecessary, and yet must not be withheld) have been immensely great in every kind Much as they have been exalted, they might still be praised without stint or antiphone if we could be sure that the set-off which must be placed against them in the sharpening of unbeneficent faculties the stimulation of the lower passions and ambitions, is a dwindling and not a rising quantity. That, however, is much in doubt at present; and since at the same time all the political and social forces of the world are moving in unexampled volume and rapidity, the difference involved m the doubt is of such importance that it can hardly be exceeded. Whoso looks forward to the influence of trade, now that it has become the one grand object o contention with Governments and peoples, naturally looks back also for what light the past may afford. The whole history can never be known. It would be a comparatively easy study if it began with Greece and Home, or perhaps beyond them with Egypt and the great Semitic empires whose history enlarges at such a rate under the discovery of to-day. But the same inquiry makes out that this which was “the ancient world” of our grandfathers had other ancient worlds—empires and civilizations not unworthy of those high-sounding names, though now without intelligible record. How they were established, or, what is more to our purpose, how they were maintained, is unlikely to be ever known in particulars; but though their successors flourished more by trade than was lately believed, we must suppose that tribute and not trade was the main support of them all As it was with the later civilizations of old, so no doubt it was with the earlier. All were built up, under the simple dispensation of the prime, by conquest, plunder, subjugation, and attained to increasing degrees of magnificence by tribute; though not without help from trade, nor, of course, from the arts that were fed from both. In substank this is the history of the ancient empires that we know most about (its reversal, the story of their fall), and the unended tale may be read, with certain differences for the better and some disguises not so much so, in the chronicles of the kingdoms of the modern world. Spain, Portugal, Holland, England herself but a century or two ago, became rich by exploitation which mioht almost as well be called tribute as trade in some cases, more than as well m others ; yet trade was the common name for it, as now it is for ruthless and unashamed extortions of conquest m Looking back, then, it seems that trade, to speak of it in the larger, newer meaning of the word has never been dissociated from aggression, for we can scarcely except such periods in the history of nations when they rested from conquest in the enjoyment of its gams. The tradition is unbroken, thoug i it starts from before the Flood. It goes on from utter barbarism through one civilization to another, and through the darkness of the intervals between one and another. With but little change of circumstance, small softening of conditions, what it was at the beginning maybe seen to-day m the Congo country. That, however, may be regarded as a strange and unexpected “ survival -an illustrative particular The general statement is broad enough that arms and adventure were at the making of all the trade of the modem world; but still with this advantage to the spirit of conquest, that it took to

PREFATORY ESSAY

ix

itself a. benign and. profitable purpose, and this advantage to commerce, that it shaxed in the xomance of outland enterprise and the glory of war by sea and land. No people should be more sensibly aware of this ancient association than the English, one of whose most cherished recollections is the adventure of their great sea captains in “ the Spanish main adventure which, though understood to be piratical, is not remembered for that, but for its splendid belligerency combined with its high commercial character. After that time the association of war and trade became more familiar; and yet it was in England, in the latest and most enlightened century of the Christian era, that trade was discovered to be the natural foe and destined subverter of war. And so recently as the fifth month of the second year of the present century there arose (was it from the New World ?) the phantom of a reason for thinking that this strange thing might be true. But at the time of which we speak—the thirty years from 1840, or thereabout—trade had not yet produced its tion of war. brood of monster millionaires, nor was there a dream of such a progeny to be proved absurd by the economic science of the day. Even as a fancy of that commerce-worshipping time, there was no conception of -Finance as an organism great enough to supersede war, or to do so inasmuch as the old barbaric methods of conquest applied to the subversion of rival States, the wounding of their prestige, the reduction of their security, the transfer of their honours and their means of prospering. We to whom the phantom made its entirely unexpected first appearance are at liberty to interpret by it, if we please, the prophecy that commerce would banish war; but we may not do so as if any such fulfilment had been looked for. All that the phantom portends (if it is to be considered a portent) is the supersession of the tiger by the stoat, which is far below the meaning of our prophets—far below it and very different. The commercial enthusiasm of fifty years since predicted an internationalism of the peoples, brought about by a great extension of trade, the consequent discovery in practice of its true principles as they apply between nation and nation—above all, discovery of the fatal hostility of militarism to industrial progress, the sole means of advancement for the masses of mankind. Militarism retains them under the old dispensation with its universal “ law of the beasts,” Industrialism opens the only broad path of emergence from it; and the road had never stood so clear as at the time we speak of. Till then commerce had moved in slow and narrow ways, often obstructed and not seldom destroyed. Now, equipped to a wonder by Science, Invention, Discovery, all working together as if from a reserve of forces held back for thousands of years for its timely use, commerce made such play to such beneficent effect that it might well be supposed capable of more than its own advancement. The abolition of war, the institution of a reign of peace throughout the civilized world, was very much more; but it was accepted as probable by most thoughtful minds—-of course we mean in England. Moderately stated, the expectation was that commerce, spreading rapidly from this the grand centre of its enterprise over all the civilized nations, would draw their peoples into a common interest. Better acquaintance with each other, which trade intercourse would procure and its amenities improve, must break down the absurd old race hatreds; they would disappear. That accomplished, it would be no longer easy for monarchs and their ministers to attempt their gambling ambitions, or to indulge or avenge their mere personal pride, by plunging their people into war. It would be the less easy to do so because the spread of commerce was the diffusion of enlightenment as to the truest interests of the nations; and while no people would henceforth be willing to cut the throats of another merely because they were foreigners, neither would it permit interruption of its new-found blessings by quarrels that ought to be settled in the wise merchant way: by arbitration. This was the argument of sobriety and the philosophical. Enthusiasm, of course, was far more eloquently and confidently prophetic, yet not as departing from the approved common sense of the day, or from the postulate on which in one shape or another its social philosophy rested almost entirely: to wit, that the most constant factor in human and therefore in national affairs is an intelligent appreciation of private interests. Grounded upon a dogma so safe and respectable as this, enthusiasm could ply the lyre without ever seeming to be visionary or romantic; and how much there was of it, how much of this enthusiasm even in unemotional and uncommercial persons, would seem exaggerated if told to men who were born in a later day. No romance, only rejoicing perception of a thing assured; and yet what did these anticipations

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amount to? In effect, they were the anticipations which, according to our supposition, a keenly imaginative intelligence would have drawn from the first use of barter in a world where appetite and force were all the law; yet they never found common acceptance till fifty years ago. All the promise that barter brought into the world was visible from before the time when there was mind enough to comprehend it; the saving practice continued and spread for thousands of generations; and not till these generations of thinking men had passed away did the belief arise that commerce, the born antagonist of war; would overcome it forthwith. It can hardly be that so much confidence against so much experience was ever shown before; and we may also say, considering what the abolition of war signifies, and how much else would go with it, that never was so tremendous a revolution of the moral order contemplated with such matter-of-fact composure. The abolition of war was of course understood by the enthusiasts of commerce as an immense achievement; but it evidently figured in their minds as a vaster abolition of the corn-laws might, rather than as the victory it would be over passions, instincts, impulses continued through ages of inheritance from primeval man. That it would mark a great moral departure in every way was of course recognized and joyfully proclaimed; but the reward of the great achievement reserved for trade which occupied the foremost place in expectation was the unchecked advance of trade itself. The domestic history of that time is so poorly recorded that the new generation hardly knows low much of explanation there is for hopes and forecasts so absurdly optimistic. It has been said above that sixty years ago it seemed as if Science, Invention, Discovery, were all working for commerce as if from a reserve of equipment held hack for thousands of years for its use when the right hour had come. To most readers of the new volumes of the Encyclopedia Britannica this will seem a more or less acceptable flower of speech, meant to adorn and with no other meaning. But in the known history of the world there have been strange concatenations of change from unknown causes, sudden rushes to development as if by the operation of prepared forces biding their time and strangely hiding in concealment: it is hard to understand how they should have been concealed. Such occurrences, when they happen, naturally take the imagination of men, to their exaltation if fortunate; and our little flower of speech describes one of them without much aid from fancy. The reality is that though the human mind, and the practice of inquiry, and the direction of it by the more importunate needs and aspirations of mankind, have been the same and ever active from time immemorial, there never was such a display of invention and discovery of a certain order as that which suddenly began in the earlier half of the 19 th century. It does seem as if these intellectual agencies, theretofore quiescent though not tor want of instigation, had found their appointed time and hastened to heap their hoarded services on industry and trade. The present generation is so familiar with the achievements of science in mastering the secrets and harnessing the forces of Nature as to be almost blasi with them. But in their first days these achievements were veritable wonders—wonders in themselves, their novelty their voluminous advance; and since by some new mystery all seemed addressed to the aggrandisement of trade, it is not very surprising that there should be an enthusiasm of commerce m which it was regarded as an instrument of Destiny. The beneficence of its aggrandisement—that could oe seen far better then than now. Not long before the rise of Modern Invention, England had laboured year after year in the worst impoverishment of a most glorious but most exhausting war. There is a sense in which working men were right when they used to say that “war makes good for trade But the time in which it seems to do so is short, as the wars that England was engaged in at the beginning of the last and the close of the preceding century were not; they were followed by many years o industrial lassitude; and this the people had to endure under a weight and a variety of taxation which the financier of to-day stares at incredulously. Even when trade had begun to revive, the general distress was great enough to break out from time to time in violent disturbance, which even after 1840 was sufficiently serious to alarm the Government. Such were the conditions in which the country stood when the released spirits of Invention and Discovery supplied commerce with their magic, easing its processes, en argmg is orces, multiplying its chances, shortening and smoothing every path that it came and went upon. Nor was there any tarrying of results. To other wonders was added the rapidity with which (the enormous first-

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xi

advantages of free trade assisting) the whole country was filled with -material prosperity and the knowledge of the way to more. In twenty years the world was so transformed that no saying was so common as that if one came from the dead he would not know it for the world he had left. No one who is able to cast hack his mind from these times to those will lack excuse for the prodigious pride in itself which commerce then displayed, or wonder much at the extravagant elation of its dreams. Unless some individual participants in the United States must be taken into account, the extravagance was entirely English; but for that there is the further excuse that England was the birthplace of the New Day, the first recipient and distributor of its bounties. Nowhere else in the world (it has been said before) could the gifts of Science, of Invention, have been put to such use and increase. The boast holds no longer, but in that day England had a population of artificers that could be British equalled nowhere. A very pretty breed has been produced in the United States since that time, ascendancy in but in the “’thirties” and “’forties” of the last century there was a larger and readier supply of 1840. mechanical aptitude in the British islands than any other nation could furnish. The indispensable material to begin upon, coal and iron, lay ready to hand in matchless abundance, and the advantage of its possession was greatly increased by the coal and iron being found close together. Beyond the seas which bounded all this good fortune were many growing colonies, and one vast dependency with a swarming population all ready for the new traffic. Elsewhere the enterprise of the country and the excellence of its goods had founded markets half over the world, and the road to those markets was familiar to the largest and best protected mercantile marine that the world had ever known. From its geographical position (which one great canal has strengthened and another may impair) London remained the most convenient port of distribution then open to trade; and, lastly, there was no lack of capital. Though a comparatively poor country as measured by the standard of riches in these days, there was money enough in England for all the needs of enterprise, with a stronger backing of credit than any other could commandThe possession of so complete and unique a series of advantages was of course fortuitous, but (we know the universal superstition of mankind) in relation with the other wonders of the time it had a look of destiny. It is the foible of every great nation to conceive itself, at one period or another, chosen to work out some mighty change for good, and if the dream was that commerce was to bring about a saving order of things, and to do so in the end by banishing war, it was a dream that England had more excuse for giving way to than her commercial power, potentiality, opportunity, supplied. This is true because the ascendancy of the England of that day was not commercial only. When the moral influences which she was to enlist for the extinction of war had yet to operate, England could all but ordain peace as the most commanding belligerent power in Europe. That was her position at the time of which we speak ; and it completes the explanation and excuse of illusions that were to be destroyed as completely as was the unhappy town of St Pierre, by similar forces though not of the physical world, and with the accompaniment of similar reflections. There was also some egotism to pardon in this dream of the commercial redemption of man, for at every view of it Britain figured as prophet, priest, pioneer, and the greatest gainer of all whether in goods or glory. But it would be a far blacker fault to suppose the forecast a romance of selfishness, and thoughtless to deny it a superficial plausibility. As we have said, the expectation that science-taught commerce would work miracles was not formed till marvels had been wrought. To the eyes of the generation that saw its rise its bounties were prodigies; and though we should wonder now if it did not spread widely and rapidly through the land, it was a new thing then that it did. And we have always to remember the times which that generation looked back upon. Of wars there had been enough, whether for the good they secure or the ill they bequeath. Poverty was universal. Material prosperity, though not the noblest thing on earth, had become the first thing needful for all the populations of Europe, for the people of Great Britain almost as much as any. When in such conditions the means of material prosperity were suddenly enlarged, as if by a providential awakening of faculties half dormant in the human mind, and when the new dispensation had shown the substantiality of its benefactions and their fruitfulness, the thought that the people would never let those benefactions go was bred in the air. That commerce would banish war was only another expression of the same thought.

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ESSAY

_/V A1-

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• ■ cr.rl in the mood then prevalent, we can feel how or rather the expression of its specific meanm0, ' for and good.will wouid extend captivating was the persuasion that influences making ^y ^ there a mistake a8 t0 the and still extend with the expansion of reality or the character of those mfluen ^ ^ t^tr^rdependence.

wa8 ^ assuming incitements than those

their future predominance, which bring individuals or

To he

was only thought of then by En«aSh”e" tkat commerce would abolish war, what ground States in a hundred years or ^ B * of the more sutetantial glories of peace, freed by trade did it stand upon ? It was that c ^ ^ ^ Eliropean peopies would no longer allow the old wars intercourse from the barbaric p J Indisement by subiugation. But that should have suggested for the lust of congest and the two questions at least. firs y, w ambition » SEnTmloXo rates,” in the other

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Fnnland ot of eo course who doubted that the victories of trade could include There were many men in in England, summary way that was looked for, if ever extinction of the Old Adam in Governments and peoples in the su y y inolination t0 at all; but a certain association of the new cult with r ^on ^ ^ the 00untry, lar e aJ0 y silence in face of a joyfully confident and very g “ . found a creeping admittance into too, indulged the hope or Pe™ltted^“i; immunity fr0m attack, acting congenially upon Subsequent course of Internationa t relations.

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rtT^TaLal finances extendmg owseven^ ^.years of —^ for working out the scheme , continue peace the foreknowledge of its author the suc^ofjsj^ for a year or two after completion.

have been but a suais .pour remoteness o{ war could hardly

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shown than by the proposal of such a scheme ° remember that Mr Gladstone’s confidence illustration of the persuasions of the time is no s ^ difficulty of its essential premisses-as m fact they did lked the horizon. even while the seven-year scheme was yet un , matter remained unshaken, since, From the fact that Mr Gladstone s prepossessi ^ changino- portents of his many P indeed, they seem to have been little changed from " His views of w itness. ut years of life, he might be ^ ° '“Tbiogrlphical detail (though far from unimportant in the subject would have to b g strano-ely common error of mind strongly exemphthe case of so great a political personage) an , licy and the conduct of it were largely 1 fied. That, however, is what it was. If Mr Gladstone s polmy and^^ ^ Industrialism and the determined by a conception of war as fast dyia« °ut “ widely diffused body of feeling

:s“t.r sr:-;vm —- *• increased.’

PREFATORY ESSAY

xm

observation went for nothing. The wars that began in the middle of the last century, as if provoked by the prophecy that there would be no more of them, were not only numerous enough to be convincing on that score, but offered strong evidence of little-changed and undiminished impulses to war. In the Crimean war the old-world motives were at work on all sides, and, when needed, in the old disguises: the Russian motives, territorial aggrandisement and the half-mysterious, often invincible stimulus of race; in Turkey, forces once the same, but now called to the defence and not the seizure of spoil; the Principalities, revolt against subjugation; France, dynastic considerations, very personal; England, protection of threatened interests and a menaced “ position in the world.” Half the battles in the “ frankly pagan ” days of antiquity, we might say nearly all, would come into one or other of these descriptions. The Austro-German war, a large-scale repetition of tribal conflict for ascendancy. The Italian war of Liberation names its own character—again the rebellion of a conquered people, marked by all the good and the bad characteristics of its predecessors “ in the dark backward and abysm of time.” Or then the Franco-German war; which in all that relates to motive, intention, machination, assembled so many precedents from barbarism as to prove an unweakened heredity. Had these wars been arranged to teach the lesson it could hardly have been better done. Apart from the miscalculated influences of commercial intercourse, the wars of the latter half of the 19 th century might well have revealed a growing unwillingness, a restraint, fathered by wisdom and mothered by kindness ; but if any change to that effect had been going on, it was little more appreciable by the senses, when the hour came for discovering it, than the meantime weather-wearing of the hills. Yet, despite all this positive evidence, belief in the antiquation of war as a working fact of the day maintained its existence. It would have done so less vigorously, no doubt, but for certain principles of political economy from which false pictures of the future were drawn. In making these pictures you took the world as it was, saw it imbibe from ever-multiplying sources of information the true principles of international trade, and enjoyed the pleasure of each in finding out that the broadest principle of all is the easiest to follow. It is, of course, that every people should devote itself to the supply of such commodities as the natural resources and aptitudes of the country enable it to produce most cheaply—the surplus of these being exchanged for other commodities produced elsewhere under similar conditions. Lou saw* that obedience as by compulsion followed the understanding of this first principle; it fulfilled itself by becoming known. At once, therefore, the nations were brought into a combination in which each secured its utmost profit to the advantage of the rest. At the same time, the comfort of each being dependent on the harmony of a now organic whole, a universal interest in the maintenance of peace is established. Viewed, then, under these conditions, what a picture did the working world present to the fancy of our island philosophers fifty years ago ! Here stood England, incomparably rich in the means and appliances of factory work, machine work, engineering, mining. Busy and apt in all industrial arts, especially in those which the newly-employed agency of steam quickened and cheapened, her cities were fast becoming factories, while fleets of carrier ships were at hand to convey their products wheresoever on earth they were a want. England’s part in the universal harmony was plainly appointed therefore; she could but call her labourers in from the fields and become manufacturer-in-chief for the rest of the wTorld. Looking abroad upon this unadvanced remainder, there was France, confectioner of many articles of taste and luxury—^wine-grower, too, for those who did not drink beer; France had always understood her rdle, and would go on with the production of her incomparably elegant superfluities. Elsewhere were broad cornlands, abundant and cheap grazing lands; here the people would address themselves with contented assiduity to their old-world employments, raising a commercial surplus of wheat, hides, tallow, bristles, for distribution from British ports. And so with many another scene of tranquil industry. An uncommercial Russia, a peasant Germany, numbers of what may be called country States, would become emulous in the production of food-stuffs and raw material, their rural lowliness being enriched and adorned by good things in exchange. It may be that this bright vision of promise has not the embodiment of print in any of the political economy books. But its warrant is there; and since it was not the work of imagination so far as any one knew at the time, but a forecast from the teaching of a science impregnably logical.

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we can see how it may have served to counter the lessons of those 19th-century wars. The truth is, however, that while the logic of the political economists remains all that it was, the forecasts drawn from it ever go wrong, and none so completely as the more important and impressive of them. We have hitherto spoken of those that related to commerce and war as failures, as unconfirmed; in truth, they have been destroyed by violent disproof. The co-ordination, the interdependence of commercial exchange (what you can best supply for what we can best supply) has an almost aesthetic beauty as a principle; it was thought so obviously sound, and its advantages so equitable as well as great, that it must prevail wherever it was known; and no doubt its adoption in the spirit and meaning of its propounders would have been a powerful means to the extinction of war. But it was adopted nowhere. The nations are many, and in different conditions of existence; but none of them would consent to a system of international trade the first recommendations of which were the utmost economy of advantage and the promise of abating the most dreaded cause of misery and waste. Why ? The explanation is suggested (not, of course, for the first time) in the foregoing paragraph. An uncommercial Russia had no idea of remaining so. A peasant Germany could not definitely resign itself to that order of existence, however much it might be solaced and dignified by music and books. If Industrialism is the only real hope of human advancement, as Mr Spencer preaches and as many governing men have believed without reasoning about it much, it is a social duty to open and keep open the means of employing all the industrial gifts, inclinations, aptitudes that exist in the community. If a great commerce gives strength to a nation and substantiality to its enterprise, then it is a national duty to strive for the possession of a great trade. There are no circumstances in which either duty can be properly neglected; and since their performance comes under the wholesome ordinance of competition, since also they may be carried far without trespass and farther yet without unfair aggression, it would even be absurd to subdue such duties to the eternally limiting scheme of the professors. But there is more in the facts than this. Were there no more, if, that is to say, these national duties not only could be but habitually were carried out within the bounds of contention proper to trade, every nation might make its own fair growth, the professional ideal might be left to its unfructuous loveliness, and yet there would be a happier likelihood of the decline of war. But in all such matters we have to reckon with the inveterate fact that the relation of nations to each other is not the relation of individuals in the same community. Probably there ought not to be any difference, but there is, and it is immensely great. As a consequence “the bounds of contention proper to trade” in the citizen’s case widen into license when the contention for trade is international. And thereupon comes the fact that a great commerce is envied not only for such uses as capital stands for within the community, but as a mark of ascendancy and a means of success in other fields of contention far older and more honoured than the struggle for new markets. The pride of command, the glory of conquest—the strongest collective passion of tribes and nations from their beginning, if not the only one—must be served. A great trade affords the most effective service in the unending conflict of national ambition, and trade itself is in our day as closely associated with international conquest as tribute was in times of old. Extension of trade and expansion of empire mean the same thing in most European tongues. They cannot be uttered without calling up visions of the fleets and armies necessary for acquirement or protection; fleets and armies which become more numerous and powerful as the rivalry increases which is little else than wai in abeyance. These conditions, which apply equally to the European States inasmuch as they aspire to greater domination or fear to be dispossessed, must change entirely before it can be said that commerce and war are at variance. Change there has been of late, increasing at an accelerated pace year by year; but not in the expected direction. The rivalry intensifies among the European States as they rise to a nearer equality in power; the number of aspirants for empire has increased, making their claims good m the old way by building fleets and adding army corps to army corps. Yet more unexpectedly, a vigorous Eastern State has come into the “world-conflict” for trade and territory, with a retinue of ships and soldiery magnificently armed. Now, this is a nation which did maintain within itselt, for hundreds of years till the other day, all the functions of a full and busy social life, even to the finish of the arts.

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Immediately upon that surprise another and far greater nation drew out from its own little universe of self-content, to enter the field of Imperialism. Very much because the Americans are not Orientals, but Europeans even as Britons are, this is the more instructive case of the two. For though the conscious motive of the United States in entering upon the Spanish-American war was to stop a useless waste of life under relentless misrule, one result of that war was increase and acknowledgment of the desire, irrepressible though long-pent, to give America a place among the conquering peoples. It is idle to talk of it, impossible for all but a very few minds to think of it, as a vain desire. But, however it may be considered from the moral, prudential, psychological points of view, that the desire exists and prevails is much to the purpose of this discussion. Acknowledged by the world as a great because vastly capable country, America possessed all that could be won by industry untaxed and unchecked by militarism (as Mr Spencer would have it), and by the undistracted use of the highest commercial faculty. It did not suffice. Long before the war, there were many signs in America of a coming change. The conditions which made obedience to the curbing of national ambition more inviting than obedience to that ambition had passed away; and, as was said at the time, it was not in the unregenerate nature of things that a strong, numerous, capable, proud, and stirring people should be content for ever to confine themselves and their influence within the bounds of home government. But it would be superfluous here to go into motive; enough to state it. The question being whether the tendencies of civilization run toward the extinction of militarism by industrialism, two powerful nations which have hitherto held aloof from the struggle for empire march into the arena with horse, foot, and artillery, and thus make contribution to the answer. One is of the outer East, and not unlikely to bring another Eastern people after it, or even the whole race to which it belongs. The other is of the West; a nation which, having come to full growth upon a religion proscriptive of “ world-policies,” and having prospered beyond all dreaming as a self-contained industrial republic, decides that as a career it does not satisfy. To be complete, it must be a career of conflict and dominion; with enlargement of trade for business justification, but more looked to for a becoming share of “ the glory that was Greece and the grandeur that was Borne.” And so, with a right-about face, the American people turn from their entirely successful experiment in industrial monasticism, hasten to build fleets of warships, and launch forth upon the ancient ways of national emulation. It must be agreed that if more impressive evidence of the tendency of change than this can be found, it must be very convincing; and there is such evidence. We come back to the old countries of Europe, and looking to the agencies of civilization which were to have worked with the amenities of trade to abolish militarism (a disagreeable word, but inclusive of intended meanings which “ war ” does not express), we find these agencies employed in bringing about an entirely different result, hior is their working partial, unless in one particular the most unexpected where every expectation has been falsified. The civilizing influences of the time force militarism upon people and princes alike, War as a but most upon the peoples. The pressure is felt, though unequally as yet, where empire is weapon. a possession and where it is an aspiration; and commerce and labour call eagerly upon militarism in the one case for the protection of trade acquired, in the other for the acquisition of trade desired. The effect of these crowding civilizing agencies as they tell upon the “ dim populations ” of Europe is readily traced out. One of them is the closer intercourse of men by the “ abolition of distance ” between village and town, but more especially by “ the effacement of the physical barriers between nation and nation ”—these beneficent changes being the work of our railways, steamships, telegraphs. Another is the diffusion of education, and a printing press that cheapens the means of enlightenment so bountifully that every man may partake. For the dim populations these are the most effective civilizing influences, though no doubt there are others. And now what are their main results for the masses personally, practically, as citizens and industrials ? The answer is that the extension of civilization means extension of the demand for the appliances, comforts, and luxuries of civilized life. The effacement of the physical barriers between nation and nation is more famous for enlarging acquaintance with these things, at least by sight and hearing, than for softening the hostilities of race by personal converse. The abolition of distance between village and town has the same effect.

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besides affording to villagers a readier means of seeing what it is to be a town artisan and not a peasant. And so the first employment of the commonest and most powerful agencies of civilization is to bring close to the eyes of poor men what others enjoy, to give them a taste for it as well as a sight of it, and to inform them at large on the subject by every print that finds its way into the hands of poverty. But the higher living so naturally coveted, and that certainly represents civilization however much else that better state may mean, is not obtainable by the wages of rural labour; and it is not labour alone that seeks the higher living which civilization commends and demands. Hence proceeds the enormously increased and increasing eagerness for trade, for factory profits, which has seized upon the European nations; although, as we remember, they were to have played a more philosophic and harmonious part in the commercial economy of the world. Hence, but with added cause, the raging desire for colonies which broke out not long since, the competition for an exclusive hold upon distant fields of enterprise, which is business beyond all doubt, and necessary business, but not of the kind that turns spears to pruning-hooks. We have said “ with added cause,” for where the wants of the people move them to discontent (civilization being a prolific creator of needs and appetites) Governments are taken with anxiety. They become eager for commercial empire as a provision of wealth and comfort on the one hand, as the prevention of social disorder on the other. Seeing how rapidly and adventurously the still exploitable portions of the earth are staked out for occupation, Governments and people are agreed that their purpose cannot be achieved by waving palm-branches from the doors of empty warehouses. No, but (in short) by the waving of the sword; by the use of it on occasion; by the maintenance of large armies to have and to hold; but especially by adding ship to ship, rediscovery being made that seapower is the secret of empire, very much by the control of trade. So far we have viewed the matter from the side of the nations which strive to acquire, the difference when we look to them that possess is only that between the offensive and defensive in warfare. Be his condition what it may, every intelligent Briton knows whether the wider diffusion of commerce and the more general interest in it abroad do or do not reduce England s obligations to stand well armed. He may doubt whether the great “ world - movement ” continued from the 19th century into the 20 th is for trade for the sake of empire, or empire for the sake of trade; but he sees that in either case the upshot is that British commerce needs the sword of defence more and more. No doubt it needs other defence, such as firmer energies and a keener outlook upon business would supply; but this also is understood, though by no means as a substitute for the protection which the greatest navy ever seen is not too great to secure. This is for defence against a sudden blow, and is so vast a navy because the captivation—no, the necessity of commerce for other nations brings a sudden blow within probability. Nevertheless, up to the time when these pages are written, this which is a clear is not an animated conviction in the public mind. And yet, when the consequences are considered, failure in defence of a great and long - established commerce is far more serious than defeated endeavour to set up an empire of trade, or militarism, or any other. The difference is provided by the law under which the luxuries of to-day are the wants of to-morrow. A solace for poor communities (as for all poor folk), this unfailing compensatory law imposes on the rulers of England a far sharper responsibility than they have ever yet revealed a consciousness of. There is poverty enough in the country, Heaven knows; but take the mass of the population, excluding those who would be called rich by working men, and we shall see that many things which were the luxuries of a well-remembered generation have now become absolute needs. The trade of the country has been good so long, that a share of its benefits not at all too large, but larger than is commonly reckoned, has spread down through the multitudes of a newly-created “ lower middle class ” to the working population. And there we find many who not only know by sight, and hearing, and sensibility the sweetnesses and decencies which civilization requires, but, thanks to the wages supplied by an abundant commerce on the one hand, thanks to the cheapening of all manner of civilizing refinements on the other, have made imperative wants of them by habituation. If this is to be regretted we must be sorry for the better good which a nation draws from the enrichment of industry; for that better good is a common people in which the lower refinements and the higher decencies of life become sheer necessities. That, however, is by the

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way. Now, even a gradual attainment to such advantages is preferable to rapid acquisition; but being acquired, and having become constituent in the life and character of the people, what would it be to be stripped of them suddenly ? We should listen to the truth that speaks in us when questions so momentous arise, and not be afraid to do so. Were the blow to fall which is a reasonable contingency if great fleets are not a foolish waste, it would he virtually (war is quick work at sea) a matter of a few weeks; the trade that feeds numberless factories would in that brief time depart; ransom under the name of indemnity would impose its intentional burden; and then the law of which we have spoken would fulfil its round. The needs that once were luxuries, and then became both the signs and the substantialities of social advancement, would be so many privations bitterly felt but not of the rousing kind. In other and perhaps more obvious ways they would be demoralizing privations, and of course an added quantity to those which were the common lot of the common people in the had times at the beginning of the last century. Drawn from the most grateful benefactions of trade, these are reasons for a vigorous alliance of commerce with armed Force; and the fuller the benefit the better the argument. There have been times, as we have said, when this combination under the British flag was little else than piratical; it had been so under other ensigns a hundred times before, is so now, and will be found at the same game as long as this world is made up of various races and nations at different removes from barbarism or at different stages of decadence. So long, therefore, it must also be a defensive combination, in which state it may not only play a natural but a humane and a righteous part. We have given some reasons for thinking so in England’s case. Were there a better case, an empire more amply endowed with wealth and power more nobly employed and widely shared, it would make a better argument. Such an empire would perish under readier attack unless more formidably armed. The benefactions of commerce have never been more loudly celebrated than in these days: they are as the beauty of Helen, with (perhaps) a more interested call to strife. But commerce has its vices, and they should have a greater share of attention. Domestic vices, as seen in the crowding of cities, the massing of misery, the physical degradation of the people, and in some other things that make for meanness, we do not concern ourselves with. The relation of commerce and war is our theme, and there are ways in which commerce works in that relation to extremely had effect. One of them is by keeping up an incessantly reckless cry for new markets. It is a cry that naturally commends itself as a The cry ..... . for new proof of energy and a sign of ever-conquering advance; there is too much evidence, consular markets. and other, of a different explanation. Are the old markets filled before the cry for new ones is raised ? That they are is assumed from the repetition of the demand; that they are not is proved by the one fact that within the last thirty years a newly-risen nation of traders has grown rich by gleaning in fields of enterprise where, it appears, British merchants were disappointed with the main crop. England’s markets ? England’s markets abroad have been so numerous, so various, and so firmly held by virtue of first occupation, that they should have sufficed to this day by close thought and assiduity. Most of them wanted and would have repaid, as they have repaid later incursionists, the cultivation that a town shopkeeper spends on his town customers. Our commerce could not descend from the dignity of wholesale export to the petits soins which its rivals have introduced into the trade; would rather sweep up the first gains of an “ unspoilt ” market and pass on to others entirely new. “ By disdain of small business, by contempt for the little cares that win small business, by a preposterous philistine habit of treating foreign tastes and preferences as whims that ought not to be humoured, British commerce shortens the harvest of its opportunities while ever reaching forth for more.” Now this was well enough, no doubt, when many populous lands had been little visited, and when England’s competitors for trade to far-off places were few and of small consideration. But all that was changed years ago; we have just been recounting the portentous how and why. All the greater nations are fighting together for new markets, oftener than not by their Governments sword in hand; and nearly all are animated by a fiery opinion that England has more than her share, to their injury. Notwithstanding this opinion England must hold her own and keep her high place. But it cannot be done with ease; and the “ commercial interests ” of the

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country should know that when in such conditions they clamour for new markets, the old ones being lazily or ineptly used, they do a grievously unpatriotic thing. The armed forces of the country may of course he called upon most properly to protect the commerce of the country, and perhaps to extend it, but not to extend it on such terms as these. More serious in itself, and yet more serious because quite unchecked, is another vice: the rec essness of commerce in educating barbarism in the methods of war, and supplying the weapons it is taught the use of. The teaching is not always systematic or direct, but yet it goes as far where the taught are not savages or just emerging from savagery, but advanced from that state by many steps, and there ore more adept, and again on that account more dangerous pupils. The Abyssinians may be mentioned as m this category ; much pains have been taken to bring the Abyssinians within the European The system as a properly-equipped military people. And direct teaching goes farther yet in the case business of the Chinese, who are not at all barbaric in the sense of being unformed and unpo is le , u conscence. ^ ^ ^ ^ eminently oapable) and in the next fixed in a civilization which is antagonistic in the highest degree to that of their instructors in warfare. Most of the commercial nations of Europe have competed for the privilege of imparting this instruction, which if ever it becomes effectua (as there is increasing reason to beUeve it will under the stimulus of hatred for its original teachers), wil probably add to the armies of the world one of the most disturbing ever known. Yet it was but for the sake of a little trade (supply of war-material chiefly we may suppose or the opening o oors o “concessions”) that EngUsh, Germans, and others beside Eussians, have played the part of drill-mast and gunnery instructors in China. No doubt this was done in belief that the Chinese were too inept and spiritless to turn their instruction to account. Europe had that excuse, sue as l was e excuse of a hazardous, unnatural calculation. But the error of politics and trade—yet of poll ics . less than trade, with its compelling cry for new markets-remained unabated when there was plenti u reason for suspecting it. As the commercial eagerness of Europe increased, l was accompanied bj yet more heedless provocation of the spirit that detested it, and by further lessons to the Chinese L the feasibility of expelling their invaders. However, this is not a chapter on the " awakening of China. The intention is only to recall the reckless induction of war in that much misunderstoo country and the culmination of the error when the European Powers felt themselves driven to the necessity of settling, government at home on commercial empire abroad. In truly barbaric countries as in nearly all parts of Africa, trade carries on with a like carelessness of the fact that its most positive civilizing process is the one that a Zulu or a Basuto, for example, is by nature, education, situation mos ready to profit by. No doubt he also acquires some of the amenities of civihzation-those that all away with such Lonishing readiness from its white pioneers when their business lies in an india-rubber countrv Much more lightly, however, do such graces sit upon the tribes of fighting-men who are being tamdit ihe Chinaman’s lesson in more indirect ways. No doubt this cannot be avoided, but it might be hindered or delayed, whereas trade (which must be considered as an entity without regard to eccentric members) seems to be quite indifferent on that point. Anything which, by observation r experience or provocation, or all three, may train these half-savage millions the sooner into formidable fighting-men intolerable to trade, if in the meantime business is well served by it. This is no mere peccadillo, but a vice which, considering how rapidly the world narrows, and how much more speedily oonsecmence follows upon cause, becomes signally unpatriotic. . . To these unpleasant portents others have been added so lately that their scope can hardly be measured Tariff-wars are new, as intended by the Government of one state to defend its trade from Tubversion by another, or to force from another trade advantages. Commerce having risen to such importance in international rivalry, at the same time standing for so much between Governments and peoples it may be that tariff-wars have been invented to stave off more dread “complications, upon Ihieh ’indeed tariff-wars seem to merge sometimes. In any case they witness to the command of Trade in the world’s affairs, and to its fertility in matter of direct quarrel. A sudden developm n of the American system of “combines” offers an entirely new view of a possible future, in which fin“aehinery which obtains command of the whole stock of some indispensable commodity may

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find employment more august. State employment is intended: state employment in a scheme of war without bloodshed. A Government about to declare war arranges with an expert syndicate to obtain control of the whole supply of certain food-stuffs for a certain time, and pays in millions—as a Government about to declare war against a strong Power could well afford to do for such a purpose to keep this food from the lips of the people to be attacked. Anticipated result, famine from the earliest possible moment without the usual preliminaries of slaughter and blockade; or a demonstrable certainty of famine, which, presented at the right moment, would compel submission on the one side, and confer triumph by mere cash transaction on the other. The plan is simple, almost certainly workable, and sure of commendation on grounds of humanity. And it has a particular interest for England, because it would fail against any but an island state, as England is, and one that is open to starvation in a similar degree. Such being its limitations, there is almost as little likelihood that Finance will abolish war as that Commerce should | unless we admit the conjecture that a time will come when the great twin brethren will build for themselves a throne of dominion so mighty that to command its own peace will be the banishment of war. Meantime all previous conjecture has perished in disappointment and worse, i or the influence of commerce was not the only trust of those who looked for the decline of war. Their ^ expectation was that the characteristic intellectual agencies of the last century, the invention, shrinkage the discovery, the high mechanical science which equipped trade so magnificently, would abet the suppression of war by direct operation. But that they stood for enlightenment, demonstrated the superiority of the arts of peace, added to the number of good things which war should take shame in destroying—such vague considerations as these seem to have been the only foundation of what was hoped from them. Yet there was some specific argument, as we have seen; and this too has given way. Nothing was reckoned upon more confidently for a great mixed crop of moral and material good than the bringing of the world together by the shortening of distances and the multiplying of means of communication. One unexpected consequence of these real blessings—the driving of Governments yet farther into militarism for the sake of trade—has been already noted. But there have been other results which, instead of reducing the need for armies and diminishing their cost, increase both. The bringing together of the various families of mankind has been accomplished with great success as to the material part. But as to the moral effect, it must be reckoned as much worse than nothing, according to evidence brought down to the second year of the new century. There were occasional bursts of fury between nation and nation in the less neighbourly days of old. In these times there are occasional bursts of fury as before ; but, more remarkably, the intervals are filled with incessant bickerings among the peoples. The relations of the Governments remain what they were, with only one substantial difference: they are sometimes gravely embarrassed by these bickerings, which do not make for peace. But as the world is brought into an ever-narrowing compass, other consequences ensue which bear more directly upon militarism. Frontiers close in; and as distances diminish, as time contracts and movement becomes more rapid, larger armies must be kept in readiness to meet or forestall a foe. The facilities and appliances of wTar being what they are—thanks to the abounding mercies of science and invention—sudden conquest must be provided against; and since fifty thousand men may be rendered useless within a fortnight of the proclamation of hostilities, large reserves must be kept on a footing of instant readiness. Armies thus attain to more importance than they ever had before, do in fact become a more immediate and more costly necessity ; and this they would be, it seems, if only because of the contraction of time, the closing of distances, the acceleration of movement. But modern armies must be large for another reason: the tremendous forces of destruction to which they are exposed compel provision of a corresponding “ margin ” for repair. These immensely destructive forces are among the most prodigal gifts of invention and science. If armies are so costly a necessity nowadays, it is not only because they must be more numerous, but because science and invention are tireless in providing ever more terrible and still more expensive engines of war. Hence the need of additional taxation, and therefore of additional trade, and therefore of increased competition for trade. The good genii of the 19th century have done great things for the material welfare of mankind, but what have they done for peace ?

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Peace has been little favoured by their labours indirectly-their direct labours have been assiduously addressed (no doubt with the best intentions) to enhancing the devastation and the waste of war. An their works continue. When this unexpected outcome forced itself on attention, second thoughts discovered m it the very thing that would extinguish war most certainly and speedily. War would become so costly above all it would become so dreadful, that it would not be endured. This remained a hopeiul belief for some years, and it was not without reason. It was not without reason then. Since then war has been provided with far greater terrors, and once or twice it has made such havoc, in a space of time terrible in its brevity, as was never seen before under the sun. Yet humanity does endure the excess There is no sign of its being shocked in the least. Invention is still at work upon improved means o ravage, and the State spends more and more on its productions amidst little complaint. For commerce prospers in reliance on war; war is everywhere pledged to commerce; and the old order reigneth still. There is no more demonstrable truth in mundane affairs than this, and none, of course, that compares with it for importance. Should we not acknowledge it, then ? To deny would be as reasonable m these days as to doubt that the original forces of Nature still operate by contention; and therefore it is not denied. But it is a truth that we conspire to cloak from ourselves and each other, not on y An illusion because there is so much in it that disappoints and even appals, but also because it awakes m to be shed. ^ ^ feeling of shame. And these are not bad reasons for silence, which would be blameless enough were it never allowed to obscure the facts, and if it were not accompanied by certain hypocrisies of a distinct, demoralizing character. But then it has those disadvantages, and to get rid of them would be a great reform. Now that would be done with sufficient completeness by quiet recognition that the international relations of mankind are what they are : that is to say, barely redeemed from barbarism, however well-doved they may be in our day. Sincere endeavour has been made to bring them under the rules that govern civic communities, and not quite without success. In peace time, indeed, the success appears considerable; nevertheless, it is but superficial. Those relations are still rooted m the puma 01 er o things and at every disturbance show that they are. Now this is a time of great disturbance, and ikely to last. Why, then, should we not acknowledge to ourselves the unregenerate character of international relations, and act not as if it were a merit to misunderstand them ? To do this would be to clear away the doubts that hang upon the obligations of defence; or in case the offensive-defensive should be forced on us, we might then undertake it without resort to false and unworthy affectations of sacrifice to moral compulsion.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA NEW YOLUMES.

MOSAIC. Mosaic.—The art of mosaic has never been deeply implanted in the artistic sensibilities of the north of Europe, nor has it been employed much either in France, or Germany, or England. It ceased to be generally adopted in Italy when fresco, oil, and tempera painting came into vogue. Gothic architecture is ill suited to its robust claims as a decorative art; and the incoming of fashion for the latest and least interesting development of classical architecture, “ Palladian,” divorced not only it, but mural painting also, from all architectural schemes. To be properly consequent and effective, buildings, ecclesiastical or public, should be constructed with the intention of being covered almost entirely by mosaics, which demand rich environment, marble or other colour; mosaic is essentially a colour medium. It is therefore scarcely surprising that when mural decoration became pre-eminently pictorial, and gestures and expression grew complicated, elaborate, and naturalistic, an art limited in its powers of presenting such manifestation of realistic design was relegated into the limbo of obscurity. There are no instances of the use of mosaic in England after the Roman occupation. The Normans, wdio derived it from the Greeks and Saracens, and adopted it in Sicily, did not import it either to France or England. Although English churches, and French also, were highly decorated with polychromy from early times up to the 16th century, there is no evidence of mosaic ever having been used. The revival of a school of mosaicists in Rome during the 17th century, employed in the decoration of St Peter’s, and here and there sparsely engaged in other churches, led to the idea which Wren would have carried into effect, namely, making use of mosaic for the cathedral of St Paul’s in London; but his scheme, if it was ever really entertained, was not carried out, as we all know'; and the art, which might have become the fashion in England, remained an exotic. Even late into the years of the 19th century mosaic decoration was regarded by classical purists as a barbarous art, and the glorious decorations in that material to be seen in Sicily, Italy, Greece, Asia Minor, and Russia

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were disregarded as works of high art. They were in many cases cut out to provide room for extravagant and vulgar designs in fresco or tempera, unmeaning, undecorative, and wholly abominable as decoration. Those Roman mosaics over the altars in St Peter’s, being copies of celebrated oil pictures, while they cannot be denied excellence as such and marvellous dexterity, reveal the wrorst possible taste, for they attempt to represent adequately, in cubes, touches of the brush which wrere spontaneous, fluid, thick and thin, and as sensitive and spontaneous as the finger pressure on the violin string, so accurate that the least deviation from absolute position produces discord. The only service which such a misplacement of labour and of material can be said to have rendered, is, that when the original oil pictures have been destroyed by time, these inadequate copies of them will remain. In St Mark’s in Venice Titian, Tintoretto, Veronese, and other oil painters of renown failed when they put into mosaics designs fitted only for easel pictures. Deeply indeed is it to be regretted that the mosaics (of which there still remain a few unrestored in St Mark’s and in various churches in Italy and Sicily), designed and executed by Greeks, were cut out in the 16th century and later, to be supplanted by designs which, however good in themselves, are entirely ill adapted to the restricted conditions which are the strength and not the weakness of mosaic treatment when used in perfect justification of its capabilities. These restrictions are many, and some are obvious. In the first place, mosaic is not suited for a small scale of design. It is true that in the Opera del Duomo in Florence there is a miniature mosaic (executed in the 12th century) of extraordinary beauty, which must have taken a lifetime to execute; but still this remains a curiosity, a bit of craftsmanship, rather than a great work of art. There is also a copy of Mr Holman Hunt’s “ Finding the Saviour in the Temple,” executed for Clifton College by assistants in Messrs Powell’s establishment in Whitefriars, London; it is admirably done, no doubt, but it is a long way behind the original, which is a design wholly ill S. VII. — i

MOSAIC armearance of an oil picture, which is the very antipodes adapted to mosaic. There are sf oMhe nature and demands belonging to a material eminotably one by Mr H. Holiday of The Last Supi»r, nently structural and therefore eminently in harmony with where mosaic has been employed to tramte a beauU building construction. This defect, and it is a grave one jesien which would have been more satisfactorily executed is evident in the works m mosaic more or less recently s eitte’in oil or water colours. There are also several up in Paris, notably in the apse of the Pantheon, the east isolated figures in mosaic in cathedrals and churches o end of the Madeleine, and the vaulting of the great_ stairEngland. ™al1 in scale' of ^ workmanship b“t failing case of the Louvre. Those in the apse are finely designed and mosaic, because had they been done m oil or tempera but scarcely look like mosaic, those in the Madeleine st colour their design would have been better justetol T1 less so, and the last not at all. These several “mswer0 primal and most obvious limitation is m matters of detad executed by the Ecole Mosaique, long established m Pari , 1 jetaii as regards a multiplicity of forms, many grada but they are far from interesting or satisfactory. fens either of colour or toL and naturalistic accident . The artist who designs for this material must set asic In this respect good mosaic is like good tao t the principles he has learned to estimate m paint, either ot is accomplished by firmly pronounced outlines, utmonf d oil or tempera. As an instance of a painter, pre-emmen y masses large planes unbroken up by small adjuncts ana delicate in his colour and tone, failing as a mosaic degeneralized and conventionalized forms and simple co^ou signer we may quote Cimabue, whose beautiful designs in lo all small curves, as well as small ^ts f oufJe the “bedvaUt Visa would have been fat ™te " eliminated, because it is not in the nature of the material had the artist painted them upon the wall wRh tiie to do them justice. One can scarcely conceive a choice le medium in the requirements of which he was so gr happy for mosaic than the centre group taken out of t master. The same criticism may apply to the ™ams m nS portion of the Disputa fresco in the Vatican by recent years set up on the west front of Santa Maria del Raphael, yet this florid piece of work, so facile increatio^ FTore in FlorenceP These look like oil pictures One was chosen to be executed on the eastern wall o would never imagine, looking at the _ cartoons or J1®111 morning chapel in St Paul’s. It is admirab y copied as the Opera del Duomo, that the artist had intended his far as it goes, or rather as far as the material permitted designs for any other material than that m which they are but hopelessly wanting in the spontaneity and charm executed—oil^ colour ; so, when translated ^0 a-Hr Raphael’s delicate and sketchy work. _ * , material they retain their special elements of character, It is useless to illustrate the many similar mistakes that and look to be what indeed they are—copies m glass cubes PQWO VIPPTI made They were made m some of the earner of pictures The very first principles which go to make a work in the choir of St Paul’s. The best e^mple of mosmc fine1 picture are just those which should be avoided m mosaic-elaborate modelling, delicate transitions of hght on a small scale is in Ravenna, the tomb of Galla Placidia the best upon a large scale is the great Christ at the east end and shade and picturesque effects of dark and light, of the cathedral at Monreale. These two ^orks ^olutMy materialistic resemblance indeed. The designer for mosarc justify the means to the end. Interesting are the should ever hear in mind his material, and m his design designs made by Sir Edward _ Burne - ™es 0^ for it he should accentuate those characteristics which mosaics for the American church m Rome’bpUt^eed^f belong essentially and specifically to mosaic and to no other tion and colour are alike monotonous^ The cathedra technique. If he is a painter, he must forget his lessons Chester contains a series of mosaic pictures designed by St art and take up with new ones-those whrdr t^eh Mr Clayton. The Guards’ chapel in St James s is adorned broad masses of colour obtained in lines “d likewise by the same artist, under the direction of the la that effects gained by a technique employed in oil colour Sir Arthur Blomfield. In the chapel for the school a look bald and ridiculous when translated into mosaic. Giggleswick are mosaics designed by Mr Jackson, R.A., Wateriolour and pastel are by far the best media for admirably and broadly treated in true mosaic character cartoons to be copied in mosaic. We do ^ot know how these were executed m situ and not, according to the these were executed in ancient days ; probably the des g modern habit, upon paper, away from their envrronme was drawn on the wall, and there were no cartoons. Ihe and by a foreign firm. Those mosaic pictures winch are master not only invented, but he was the master-workman placed7in niches in the great gallery of South Kensington S Ld that is how ii should he. The probability is Museum are failures qud mosaic, though the designs i S the custom of drawing the design upon , the wall many instances are fine, notably those by Lord LeigMon practised by the early Frescauti was the survival of a and Mr Val Prinsep; but their execution is uninteresti g, method adopted by the mosaicists, just as their met oc because the cubes are laid so flatly and so even y a repeated that of Roman and Greek wall painters. Of suggest an oil picture applique upon a flat groun . course this direct method leads to a large style a style Messrs Powell have been employed on several occasions harmonizing with environment, scale, &c.; the tendencj to decorate churches with mosaic. This firm has adopte to draw large in a large building, to draw smMl xn a sma! the old style, and rejected the new one initiated by Dr one. Anyhow, this is quite certain, that all the fine Salviati of Venice. If we observe the surface of a fine Byzantine and 13th-century mosaics, as well as wall K mosaic, such as that of Andrea Tafi in the Baptistery paintings, were executed in situ and not away, as was of Florence, or the few remains of unrestored mosaic m usual custom in England and elsewhere until recently St Mark's, Venice, or indeed other works scattered over What foolishness it seems, when looked at directly am Italy we shall see that it is rough, not smooth, that the from a common-sense point of view, to design a Wc cubes are irregular in shape ; that there is aiwajs a space decoration away from the building it is to adorn, then to of the ground colour left, red or white, and visible between send it to a foreign country to be set up m another each cube. In modem mosaic, with rare exceptions, restora- material, unseen during its progress by its creator, and tion or other, the cubes have been jammed up closely then still invisible to him, to be applied to a wall • together, and the surface is as smooth as a piece of paper can wonder that such piecemeal work must, mnety-nin thereby is engendered a mechanical and uninteresting times out of a hundred, issue in failure ? _ surface, over which light plays with monotony, and hence Mr Harry Powell has permitted the writer to make use that brilliant and scintillating effect so essentially the of some of his reflections upon the mosaicist s art m t e ten enc in character -of true mosaic is absent. The ^ y I following notes. The mosaicist should not separate the modern times has been to rival the smoothness and genera

M O S A I C artistic from the technical details of his craft. He must study not only the decorative effect, form, colour, and spacing of his design, but the surface to be covered as well as the materials with which he builds. Surface.—Good brick-work, the mortar joints slightly cut hack, affords the best foundation for mosaic. The hollow and sharpedged joints provide a key for the cement into which the cubes will be set, and they diminish the risk of sagging, a not uncommon event if the cement is not welded to the wall by being well pressed into the joints. If the mosaic is to be applied on stone, the stone must be notched and well roughened to provide support. Whether the surface is brick or stone, it must be well saturated with boiled oil to prevent suction, because if too much suction takes place the powder only of the cement will remain and the cubes will drop out. Cement.—A. cement suitable for mosaic is one which retains its tenacity, which can be applied , in layers, which sets slowly, and which is not liable to change colour after long exposure. These conditions are best met by an oil cement. One consisting of equal weights of white oxide of zinc and carbonate of zinc, mixed with double boiled oil and containing small proportions of wax, gold size, and slaked lime gives good results. This cement can either be white or red, white where greyness of tone is desirable, red where a richer effect is desirable. It is generally mixed with a small portion of oxide of iron or oxide of manganese, which prevents the whiteness of the joints from rendering adjacent tints grey from a distance. Atmospheric Corrosion.—As the atmosphere of modern towns is more corrosive than that of mediaeval Venice or mediaeval Rome, it is important that, in choosing the cement and the materials to be embedded in it, the mosaicist should be certain that they are impervious to atmospheric impurities. Glass.—Although marble, mother-of-pearl, and other substances have been, and are still occasionally used, the predominant material in ancient as well as modern mosaics is glass. When prepared with due regard to the continuing proportions of its ingredients, glass is impervious to the action of ordinary acids, and is practically indestructible. It can be made to assume almost every shade and tint of colour (see GLASS). There are many kinds of glass, but for mosaic work either a potash-lead or a sodalime glass is usually employed. Both of these glasses can be rendered opaque by mixing with the ingredients either oxide of tin or a mixture of felspar and fluorspar. The texture of a glass which owes its opacity to oxide of tin is dull and granular, and when the colouring agents are added the resultant colours are subdued in tone. Glass rendered opaque by the admixture of felspar and fluorspar has a bright, vitreous, easily cleaned surface, and readily develops brilliant colours. Production of Colours.—Colours are obtained by mixing and melting with the ingredients of the opaque glass small proportions of certain metallic oxides. Oxide of chalk gives a purple blue; oxide of copper gives a peacock blue ; oxide of copper with oxide of iron gives a green ; oxide of copper mixed with oxide of iron and a strong reducing agent gives a red; oxide of chromium a green ; oxide of nickel a purple ; oxide of uranium a yellow ; and oxide of manganese a violet, or a black, if a larger quantity of oxide is used. By continuing the oxides a nractically unlimited palette may be readily obtained. Manufacture of Glass Slabs.—The mixtures, in a state of powder, are shovelled into crucibles standing round the grate of a furnace, and when fusion is complete the viscous glass can be coiled upon the heated end of an iron rod and removed for use, very much in the way that thick treacle may be coiled round the bowl of a spoon. A mass of molten glass, thus collected, is allowed to fall upon a flat iron table, and is pressed into a slab about six inches square and half an inch thick. The slabs are removed to an oven, where they are allowed to cool slowly, and when cool are removed and broken by a hammer or a miniature guillotine into tesserae or cubes. The fractured edge of the tesserae is used for the surface of the mosaic. Gold and Silver Slabs. —The tesserae containing gold or silver leaf are as impervious to surface corrosions from the effects of atmosphere as the solid colours. The process of manufacturing a gold or silver slab for mosaic work is to spread the metallic leaf on a very thin tray of transparent glass, about five inches in diameter, and after it has been heated to press upon the surface of the leaf a mass of molten glass, so as to create cohesion between the molten glass and the glass tray through the pores of the metallic leaf. The slabs thus formed contain gold, silver, or platinum leaf hermetically imprisoned between two layers of glass. The slabs are cut up into tesseree or cubes by means of a diamond or glasscutter’s wheel. Only one surface can be used for mosaic work. Tinted Metals.—By using coloured glass for the thin glass trays which form the surface of the metallic slabs a variety of tinted metallic effects are obtained. Moreover, if the glass which is to form the background is coloured, and if the slab after it has been cooled is strongly reheated, the leaf becomes sufficiently disin-

3

tegrated to allow the colour of the background to show through, with the result that the colour effect of the metallic leaf is modified. Palette and Tools.—The palette of the mosaic worker is a shallow box with many partitions, each division containing differentcoloured tesserae. The only tools required are clippers, for shaping the tesserae, and a pointed awl for pricking through the cartoon into the cement the outlines of the design. Although the process and tools are simple, it requires prolonged training of mind, hand, eye, and fingers to enable a workman to create in mosaic a living representation as distinguished from a lifeless copy of the master craftsman’s design. Drawing Directly on the Wall. Curved Surfaces.—If the mosaicist desires to draw his cartoon directly upon the wall, a necessary procedure where curved surfaces are presented, he goes to work in the following manner. He causes a model to be made to scale, of a dome, semi-dome, or spandrel, and upon it he drawls his design with a brush in strong red pigment, having previously squared up the whole surface to scale. This done, he causes the dome, semi-dome, or spandrel to be covered over with thick brown paper. This being attached to the wall ’with white lead sufficient only to give temporary adhesion, the brown paper is squared up to the scale of the small sketch; each square being relatively numbered. The master then sets his pupils to work to draw mechanically and copy accurately from the small design on to the full-sized dome, semi-dome, or spandrel. This done, the master follows on, correcting with charcoal or brush until the whole design is developed in strong outline. Having made a slightly - coloured sketch, the master with the aid of his pupils proceeds to mix all the tints in w'ater colour, adding colla di pesce or fish glue and a little honey to prevent cracking. He then applies every tint separately, keeping each distinct, and above all minding that the local colours of all half tints are different from the colour of all shadows. This done, he dips his brush in black and draws all the outlines, the thickness of wdiich depends upon the distance which will intervene between his work and the spectator; in order that the black may not appear cold from a distance, he will add to one side of the line a red line, thicker or thinner than the black according to the effect he wishes to produce. It is sometimes effective to add upon the other side of the black line a green line, so that the purple effect of the black and red shall be modified. Colour.—We now come to the great question of colour and how to obtain it simply, and so that from a distance a blurred and woolly effect is not obtained. There should be a marked and sharp definition between all tints; the y should not be fused ; they should look sharply defined as the squares upon a chessboard, and appear crude and brutal. The work which looks least refined near at hand looks most finished at a distance. Red and blue lines alternately laid, either more red or more blue as the purple is intended to tend towards red or blue, make the best purple. Green is best made with yellow and blue lines, the masses being separated by red lines, and the shadows of green should be red or blue: if red, they should be outlined with blue ; if blue, with red. Red should be treated flatly, shaded with a deeper red, which should be of a warmer tone than the lights. Blue should be shaded with blue or red; and it is well to mix green tesserae with the blue in the lights, and again green tesserae with the blue or red shades to modify crudity. Pure white should be very sparingly used : it expands greatly at a distance. The best white is that which is of the tone of Naples yellow. Pure white in an atmosphere such as that of England comes to look blue and cold at a distance. Whenever it is necessary, however, to use pure white, either a yellow or pink line should be set on one side of it.

MOSCOW It is impossible to keep the flesh too simple. The local colour, i.e., a red orange, is the staple colour. I eatures should be drawn in strong red or burnt sienna, or a rich brown. The outlines of limbs or the contours of faces should be made first with a green line, a little darker than the local tints, then a red line darker still, then a black or brown line. White draperies are capable of being treated with endless variety. Their shadows may be green, red, blue, grey, or yellow. If the white drapery is to take a neutral tone when seen from a distance, all of these tints should be employed, because when mixed those positive colours appear neutral when seen from afar. Gold drapery has a fine effect. Bright gold, expands to four times the width of the line, so that the lines of gold should be thin. It may be that the gold drapery is o appear greenish; when that is desirable the folds should be drawn in gr^en outlined with red. All deep shades should be treated with red and hot browns. As gold expands so considerably, a larger interval should be left between the tessene than between any other colour even white. Each tessera should have a thin space of e ground colour round it. The tesserae should never be jammed : it is that which causes so many modern mosaics to look like oil-cloth or chromo-lithographs.

elsewhere : and to be successful the master must give tip almost the whole of his time, when he is not designing, to overlooking the work of his pupils, however capable they These are the principles which the author followed in the work at St Paul’s. It is not for him to say anything for or against his own work. But of this he is certain, it was conducted upon a right basis, and not on the wrong, and futile method previously employed m England. England can produce as good craftsmen as any other country can do ; and if those who have the power would be patient with them, instruct them, encourage them, and work with them, English artists would produce as good work and be as good craftsmen as ever were seen m the best periods of Byzantine or mediaeval mosaic designers and craftsmen. (W- B- El > MOSCOW, a government of central Russia, bound' d by Tver on the N.W., Vladimir and Ryazan on the E., Tula and Kaluga on the S., and Smolensk on the W. Area, 12,859 square miles. Its «eolo"y lias been carefully studied, and it appears that m the Tertiarypemd the surface ot this froviuce tvas already ooutmeu W but during the Cretaceous period it rvas

with the sea which has left its traces m sands, clays, and snale , Se olgirCmls of which testify to the Httoral eh«™cto o these deposits. Jurassic deposits are represented by their uppei The Finished Cartoon. division? only 5 the lower ones, as well as Triassic and Permian The finished cartoon, having been coloured in lines, should deposits are wanting. The Carboniferous deposits are_ of a deep and are only represented by the upper division which look exactly like the finished mosaic as regards effect; and sea*origin, lies upon Devonian deposits, discovered in an artesian well at the master, in making his cartoon, should always bear in Moscow at a depth of 1508 feet. The pendulum anomaly niem mind that he is designing for mosaic, and not making a tioned already by Schweitzer, has been investigated. It appears finished picture. The cartoon, when complete, is taken oft S a zone 10 miles wide and about 95 miles long from west to east, the wall and cut up in pieces. Each piece is then carefully and Ts positEe ( + 10"-6) to the north of Moscow and negative ( - 2" 7) to the south. The prehistoric archeology of Moscow has traced. The space upon the wall corresponding to each been carMuily studied. TheTite of the district has been inhabited section is then covered with cement, but only upon that since the Stone Age. Bronze implements are rare and there aie portion of the space which can be worked in mosaic in a places where instruments of stone, bone, and ^on are found The inhabitants who left the burial mounds m the 10th day The mosaic worker then applies the portion of the together toS12th centuries seem to have been of Finnish origin, and were tracing upon the wet cement, and with a sharp point he poorer, as a rule, than their contemporaries on the Volga pricks through the paper upon the lines thereon drawn, At the census of 1897 the population was 2 433,356, out of whom , on removing the tracing he will find indents within the 1 208 783 were women, and 1,099,604 lived in town . surface of the cement, which give him his cue to all the there were 1,072,600 acres under crops, and the total average annua crop of the period 1895-99 was 5,813,000 cwts. of all grain (rye forms. Setting up the coloured design by his side he 3 433 000 cuds, oats 1,985,000 cwts.). Ihe importance of the takes the tesserae, which exactly correspond in colour Moscow government as a manufacturing centre is steadily increasing, and tone with those on the drawing, and begins his and it now stands first in Russia with its aggregate annual pi ovalued at £40,300,000 (in 1896), the ^f TfSlToToTo " work, commencing from the outline and working inwards duction beinff St Petersburg(£31,700,000), Piotrkow m Poland(£21,600,OUU), towards the centre, the lightest portion being left to the and Vladimir (£17,800,000). The chief factories are ^ cottom, last. Here comes in the real test whether _ the craftsman (£13,075,300 ; 81,936workers m 299 factories), woollens(£5,6 /, ), Us (£244,300), clothing (£659,800) sugar refineries (£1^ is capable or the reverse. This is soon judged by tie be ^ master, who will put the work m and out until he is distilleries (£1,700,000), iron works (EllO.OOOk d erc of smaller industries, such as those concern e satisfied with the result. Unless the master has himself a verv great variety and gold brocades, gold and silver jewellery bronze, gone through the drudgery of laying the cubes, he can be perfumery, sweets, tobacco, tanneries, gutta-percha, furnituie, carriages wall-paper, &c. In 1894 there were m the secondary no teacher. He must be a craftsman as well as a designer, 1 and must know by experience and practice in a very schoofs (excluding Moscow) 61 300 pupils. For U^U ^ueatmii were 913 schools, out of which 13 were of the ministry difficult craft what the material can do with ease and what there education, 591 of the zemstvo, 213 of the clergy, towns of it is not called upon to do by reason of its inherent limita- The government is divided into 13 districts, the chief towns ot tions If he has not so trained himself he is certain to which are—Moscow [q. v.), Bogorodsk(11,210 inhabitants), pictorialize what he should conventionalize, and moreover and it is no violation of the neutral 1870), Salvador (6th December 1870), and Italy (26th subjects on character that this trade or intercourse is of February 1871), have agreed to accept the commander’s belligerent benefit to either side. This is subject always to declaration as provided in the Japanese Prize Law. the belligerent right to capture and confiscate Wharton quotes in his International Latv Digest a passage contraband of war (see below). On the other hand, the from a despatch of Mr Secretary Forsyth (18th May 1837) property of subjects and citizens of neutral States follows in which he states that “it is an ordinary duty of the the fortune of the belligerent State within whose territorial naval force of a neutral during either civil or foreign wars jurisdiction it is situated. It is liable to the same charges to convoy merchant vessels of the nation to which it as that of native subjects and citizens, and in case of 1 The convention between Great Britain and France respecting military contributions neutral subjects on belligerent soil postal (30th August 1890) provides that “in the can claim no protection or exemption (see below, Angary). case of communications war between the two nations the packets of the two adminisThey have also the same rights to all indemnities for loss trations shall continue their navigation, without impediment or molestation, until a notification is made on the part of either of the as are granted to native subjects and citizens. The position of neutral public ships and the relative two Governments of the discontinuance of postal communications, in which case they shall be permitted to return freely to their respective assimilation to them of mail steamers has been the subject ports ” (article 9). The position of either as neutral is not dealt some 2 Th ri bts controversy. A public ship is a ship with. At the outset of the Chino-Japanese war, Vice-Admiral Sir E. R. of neutral having an official character. It includes not Fremantle a note to the Japanese admiral requesting him to public only warships, but also any ships affected to any “give orderssent to the ships under his command not to board, visit, or ships and specific and exclusive government purpose. interfere in any way with British merchant vessels, observing that the steamers Public ships in this sense are invested with an British admiral had directed all British ships under his orders to extra-territorial character, and the State to which afford protection to such merchant vessels, and not to allow them to they belong is directly responsible for their acts. They be molested in any way.” Professor Takahashi, in his International of the Chino-Japanese War, relates that the Japanese admiral are therefore not liable to visit and search for contraband Law replied that “as the matters demanded by the British admiral of war, and are exempt from territorial jurisdiction even belonged to the sphere of international diplomacy, and consequently in belligerent waters. As regards vessels which are were outside his official responsibility, they should be communicated engaged partly in private traffic and partly on public directly to the Japanese Department of Foreign Affairs.” “The idea the British admiral,” observes Professor Takahashi, “seemed to be service, such as mail steamers and government packets, of not only to claim a right of convoy, which has never been recognized the position is necessarily different. Under the Japanese by British prize courts, but also to extend it over all waters of the Prize Law, adopted in view of the Chino-Japanese Far East, where British warships were not actually engaging in convoy. campaign, any vessel carrying contraband of war, whose Soon afterwards the matter was settled without any difficulty. On 11th August the Under-Secretary of the Japanese Foreign Office destination is hostile, may be detained, without exception received a letter from the British Minister in Tokyo stating that being made for mail steamers. The United States pro- there must be some misunderstanding, and that the British Governclamation of April 1898 in connexion with the Spanish ment would never try to interfere with belligerent right.”

NEUTRALITY 129 belongs to the ports of the belligerents. This, however, such cases it was provided by the more recent instructions should not be done in contravention of belligerent rights that they should be boarded by an officer, who should enter as defined by the law of nations or by treaty.” The the notice in the ship’s log, such entry to include the name Spanish Naval Instructions (24th April 1898) in the of the blockading vessel giving notice, the extent of the war with the United States granted unconditional exemp- blockade, and the date and place, verified by his official tion to convoyed neutral ships (article 11). signature. The vessel was then to be set free, with a A neutral merchant ship, travelling under enemy’s warning that, should she again attempt to enter the same convoy, places itself, with the assistance of the belligerent or any other blockaded port, she would be good prize. force, beyond the application of the belligerent right of Angary, or Droit d’Angarie, is a contingent belligerent visit and search, and thus commits a breach of neutrality. right, arising out of necessity of war, to dispose over, use, and Belligerent Rights.—Since the declaration of Paris pro- destroy, if need be, property belonging to neutral viding that blockades (see article under this heading in States.1 During the Franco-German war im- Angary. Blockade ©dition for general information on the minent necessity was pleaded by the German Government, subject) “ in order to be binding must be effective, as the justification of using force to seize and sink six that is to say, must be maintained by a force sufficient British coal-ships in the Seine to prevent French gunreally to prevent access to the enemy’s coast,” the tendency boats from running up the river and interfering with the has been to give a precise form to all the obligations of tactics of the German army operating on its banks. The the blockading belligerent. Thus it is now generally captains of the vessels refused to enter into any agreement agreed that notification to the neutral should be with the commanding German general, and the vessels sufficiently detailed to enable neutral vessels to estimate, were then sunk by being fired upon. The British Governwith practical accuracy, the extent of their risks. ment raised no objection to the exercise of the right, and French writers consider a general diplomatic notification, confined itself to demanding compensation for the owners, though desirable, as insufficient, and hold an individual which the German Government declared itself ready to notification to each neutral ship which presents itself at pay. Count Bismarck evidently felt the use which might the line of blockade as requisite. This theory was applied be made against Germany as a neutral Power, of such an by France in the Franco-German war, and earlier by the extreme measure, and took care in the correspondence with Northern States in the American Civil War. The new the British Government to emphasize the pressing character Japanese Prize Law (1894) does not attempt to prescribe of the danger, which could not be otherwise parried. any such notification to each ship, but sets out that notice A case given in the text-books as another one of angary of blockade to each ship is either actual or constructive. during the same war was the temporary seizure and con“ Actual ” it describes as being when the master is shown version to war purposes of Swiss and Austrian rollingto have had knowledge of the blockade, in whatever way stock in Alsace, without any apparent military necessity. he may have acquired such knowledge, whether by direct Ordinary private neutral property on belligerent soil, it warning from a Japanese warship or from any other must be remembered, follows the fate of private property source; “constructive,” when a notification of its exist- generally. The only distinction between the right of ence has been made to the proper authorities of the State angary and the right of assimilating private neutral proto which the vessel belongs, and sufficient time has perty to private property generally on belligerent soil which elapsed for such authorities to communicate the notifica- seems based on reason is that, whereas private property of tion to the subjects of that nation, whether or not they neutrals generally which has remained on belligerent soil is have in fact communicated it. No blockade, however, sedentary, or, so to speak, domiciled there, neutral vessels was attempted by the Japanese Government, and the are mere visitors with a distinct external domicile. The application of the rules was not put to the test. writer thinks the assimilation of neutral railway carriages In the Spanish war the United States’ proclamation of to neutral vessels in this respect not unreasonable.2 the investment of Cuba stated that an efficient force would A neutral State in its corporate capacity, we have seen, be posted, so as to prevent the entrance and exit of must abstain from acts which can be of assistance to vessels from the blockaded ports, and that any neutral either belligerent, and it is bound to exercise vessel approaching or attempting to leave any of them, reasonable diligence to prevent its territory being 30 “without notice or knowledge” of the establishment of used as a base for belligerent operations. The the blockade, would be duly warned by the commander duties of a neutral State as a State go no farther. Comof the blockading forces, who would endorse on her mercial acts of its citizens, even the export of arms and register the fact and date of such warning, and where munitions of war to a belligerent country, do not, in the such endorsement was made. The words “ without notice present state of international usage, so long as both or knowledge ” were explained fully in the instructions to belligerents are free to profit by such acts alike, involve blockading vessels (20th June 1898). “Neutral vessels,” liability on the part of the neutral State. But relief said these instructions, “ are entitled to notification of ’a from the obligation of repressing breaches of neutrality blockade before they can be made prize for its attempted by contraband traffic of subjects has its counterpart in the violation.” “ The character of this notification is not right granted to belligerent warships of visit and search material. It may be actual, as by a vessel of the block- of neutral merchant vessels, and in the possible conading force, or constructive, as by a proclamation of the demnation, according to circumstances, of the ship and Government maintaining the blockade, or by common confiscation of goods held to be contraband. notoriety. If a neutral vessel can be shown to have Contraband is of two kinds—absolute contraband, such notice of the blockade in any way, she is good prize and as arms of all kinds, machinery for manufacturing arms, should be sent in for adjudication; but should the formal ammunition, and any materials which are of direct applicanotice not have been given, the rule of constructive tion in naval or military armaments; and conditional knowledge arising from notoriety should be construed in a 1 manner liberal to the neutral.” Thus the United States Angaria (from dyyapos, a messenger), a post station. The French Government abandoned the system of individual notifica- word hangar or shed is probably of the same origin. 2 Treaties between the Zollverein and Spain (30th March 1868) and tion inserted in the proclamation of 19th April 1861, which was only found practicable in the case of vessels between Germany and Portugal (2nd March 1872) contain special for the fixing of indemnities in case of any forced utilization which had presumably sailed without notification. In provisions by either State of private property of the citizens of the other. S. VII. — I 7

130

NEUTRALITY

contraband, consisting of articles which are fit for, but not necessarily of direct, application to hostile uses. The British Admiralty Manual of Prize Law (1888), following this distinction, enumerates as absolutely contraband: arms of all kinds and machinery for manufacturing arms; ammunition and materials for ammunition, including lead, sulphate of potash, muriate of potash, chlorate of potash, and nitrate of soda ; gunpowder and its materials, saltpetre and brimstone; also guncotton ; military equipments and clothing; military stores, naval stores, such as masts, spars, rudders, and ship-timber, hemp and cordage, sailcloth, pitch and tar, copper fit for sheathing vessels, marine engines and the component parts thereof, including screw propellers, paddle wheels, cylinders, cranks, shafts, boilers, tubes for boilers, boiler plates and fire-bars, marine cement and the material used in the manufacture thereof, blue lias and Portland cements ; iron in any of the following forms—anchors, rivet iron, angle iron, round bars of iron of from % to | of an inch diameter, rivets, strips of iron, sheets, plate iron exceeding ^ of an inch, and Low Moor and Bowling plates;—and as conditionally contraband : provisions and liquors fit for the consumption of army or navy, money, telegraphic materials, such as wire, porous cups, platina, sulphuric acid, materials for the construction of a railway, such as iron bars, sleepers, and so forth, coal, hay, horses, rosin, tallow, timber.1 The classing of coal as conditional contraband has given rise to much controversy. Great Britain has consistently held it to be so. During the war of 1870 the Coat French and German warships were only allowed to take at English ports enough to return to a French or German port respectively. In 1885, during the FrancoChinese campaign, after protest by the Chinese Government, Great Britain applied the same rule at Hong Kong and Singapore. During the Spanish-American war neither belligerent seems to have treated coal as contraband. In the case of the coal ships which were prevented from landing their cargoes at Cuba, the prevention seems to have been connected with the blockade only. At the West African conference of 1884 Russia declared that she would 11 categorically refuse her consent to any articles in any treaty, convention, or instrument whatever which would imply ” the recognition of coal as contraband of war {Parliamentary Papers, Africa, No. 4, 1885). Coal, however, is so essential to the prosecution of war that it is impossible to avoid classing it as conditional contraband, so long as such contraband is recognized. The alternative, of course, would be to allow both belligerents freely to supply themselves at neutral ports, and neutral vessels freely to supply belligerent coaling stations. During the Franco-Chinese campaign of 1885 and the South African war, there was controversy as to the legality ^ of treating food-stuffs as conditional contraband. stuffs. During the former the subject-matter was rice, and the circumstances were exceptional. The hostilities being at the outset reprisals, and not actual war, France at first exercised no right of search over British merchant ships. Great Britain, on her side, for the same

reason did not object to French Avar vessels coaling, victualling, and repairing at British ports. On China protesting against this indulgence to France, Great Britain, as above stated, put in force her practice of treating coal as contraband, and thereupon France exercised her corresponding belligerent right of searching British vessels. The closing of British coaling stations to French Avarships was a serious inconvenience to France, and she proclaimed “ that in the circumstances in which war Avas being carried on ” the cargoes of rice Avhich A\’ere being shipped to the northern Chinese ports Avere contraband. By depriving the Chinese Government of part of the annual tribute sent from the southern provinces in the form of rice she hoped to bring pressure on the Peking Government. This Avas a manifest stretching of the sense of conditional contraband. Besides, no distinction Avas made as to destination. The British Government protested, but no cases were brought into the French prize courts, and the legality of the measure has never been judicially examined. The controversy during the South African Avar was confined to theory. In practice no stoppage of food-stuff's seems to have taken place, though the fact that the Avhole ablebodied population of the enemy States formed the fighting force opposed to Great Britain made it clear that the free import of food supplies from abroad helped the farmersoldiers to carry on Avarfare without the immediate care of raising food crops. The two cases cited shoAV the great difficulty of fixing the character of conditional contraband in a Avay to prevent arbitrary seizures. Trade betA\Teen neutrals has a primd facie right to go on, in spite of Avar, without molestation. But if the ultimate destination of goods, though shipped first to a neutral port, is enemy’s territory, then, ac- ConUnuous cording to the “doctrine of continuous voyages,” 'oyases' the goods may be treated as if they had been shipped to the enemy’s territory direct. This doctrine, though AngloSaxon in its origin and development, has been put in force by an Italian court in the case of the Doelwijk, a Dutch vessel which was adjudged good prize on the ground that, although bound for Jibouti, a French colonial port, it was laden Avith a provision of arms of a model which had gone out of use, and Avhich could only be intended for use by the Abyssinians, Avith Avhom Italy Avas at A\rar. The subject has been fully discussed by the Institute of International Law, by Avhom the following rule has been adopted : “ Destination to the enemy is presumed where the shipment is to one of the enemy’s ports, or to a neutral port, if it is unquestionably proved by the facts that the neutral port Avas only a stage {etape) tOAA7ards the enemy as the final destination of a single commercial operation.” 2 The question of the legality of the doctrine was raised by Chancellor von BiiloAv during the South African Avar in connexion with the stopping of German ships bound for Delagoa Bay, a neutral port. He contended that such 2 The only person in that eminent assemblage Avho raised an objection to the principle of the doctrine was the distinguished French writer on maritime law, M. Desjardins, Avho declined to acknowledge that any theory of continuous voyages Avas, or could be, consistently with 1 The Japanese Prize Law (21st August 1894) makes the following the existing law of neutrality, juridically known to International Laiv. distinction: (1) Arms of all kinds, brimstone, dynamite, nitrate of He admitted, at the same time, that penalties of contraband would be potash, and all goods lit for the purpose of war exclusively : the above- incurred if the shipping to a neutral port were effected merely in order mentioned goods are contraband when they are on board a vessel “to deceive the belligerent as to the real destination of the cargo.” which either has a hostile destination or calls at any port of the This Avas the French ruling in the Frau Houwina case (26th May enemy. (2) Provisions and liquors, money, telegraphic materials, 1855). He proposed to restrict the operation of the doctrine to this such as wire, platinum, sulphuric acid and zinc, porous cups, materials condition, but was opposed by three Italian Professors of International for the construction of a railway, as iron bars, sleepers, &c., coal, Law, Professors Fusinato, Catellani, and Buzzati, on the ground that timber, and so forth: the above-mentioned goods are contraband it would exclude, as it obviously Avould do, the contingency of goods goods when the destination of the vessel is either the enemy’s fleet at shipped to a neutral port, not for the purpose of defrauding the bellisea or a hostile port, used exclusively or mainly for naval or military gerent, but for that of being ultimately delivered to a belligerent not equipment. When it is clearly known that, though goods detailed in in possession of a seaport. The article as quoted in the text was also the above sections 1 and 2 are found on board a vessel, they are supported by the greatest German authority on International Maritime merely for her own use, they cannot be deemed contraband goods. Law, Director Perels of the German Admiralty.

NEUTRALITY

131 vessels were quite, and at all times, outside belligerent jurists of acknowledged status. The majority which jurisdiction, and that only the authorities of the neutral adopted it represents authoritative opinion in Germany, port were entitled to stop contraband on its way to a Denmark, Italy, .Holland, and France, showing that the belligerent force. He did not, however, press the point, old antagonism between the British and continental and only reserved the right of raising it at a future date.1 views on conditional contraband has ceased to exist. To The procedure employed to ascertain whether a neutral prevent confusion the Institute declares conditional contravessel carries contraband or not is called Visit and Search, band abolished, and then adds that “nevertheless, the a belligerent right universally recognized and belligerent has, at his option and on condition of paying 0 1 118 1 6 search * j * ^ ^ by the considerations that merchant an equitable indemnity, a right of sequestration or preships of the enemy might evade capture by emption as to articles (objets) which, on their way to a hoisting a neutral flag, if the belligerent had not the right port of the enemy, may serve equally for use in war or in of ascertaining the real character of the ship, and that peace.” The proposed rule goes beyond the directions of private neutral vessels might carry contraband goods and the British Prize Act, and it could only come into operation generally help the enemy, if the belligerent had not the under a verbal alteration of the Declaration of Paris, under right of examining their cargo. All neutral private vessels which “contraband” alone is excepted from the protection in time of war are liable to visit by belligerent warships on of the neutral flag, a fact which seems to have escaped the the high seas and in the territorial waters of the belli- notice of the Institute. gerents, but not in the territorial waters of neutral States. British prize law is at present governed by the Prize Neutral public ships are not liable to visit (see above as to Act of 1864. The Prize Manual for the guidance of British neutral public ships, mail ships, and convoy). Visit and naval commanders was re-edited by Professor T. E. Holsearch must be effected at every stage with “as much land, and reissued 1888. Both require alteration to consideration as possible ” (Herr von Billow, in Beichstag, bring them into harmony Avith changes which have re19th January 1900). The visiting officer first examines sulted from inroads of legislation even since so recent a the ship’s papers. If satisfied that the vessel is not liable date as 1888. A Consolidation Prize Bill, drafted, we to detention, he immediately quits her. If not so satisfied, believe, by Professor Holland, and dealing Avith the legishe proceeds to search her. If in the course of the search lative changes which have become necessary, had by he is satisfied that the vessel is not liable to detention, the 1902 passed through the House of Lords, and was search is immediately discontinued. The visiting officer awaiting its turn in the House of Commons. The British has the right to inspect any lockers, stores, or boxes, and Prize Instructions were, at the time of Avriting this article, in case of refusal to open them he is justified in using such also undergoing revision by a committee, appointed by the coercive measure as the case warrants. If after the visit Government for this purpose, but Avhose work of course and search the commander has reason to entertain suspicion, can only be completed after the adoption of the neAV Act. he gives the master an opportunity of explanation, and Absolute Duties of Neutrals.—For abstention from direct if the explanation is unsatisfactory he detains the vessel. corporate assistance, see International Laav, Ency. Brit. If the seizure turns out after all not to have been justified, vol. xii. p. 195 et seq. the ship and cargo are immediately released, and compensaThe duty of neutral States to enforce respect for their tion is due for the loss through the detention. In the case territory has become a very serious one. A belligerent of the stoppage and search of German vessels during the cannot be alloA\red to cross the neutral frontier South African war, the German Government proposed the or carry on war operations in neutral Avaters, with- fenTo/" appointment of arbitrators to decide upon the claims for out the same right being granted to the other respect for compensation, but this was an innovation to which the belligerent. Pursuit of one force by the other neutral British Government did not assent. Avould amount to Avaging Avar on the neutral territoryThe consequences of carrying contraband are capture, territory. It is agreed among nations that the avoidance trial by a belligerent prize court, and possible confiscation of such a contingency is in the interest of them all. Durof the ship and cargo, or of the cargo alone or ing the Franco-German war both France and Germany, as a ,art pre-emp. l the cargo, according to the facts of belligerents, and Belgium and England, as neutrals, rigortion, prize. the case. All are agreed as to articles which i ously observed their duties and enforced their rights, and are absolute contraband being liable to capture. no difficulty occurred. It is, nevertheless, conceivable that, As regards conditional contraband, British law,2 in so far, under pressure of military necessity, or on account of an at least, as concerns “ naval and victualling stores,” is less overwhelming interest, a powerful belligerent State would severe, the Lords of the Admiralty being entitled to pur- cross the territory of a weak neutral State and leave the chase such stores without condemnation in a prize court. consequences to diplomacy. The South African war was In practice such purchases are made at the market value exceptional, in that the Portuguese Government exposed of the goods, with an additional 10 per cent, for loss of itself to no international difficulty through allowing a profit. This proceeding is known in International Law belligerent, Avhose final victory was certain, and of necesas the right of pre-emption. It is not, however, as yet sity entailed total suppression of the conquered belligerent, officially recognized on the continent of Europe, though to cross its colonial territory. At the same time it is an the need of some palliative for confiscation, in certain unfortunate precedent of taking advantage of the practical eases, is felt, and some continental jurists, moved by the powerlessness of neighbouring neutral States to commit a same desire to distinguish unmistakable from so to speak violation of the Hav of nations, respect for which it is a constructive contraband, and protect trade against the primary duty of every self-respecting State to encourage.3 vexation of uncertainty, have tried to argue conditional If, by inadvertence or otherwise, belligerent soldiers contraband away altogether. pass the frontier, they have to be turned back. If they The tendency, however, among the majority of con- claim the droit d’asile, they are arrested, distinental authorities is seen in the rule drawn up in 1895, armed, and kept in such a manner as to render Refu8eesafter several years of discussion, by the Institute of Inter- it impossible for them to take any further part in the national Law, a body composed exclusively of international 3 The right of way claimed and acceded to under the AngloPortuguese treaty of 11th June 1891 was a mere right of transit for 1 Pari. Papers, Africa, No. 1 (1900), pp. 14, 25. 2 merchandise, and could not in any way he construed as diminishing The Naval Prize Act, 1864, sect, 38. the neutral obligation to a belligerent who was no party to the treaty.

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(4) The making use thereof for the purpose of the renewal or augmenting of military supplies or arms; (5) The making use thereof for the recruitment of men. (See International Law, 9th ed.) The contracting States undertook to bring the rulesthey adopted on this subject to the knowledge of other maritime Powers, and to invite them to adopt them also,, but thus far, it seems, nothing has been done to get them accepted among other States. Provision had already been made to enable the Government to carry them out in the Foreign Enlistment Act (9th August 1870). This Actr which repealed the previous one of 1819 on the same subject, is minute in its provisions to prevent enlisting or recruiting men, or the building or the equipping of vessels,, I for the military service “ of a foreign State at war with a friendly State.” Other States, except the United States (which have adopted a similar Act), have not followed the | example of Great Britain, but leave it to the Central Government to deal with the cases, when they may arise, as matters of public safety.2 There is evident reluctance among foreign States to commit themselves to the obligation of exercising “due diligence.” It is| clear that the duty of a State to forbear from committing any act which may be of assistance to either belligerent can never be formulated as an absolute one in regard to the acts of private persons, merely within the neutral jurisdiction. In recent timesit has certainly become possible for States to exercise a more 1 effective control than formerly over these acts ; hut at the present I moment, though a much greater latitude is left to neutral subjects and citizens than is consistent with the idea of strict neutrality, there is no movement to alter the usages to the disadvantage of neutral interests. That the Geneva Arbitral Tribunal found in favour of the United States in the Alabama case in no way implies that International Law has as yet undergone any change. 1 The rules laid down on this subject by the British authorities The tribunal wras hound by the antecedent fixation of the Washduring the Spanish-American war were as follows :— ington rules, and laid down no new principle. On the other Rule 1. During the continuance of the present state of war all ships hand, the magnitude of the Geneva award is not likely to promote of war of either belligerent are prohibited from making use of any change in the direction of increasing neutral duties, except as part port or roadstead in the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man, or the of a general regulation of neutral and belligerent rights. Channel Islands, or of any of Her Majesty’s colonies or foreign To some extent the difficulty of determining the extent possessions or dependencies, or of any waters subject to the territorial jurisdiction of the British crown, as a station or place of resort for of relative neutral duty is overcome by the issue of proclaany warlike purpose, or for the purpose of obtaining any facilities for mations of neutrality ; but neutrality and its warlike equipment ; and no ship of war of either belligerent shall rights and duties are in no respect dependent Proclama~ hereafter be permitted to leave such port, roadstead, or waters from which any vessel of the other belligerent (whether the same shall be on their being proclaimed by the neutral Power, neutralitya ship of war or a merchant ship) shall have previously departed until Germany issues no proclamation; at least the after the expiration of at least twenty-four hours from the departure German empire has issued none in connexion with the of such last-mentioned vessel beyond the territorial jurisdiction of Her different wars which have taken place since 1870. The Majesty. Rule 2. If there is now in any such port, roadstead, or waters Austro-Hungarian Government during the same period subject to the territorial jurisdiction of the British crown any ship only in the case of the war of 1870 itself, and in 1877, of war of either beiligerent, such ship shall leave such port, roadstead, issued proclamations, and these probably had objects outor waters within such time, not less than twenty-four hours, as shall be reasonable, having regard to all the circumstances and the condition side the ordinary purposes of proclamations of neutralityr of such ship as to repairs, provisions, or things necessary for the sub- and its usual practice is the same as that of Germany. sistence of her crew ; and if after the date hereof any ship of war of France usually issues a short general proclamation, and either belligerent shall enter any such port, roadstead, or waters subject Rule 3. No ship of war of either belligerent shall hereafter be perto the territorial jurisdiction of the British crown, such ship shall depart and put to sea within twenty-four hours after her entrance into mitted, while in any such port, roadstead, or waters subject to the any such port, roadstead, or waters, except in case of stress of weather, territorial jurisdiction of Her Majesty, to take in any supplies, except or of her requiring provisions or things necessary for the subsistence provisions and such other things as may be requisite for the subsistence of her crew, or repairs ; in either of such cases the authorities of the of her crew, and except so much coal only as may be sufficient to port, or the nearest port (as the case may be), shall require her to carry such vessel to the nearest port of her own country or to someput to sea as soon as possible after the expiration of such period of nearer destination; and no coal shall again be supplied to any such twenty-four hours, without permitting her to take in any supplies ship of war in the same or any other port, roadstead, or waters beyond what may be necessary for her immediate use ; and no such subject to the.territorial jurisdiction of Her Majesty, without special vessel which may have been allowed to remain within British waters permission, until after the expiration of three months from the time for the purpose of repair shall continue in any such port, roadstead, when such coal may have been last supplied to her within British or waters for a longer period than twenty-four hours after her necessary waters as aforesaid. Rule 4. Armed ships of either belligerent are interdicted from repairs shall have been completed. Provided, nevertheless, that in all cases in which there shall be any vessels (whether ships of war or carrying prizes made by them into the ports, harbours, roadsteads, or merchant ships) of both the said belligerent parties in the same port, waters of the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man, the Channel Islands, roadstead, or waters within the territorial jurisdiction of Her Majesty, or 2any of Her Majesty’s colonies or possessions abroad. The French Penal Code, however, contains the following clauses there shall be an interval of not less than twenty-four hours between the departure therefrom of any such vessel (whether a ship of war or covering the Government’s powers in this respect:— Art. 84. Whoever shall by hostile acts, not approved by themerchant ship) of the one belligerent and the subsequent departure therefrom of any ship of war of the other belligerent; and the time Government, expose the State to a declaration of war, shall be hereby limited for the departure of such ships of war respectively punished by banishment, and should war follow, by deportation. shall always, in case of necessity, be extended so far as may be Art. 85. Whoever shall, by acts not approved by the Governrequisite for giving effect to this proviso, but no further or other- ment, expose Frenchmen to the risk of reprisals, shall be punished by banishment. wise,

hostilities. In the case of territorial waters, as has already been pointed out, the neutral State is not in the same position as on land, all ships without distinction having a right of innocent passage through them. Belligerent ships also have the right to enter neutral ports, but the neutral authority is bound to take precautions to prevent any favour being shown to the one party or the other.1 Relative Duties of Neutrals.—Relative duties embrace those duties which citizens are bound to observe and for which States incur a relative responsibility. It was a Enlist ^ie non-observance of these relative duties that meat, &c. lod to difficulties between Great Britain and the United States at the close of the American Civil War and which brought the two countries themselves to the verge of conflict. The Treaty of Washington (8th May 1871) referring these difficulties to arbitration defined the scope of the duties in question for all future purposes between the two peoples (see below, “ Proclamations of Neutrality,” and International Law, 9th ed.). Under this treaty the parties bind themselves to use “due diligence,” where they have “ reasonable ground ” to believe that any acts have a belligerent character, in “ preventing ” them. They are bound to prevent— (1) Fitting out, arming, or equipping any vessel; (2) The departure from their jurisdiction of any vessel, having been specially adapted in whole or in part within such jurisdiction to warlike uses ; (3) The making use by a belligerent of their ports or waters as a base of naval operations against the other;

NEUVILLE ■Great Britain a more detailed one, which must be as old as the “ancient custom” of its being publicly read from the steps of the Royal Exchange by the sergeant-atarms and common crier of the City of London.1 The British proclamation practically recites the Foreign Enlistment Act, 1870 (an Act to regulate the conduct of His Majesty’s subjects during the existence of hostilities between foreign States with which His Majesty is at peace), admonishes all persons entitled to British protection to observe and respect the exercise of those belligerent rights which “We and Our Royal Predecessors have always claimed to exercise,” and warns them that any such persons “breaking, or endeavouring to break, any blockade lawfully and actually established” by either belligerent, “or carrying officers, soldiers, despatches, arms, ammunition, military stores, or materials, or article or articles, considered and deemed to be contraband of war, according to the law or modern usages of nations, for the use or service” of either belligerent, “rightfully incur, and are justly liable to, hostile capture and to the penalties denounced by the law of nations in that behalf.” During the South African war no proclamation of neutrality was issued by any country. Proclamations of neutrality may be made to serve the twofold purpose of warning the belligerent of the length to which the neutral Government considers neutral duty to extend, and neutral subjects of the exceptional measures to which a foreign war exposes them. -They may also be used to give effect to any modification of neutral right or duty which the neutral State may consider warranted by special or altered circumstances. Ho purely mercantile transactions are considered a violation of neutrality. Six years before the American sale of War, President Pierce, in his message to arms and the Thirty-fourth Congress, first session, made ammuni- the following statement:—“The laws of the neutrals. ^ni^ef^ States do not forbid their citizens to sell to either of the belligerent Powers articles of contraband of war, or to take munitions of war or soldiers on board their private ships for transportation ; and although in so doing the individual exposes his person or property to some of the hazards of war, his acts do not involve a breach of the national neutrality, nor of themselves implicate the Government.” This is as true a statement of international practice to-day as then. During the Franco-German war there was correspondence between the Prussian diplomatic representatives in London and at Washington and the British and United States foreign secretaries concerning shipments of arms and ammunition to the French armies, in which the Prussian Government contended that it was incompatible with strict neutrality that French agents should be permitted to buy up in the neutral country, under the eyes and with the cognizance of the neutral Government, “ many thousands of breech-loaders, revolvers, and pistols, with the requisite ammunition, in order to arm therewith the French people, and make the formation of fresh army corps possible after the regular armies of France had been defeated and surrounded.” Nothing, however, was done to prevent the departure of these supplies. Both the British and United States Governments claimed entire liberty for the traffic in question. In the case of loans publicly issued or raised on neutral territory the position is a little different, inasmuch as the neutral State is necessarily cognizant of the fact. Raising Of No restriction, however, is imposed by interneutral national usage, and provided the same rights are territory. granted to both belligerents, either or both can raise money ad libitum in neutral countries. Unis neutral States did not prevent the issue on their 1

The Times, 28th April 1898.

133 territory of the Russian war loan of 1876-77. Nor in the recent war between China and Japan was any opposition made by Japan to the raising of the Chinese loan in London. Proposed Neutrality Reforms.—It has been seen in the course of this article that the rules relating to neutrality need to be made more clearly ascertainable. At the Hague Peace Conference a suggestion was agreed to, without discussion, that a further State conference should be held for the purpose of dealing specially with neutrality. Later, Count von Billow, the German chancellor, in connexion with German neutrality during the South African war, referred to this proposal. “ Attempts at a settlement,” he said, “have so far invariably failed, owing to the obstacles created by the divergent views of the different Powers. An endeavour was even made to include this question in the deliberations of the Peace Conference at The Hague. The sole result was that the Conference gave expression to the wish that an attempt should be made, by means of subsequent international conferences, on the one hand to deal with the rights and duties of neutrals, and, on the other, with the question of private property at sea. The German empire would not withhold its concurrence and support, if a prospect were to arise of defining more distinctly than heretofore, in conjunction with other Powers, the lines for an international settlement of the disputed points of maritime law.” Both the Institute of International Law and the International Law Association have appointed committees for the examination of the whole subject of neutrality. In fact, there is a distinct movement among the maritime States of the world in favour of revising belligerent rights and neutral duties. War at the present day cannot be conducted without involving vital interests of neutral states. Germany in the course of the South African war showed great irritation at the stoppage of certain of her merchant vessels, and Great Britain had to consent to a modification of belligerent right under International Law — a modification which, be it said, is a perfectly justifiable one, viz., to restrict the right of search for contraband of war to a specified area. We may be sure that, in future wars, powerful neutral States will show, in similar cases, quite as much irritation as did Germany.2 How far States would go in accepting responsibility it is difficult to forecast. It has been said that a State is responsible for acts of infringement of neutrality by those within its jurisdiction, though it may not possess a machinery to repress them. Several States, as a fact, have no enactments specifically to punish infringements of neutrality, and others, like France, deal only with violations of the laws of neutrality as productive of public damage or difficulties. On the other hand, it is not unreasonable to contend that neglect of a State to enforce the laws it possesses entails responsibility for the consequences, and the absence of reciprocity would not be a complete answer to a claim by a State whose laws were less stringent. (t. Ba.) Neuville, Alphonse Marie de (1836-1885), French painter, was born, the son of wealthy parents, at Saint-Omer, France, on 31st May 1836. From school he went to college, where he took his degree of bachelier es lettres. His taste led him to serve in the navy, and in spite of the opposition of his family he entered the naval school at Lorient. It was here, in 1856, that his artistic instincts first declared themselves. He returned to Saint2 Nothing shows more the power of neutral opinion than the fact that the United States and Spain during the war of 1898, though they had refused to be parties to the Declaration of Paris, found themselves obliged to act in accordance with its provisions.

m

NEVADA — NEW

Oiner, where his father announced his intention of starting the youth in a public office, but de Neuville obtained his permission to become a painter. After being refused and discouraged by several painters of repute, he was admitted to work in Picot’s studio. He did not, however, remain there long, and he was painting by himself when he produced his first picture, “ The Fifth Battalion of Chasseurs at the Gervais Battery (Malakoff).” This work won the good opinion of Delacroix. In 1860 de Neuville painted an “ Episode of the taking of Naples by Garibaldi ” for the Artists’ Club in the Bue de Provence, and sent to the Salon in 1861 “The Light Horse Guards in the Trenches of the Mamelon Vert.” He also made successful illustrations for Le Tout du Monde and for Guizot’s History of France. At the same time he painted a number of remarkable pictures : “ The Attack in the Streets of Magenta by Zouaves and the Light Horse” (1864), “A Zouave Sentinel ” (1865), “The Battle of San Lorenzo” (1867), and “ Dismounted Cavalry crossing the Tchernaia ” (1869). In these he showed peculiar insight into military life, but his full power was not reached till after the war of 1870, in which he had fought with courage. He then aimed at depicting in his works the episodes of that war, and began by representing the “Bivouac before Le Bourget” (1872). His fame spread rapidly, and was increased by “The Last Cartridges” (1873 ; see Plate), in which it was easy to discern the vast difference between the conventional treatment of military subjects, as practised by Horace Yernet, and that of a man who had lived through the life he painted. In 1874 the “ Fight on a Railroad ” was not less successful, and was followed by the “ Attack on a House at Villersexel” (1875) and the “Railway Bridge at Styring ” (1877). In 1878 the painter exhibited (not at the Great Exhibition) “Le Bourget,” the “Surprise at Daybreak,” “ The Intercepted Despatch - bearer,” and a considerable number of drawings. He also exhibited in London some episodes of the Zulu war. In 1881 he was awarded the grade of officer of the Legion of Honour for his two pictures “ The Cemetery of Saint-Privat ” and “ The Despatch - bearer.” During these years de Neuville was at work with Detaille on an important though less artistic work, “The Panorama of Rezonville.” De Neuville died in Paris, 18th May 1885. At the sale of his works after his death the State purchased for the Luxembourg Museum the “Bourget” and the “Attack on a Barricaded House,” both in oils, with a water-colour picture, “The Parley,” and a drawing of a “ Turco in Fighting Trim.” See Montrosier. “Les Peintres Militaires,” Paris, 1881.—“De 'NcwxiWq,” La Gazette des Beaux Arts. Paris, 1885. (h. Er.) Nevada, one of the most westerly of the United States of America, bounded on the N. by Oregon and Idaho, on the E. by Utah, and on the S. and W. by California. Situated in the arid portion of the country, and with few streams available for irrigation, Nevada can never, under the present climatic conditions, become prominent as an agricultural state. In 1900 the area of land reported as improved and irrigated was 504,204 acres, mainly for grass, alfalfa, and other forage plants. The principal crop in 1898, apart from forage crops, was wheat, in which were planted 36,700 acres, the product being 1,064,271 bushels. The live stock interest was proportionately of greater moment than agriculture proper. In 1898 the state contained 44,305 horses, 1394 mules and asses, 240,386 cattle, 576,994 sheep, and 10,441 hogs. In 1900 there were 922 miles of railway (valued at $8,618,477), but little building had been done in the preceding fifteen years. The production of gold and silver, upon which mainly the state depends for its prosperity, has greatly diminished. In 1900 it was as follows :

ALBANY

gold, $2,006,200 ; silver, coinage value, $1,756,703 ; giving a total of $3,762,903. Besides this 3388 tons of lead were produced as a by-product. Nevada was never prominent as a manufacturing state. In 1900 there were 133 manufacturing establishments (excluding those classified as hand trades and those having a product of less than $500). They had a total capital of $1,349,109, an average number of 534 wage-earners, and products valued at $1,405,827. At the state capital, Carson, are situated a state prison and an orphan home. A state hospital for the insane is maintained at Reno. The state maintains an excellent system of public schools. Altogether the schools numbered, in 1898, 310, upon which was expended the sum of $317,762. The State University at Reno had in 1898 an income from the state of $32,500, while expenses amounted to $28,297. The number of instructors was 28, and it was attended by 366 students. In the matter of church membership, about two-thirds of the inhabitants are connected with the Roman Catholic Church, the remainder being composed of Episcopalians, Mormons, Methodists, and Presbyterians. In 1898 the total value of real estate, as assessed, was $16,364,656 ; of personal property, $6,822,555. The net proceeds of mines yielded in taxation the sum of $330,034 ; the total amount raised by taxation was $583,492. In 1898 the debt was but $682,611, the revenue $297,997, and expenses $355,461. Before 1892, when parties first divided upon the issue of free silver, Nevada was in most elections a Republican state; but since that year the free silver party has carried each election. In the Presidential election of 1896, when silver was adopted by both Democrats and Populists, their party carried the election by a very large majority. The population in 1890 was 45,761, showing a decrease of 16,505, or more than one-fourth, from that in 1880. In 1900 it was 42,335, showing a further decrease. The population in 1900 included 25,603 males and 16,732 females. The foreign-born population numbered 10,093, and the coloured 6930, of whom 134 were negroes, 1352 Chinese, 228 Japanese, and 5216 Indians. Out of 17,710 adult males, 2271 were illiterate (unable to write), of whom 372 were Chinese and 1398 Indians. (h. g*.) Nevada., a city of Missouri, U.S.A., capital of Yernon county, on the Missouri, Kansas and Texas and the Missouri Pacific railways, in the western part of the state, at an altitude of 860 feet. It has an elevated level site and a regular plan, divided into five wards. It has varied manufactures, including a large smelter for reducing the zinc ores from the adjoining mining district. It is the seat of Christian University and of Cottery Female College. It contains also a state insane asylum. Population (1880), 1913; (1890), 7262; (1900), 7461, of whom 235 were foreign-born and 168 negroes. Nevis, an island in the Leeward Islands group, British West Indies. Rum, sugar, and molasses are practically the only exports. Other products, chiefly for local consumption, are corn, yams, and sweet potatoes. The island has much declined in prosperity in recent years owing to the decay of sugar production, and it suffered from, a severe hurricane in 1899. Population (1881), 11,864; (1891), 13,087; (1900), estimated at 15,305. Primary education is compulsory. Most of the inhabitants are Protestants. New Albany, a city of Indiana, U.S.A., capital of Floyd county, on the north bank of the Ohio river, opposite Louisville, Kentucky, in the southern part of the state, at an altitude of 442 feet. It has a level site, a regular street plan, and is divided into seven wards. Besides the river, which is open to navigation throughout

Combat sue les Toits.” By A. M. de Keuville. (By permission of Goupil and Co., London.)

“Les Derni^res Cartouches.” By A. M. he Neuville. (By permission of Goupil and Co., London.)

NEWARK — NEW the year, its ways of commerce include four railways, the Baltimore and Ohio South-Western, the Chicago, Indianapolis and Louisville, the Louisville, Evansville and St Louis, and the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago and St Louis, bringing the city a large business. Aided by waterpower from the falls in the Ohio, New Albany is a manufacturing city of much importance. In 1890 it had 298 manufacturing establishments, with a total capital of $5,342,071. The employes numbered 4506, and the products were valued at $6,631,924. These consisted in great part of glass and iron and steel goods, the former having a value of $1,117,000, and the latter of $1,178,469. Population (1890), 21,059 ; (1900), 20,628, of whom 1363 were foreign-born and 1905 negroes. Newark, a municipal borough and market-town in the Newark parliamentary division (since 1885) of Nottinghamshire, England, on the river Trent, 19 miles north-east by east of Nottingham, and on the Midland and Great Northern railways. There are a new public library and public gardens, the latter including the ruins of Newark Castle ; and a coffee-palace has been presented by Lady Ossington. Waterworks have been constructed at a cost of £120,000. The manufacturing industries of Newark, especially brewing, malting, and iron-works, have developed considerably of late years. Population (1881), 14,018; (1901), 14,985. Newark, a city of Essex county, New Jersey, U.S.A., the largest city in the state. It is on the Passaic river, 4 miles from Newark Bay. It is irregularly laid out, with broad streets, less than half of which are paved, mainly with granite blocks and asphalte. Newark is upon five great trunk lines of railway, which connect it with New York, Philadelphia, and other points. These are. the Central of New Jersey, the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western, the Erie, the Lehigh Valley, and the Pennsylvania. It contains an excellent public library. Two of its insurance companies have combined assets exceeding $100,000,000, and combined income exceeding, in the year 1899, $34,000,000. In 1900 it contained 3339 manufacturing establishments, with a total capital of $103,191,403. They employed 49,550 hands, and the products were valued at $126,954,049. The manufactures are extremely varied, the chief products being as follows : boots and shoes, $2,530,048; bread, Arc., $2,540,245; chemicals, $3,113,095; clothing (men’s and women’s), $2,682,558; corsets, $1,298,754; fertilizers, $1,426,285; foundry and machine shop products, $5,536,893 ; hardware, $1,013,409; fur hats, $3,453,619; iron and steel, $1,169,744; jewellery, $7,364,247; leather, $10,857,192; malt liquors, $8,236,468; saddlery and harness, $1,184,178; slaughtering and meat-packing (wholesale), $3,093,396 ; varnish, $2,401,849. The assessed valuation of real and personal property in 1900 was $150,106,460 ; the tax rate, $22.40 per $1000, and the net debt was $14,177,641. The actual income of the city in 1900 was $6,080,707, and the total expenditures (exclusive of loans repaid) $7,011,401. The death-rate in 1900 was 18'44 per thousand. Population (1890), 181,830; (1900), 246,070, of whom 71,363 were foreign-born and 6694 negroes. Newark, a city of Ohio, U.S.A., capital of Licking county, on the Licking river, the Ohio and Erie canal, and the Baltimore and Ohio and the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago and St Louis railways, in the central part of the state, at an altitude of 868 feet. It is regularly laid out on a level site, and is divided into eight wards. It is in a fertile farming region, a country also underlaid by coal and producing natural gas. The carriage works of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad are situated here, and there

BRITAIN

135

are extensive and varied manufactures. Population (1890), 14,270; (1900), 18,157, of whom 1342 were foreign-born and 300 negroes. New Bedford, a seaport city of Massachusetts, U.S.A., capital of Bristol county, on the estuary at the mouth of Acushnet river in Buzzard’s Bay, in the south eastern part of the state. It has an area of 19 square miles of undulating surface, on which the city is laid out with a regular plan and divided into six wards. It has excellent water-supply and sewer systems. It is on a branch of the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad, and has regular steamboat communication with other points of Long Island Sound and the neighbourhood. New Bedford was at one time the headquarters of the American whaling fleet, and with the decline of that industry the city decreased in prominence. In recent years, however, the development of manufactures has revived it. In 1900 the manufacturing establishments numbered 618, the invested capital was $29,073,410, the average number of hands employed was 16,409, and the value of the products was $25,681,671. Of this sum about two-thirds, $16,748,783, represented cotton goods. The assessed valuation of real and personal property in 1900 was $57,884,452, the net debt was $3,175,011, and the rate of taxation $17.60 per $1000. Population (1890), 40,733; (1900), 62,442, of whom 25,529 were foreign-born and 1685 negroes. Newbern, a city and seaport of North Carolina, U.S.A., capital of Craven county, in the eastern part of the state, at the junction of the Neuse and Trent rivers, at the head of their estuary. It is on the Atlantic and North Carolina and the Atlantic Coast Line railways, and has regular steamboat communication with the principal northern cities. It has a large trade in southern pine lumber, naval stores, tobacco, and cotton. Population (1890), 7843; (1900), 9090, of whom 89 were foreignborn and 5878 negroes. New Brighton, formerly a village of Richmond county, New York, U.S.A., and since 1st January 1898 a part of the borough of Richmond, one of the five boroughs constituting New York city. Of this borough it forms the first ward. It is situated at the north end of Staten Island, across New York upper harbour from Manhattan borough, with which it is connected by ferry. It has large cotton warehouses and varied manufactures. Population(1880), 12,679; (1890),16,423; (1900), 21,441 of whom 6575 were foreign-born and 259 negroes. New Brighton, a borough of Beaver county, Pemlsylvania, U.S.A., on the Beaver river and on branches of the Pennsylvania Railroad, in the western part of the state, at an altitude of 748 feet. It is in the coal region, and has varied manufactures. Population (1880), 3653; (1890), 5616; (1900), 6820, of whom 487 were foreignborn and 179 negroes. NOW Britain, a town and city of Hartford county, Connecticut, U.S.A., on the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad, near the centre of the state, at an altitude of 179 feet. It has extensive and varied manufactures, consisting chiefly of iron and brass goods. In 1900 there were 226 manufacturing establishments, having a capital of $14,115,610, employing an average number of 8438 wage-earners, and turning out products valued at $12,260,782. The site was settled about 1650, and was originally comprised in the towns of Berlin and Framingham. It was incorporated as a town in 1850, and in 1871 the city of New Britain, formerly a part only of the town, was chartered. Population of the town, including the city (1890), 19,007 ; of the city (1890), 16,519 ; (1900), 25,998, of whom 9293 were foreign-born and 118 negroes.

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B R U N 8 W I C K

New Brunswick, a province of the Dominion of Canada, lying between 45° 2' and 48° 3' N. and 63° 46' and 69° 3' W. Along the Bay of Fundy, and reaching inland 30 miles, the country is somewhat rugged and broken, and traversed by ridges rising 500 to 1000 feet above sea-level, with occasional summits 300 feet higher. This area is underlain by rocks of the Laurentian, pre-Cambrian, Cambrian, Devonian, and Lower Carboniferous, with considerable masses of intrusive granite. North of this, grey sandstones and conglomerates of Carboniferous age occupy a triangular area, the apex of which is near Oromocto Lake, the south side extending to Nova Scotia and the north-west side to Bathurst. Along the western border this area is 400 to 600 feet high, but near the coast it is low and flat. North-west of the Carboniferous a belt of 40 to 50 miles wide is occupied by Ordovician and pre-Cambrian formations, with large masses of intrusive granite. The Ordovician is composed of schistose, micaceous, and foliated slates and quartzites, in places highly altered and disturbed. The pre-Cambrian rocks consist of very hard cystalline reddish felsite, chloritic quartzites, and felspathic and micaceous schists. The surface of this region is rugged and broken, and traversed by mountain ranges having an elevation of 1500 to 2000 feet, with isolated peaks rising 2500 to 2700 feet above sea-level. The remainder of the province to the north-western boundary is occupied by Silurian rocks, mostly calcareous slates, and shales associated with beds of limestone. The general level of this area varies from 500 to 800 feet, with ridges rising much higher, and in it is found some of the best agricultural land. The whole province has been mantled with ice in the Pleistocene period, and boulder-clay and later modified deposits occupy the surface. Marine clay and sand containing fossil shells are found along the coast. Climate.—The climate, though subject to extremes, is healthy. The average mean temperature in summer is 60° F., and in winter 19° F. The average rainfall for twenty-seven years (1874 to 1900 inclusive) was 31-9 inches, and the average snowfall for the same period was 99T inches. Game.—Laws for the protection of game have been in force for some years, and moose, caribou, and deer have of late increased rapidly. The hunting grounds, though many miles in the unbroken forest, are readily accessible. In 1902 an Act was passed authorizing the executive to set apart a large area of the highlands at the sources of the Tobique, Nipisiquit, and Miramichi rivers for a national park and game preserve. Much of this district is covered with the primeval forest, and abounds in beautiful lakes and clear sparkling streams. It is the centre of the best hunting grounds in the province, and its selection for a park will preserve many of the fur-bearing animals from total extinction. Area and Population.—The area of the province is about 27,911 square miles, with a population per square mile of 11‘9. The following statistics show the population according to sex, occupation, and race :— 1871. 1881. 1891. 1901. Total population . 285,594 321,233 321,263 331,120

48,310; Dutch, 3623; French, 79,988; German, 3830; Indian, 1309; negro, 1368, and the remaining 4606 belong to twenty different nationalities. Of the whole population, 329,567 were either born in Canada or are now naturalized citizens. Constitution and Government.—The province is represented in the Federal Parliament by ten senators, appointed for life, and fourteen members of the House of Commons, elected for a term of five years. Since the abolition of the Legislative Council in 1892 provincial affairs have been managed by a lieutenant-governor and executive council of six paid members, and from one to four without portfolios, and the House of Assembly, composed of fortysix members, elected for a term of four years. Religion.—In 1901 the principal religious denominations and their adherents were as follows :—Church of England, 41,767 ; Church of Home, 125,698 ; Presbyterians, 39,424 ; Methodists, 35,973 ; Baptists, 80,946; Congregationalists, 1033; Disciples of Christ, 1640; Adventists, 1124. Education.—The total expenditure for schools in 1901 wTas $600,340, including the Government grant to teachers amounting to $163,952. In 1882, with a population of 321,233, the number of schools was 1411, there were 1445 teachers, and the pupils numbered 52,667. In 1901, with a population of 331,120, there were 1741 schools, 1841 teachers, and 66,760 pupils. There are three chartered institutions which grant academic degrees, viz., the University of New Brunswick, Fredericton; the University of Mount Allison College, Sackville; and St Joseph’s College, Memramcook, Westmorland county. Finance.—The province has increased its revenue by imposing succession duties on estates above a certain value, by levying a tax on banks, insurance companies, telegraph and telephone companies, &c., and by taking a share of the proceeds of liquor licences. The total revenue in 1901 was $1,031,267, including $275,692 received from the Dominion Government on an old railway claim; and the expenditure $910,346, the gross debt $3,476,502, and the assets, not including public buildings, $700,238. Value of public buildings about $370,000. Crown lands, 7,000,000 acres at $1 per acre minimum value. Defence.—New Brunswick forms the eighth military district in the militia of Canada. The active force is composed of one regiment of cavalry (4 squadrons), two batteries of field artillery and one regiment of garrison artillery, one company of engineers, and five regiments of infantry and rifles, a total of 209 officers and 2359 non-commissioned officers and men, together with a permanent force, one company (Fredericton) of the Royal Canadian Regiment of Infantry, and No. 8 Bearer Company Medical Corps. Production and Industry.—Although many minerals of economic importance are known to occur in thf province, not much progress has yet been made in mining, as the quantity of ore in most cases has been limited. Borings are now being carried on for coal and oil. The mineral production in 1901 was valued at $450,000. The total number of occupiers of land in 1891 was 40,836 ; of these 37,853 were owners, 2860 tenants, and 123 employes. Much attention has been given to the co-operative manufacture of butter and cheese, and In 1901 there were 62,700 families, 168,639 males and the dairy school at Sussex has done good work in disseminating knowledge regarding these subjects. In 1901 162,481 females. Occupations of the People in 1891.—Agriculture, there were 56 factories in operation, which made 1,887,370 fisheries, and mining, 55,705; domestic and personal pounds of cheese, the value of which was $175,205; service, 17,437; manufactures and mechanical industries, there were also 35 factories, which produced 542,626 18,707 ; professional, 3863; trade and transportation, pounds of butter, valued at $111,043. These amounts 12,005; non-productive, 1742. are exclusive of large quantities of home-made butter In the census of 1901 the origin of the people is given and cheese. The acreage and state of lands occupied as follows:—English, 104,701; Irish, 83,385; Scottish, is shown as followsin 1891 the acres wTere—total

NEW

BRUNSWICK — NEWB U R Y 137 occupied, 4,471,250; total improved, 1,509,790; under and one of the largest cotton mills in the Dominion, 1892 ; Hillsborough, noted for valuable gypsum quarries, 700 ; Miiltown has crop, 1,018,704 ; in pasture, 479,607 ; woodland and extensive trade and cotton mills, 2146 ; Dorchester is forest, 2,961,460; gardens and orchards, 11,479. The the seat of lumber the Maritime Penitentiary, 1000. largest crops are oats, buckwheat, and potatoes, but See Gesxkr. New Brunswick, 1847.—Hannay. History of barley, wheat, pulse, and rye are also grown. In 1901 Acadia.—Dawson. Acadian Geology.—Matthew, Bailey, there were shipped to transatlantic ports 398,874,725 Ells, Chalmers, in Geol. Survey Reports, 1870-71 to 1902 superficial feet of deal, &c., and 6317 tons of timber. Bulletins of Natural History Society of New Brunswick; Collections of the Historical Society of New Brunswick ; Proceedings of Of the former St John contributed 176,295,257, and the the Royal Society of Canada. (w J TV ) port of Miramichi 125,664,411. The total value of the products of the forest exported in 1899 was $6,148,900. New Brunswick, a city of New Jersey, U.S.A., Animals and their products in 1891 were: horses, capital of Middlesex county, on the Baritan river and the 59,773; oxen, 7510; milch cows, 106,649; other horned Pennsylvania Railroad. It has extensive manufactures, cattle, 90,533; sheep, 182,941; swine, 50,945; domestic largely of indiarubber and iron and steel goods. Rutgers fowl, 662,433; cheese, 39,716 lb; butter, 7,798,268 lb; College, including the state mechanical and agricultural wool, 692,898 lb. college, now a part of it, in 1899 had 35 instructors and Fisheries.—Provision is made for the distribution of 306 students. Its total income during that year was $160,000 annually among fishermen and vessels. Of $67,253. Population (1890), 18,603; (1900), 20,006. this amount New Brunswick received $13,563 in 1900, ^ Newburg*, a city of Orange county, New York, divided among 234 vessels (2969 tons) and 890 men, 670 boats and 1184 men. In the same year the total U.S.A., on the west bank of the Hudson river, 60 miles number of vessels employed in the fisheries was 299 above New York. It has four railways, the New York, (4058 tons) manned by 1080 men, and 7050 boats New Haven and Hartford, the New York Central and manned by 11,559 men. 5440 persons were employed Hudson River, the Erie, and the West Shore. In 1900 it in the lobster canneries. The total value of vessels, boats, contained 253 manufacturing establishments, with a total nets, lobster canneries, fish-houses, and all other material capital of $5,214,536, and employing 3926 hands. The used in the fisheries was approximately $2,361,087. The products were valued at $6,497,088, the chief items being value of the fisheries for 1900 was $3,769,742, of which clothing, valued at $1,594,475, and foundry and machinethe most important items were herring, $919,619; shop products, valued at $543,356. Population (1890), lobsters, $506,383; sardines, $293,945; cod, $345’618; 23,087 ; (1900), 24,943, of whom 4346 were foreign-born and 558 negroes. and salmon, $246,540. Fish products, $223,544. Manufactures.—Considerable progress has been made in the Newbury, municipal borough and market-town in manufacture of cotton and pulp. In 1891 there were 5 cotton the Newbury parliamentary division of Berkshire, England, mills, employing 1752 hands, and the value of the finished product on the river Kennet, 17 miles west by south of Reading by was $1,750,000. Four mills for the manufacture of pulp have been erected, 2 at Chatham and 2 near St John, with a total rail. Municipal buildings have been erected, and a thorough capacity of 140 tons ot pulp every 24 hours. As large areas are system of drainage has been laid down. Newbury poscovered by a heavy growth of spruce, the best wood for making sesses the right to elect boys and girls to Christ’s Hospital. pulp, there is room for great expansion in this industry. In 1891 All householders may vote. A very important wool the number of manufacturing establishments was 5429; capital invested, $15,821,855; hands employed, 26,675; total wages, market is held annually in July. There are well-preserved $5,970,914 ; total value of raw material, $12,501,453 ; and the specimens of ancient houses. Population (1881), 10 144 • value of the articles produced, $23,849,655. In 1885 the exports (1901), 11,061. amounted to $6,489,293, and the imports to $5,972,836 ; in 1901 the former reached $14,886,454, and the latter $6,741,848. Newbury, John Strong (1822- 1892), Shipping and Navigation.—The registry books for 1900 show that there were 927 sailing vessels and steamers, net tonnage, American geologist, was born at Windsor, Conn., on 22nd 78,708 ; of these 122 were steamers, gross tonnage, 10,247. In the December 1822, and received a medical education. In same year 22 new vessels were built and registered ; tonnage, 762. 1851 he settled in practice at Cleveland, but in 1855 he Roads and Railways.—The provincial Government has replaced many wooden highway bridges by permanent structures was appointed surgeon and geologist to an exploring party of masonry and steel. Amongst new railways are the New Bruns- in northern California, and in 1857 his reports on the wick and Prince Edward Island Railway, from Sackville to Cape geology, botany, and zoology were published. Between Tormentine ; the Moncton and Buctouche Railway, from Moncton then and 1861 he was employed on similar work in the to Buctouche, on Northumberland Strait; the Kent Northern region of the Colorado river, and his researches over a Railway, from the Intercolonial Railway to Richibucto and Palmerston ; the Caraquette Railway and Gulf Shore Railway, from large area of previously unknown country in Colorado, the Intercolonial near Bathurst to Tracadie ; the Restigpuche and Dtah, Arizona, and New Mexico were recognized as of Victoria Railway, under construction ; the Albert Southern Rail- high value. During the Civil War he did important work way, from Albert to Alma ; the Central Railway, from Norton on as a member of the U.S. Sanitary Commission, his the Intercolonial to Chipman in Queen’s county ; the Canada Eastern, connecting Fredericton with Chatham and Loggieville ; organizing capacity being specially marked during the St John Valley and Riviere du Loup Railway, from Fredericton operations in the Mississippi valley. In 1866 he was to Woodstock (6 miles), under construction ; York and Carleton appointed professor of geology and palaeontology at the Railway, from junction with the Canada Eastern Railway at Cross Columbia School of Mines, where he started a magnificent Creek station to Stanley ; and the extension of the Central Railway from Chipman to Fredericton, under construction. The rail- collection of specimens; in 1869 he was made state ways west of the St John river and the line on the east side from geologist of Ohio and director of the Geological Survey Fredericton to Andover are owned and worked by the Canadian there, and in 1884 palaeontologist to the U.S. Geological Pacific Railway Company, except the Shore Line Railway, between Survey. His work was recognized by his inclusion in St John and St Stephen. In 1901 there were 1444 miles of railway in operation. Telephone lines connect most of the principal most of the learned societies of America and the Old World ; he received the Murchison medal of the Geological places, and are also used in country settlements. Towns.—T\\e cities and towns are Fredericton, 7117, the Society of London in 1888, and was president of the capital; St John, 40,711; Moncton, 9026; Chatham, 4868; American Association for the Advancement of Science St Stephen, 2840 ; Campbelltown, 2652 ; Sackville, 1875 ; Woodstock, 2984 ; Richibucto, 1700 ; Bathurst, 1550 ; St Andrews, a (1867), of the New York Academy of Sciences (1867-91), lavourite summer resort, 1800 ; St George, the seat of an extensive and of the International Congress of Geologists (1891). granite industry, 850 ; Dalhousie, 1000 ; Sussex, noted for its He published several volumes dealing with his own subjects. dairy products, 1500 ; Marysville has extensive lumber trade, He died at New Haven, Conn., on 7th December 1892. S. VII. — 18

138

NEWBURYPORT — NEWCASTLE Newburyport, a city and seaport of Massa- 600. A decree of 1886 assigned the island as a place for hardened chusetts, U.S.A., capital of Essex county, on the south side criminals. (2) The Wallis Archipelago, placed under the protectorate on 5th April 1887, and for administrative of the Merrimac river, 3 miles above its mouth, and on a French purposes connected with New Caledonia by decree of 27th line of the Boston and Maine Railroad, in the north-eastern November 1888. There is a French Resident in the islands, which part of the state. Formerly prominent in shipbuilding since 1891 have been connected by a regular service with Noumea. and as a whale-fishing port, its industries now mainly com- The archipelago, lying to the north-east of Fiji, in about 13° 2' S. 176° W., has an area of 40 square miles. The principal prise the manufacture of boots and shoes, cotton goods, &c. and islands are Uea, of volcanic formation and surrounded with coral, It still possesses some commerce and fisheries. Population and Nukuatea. It was a missionary, Father Bataillon, who in (1890), 13,947 ; (1895), 14,552; (1900), 14,478. of whom 1837 first brought the influence of France to bear on the natives. These, about 4500 in number, are of Polynesian race and live on 2863 were foreign-born and 97 negroes. yams, and are gentle and industrious. The trade of the islands New Caledonia, a French island in the Pacific, is mainly with Samoa, whence cottons and iron goods are imat the southern extremity of Melanesia, with an area of ported, and to which copra and roots are exported. (3) The Loyalty Islands, 60 miles east of New Caledonia, consist of 5,187,000 acres, or about 8100 square miles. In 1898 three large and a multitude of small islands, with a total area the population numbered 52,756, consisting of 5585 of 800 square miles. The population amounts to 14,800. The colonists, 1714 soldiers, 1762 officials, 31,874 natives, natives cultivate the banana and yams, and export sandal-wood. 1829 labourers from the New Hebrides, India, and China, (4) The Union Islands, 170 miles north-west of New Caledonia, almost barren. (5) The islands of Fottjna and Alofa, 7477 convicts condemned to short periods of imprisonment, are discovered in 1616, to the south-east of the Wallis Islands, were and 2515 freed but restricted as to residence. The centres placed under the French protectorate by decree of 16th February of population are Noumea, the capital, with 6968 in- 1888. They have 1500 inhabitants. The New Hebrides are not classed among the possessions of habitants, of whom 4010 are free, Bourail, an agricultural but are under the joint supervision and protectorate of penitentiary (1800), La Foa, in the centre of the coffee France, France and Great Britain. The convention of 24th October 1887 plantations, Moindu, St Louis, and St Vincent. Since the entrusted to a mixed commission of naval officers on the British great Kanaka insurrection of 1878, order has been main- and French stations in the Pacific the duty of protecting life and tained without interruption. The colony is administered property. France, having withdrawn her garrisons, engaged not by a governor, who exercises military power through a to send her convicts to the archipelago. See Gallet. La Nouvelle Caledonie. Noumea, 1884.—Le marine infantry colonel, and civil power with the assistance Chartier. New Caledonia. Paris, 1885.—Legrand. Au Pays of a privy council, a director of the interior, a judicial des Canaques. Paris, 1893.—Lemire. La Colonisation en head, and a director of the penitentiary administration. Nouvelle CaUdonie. Paris. L'Annie Coloniale, 1900. (p. l.) There is also an elective general council. Noumea is the Newcastle, the second city of New South Wales, seat of a superior tribunal, a tribunal of first instance, and both as regards trade and population, situated at the a tribunal of commerce. The island and its dependencies are divided into five arrondissements. Noumea alone has mouth of the river Hunter, about 62 miles north of (since 1879) a municipality, other localities being ad- Sydney, in 32° 55' S. and 15L 49' E. It is the seat ministered by commissions. The local budget for 1900 of a Church of England bishopric, and there are numerous balanced at 3,407,876 francs. More than half of the churches of all denominations. The New South Wales has spent very large sums on the construction expenditure of France, 6,643,748 francs, is incurred for Government of breakwaters and training-walls and on dredging and the penal establishment. blasting, so that it may now be reckoned in most Of the whole area of the colony more than one-half is moun- respects an excellent port, though it is dangerous to tainous : 500 square miles are occupied by forests capable of being enter during east-south-east gales. The amount of silt, worked ; 1600 are in pasture-land, and 1600 consist of cultivable lands in alluvial valleys, where coffee, maize, tobacco, sugar-cane, sand, and rock removed during 1899 was 2,183,000 tons. the vine, vegetables, potatoes, and some of the cereals are grown Newcastle comprises, besides the city proper, various with success. Coffee was introduced about 1870, and so well has suburbs: these, with their population in 1901, were it prospered that there are now at least 1,500,000 coffee bushes. Newcastle (city), 12,988; Stockton, 2549; Carrington, Cheap agricultural labour is supplied by the convicts, by the liberated convicts, the Kanakas, and labourers from the New 2547 ; Wickham, 7752; Hamilton, 6124; Merewether, Hebrides. The soil is in three domains : that of the state, for 4547 ; Adamstown, 2420; Waratah, 3080; New Lambton, the working of which concessions may be granted under the 1578; Lambton, 3159; Wallsend, 3820; and Plattsburg, decree of 1897 ; that of the penitentiary administration, 400 3177, making the total population of the city and suburbs square miles ; and that of the native reserve. Notwithstanding their wealth, the forests are not worked. The colony contains, 53,741. There are 23 coal-mines at Newcastle and in besides many horses, 130,000 head of cattle and sheep, and the its immediate vicinity, as well as 34 mines in the surmeat-preserving industry has begun. The mineral deposits are rounding district, of which Newcastle is the shipping abundant. Gold is found in the valley of the Diahot, as well as port. These mines employed, in 1899, 7815 hands, and lead and copper at Balade. Iron is found everywhere. The yearly output of nickel exceeds 20,000 tons ; of chrome, 2500 the quantity of coal raised was 3,259,700 tons, of which tons ; and these minerals, with cobalt, constitute the character- about 600,000 tons were sent to Sydney, and 2,478,400 istic wealth of the island. Coal covers more than 450 square tons exported to places outside New South Wales. There miles in five basins, and kaolin is found in places. Gypsum is a growing trade in other articles than coal, and in and marble also deserve mention. The industries have not made great progress. The chief industrial establishments are smelt- 1899, out of a total export of £1,630,814, the value of ing furnaces for cobalt, meat-preserving works at Ouaco, sugar- coal was £882,857, and of other goods £747,957; inworks and distilleries at Noumea and La Foa, tobacco, oil, and cluded in this sum was wool valued’ at £529,876, horses soap factories at Noumea. The commerce in 1888 amounted to £480,000, of which £200,000 represented the trade with France. £32,579, cattle £17,289, preserved meat £48,000, silver In 1900 the total was £820,000, of which £480,000 was for im- lead £36,905, and copper ingots £15,674. Biscuitports and £340,000 for exports, the share of France in that year making is one of the most important manufactures, one having been 45 per cent, of imports and 47 per cent, of exports. establishment employing 500 hands. Newcastle is the The island takes wines, spirits, tissues, clothing, and ironmongery ; and sends ores, nickel, cobalt, chrome, copper to the fourth port of Australasia, ranking after Sydney, Melamount annually of £208,000, preserved meats and hides, £20,000 bourne, and Adelaide. During 1899, 973 deep-sea to £24,000, coffee and colonial produce to a like amount. In vessels, with a tonnage of 1,283,620 tons, entered the 1898 the shipments of coffee reached 296 tons. There are as yet port; the majority of these vessels arrived in ballast. In only 125 miles of carriage roads, but in the mountainous regions the same year 974 vessels, of 1,283,157 tons, cleared there are many footpaths. Annexed Islands.—The islands annexed to New Caledonia are : directly from Newcastle, nearly every country of the globe {1) the Isle of Pines, 30 miles south-east, with a population of being represented. The Government owns nearly all the

N E WOASTLE —NEWCASTLE-ON-T YNE wharfage, and has constructed nearly 13,000 feet of frontage. The wharves are equipped with steam and hydraulic cranes capable of shipping 25,000 tons a day. Newcastle is represented in Parliament by six members, and there are twelve municipalities leaking after the local affairs of the city and suburbs, though one would suffice. The total revenue of these municipalities in 1899 was £38,183, of which £24,881 was derived from rates and charges placed directly on assessed properties. The disbursements amounted to £38,815. The capital value of all properties liable to assessment was £5,430,700, and the annual value £316,270. The combined debts of the municipalities amounted to £142,498. There were, in 1899, 10,414 d wellings in these municipalities, and 247 miles of streets, ol which only 96 miles were properly macadamized. Newcastle city, Hamilton, Merewether, and Wickham have each twelve aldermen ; the other eight municipalities have nine each. The water supply of the Hunter river district, of which the twelve municipalities form part, is pumped direct from the Hunter river, about a mile and a half above West Maitland, and is finally drawn off to six local reservoirs. The capital cost of the works was £519,000. Only a small part of Newcastle and suburbs is regularly drained. In the city proper there were, in 1899, 12Jjj miles of drainage, constructed at a cost of £18,251. Newcastle and Lambton are supplied wfith electric light by their respective municipal councils ; the local council of Waratah owns its own gas-works, and there are also two private companies supplying the city and suburbs with gas. Communication between the various parts is maintained by tramways and ferry-boats. The Great Northern Railway runs from Newcastle to Wallangarra, on the Queensland border, where it joins the Queensland railway system; at Hamilton the railway from Sydney joins the Northern system, at a point 102 miles distant from Sydney. There is tramway communication with Plattsburg, Tighe’s Hill, and Merewether. Steam ferry-boats run at short intervals across the harbour to Stockton and Bullock Island. The Government has established a technical college and museum and 17 public schools, several ol which have from 750 to 1100 pupils on their rolls. The Roman Catholic Church has 15 schools, some of which are of considerable size, and there are 11 private undenominational schools and colleges. There is a school of arts or mechanics institute in the city and in each suburb : the Newcastle School of Arts is a handsome building, with a library ot 15,000 volumes, fine reading-room, lecture-hall, and class-rooms. There is a large hospital for the insane, two general hospitals subsidized by the state, and the Wallsend Hospital. There are also seveial subsidized charitable institutions. The Victoria Theatre vras erected in 1891, at a cost of £20,000. The Anglican Cathedral of Christ Church, in course of erection, will cost £20,000. Several of the other churches are handsome buildings. Amongst other prominent public buildings are the Law Courts the School of Mines and Trades Hall, and the Post and Telegraph Office, all excellently designed. The municipality has provided excellent salt-water swimming-baths in Newcomen Street' The ha rbour are u-n11 arnu , defended FortofScratchley, on Allan's Hill. The climate is not unlikebythat Sydney, except that it is a little hotter and there is a somewhat smaller rainfall. 1 le mean ^temperature is 64 6°, the mean summer temperature being 72 4 , and the mean winter 55'5°. The highest recorded temperature over a long series of years was 107-5°, and the owest 31 3 . The average rainfall is 48 inches per annum, and the number of rainy days 128. (t A C ) Newcastle, a city in the western part of Pennsy vania, U.S.A., capital of Lawrence county, at the junction of the Shenango and Neshannock rivers and at the intersection of five railways; altitude 814 feet. It is m the coal-mining region, and has extensive paper, glass, iron, and steel works, including blast furnaces and machine shops. Population (1890), 11,600; (1900), 28,339, of whom 5324 were foreign-born and 463 negroes. WCasi, iland, ^®Lngland, f"0n "Tnorth-north-west yne, a city ofofNorthumber273 miles London by rail, on the river Tyne, 8 miles from its mouth, with stations on the North-Eastern Eailway and branch lines, ihe central station has received very extensive additions and m connected with the south by a new railway bridge and with the Blyth and Tyne station by an underground 146 (1881in)’ 1899 >000; (1891), ( iSm 1), -A4,803; but the area was 186,300; increased argely east and west—following the course of the river to 5400 acres. The rateable value of the union increased

139 from X715,000 in 1881 to Ml 2i by 48 inches bv oPfemh Western WstyFnJlShe newspaper Mercury (Plymouth) of 1884, tile S/ ; fl - Ma Early1718 provincial newspapersThe 1/19 18 y ; Lie Cirencefter No? , ’ Sb jfL1 M ; Northampton Mercury, vol. hi. Post, No 127

1725OCt+°b16berearliest l22/ Norwich Gazette, xix., No. (Dublin), 969, 24th 1704April Irish paper, Puesvol. Occurrences Scottlsh a er 16QQ ’ 6Le r P P . Edinburgh Gazette, No. 4, March rcur Ihol’ , M' ALnglois, June 1644-December 1648, probably the earliest French? paper published in England ; the Weedy Haifa P troops°^ ^ 1 '

1884 pi )lisbed ’ i u Cam aign in

P

by the Royal Engineers during ® dan, tor the amusement of the (G. P. B. ; D. E.)

173

Recent Developments in London Journalism.

. Peii°d from 1882, when the article on Newspapers m the earlier volume of this Encyclopaedia (ninth edition) was published, up to 1902, covers many important developments, which are associated either with the immense increase in reading, or with the continuous striving on the part of the increasing crowd of journalistic competitors to attain success by providing the “ reading public ” of all classes with what suits its taste. Some of the new agencies concerned in the production of newspapers, and other allied subjects, are treated elsewhere in these volumes m the articles on Paper, Advertisement, Copyright Type-setting Machines, Printing-Presses, Libel, Process, &c. Here we are concerned rather with the changes in the character of the Press than with the mechanical or legal conditions of newspaper production. The principal feature in the development of modern newspapers is the greater importance attached to obtaining and displaying “news” of all sorts, and T . , incidentally there has been a considerable o^modem change of view as to what sort of news should journalbe given prominence. Sport and finance are ism‘ treated at greater length and more popularly; and, partly owing to the largely increased number of papers and consequent greater competition, partly to a desire to appeal to a larger public, there has been a tendency to follow the tastes of the vast number of people who can read at ail rather than of those to whom reading means literary and intellectual enjoyment. This has involved a more popular form of presenting news, not only in a less literary style and by the presentation of “tit-bits” of information with an appeal to cruder sentiments, but also in a more liberal use of headlines and of similar devices for catching the eye of the reader. “Personal journalism ” Paragraphs about the private life or personal appearance of individuals—either men or women—of note or notoriety in society or public affairs, has become far more marked; and in this respect, as in many others, encouragement has been given to a spirit of inquisitiveness, and also to a widespread inclination either to flatter or be oneself flattered—the latter desire being indeed conspicuously prevalent in these “ democratic days ” even among the classes which once affected to despise such publicity, ihe more responsible and more serious organs of public opinion have no doubt, in spite of this prevailing spirit, successfully maintained the dignity of British journalism and kept up its high standard and traditions. Ihe great dailies themselves have exhibited, in various directions, the tendency to extend the interest of their news columns, without at the same time adopting the clap-trap devices or introducing the personal flavour which during the ’nineties came to be known as “the New Journalism.” But The Times, or the Standard, or the Spectator, and journals of their class, while remaining the true representatives of the best sort of British journalism, had an old reputation and traditions to keep up; it is rather the newer journals which have given the characteristic tone to the period with which we are dealing. The modern impulse came partly from America, and its characteristics may be found discussed in the section devoted to American papers below, but it was also the result of new conditions of life in Great Britain, and of the democratic movement produced by the Education Act of 18 / 0 and the Reform Act of 1885. On the whole while American methods of journalism have largely influenced the Press in Great Britain in these new developments, it may be said that in so far as they were adopted they were very considerably modified in deference to nglish ideas. In no British paper has anything ever

174

NEWSPAPERS

been found approaching the enormous “ scare ” headlines or inflated language which are common features in the American Press. The most generally adopted American innovation (for, though not unknown before, it was practically a new thing) has been the “ interview,” which during the early ’nineties was taken up in varying degrees by almost every paper; it was “ cheap copy,” and could be made both informing and interesting, and ) able articles on current topics signed by M. Harduin and

199 N E W S P A P E R S M. Henri des Houx and a number of distinguished con- in Paris, but there are in the provinces one hundred and four local weekly supplements to the Paris edition, each tributors. In April 1901 the proprietorship of Le Siecle was one taking its name from the parent journal and adding to changed, in consequence of the lack of support given by it the name of the department or locality in which it is Parisian readers to that journal as edited by M. Yves printed, such as La Croix de VAllier, La Croix de Lyon. Guyot (formerly Minister of Public Works). The latter The circulation of La Croix is supposed to be about was a staunch free-trader, a courageous defender of Captain 200,000 copies daily. It is needless to add that the Dreyfus, and an eloquent advocate of a good understanding tendencies of this journal are anti-Republican. To whatever parties the French papers belong, most of between France and England; he emphatically endorsed the British policy in South Africa, and tried to explain it them have in recent years taken greater interest in foreign to his countrymen. The paper was, however, bought in matters, and have much improved their organization for by a number of friends of M. Yves Guyot, who remained collecting news. Some of them, in fact, w'ere almost exclusively news-sheets as distinguished from ordinary as editor. and the journal dJinformations—Le Matin or The greatest opponent of M. Yves Guyot from the newspapers, 1 L Eclair, for instance—took its place beside the journal economic point of view has been M. Jules Meline, also a former minister, whose paper, La Republique, is the recog- properly so called more perhaps as a rival than as a complement. The natural result followed, and the ordinary nized organ of Protectionism. The Radical and Socialist ideas which in latter years newspapers took steps to provide their readers with news have made such progress in France are very ably advocated as well as with leading articles, current and literary topics, by several newspapers whose influence has been steadily society gossip, dramatic criticism, and law reports. The growing. Such are L'Aurore, edited by M. Vaughan, La most remarkable as well as perhaps the earliest attempt Lanterne, to which have contributed, besides M. Yiviani, to enlarge the scope of Parisian newspapers was made in who is the editor, men like M. Millerand and M. Baudin 1893 by the late M. Georges Patinot, one of the ablest (both members of the Waldeck-Rousseau Cabinet), M. French editors, who was editing the Journal des Debats. Instead of one edition, that newspaper published two Camille Pelletan and M. Rouanet. It is difficult to assign a proper place to UIntramigeant, entirely distinct editions, a morning one and an evening which really belongs neither to a well-defined party nor one. After some time the plucky attempt had to be given even to a group. It may be said to be simply the organ up, and the Journal des Debats became an evening paper. of M. Henri Rochefort, whose personal influence over a Before that an interesting event had taken place in 1889, large number of readers is still great. Equally difficult is when that renowned organ celebrated its hundredth anniit to speak of M. Clemenceau’s organ, Le Bloc, as a news- versary by the publication of a most valuable record of its paper, and yet on account of the writer’s ability and distinguished career in the shape of a splendid volume, political influence, Le Bloc, which belongs to that class of Le Livre du Centenaire du Journal des Debats. The bold one-man political periodical sheets of which M. Rochefort’s experiment made by the Journal des Debats led the other La Lanterne is the best-known type, cannot be ignored. newspapers to find a happy mean between a four-page In this periodical M. Clemenceau advocates the practical paper published twice a day and an eight-page paper on application of all of the revolutionary republican principles, the pattern of English newspapers, and the result was that pure and unadulterated, which form a whole {bloc), no now most great daily papers in Paris have six pages : the part of which can or ought to be sacrificed to temporary Figaro gave the lead, and the others followed suit. Another fact to be noted is that as French newspapers political necessities. As an intermediate link between the Republican organs increased in size they reduced their price, and the time is of all shades and the various Monarchist newspapers, comes fast approaching when all daily political papers will be sold the so-called Nationalist press, an offshoot of or successor at 5 centimes (^d.). Already most six-page newspapers, to the Boulangist press of the preceding decade. As were with the exception of Le Figaro, are sold at 5 centimes, the Boulangists, so are the Nationalists, a sort of syndicat and the price of 15 centimes, which used to be the rule, is des mecontents. Their chief organs are La Patrie, edited now the exception. At the present time 60 Paris papers by M. Millevoye, and La Cocarde, and these papers repre- (daily and weekly) are sold at 5 centimes, and 51 at sent the views of those who have vague hankerings after 10 centimes, whilst only 11 cost 15 centimes. In 1880 a different regime and a decided hostility towards the only 23 were 5-centime papers and 24 were 10-centime papers. republican form of government. At one time the American style of journalism was in There has been a considerable diminution of influence in the Monarchist press. Le Soleil, however, has a large vogue in Paris, and “ interviews ” were frequent; they are circle of readers among the Conservative bourgeoisie with much more scarce now, and the general tendency of Parisian Orleanist leanings, and still keeps up the tradition left to editors is towards the English rather than the American or it by the late M. Edouard Herve. Le Gaulois remains a sensational methods of journalism. Most of the important Royalist paper of somewhat doubtful tendencies, since the Parisian newspapers now have special correspondents in editor, M. Arthur Meyer, seems to have incurred the dis- the great capitals of Europe, London, Berlin, St Peterspleasure of the Pretender whose cause he defended. Of burg, Vienna, and Rome, and print every day telegraphic the old Legitimist press there remains the old Gazette reports from their representatives ; and if they do not de France, which was founded in 1631 and has still make use of the telegraph to the same extent as their a diminishing band of faithful readers whose fidelity to English and American confreres, at least their use of it has become regular and of everyday occurrence. This in their principles compels respect. It is impossible to close this rapid review of the existing itself is a great and remarkable change, and nothing perFrench newspapers without mentioning the organ of the haps has been so striking since 1890 as the demand of the religious (Roman Catholic) associations in France, namely, French public for foreign and colonial news, or the readiness La Croix, founded in 1880. The name of the editor (now of the papers to supply it by means of special representaM. Feron-Yrau) matters little; what is important is the tives who make them independent of the news agencies. fact that La Croix represents the views of the French In home matters the French press has made greater religious associations, and discusses all questions from the progress still in the rapid and accurate collection of news, point of view of Catholic interests. La Croix is published and in this respect the provincial press has shown more France]

200

NEWSPAPERS [GERMANY enterprise and more ability than that of Paris. Its de- are in the right direction, and will probably lead to more velopment has been remarkable, for whereas in 1880 ones in the near future, the tendencies of the the inhabitants of the departments had to await the important I rench press being now more progressive than at any time arnval of the Parisian papers for their news, they now during the 19th century. (P. y*.) have the advantage of being supplied every morning with local newspapers inferior to none of the best organs of Germany. Paris. The provincial press is extremely well-informed, its In their main characteristics German newspapers are news is accurate, and its leading articles are well thought out and well written. Among the best provincial papers similar to those of Great Britain, but do not approach may be mentioned La Gironde and La Petite Gironde of them in vastness of circulation. There are 3278 newspapers altogether in the empire. Berlin in 1890, with a Bordeaux, La Depeche of Toulouse (215,000), Le Lyon population of 1,300,000, had 18 dailies and 36 weeklies, Repubhcain, VEcho du Nord of Lille, Le Journal de Rouen, all of which have a staff in Paris engaged in &c., while in 1900, with 1,660,000 inhabitants, it was collecting news, reporting parliamentary proceedings and ci edited with 45 dailies and 48 weeklies, &c. Among its leading papers are the Vossische Zeitung, wdiich still law cases, the whole of which is telegraphed or telephoned retains its position and character ; the National Zeitung, c urmg the night and published early the next morning in the organ of the Liberal party ; the Deutsche Allgemeine their respective localities. Although, in addition to their Zeitung, the official organ, chiefly inspired by the Foreign regular contributors, these papers frequently engage leading Parisian journalists or literary men to give them special Office; the Derli/ner Tageblatt, progressist; and Germania, the organ of the Catholic centre. articles they are nevertheless perfectly independent of For the provinces the following table will show the purely Parisian opinion or even bias, and the decentralization ot the French provincial press may be said to be complete. movement during the last decade of the 19th century :— The influence of the press of the departments is great, 1890. 1900. for the newspapers of the large towns circulate not only in Population. Dailies, the city in which they are printed but throughout the &c. Population. Dailies. Weeklies. &c. region of which it is the centre. Thus the Depeche of Leipzig 170,000 10 220,000 8 9 loulouse, with its twelve editions daily, is read in the Munich 200,000 4 292,000 12 11 whole of the departments extending from the Lot to the Hamburg 470,000 4 519,000 11 11 Pyrenees, whilst the Petite Gironde is found in all southStuttgart 126,000 8 126,000 10 Strasburg 110,000 western France. 12 124,000 . Il: may be said here, however, that in the provinces, as At tlle beginning of the 20th century the position and in Pans, there prevails an idea that the press is becoming . influence of the German press may be described as passing too powerful, and there is a growing feeling against its through a period of change. There can be no doubt that omnipotence, as M. Avenel says in his book on the French press.1 The power of the newspaper in France differs the Germans have become a newspaper-reading people. from that of the English newspaper, in that it seems to Indeed, with the remarkable growth of the commercial spirit in Germany there has simultaneously been a change act more on the Government and the Parliament than on in the intellectual attitude and habits of the mass of the public opinion; and it is needless to insist on the danger nation. The German of what is commonly called “the of such a state of things, which gives undue power and great period ” of recent German history, which had its prominence to individuals and groups of individuals, and high-water marks in the years 1866 and 1870, derived his may enable them to prevail against a real current of knowledge of his own and other countries to a very great opinion. It is against this system that there exists the extent from the more or less intelligent study of books, feeling to which M. Avenel refers. The French newsand magazines. The busy German of the papers have taken upon themselves, in many cases, pamphlets, opening years of the 20th century is almost as much functions which belong more properly to the legislative or the slave of his newspaper as the average American. He to the judicial power than to the press, and the result has takes the information which it daily places before him as not always been successful. The cause of this is that too authoritative, not because he has any general faith in the many men of talent with political ambition look upon accuracy of German journalism, but because he has no journalism as “ leading to everything, provided one gets time to investigate the truth of what he reads. In the out of it, and use it alternately as an antechamber of domains both of home and of foreign politics the result is Parliament or of the Cabinet, and a lounge during their often a chaos of crude opinions and impulses, the strata parliamentary or ministerial eclipses. The remedy will be of which are only differentiated by certain permanent found ultimately in making the press in France what it tendencies of German political thought based upon once was—a profession which men will be proud to enter, tradition, class feeling, material interests, or distinctions and in which it will be their ambition to remain and to of religious creed. In these circumstances it is still make their mark. possible for the Government, as in the days of Prince Since 1880 the French press has undergone marked Bismarck and Dr Moritz Busch, to bring its superior knowchanges which can be summed up in a few words. It has ledge to bear upon the anarchy of public sentiment through become less exclusive, and has given greater and more the medium of the inspired press. It is true that this intelligent, if at times prejudiced, attention to what goes operation must now be performed with greater delicacy on beyond the frontiers of France; it has developed its and skill. The press has begun to feel its power, though organization for the collection of information, and, without it is still to some extent incapable of wielding it. It is at in any way renouncing its literary traditions, it has given least able to drive a bargain with those who would officially to political and current topics of general interest, and to control it, and it is conscious in its relations with the news properly so called, a more conspicuous and im- authorities that the advantage is no longer exclusively on portant place in its columns than before. As a conse- the side of the latter. It would be instructive to compare, quence it has been found necessary to increase the size of with the aid of Dr Busch’s “ Secret Pages ” of the history newspapers and to reduce their price. All these changes of Prince Bismarck, the methods by which the first 1 Za Presse franchise au vingtieme siecle, par Henri Avenel Chancellor used to create and control a movement of public .Paris, 1901. opinion with the devices by which, for instance, count von

201 N E 'W S P A P E R S Biilow and his subordinates have endeavoured to manage almost lost all significance except as a local organ of violent The Allgemeine Zeitung of Munich, once famous the press of a later day. The journalists who placed Anglophobia. throughout Europe as the Augsburger Allgemeine Zeitung before themselves at the disposal of Prince Bismarck were mostly its transference to the Bavarian capital, has become in the hands treated as his menials ; as he himself said, “ Decent people of new proprietors practically an organ of the imperial Chancellor. do not write for me.” Count von Billow’s methods, and In Prince Bismarck’s days the press bureau of the Prussian Ministry the Interior, and a similar organization in the Imperial Home to a certain extent those of his predecessor, Prince of Office, used to furnish hundreds of petty local newspapers known Hohenlohe, might be said to move on somewhat different as Kreis-bldtter with whole articles gratis, so that the policy of lines. These methods might be characterized as the the Government might be advocated in every nook and corner of psychological treatment of the individual journalist, the the country. The numerous journals in which these communicaused to appear simultaneously and in an identical form were endeavour to appeal to his personal vanity or to his tions the Government organs to which the Radical and Socialist opposilegitimate ambition, and only in a minor degree to his tion more particularly applied the term ‘ ‘ Reptile Press. ” Latterly fear of the dossier, the public prosecutor, and the official this practice of wholesale inspiration appears to have been boycott. There has also been a further development of abandoned, but there are still many channels, public and private, through which almost every department of the Government can Prince Bismarck’s system of acknowledging the existence communicate information and guidance to newspapers in all parts of political and social movements the origin of which is of Germany. The Prussian Ministry of the Interior distributes to wholly or partially independent. As in Bismarck’s time, all and sundry a news-letter known as the Berliner Korrespondenz, the tendencies of these movements are carefully observed, which professes only to give statistics and information and to erroneous statements ; but it also frequently contains and they are turned to account where they seem capable correct articles which advocate some proposal of the Government or of subserving the main objects of State policy. Thus the combat the arguments of its opponents. The Sud-Deutsche lieichspro-Boer and agrarian movements were both employed in Korrespondenz is an institution of a similar character, and in 1902 support of German foreign and colonial policy, and of an served as an exponent of the policy and tactics of the imperial elaborate scheme of naval construction; while the growth Chancellor, count von Billow. The number of “news-letters”—which seems the only English of the commercial spirit on the one hand and the term by which the German word Korrespondenz can be approxiawakening of the lower middle classes on the other have mately rendered—is very great. Almost every one of the political been pressed into the service of Welt-politik and of its parties has its Korrespondenz, which, it ought to be noted, supplies auxiliary—a system of protective tariffs. It must have views rather than news. These circular letters deal, in fact, with policy of the party with which they are associated, although required no small skill to bring into line and to hold the they occasionally also embody information which the party together the various classes and interests which are from leaders in the Reichstag or in the Prussian Diet have received from time to time arrayed in the press in support of German representatives of the Government for their own guidance. They foreign policy. The organs of the Government in the form the means of holding the parties together, and of inspiring them with common aims, as they are reproduced throughout the press are the sheep-dogs which hold the flock together. country by all the party organs. The German journals of which English newspapers hear most It is in the press of Berlin that the greatest changes have taken belong with few exceptions to the daily press of Berlin. There place in recent years. During the regime of Prince Bismarck the are, however, one or two provincial or non-Prussian newspapers North German Gazette, and occasionally the Post, used to keep which from time to time enjoy more careful inspiration from the Europe in a state of nervous tension by fulminant communiques Government offices than any of their Berlin contemporaries. which the great Chancellor himself often dictated, or by what he There is, for example, the Cologne Gazette (Kolnische Zeitung), of used to call “jets of cold water” (Kaltwasserstrahl), which were which Prince Bismarck once said that it was “worth an army corps mostly directed against France or Russia. on the Rhine.” It is difficult to trace all the channels by which So far as France and Russia are concerned, a much more information is conveyed to an organ of this kind, but there have pacific tone prevailed in Berlin after the conclusion of the Dual undoubtedly been times when leading articles and entre-Jilets in Alliance, and it was upon England that the press mainly conthe Rhenish organ were virtually or actually written in the centrated its attacks. The North German Gazette, which was German Foreign Office. It does'not by any means follow that, originally established by a private individual, in order “to place because an article or a semi-official announcement is inspired or a blank sheet of paper at the disposal of Prince Bismarck,” has dictated from official quarters, it precisely represents the views of become, on the whole, a mere record of home news and a sumthe Government or the facts of the situation. It is often in the mary of foreign intelligence bearing the semi-official stamp of interest of German policy that a hypothetical case should be stated Wolff’s Telegraph Agency. It had doubtless been found that the or an alternative course of action suggested, in order that public constant employment of an organ so distinctly official as the opinion and even the governments of the different German states Norddeutsche Allgemeine as a medium of expression for the should be prepared for all eventualities, or should be influenced views of the Government was apt to lead to indiscretions which in favour of the ultimate decisions of the central authority by committed the authorities too deeply. Indeed, immediately being led to contrast them with other possible courses of action. before Prince Bismarck’s fall he had actually employed this Indeed, the methods of the institution which has been called the journal in order to attack the labour policy of the Emperor. At “ Press Bureau,” but which in the realm of foreign policy at least the present day communiques dealing with foreign affairs still represents no concrete organization, are so numerous and varied appear at rare intervals in the columns of the North German that it is hopeless for any one except the most practised observer Gazette, but they are mostly characterized by a vagueness and to trace their manifestations. The advantage of a semi-official awkwardness of style which is in striking contrast to the force press, if it could be manipulated with unvarying success, is that and point of Prince Bismarck’s polemics. The Imperial Gazette it can easily be disavowed when the suggestions, overtures, or (Reichsanzeiger), corresponding to the London Gazette, is purely a menaces of which it has been the exponent have served their record of official intelligence, though on rare occasions it publishes turn or have become inexpedient. Thus during the blockade of in the section marked Nicht Amtlich (non-official), some dementi, Manila the Cologne Gazette gave all the prominence of its first some statement of policy, or some official document—a proceedcolumn and of leaded type to an article taken from the Marine ing which always requires the express sanction of the Emperor. Politische Korrespondenz, which practically warned the United The journals which in 1880 were most widely read in Berlin, States of the intention of Germany to have a share in the Pacific and which were best known abroad as the exponents of Berlin possessions of Spain if these should eventually change hands. opinion, were the Liberal or Radical Vossische Zeitung and Some ten days later the authority of this menace was explicitly Berliner Tageblatt, and the National Liberal National Zeitung. disavowed by the North German Gazette, which announced that These journals still survived in 1902 in a more or less flourishing the Marine Politische Korrespondenz had never possessed a semi- condition, and the Vossische Zeitung, the oldest of all the Berlin official character. The Cologne Gazette continues in the west of newspapers, was still written with a degree of literary ability Germany to serve the German Government much as it did in the which justified its real title, Kbniglich priviligierte Berlinische time of Prince Bismarck, although for prudential reasons its in- Zeitung fur Staats- und Gelehrten Sachen. The National spiration is on the whole more intermittent than it was in the days Zeitung is also ably written, and represents those vestiges of old of the first Chancellor. The Hamburgischer Correspondent, now the German Liberalism which still survive in the National Liberal leading Hamburg journal, plays a minor role of the same nature party. The Kreuz Zeitung continues to represent the “ small but in the chief Hanseatic port, while the Hamburger Nachrichten, mighty party” of the reactionary Conservatives and Agrarians celebrated especially during the exile of Prince Bismarck and the in the State, and of the orthodox (Lutheran) Protestants in the closing years of his life at Friedrichsruh as the receptacle of in- Church. In its surveys of foreign affairs it occasionally condiscreet revelations and violent attacks upon his successors, has tains an important reflection of the views of foreign policy which S. VIL —26 geemany]

202

NEWSPAPERS [foreign have been acquired by leading Conservatives in their intercourse with members ot the Government. It is the favourite journal of Austria. olhcers in the army, of the Conservative gentry (Junker), as well as the medium through which people of social standing prefer to In the period from 1880 to 1888 the only notable paper announce births, marriages, and deaths. The Post continues to founded in Austria was- the Wiener Allgemeine Zeitung be subsidized by a small number of industrial and rural magnates in the interests of the lieichspartei, or Free Conservative party, (1880). It appeared three times daily, and attempted to which for the most part subordinates its views to those of the compete with the large dailies already established, but in Government. In matters of foreign policy this journal reflects spite of the impetus communicated to its start by the wellknown Freilands ” Apostle Theodor Hertzka, it soon fell at 7ieT enteilike ;tained officialis quarters. Theadvocate Berliner Neueste jSachrichten, the inPost, a consistent of the development of the German navy and of a vigorous Welt-politik. away, and now only appears as a late evening paper; it is it enjoys an intermittent official inspiration. The Boer sen known as the G Uhr Abendblatt, and enjoys a large local Zeitunj and the Borsen-Courier are organs of the Berlin Stock circulation. It was with the rise of the anti-Semitic and Exchange ; the one is of a National Liberal colour, and the Socialistic movements of 1888 onwards that the Vienna other expresses the views of the Moderate Radicals (Frcisinniqe daily press first began a fresh increase. The Deutsche Veremgung) and of opponents of extreme protection. The Vorwarts is the central organ of the German Social-Democrats, Volksblatt (anti-Semitic) was founded in 1888, the who have established a considerable number of other journals Ostdeutsch Rundschau (Radical) in 1893, and the Reichsthroughout Germany. The clericals or Centre party are repre- post (the organ of the Catholic section of the Christian sented by the Germania, the importance of which is not, however Socialist party) in 1894. The Labour movement led to so great as that of the other leading organ of the Roman Catholic governing party,” the Kolnische Volks-zeitung. The Deutsche the development of the Arbeiterzeitung from a weekly, lageszeitung has recently made itself a name by its advocacy of when it succeeded the Gleichheit in 1889, to a daily in 1895.’ the agrarian movement, while the Freisinnige Zeitung (founded It is therefore the first Social Democratic daily of Austria. and to a great extent edited by the Radical leader Herr Eugen In 1893 the A cues Wiener Journal was founded as a Richter) gives a very full yet concise summary of the news of the day, upon which it comments in luminous editorial articles political neutral, and the old Presse at last disappeared in and notes, written from the Radical point of view. Among the 1894, its place being filled by the weekly Reichswehr provincial papers the Frankfurter Zeitung (Radical) is distin- (military), established in 1888. Since May 1899 the guished by the excellence of its news, especially on commercial French in Vienna have once more a daily paper in their subjects.. The Schlesische Zeitung, a leading Conservative or^an, has continued to appear in Breslau since the days of Frederick language, Le Petit Jouvnal de Vienne. There are now ninethe Great. The Magdeburger Zeitung and the Hannoversche teen political dailies published in Vienna, but owing to the Courier give an independent or National Liberal support to the vaiious nations included in the Austrian empire, the Government. The. IVeser Zeitung, published at Bremen, is an political press of the provinces has more than usual imexponent of the Liberalism of the commercial classes, while the Strasburger Post is one of the journals which enjoy Government portance. Of the German provincial press the most highly inspiration, and helps, to maintain die Wacht am B,hein. A con- developed is in the German towns of Bohemia and in siderable number of journals, published in the Polish language Piague, and the foundation of the Deutsche Volltszeitung advocate the Polish cause in the eastern provinces of Prussia. at Reichenberg in 1885 marks the date of separation Great success has attended a new departure in German journalism, represented by newspapers like the Berlin Lokal-Anzeiger of the Deutschf ortschrittliche and Deutschvolkliche parties, which describe themselves as non - political. Their political while the Radical party, which has so greatly increased in philosophy is that of Dr Pangloss, for they generally find that Bohemia of late years, was first represented by the weekly all is done for the best, by the best of governments. The LokalAnzeiger has a circulation in Germany which is comparable with Deutscher Vglksbote at Prague, and also in 1897 by the that of the Petit Journal in France, while its news is superior in Unverfdlschte deutsche Worte, now edited by Iro at Eger. quantity and in freshness to that of any of its German con- A peculiar feature is the existence of German organs of temporaries. It has become a power with which the Government the Czech national movement, of which the representative has to reckon, since it is read “in the palace and in the hovel.” 18 Prague daily Politik, which has appeared since 1862. It is often asserted that journals of this kind are read for their Inthe (Silesia the anti-Semitic Freie Schlesische Presse was news, and have no political influence. It has already been pointed out, however, that the average modern German is too busy to founded in 1881 at Troppau, and when it changed sides in correct by study and reflection the impressions which he derives 1889 it was speedily replaced, 1891, by the Deutsche Wehr. from the hurried perusal of his newspaper. The Lokal-Anzeiger In Moravia the representative papers of the Czech Conundoubtedly exercises a very marked influence upon public opinion in Berlin, and there is plenty of evidence that both in servatives and Radicals are the Mir and the Pozar reGovernment and in Court circles it has frequently been used in spectively. The newspapers in Galicia, which have been order to shape the views of its readers. growing steadily since 1870, are both numerous and imThe external form and arrangement of German newspapers is portant. 1 he leading ones are the Slovo Polskie in Lemberg often puzzling at first sight to an English reader. There is an absence of the striking headlines, which in English journals and the Glos Naroda in Cracow. There are 161 newspapers direct attention to news of importance, and which in America in Polish, as against 10 in 1848 and 50 in 1873. almost swamp the text. The outside page generally contains the Of the lesser Slavic nations, the Slovenians have advanced editorial articles and the news of most importance, while the the most, and their latest political newspaper is the Slovensko intelligence received immediately before going to press is placed in the last column of the last sheet. The bulk of the paper List, commenced at the end of 1896. can apparently be increased indefinitely in accordance with the . In Syrian journalism the chief newspapers founded supply of news or literary matter, or with the number of advertise- since 1880^ are the Crvena Hrvatska, 1891, and the ments. 1 he Fossische Zeitung on a Sunday morning assumes with its numerous supplementary sheets, the dimensions of a thick Hrvatska Kruna, 1893. An attempt at unity amongst the Blue-book. The quantity of extraneous matter, such as articles Ruthenian factions in 1885 to 1887 produced the Mir, on literary, social, and technical subjects, is enormous, and even while the Ruslan, published daily at Lemberg since 1896,’ the most serious political journals invariably publish a novel in advocates joint action by Poles and Ruthenians. The serial form, as well as numerous novelettes and sketches. The Bukowyna, established in 1885, has developed into the local news in Berlin and other large cities is written with the oigan of \ oung Ruthenia,” and the Bukowinska Widominuteness and the familiarity of style of a village chronicle, and gives the impression that every one is occupied in observing the mosty, established in 1895, represents the Old Ruthenians. oings of his neighbour. The signed article is very much in vogue The Italian press in Austria is now represented chiefly and most writers and salaried correspondents have at least a cypher by the very popular daily Piccolo, published at Trieste; it or initial by which they are distinguished. The greatest licence had a formidable rival in the Mattino, which commenced prevails in reporting and discussing the affairs of other countries, combined with the keenest sensitiveness to foreign criticism of in 1885, but only lasted to the end of 1898. The Fede anything that concerns Germany. The example of the Govern- e Lavoro, published at Roveredo, is the organ of the ment is followed in advertising the products of German industry, Catholic Labour party, and If Awenire del Lavoro, at Bozen, while those of foreigners are studiously depreciated. (x ) that of the Socialists. In Dalmatia the Corriere Nazionale,

N E W S P A P E R S

foreign]

founded in 1896 at Zara and now published at Trieste, is the organ of the autonomist Italians, while II Dalmata continues to represent the National Liberals. The Rumanian press is limited to a few papers in Czernowitz. The oldest is the anti-Semitic Dutepazza, founded in 1883; but the real representative of the autonomist Rumanians is the Patria, founded in 1897. Economics and social science, in which subject journalism in Austria is of very recent growth, is chiefly represented by the Zeitschrift fur Volkswirt&chaft, Socialpolitik und Verwaltung, a paper which deals exclusively with its own subject. The technical journals of Austria are very numerous and most highly developed, consisting of 154 agricultural, 263 trade, 25 military and marine, 92 medical and scientific, 50 legal, 88 religious, 130 educational, 52 geographical, statistical, and historical, 189 theatrical, musical, sporting, &c., 169 humorous and literary, 289 economic, and 16 for women. Most of these, however, are not newspapers, but magazines. In 1890 Vienna, with a population of 1,100,000, had 8 dailies and 44 papers published less frequently but at least weekly. In 1900, with a population of 1,526,000, it had 14 dailies and 36 weeklies, Ac. Prague, notwithstanding a large increase in population, had about the same number of papers in 1900 as in 1890, namely, 11 dailies and 2 weeklies, while Trieste, which in 1890, with a population of 144,000, had 5 dailies, had 9 in 1900, with an increase of only 16,000 inhabitants. In the smaller provincial towns there were in 1900, 321 newspapers of various periodicity, but not exceeding a week, which are published in 168 towns. Zenker. Geschichte cler Jounuilistik in Osterreich. Vienna, 1900.—Haasenstein and Voglek. Notizkalendar, 1901, &c. Hungary. Budapest in 1890, with a population of 360,000, had 14 dailies and 10 weeklies, &c. In 1900, with 470,000 inhabitants, it had 21 dailies and 3 weeklies, Ac., and 147 papers, mostly weeklies, were published in eighty-nine other towns. The leading papers are the official Budapesti KSzldny, the Liberal Pester Lloyd, and the Budapesti Hirlap. From the Hungarian returns of 1899 {A Magyar Hirlapirodalom Id. Szinnyei J.) it would appear that 764 newspapers were published in that year, but those returns include a large number of official bulletins and journals that are more correctly described as periodicals. It may be noted here that seven papers in Hungarian are published in America and one in Vienna. Belgium. In 1890 Brussels published 34 papers of various periodicity, among which the Moniteur Beige held the lead with a circulation of 90,000, while Le National (founded in 1885) and L’Etoile circulated 21,000 and 5000 respectively. In 1900 there were 18 dailies and 14 weeklies, &c. The other large towns compare as follows 1890. Population. Dailies. Antwerp Ghent Li4ge

191,000 140,000 133,000

We k ies

fp&c.] > I Population.1 Dailies. 186,780 2 140,000 3 140,300 5

We khes

?

In 1890 there were 112 papers published in 90 other towns, and in 1900, 230 papers in 124 other towns. These were mostly weekly, but the towns with upwards of 20,000 inhabitants have usually one or more daily papers.

203

Le Soir, a Brussels paper, is distributed gratis, and subsists entirely upon its advertisements. Totals :— 1890. 1900. Brussels ..... 34 32 Provinces ..... 142 ^58 Belgium

.

,

.

.176

290

Holland. Amsterdam in 1890 had 10 dailies and 15 weeklies, &c.; and in 1900 the number had increased to 12 dailies (Algemeen Handelsblad, Niemvs van den Dag, ifec.), and 26 weeklies, &c. • In 1900 The Hague had 6 dailies (Dagblad, Vaderland, &c.) and 5 weeklies, &c. ; and Rotterdam had 5 dailies (Nieuwe Rotterdammer Courant, &c.) and 8 weeklies. In addition to these, about 250 papers, mostly weeklies, were published in 128 other towns. The Haarlemsche Gourant, founded in 1656, still appears. The totals for Holland are :—Amsterdam, 38; provinces, 274; kingdom, 312. Luxemburg. In the Grand Duchy there were 12 newspapers in 1900—3 dailies {Luxemburger ZeitUng, &c.), and 9 that appear twice ‘or thrice a week. All the dailies and three others are published in the capital. Sweden. In 1890 Stockholm, with a population of 205,000, had 5 dailies and 12 weeklies, &c.; in 1900, with an increase of 50,000 inhabitants, it had 11 dailies and 4 weeklies, &c., while 93 provincial towns published 197 papers, mostly weeklies, &c. In the period 1890-94 a large number of newspapers appeared at Stockholm, but their duration was in general very short, often only a few months (Lundstadt, Sveriges Periodiska Literatv/r, ii. 1896). A newspaper in Finnish is published at Haparanda. Denmark. In 1890 Copenhagen, with 286,000 inhabitants, produced 8 dailies and 6 weeklies, &c. In 1900, with a population of 410,000, it had 12 dailies and 2 weeklies, while 121 papers appeared in sixty-eight provincial towns. Iceland. Reykjavik published twe weekly papers in 1890, and the same number in 1900 (Thioddlfr and Isa,fold). Faroe Islands. A weekly paper called the Dimmalaeting was published at Thorshavn in 1890, and continued to appear in 1900. , Norway. In 1890 Christiania, with a population of 128,000, published 12 papers, of which only three appeared daily ; in 1900, although the population increased to 151,000, only 10 papers were produced, but 8 of them were dailies. The Morgenbladet still holds its rank, and the Aftenposten has a large circulation. In the provinces in 1900 there were 122 papers published in fifty-two towns. Russia. In 1890 St Petersburg had 6 dailies and 14 weeklies, &c.; and in 1900 there were 16 dailies and 22 weeklies, &c. (the St Petersburgskaya Viedomosti, notably anti-British since 1895, the Novoya Vremja, the Journal de St Petersbourg, Ac.). Moscow increased its papers from 5 dailies and 6 weeklies, Ac., to 8 dailies and 11 weeklies, Ac. (the Moskowskaya Viedomosti, Ac.). The rest of Russia proper produced about 100 newspapers, of which one-third were dailies. In Russian Poland about 11 papers, one-half being dailies, were published at Warsaw in 1900 (Kurier Warsaivski, Gazeta Polska, Ac.), and about 18 in the other towns. The Baltic provinces produced 11 dailies and 9 weeklies, Ac.; Siberia, 1 daily and 23 weeklies, Ac.; the Caucasus, 5 dailies and 4 weeklies, Ac.; and Finland, 12 dailies and 29 weeklies. Seven weekly newspapers in Esthonian were published at Reval, Dorpat, and Pernau in 1900. The totals for Russia are therefore—St Petersburg and Moscow, 57 ; provinces, 230; the Russian empire, 287.

204

NEWSPAPERS U

10U :

em

re

Q’k^° ^ pi > a especially in Russia proper, bibena, and *the Caucasus, number both of daily and weekly papers are so intermittent in their publication that they have not been included in the above statistics. A laige number of newspapers in the Russian language are published, chiefly for political reasons, outside Russia, and most of the papers of the non-Russian nations living under Muscovite rule are similarly published outside the empire. In all the large provincial towns there is a Government newspaper published daily, or at least twice a week, but apart from this but few of the periodicals can justly be considered as newspapers. The provincial press labours under great difficulties, for whereas in* St Petersburg or Moscow the editors may publish at their own risk, subject to warnings, every paper that appears in the provinces must duly pass the censor. The more important section of the Russian press tends to develop on the lines of British newspapers, i.e., large papers well filled with advertisements, but no new papers of importance were founded during the period under review. The popular press in the French fashion has largely developed, and there is a system of giving bonuses to subscribers in the form of books published as supplements. Italy. In 1890 Rome, with a population of 2i 8,000, published 13 dailies and 1 tri-weekly, and in 1900, with 376,000, 10 dailies and 5 weeklies, etc. The leading Roman papers are—the I7anfulla, representing the Court and Government; the Tribuna, a Liberal paper founded in 1883, which has the largest circulation (150,000) ; the organ of the Vatican, L’Osservatore Romano ; and the popular Messagero. The number of papers published in the chief towms between 1880 and 1900 was as follows :— Population. Florence Milan Naples Turin Venice

Dailies.

Weeklies, &e.

170,000 375,900 463,000 253,000 130,000 In addition to these, about 200 papers, one-third being dailies, were published in 123 of the smaller towns, making the totals—Rome, 15; provinces, 236; Italy, 251. Malta in 1890 had 3 dailies and 3 weeklies, and in 1900, 8 dailies (Malta Chronicle, II Risorgimento, &c.)and 5 weeklies. Two were in English, one in Maltese, and the rest in Italian. Spain. In 1890 Madrid published 38 papers, of which 15 were dailies; but by 1900 they declined to 28, of which 19 were dailies. Barcelona published only 4 dailies in 1890, the remaining 17 being weekly, &c.; in 1900 the dailies increased to 15, while the weeklies, &c., decreased to 4, a state of things very consonant with the increased commercial activity of the town. The leading Spanish papers are—El Correa, Monarchico-Liberal; La Epoca, Conservative ; El Imparcial, Independent Liberal; La Justicia, an evening Republican paper; El Liberal, which numbers among its contributors the best writers without distinction of party; and El Pais, the organ of the Progressives. The provincial press is very active, but extremely shortlived. In Badajoz, a typical ordinary provincial town, about 30 newspapers sprang into existence during the twenty years 1881-1900, besides a still larger number of periodicals (Gomez Villafranca, Historia y Bibliografa de la Prensa de Badajoz, 1901). In 1900 there were 287 papers published in 118 provincial towns, thus making the totals—Madrid, 28; provinces, 306 ; Spain, 334.

[foreign Majorca. In 1900 there were 4 daily papers published at Palma de Mallorca.

Portugal. In 1890 Lisbon, with 246,000 inhabitants, published 18 papers, of wdiich 11 were dailies; and in 1900, with a population of 261,000, 21 papers, of which 19 were dailies. The other towns show very little movement since 1880, about 58 papers being published in 30 provincial towms. The totals may be roughly taken as—Lisbon, 21 • provinces, 58; Portugal, 79. Switzerland. This is one of the countries remarkable for the number of its. newspapers in proportion to its size. Among the moie important may be mentioned the Journal de Geneve and the Gazette de Lausanne, both Moderate Liberal, and the Catholic Courrier de Geneve. The following table shows the increase in the three largest towms :— Dailies.

Weeklies.

Dailies.

W'eeklies. 4 1 15 ^In 1895, 58/ papers were published in 192 towns, about 270 being.weeklies and about 100 dailies. Nearly twothirds are in German, the remainder being chiefly French, with a fewr in Italian, in Romansch, and in English. The number of papers founded in the decade ending 1890 showed an increase of 30 per cent, on the previous one. In 18/2 only 3 papers were credited with a circulation exceeding 20,000, but there were in 1896 at least 16. The Swiss continue to preserve with jealous care the freedom of the press, and in 1895 they rejected an alteration in their criminal code which appeared likely to interfere with it. Geneva Basel Zurich

Greece. Athens, with 85,000 inhabitants in 1890, published 9 dailies and 4 weeklies, &c., and in 1900, with 114,000 inhabitants, 10 dailies and 2 weeklies. The chief papers, the Asty and the Acropolis, are mainly political and on the Liberal side, as indeed are nearly all the Athenian papers. In the smaller towns the number increased from 20 in 1890 to 35 in 1900, most of them being published weekly. Rumania. Bucharest, with a population of about half a million, had 7 dailies and 1 weekly in 1890, and 14 dailies (the Romanul, &c.) and 3 weeklies in 1900, when about 30 papers, mostly dailies, were published in the provinces. Servia. Belgrade has a large number of papers in proportion to its population of 36,000, but shows no movement in recent years. It had 6 dailies and 8 weeklies, &c., in 1900. The official paper is the Serbske Noviny, and the leading Liberal organ the Videlo. Five smaller towns published one or two papers apiece, appearing twice or thrice in the week. Bulgaria. In 1890 only 3 newspapers were published in Bulgaria, namely, 2 at Sofia and 1 at Rustchuk. In 1900 Sofia, with a population of 48,000, had 1 daily, the Swoboda, and 3 on alternate days; while Philippopolis and live smaller towns produced 11 papers, mostly w Gclvlies. Montenegro. Cettigne, with 1500 inhabitants, published 2 weeklies (the Glas Crnagorca and the Political) in 1900. Turkey. In 1890, with a population of 873,000, there were 19 papers, in various languages, published at Constantinople, most of them dailies ; and in 1900, with a decrease in population estimated at 1000, the number of papers decreased to 18. They appeared in the following languages : the Stamboul and 4 others in French, 3 in

foreign]

NEWSPAPERS

Turkish, 1 in Turkish and Greek, 3 in Greek, 2 in Armenian, 1 in English and French, and 1 each in Arabic, English, Italian, and Persian. Smyrna, with 200,000 inhabitants, published 8 papers, mostly weeklies, in 1890, and the same number in 1900. Owing to the number of fasts and feasts observed by the Mahommedans, during which Turkish newspapers are not published, they are somewhat irregular in their appearance. Two papers are published at Adrianople and 2 at Salonica (1 being in Hebrew). Cyprus had 6 weeklies in 1900, the chief being the Chvl at Nicosia and the Times of Cyprus at Larnaca. Persia. Tehran, with 200,000 inhabitants, published 2 newspapers in 1890 and 3 in 1900. The Irdn is the leading paper, but the papers of Persia, like those of Turkey, appear somewhat irregularly. Syria. At Beyrout were published in 1900, 1 daily (the French Journal), and 5 weeklies (1 in Turkish and 4 in Arabic). China. With the exception of the Peking Gazette, which is the official organ of the Chinese Government, it may be said that all the newspapers published in China, including those in the vernacular, are due to foreign influence, and are under European management. The leading papers of the British colony are the North China Daily Neivs and Shanghai Mercury at Shanghai, and the Hong Kong Daily Press and China Mail at Hong Kong. In addition to these may be mentioned the Journal at Peking, the Gazette at Amoy, the Herald and Daily Echo at Foochow, the Chinese Times at Tientsin, the Deutsch-Asiatische Warte at Tsintau, and a few Portuguese papers at Macao. Of the few papers in Chinese, the Shun-pao and Hu-pao of Shanghai have a very large circulation, and there are four Chinese dailies at Hong Kong and two at Canton. Several newspapers are published by the missionaries in various parts, but they are more of the nature of religious or scientific journals with a few items of news thrown in (J. D. Ball, Things Chinese, 1893). The total number of newspapers published in China in 1900 may be reckoned at 40, about two-thirds being dailies. Siam. Bangkok, with 255,000 inhabitants in 1890, had 3 dailies and 1 weekly, while in 1900, with a population of 400,000, it had an additional weekly. The leading papers are the Times and the Siam Free Press. Straits Settlements. There are about a dozen papers, half of them dailies, published in the Straits Settlements. The chief are the Straits Times and the Government Gazette at Singapore, the Penang Gazette, &c. Cochin China. Two papers, the Courrier and the Mekong, are published at Saigon. Tongking has the Courrier published at Haiphong, and L'Avenir at Hanoi. Japan. Rapid growth of journalism has been one of the marked features of Japan’s modern career. As early as the beginning of the 17th century, a sheet called the Reading for Sale (Yomi-uri) was hawked about the streets of Yedo by a vendor who cried his wares in the familiar European style of later times. This embryo journal was in manuscript. It contained accounts of natural calamities, conflagrations, fights, vendettas, and other striking events. Another more aristocratic sheet, called the Official Intelligence (Go-sata-gaki), was compiled by the chief of the tea-cult in the shogun’s palace and sold privately. Its contents were taken chiefly from the archives of the Government secretariat, and consisted of appointments and dismissals of officials, copies of administrative ordinances, and notes on current events.

205

Neither of these publications attained permanent vogue or suggested any expansion of the enterprise. Not until 1863 did a real newspaper make its appearance. Its publisher, Fukuda Meiga, was inspired by the hope that if fuller knowledge of foreign countries were disseminated among the people, the policy of national exclusion might become distasteful. He therefore made translations of the Batavia News, and published them in the form of a journal printed from wood blocks. The following year (1864) Joseph Hiko—a Japanese who had just returned from the United States, where he had lived since boyhood, having been rescued from a sinking junk and carried to San Francisco by an American ship—combined with two of his countrymen to publish a periodical which they called Shimhunshi (newspaper), a term destined to become permanent in the language. As yet movable types were not employed. But that innovation followed quickly on the establishment of English journals for the foreign community in Yokohama, and during the stirring times of the fall of feudalism a demand for news became so keen that one journal after another made its appearance. At first the tone of these sheets reflected the anti-foreign, anti-progressive spirit of the conservative section of the nation, and their influence seemed so pernicious that the Government prohibited their publication and treated the editors as malefactors. But the incongruity of such a policy being quickly perceived, the veto was revoked in 1869, and journalistic enterprise received official sanction within certain limitations. All discussion of religious questions, of politics, and of legal problems was interdicted; a general injunction forbade the publication of matter prejudicial to public peace or good morals; official permission had to be obtained before issuing a journal, and the power of fining or imprisoning editors, publishers, and printers, as well as that of suspending or suppressing a newspaper, was vested in administrative officials without any recourse to courts of law. It might have been foreseen that the young journalists of Japan, whose ideas of press liberty were derived from European theories, would not readily submit to these restrictions. A bitter struggle commenced between, on the one hand, irresponsible editors who were influenced partly by honest faith in the value of free speech, but partly by a desire to embarrass the Government, and, on the other, responsible officials who either believed that Japanese society was not yet ripe for the full enfranchisement of newspapers, or were unwilling to place in the hands of their political opponents a weapon which threatened to prove inconveniently effective against themselves. The public, of course, sympathized with the editors, and each sentence of imprisonment or fine pronounced against them brought a fresh access of popular support. Devices, often unscrupulous and sometimes ingenious, were employed by the editors to gain popularity or to bring the Government into ridicule. On one occasion they organized imposing funeral rites in honour of journals that had been suppressed by ministerial order. The defunct sheets, placed in a coffin, were borne in solemn procession to the temple of the Goddess of Mercy, where Buddhist priests chanted litanies for the dead, journalists and political agitators read threnodies or burned incense, and all the pomp, parade, and ceremony proper to aristocratic obsequies were observed. The story of this struggle for liberty reads strangely in the context of such a history as that of Japan under the Tokugawa shogunate. Although scarcely a month passed that did not see an editor fined or imprisoned, a newspaper suspended or suppressed, the representatives of the press grew constantly more defiant, the demand for journals more urgent. The first daily paper, the Mainichi

206

NEWSPAPERS [foreign Shimbun {Daily News), was published in 1871, and in Reunion. 1879, despite the severity of the law, there were 192 The Journal Officiel was published twice a week, the Nouveau journals and periodicals, with a total annual circulation Salazien weekly at St Denis. of over 11,000,000. In 1897 a law, passed by both Madagascar. Houses and confirmed by the emperor, removed all reLe Progrhs, Le Madagascar, and La Cloche, nominally weeklies strictions on freedom of speech, except in cases of lesemajeste. In 1900 there were 829 journals and periodicals, appeared at irregular intervals. with an annual circulation of 463 million copies. (See Angra Pequena. also Japan.) The Deutsche Colonial Zeitung was published weekly. n re J° important newspapers appearing in the capital are the omcial Kwampo, the Conservative Nihon, the Progressive YomiCanary Islands. Mainichi, and the Koknmin Shimbun (established in In 1900 the Diario was published at Las Palmas, and the 890), one of the best specimens of Japanese journalism, and Diario and the Liberal at Santa Cruz and Tenerife, but at very J remarkable for its liberal spirit, and for having an article in irregular intervals. nglisii to facilitate the exchange of views between Japanese and 1 Madeira. foreigners. The Diario de Noticias was published daily, and 0 Direito twice East Indies. weekly at Funchal. Philippines.—A\\ the Philippines, where the periodical press has St Helena. now been established for upwards of three-quarters of a century In 1900 the Guardian was published weekly. n w )a e r iqo, i f lasted fI P 1 for Printed was Elitself EcoadcconsiderViqan, 1884, which aboutoutside a year. Manila In Manila Egypt. able number of newspapers have been started since 1880, but few have lasted long; many, indeed, only a few months. The Diario In 1900 Alexandria, with 230,000 inhabitants, published 10 Oceania Espanol, and Comerdo are the dailies (Retana, El Period- dailies (Ac Phare cCAlexandria, the Egyptian Gazette, &c.) and 1 ismo Filipino, Madrid, 1895). weekly; Cairo, with 380,000, had 8 dailies {Journal Egyptien, Le Progres. &c.) and 3 weeklies ; and Port Said 2 dailies, the Phare i1900 ooaThe newspapers of Java show but little movement. In there were 6 dailies and 1 weekly published in Batavia, and and the Telegrafo. These are exclusive of Arab newspapers. about 20 papers, half of them dailies, in other parts of the island. Sumatra. In 1890, 3 papers were published in Sumatra, and Portuguese East Africa. double that number m 1900 ; they appear, at most, three times in In 1900 0 Fufuro was published at Delagoa Bay, the Boletim the week. Ofinal and Africa Oriental at Mozambique, and 0 Africano at Celebes.—-The number of papers published at Macassar in 1900 Quilimane. These are all weeklies. was 3, published once or twice in the week. Azores. JFest Africa. Phere were two papers apiece published weekly in Terceira, In Gambia in 1900 the Gambia Intelligencer was published layal, and San Miguel in 1900. weekly at Bathurst. G Col Central America. +ithe Gold Coast Chronicle °¥ Goast °ny> Coast there Independent. were 2 weekly papers, and the Gold In the republics of Central America there has been little or no In Sierra Leone, Freetown, with a population of 39,000, had 3 \ anation in the number of newspapers, save in Nicaragua, which 1900 had 4 dailies {El Diario) &c., and 5 weeklies, against 4 l’^or'Lr)aPerS ^lie WNeWS’ WeeUy Timcs> and West African in in 1890. The Diaro del Centro de America is the chief Lagos with 32,500 inhabitants, published the Lagos Times weeklies paper of the 3 published in Guatemala ; the Diario Oficial and daily and 3 weekly papers. El Sigh XX. were published at San Salvador; the Correo Espanol, La Eepublica, and El Heraldo at Costa Rica ; and La Paz and La East Africa. Ilegeneraci&n at Honduras. Mauritius.—In 1900 the Merchant and Planter’s Gazette and British Honduras in 1900 had 1 daily paper, El Sol, published the A rat Mauncien were published daily at St Louis, the only at Belize. other paper being the Weekly News. West Indies. Cuba. In 1890, 6 dailies and 1 weekly appeared in Cuba. In Congo Free State. 1900 there were 9 dailies and 2 weeklies, the Diario de la Marina and 4 other dailies being published at Havana. Seven papers were 1 1 L anda ubli papers "^ ^ ° P shed 0 Mercantil daily and 2 weekly published in other towms of the island. Porto Rico.—Three newspapers, 1 daily {La Avispa) and 2 triLiberia Republic. weeklies, have appeared in Porto Rico since 1890, to which is now the Democracia, published daily. weekly10111'0™ ^ 0hserver and the Liberia Gazette were published added Hayti in 1900 had 5 dailies and 3 weeklies, being an increase of 2 papers since 1890. Morocco. Jamaica in 1900 maintained its number, 5 dailies and 4 In this territory were published in 1900 the Times of Morocco a weeklies; the leading papers are the Jamaica Daily Telegraph, newspaper m Arabic, one in French, and one in Spanish : their Evening Express, 1 Gleaner, and Government Gazette. periodicity varies. Barbados published 6 papers, mostly bi-weekly (West Indian, German East Africa. Barbados Herald, &c.), at Bridgetown in 1900. Trinidad, with 5 weeklies in 1890, had 2 dailies {Daily News The Deutsch- Ostafrikanische Zeitung was published weekly at _ and Times) and 4 weeklies {Royal Gazette, &c.) in 1900. Ual CS" OHlclTO, Dominica had 2 weeklies, the Dominican and the Guardian, in A Igeria. 1900. ’ Grenada, which had only 1 paper in 1890, had 3 {St George's 9 0 tliere were 11 man0 l?Slel newspapers published in Algeria. In Chronicle, &c.) in 1900. ua /7 Akhbar, ,7,, \LaWltDepeche '1 a P0PAlgirienne, l tion of 154,000, 6 dailies St Vincent had 2 weekly papers {Sentinel, &c.), and St Lucia the {L &c.) andpublished 4 weeklies, and se\ enteen smaller towns had 25 papers, in most cases weeklies or same number {The Voice, &c.j, in 1900. Antigua had 3 weeklies {Leeward Isles Budget, &c.). semi-weeklies. Bahamas. In 1900 the Guardian was published twice weekly Tunis. at Nassau. dai Bermudas.—In 1900 the Royal Gazette was published at Hamil,T'™ jy papers, the Journal Oficiel and the Petit Tunisien, nand 4 weeklies were published at the capital in 1900, while Le ton, and the Colonist at St George, both weekly. Cwme?’ appeared weekly at Bizerta, La Depeche Sfaxienne dailyJ at St Christopher (St Kitts), which had only 1 paper in 1890, had Sfax, and EAvenir weekly at Sonese. the Daily Express and 2 weeklies in 1900. Tobago had the Gazette and News, both weekly. Turks Island.—The Royal Standard, weekly. Senegal. St Thomas.—The St I'homtc Tidende appeared twice weekly in In 1900 the Moniteur was published weekly at St Louis. 1900. ^

co^A,] N E W S P Martinique.—Three papers, Lcs Antilles, Les Colonies, and El Porvenir, were published at St Pierre in 1900, and were still being published up to 8th May 1902, when the town was destroyed (see Martinique). Guadeloupe.—The Courrier was published twice weekly.

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Herald, &c.) and 8 weeklies, which appear in the following languages : 11 in Spanish, 4 in English, 3 in Italian, 3 in German, and 2 in French; Rosario, with 90,000 inhabitants, had 6 dailies {El Mcnsagero, &c.) and 2 weeklies ; and ten smaller towns produced 14 papers, nearly all dailies.

Paraguay. Mexico. In 1900, 5 dailies {Diario Ojicial, La Republica, &c.) and 1 In 1890, 5 dailies and 2 weeklies were published in the capital, with 316,000 inhabitants, and 2 dailies and 1 weekly in weekly were published at Asuncion, with a population of 30,000 ; other parts of the territory. In 1900 there were 10 dailies {El and a weekly paper, the Eco dc la. Campana, appeared at \ ilia Diario Ojicial, El Nacional, &c.) published in the capital, which Concepcion. has increased its population by 16,000 ; and 20 papers, about half Uruguay. being dailies, appeared in fifteen smaller towns. The press has made great strides in this republic during 18801900, and especially during the second decade. Montevideo, Colombia. which in 1890 had 7 dailies, all in Spanish, in 1900 had 10 in Panama, with 35,000 inhabitants, had 3 dailies in 1890, and Spanish, mostly political, 2 in French, and 1 apiece in English 3 dailies {La Estrella, &c.) and 1 weekly in 1900. Bogota, with a and Italian. The chief are El Telegrafo Maritime, founded in population of 100,000, had 3 dailies and 3 weeklies in 1890, and 1880, El Siglo, La Razdn, and El Dia. The reduction of the 9 dailies and 23 weeklies in 1900. In the other towns of the re- price of El Dia to one-half (2 centesimos) in 1890 was a reform public there were only 3 weeklies in 1890, while there were 1/ which gave the notable recent impulse to the popular press. newspapers, mostly weekly, published in seven towns in 1900. Among the more important papers in the departments may be mentioned El Pueblo and La Paz of San Jose, El Dia of Paysandii, Venezuela. and La Prensa of El Salto. The only available statistics for the Caracas, with a population of 70,500, published only 2 dailies in newspapers of the entire republic include periodicals : it appears 1890, but in 1900, with 80,000 inhabitants, it had 5 dailies {El that, in addition to the above-mentioned daily papers, 42 reviews Correo, &c.) and 6 weeklies. The returns from smaller towns were and periodicals were published in Montevideo in 1900, and about 1 daily and 6 weeklies in 1890, while in seven towns in 1900 there 80 newspapers and periodicals in the provinces, giving a total for the republic of about 136. (Fernandez y Medina, La Imprenta y were 10 papers, about half of them appearing daily. la Prensa en cl Uruguay, Montevideo, 1900.) British Guiana. India. There has been very little movement in the number of papers. In 1900 the Daily Chronicle and 5 weeklies appeared at GeorgeIt appears from the official tables that there are about town, and the Berbice Gazette, a bi-weekly, at New Amsterdam. 600 newspapers, so called, published in the Indian empire, of which about one-third, mostly dailies, are in the Indian Dutch Guiana. vernaculars. The numbers, however, are very fluctuating, In 1900, 5 weeklies (the Suriname, JFest Indier, &c.) were published at Paramaribo, 1 daily and 6 weeklies at Curaijoa, and and in the following statistics of 1900 only the chief and more permanent papers are included :— 1 weekly at Nickerie. French Guiana. PopulaWeeklies. Dailies. Two weeklies, the Moniteur and the Reveil, were published at tion. Cayenne in 1900. 40 Ecuador. Calcutta . 843,487 15 {Calcutta Englishman, &e.) 14 . 821,704 2 {Bombay Gazette, &c.) In 1890 there were only 3 papers, all weeklies, published in Bombay 9 . 452,518 4 {Madras Mail, &c.) Ecuador. In 1900 Quito, with 80,000 inhabitants, had 1 daily Madras 3 Rangoon . 180,000 3 [Rangoon Times, &c.) {El Comcrcio) and 2 weeklies; Guayaquil had 3 dailies and 1 bi- Allahabad 175,240 2 {Pioneer, &c.) weekly ; and Cuenca 1 weekly. 176,800 2 [Civil and Military Gazette, &c.) Lahore Brazil. Chandernagore has a weekly paper, Le Petit Bengali, and In 1890 Rio, with 350,000 inhabitants, had 4 dailies and 1 Pondichery Le Progres and the Journal Ojficiel. weekly, while 7 dailies and 2 weeklies were published in other Goa has the Boletin Official and A Voz do Povo, which appear at towns. In 1900 Rio had 10 dailies {Diario de Noticias, Diario irregular intervals. Ojicial, &c.) and 1 weekly, while 33 papers, nearly all dailies, were published in eighteen other towns. Ceylon. In 1900 Colombo, with a population of 125,000, Peru. published four dailies {Ceylon Independent, Times, &c.), In 1890 there were only 2 dailies published at Lima, with 101,400 inhabitants. In 1900, however, with a population of and six weeklies. These are all in English, and there are 135,000, it had 8 dailies {El Comercio, El Nacional, &c.) and 11 several in the native dialects. Also three weeklies were weeklies, while 18 newspapers, mostly weeklies, were published in published at Jaffna. seven other towns. Canada. Bolivia. In 1900, 6 dailies {El Comercio, El Nacional, &c.) were published Ontario.—In 1890 Toronto, with 181,220 inhabitants, at La Paz, 3 dailies {El Dia, &c.) and 3 weeklies at Sucre, and 10 had 6 dailies and 26 weeklies; Ottawa, with 30,000 papers in six smaller towns. inhabitants, had 2 dailies and 2 bi-weeklies; while five Chile. smaller towns published 12 dailies and 17 weeklies. In In 1890 Santiago, with 200,000 inhabitants, published 2 dailies 1900 Toronto had 6 dailies {Evening News, Globe, Mail, and 1 weekly ; Valparaiso, with 95,000, had the same number, Merchant, &c.) and 70 weeklies; Ottawa had 4 dailies and 1 daily paper appeared in Iquique. In 1900 Santiago pub- {Citizen, Free Press, Le Canada, &c.) and 11 weeklies; lished 10 dailies {El Chileno, El Constitucional, &c.); Valparaiso, with 110,000 inhabitants, had 5 dailies {El Impartial, La Union, ■while 203 smaller towns issued 341 papers, mostly &c.) and 1 bi-weekly ; while twelve smaller towns had 13 papers, weeklies. The Citizen, a Conservative daily paper, is the mostly dailies. doyen of Ottawa journals ; it was founded as the Packet in Argentine Republic. 1844, and changed its title in February 1851. (Audet, Buenos Aires in 1890, with 398,500 inhabitants, published 18 Historique des Journaux d’Ottawa.) dailies and 1 weekly, of which 3 were in French and 3 in English ; Quebec.—Quebec, with 65,000 inhabitants, had 7 dailies Rosario, with 80,000, had 7 dailies and 2 weeklies, of which 2 and 5 weeklies in 1890; Montreal, with 250,000, had were in English; and 8 dailies and 1 weekly appeared in the 9 dailies and 18 weeklies. In 1900 Quebec had 6 dailies smaller towns. In 1900 Buenos Aires, with its population increased by 150,000, had 18 dailies {La Nation, Buenos Aires and 8 weeklies, 6 of the papers being in English and 8 in

208

NEWSPAPERS [colonial French (Mercury, Telegraph, Le Courrier du Canada, &c.): Advertiser in English, and the Press in Dutch and Montreal had 8 dailies and 48 weeklies, 29 papers being and 1 daily, the Volksstem, and 2 weeklies, m English and 27 in French (Gazette, Herald, La Minerve, English; the Staatscourant and Land en Volk, in Dutch. At C e ’l j twenty-seven smaller towns 44 papers were .Johannesburg 8 appeared—4 daily (the Standard and published, mostly weeklies. Digger's News, Daily News, Eastern Star, and Times) A ew Lrunswick.—In the whole of this territory only and 4 weekly (the Mining Journal, &c.) Barberton 4 dailies and 9 weeklies were published in 1890, whereas published only the Gold Fields News, weekly, but Lydenin 1900 Fredericton had 1 daily and 5 weeklies, St John burg issued the Iransvaal and the Lydenburger weekly; - dailies (Gazette, Globe, &c.) and 4 weeklies; and 20 Potchefstroom the Budget, Potchefstroomer, Vryheid, and other papers, mostly weeklies, appeared in thirteen smaller Nieuwe Republieken weekly; while Klerksdorp published towns. the Mining Record twice a week; Krugersdorp, the Scotia.—-h\ 1890, 5 dailies and 8 weeklies were Times and Ons. Volk weekly; and Middelburg the Courant published in Halifax. In 1900 the same number appeared and the District Advertiser also weekly. in Halifax, while 47 other papers appeared in thirty of the smaller towns. Australasia. Prince Edward Island.—In 1890 the 120,000 inhabitThe first newspaper established in Australasia was the ants of this territory had 2 dailies and 6 weeklies. In Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser. It . 00 there were 3 dailies and 10 weeklies, most of which began 5th March 1803, and continued to 23rd December were published at Charlottetown. 1843. The Derwent Star, the first paper in Van Diemen’s Manitoba. In 1890 only 2 dailies and 2 weeklies were Land, started 8th January 1810. The Sydney Morning published at Winnipeg, which in 1900 had 3 dailies Herald began as a weekly in 1831, became bi-weekly (Manitoba Morning Free Press, &c.) and 17 weeklies; in 1832, tri-weekly in 1838, and daily in 1840. The while 26 other papers, mostly weeklies, appeared in nine- Melbourne Argus began 2nd January 1846, the Age 17th teen smaller towns. October 1854, and the Leader in 1856. Characteristic Forth-West Territories.—These territories had only 3 of the newspapers of Australasia is the large number newspapers in 1890. In 1900 there were 2 weeklies of advertisehients; in fact, there is a keener apprecia(Leader and Standard) published at Regina; and 16 tion of the value of advertising than in England, and other papers, mostly weeklies, appeared in thirteen smaller consequently a newspaper is first of all an advertising towns. medium. As a natural consequence, except in the case British Columbia.—In 1890 there appear to have been of the great metropolitan dailies, the press does not lead 6 papers published in this territory. In 1900 there were public opinion, but follows it; for in small colonial 20, mostly weeklies; 2 dailies (Colonist and Times) and communities an editor s first care is to avoid alienating 2 weeklies were published at Victoria, and 2 dailies (News any influential section of advertisers. (Grattan Grey, Advertiser, &c.) and 3 weeklies at Vancouver. Australasia, London, 1900.) New South Wales.—Sydney, with a population of Newfoundland. 332,000, in 1890 had 21 newspapers, about half being In 1890, 3 daily papers were published at St John’s, dailies; but in 1900, while the total increased nearly which in 1900 had 2 dailies (Evening Herald, &c.), while threefold (59), there were only 5 published daily. The Harbor and Twillingate had a weekly paper apiece. largest paper is the Morning Herald, which may be considered the leader of Conservative journalism in AustralSouth Africa. asia. Its contemporary on the opposite side is the Daily Cape Colony.—In 1890 Cape Town, with 45,000 in- Telegraph, which is run upon similar lines to the Melhabitants, published 13 newspapers of various periodicity. bourne Age. The Bulletin, however, is said to have the In 1900, with the same population, there were 16 news- widest circulation throughout the whole of the Australpapers, of which 3 were dailies and 5 were in Dutch. asian colonies, but it temporarily lost ground through its The leading papers were the Cape Argus, Cape Times, strenuous opposition to the South African war. The two South African Review, Ons Land, &c. Port Elizabeth, leading weeklies are Town and Country and the Sydney which published 6 newspapers of various periodicity in Mail, to which must be added the Radical and Republican 1890, published only 3 in 1900; but Kimberley increased Truth. (Grattan Grey, Australasia, London, 1901.) from 2 to 3 in the decade. The number published In the provinces in 1890 there were 78 papers in 51 m other towns of the colony remained stationary at towns, mostly dailies, whereas in 1900, 168 papers were about 32. published in 118 towns, and the same tendency is shown Natal. In 1890 Durban and Pietermaritzburg pub- in favour of weeklies, which, with but few exceptions, is lished 3 newspapers each, of various periodicity, but in characteristic of Australia. 1900 the former, with 16,600 inhabitants, published 2 Queensland.—Brisbane in 1890, with 60,000 inhabitants, dailies, the Ratal Advertiser and Natal Mercury, and the had 26 papers, 8 of them being dailies, and in thirty-five latter, with a population of 14,400, published 2 dailies other towns there were 61 papers, for the most part and 2 weeklies, the Natal Witness, &c.; the Herald, a dailies. In 1900 the capital, with a population of 101,000, weekly paper, is published at Newcastle. had 3 dailies (Courier, Evening Observer, &c.) and 20 Rhodesia.—In 1900 Bulawayo published 2 dailies weeklies, while 86 papers, mostly weeklies, were published (Chronicle, &c.) and 1 weekly, while 5 other newspapers, in forty-one other towns. mostly weeklies, were published in three smaller towns. South Australia.—Adelaide in 1890, with a population Oiange River Colony. — In 1890 only 2 newspapers of 45,000, seems to have had 24 papers, 10 being dailies; were published at Bloemfontein, but in 1900 these had and 18 papers, mostly dailies, appeared in sixteen of the increased to 5—2 dailies (Daily Express, Government smaller towns. In 1900 Adelaide had 130,000 inhabits Gazette) and 3 weeklies. ants, but only 4 daily papers (Register, Advertiser, Express Transvaal Colony.—In 1890, 6 newspapers of various and Telegraph, and Evening Journal) and 13 weeklies periodicity were published at Pretoria, 7 at Johannesburg, (Observer, Australische Zeitung, Ac.); and 27 papers, 3 at Barberton, and 1 apiece at Lydenburg and Potchef- mostly weeklies, appeared in twenty-two other towns. stroom. In 1900 Pretoria published 2 dailies, the Victoria.—Melbourne, with a population of 400,000 in

NEWTON 1890, had 46 town papers, nearly half of them daily, and 21 suburban papers, mostly weekly; and 82 papers, most of them dailies, appeared in seventy smaller towns. In 1900 Melbourne had a population of 491,800, and out of 131 town and suburban papers had only 4 dailies {Argus, Age, Standard, Shipping Gazette). The struggle for the lead between the Argus and the Age has resulted in the victory of the latter, which both in position and influence has eclipsed its senior contemporary. The Argus, however, is intimately connected with the earliest associations of colonists in Victoria, and maintains a high standard of literary excellence, and the decline in its circulation is due solely to its conservatism. The two leading Melbourne weeklies are the Australasian and the Leader, issued respectively from the Argus and the Age offices. Both have an extensive intercolonial circulation. The popular evening paper is the Herald, which enjoys an extensive circulation, but is said to display occasionally a tendency towards “ yellow ” journalism. (Grattan Grey, Australasia, London, 1901.) 179 papers, mostly weeklies, were published in 122 smaller towns, Ballarat having 9, Geelong 5, and Bendigo 4. West Australia.—Perth in 1890, with 10,000 inhabitants, had 2 dailies and 3 weeklies; and 1 weekly, the Herald, was published at Fremantle. In 1900 Perth had 3 dailies and 3 weeklies, and 12 papers, mostly weeklies, were published in nine smaller towns. Tasmania.—In 1890 Hobart, with 29,000 inhabitants, had 4 dailies and 6 weeklies; Launceston had 2 dailies and 3 weeklies, and La Trobe had 1 daily. In 1900 Hobart had 2 dailies (the Hobart Mercury, higher than that given for frozen mutton from other Industrial schools and orphanages 7 countries. The figures below show the growth of the trade :— Native village schools, European 3109 85 151 children attending Export of Frozen Mutton Private native boarding - schools, Year. Ib it Year. 72 4 European children attending 123,576,544 1,707,328 1896 . 1 50 1882 . School for deaf-mutes . 192,074,451 38,758,160 1900 . 1 28 1886 . Jubilee Institute for Blind . 212,208,968 110,199,082 1901 . 1891 . Totals .... 2102 4763 153,871 In 1901 New Zealand sent a little over two million frozen sheep a million and a quarter lambs to London, thus about equalling The proportion of persons unable to read or write sank from and quantity the mutton imported into England from South 21*19 in 1886 to 15'27 in 1901. There are eight schools of art, at- in In the market for frozen lambs the colony remains at tendance 3000 ; schools of mines, attendance 300 ; a school of en- America. present without a rival. Frozen beef is also sent to England. gineering, attendance 106; an agricultural college, attendance 34. The export of butter and cheese has risen in value from £207,687 The number of convicts in gaol was 508 at the end of 1899 (633 1890, till in 1901 it amounted to £1,199,000. In London, at the end of 1887). From 1888 to 1897 the annual number of in Zealand cheese fetches as high a price as Canadian. Though convicted persons fell steadily till the decline amounted Newranking Crime. in importance with wool or frozen meat, dairy-farming to 26 per cent. In the two years following 1897 there isnotalmost entirely carried on by small farmers and their families, was a rise of 2'49 per cent. In 1896 New Zealand-born persons who supply milk to factories. Most of these are co-operative, (whites) over fifteen years old formed 44 per cent, of the popula- their shareholders being the farmers themselves. The profits of tion, but only supplied 25 per cent, of the convictions. Persons the are thus widely distributed among the producers. imprisoned for drunkenness fell in number from 1200 in 1885 to The industry of dairy-farming has led to the spread of settle* 610 in 1899. The proportion of lunatics rose from 1 in 393 for ment,development especially in the west of North Island, where large tracts 1896 to 1 in 288 for 1900. The public finances, embarrassed between 1884 and 1889, have of fertile soil formerly covered with forest have now been cleared since then yielded annual surpluses of from £100,000 to £500,000, and converted into dairy-farms. have been chiefly spent upon public works. The Live Stock. nance. pwhich Up]|c debt is roundly £51,000,000. Two thousand Year. Horses. Cattle. Sheep. two hundred miles of State railways pay somewhat over 3 per cent, Pigs. on the cost of construction. Telephones as well as telegraphs are 1881 161,736 698,637 12,985,085 200,083 a State monopoly. The revenue from lands was £270.203 in 1901. 1886 187,382 853,358 16,564,595 277,901 The mainstay of the Treasury is customs revenue, which now exceeds 1891 211,040 831,831 18,128,186 308,812 £2,250,000 a year. 1896-97 249,813 1,138,067 19,138,493 209,834 Revenue and Expenditure. 1900-01 266,245 1,256,680 20,233,099 250,975 Year. Total Receipts. Total Expenditure. 1880 £3,285,042 £4,019,850 In 1895 gold-mining, after being long at a standstill, began 1885 3,859,996 4,282,901 again to make headway. For many years the surface alluvial 1890 4,208,028 4,081,566 mining in South Island became less and less profit- „. 1895-96 4,619,402 4,403,749 able. As in other countries, however, the working of ming. 1900-01 5,906,016 5,479,704 quartz reefs compensated for this. The cyanide process of gold Public Debt. extraction, and the returns obtained by its means from the Waiki mine in the Upper Thames, caused an outbreak of gold Amount of j1 Amount of Net Indebtedfever, which led to the opening up of a few good and a great many Debentures Sinking Net In- ness per Head Year ending and Stock in ; Fund debtedness. of White worthless quartz-mines. In South Island the river-beds of Otago Circulation. accrued. Population. province have been successfully worked by means of ingeniously constructed dredges, and good returns secured. In 1901 the gold & & £ £ s. d. exported was 455,560 oz., valued at £1,753,784. The total value 31st December 1880 28,583,231 2,000,320 26,582,911 „ 1885 37,587,776 3,409,264 34,118,512 57 12 of the gold exported from New Zealand from the discovery of the 31st March 1890 38,667,950 1,386,185 37,281,765 60 5 metal in 1857 to 1901 was slightly over £58,000,000. Kauri gum „ 1895 40,386,964 751,932 39,635,032 57 9 still holds its place as an export, about £500,000 worth being dug „ 1900 47,874,452 944,375 46,930,077 61 17 „ 1901 49,591,245 1,033,494 48,557,751 up annually. The number of Istrians and Dalmatians who came 62 16 10 from the Adriatic to dig for kauri gum led to the passing of External trade has risen from £12,853,736 in 1886 to restrictive laws. Commerce. £24,697,881 in 1901. The progressive output of coal from 1880 to 1900 is shown below. The output in 1901 was 1,227,198 tons :— Excess of Imports Exports Exports over Exported Year. (excluding (excluding Imports (excluding Specie). Specie). (excluding Raised in the Imported. Coal for Fuel Specie). Colony. by Ocean Steamers). £6,319,223 £6,534,513 £215,290 5,430,050 7,403,206 1,972,156 Tons. Tons. Tons. 5,928,895 1880 9,569,316 3,640,421 299,923 123,298 7,021 6,742,544 9,490,920 1885 2,748,376 511,063 130,202 2,371 9,221,550 1890 5,990,177 3,231,373 637,397 110,939 33,404 6,115,953 1895 8,518,119 2,402,166 726,654 108,198 26,151 7,035,379 1900 1,093,990 124,033 2,264,528 9,299,907 36,699 7,994,201 9,741,222 1,747,021 Land under cultivation increased from 8,489,000 acres in 1891 8,739,633 11,938,335 3,198,702 to 12,679,000 in 1901. The following table shows the comparison 10,207,326 13,246,161 3,038,835 S. VII.— 29 NEW

226

NEW ZEALAND of the official assessments of the value of landed properties in 1888 found in the official returns of hands employed in the registered and 1898 :— factories and workshops :— Year. Hands. Increase. Increase, 1883-98. 1895 . . . 29,879 4028 1896 . . . 32,387 2508 1888. Rate Amount. per cent. 1897 . . . 36,918 4531 1898 . . . 39,672 2754 1899 . . . 45,305 5633 Unimproved value £75,407,379 £84,401,244 £8,903,865 11-79 Value of improvements 35,640,335 54,190,103 18,549,708 52-05 1900 . . . 48,938 3633 1901 . . . 53,460 4522 Total . £111,137,714 £138,591,347 £27,453,633 24-70 The chief factory industries come under the following heads:— and tallow ; tanning and wool-scouring ; saw-mills Wool remains at the head of the list of exports. In the eleven meat-freezing and grain-mills ; boots and shoes ; woollen and clothing ; butter years ending 1898 the wool-clip increased 65'14 per cent. But the and cheese; breweries; printing houses; foundries; agricultural description changes; there is much less merino, and implement and machine shops ; soap and candle works ; coachf trnfinrr more of the coarser and longer cross-bred. The number building and furniture ; gasworks. Except in meat-freezing, woolof sheep has increased from 16,564,000 in 1886 to scouring, butter- and cheese-making, and timber-sawing, manu20,233,000 in 1901, though the increase has been almost all in North Island. The number of the flocks grows, and the average facturing is almost entirely for consumption within the colony. size diminishes even more rapidly. There were 9149 flocks in Authorities.—Annual Official Year Book. Wellington.—Fox, 1886 ; in 1901 the number had risen to 19,000—average size of Sir Wm. The War in New Zealand. London, 1866.—Giseach flock about 1050. The smaller size of the flocks and the borne. The Colony of New Zealand. London, 1891. New Zealand breeding of sheep for meat rather than for wool, the cultivation of Rulers and Statesmen. London, 1897.—Grey, Sir G. Polynesian English grasses and of extensive crops of turnips and other roots Mythology and Maori Legends. Wellington, 1885. — Green, Rev. on which to fatten sheep and lambs, all tend to change sheep- W. S. The High Alps of New Zealand. London, 1886.—Hocken, farming from the mere grazing of huge mobs on wide, Tin improved Dr. Contributions to the Early History of New Zealand. London, runs held by pastoral licences. The “squatters” still occupy 1897.—Making, F. Old New Zealand. London, 1884.—Maneleven million acres, but even these are more closely subdivided nertng. With Axe and Rope in the New Zealand Alps. London, than in former days. How much more extensive is grazing—of 1891.—Pennefather. Murray's Handbook for New Zealand. the more scientific order—than agriculture, is seen at once from London.—Reeves, Hon. W. P. The Long White Cloud (Ao-Teathe figures of the amount of land broken up, for crops or other Roa). London, 1898.—Thomson, A. S. The Story of New purposes, and the amount under sown grasses. There were Zealand. London, 1859. p. p.) 1,646,000 acres of ploughed land and over eleven millions sown with artificial grasses in 1899. This is exclusive of the History, 1882-1902. vast area of native-grass land. It may be noted here that the area now occupied and utilized by whites is about 39,000,000 Between 1882 and 1902 five governors represented tlie acres. Acreage and actual yield in principal corn-crops, 1901—Wheat: Crown in New Zealand. Of these Sir Arthur Gordon acres, 206,465 ; yield per acre, in bushels, 31-61 ; total bushels, quitted the- colony in June 1882. His successor, Sir 6,527,154. Oats: acres, 449,534; yield per acre, in bushels, William Drummond Jervois, arrived in January 1883, and 42‘45 ; total bushels, 19,085,837. Barley: acres, 30,831; yield held office until March 1889. The earl of Onslow, who per acre, in bushels, 33-33 ; total bushels, 1,027,621. Eye : acres, followed, landed in June 1889, and resigned in February 1388 ; yield per acre, in bushels, 22-45 ; total bushels, 52,214. Maize: acres, 14,232; yield per acre, in bushels, 36; total 1892. The next governor, the earl of Glasgow, remained bushels, 502,697. This was the largest yield for seven years, except in the colony from June 1892 to February 1897, and was that of 1899, when the figures were: wheat, 13,073,416 bushelsj succeeded in August of the last-mentioned year by the oats, 16,511,388 bushels ; barley, 1,677,908 bushels. The export of cereals has greatly diminished of recent years. Nearly 300,000 earl of Banfurly. The cabinets which administered the affairs of the colony during these years were those of Sir tons of potatoes were grown in 1899. The manufactures have made steady progress. The figures of Frederick Whitaker, Sir Harry Atkinson (3), Sir Robert the census taken in March 1896, and given in the following table, Stout (2), Mr Ballance, and Mr Seddon. Except in one .. showed a lower rate of increase for the preceding five disturbed month, August 1884, when there were three ears ian factures yfirstly H by ruled from 1886 is explained, the collapse of to the1891. nativeThis hemp industry changes of ministry in eighteen days, executives were more between 1891 and 1896, and, secondly, by the financial depression of stable than in the colony’s earlier years. The party headed 1893 and 1894, caused by low prices and the Australian bank panic. by Mr Ballance and Mr Seddon held office without a break The estimated private wealth of colonists fell from £236 per head for more than eleven years, a result mainly due to the in 1890 to £219 in 1895. It rose in 1900 to £296. general support given to its agrarian and labour policy Manufactories and JForks, 1896, 1891, 1886. by the smaller farmers and the working classes. The industrial history of New Zealand during these two April, April, March, Increase, Increase, 1896. decades may be divided into two unequal periods. Thirteen 1891. 1891-96. 1886-91. 1886. lean years—marked, some of them, by great depression— Number of establishments 308 1946 were followed by seven years of prosperity. The colony, which in 1882 was under a cloud, has not often been Employed— Males 22,986 22,664 3063 322 19,601 busier and more self-confident than in 1902. A division Females 4,403 475 2,969 1434 2,494 into two periods also marks the political history of the Totals 27,389 25,633 22,095 1756 same time ; but here the dividing line is drawn in a different year. Up to December 1890 the Conservative forces Year Year Year Increase, Increase, which overthrew Sir George Grey in 1879 controlled 1895. 1890. 1885. 1890-95. 1885-90. Parliament in effect, though not always in name; and for Wages paid— To Males ten years progressive legislation was confined to a mild £1,776,076 £1,705,641 £70,435 ,, Females 131,516 102,999 28,517 experiment in offering Crown lands on perpetual lease, Totals £1,907,592 £1,808,040 £98,952 with a right of purchase (1882), and a still milder instalment of local option (1881). In September 1889, however, Total approximate value of Sir George Grey succeeded in getting Parliament to abolish manufactures or produce £9,549,360 £8,773,837 £6,7ll,37£ £775,523 £2,062,458 the last remnant of plural voting. Finance otherwise absorbed attention; the task of successive ministries was Since 1896 progress has been much faster. The returns of trade .and the income-tax, the briskness of the building trade in the to make the colony’s accounts balance, and search for some towns, the almost entire disappearance of unemployed workmen, means of restoring prosperity. The years 1884, 1887, :are admitted on all hands. The figures of the census of 1901 and 1888 were notable for heavy deficits in the treasury. .support this contention. The best proof of advance is perhaps Taxation, direct and indirect, had to be increased, and as

NEW

ZEALAND

a means of gaining support for this in 1888 Sir Harry Atkinson, who was responsible for the year’s budget, gave the customs tariff a distinctly protectionist complexion. In the previous year Atkinson had reduced the scale of public expenditure, retrenching the salaries of public servants, from those of the governor and ministers to those of clerks drawing £125 a year, but leaving wages untouched. The number of members of the House of Representatives was cut down from 95 to 74, and their pay from £205 to £150. The cost of government was reduced in other ways, and the amount of State employment diminished. Public borrowing between 1882 and 1895, if not abandoned, was on a more modest scale. Private economy was also generally practised, and the colony made a resolute effort to live within its means. The commercial revival, however, came but slowly. The heavy borrowing and feverish speculation of the seven years 1872-79 must in any case have been paid for by reaction. The failure of the City of Glasgow Bank in 1879 precipitated this, and the almost continuous fall in the price of wool and wheat, together with the dwindling of the output of alluvial gold, postponed recovery. Landholders and cultivators were almost always mortgaged, and paid heavy rates of interest, usually from 6 to 9 per cent. An excessive amount of the better land was held in large estates, carrying but little population. The banks and other money-lending institutions virtually owned wide tracts, which were unsaleable at profitable prices. The principal local bank—the Bank of New Zealand—was in an unsound condition, and until in 1895 it was taken under control and guaranteed by the colony, the fear of its collapse overshadowed the community. The financial and commercial improvement which began in 1895 was doubtless to some extent connected with this venturesome but apparently successful stroke of policy. The revival, however, is mainly attributable to the steady conversion of the colony’s waste lands into pasture, the development of two new and really great exports—frozen meat and dairy produce; the continuous increase of the output of coal; the invention of golddredging ; the exploiting of the deposits of kauri gum; the reduction in the rates of interest on mortgage money; a general rise in wages, obtained without strikes, and partially secured by law, which has increased the spending power of the working classes. Undoubtedly also commercial activity has been stimulated by considerable public loans, while the systems of taxation and rating on land values, adopted in 1891 and 1896, have contributed to check land speculation. During the years 1882-90 the leading political personage was Sir Harry Atkinson. He, however, withdrew from party politics when, in December 1890, he was overthrown by the Progressives under John Ballance. Atkinson’s party never rallied from this defeat, and a striking change came over public life, though Ballance, until his death in April 1893, continued the prudent financial policy of his predecessor. The change was emphasized by the active intervention in politics of the trade unions. These bodies, impelled by a socialistic movement felt throughout Australia and New Zealand, decided in 1889 and 1890 to exert their influence in returning workmen to Parliament, and where this was impossible, to secure pledges from middleclass candidates. This plan was first put into execution at the general election of 1890,which was held during the industrial excitement aroused by the Australasian maritime strike of that year. It is therefore usually, but wrongly, attributed to the feeling caused by that great conflict of labour and capital. It had, however, been fully arranged before the conflict broke out. The number of labour members thus elected to the General Assembly was small, never more than six, and no independent labour party was formed.

227

But the influence of labour in the Progressive or, as it preferred to be called, Liberal party, was considerable, and the legislative results noteworthy. Ballance at once raised the pay of members from £150 to £240 a year, but otherwise directed his energies to constitutional reforms and social experiments. These did not interfere with the general lines of Atkinson’s strong and cautious finance, .though the first of them was the abolition of his direct tax upon all property, personal as well as real, and the substitution therefor of a graduated tax upon unimproved land values, and an income-tax also graduated, though less elaborately. The land-tax, which is still levied, rises from nothing at all upon the small holdings of peasant farmers to 3d. in the £ upon the capital value of the largest estates—those worth £210,000 and upwards. It must be remembered that buildings, improvements, and live stock are exempted. In the case of mortgaged estates, part of the tax is paid by the mortgagee. In 1896 municipal and rural local bodies were allowed to levy rates upon unimproved land values if authorized to do so by a vote of their electors, and by the end of 1901 some sixty bodies, amongst them the city of Wellington, had made use of this permission. The income-tax is not levied on incomes drawn from land. In 1891 the tenure of members of the Legislative Council or nominated Upper House, which had hitherto been for life, was altered to seven years. In 1892 a new form of land tenure was introduced, under which large areas of Crown lands have since been leased for 999 years, at an unchanging rent of 4 per cent, on the prairie value. Crown tenants under this system have no right of purchase. In the same year a law was also passed authorizing Government to repurchase private land for closer settlement. At first the owner’s consent to the sale was necessary, but in 1894 power was taken to buy land compulsorily. So energetically was the law administered by John Mackenzie, minister of lands from 1891 to 1900, that in March 1901 more than a million acres had been repurchased and subdivided, and over 6000 souls were living thereon. (These figures include the Cheviot estate, 84,000 acres, bought under another law.) Out of about one hundred estates bought, only four have been taken compulsorily. On Ballance’s sudden death his place was taken by Richard Seddon, minister of mines in the Ballance cabinet, whose first task was to pass the electoral Bill of his predecessor, which provided for granting the franchise to all adult women. This was adopted in September 1893, though the majority for it in the Upper House was but two votes. At three general elections after the date mentioned women voted in large and increasing numbers, though without affecting the strength or policy of parties. In 1893 was also enacted the Alcoholic Liquor Control Act, greatly extending local option. Under it all male and female electors have the right to vote triennially for the reduction or total refusal of licences in their districts. No compensation is paid. Up to 1902 prohibition had been carried in one rural district (Clutha) only, though the number of licences had been somewhat diminished since 1893; there was one licensed house to every 502 persons in the colony. In the Clutha district prohibition was followed by a diminution of drunkenness and minor police offences. In the colony generally drunkenness and petty crime have increased with the years of prosperity. [Summary convictions in 1895, 13,067 ; in 1900, 18,800. Serious crime, however, decreased.] In 1894 the Advances to Settlers Act authorized State loans on mortgage to farmers at 5 per cent., and about £2,500,000 has been lent in this way, causing a general decline in the rate of interest. The same year also saw the climax of a series of laws passed by the Progressives affecting the relations

228

NGAMI — NIAGARA of employers and workmen. These laws deal with truck, the annexation of the Kermadec Islands in the same year; employers’ liability, contractors’ workmen, the recovery of the maritime strike of 1890; the establishment of workmen’s wages, the hours of closing in shops and Victoria College in Wellington in 1899 ; the adoption of merchants’ offices, conspiracy amongst trade unionists, and universal penny postage on New Year’s Day, 1900; the with factories, mines, shipping, and seamen. In 1895 a addition to the colony of the Cook Islands, Savage law controlling servants’ registry offices was added. Islands, and other Polynesian islets in 1901. In the year Meanwhile the keystone of the regulative system had last mentioned a Royal Commission reported exhaustively been laid by the passing of the Industrial Conciliation and against the expediency of New Zealand entering the Arbitration Act, under which disputes between employers Australian Commonwealth. In 1902 the progress of the and unions of workers are compulsorily settled by State Pacific cable brought the colony into telegraphic comtribunals; strikes and lock-outs are virtually prohibited in munication with Norfolk Island and Fiji. (w. p. r.) the case of organized work-people, and the conditions of Ngfami, the central point of an inland water system employment in industries may be, and in many cases are, regulated by the awards of public boards and of South Africa, once forming a small lake 20 miles courts. The Arbitration Act, consolidated and extended long and 10 wide, but now dry and consisting merely of in 1900, was soon in constant use. In 1895 the chief an expanse of reeds growing in a soft treacherous soil, question before parliament was the reconstruction of the below which brackish water is found at a depth of 20 Bank of New Zealand. Under a Government guarantee feet. It is cut by 20V S. and 23° E. The former fresh capital was provided for the bank, its creditors and feeder of the lake was the Tioghe or Taukhe river, which depositors were secured against loss, and the gradual liqui- entered at the north-west end, but which now sends a dation of its assets was arranged for, subject to govern- portion at least of its waters by a channel north of the mental audit and supervision. Up to 1902 this process Ngami into the Botletli or Zuga river, by which the overwas steadily carried out, and the bank’s business in- flow of the lake was formerly carried off eastwards at creased. In 1896 the landing-tax on Chinese immigrants, the time of high water. The lowest 20 miles of the which had been £10 since 1881, was raised to £100, result- Taukhe are said to have been dry since about 1890, the ing in a rapid diminution of the Chinese in the colony : districts intersected by the old river beds now growing 1896, 1897, and 1898 were marked by struggles over the corn in great plenty. The cessation of the river’s flow Old Age Pensions Bill, which became law in November was caused, according to native report, by a blocking of 1898; by 1902 it had become the means of conferring a the channel by thousands of rafts on which the Makoba free pension of £18 a year, or less, upon 12,300 men and natives brought down their yearly tribute of corn. The women of 65 years of age and upwards whose private Upper Taukhe is known successively as the Kubango and income was less than £1 a week. About 1000 of these Okavango, the most remote source lying in about 12|° S. and pensioners were Maori. The total cost to the colony was 16|° E., on the high plateau of Bihe. The Kubango flows about £205,000 annually. Complaints were made of certain first south, then south-east and east, but its course is still evasions of the pensions law, and in 1901 an amending Act imperfectly known. In about 18° S. and 20|° E. it is joined was adopted to check these. In 1898 the divorce law on the north bank by the Kwito, a large navigable stream was amended on the lines of the Stephen Act of New rising almost as far north as the Kubango, and possibly South Wales, and the municipal franchise, hitherto con- containing more water. Its general course is south-east, fined to ratepayers, was greatly widened; in 1900 the but between 15° and 17° S. it flows south and even southEnglish system of compensation to workmen for accidents west. Below the Kwito the Okavango is a rapid stream suffered in their trade was adopted with some changes. with an average breadth of over 100 yards, ancl generally In 1895 borrowing on a larger scale was begun, and in navigable as far as the Popa falls, in 21° 50' E. In seven years as many millions were added to the public the dry season the water-level is from 4 to 20 feet debt. Before this the Ballance ministry had organized below the banks, but these are overflowed during the two new departments, those of Labour and Agriculture. rains. At this period some of the surplus water finds its The former supervises the labour laws, and endeavours to way (in about 19° S.) by the Magwekwana to the Kwando deal with unemployment; the latter has done much or Linyanti (Zambezi system), to which, in Major Gibbons’s practical teaching and inspecting work, manages experi- opinion, the whole body of water may have once flowed. mental farms, and is active in stamping out diseases of Below this point the river (now known as the Taukhe) live stock, noxious weeds, and adulteration. Butter, enters a wide swamp-plain, and is broken up into various cheese, and New Zealand hemp are by law graded and branches. The only channel by which its waters now reach the Botletli is the Tamalakane, which joins the branded by departmental inspectors before export. The outbreak of the Boer war in October 1899 was latter in about 23|° E., the Botletli above this point being followed in New Zealand by a prompt display of general merely a succession of pools. Below the junction the river and persistent warlike enthusiasm : politics ceased to be when visited by Dr Passarge in 1896, at the close of the the chief topic of interest; the general election of 1899 dry season, had a breadth of 30 to 50 yards, though its was the most languid held for fifteen years. The desire of bed reached 150 to 200 yards. The banks are 25 to 30 New Zealanders to strike a blow for the Mother Country feet high, and form steep white walls of sand compacted took the practical shape of despatching to South Africa with lime, behind which the dark green forest rises. The stream is fringed with reeds harbouring countless water* ten successive contingents—in all 6000 men and horses. fowl, but the game which formerly abounded on its banks As soldiers the New Zealand riflemen won from their was largely destroyed by the rinderpest. The Botletli Imperial commanders high praise for courage, intelligence, loses itself in a system of salt-pans—round or oval basins and discipline. Noteworthy incidents of the period were the establish- of varying size sunk to a depth of 30 to 45 feet in the ment in 1883 of direct steam service with London; a sandstone, and often bounded by steep banks. The outer proposal to annex Samoa, vetoed by the Imperial Govern- pans are dry for a large part of the year, the whole system ment in 1885; the volcanic eruptions of 1886, in which being filled only at the height of the flood-season in (e. He.) the Pink and White Terraces were overwhelmed and 101 August. lives lost; the payment of the first annual contribution to Nicig'cl.l’a., a river of North America, running norththe Australasian Naval Squadron under an Act of 1887 ; wards from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, and carrying the

NIAGARA discharge of all the Laurentian or Great Lakes, except Lake Ontario (see articles Niagara and St Lawrence in the ninth edition of this work). It is navigable from its head to Chippewa, 16 miles, and from Queenston to its mouth, 6 miles. The intervening 9 miles include a series of rapids and the celebrated Falls of Niagara, where the water makes a sheer leap of 160 feet. On the right bank are Buffalo, Tonawanda, Niagara Falls, Lewiston, and Youngstown, of the state of New York; on the left bank, Chippewa, Niagara Falls, Queenston, and Niagara-o n-the-Lake, of the province of Ontario. At mean stage the flow of water is 222,000 cubic feet per second, at low stage 176,000. The theoretic average

Bird's-eye Sketch of Niagara River and Gorge, from the north. L.K., Lake Erie. B, Buffalo. N, Niagara Falls, N.Y. F, Niagara Falls, Ont. IF, Whirlpool. EE, Escarpment. L, Lewiston. Q, Queenston. D, St Davids. water power at the Falls equals five million horse-power, the minimum four million. Some 85,000 horse-power is already utilized, and there are extensive plans for future development. The chief part is transferred by electric methods to manufacturers and other consumers in the cities of Niagara Falls and Buffalo. The river has no valley. The belt of land it crosses consists of two plains separated by a high cliff or escarpThe gorge merh facing towards Lake Ontario. The stream and its runs half its length on the upper plain, drops origin. at the Falls into a narrow gorge through which it courses seven miles to the escarpment, and then traverses the lower plain in a deep channel. Under the lower plain are soft shales. The crest of the escarpment is a bed of limestone, nearly level, and this bed is visible in both walls of the gorge to the falls, where it is 60 feet thick. From this firm brink the cataract plunges down into a deep pool or basin hollowed from the soft shale, and the resulting agitation causes further wear of the shale and the continual undermining of the limestone, which breaks away in blocks. Thus the site of the cataract retreats up stream and the gorge is lengthened; the average rate, measured from 1842 to 1890, being between 4 and 5 feet a year. It is evident that the whole gorge has been dug out by the river, and many attempts have been made to determine the time consumed in the work. Prollem of the River's Age.—Tins, problem is of much interest to geologists, because its solution would aid in establishing a relation between the periods and ages of geologic time and the centuries of human chronology. The great Canadian glacier, which in the

FALLS

229 Glacial period alternately crowded forward over the Great Lakes region and melted back again, so modified the face of the land by erosion and by the deposit of drift that the waters afterwards had to find new courses. The Niagara river came into existence when the waning of the glacier laid bare the western part of the Ontario basin, and the making of the gorge was then begun. If it were supposable that the lengthening of the gorge proceeded at a uniform rate, the computation of the time would be easy, but there are various modifying conditions. (1) The limestone is not equally thick all along the gorge ; in one place it is 90 feet, and in several places as little as 35 feet. (2) The height of the cataract has varied from 160 feet to more than 300 feet. (3) For a short distance at the whirlpool the limestone and shale were replaced by softer material, sand, and clay. The river here touched a more ancient gorge, which had previously been concealed by drift except at the escarpment. The diagram shows the breach in the escarpment directed towards the sharp turn of the river gorge at the whirlpool. (4) The size of the river has varied. While the glacier was gradually melting the lakes underwent a complicated series of metamorphoses, and there were two separate epochs when the discharge from all the basins beyond Lake Erie followed other routes, and, during these, the Niagara drained only one-eighth of its present territory. The last mentioned is the most important of the modifying conditions, and at the same time least amenable to computation. The parts of the gorge eroded by the full river are now marked by deep pools, the powerful cataract having dug far down into the shale. The parts eroded by the depleted river are comparatively narrow and shallow, the weaker cataract having been unable to clear away the fallen blocks of limestone. The work of the full river is illustrated by the main division of the present cataract, called the Horseshoe Fall, which wore its cliff' back 220 feet in 48 ears. The work of the depleted river is less adequately represented y the narrower and shallower American Fall, where 70 years of observation have discovered no change. In making two-thirds of the gorge the full river probably consumed between 5000 and 15,000 years. If the depleted river worked one-tenth as fast, the period required for the remaining third was five times as long ; but the relative rate is wholly conjectural, and the ratio of one-tenth is no more plausible than one of one-hundredth. A weighing of the evidence now available indicates 25,000 years as a lower limit for plausible estimates of the age of the river, but yields no suggestion of an upper limit. Authorities.—James Hall. Natural History of New York: Geology, Part IV. Albany, 1843.—Sir Charles Lyell. Travels in North America. London, 1845.—John Tyndall. “Some Observations on Niagara,” Pop. Sci. Mo., 1873.—J. Pohlman. “The Life-History of Niagara,” Trans. Amer. Inst. Mining Engineers, 1888.—G. K. Gilbert. “The History of the Niagara River,” Sixth Ann. Rep. Com. State Reservation at Niagara. Albany, 1890.—A. S. Kibbe. “Report of the Survey to determine the Crest Lines of the Falls of Niagara in 1890,” Seventh Ann. Rep. Com. Slate Reservation at Niagara. Albany, 1891.—G. K. Gilbert. “Niagara Falls and their History,” National Geographic Monographs. New York, 1895. “ Niagara Number,” Gassier's Magazine, July 1895.—J. W. Spencer. “ Niagara as a Timepiece,” Pop. Sci. Mo., May 1896.—F. B. Taylor. “A Short History of the Great Lakes,” Studies in Indiana Geography. Terre Haute, 1897 ; and “Origin of the Gorge of the Whirlpool Rapids at Niagara,” Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 1898. (g. k. G.) Niagara Falls (formerly Clifton or Suspension Bridge), a town, port of entry, and railway station of Welland county, Ontario, Canada, 40 miles south-south-east of Toronto, on the left bank of the Niagara river and opposite the falls. It is a station on the Grand Trunk, Michigan Central, and St Catharines and Niagara Central railways, and has electric railway communication with Niagara, Lewiston, and Buffalo. There are two famous bridges, viz., the Grand Trunk, the largest single-arch railway bridge extant—span 550 feet—and the road bridge, resting on the greatest steel arch in the world—840 feet span. Population (1891), 3349; (1901), 4244. Niagara Falls, a city of Niagara county, New York, U.S.A., on the east side of the Niagara river at the falls, in the north-western part of the state, at an altitude of 571 feet. The present city was formed by the consolidation in 1892 of the former villages of Niagara Falls and Suspension Bridge. It extends along the level summit of the cliffs, from above the falls to some three miles below. The city is regularly laid out on a level site, is entered by five large railways, and is divided into four wards. The

230

N I A M-N IAM — NICARAGUA

river is here crossed by three bridges, the steel arch bridge built (1897—98) on the site of the former suspension bridge near the falls, and two railway bridges about two miles farther down the river, viz., the cantilever bridge of the Michigan Central Railway and the single steel arch bridge of the Grand Trunk Railway. The first named of the three is crossed by double carriage-ways and footpaths, and by an electric tramway. Population (1890), 5502 ; (1892, of the present city), 12,638 ; (1900), 19,457.

straight, or dotted lines on the upper arm and breast. Most of the Zandeh file thn incisors, the better, as they explain, to seize the foe m battle or in wrestling. From the malted grain of a species of eleusine they brew the best beer in Africa, of a sparkling brown or reddish colour, and pleasant bitter taste, derived from the stalk of the same cereal. By tribal custom the men are all hunters ; the women, who are treated with great kindness and even affection, all tillers of their fertile soil, which with little toil yields abundant crops of cereals yams, manioc, colocasia, and Virginian tobacco {gundli). They are gieat smokers, and also passionately fond of music, gathering for hours at the concerts, at which fantastically - dressed strolling rdiam-Niam.—Former estimates of the dominant minstrels accompany their songs with stringed instruments of the position held by the Niam-Niam, or Zandeh people, as guitar and mandoline types. Of the ox, horse, ass, or camel they no knowledge, the only domestic animals being poultry, and they call themselves (Ency. Brit. vol. xvii. p. 473), have ahave remarkable breed of dogs, like small wolf-hounds, with smooth been more than confirmed by the researches of Junker, red hair, twisted tail like a porker’s, large ears, pointed nose, and Casati, Bohndorft, and the Belgian and French officials in four-clawed hind feet. These curious little “ greyhounds ” join in south-east Sudan. Their political ascendancy, already the chase with small wooden bells round the neck, and are thus weakened by the incessant attacks of the Arabo-Nubian soon found when lost in the woods. At present the dismembered Zandeh empire and dependent slave-hunters before the rise of the Mahdi, was no doubt principalities are divided up between France, which claims the broken, perhaps for ever, by the forces of the Congo Free “sultanates” of Kafai, Dinda, Zemio, and Tambura in the Mbomu valley, with all the peoples in Fertit and the Shari basin ; the State advancing from the Ubangi into the Welle, and thence across the ISTile-Congo divide into the Bahr-el- Congo State, which administers the eastern section between the Mbomu and the Upper Welle ; and Great Britain, to whose share Ghazal zeriba lands. But by these very political develop- have fallen the Bari, Makarakas, and other Niam-Niam groups ments the boundaries of their ethnical domain have been of the Bahr-el-Ghazal region. greatly enlarged, and the Zandehs proper, with the See Dr W. Junker. Travels in Africa. English ed., vol. i., kindred peoples, are now found to stretch, with interrup- 1890.—Fr. Bohndorff. Reisen in Central Afrika, 1885.—g! tions, from the White Nile above the Sobat confluence to Casati. Ten Years in Equatoria. English ed., 1891. (a. h. K.) the Shari affluent of Lake Chad, and from the Bahr-elArab, about 10° N., nearly to the equator. Nicaragua, a country of Central America, lying In this widespread Negroid family are now provisionally grouped between 10° 41' and 15° N. and 83° 15' and 87° 40' W. the Makarakas, intermingled with the Mundas, the Bari, and the The demarcation of the boundary towards Costa Rica Babukurs in the north-east (Bahr-el-Ghazal) ; the Krej, Bandas, was determined by arbitration under treaties of 1858 and and N'Sakkaras in the north-west (Dar-Fertit, and thence to the 1896 (see Costa Rica). The climate, healthy on the Upper Shari); the Bandzisi, Ndris, Togbos, Langwasi, Dakoas, B gap us, Jf ia- JVias, Manjas, Awakas, Akungas, and others visited uplands, is malarial on the coast and plains. The rainy by the French explorers—Crampel, Dybowski, Maister—about both season on the Pacific slope is from the middle of May to slopes of the Congo-Chad water-parting. These last, who give the middle of November; on the eastern coast, from June such an enormous westward extension to the family, present much to December. The fever which prevails on the low-lying the same physical characters as the Zaudehs proper, and speak dialects of the widely-diffused Ndris language, which is not Bantu, regions appears to be of a mild character, yielding to simple remedies. Observations made at San Juan (Greybut appears to show affinities with Zandeh. In this great division some French ethnologists are even disposed town) in 1890 showed the extremes of temperature to be to include the lulahs of west and central Sudan, and to substitute 89° Fahr. in September for the maximum, and 70° Fahr. for the now exploded “Nuba-Fulah” a “ Zandeh-Fulah ” family, in January for the minimum; the rainfall for the whole resulting from various secular interminglings between the true negroes and the Hamites of North Africa. Such crossings have year amounted to 297 inches, the rainiest month having undoubtedly been in progress since prehistoric times over an been July (52‘5 inches), and the driest, May (4‘9 inches). enormous area south of the Sahara (Africa : Ethnology), and are Earthquakes are felt at times on the Pacific slope, but in almost everywhere marked by certain constant characters, such as Nicaragua they are never violent, as in the neighbouring long ringletty or kinky black hair, coppery, reddish, or bronze shades of complexion, brachycephalous (round) head, often highly countries. The area of Nicaragua is estimated at about pronounced, and indicated outwardly by an unusually wide space 49,000 square miles; the population in 1897 was 428,000. between the orbits, and generally by somewhat softened negro The country is for political purposes divided into twelve features. But, owing to the different environments and to the departments and two comarcas (or territories). The different initial ratios of intermixture, the transitional forms are almost endless, so that it becomes difficult to constitute distinct departments with their population in 1896 are given as ethnical groups without calling in the aid of language. Where follows :—Managua, 42,460 ; Masaya, 33,869 ; Granada, type and speech correspond, as to a large extent is the case with 18,938; Carazo, 18,545; Rivas, 25,883 ; Leon, 87,772 ; most of the above-mentioned tribes, even strict systematists will be Chinandega, 34,614; Chontales, 40,387 ; Matagalpa, disposed to constitute separate ethnical groups, at least as working hypotheses, always allowing for the somewhat untrustworthy nature 29,895; Jinotega, 37 653 ; Nueva Segovia, 32,642; and of the linguistic factor. But in the case under consideration Fulah Zelaya, 14,541. The Mosquito Reserve was, by desire of has no kind of connexion with Zandeh speech, both forming, as far the Indian population, constituted as the department of as yet known, two absolutely independent negro stock languages. Zelaya on 20th November 1894. The mass of the popuHence, at least for the present, the newly-formed Zandeh-Fulah must share the fate of Fr. Muller’s Nuba-Fulah division of the lation of Nicaragua is very mixed, comprising negroes, mulattoes, zambos, mestizos, and other coloured inhabitants. Hamito-Negroid races. Besides their speech and the above indicated physical traits, the The Europeans and descendants of Europeans are estimated Zandehs differ in some other respects—temperament and social at about 1200; the uncivilized Indians at about 30,000. usages—from the surrounding Mangbattu, Momfu, A-Barambo, The more important towns are Managua, the capital, A-Babua, and other Negroid peoples. The Makaraka branch especially is described by Junker as amongst the most trustworthy, with 27,000 inhabitants; Leon, the old capital, 45,000; industrious, and intelligent people of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, where Granada, 21,000; Masaya, 15,000; Chinandega, 10,000; they are very numerous in the district west of Lado. Their strength Jinotega, 10,000 ; Estell, 8500; Rivas, 6000 ; Bluefields, and staying-power are extraordinary, and they will carry loads of 75 lb poised on the head for long marches with only one or two halts 5000; Corinto, 2500; and San Juan del Norte (Greyduring the day. They came originally from the country of the town), 1200. Within the republic there are altogether Kibas, north of the Welle, who are typical Niam-Niams, dis- 110 municipalities. tinguished by their elaborate head-dresses and peculiar tattoo Government.—Under the constitution of 11th July 1894, the markings—square patterns on forehead, temples, or cheeks, an X- Legislative Chamber consists of twenty-four members, two from shaped figure in a cartouche below the chest, and various zigzag, each department, elected for four years by universal suffrage. The

NICARAGUA President of the republic, chosen in a similar manner for four years, is assisted by a cabinet of hve ministers, heads of Government departments. Justice is administered by a Supreme Court in two sections, one at Leon, the other at Granada, and by subordinate tribunals throughout the country. Instruction.—Public instruction is under the care of Government, but is in a very backward condition. In 1894 there were said to be 1020 schools, with altogether 20,000 pupils. An official report of 1895, however, stated that in Leon and Granada, the most advanced of the towns, only 30 per cent, of the children were enrolled, and of these only about half learned anything, while of the whole population of school age only about 3 per cent, learned anything. There are two intermediate schools, one for boys, the other for girls, with together 51 teachers and 1441 pupils (724 boys and. 717 girls). The universities for teaching law and medicine at Leon and Granada have been united. A library at Managua is supported by Government. For the year 1901 the cost of instruction was put at 491,192 pesos, or £32,740. Defence.—Military service is obligatory. To the active army belong all citizens from eighteen to thirty-live years of age ; to the reserve, those from thirty-six to forty-five ; to the national guard, those from forty-six to sixty-five. The number actually serving is from 2000 to 3500. A few steamers used for police purposes are stationed on Lake Managua. Finance.—The revenue of the republic is derived mainly from customs duties, liquor, tobacco, and slaughter taxes, railways and steamers, the postal and telegraph services, and the gunpowder monopoly. The principal spending departments are those of war and marine, internal development, and finance. The published accounts, however, present no continuous or clear view of the national receipts and disbursements. For the year 1899 the receipts amounted to 4,475,827 pesos, or (at fifteen pesos to the £) £298,388 ; and the expenditure to 4,577,794 pesos, or £305,186 ; deficit, £6798. These receipts, however, are exclusive of the proceeds of the coffee export tax mentioned below, and the expenditure is exclusive of external and various internal debt charges. For the year 1901 the revenue was estimated at £384,060, £317,480 being from taxation, and £66,580 from railways and other national services ; while the expenditure was put at £383,928, of which £123,002 was for finance, £78,640 for internal development, and £66,256 for war and marine. In 1886 the republic contracted an external loan to the amount of £285,000 at 6 per cent, interest, and in 1894 the interest fell into default. In 1895 an arrangement was made for the reduction of interest, the commencement of amortization, and the creation of “ coffee warrants ” to be used in the payment of export duties on coffee assigned for the service of the debt. In the four years 1897-1900 the sales of these warrants amounted to 1,028,990 gold pesos, or (at 23d.) £98,610. In July 1901 the outstanding amount of the debt was £273,900. At the end of 1899 the internal debt amounted to 8,064,935 pesos, or (at fifteen to the £) £537,662. Production.—The principal agricultural product is coffee, the yield of which increased from 4,528,300 lb in 1880 to 11,382,000 lb in 1890, 19,800,000 lb in 1899, and 26,400,000 lb in 1900. Coffee is grown principally in the Matagalpa region, on the uplands of the interior. On the Caribbean coast bananas are cultivated, and largely exported to the United States. Sugar is grown and exported in considerable quantities (1800 tons in 1901). The cocoa export is small; tobacco is grown for local use, as are also rice, beans, and other crops. Rubber is collected in the forests, and plantations have been formed from which good results are expected. The quantity of rubber exported in the year 1900 amounted to 1,097,600 lb. Dyewoods and indigo are still shipped, but the demand for vegetable dyes has decreased. Cattle rearing is successfully pursued, live cattle aud hides being important articles of export. There are about 400,000 head of cattle in the republic. In 1899 the Government sold about 52,000 acres of public land lying about 18 miles to the east of Lake Nicaragua for the purpose of colonization. The purchaser undertakes to introduce settlers from northern Europe, to import cattle for the improvement of the Nicaraguan breed, to plant rubber and vanilla trees, and to provide schools for agricultural instruction. Goldmining is carried on in the Bluefields region, but, though the discovery of rich deposits is announced from time to time, there is no great enterprise in progress. In 1898 the gold dust and bar exports from Bluefields were of the value of £25,760 ; in 1899, £47,830 ; in 1900, £62,000. Commerce.—The imports consist of cotton and woollen goods, wines and spirits, flour, earthenware, and provisions ; the exports consist of the products already mentioned. Complete returns of the trade are not available. In 1900 the total imports amounted to the value of £703,490, and the exports to £792,203. The chief imports were cotton goods of the value of £321,000; flour, £35,000 ; wines and spirits, £32,000 ; woollen goods, £19,500 ; hardware, £18,300 ; provisions, £15,260. The chief exports were coffee, of the value of £400,000 ; gold and silver bullion, £74,000 ; rubber, £69,600 ; gold ore, £80,690 ; cattle, £45,000 ; mahogany,

231 £44,000 ; hides, £31,500 ; sugar, £7343. The largest trade is with the United Kingdom, both in imports apd exports ; then follow, in order of value, the United States, Germany, and France. The largest and most numerous commercial firms are German, but there are also French, British, and even Chinese establishments. The immigration of Chinese is prohibited by law. Shipping and Communications.—At Corinto, the principal port of the republic, there entered, in 1900, 200 ocean-going vessels wdth an aggregate tonnage of 328,622 tons. The railways, with the exception of a few short lines for local purposes, belong to the Government. Their total length in 1899 was 136 miles. The main system, connected and supplemented by steamboats on Lakes Managua and Nicaragua and the San Juan river, provides communication between Corinto on the Pacific and San Juan del Norte (Greytown) on the Atlantic. The railway is year by year extending, and several new lines are now contracted for or projected. Nicaragua Canal.—For the construction of an interoceanic canal across Nicaragua a company obtained a concession which was ratified 15th April 1887. For the carrying out of this project the Maritime Canal Company wras organized in May 1899, and incorporated by charter granted by the United States Congress. In the following year a construction company was incorporated. The proposed route of the canal begins at San Juan (Greytown), and, passing across the low, coast-land to the San Juan river, follows (with the help of 3^ miles of short cuttings) theT course of the river as far as Lake Nicaragua. Issuing from the w est side of the lake, it passes along the valleys of the river Las Lajas and the Rio Grande to Brito, the port on the Pacific. The total length of projected waterway is 170 miles, of which 27 miles would be excavated canal. The ascent from the sea-level at each end would be made by three locks, and the summit level would have a length of 154 miles. The question whether the interoceanic canal would be constructed by this route or by the Panama route was still undecided in September 1902. (See also Canals.) Posts and Telegraphs.—Nicaragua joined the Postal Union in 1882. In 1896 the republic had 119 post offices ; during that year 1,376,366 pieces of mail were received and 1,242,876 were delivered. The telegraph lines in 1897 had a length of 1752 miles, and were served by 83 telegraph offices. Money and Credit.—There is one bank of issue, the London Bank of Central America, but in 1898 a concession was granted for the formation of another bank. There is, besides, an agricultural bank. The monetary unit is the silver peso, but no Nicaraguan silver pesos are coined. The current coin (of which there is little in the country) consists of Mexican and Central and South American dollars. The currency is mostly paper, notes being issued directly by the Treasury and by the bank. The outstanding Treasury notes at the beginning of 1899 amounted to 2,379,642 pesos. For their amortization there is a fund to which in 1900 the sum of 390,000 pesos, or £26,000, was paid. The notes issued by the bank must be covered to the extent of 40 per cent, by gold and silver ; the aetual bank reserve is stated to be from 65 to 100 per cent, of the notes issued. The metric system of weights and measures was legalized in January 1893. History.—Few events in the recent history of Nicaragua, beyond those already noticed, require to be mentioned here. Under the administration of Chamorro, who became president in 1875, a difficulty with Germany occurred. The German Government asserted that one of its consuls had been insulted, and demanded an indemnity of $30,000 (about £2800), a demand to which Nicaragua only submitted after all her principal ports had been blockaded. The successor of President Chamorro was General Zavala, whose administration brought Nicaragua to a higher degree of prosperity than she had ever known. He was succeeded in 1883 by Dr Cardenas, during whose presidency the attempt of General Barrios to unite the five Central American states was a cause of war between Guatemala and Honduras on one side, and Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica on the other. Cardenas had taken command of the united Nicaraguan and Costa Rican army when Barrios died, and on 11th April 1885 a treaty of peace was signed. Don Evaristo Carazo succeeded Dr Cdrdenas as president of the republic in 1887, but died when he had served a little over two years, and was succeeded by Dr Roberto Sacasa. Under Carazo’s administration the boundary question between Nicaragua and Costa Rica had been settled by arbitration, the President of the United States acting as arbitrator. While Dr Sacasa was president of Nicaragua, the republics

232

NICE — NICHOLAS of Honduras, Salvador, and Guatemala signed a treaty, before, though the final cession did not take place till 1860 under which the United States of Central America were (see Nice, ninth edition of this work). The Palais de Justice to. be formed. The president of Nicaragua adhered to was completed in 1891, the Gothic church of Notre Dame this treaty, but the National Congress refused to ratify in 1890. The trade in flowers and fruit (oranges and it. President Sacasa was overthrown by a revolution in lemons) increases in importance as the means of transit 1893, and was succeeded by a provisional government, improve. In winter the railway carries them daily by which in its turn was deposed soon after by another the waggon-load. Population (1886), 61,484; (1896), uprising, at the head of which was General Zelaya. His 106,246; (1901), 125,099. position was regularized by the constitution of 1894, and Nichol, John (1833-1894), Scottish man of he was re-elected president in 1898 for another term of four years. Under his government the incorporation of letters, .son of the astronomer J. P. Nichol (1804the Mosquito Reserve into the territory of Nicaragua took • 1859), was born 8th September 1883, and educated at place. In 1895 occurred the Hatch incident, which led Glasgow and Balliol College, Oxford, where he had a to the occupation of the port of Corinto by a British fleet. brilliant career. After taking his first-class in classics, he Mr Hatch, British pro-vice-consul at Bluefields, being remained at Oxford as a coach, but in 1862 he was made accused of conspiracy against the Nicaraguan Govern- professor of English literature at Glasgow. He had ment, was arrested, along with other British subjects, already made a reputation as a spirited writer of both and expelled the country. For this action Nicaragua was verse and prose, an acute critic, and a successful lecturer, required to pay an indemnity of $15,000. A serious and his influence at Glasgow was very marked. He was a attempt to overthrow Zelaya by force of arms was made frequent visitor to the United States, and in 1882 he wrote in February 1896, but although it developed rapidly into the article on American literature for the ninth edition of a formidable revolution, it was crushed after several the Encyclopcedia Britannica—an article which is a good months of severe fighting. There were occasional disturb- example of his pungent (sometimes unduly pungent) style. ances subsequently, but none sufficient (up to September He left Glasgow for London in 1889, and continued to be very active with his pen until his death on 11th October 1902) to overturn President Zelaya. 1894, a few months after that of his wife, whom he had For the formation and dissolution of the Greater Republic of married in 1861. Among his best works were his drama Central America, composed of Nicaragua, Salvador, and Honduras, Hannibal (1873), his Byron in the “English Men of see Central America. Letters” series (1880), his Robert Burns (1882), and Carlyle Authorities.—Bravo, Jorge. Breve Noticias de la llepvMica de Nicaragua. Managua, 1892.—Caceres, J. M. Geografia de (1892). A Memoir of Nichol, by Professor Knight, was Centro-America. Paris, 1882.—Gamez, Josh D. Archive Historico published in 1896. de la Rcpublica de Nicaragua. Managua, 1896 ; Catecismo de HisNicholas (1841 ), PfilNCE OF MONTENEGEO toria Patria de la Rcpublica de Nicaragua. Managua, 1889 ; Historia de Nicaragua. Managua, 1889.—Niederlein, G. The and the Beeda, was born at the village of Niegush, the State of Nicaragua. Philadelphia, 1898.—Pector, DesirA Etude ancient home of the reigning family of Petrovitch-Niegush, econom.ique sur la Republique de Nicaragua. Neuchatel, 1893.— on the 25th September 1841. His father, Mirko PetroHandbook of Nicaragua. Bureau of the American Republics, vitch, a celebrated Montenegrin warrior, was elder brother Washington, 1892.—British Foreign Office Diplomatic and Consular Reports. London. — United States Consular Reports. Washington. to Danilo II., who left no male offspring. Since 1696, —Mcmoria de Hacienda y Credito Publico. Managua, 1899.— when the dignity of vladika, or prince - bishop, became Lucas, Daniel B. Nicaragua: War of the Filibusters. Richmond, hereditary in the Petrovitch family, the sovereign power Va., 1896.—Vincent, Flank. In and'Out of Central America. has descended from uncle to nephew, the vladikas beNew York, 1890.—Rasgos Descriptivos de laRepublica de Nicaragua longing to the order of the “black clergy” who are (Edicion Oficial). Managua, 1894.—Kalb. Studies on the Mosquito Shore. Boston, 1893. — Colquhoun. The Key of the Pacific. forbidden to marry. A change was introduced by London, 1895. (w. W. E. ; I. P. A. E. ; C. E. A.) Danilo II., who declined the episcopal office, married, and declared the principality hereditary in the direct male Nice, capital of the department of Alpes-Maritimes, line. Mirko Petrovitch having resigned his claim to the France, a. winter health resort and seaport on the Medi- throne, his son was nominated heir, and the old system terranean, 640 miles from Paris by rail. Its population is of succession was thus accidentally continued. Prince continually increasing, and every year fresh districts are Nicholas, who had been trained from infancy in martial built over. Nice now joins on the north-east the ancient and athletic exercises, spent a portion of his early boyhood episcopal town of Cimiez, in which are situated the largest at Trieste in the household of the Kuetitch family, to and most elegantly appointed mansions (the Regina and which his aunt, the Princess Darinka, wife of Danilo II., Riviera Palace), frequented by British Royalties and rich belonged. The princess was an ardent advocate of French foreigners. From east to west the town is surrounded by culture, and at her suggestion the young heir of the a girdle of beautiful towns—Carabacel, St Etienne, St vladikas was sent to the academy of Louis le Grand in Philippe, and the Beaumettes. On the east of the port lie Paris. Unlike his contemporary, King Milan of Servia, Montboron, Riquier, and St Roch, the last partly occupied Prince Nicholas was little influenced in his tastes and by barracks. The entrances to the port of Nice have been habits by his Parisian education : the young mountaineer, improved; that of the outer port is 300 feet wide, and whose keen patriotism, capability for leadership, and ohat of the inner 220 feet. The area of the port is about poetic talents early displayed themselves, showed no 15 acres, the length of quayage available 3380 feet, the inclination for the pleasures of the French capital, and depth of water 20 feet, its trade, mostly coastal, being eagerly looked forward to returning to his native land. shared principally between French and Italian vessels, the He was still in Paris when, in consequence of the assasarrivals being about 300 vessels of some 100,000 tons sination of his uncle, he was called to the throne (13th annually. Nice, under the command of a governor-general, August 1860). In 1862 Montenegro was engaged in an is the pivot of defence of the Alpes-Maritimes; hence its unfortunate struggle with Turkey: the prince distinguished girdle of forts. The French Mediterranean squadron is himself during the campaign, and on one occasion narrowly frequently stationed in the deep bays of Villefranche. In escaped with his life. In the period of peace which 1891 a monument was erected in Nice to the memory of followed he carried out a series of military, administrative, Garibaldi, who was born here, followed in 1896 by one and educational reforms. In 1867 he met the Emperor commemorating the union of Nice with France a century Napoleon III. at Paris, and in 1868 he undertook a journey

NICHOLAS to Russia, where he received an affectionate welcome from the Tsar, Alexander II. He afterwards visited the courts of Berlin and Vienna. His efforts to enlist the sympathies of the Russian imperial family were productive of important results for Montenegro; considerable subventions were granted by the Tsar and Tsaritsa for educational and other purposes, and supplies of arms and ammunition were sent to Cettigne. In 1871 Prince Dolgorouki arrived in Montenegro on a special mission from the Tsar, and distributed large sums of money among the people. In 1869 Prince Nicholas, whose authority was now firmly established, succeeded in preventing the impetuous mountaineers from aiding the Krivoshians in their revolt against the Austrian Government; more recently, in 1897, he checked the martial excitement caused by the outbreak of the Greco-Turkish war. In 1876 he declared war against Turkey : his military reputation was enhanced by the ensuing campaign, and still more by that of 1877-78, during which he captured Nikshitch, Antivari, and Dulcigno. The war resulted in a considerable extension of the Montenegrin frontier and the acquisition of a seaboard on the Adriatic. In 1883 Prince Nicholas visited the Sultan, with whom he has latterly maintained the most cordial relations ; in 1896 he celebrated the bicentenary of the Petrovitch dynasty, and in the same year he attended the coronation of the Tsar Nicholas II., from whom in 1898 he received a gift of 30,000 rifles and 30 million cartridges ; in May 1898 he visited Queen Victoria at Windsor. In 1901 he assumed the title of “Royal Highness.” The descendant of a long line of warriors, gifted with a fine physique and a commanding presence, a successful military leader and a graceful poet, Prince Nicholas possesses many character - | istics which awake the enthusiasm of the impressionable | Servian race, while his merits as a statesman, diplomatist, administrator, and reformer have received general recognition. His system of government, which may be described as a benevolent despotism, is perhaps that which is best suited to the character of his subjects. He has done much to establish security of life and property in his dominions, to put down the vendetta and other barbarous usages, to further the progress of education, and to improve the material condition of the people. His historical dramas, poems, and ballads hold a recognized place in contemporary Slavonic literature; among them are— Balkanska Tzaritza and Kniaz Arvaniti (dramas); Hdidana, Potini Abenserage and Pesnik i Vila (poems); Skupliene Pesme and Nova Kola (miscellaneous songs). In November 1860 Prince Nicholas married Milena, daughter of the voievode Petar Vukotitch. Of his three sons, the eldest, Prince Danilo, married (27th July 1899) Duchess Jutta (now Militza) of Mecklenburg-Strelitz ; of his six surviving daughters, Princess Militza is married to the Grand Duke Peter Nikolaievitch, Princess Stana to Duke George of Leuchtenberg, Princess Helena to King Victor Emmanuel III. of Italy, and Princess Anka to Prince Francis Joseph of Battenberg. (For the political and military history of Montenegro under Prince Nicholas see Montenegro and the more recent authorities there enumerated.) Nicholas II., Emperor of Russia (1868 ), eldest son and successor of Alexander III., was born at St Petersburg on the 18th of May 1868, and received the ordinary education of Russian grand dukes, under the direction of General Danilovitch, assisted by M. Pobedonostsef and other eminent professors. Among these was an Englishman, the late Mr Charles Heath, for whom he had great respect and affection. By the death of his grandfather, Alexander II., in 1881, he became heir-apparent

II.

233 (Cesarevitch). Though he received, like all the heirsapparent to the Russian throne, a certain amount of military training, his personal tastes did not lie in that direction, nor did he show any inclination for the boisterous amusements of the jeunesse doree of St Petersburg. Like his father, he was nowhere happier than in the family circle, and he was particularly attached to his sister, the Grand Duchess Xenia, who was seven years younger than himself. In 1890-91 he made a tour in Greece, Egypt, India, Ceylon, and Japan, where he narrowly escaped assassination at the hands of a Japanese fanatic. On the return journey by Siberia, at Vladivostok, he turned the first sod of the eastern section of the Siberian railway, and two years afterwards (1893) he was appointed president of tbe imperial committee for that great undertaking. By the death of his father on 1st November 1894 he

The Tsar Nicholas II. (From a photograph by IK and D. Downey, London.) became emperor, and on the 26th of that month he married Princess Alix of Hesse (a grand-daughter of Queen Victoria) to whom he had been betrothed in the presence of his father during the latter’s last illness. Eighteen months later the coronation took place at Moscow with great pomp, but a gloom was thrown over the festivities by the unfortunate incident of the Khodinskoe Polye, a great open space near the city, where a popular fete had been prepared and where, from defective police arrangements, a large number of men, women, and children, roughly estimated at 2000, were crushed and trampled to death. As a rule, Nicholas II. followed in the footsteps of his father, seeking to preserve peace in foreign relations, and continuing in home affairs, though in a much milder form, the policy of centralization and Russification which had characterized the previous reign. His pacific tendencies were shown by his systematic opposition to all bellicose excitement, by his maintaining M. de Giers in the post of minister of foreign affairs, by his offering the post, on the death of that statesman, to M. de Staal, by his restraining France from dangerous adventures, by his supporting M. de Witte in his efforts to establish close commercial relations with Great Britain, and by initiating the S. VII. — 30

234

NICHOLSON—NICOBAR

so-called Peace Conference at The Hague. To these ought perhaps to be added the transformation of the Francollussian entente cor diale into a formal alliance, since the alliance in question might be regarded as favourable to the preservation of the status quo in Europe. In the internal administration he introduced by his personal influence, and without any great change in the laws, a more humane spirit towards those of his subjects who did not belong by language and tradition to the dominant nationality, and who were not members of the Eastern Orthodox Church; but he disappointed the men of liberal views by giving it to be clearly understood that he had no intention of circumscribing and weakening the autocratic power by constitutional guarantees or parliamentary institutions. Nicholson, John (1822-1857), British colonel and brigadier-general, eldest son of Alexander Nicholson, a physician of Dublin, was born at Lisburn, Antrim, on 11th December 1822. Educated at Dungannon College, he entered the Bengal Infantry as ensign in 1839. He served in the Afghan war of 1839-42, distinguished himself in the defence of Ghazni (1842), and on its capitulation and the subsequent treachery was made a prisoner and badly treated until removed to Bamian. He escaped with the other prisoners in September 1842, on the occupation of Kabul by Sir George Pollock (medal). He served in the Sutlej campaign, and was present at the battle of Firozshah in 1845 (medal). He was then sent to Kashmir to instruct the maharaja’s troops, and in 1847 was given the charge of the Sind Sagar district. On the seizure of Multan by Mulraj, Nicholson rendered great service in securing the country from Attock and* in putting down rebellion. He distinguished himself at the Margalla Pass, where he was wounded. In the Punjab campaign of 1848 — 49 his services were invaluable in furnishing supplies and boats, and in obtaining information of the movements of the enemy, and for these and his gallantry at Chilianwala, Gujrat, and the pursuit of the Sikhs he was mentioned in despatches (medal and clasp and brevetmajority). He was appointed a deputy-commissioner of the annexed Punjab, under Sir Henry Lawrence. His frontier work was most remarkable. At Bannu, among an ignorant and bloodthirsty people, he evolved, in the course of five years, such order and respect for law that murder and. highway robbery, previously rife, were unknown in the district. He so impressed his personality on the natives that he became to them a demi-god, and in Hazara a brotherhood of fakirs in 1848 instituted a religious cult for the worship of “ Nikal-Seyn,” which continued to flourish in spite of Nicholson’s efforts to suppress it by punishment. Promoted lieutenant-colonel in 1854, he was deputy-commissioner at Peshawar when the Indian Mutiny began in 1857. He disarmed the sepoy regiment there, and pursued the Mardan mutineers to the borders of Swat. He succeeded Sir Neville Chamberlain in the command of the Punjab forte, defeated the rebels at Trimmu Ghat and on the Bavi river, and joined the Delhi field force. He gained a great victory over the rebels at Najafgarh, capturing thirteen guns, and was a tower of strength during the siege and at the assault of Delhi. He led the main storming party, and, having carried the breach, fell mortally wounded in the street while leading on his men. He died a few days later, 23rd September 1857, and was buried in front of the Kashmir gate. (r. h. v.) Nicobar Islands, a British group, consisting of twelve inhabited and seven uninhabited islands, lying in the Bay of Bengal, between Sumatra and the Andaman Islands, to which latter they are administratively appended. They have an aggregate area of about 635

ISLANDS

square miles, Great Nicobar (Loong), the largest and southernmost of any size, covering 333 square miles. Six others range in area from about 20 square miles to 62 square miles; the rest are mere islets. A careful census of the natives, taken by Mr E. H. Man in 1901, gave a total population of some 6700, at about which figure the estimates of the number of inhabitants have always stood. Car Nicobar (Pu), the most northerly island, with an area of 49 square miles, was by far the most densely populated, and had 3500 inhabitants, Great Nicobar containing only 450. The marine surveys of these islands are still meagre and unsatisfactory, but the whole of the Nicobars and outlying islands were surveyed topographically by the Indian Survey Department in 1886-87, when a number of maps on the scale of two inches to the mile were produced, giving an accurate coast-line. Some of the islands have mere flat, coral-covered surfaces; others, again, are hilly, the Great Nicobar rising to 2105 feet. On that island there are considerable and beautiful streams, but the others generally are badly off for fresh surface water. There is one good harbour, a magnificent land-locked shelter called Nancowry Harbour, formed by the islands of Camorta and Nancowry (both known to natives as Nankauri). The Nicobars form part of a great submarine chain, of which the Andamans are a continuation. Elaborate geological reports were issued by a Danish scientific expedition in 1846 and an Austrian expedition in 1858. Dr Rink of the eology. former found no trace of true volcanic rocks, though the chain as a whole is known for its volcanic activity, but features were not wanting to indicate considerable upheavals in the most recent periods. He considered that the islands belonged to the Tertiary age. Yon Hochstetter of the Austrian expedition classified the most important formations thus: eruptive, serpentine, and gabbro; marine deposits, probably late Tertiary, consisting of sandstones, slates, clay, marls, and plastic clay ; recent corals. He considered the whole group connected geologically with the great islands of the Malay Archipelago farther south. The vexed question of the presence of coal and tin in the Nicobars has so far received no decided scientific support. The white clay marls of Camorta and Nancowry have become famous as being true polycistinan marls like those of Barbados. Earthquakes of great violence were recorded in 1847 and 1881 (with tidal wave), and mild shocks were experienced in December 1899. It has always been held to be important to maintain a meteorological station on the Nicobars, for the purpose of supplementing the informa- Meteortion obtained from the Andamans regarding cyclones °IoSyin the Bay of Bengal. From 1869 to 1888 an observatory was properly maintained in Nancowry harbour, but after the latter year observations were recorded only in a more or less desultory way until 1897, when the station was removed to Mus in Car Nicobar. The climate is unhealthy for Europeans. The islands are exposed to both monsoons, and smooth weather is only experienced from February to April, and in October. Rain falls throughout the year, generally in sharp, heavy showers. During the five years ending 1888 the annual rainfall varied from 91 inches to 138 inches, and the number of wet days per annum from 148 to 222. The highest temperature in the shade was 98'2° F., and the lowest 64° F. Although the vegetation of the Nicobars has received much desultory attention from l Iora an scientific observers, it has not been subjected to a fauna ~ systematic examination by the Indian Forest Department like that of the Andamans, and indeed the forests are quite inferior in economic value to those of the more northerly group ; besides fruit trees—such as the cocoanut {Cocos nucifera), the betelnut {Areca catechu), and the mellori (Pandamis leeram)—a thatching palm {Nipa fruticans) and various timber trees have some commercial value, but only one timber tree {Myristica irya) would be considered first-class in the Andamans. The palms of the Nicobars are, however, exceedingly graceful. Instances of the introduction of foreign economic plants are frequently mentioned in the old missionary records, and nowadays a number of familiar Asiatic fruit-trees are carefully and successfully cultivated. As with the geology and the flora, certain phases of the fauna of the islands have been extensively reported. The mammals are not numerous. In the southernmost islands are a small monkey, rats and mice, treeshrews {Cladohates nic.), bats, and flying-foxes, but it is doubtful if the “wild ” pig is indigenous ; cattle, when introduced and left, have speedily become “wild.” There are many kinds of birds, notably the megapod (Megapod/ius nic.), the edible-hest-building swift {Collocalia nidiftca), the hackled and pied pigeons {Calmias nic. and Carpophaga licolor), a paroquet {Palceornis caniccps),

235 NICOSIA— NICOTERA and an oriole (Oriolus macrounis). Fowls, snipe, and teal thrive Report on Preliminary Tour through the Nicobar Islands. Governafter importation or migration. Reptiles—snakes, lizards, and ment, Rangoon, 1897.—Papers in the Journals of the Anthropochameleons, crocodiles, turtles, and an enormous variant of the logical Institute, by Distant, Ball, Man (many), Lane-Fox, edible Indian crab — are numerous ; butterflies and insects, the and Flower ; of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, by Ball and De latter very troublesome, have not yet been systematically collected. Roepstroff ; and in the Indian Antiquary, by Man (many) and (r. c. t.) The fresh-water fish are reported to be of the types found in Temple. Sumatra. The Nicobarese may be best described as a Far Eastern Nicosia, the capital of Cyprus. Its earliest name having the characteristics less Natives. race, civilized tribesgenerally of the Malay Peninsula and ofthethesouthwas Ledra, but Leucos, son of Ptolemy Soter (280 b.c.), is eastern portion of the Asiatic continent, and speaking varieties of said to have restored it and changed its name to Leuteon, the Mon-Annam group of languages, though the several dialects that prevail are mutually unintelligible. Their figure is not Leucotheon, or Levcosia. One mile south-west of the town graceful, and, owing to their habit of dilating the lips by betel- lies the very large Bronze-Age necropolis known as Hagia chewing, the adults of both sexes are often repulsive in appear- Paraskevi, which has been repeatedly explored with ance. Though short according to our standards (average height, valuable results. Population in 1881, 11,536 (Moslem, man, 5 feet 3| inches ; woman, 5 feet), the Nicobarese are a line, 5393; Christian, 6143); in 1901, 14,752 (Moslem, 6013; well-developed x’ace, and live to 70 or 80 years of age. Their mental capacity is considerable, though there is a great difference Christian, 8739). The circuit of the city was reduced in between the sluggish inhabitant of Great Nicobar and the keen 1567, under the direction of the Venetian engineer G. trader of Car Nicobar. The religion is an undisguised animism, Savorgnano, from nine miles to three ; eighty churches and all their very frequent and elaborate ceremonies and and a number of fine houses were sacrificed. The new festivals are aimed at exorcising and scaring spirits. It has so far proved ineradicable. Though for a very long time they walls were given a circular shape, with eleven bastions and were callous wreckers and pirates, and then very cruel, and three gates. Water is supplied by two aqueducts. Governthough they show great want of feeling in the “devil murders” ment House, the residence of the High Commissioner, the —ceremonial murders of one of themselves for grave offences Government offices, hospital, central prison, and the new against the community, which are now being gradually put down—still on the whole the Nicobarese are a quiet, inoffensive English church are without the walls. The fosse has people, friendly to each other, and not quarrelsome, and by in- been planted, and part of it used as an experimental clination friendly towards and not dangerous to foreigners. The garden. Carriage roads have been completed to Kyrenia, old charge of cannibalism may be generally said to be quite Kythraia, Famagusta, Larnaca, Limasol, and Morphou. untrue. Tribes can hardly be distinguished, but there are dis- Within the city something has been done towards widening tinctions, chiefly territorial. All the differences observed in the several kinds of Nicobarese may with some confidence be referred and repairing the streets. The principal monuments of to habitat and the physical difficulties of communication. Such the Lusignan period are the fine cathedral church of St government as there is, is by the village; but the village chiefs Sophia, an edifice of French Gothic, at once solid and have not usually much power, though such authority as they have has always been maintained by the foreign Powers who have elegant (the towers were never completed); the church possessed the islands. The clothing, when not a caricature of of St Catherine, “ a perfect and finished type of southern European dress, is of the scantiest, and the waggling tags' in Gothic architecture of the last years of the 14th century” which the loin-cloths are tied behind early gave rise to fanciful (both these are now mosques); and the church of St stories that the inhabitants were naked and tailed. The houses Nicolas of the English (noAV a grain store), built for the are good, and often of considerable size. The natives are skilful with their lands, and though they never cultivate cereals, exercise order of the Knights of St Thomas of Acre (Bp. Stubbs, some care and knowledge over the cocoanut and tobacco, and have Lectures on Mediaeval and Modern History, Lect. viii. p. had much success with the foreign fruits and vegetables intro- 182, Oxford, 1886). A gateway of no great importance duced by the missionaries. The staple article of trade has always is nearly all that remains of the palace last used by the been the ubiquitous cocoanut, of which it is computed that 15 million are produced annually, 10 million being taken by the Venetian joromfoYoW. It dates from the end of the 15th people, and 5 million exported about equally from Car Nicobar century. There is a museum, with a valuable catalogue. and the rest of the islands. The usual cheap European goods are The chief industries are tanning and hand weaving, both imported, the foreign trade being carried on with the native traders of the neighbouring Asiatic countries. There is an old-established silk and cotton. internal trade, chiefly between the other islands and Chowra for Nicotera, Giovanni (1828- 1894), Italian pots (which are only made there) and racing and other canoes. patriot and politician, was born at San Biagio on 9th The situation of the Nicobars along the line of a very ancient trade route has caused them to be reported by traders and sea- September 1828. Early affiliated to the Giovane Italia, through alltohistorical times. In the 17th century he was among the combatants at Naples in May 1848, is ory. farers ^-fig islands began attract the attention of missionaries. and at San Pancrazio with Garibaldi during the defence At various times France, Denmark, Austria, and Great Britain all of Borne. After the fall of Borne he fled to Piedmont, had more or less shadowy rights to the islands, the Danes being the most persistent in their efforts to occupy the group, until in 1869 where he organized the expedition of Sapri in 1857, but they relinquished their claims in favour of the British, who at once shortly after landing was defeated and severely wounded began to put down the piracies of the islanders, and established a by the Bourbon troops. Condemned to death, but penal settlement, numbering in all about 350 persons, in Nancowry harbour. The health of the convicts was always bad, reprieved through the intervention of the British minister, though it improved with length of residence and the adoption of he remained a prisoner at Favignana until 1860, better sanitary measures ; and an attempt to found a Chinese when he joined Garibaldi at Palermo. Sent by Garibaldi colony having failed in 1884 through mismanagement, the settle- to Tuscany, he attempted to invade the Papal States with ment was withdrawn in 1888. At present there are maintained native agencies at Nancowry Harbour and on Car Nicobar, both a volunteer brigade, but his followers were disarmed and of which places are gazetted ports. At the latter is a Church of disbanded by Bicasoli and Cavour. In 1862 he was with England mission station (the only one the missioners connected Garibaldi at Aspromonte; in 1866 he commanded a with which have not led a miserable existence) under a native volunteer brigade against Austria; in 1867 he invaded Indian catechist attached to the diocese of Rangoon. the Papal States from the south, but the defeat of GariAuthokities.—Man. Dictionary of the Central Nicobarese baldi at Mentana put an end to his enterprise. His Language. London, 1889.—Selections from the Records of the parliamentary career dated from 1860. During the first Government of India (Home Department), No. Ixxvii. Calcutta, 1870.—Maurer. Die Nikobaren. Berlin, 1867 (contains valu- ten years he engaged in violent opposition, but from 1870 able bibliography, Danish and German).-—Svoboda. Die Bewohcer onwards joined in supporting the military reforms of des Nikobaren-Archpiels. Leyden, 1893 (contains good coloured Bicotti. Upon the advent of the Left in 1876, Nicotera plates and a Continental bibliography).—De Roepstroff. Dic- assumed the portfolio of the Interior, and governed with tionary of the Nancowry Dialect. Calcutta, 1884. — Vocabulary of remarkable firmness. Obliged to resign in December Dialects in the Nicobar and Andaman Islands. 2nd ed., Calcutta, 1875.—Report on Administration, Andamans and Nicobars, for 1877, he joined Crispi, Cairoli, Zanardelli, and Baccarini 1888-89. Government, Calcutta, 1890.—Prevost and Heing. in forming the “ Pentarchy ” in opposition to Depretis,

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NIEMES but only returned to power, thirteen years later, as Minister of the Interior in the Rudini cabinet of 1891. On this occasion he restored the system of uninominal constituencies, resisted the Socialist May Day agitation, and pressed, though in vain, for the adoption of drastic measures against the false bank-notes put in circulation by the Roman Bank. He fell with the Rudini cabinet in May 1892, and died at Vico Equense on 13th June 1894. (H. w. s.) IMiemes (Czech, Minion), a town in the government district of Bohmisch-Leipa, North Bohemia, Austria, on the Polzen river. There are manufactures of cloth, linen, and cotton stuffs, bentwood furniture, chemicals, and pyroligneous vinegar. Population (1890), 5598; (1900), Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm (18441900), German philosopher, was the son of the pastor at Rocken, near Leipzig, where he was born on 15th October 1844. He was educated at Schulpforta, and studied the classics at the universities of Bonn and Leipzig. In 1869, while still an undergraduate, he was, on F. W. RitschPs recommendation, appointed to an extraordinary professorship of classical philology in the University of Basel, and rapidly promoted to an ordinary professorship. Here ho almost immediately began a brilliant literary activity, which gradually assumed a more and more philosophical character. In 1876 eye (and brain) trouble caused him to obtain sick leave, and finally, in 1879, to be pensioned. For the next ten years he lived in various health resorts, in considerable suffering (he declares that the year contained for him 200 days of pure pain), but dashing off, at high pressure, the brilliant essays on which his fame rests. Towards the end of 1888, after recovering from an earlier attack, he was pronounced hopelessly insane, and in this condition he remained until he died on 25th August 1900. Nietzsche’s writings must be understood in their relation to these circumstances of his life, and as the outcome of a \ iolent revolt against them on the part of an intensely emotional and nervous temperament. His philosophy, consequently, is neither systematic in itself nor expounded in systematic form. It is made up of a number of points of view which successively appeared acceptable to a personality whose self-appreciation verges more and more upon the insane, and exhibits neither consecutiveness nor consistency. Its natural form is the aphorism, and to this and to its epigrammatic brilliance, vigour, and uncompromising revolt against all conventions in science and conduct it owes its persuasiveness. Revolt against the whole civilized environment in which he Avas brought up is the keynote of Nietzsche’s literary career. His revolt against Christian faith and morals turns him into a proudly atheistic “free-thinker,” and preacher of a new “master” morality, which transposes the current valuations, deposes the “ Christian virtues,” and incites the “ over-man ” ruthlessly to trample under foot the servile herd of the weak, degenerate, and poor in spirit. His revolt against the theory of State supremacy turns him into an anarchist and individualist; his revolt against modern democracy into an aristocrat. His revolt against conventional culture leads him to attack D. F. Strauss as the typical “ Philistine of culture” ; his revolt against the fashion of pessimism to demand a new and more robust affirmation of life, not merely although, but because, it is painful. Indeed, his very love of life may itself be regarded as an indignant reA7olt against the toils that were inexorably closing in around him. He directs this spirit of "revolt also against the sources of his own inspiration; he turns bitterly against Wagner, whose intimate friend and enthusiastic admirer he had been, and denounces him as the

— NIGER musician of decadent emotionalism; he rejects his educator Schopenhauer’s pessimism, and transforms his will to live into a “ Will to Power.” Nevertheless his reaction does not in this case really carry him beyond the ground of Schopenhauerian philosophy, and his own may perhaps be most truly regarded as the paradoxical development of an inverted Schopenhauerism. Other influences which may be traced in his Avritings are those of modern naturalism and of a somewhat misinterpreted Darwinism (“ strength ” is generally interpreted as physical endowment, but it has sometimes to be reluctantly acknowledged that the physically feeble, by their combination and cunning, prove stronger than the “ strong ”). His writings in their chronological order are as follows, those so far translated into English being marked with an asterisk :—Die Geburt der Tragbdie aus dem Geiste der MusiJe, 1872; TJnzeitgemasse Betrachtungen, 1873-76 (Strauss—Vom Nutzen u. Nachtheil der Historic fur das Leben—Schopenhauer a Is Erzieher Richard Wagner in Bayreutii); Menschliches, Allzumenschliches, 1876-80 ; Morgenrothe, 1881 ; D. frbhliche Wissenschaft, 1882; *Also sprach Zarathustra, 1883-84; Jenseits von Gut u. Bose, 1886; *Zur Genealogie der Moral, 1887; *Der Fall Wagner, 1888; * Gbtzenddmmerung, 1888; ^Nietzsche contra Wagner, *Der Antichrist, and * Poems first appeared in the complete edition of his works, which also contains the notes for Wille zur Macht, in which Nietzsche had intended to give a more systematic account of his doctrine (1895-1901). His biography, by his sister, Elizabeth Forster-Nietzsche, is in course of publication (vol. i., 1895). (f. c. s. s.) Ni^vre, a department in the centre of France, traversed by the mountains of Morvan and watered by the Loire, the Allier, the Nievre, and the Yonne. Area, 2659 square miles. The population, 347,576 in 1881, had decreased to 319,506 in 1901. Births in 1899, 5921, of which 279 were illegitimate ; deaths, 6473 ; marriages, 2380. There were in 1896, 702 schools, with 53,000 pupils, and 5 per cent, of the population was illiterate. The area under cultivation in 1896 measured 1,593,150 square miles, of which 795,340 acres were plough-land and 27,170 acres vineyards. The land in wheat in 1899 yielded the value of £1,008,000 ; barley, £96,000 ; oats, £433,000; vines, £132,000 ; potatoes, £304,000 ; mangold-wurzel, £123,000 ; green crops (trefoil, lucern, and sainfoin), £309,000 ; natural pastures and grass lands, £957,000. In 1899 there Avere in the department 26,230 horses, 195,369 cattle, 147,790 sheep, and 76,570 pigs. In 1898 Nievre mined 192,000 metric tons of coal, valued at £92,000. It has also some iron mines. The arrondissement of Nevers (Decize, &c.) has important industries in metals, producing in 1898, 5800 metric tons of iron and 19,200 tons of steel, of the total value of £245,000. There is a brisk industry in pottery. Distillation produced (1899) only some 28,000 gallons of alcohol. Nevers, the capital, had 25,116 inhabitants in 1901. Nigfdeh, the chief town of a sanjak of the same name in the Konia vilayet of Asia Minor, situated on the Kaisarfeh-Karaman road. It is remarkable for the beauty of its buildings, dating from the Seljiik period. The population of 20,000 includes large Greek and small Armenian communities. Niger, a great river of West Africa, inferior only to the Congo and Nile among the rivers of the continent. Rising within 150 miles of the sea in the outer mountainous zone of the western limb of Africa, it traverses the interior plateaux in a vast curve, fioAving north-east, east, and south-east, until it finally enters the Gulf of Guinea through an immense delta. About 250 miles from its mouth it is joined by its great tributary, the Benue, coming from the east from the mountainous region of Adamawa. The source of the Niger, as fixed by the Anglo-French boundary commission in 1896, lies in 9' 5° N. and 10' 46“ W., and the most northerly point of the great bend in about 17° N., this part of the river’s course having been shifted considerably to the

NIGER south as a result of recent surveys. The area of the Niger basin, excluding the arid regions with a slope towards the stream, has been calculated by Dr Bludau at 584,000 square miles. The additions to our knowledge of the Niger during the last two decades of the 19 th century were largely the work of French officers engaged in the extension of French influence throughout the western Sudan. From 1880 onwards Colonel (afterwards General) Gallieni took a leading part in the operations on the upper river, where in 1883 a small gunboat, the Niger, was launched for the protection of the newly-established French posts. In 1885 a first voyage was made by Captain Delanneau past the ruins of Sansandig, as far as Diafarabe, at the junction of the backwater which flows past the town of Jenne. Below Sansandig the stream was found to be split up into a number of channels, while beyond Diafarabe the banks became swampy and treeless. In 1887 the gunboat made a more extended voyage, reaching the port o£ Timbuktu, and correcting the mapping of the river down to that point. After the occupation of Timbuktu in 1893-94, surveys made in the surrounding region revealed the existence of a series of lakes and backwaters, chiefly on the left of the main stream, with which they are connected by channels conveying the water in one direction or the other according to the season. At high water most of these are united into one general inundation. The largest lake, Faguibini, is nearly 70 miles long, has high shores, and reaches a considerable depth. In 1894-95 attention was directed to the middle and lower Niger, to which several expeditions started from the coast of Guinea, the result being the survey of the portion of the river below Say never before visited by Europeans. Say was reached early in 1895 by Captain Decoeur (French), coming from Dahomey, and by Dr Gruner (German), coming from Togoland, the latter afterwards following the course of the stream down to its mouth. In the same year Captain Toutee (French) ascended the river past the Bussa rapids (the scene of Mungo Park’s death) and Say, to a point within the radius of influence of Timbuktu. During the subsequent descent the rapids at Bussa were only passed with the greatest difficulty. A still more important expedition was that of Lieutenant Hourst, who, starting from Timbuktu in January 1896, navigated the whole course of the Niger from that point to its mouth, executing a careful survey of the river and the various obstructions to navigation. These were found to occur in two principal sections—the one commencing at Ansongo, in the territory of the Kel-es-Suk Tuareg, and extending almost to Say, the other beginning below the town of Bussa. In both of these sections the river flows through several rocky passes, the current attaining a tremendous velocity. Rapids do not entirely cease until a little above Rabba. A voyage made in 1897 by Lieutenant de Chevigne showed that at low water the section between Timbuktu and Ansongo presents great difficulties, but the voyage from Timbuktu to Say was again successfully accomplished in 1899 by Captain Granderye. In 1901 Captain Leufaut ascended the river with a flotilla from its mouth to Say, experiencing great difficulties in the passage of the rapids. The delta of the Niger, though still imperfectly known, has been partially surveyed since it became British territory by various ship captains, officials of the Royal Niger Company, and others, including Sir Harry Johnston, formerly British consul for the Oil Rivers. East of the Nun, or the main mouth of the Niger, the estuaries known as the Brass, Sombrero, New Calabar, Bonny, Opobo, &c. (with the exception, perhaps, of' the first-named), seem to derive most of their water from independent streams such

237

as the Orashi, rising in about 6° N., which is, however, linked with the Niger by the Onita creek in 5^° N. Behind the town of Okrika, some 30 miles up the Bonny river, the swampy ground gives place to firm land, partially forest-clad. West of the Nun all the estuaries up to the Forcados, and possibly the next beyond, the Escravos, seem to be true mouths of the great river, while the Benin river, though linked to the others by transverse channels, may be more properly regarded as an independent stream. In this direction the largest mouth is the Forcados, the main outlet of the Wari branch of the Niger, a noble stream with a safe and relatively deep bar. The other western mouths, most of which are still very imperfectly known, have as a rule shallow and difficult bars. In addition to the main stream, almost the whole of the Niger basin has been made known by recent exploration. The journeys of the German traveller G. A. Krause (north from the Gold Coast, 1886-87) and the French Captain Binger (Senegal to Ivory Coast, 1887-89) first defined its southern limits by revealing the unexpected northward extension of the basins of the Guinea coast streams, especially the Volta and Komoe, a fact which explained the absence of important tributaries within the Niger bend. This was crossed for the first time, in its fullest extent, by Monteil (French) in 1890-91, but has since been traversed in all directions by French and other travellers. At the eastern end of the basin much light has been thrown on the system of the Benue, the only really important tributary, apart from the right-bank affluents of the upper Niger. The region of the Benue sources was first explored by E. R. Flegel (1882-84), who traversed the whole southern basin of the river and reached the important town of Ngaundere. Other German travellers—Zintgraff, Morgen, Uechtritz and Passarge, Ac., —added to our knowledge of the southern tributaries, the Tarabba, Donga, and others, which in the rains bring down a large body of water from the highlands of southern Adamawa. British travellers who have done work in the same region are Messrs Wallace, Moseley, and Hewby. The Benue itself was ascended to 13 V E., and its tributary the Kebbi to the Bifara marshes, by Colonel (afterwards Sir Claude) Macdonald in 1889, further progress towards the Tuburi marsh, by which a connexion with the Shari system is supposed to exist, being prevented by the shallowness of the water. The upper basin of the Benue was also traversed by the French expeditions of Mizon (1892) and Maistre (1892-93), the latter passing to the south of the Tuburi marsh, without, however, definitely settling the hydrographical question connected with it. Above the Kebbi a considerable stretch of the Benue has not been visited. At this part the stream flows in a curve from the south-west, its source lying in the latter direction, in about 7° 40' N. and 13° 15' E. The Benue, though exceptionally free from obstruction by rapids, falls very low in the tlry season, and for seven to eight months is almost useless for navigation. Politically, the main stream of the Niger is divided between Great Britain and France, the former holding, in the protectorate of Nigeria (see below), the lower course of the river as far as a point just above Ho, in about 11° 40' N., and the latter the whole middle and upper course. The Benue falls within British territory up to a point three miles below the mouth of the Faro, in about 13° 8' E., the head streams beyond that point lying within the German territory of Cameroon. Authorities.—Gallieni. Mission d'exploration du Haut Niger. Paris, 1885.—Caron. De Saint Louis an Fort de Timbouktou. Paris, 1891.—ToutC-le. Dahomi, Niger, Touareg. Paris, 1897.— Hourst. Sur le Niger ct an, Pays des Touaregs. Paris, 1898. — Johnston. "The Niger Delta,” Proc. R.G.S., December 1888. — Lugard. "An Expedition to Borgu on the Niger,”

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NIGERIA iJnd. September 1895. —Mockler-Ferryman. Up the Niger. bordering the Sahara are reached. The most mountainous London, 1892. — Bindloss. In the Niger Country. London, districts are northern Bauchi (a little north of 10°), where 1898 ‘ (e. He.) heights of 6000 to 7000 feet occur; parts of Muri, along Nigeria, a British protectorate occupying the whole the north bank of the Benue; and the southern border of lower basin of the Niger, with adjoining territories up to the Benue basin, where the hills (consisting of ironstone, Lake Chad. quartz, and granite) appear rich in minerals. The climate of the coast-lands is moist and hot, and The coast-line had long been a field of British commerce, but no British political rights were asserted anywhere in Nigeria until extremely unhealthy, malarial fevers being unusually 7 prevalent and deadly. Inland the mean temperature of History. drew 1^84, the when the annexation of Cameroon by German} attention of the Government to the complete the year is high, and at the time wdien the “ harmattan ” insecurity of British interests in those regions. Early in 1884 the first political treaties with native chiefs on the banks of the Niger blows from the northern deserts, noon temperatures con were concluded by a British company which had foreseen and siderably over 100° Fahr. are recorded. A great part of prepared for the coming general rush for the partition of the con- the year (eight months in parts) is dry, the rains being tinent. It had been founded for this work by Captain Goldie Taubman (afterwards the Right Hon. Sir George Taubman limited to the late summer. Though unfavourable for Goldie, K.C.M.G.) as early as 1879, under the name of the the permanent residence of white men, the interior is 1 nited African Company. Finding its capital too small to much less deadly than the coast-lands. In the latter, as obtain the desired royal charter, it had expanded in 1882 into the far inland as 6|- — t^ Is., the oil-palm {Eloeis guineensis) is National African Company, with a capital of £1,000,000 sterling. Just before the West African Conference at Berlin in 1884, it had the most noteworthy tree ; bananas are largely grown, and, completed the purchase of all French interests in the basin of the with yams,r &c., form an important article of food. lower Niger, enabling the British ambassador to declare that the Rubber, w ith many kinds of valuable timber, occurs British flag was alone represented in those regions. In 1886 it at throughout the inland forest zone. The Benue valley and last received a royal charter, which recognized the sovereign and the plains of northern Nigeria are largely cultivated, proother administrative rights it had obtained (or might obtain) by treaties with native sultans, emirs, and chiefs. Its name was then ducing abundance of guinea corn (millet), maize, wheat, changed to “The Royal Niger Company.” The total number of cassava, rice, onions, cotton, indigo, peas and beans, sweet these political treaties exceeded 400, and covered territory extend- potatoes, ground nuts, &c. Various economic trees, ining from the Gulf of Guinea to the Sahara. Of the coast-line of cluding the shea-butter tree (Jkissia Parkii), the locustNigeria, about one-half only was within the Royal Niger Company’s (used in tanning), tamarind, &c., are allowed jurisdiction. The remaining half—at the chief ports of which tree, gambier 7 treaties had been made by Consul Hewitt in 1884 for the Imperial to grow in the fields. The last-named supports silk-worms Government—was administered by Imperial authorities, first as the in large quantities, the silk being much valued. “ Oil Rivers Protectorate,” and after May 1893 as the “Niger Coast The inhabitants of Nigeria are distributed in accordance Protectorate.” After many years of struggle between the Niger Company and German agents, final recognition of British rights was with the physical features, the forest-clad coast-lands being obtained from Germany by the agreement of 1893, which defined the peopled by pure negroes, some of the tribes south-east frontier, running roughly north-east from the Rio del Rey being given, at least in the past, to cannibalism to Lake Chad. An agreement with France in 1890 fixed the northern and other revolting practices, wdiile others are frontier of the company as a line running from Say on the Niger harmless and peaceable. The interior possesses a mixed to Barua on Lake Chad, but left undecided the frontier west of the Niger. This was keenly contested between the Niger Com- population,7 a negro substratum having been modified by pany and the French colonial agents, until the agreement of 1898, contact w ith the northern races of the continent, and which fixed the frontier on the right bank of the Niger near Ilo, by them converted to Islam, which forms, however, but the northern frontier of the company being also modified so as to give to I ranee the left bank below Say, and also a rectangular a thin veneer. The most important race in northern block, including the important town" of Zinder. Two small Nigeria is that of the Hausas, who have been called the enclaves on the lower river were also assigned to France—the one Parsees of West Africa for their enterprise and industry. on the south bank of the Forcados estuary, the other on the right They are keen traders, their caravans ranging from the bank of the Niger in about 9^° N. They were occupied in 1901. The sovereign rights of the Niger Company were transferred to the Mediterranean to the Gulf of Guinea. They are physically British Crown on 1st January 1900, and the whole territory, w'ell developed, capable of great endurance, and make including the coast protectorate, became the protectorate of excellent soldiers. The ruling race of the Hausa States, Nigeria, divided into a northern and southern government, each however, is the Fulah or Fulani, which forms a separate of which is administered by a high commissioner appointed by caste of cattle-rearers, but constitutes probably less than the Colonial Office. (See also Chartered Companies.) a sixth of the total population, the pure-blooded Hausas Physically, Nigeria consists of a series of zones parallel making up a third, while the remainder consists of slaves to the coast-line. The swampy delta region, traversed by chiefly recruited from the pagan races to the south-east. innumerable interlacing creeks and broad placid Towns of 10,000 to 30,000 inhabitants are met with about features. c^iailIie^s fringed with monotonous mangrove every 50 miles in some parts, and occasional cities of 60,000 forest, gives place some 40 miles from the coast to 100,000. The total population of the Hausa States to an undulating forest-clad country, which in turn yields alone has been estimated at from 15 to 20 millions. The near the confluence of the Niger and Benue to a zone of nominal sovereign of the Fulah empire is the Sultan of hills, bare in parts, marking the outer margin of the in- Sokoto, whose power has, how7ever, much declined of late terior plateau. This, which extends north w7ith generally years, many of the subordinate sultans having become similar features through the remainder of British territory, almost independent. broken only by the valleys of the two great rivers, does The capital is now Wurnu, some 25 miles north-east of not attain an elevation approaching that of the plateaux Sokoto, the former capital, wdiich has been abandoned for of the southern half of the continent, the culminating point political reasons. Wurnu is a small town of 6000 inhabit(apart from particular mountain districts), situated in about ants, not to be compared with the other great cities of 10° N., reaching a height of 2500 feet only. The valleys the empire. Of these the most important is Kano, the of the Niger and Benue, especially the latter, are very great emporium of trade for the central Sudan, where much lower, the towrn of Yola on the Benue, some 750 Tuareg and Arab from the north meet merchants from the miles from the sea, lying at an altitude of little over 600 Niger, Lake Chad, and the far southern regions. The feet. The surface is generally undulating, with isolated average daily attendance at the market has been estimated hills of granite and sandstone often rising abruptly from at 25,000 to 30,000. Kano produces an immense amount the plain. It is clothed largely with thin forest, but of cotton cloth, and is the great centre of the trade in becomes more open to the north until the arid steppes kola nuts, which are imported from behind the Gold

NIGHTINGALE Coast. Other important towns, more or less independent of the central authority, are Katsena, Zaria, Bauchi or Yakoba (population, 50,000), Nasarawa, Muri, and Yola on the Benue, the last the chief centre of the province of Adamawa. In the extreme east, between the Benue and Lake Chad, the state of Belda has acquired importance of late years under Hayatu, a Moslem propagandist of the ruling family of Sokoto. Several of the mountainous districts, especially south of the Benue, are inhabited by pagan negro tribes. Immediately east of the Niger is the semi-subordinate kingdom of Gandu, with the chief town of the same name, and south of it the small states of Yauri and Nupe. Nupe extends south across the Niger, between 8° and 9° N. Its capital is Bida, a large walled town of much importance as a centre of trade and of the manufacture of leather goods and glass. It was taken by the Niger Company’s forces in 1897. West of the Niger lies the negro kingdom of Borgu (under the king of Bussa), where, however, the Fulahs have gained a footing at Gomba. The bulk of the inhabitants are known as Baribas. Farther south on this side Nigeria includes the northern part of the Yoruba countries, with the important town of I lor in, captured by the Niger Company’s forces in 1897. Bornu, west of Lake Chad, inhabited by the Kanuri, another mixed race, though likewise part of British Nigeria, has for some time been in an unsettled state, firstly through the invasion of the ex-slave Rabah (q.v.), and since 1899 through the French military operations against Rabah and his son Fadel Allah, both of whom lost their lives in battle.

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and from the shores of Lake Chad), kino, hides, gutta-percha, and rice. The military force of northern Nigeria consists of about 2500 native infantry, with artillery, engineers, and other details, officered by British officers ; the military force of southern Nigeria consists of about 800 native infantry, also under British officers. In 1898-99 the total revenue of southern Nigeria (then the Niger Coast Protectorate) was £169,568, and expenditure £146,752. Authorities.—Besides the works quoted under article Niger, see Rohlfs. Quer durch Afrika. Leipzig, 1854-75; and “Reise durch Nord Africa,” ii., Petermann’s Mitteilungen, Ergdnzhft. 84Gotha, 1872.—Thomson. “Trip to Sokoto by the River Niger,” Journal Manchester Geog. Soc., 1886 ; and “Niger and Central Sudan Sketches,” Scottish Geog. Mag. 1886.—Johnston. “The Bantu Borderland in West Africa,” Geog. Journal, October 1888. —Staudinger. Im Herzen der Haussaldnder. Berlin, 1889, Leipzig, 1891.—Monteil. Saint Louis d Tripoli. Paris, 1895.— Passarge. Adamaua. Berlin, 1895.—Rorinson and Wallace. “The Hausa Territories,” Gcog. Journal, September^ 1896.— Kingsley. Travels in West Africa. London, 189/ ; West African Studies. London, 1899 ; The Story of West Africa. London, 1900. — Mockler - Ferryman. British West Africa. London, 1898.—Yandeleur. “Nupe and Ilorin,” Geog. Journal, October 1897 ; Campaigning on the Upper Nile and Niger.. London. 1898.—Clive. “Notes of a Journey to . . . the Kingdom ot Bauchi,” Geog. Journal, August 1899.—Moseley. “Regions of the Benue, ” , December 1899.—Robinson. Nigeria. London, 1900.—Lugarh. “Northern Nigeria,” Annual Colonial Reports, No. 346. London, 1902. (e. He.) Nightingale, Florence (1820 ), younger daughter of William Edward Nightingale of Embley Park, Hampshire, and Lea Hurst, Derbyshire, was born at Florence, 15th May 1820, and named after that city, but her childhood was spent in England, chiefly in Derbyshire.

Since its transfer to the British Crown Nigeria has been divided for administrative purposes into the two governments of northern and southern Nigeria, the dividing line running east and Adminis- wegt apout 7° 10' N., crossing tire Niger a little tration. ap0W3 Southern Nigeria thus includes an area many times larger than the old Niger Coast Protectorate. The j administrative centre is at Asabci, above the head of the delta, which was the old civil capital ot the whole territory under the Niger Company. It is tire seat of the supreme court, and has various public buildings, including the central gaol. On the opposite bank of the Niger is Onitsha, where are both Protestant and Roman Catholic mission stations. The principal port of entry for the Niger is Akassa, on the main mouth of the river, which under the former regime formed part of the Company’s territory. It possesses a slip for the repairing of ships and important engineering workshops. Other trading ports of importance are Old Calabar, Opobo, Bonny, New Calabar, and Brass to the east; and JVarri, Burutti, Sapele, and Benin to the west, of the main Niger mouth. Old Calabar, known also as Duke Town (population about 40,000), lies at the head of a broad tidal estuary unconnected with the Niger system, but carrying off the water of the Old Calabar or Cross river, which rises in German territory in about 10Y E. The chief exports from all these ports are palm-oil and kernels. Rubber, ebony, cacao, and coffee also figure in small quantities among the exports from the coast region, and those of the interior which pass out by the Niger mouth include ivory, indigo, gums, camwood, and hides. The total exports of southern Nigeria were valued at £774,648 in 1898-99, and the imports (in which the principal item was cotton goods) at £732,640. The Church Missionary Society has long been active on the Lower Niger, and has stations at most ot the chief centres ; while two other British Protestant societies and two French Roman Catholic societies are also at woi’k. In northern Nigeria the chief British stations are Lokoja (military centre under the Royal Niger Company), Egga, Rabba, and Bussa, all on the Niger; and Loko (port of Nasarawa) and I hi on the Benue, the latter the company’s military headquarters on that river. Under the administration of Sir F. Lugard good progress has been made in the pacification of the country, and British influence has been established at several of the Hausa towns ; while Yola, the capital of Adamawa, was taken by a force under Colonel Morland in 1901. A site for the headquarters of the Government has been chosen near the left bank of the Kaduna river, 9 miles I from Wushishi, the limit of navigation, with which it has been connected by a steam tramway. The portion of the territory brought under British control had in May 1901 been formed into nine provinces, each under a Resident, while others were about to ! be established. Northern Nigeria, especially the Hausa States, is an unusually promising field for commercial enterprise, the principal products being indigo, gum-arabic, kola-nuts, ivory (brought from the south by caravans from the marts of Tibati and Ngaundere,

Florence Nightingale. (From a photograph by the London Stereoscopic Co.) From her earliest years her strong love of nature and animals manifested itself. Her games, too, were characteristic, for her great delight was to nurse and bandage her dolls. Her first living patient was a shepherd’s dog. From tending animals she passed to human beings, and wherever there was sorrow or suffering she was sure to be found. Her most ardent desire was to use her talents for

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NIGRA—] NIHILISM the benefit of humanity. She had a natural shrinking to the question of army sanitary reform and army hospitals, from society; and though her social position necessitated and to the work of the Army Medical College at Chatham. her presentation at Court, her first season in town was In 1858 she published her Notes on Nursing, which ga\'e spent in examining into the working of hospitals, reforma- an enormous stimulus to the study of this subject in tories, and other charitable institutions. This was followed England. According to Miss Nightingale, nursing ought by a tour of inspection of foreign hospitals. At that time to signify the proper use of fresh air, light, warmth, England Avas sadly behind-hand in matters of nursing and cleanliness, quiet, and the selection and administration of sanitation, and Miss Nightingale, aat1io desired to obtain diet—all at the least expense of vital force to the patient. the best possible teaching for herself, went through a Miss Nightingale folloAved with interest all the later coarse of training in the Institute of Protestant Deaconesses improvements in sanitation, and was frequently conat KaisersAverth. She remained there six months, learning sulted about hospital plans both at home and abroad. every detail of hospital management Avith a thoroughness (She has Avritten on sanitation in India, children’s hospitals, rarely equalled. Miss Nightingale neglected nothing that lying-in hospitals, and other cognate subjects. With could make her proficient in her self-chosen task. From the help of the County Council Technical Instruction Kaiserswerth she Avent to Paris, Avhere she studied the Committee she organized in 1892 a health crusade system of nursing and management in the hospitals under in Buckinghamshire. Teachers were sent round among the charge of the sisters of St Vincent de Paul. After her the cottagers to give practical adA7ice on such points return to England she devoted herself to reorganizing the as ventilation, drainage, disinfectants, cleanliness, Size 20 Cordite Cylinder - Powder Igniter ■Shalloon Bag i— Elec trio Primer

Fig. 15.—4'7-inch Q.F. Cartridge (greatly reduced sea

descriptions, one to act on “impact” and the other on “graze”) or “time” fuzes, which can be set so as to act after some predetermined interval of time. Time fuzes usually contain an alternative percussion arrangement, and are known as “time and percussion ” fuzes. An example of each kind is illustrated in the figures.

^Platinum silver wire Tuft of gun-cotton yarn -mPure tin -mCrown metal pole ^ Brass screw collar -^Ebonite washer Oiled Siik ^ Brass Cone ^ic.Black Thread -^ Copper wire insulated with silk, bared at end with one turn in head -‘m Ebonite cup, screwed White metai contact Sechon Full Size Fig. 16.—Electric Primer The dired-adion fuze is intended to act upon impact, end its construction will be understood from the figure. On impact the needle is crushed in against the detonator and so fires the fuze. This fuze screws into the nose of the shell (Fig. 11). The base fuze is of the graze type. In it a needle pellet is prevented from movement by a “centrifugal bolt," which has a

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0 R D X heavy head and is withdrawn by the spin of the shell, thus unlocking the pellet and permitting it to strike the detonator, when the shell is checked by grazing. For safety the centrifugal bo.t is kept in position by a locking nut on a spundle connected to a pressure plate, which is forced in on discharge and so raises the nut. The spiral spring round the top of the pellet prevents premature action while the shell is in flight. This fuze is used with pointed common and A.P. shell (Fig. 12). Ihe time and percussion fuze consists of two distinct parts. The lower half of the fuze contains the percussion part, on the graze principle. A needle pellet is locked by a centrifugal bolt, as in the base fuze, and has also a ball preventing its forward movement. This ball is kept in place by the safety pellet, which is suspended on a shearing wire. On discharge the inertia of the pellet breaks this wire, the pellet falls into a recess, and the ball follows it. On graze the needle pellet flies forward. Connecting this part with the time part is a channel filled with powder. Opposite this channel, on the outside of the fuze, is the setting mark, a black triangle. The time part consists of a ring covered by a dome and clamped by a nut. On the under side of this ring is a groove, running nearly round, filled with slow-burning composition. At one end of the composition is a percussion cap with a hammer suspended on a thin wire above it. On discharge the hammer falls and lights the end of the composition, which burns slowly round until it reaches the connecting channel, when the fuze is fired. _ The outside of the ring is graduated from 0 to 18, and the fuze is set by turning the ring till the required graduation is opposite the setting mark, and clamping the nut. The gas evolved by the burning composition escapes' through a side hole. Before use the safety pellet and the hammer are supported by safety pins, which are withdrawn before loading.. The fuze burns about 12 o seconds, corresponding to a range of about 3700 yards in the 12-pr. of 6 cut., or 4100 yards in the 15-pr. A larger fuze of similar design burns 16 seconds. These fuzes are used in shrapnel shell (Fig. 13). A fuze of similar size and design to the first of the two above described, but burning for 22 seconds, has recently been issued. This time fuze corresponds to a range of about 5800 yards in both these guns. Q.F. Ammunition.—The ammunition for quick-firing (Q.F.) guns differs from that already described in having

A N C E

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the. charge enclosed in a metal case, containing means of ignition at the base. The case acts as an obturator by being expanded against the inside of the gun. In the smallest Q.F. guns, the 6-pr. and 3-pr., “fixed ammunition is used ", that is, the shell is attached to the case and the two are loaded together. In the other Q.F. guns the projectiles are loaded separately. The metal cases enable the charge to carry its own means of ignition, and simplify the mechanism of the gun, but they increase the weight to be carried and add to cost of manufacture.

_ The 6-pr. ammunition is shown in Fig. 14 ; the 3-pr. is similar. 1 he case is ot solid-drawn brass, and has a percussion cap in the base. The cordite charge is dropped in, and has a primer tied to the bottom ; the space above it is filled by a brownpaper cylinder. The shell is of the A.P. type, and is secured in the case by indents. The fuze used is the “Hotchkiss” base fuze. In it, the lead pellet sets back on shock of discharge, and thus unmasks the needle point. On graze, needle and pellet fly forward and fire the cap. The spiral spring prevents premature action during flight. The^ammunition for the larger Q.F. guns is all similar ; that of the 4 7-inch is illustrated as a type. The projectiles fired are the same.as already described ; all except the 12-pr. fire lyddite. The cartridge case is of solid-drawn brass, having an “ electric primer ” screwed into the base (Figs. 15, 16). This primer is really a wireless electric tube on the same principle as already described; and the figures sufficiently show its construction. The cordite charge is tied in a bundle and dropped into the case. In the bottom of the bundle is a hollow cordite cylinder, with a gunpowder igniter inside it. The nose of the electric primer fits into the end of this cylinder. Above the charge is a wad, and the case is closed by a lid, containing lubricating material to prevent fouling. Should anything go wrong with the primer, a steel “adapter” is provided which will screw into the case, and is bored out to take a percussion tube by which the gun may be fired. A few of the weights of charges and projectiles, and muzzle velocities, are given in the following table :— Table of Weights of Charges and Projectiles.

Gun. 13'5-inch B L. gun Mark Till. 12- „ 0-2 „ IX. & X VII. 6 „ 15-pr. 12-pr. 6-inch Q.F. gun 4-7 „ 4 „ 12-pr. of 12 cwt. Q.F. 6-inch B.L. Howitzer

Bursting Weight of i Made up in Weight Charge Charge. j £ or J Car- of Pro- Commonof Cordite. i tridges. jectile. Shell. lb oz. lb lb oz. 187 0 J and I 1250 85 9 174 0 850 80 13-i 103 0 380 31 14 20 0 ^ and full 100 9 13 0 15f 14 0 11^ 12| / Same as \ 13 14 \6-inch -inch B.L. B / 5 7 45 4 14 3 9 25 3 3 1 15 m 1 8i 1 12 120 18 14* 0 ll/tf 50 9 15*

Muzzle Velocity. Feet per Second. 2016 2367 2643 2493 1569 1553 2154 2150 2300 2197 779 782

Remarks.

Lyddite shell for all 9'2-inch guns in land service Lyddite shell Only shrapnel and case shot >> >> Fires lyddite shell

Lyddite shell only ,, ,, as a rule

Lyddite. T. II. C. (c) Carriages.1 carriage, considerably reducing the “jump,” i.e., theCoast Artillery.—Since the introduction of B.L. guns tendency of the front of the carriage to lift on firing. many important improvements have been introduced in Hydro-Pneumatic Mountings.—In 1888 was introduced the first gun mountings. One of the first of these, though not of a large and important group of hydro-pneumatic disappearing entirely novel, was the substitution of a tension buffer for mountings. The essential principle is that the gun, mounted on low site, shall on firing recoil below the level of the protecting one in compression, i.e., the piston is pulled out of, instead aparapet. In doing so, the energy of recoil is absorbed, chiefly of being pushed into, the buffer on recoil. This places the by forcing a largo volume of liquid through a narrow opening or piston rod in a better position to stand the strain, and “recoil valve,” but partly also by still further compressing a enables the pressure in the cylinder to be equalized, thus large volume of already highly compressed air. When recoil the recoil valve closes, and the air is retained at a very making the pull on the piston rod uniform throughout ceases high pressure, ready to raise the gun to the firing position again recoil. Another important change is loading in the firing after loading. position, time being thus saved and a simplification of Fig. 1 shows a general view of the 6-inch B.L. disappearing gears effected. Again, the gun-layer can now stand to the mounting, Mark IV. ; Fig. 2 is a vertical, and Fig. 3 a transverse through the recoil cylinder. hand-wheel whilst the gun is fired. An improvement in section The gun trunnions (Fig. 1) are supported by the two arms of the the principle of construction was the lowering of the elevator A, which is pivoted to the front of the lower carriage at B. The breech is supported by the two elevating bars C, whose 1 The following abbreviations are employed in this article. R.M.L., lower ends are attached to the elevating arcs D. These arcs areRifled muzzle-loader. B.L., Breech-loader. Q.F., Quick-Firing. worked by the elevating gear actuated by the hand-wheel E. H.P., Hydro-pneumatic. The arcs are struck with the bars C as radii and their centres are

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the positions of the upper ends of these bars with the gun in the loading position, so that elevation can be given whilst the gun la being loaded. The lower carriage rests on a ring of live rollers G which are free to traverse round on a circular racer H, motion being given by traversing gear actuated by the hand-wheel I. Supported by vertical stanchions attached to the lower carriage is a horizontal circular shield J through which the gun rises to the firing position. Shield sights by which the gun can be laid for line °are shown at KK. The manganese bronze ram F which is

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attached to the elevator by the crosshead L, is forced on recoil into the central chamber of the recoil cylinder (Figs. 2 and 3), the cylinder being supported by trunnions resting in the1 brackets of the lower carriage at M. There are ten chambers NN (Figs. 2, 3) all of which are connected at the bottom with the recoil valve chamber 0, and therefore with one another. Nine of these contain liquid in their lower portions, and highly compressed air above, and are connected at the top by a channel 1 to equalize the pressures in each chamber. The tenth chamber N , which is

Fio. 1.—Diagram of a 6-incli B.L. Disappearing Mounting, Mark IV. situated lowest in the cylinder, contains liquid alone, and has at its upper end the raising valve Q. On recoil, the liquid in the central chamber is forced by the ram through the recoil valve R, into the outer chambers N, thus further compressing _ the air. R being a non-return valve the air is maintained in this highly

compressed state during loading. The gun is raised by pushing the lever S (Fig. 1) to the front, which actuates the rack T, thus opening Q, which allows the air in the nine chambers to force liquid from the tenth chamber N' into the central ram chamber, lifting the ram. U is a pump by which the gun can be pumped down at drill. Worked by the lever Y, it sucks the liquid from the ram chamber and delivers it against the air-pressure into the nine chambers N. A serious drawback to this type of mounting is the aeration of the liquid due to the churning it receives on recoil. The liquid

used consists of methylated spirits, mineral oil, distilled water, and carbonate of soda. Heavy Barbette Mountings.—Figs. 4 and 5 represent the Mark V. mounting for the 9-2-inch B.L. gun, the latest development in heavy barbette mountings. Though resembling the H. P. group in the joint use of liquid and air, this mounting possesses the great advantage of having a separate chamber for each, thus eliminating aeration. 9'2-inch Mounting.—Fig. 5 shows a general view of the mounting, Fig. 4 a longitudinal section through the cradle to a larger scale. The gun, which is trunnionless, and to which is attached the crosshead A, recoils in the cradle C, supported by guides D, which slide in longitudinal grooves in the cradle. To the crosshead is attached the buffer cylinder B, so that on recoil, the gun, guides, crosshead, and buffer move together. The cradle of cast steel wdth trunnions E resting in trunnion holes in the lower carriage, has attached to it in rear the air-chambers F and G in one manganese bronze casting, in which a high initial pressure is maintained. To the front of the cradle is attached the piston and piston rod L, in one forging. On recoil the bufler is drawn over the piston, whilst simultaneously the buffer cylinder is forced into the front air-chamber F, further compressing the air and forcing the bulk of it through the valve H into the inner chamber G. At the conclusion of recoil the expansion of the air forces the buffer, and with it the gun, to the front. The valve H closes

358

ORDNANCE ant| the air has to pass through a uarrow hole before it can act on the end of the buffer, thus preventing any violent action. To prevent leakage of air between the air-chamber and buffer there is an ingenious arrangement consisting of a gland K, packed with a viscous liquid. This liquid packing is in communication with an “intensifier” I by means of a pipe J. This consists of a cylinder containing a piston and rod, the front face of which is in communication with the air-chamber, whilst in rear of it there is liquid communicating with the pipe. On recoil, since the front face of the piston is greater than the rear, the pressure exerted

Fig. 2.—Vertical Section through Recoil Cylinder of Fig. 1 (on enlarged scale).

Fig. 3.—Transverse Section through Recoil Cylinder of Fig. 1 (on enlarged scale). on the liquid is greater than that of the air, and the gland K is made air-tight. To prevent the gun from returning too violently to the firing position there is a “control ram ” M bolted into the rear end of the buffer, the action of which is the same as that described for the 6-inch Q.F. It is adjusted by means of a long valve spindle and sleeve projecting from the end of the piston-rod at N. To lessen the labour of elevating, the cradle trunnions are supported on a ring of hard steel balls, but since the jar of firing would damage them, it is arranged that ihe trunnions shall take a bearing in the solid trunnion holes of the lower carriage at the instant of firing. The mounting is supplied with an automatic sight, and the gears used for elevating and traversing the gun present no very special features. The arrangements for loading present a good example of the way in which heavy charges are

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359

handled. The projectiles as seen in the recess at 0 are tilted RR to Q'. Here it is raised by the ram S, until opposite the There is a hydraulic accumulator, T. into the carrier P, which runs on the circular rails V until the breech. Quick-firing Gun Mountings.—In 1890 the first of the shot is over the ram W by which it is raised, and transferred to the carrier Q, which runs on circular rails underneath the shield important group of Q. F. gun mountings was introduced, and the

Sitlii BliSfif 'IMS

IaI Fig. 7.—Longitudinal Section of part of Cradle of Fig. 0 through Axis of liiiiler. i mMmmm ESfrxxs&b# vAvt¥S-*v « v. Fig. 6.—Diagram of Side Elevation of 6-incli Mounting, with half of Shield removed.

/•0-# / / /

recoil-ia ins

Fig. 8.—Diagram of 6-mch B.L. Siege Howitzer.

Fig. 9.—Showing Fig. 8 lowered and with Wheel removed. Six-inch Mounting (Figs. 6, 7). — The principles aimed at in its design are— 1st, Compactness ; 2nd, adequate protection for the Fig. 10.—Hydraulic Buffers of 6-inch B.L. Siege Howitzer. gun detachment, gears, mounting and breech of gun ; latest development of this tvpe is the Mark II. mounting for the | 3rd, increased rate of fire, by arranging that the gun shall return 6-inch "un. “ | to and be loaded in the firing position, at any angle of elevation. E■

360

ORDNANCE [carriages the gun-layer to the springs S, whose rear ends butt up against the rear of the e vate ; enabling by the introduction of “ personally an automatic boxes. After recoil the springs return the gun to the 8ignt, tiiu.s doing away with the necessity for setting sights, and spimg position. To prevent their doing this too violently, the maang the gun independent of range-finders ; by placing the hying rod has a cylindrical hole in front which becomes filled sights on the cradle, thus enabling the layer to keep his eye to piston with oil on recoil. Before the piston can come up against the the sight whilst actually firing ; and by the use of ball bearings ron ^, the buffer, tins oil must be displaced by the “control which lighten the work of traversing. G which checks the forward movement of the gun The Fig. 6 shows a side elevation of the mounting with half the shield ram cradie trunnions resting, in trunnion holes in the lower carriage removed; Fig. 7, a longitudinal section of part of the cradle al.ow of the elevation of the gun by the elevating gear K, which through the axis of the buffer. The gun, which is trunnionless, the elevating arc L attached to the cradle at M. In Fm 6 recoils in the cradle A. The cradle contains a buffer B and two drives the lower carriage is almost, entirely hidden by the gears earned cyimdncal boxes containing springs S. Attached to the breech upon namely the elevating gear K ; the traversing gear N, of the gun is a piston-rod 0 with piston F). The piston is which it,works pinion gearing into the rack 0 attached to supplied with.a “port” or opening E, through which the oil the pedestal Pa ;spur the elevation indicator Q and R for recording passes on recoil. . The pressure inside the buffer, which would the angle of elevation of the gun ; and the brackets S which otherwise vary with the varying velocities at each point of recoil, support the 6-inch armour plate T. The whole weight of the is equalized throughout by varying the size of the port E. This lower carriage, cradle, and gun taken by a horizontal ring of is done by inserting in the buffer an “equalizing strip” F of hard steel balls resting on the istop of a massive forged steel varying section, over which the port has to pass. On recoil, “pivot” U, the lower portion of which shown supported in the rods J which are attached to the gun in rear and screwed the cast-iron pedestal P. The elevation isindicator of a into the flanged cylinder H in front, force back the front of sector Q bolted to the cradle trunnion. To its edgeconsists is attached y

er rec l1 . the 1° ;gun and^tram

Fig. 11. Diagram of 15-pr. B.L. Carriage, Mark III a metal tape, the other end of which is fixed to the spindle supporting a pointer reading angles of elevation on the drum R. As t ie gun elevates the tape is paid up, the slack being taken in and the pointer revolved by a clock spring. The Auto-sight depends on the following principle If the gun has. a certain fixed charge and height above the sea, then for any position of a target there is only one suitable elevation of the gun to strike it at the water-line, and only one suitable inclination of the sight bar, carrying hind and fore sights, to intersect the water-line at the same point. This is effected (Fig. 6) by pivoting the sight bar Y to the cradle at W. The bar has a vertical arm X rigidly fixed to it, and the bottom of the arm works in a cam groove h fixed to the mounting. The cam groove is cut to such a. shape that when the gun takes up any angle of elevation, the sight bar is forced to assume such an inclination that the line of the sights cuts the water-line at the spot where the projectile will Int it Owing to the rise and fall of the tide, however, the height of the gun above the sea varies, but this is allowed for approximately by slightly altering the position of the cam. Siege Carriages. The typical siege howitzer is the 6-inch B.L. of 30 cwt. (Figs. 8, 9, 10). Six-inch Howitzer Carriage.—Y\g. 8 shows the gun and cradle A mounted on its travelling carriage, from which it can be fired up ll8t m Fi 9 the wheels lia IW? l35 been i! Wh1lowered , on S- to ve C, been -the trailTil B has the pivot plate andremoved) secured to a pivot plug screwed into the plate ; to the trail is fitted the top -carriage D, and when the gun and cradle are mounted thus, 70° elevation can be given. The gun recoils through the cradle in

Fig. 12.—Plan of Carriage shown in Fig. 11 which are two hydraulic buffers side by side (Fig. 10), the piston lods E of which are attached to the gun, so that the recoil of the pi buffer^ ;f?ns J to .ll}e rear- Considering now the right 7, f0r ed rn ?- ln,onethan ,wlththeCiepiston-rod. piston andThis piston-rod a tail rodl F nf of llarger diameter rod on isrecoil is 16 bu r dls lacin th cvhnr/ fi!,Ihf'the ^ ’ displacement P g some the of the which entirely e cylinder. . The oil oil forces the springs front of o the buffers G against which rest theofrear ends of the SP m reven bv'tWnJd 6 H W0ntA0fi erthereC011 u the f being ted from moving s rill r s liLS ' Al P g expand, setting liquid pressure which acts on both faces of the piston J? up Thea lear face being the largest, the piston and with it the howitzer aie returned to the firing position. The elevating gear, which can .be placed on the left side of either the trail or the top carnage, actuates the arc K bolted to the left side of the cradle! lire mounting, as ;n Fig. 8, is traversed by handspikes ; whilst U lg f a cbain i® r|n+toS °hold-fasts whichand is passed round the the capstan Lt „are ' attached right left. With gun on its travelling carnage an anchorage buffer M is used to check the recoil of the whole mounting, and springs to run it up again. Field Artillery.—k great change has been effected in the mountings for the field artillery gun by the addition ot brake gear and a non-recoil attachment designed by Sir G. Clarke. The object has been by controlling the recoil of the carriage to increase the rate of fire, and reduce the labour of running up. Most of the Continental Powers have tried to attain the same object, the usual plan being

361 O R D N A N C E brake, a simple arrangement permitting it to be thrown on or off the adoption of some form of plough attached to the the wheels when desired. The wheels used in the field and siege point of the trail, digging into the ground, and reducing service are of the Archibald pattern. The limbers, except in minor details, are the same for carriage, caisson, and battery waggon, the recoil. The design of field artillery guns and carriages is so absolutely bodies of which are made of metal. The limber and caisson chests the same, and are made pf wood covered with canvas and limited by the weight that can fairly be put behind a team of six are by iron. Each is divided into three compartments, the horses, that the field artillery equipment must necessarily be only reinforced end ones containing twenty-one projectiles each in bronze supa compromise. Figs. 11 and 12 represent the Mark III. carriage for the 15-pr. ports, and the middle one forty-two cartridges and two haversacks. B.L.&gun—Fig. 11 in elevation, Fig. 12 in plan. 15-pr. Carnage.—The trail A is built up of plate and angle steel. There is a socket B for the handspike used in laying. The axletree C is of tubular steel and fastened to the breast of the trail. The elevating screw E is telescopic, thus giving increased rapidity in laying. It is worked by bevel gearing actuated by the hand-wheel D. Two rounds of ammunition are carried in each of the axletree boxes F, which are fitted as seats for the gunners. The travelling brake consists of the shaft G with arms and brake blocks H, t’he whole being forced on to the wheels when necessary by a system of levers and rods, actuated by the screw with handles J. The arrangement for checking recoil consists of a spade K attached to the bottom of a telescopic case, containing springs L, and hinged underneath the breast of the carriage.' The spade is attached by a steel wire rope to a rod compressing a second set of springs in the steel cylinder M. On recoil the plough is forced into the ground. The cylinder L telescopes, compressing the springs and allowing the carriage to recoil. The rope simultaneously tautens and compresses the springs in M, which after recoil expand and return the gun to the firing position. Mountain Carriages.—The carriage for the 2’5-inch gun is packed for transport on three mules. One carries the axletree, a second the wheels and elevating gear, and a third the trail. Each mule in addition carries a number of small stores. It requires about ten seconds to assemble (c. R. B. o.) the carriage.

AMERICAN]

III. United States. The material of the United States artillery is divided into four general classes, namely, mountain, field, siege, and sea-coast guns. The mountain artillery comprises the 1"’65 and 3" Hotchkiss rifles, and their mounts and ammunition. The field artillery comprises the 3"'2 and 3"'6 rifles, and the 3"‘6 mortar. These pieces are all breech-loaders of gunsteel, and have conical gas check seats, cylindrical powder chambers of larger diameter than the bores and connecting with them by a slope forming a seat for the rotating band. The tops of the lands at the beginning of rifling are also cut away, forming a slope to allow the band to be gradually forced to its full depth in the rifling. These general features are followed in the manufacture of all guns. The and i. 1.—Diagram of Breech Mechanism of 8-inch B.L. Rifle (steel 14| tons). A, breech-plate; B, breech-block ; C, cam; rifles consist of a tube and CL cam links; D, gas check disc; H, hinge-pin; LB, lock bolt; LG, tray-latch catch; Nj, spindle nut; N2, lock P, gas check pad ; iq, R2, R3, split rings ; RO, rotating crank ; RL, rotating crank lock ; RP rotating pinion, jacket assembled by shrink- nut; rotating ring; S, obturating spindle; SB, spring bolt; SC, securing catch; SL, securing latch , SW, spind.eage. The former gun is in- RR washers; U tray (console); TO" translating crank ; TL, tray-latch; TR, translating roller ; TS, translating stud ; tended for horse artillery, the V, vent-cover. latter for field batteries. In practice, however, the former is generally used for all pur- The limber complete with ammunition weighs 1780 pounds, and poses. The field carriage is made of steel, weighing 1300 the caisson and limber complete with ammunition, 4607 pounds. pounds. It is of the usual type, having recoil on the ground, The ordnance department of the army has designed a 3" field rifle which is restrained by bowspring brakes fastened to the axle and to supplant those now in service, when a suitable non-recoil carriage engaging over the wheels. This brake also serves as a travelling shall have been selected. It has also decided upon a 5" field S. VII. — 46

362

ORDNANCE [AMERICAN howitzer, the carnage for which will resemble the field carriage The field artillery ammunition comprises cast-iron shell and awaits the determination of the latter. The data for these shrapnel, and canister. A steel shell holding a larger bursting two guns are included in the tables at the end. The 3"-6 mortar charge is also provided for the howitzer. The canister, containing consisting of a single forging of steel, is a short piece intended for 226 balls consists of a hollow cylinder of malleable iron, the rear vertical fire against troops protected by entrenchments or irregu- end by a cast head. Around the case are several slits larities ot the ground from the direct fire of field guns, and will be theirclosed ends overlapping to secure a thorough breaking up on dislargely supplanted by the field howitzer. The maximum range is charge. are several small holes through the head through about 3450 yards, and the charges required to cover all ranges which theThere enters on discharge, driving the balls forward and from 400 to 3450 yards are four in number. The carriage, weigh- assisting ingas the destruction of the case. The shrapnel contains mg 275 pounds, is made of cast steel in one piece. Elevation is 162 hard lead balls, assembled in circular layers, and held in given by a quadrant, and a clamp is provided to fix the mortar at position separators, which increase the effect of the any elevation. The carriage rests on a wooden platform, and is explosionbybycast-iron furnishing fragments. The base is made restrained in recoil by heavy ropes attached to stakes in front. of cast-iron threaded toadditional interior of the cylindrical case. Changes in azimuth are given by means of a pointing scale gradu- Recent improvements havethehad in view the omission of the ated to rronth of the range. separators permitting the addition of a number of lead balls con-

PosiHon of crank when block /s locked

tained in steel jackets. The head of the shrapnel, containing the powder chamber, is made of cast-iron, bored and threaded to receive the fuse. The body is made of a lap-welded tube weakened for fracture by grooves in the sides. Siege Artillery.—Thin comprises the 5" rifle, the 7" howitzer, and T mortar, all breech-loading rifled pieces, following the general description of the field guns. Excepting the mortar, which is a single forging, they are constructed on the “built-up ” principle. The rifle consists principally of a tube, jacket, and sleeve, the tube being unsupported for a distance of 56 inches from the muzzle. The carriage for the rifle consists essentially ot two steel flasks parallel to each other, connected by a bottom and top plate and transom. The carriage is similar in general design to. the field carriage, except that the trunnions of the gun are relatively much higher from the ground, the axes of the trunmon beds being 72 inches above the horizontal platform upon which the carriage rests. The elevating apparatus is a double screw similar to that in the field carriage. A limber is provided for travelling,, which also serves for the howitzer carriage. This and the howitzer carriage are mounted on a wooden platform weighing about 5100 pounds, and having a metal pintle to which

Position of crenk when \block is unlocked.

the carriages are attached through the medium of a hydraulic cylinder to restrain their movement in recoil, after which they are moved forward by handspikes. The carriage weighs 2820 pounds, and permits the gun to be fired at any elevation from minus 10 degrees to plus 38 degrees. The howitzer consists essentially of the same parts as the rifle. The carriage, while somewhat similar to that for the rifle, differs from it in that the howitzer is permitted to recoil upon it, thus reducing the strains. The piece is mounted on two trunnion carriages upon slides inclining to the rear and downwards at an angle of 18°, upon which it has a recoil of 6 inches. Recoil on the slides is checked by hydraulic cylinders placed in front of the trunnion carriages, and in the rear by two courses of springs, one on each side, serving also to return the piece to the firing position. The height of the trunnions of the piece is the same as that for the siege rifle, although in a more recent design this height has been reduced to 60 inches. The wheels, weighing 375 pounds each, are the same as for the siege rifle. The weight of the carriage, including the wheels and hydraulic brakes, is about 3000 pounds, and the howitzer can be elevated from minus 5° to plus 40°. The 7" mortar fills the need of the service for a piece for vertical firing in

363 American] 6-inch rapid-fire guns, 8-inch (Fig. 1), 10-inch, and 12-inch rifles (Fi°'. 2) and 12-inch mortars ; with the exception of the mortars model of 1886, which have cast-iron bodies with steel jackets, these are built up of gun steel, and all are breech-loading with rifled bores. The number of hoops has been successively reduced, as steel manufacturers have become able to make larger forgings, and the greater length of the hoops much increases the stiffness of the guns In the 5-inch guns the tube is given an initial tension, in addition to that caused by the shrinkage of the jacket, by heating and cooling from the interior. There are also a number of 6-pounder rapid-fire guns on wheeled carnages, and 15-pounder rapid-fire guns on a form of pillar-mounting. The 5-inch rapidfire guns are mounted in barbette on pillar-mount carriages, similar to the Armstrong pattern, and on pedestal mounts, which are very similar in all countries. The 6-inch rapid-fire guns are mounted on pedestal mounts and on disappearing carriages, arranged to be manoeuvred by one man. In the latter mounting rapidity of fire is somewhat sacrificed for cover, but six or seven rounds per minute can be attained. The 8-inch, 10-inch, and 12-inch rifles are mounted on barbette or disappearing carriages, depending upon their situation. The barbette carriages are all of the same design, and differ only in size and iveight (Fig. 3). They are of the centre pintle form, amf consist essentially of two side frames mounted on a turn-table, and a top carriage, consisting of trunnion beds and recoil cylinders. Where strength permits a superior quality of cast-iron is used for the construction of the larger parts. The turntable proper for all carriages consists of an upper and lower roller path, between which are forged steel conical rollers, securely held in place by concentric distance rings. The top carriage rests, on each side, on steel rollers mounted in U-shaped recesses in the tops of the side frames, which have an inclination upwards and to the rear of 4 . The pistonrods pass through lugs which project upwards from the front ends of the rails, and are secured by the necessary nuts and checknuts. The front surface of these lugs and rails is planed as a shoulder for a shield to protect the cannoneers, which has not yet been supplied. During recoil the pistons remain stationary, the top carriage with its cylinders being drawn over them. The energy of recoil is taken up by the uniform resistance 'which the liquid in the cylinders offers to being driven through varying orifices caused by throttling bars, whose inner surfaces are curved. Alter recoil, the gun returns to the firing position by the action of gravity. The gun is pointed in azimuth and elevation by suitable gearing. A crane is provided for raising the projectile to the breech of the piece, and a loading platform of suitable dimensions to permit the operation of loading to be performed by the necessary number of men, is attached in rear. The carriage permits the gun to be traversed Fig. 3.—Diagram of Barbette Carriage for 8-inch B.L. Rifle 320°, and elevated from minus 7° to plus 15°. The gun can be laid of a telescopic sight attached to hy bars fitted into sockets bolted to the faces of the trunnions, the the right trunnion, orbytomeans piece being clamped in any position by a screw through the left by the indirect method. a standard on the right side frame,. or M cap square. The limits of elevation for ordinary fire are from The disappearing carriages are of the £i Buffington-Crozier plus 30° to plus 65°. The wooden platform weighs 3720 pounds type (Fig. 4). The turn table, chassis rails,_ or side frames, and the carriage 1720 pounds. This platform is not quite heavy and top carriage, are similar in general design to those for enough to secure proper stability, at least in loose soil, but in barbette carriages. The trunnions of the gun rest in trunnion view of the fact that it must be transported, reliance must be had beds at the upper ends of the gun levers, which are pivoted near on material gathered near the place of use for a solid sub- the middle point upon an axle resting in beds in the top carriage. construction, to which the platform can be secured by means of holding-down bolts provided for the purpose. Cast-iron, and steel The lower ends of these levers are joined to a steel crosshead, from which the counter-weight is suspended. This crosshead shell and shrapnel are used with siege artillery depending upon clips over vertical guides cast on the inside of the chassis rails, the results desired. The shrapnel is similar to that described for by which it is constrained to move in a vertical direction. field artillery, except that a central tube extends from the powder Ratchet teeth are cut on the front faces of the. clips to be caught chamber to the head of the base. The k!' shrapnel contains^ 280 by pawls pivoted the chassis rails, and in this way the counterhard lead balls and other parts, making the number of pieces weight is held up,toand the gun is prevented from returning to the before firing 356. The howitzer shrapnel contains 390 balls, and firing position after recoiling. The counter-weight is just suffia total of 461 pieces. The mortar shrapnel contains 449 balls and cient to raise the gun to the firing position when loaded. . The other parts, making the total number of pieces before firing 550. energy of recoil is absorbed as described carriages. As an instance of the manner in which these shrapnel behave in Equality of resistance in the cylinders, asforinbarbette the barbette carservice, it may be noted that in some recent firings the howitzer riages, is obtained by connecting their pressure ends by an shrapnel gave about 800 dangerous fragments. Coast Artillery.—The sea-coast artillery consists of 5-inch and equalizing pipe. Pointing in azimuth is performed by suitable

siege operations against strongly entrenched and covered positions, and is adapted to use the same projectiles as the howitzer. It consists of a single forging with trunnions combined, whereby a construction of satisfactory strength with minimum weight is best obtained. The service required is to deliver relatively hea\ y projectiles at short or moderate ranges, to supplement the curved fire of the howitzer by vertical fire at medium ranges, and to cover the field at shorter ranges which are inaccessible to the howitzer. The projectile of normal weight is fixed at 125 pounds, having a velocity of 700 F.S., with a maximum range of about 4200 yards. The carriage is made of steel plate, and in its method of checking recoil and returning the piece to the firing position resembles the howitzer carriage. It is, however, not a wheeled carriage, u rests upon a wooden platform to which it is fastened by past steel clip plates bolted down. Traversing is effected by pinch bars engaging in teeth cast in the plates. Elevation is accomplished

364

ORDNANCE

[AMERICAN

U.S. AEMY

WEIGHTS, DIMENSIONS, &c.

Weight .... Total length . Length of bore Maximum diameter, breech Diameter of muzzle Diameter of trunnions . Length of trunnions Distance between rim bases Distance of axis of trunnions from muzzle [ Number of grooves . Width „ „ . Rifling . J Depth ,, ,, I Width of lands I^Twist Powder |£Serchamber {capfcity ! ! Total capacity of bore . Kind Weight, filled . weight to weight of piece Projectile Ratio, Weight of bursting charge, rifle pow Length W Sectional density —5 Travel of shot. /• Brown or Black Kind

Smokeless

Powder Weight (see note) . Density of loading . Muzzle velocity .... Maximum pressure per square inch Muzzle energy .... f Penetration Muzzle . in steel at 1000 yards (De Marre . Formula, normal im- 2500 „ pact). 3500 ,,

/ Brown ( Smokeless / Brown ( Smokeless / Brown \ Smokeless / Brown \ Smokeless ( Brown \ Smokeless / Brown I Smokeless ( Brown | Smokeless / Brown \ Smokeless j Brown I Smokeless Projectiles (abbreviations) : C. I. = cast iron. Shr. = shrapnel. C. S. = common steel. A. P. =armour-piercing. D. P. = deck-piercing. Powder Note.—The weights given are approximate. The exact weight giving the standard muzzle velocity is determined from the acceptance test and issue for charges,

365

ORDNANCE

SEA-COAST ARTILLERY. 12-inch B.L. Mortars. 10-INCH B.L. 16-inch B.L. Rifle, Model Mortar, Cast-Iron Model Body, Model Steel, Model 1895. 1890. 1890 M.x. 1886. 29,120 31,920 13-0 14-25 1110-75 10-0 90 38-0 41-75 21-0 22-5 1212-0 8-0 6-0 40-0 44-0 89-6 79-1 72 68 0-3736 0-379 0 06 0-07 0-15 0-175 1 in 40 to 1 in 40 to 1 in 20 1 in 25 12-5 12-4 21-13 16-05 2,676 2,021 14,259 12,598 C. I. D. P. | Torpedo Shell. Shell. ; Shell. 800 1,000 : 800 1,000, 800 ,1,000 ' A A I A i T?tS A 39-4*U67-71[ 84-611 12-5 T9‘6 22-1U 3-0 4-0 4-0 5-0 ; 3-0 | 3-5 7-08 8-94 7-08 8‘94 ! 7'08 ! 8'94

282,000 1260 49-25 35-0 60 0 28-0 379-65 96 0-3736 0-06 0-15 1 in 50 to 1 in 25 18-8 107-2 29,387 121,391 A. P. A.P.|C. 1. Shot Shell Shot 2,400 2,4002,400 its tIf i tIf '’ ! 3-5 11-94 11-94 I 11-94 452-9 Brown Pris.

Brown Pris.

Brown Pris.

16" B. L. Rifle. 10" Mortal-. 12" Mortar { or 12" Mortar J or Siege Gun and Siege Gun and Howitzer. Howitzer.

490 240 1-1133 0-5452 2,025 2,300 38,000 31,000 28,426 36,671 25-8 30-9 23-8 28-5 21-2 25-5 19-5 23-5

1,176 576 1-1077 0-5425 2,025 2,300 38,000 37,000 68,255 88,050 3542-3 3340-0 30-6 3628-8 34-

* Ounces. 1 Maximum. The weight of charge varies with the range ; for issues in bulk the average charge is assumed to be | the maximum. I The kind of powder varies with the range. § For 800-pound shell. Without fuze. *[ Gun-cotton. The use of the 16J lb projectile with this rifle is to be discontinued. The charge for this projectile was 12-87 ozs. smokeless powder, resulting in a velocity of 1450 F.S. with a pressure of 35,000 lb per square inch. 0 For 1000-pound shell; with the 800-pound shell the velocities are 1150 and 1325 F.S. with brown and smokeless powder respectively.

63-0t 30 Of 1-12221 0-53441 1,0201 1,1501 31,0001 33,0001 4,1471 5,2721 7-91 9-41 787-01 7-91 67-

§75-01 §41-51 1-02721 0-56841 §1,0201 §1,2001 §27,5001 §-:6,ooot §5,7691 §7,9861 §8-21 §10-41 §7-81 §9-51 §7-31 §8-51 §6-81 §8-11

01O5f 0501 1-08611 0-51721 01,0201 01,1501 031,0001 033,0001 07,2121 09,1681 09-71 011-51 09-31 010-71 08-71 09-91 08-41 09-41

366

ORDNANCE [AMERICAN gearing. The gun is elevated and depressed by means of a rack the gun, being connected by a fixed arm to the elevating rack, on the chassis rails, connected to the gun by two long arms ; any travels in the arc of a circle. The combination of these two movement ot the rack up or down is thus communicated to the movements causes the muzzle of the gun to move almost directly gun. AV hile theory requires, in order that the gun shall always to the rear, parallel to the superior slope, until it has passed the return to the same angle for loading whatever may be the firing interior crest, when it turns suddenly downwards. These carangle, that the rack and its guide shall be struck with a radius riages are hardly more complicated than barbette carriages, equal to the length of the elevating arms, using the point of having the same hydraulic cylinders and the same slide rails. attachment to the gun in the loading position as a centre, the There are no valves and no fluid under compression, except during expense of manufacture has made it desirable to make them the instants of recoil, and after long standing they can be prestraight. . These are so placed, however, as to cause only a slight pared for immediate use by simply filling the cylinders with oil. variation in the loading angle, which is about 4°. Ammunition The character of motion has other advantages besides that of is served to the gun on ammunition trucks, permitting the pro- causing the piece to describe a suitable path in recoil. The top jectile to be raised to the proper height for loading and to be carriage starts with only about one-half the acceleration of the given the same inclination that the gun has in the loading posi- piece, thus diminishing the shocks and strains brought upon it tion. The gun can be pointed by means of indirect laying, or of and the gun levers. At the beginning of the motion, when the a telescope sight placed on the right trunnion or on a sight gun has its greatest velocity, the counter-weight has relatively standard attached to the rear of the carriage at such a height the least, so that the latter starts from rest very slowly, and the as to look over the interior crest. operation brings no sudden or undue strains upon any part of In these carriages the centre of gravity of the gun-counter- the mechanism. weight system moves some distance to the rear, greatly relieving The barbette and disappearing carriages are manoeuvred and the firing strains. The character of motion also permits the loaded by hand power. Electric power may be applied if desired. muzzle to project some distance over the interior crest. From Guns mounted on the former carriages have not quite the rapidity the fact that the lower ends of the gun levers are constrained to of fire of corresponding calibres on disappearing carriages. This move vertically, and their centres nearly horizontally to the rear, is due to the fact that guns on the latter carriages always return the path of the trunnion of the gun is an ellipse. The breech of to the loading position with the proper loading angle, while on

Fig. 4.—Diagram of Disappearing Carriage L.F. for 10-incli B.L. Rifle. the former they must be brought nearly to a horizontal position the hydraulic cylinders stops the motion. The springs, acting for loading, the operations of which are performed on a platform against the saddle, reverse the motion and raise the piece to the at some distance from the ground, to which the charge and pro- firing position. The mortar must be brought to a horizontal jectile must be raised at each discharge. Recent trials with position for loading, and the shot is served to it by means of a disappearing carriages indicate that ten rounds can be fired from truck, passing the shell direct from the truck into the mortar. 8-inch guns in twelve minutes, from 10-inch guns in fourteen Ammunition.—Armour-piercing shot and shell are used with the minutes, and from 12-inch guns in seventeen minutes, meaning rifles, the difference between them being as regards penetrative in the latter case that 14,500 pounds of ammunition are handled power and interior capacity for high explosive charge. Deckfor the ten rounds. piercing and torpedo shells, weighing 800 and 1000 pounds, are There are two kinds of mortar carriages, designated respectively used with the mortars, depending upon the range. The heavy as “model of 1891 ” and “model of 1896.” The former is of the torpedo shells are 4| calibres long, and are designed to carry a “ Raskasolf, Easton, and Anderson ” type, in which two triangular large bursting charge, so as to have great effect on striking in side frames are mounted on a turn-table, and the mortar recoils the vicinity of a battleship. The extreme range of these mortars downwards and to the rear at an angl j of 50° to the horizon, the is about six miles, but they are intended to cover all ranges by mortar being held in the firing position by two columns of springs variation of charge and projectile and angle of elevation. placed in spring cylinders cast in the side frames. The turn-table Breech Mechanisms.—In all of the guns, except the mountain of the model of 1896 carriage (Fig. 5) is similar to that of the guns, the breech mechanism belongs to the interrupted screw model of 1891. The top carriage or saddle in which the mortar is system, using the plastic pad for obturation, excepting only the mounted consists of two arms connected by a heavy web, inclined 3 •6" mortar, which has the “Freyre” check. In the guns of to the rear and upwards at an angle of 45°. The upper ends of larger calibre the gas-check cups are replaced by split rings, the arms form the trunnion beds, while .the lower ends are held which are slightly larger than the conical seats, and are sprung by a fulcrum shaft attached to the turn-table. The saddle is together by being forced into their places. In action they are supported at a point about one-third of its length from the held against the walls of the gun by the plastic pad, thus prefulcrum by five columns.of double springs arranged in a row side venting an escape of gas. In the field and siege guns the block by side. The recoil is checked by two hydraulic cylinders, one is carried in a ring, which supports it when open. Rotation is on each side, the pistons of which are attached to the cradle near given by means of a handle fixed or pivoted near the top, and the the gun trunnions. The action of the carriage when the piece is block is withdrawn through the carrier ring and swung open by fired is as follows : The saddle revolves about its fulcrum to the hand. The breech-blocks of the rifles of old model and of the rear and downwards, carrying the mortar and compressing the mortars are rotated by means of crank handles, and withdrawn spring columns. As the piece moves down the two crank pins from the piece on to a bronze tray by means of a screw, and are force down the crossheads and piston-rods until the resistance of then swung open by hand. In the latest improved mechanism the

foreign] 0 D N continuous movement of rotation, translation, and swinging of the block and tray are effected by the operation of a. single crank. The newer mechanisms for field and siege material will conform to those for the rapid-fire guns, where the block is opened by the single movement of a lever, of which there are numerous similar types. IFire Guns.—Several systems of wire guns have been tested in the United States with a view to their adoption. All have failed under test, or have had objections which were not overcome, excepting the Crozier, in accordance with which a 10-inch gun was constructed and exhaustively tested at the Army Proving Ground. The test of this gun was highly successful, but up to 1901 none had been installed in fortifications. Means of Sighting.—All field, siege, and sea-coast guns, excepting the mortars, are provided with both open and telescopic sights. The mortars are pointed by indirect laying, elevation being given by a quadrant. The telescopic sight is somewhat similar to the Scott, erecting the image and having a larger field. For the rapid-fire guns a bar sight is used, having a peep sight and a.telescopic sight side by side. Electric night sights are also provided. Fuzes.—Three kinds of fuzes are used : the base percussion, the point combination time and percussion, and a detonating fuze for high explosive shells. The first is used with all shells not containing high explosive, and the combination fuze is used with

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shrapnel alone. There are two sizes of the latter fuze, one burning to 15 seconds and the other to 28 seconds. The former is adapted to high-velocity fire with field and siege guns, and the latter for firings with the field and siege mortars and the siege howitzer. These fuzes are graduated to sixths of seconds. This method has been preferred to one giving the range in yards, since it permits the interchange of fuzes in projectiles for guns of different calibres. The fuzes for the field projectiles and 5-inch shrapnel are issued and transported with the projectiles ready for firing. The remaining fuzes for siege and sea-coast service are packed in tin waterproof cases for separate transportation, to be inserted in the projectile at or near the firing ground. Powder.—sphero-hexagonal black powders and brown prismatic powder in store will be used principally for practice until the supply is exhausted, after which smokeless powders will alone be supplied. Many experiments to determine the most suitable smokeless powders have been made since 1890. At present that which appears to meet with most favour is a pure gun-cotton powder made from cotton, of which only about 1 per cent, is insoluble. This has a cylindrical multi-perforated grain, the size depending upon the calibre. All powders are stored in hermetically sealed cases to prevent deterioration. High Explosives.—Various high explosive charges for shells have been recommended and provisionally adopted, but this matte’’

Fig 5.—Diagram of Carriage for 12-inch B.L. Mortar. cannot as yet be considered settled. The war with Spain caused renewed activity in the field of invention, and recent experiments indicate two or three promising explosives for shells of all calibres to replace gun-cotton, wdiich is now used. Range-Finders.—The only range-finder thus far issued is the “ Lewis Depression Range and Position Finder,” of which there are two types. The type “ A ” is an instrument weighing about 700 pounds, designed for permanent installation on a concrete foundation at a considerable distance from the guns of a battery. A complete automatic replotter is carried on the table of each instrument, by the use of which the observer can instantly convert the range and direction of the target as read from the instrument into the corresponding range and direction from the gun itself. The corrections necessary for effects of curvature and normal refraction are made in the construction of the range scale, and corrections for changes in tide and abnormal refraction are controlled by the observer through mechanical devices. The type “ B ” instrument is light and portable, and somewhat resembles a transit in the ease and quickness of its adjustment. This type is designed as an emergency instrument, to be used in case of accident to the type “A,” or when the lines of communication between the main position-finder and the gun are broken. The accuracy of this instrument is not so great as that of the larger one, but the error in range is said not to exceed 1 per cent, up to 8000 yards. (c. B. W.) IY. Other Powers. The readiest method of presenting information in regard to the ordnance of foreign countries is to take the descrip-

tion of the British ordnance as a basis, and to state the principal differences exhibited in others. It is in a comparison of strength that the interest really lies. The following are the chief elements to note as indicating power in various ways :— Muzzle Energy.—This is an expression for the actual blow delivered by a projectile leaving the muzzle of the WV2 gun. It is written W, on the British system, being the shot-weight in lb, V2 the square of velocity in feet per second, and g the force of gravity in feet per second. The result is divided by 2240 to convert pounds into tons, the blow being most conveniently expressed in foot tons, f.e., the number of tons that could be lifted through one foot by the energy of the blow if applied in a suitable shape. A comparison of energies is then a comparison of the blows delivered. The cost of manufacture and the necessary provision for the carriage of a gun mainly depend on its weight, and the simplest estimate of the success of any gun, as an investment, is the blow produced for each ton of metal. This is obtained by dividing the total energy by the weight of the gun in tons. The 12inch wire-gun, Mark IX., gives 718, and the old 12-inch muzzle-loader only 273 foot tons per ton of gun.

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ORLEANS- - 0 R M E R O D his treatment by General Boulanger, but the only result he was arrested in conformity with the law of 1886, which was that he was formally exiled from French territory, forbade the soil of France to the direct heirs of the and retired to Brussels. The due d’Aurnale had an families which had reigned there. He was tried, and immense fortune, and in 1886 he announced that, after sentenced to two years’ imprisonment; but he was his death, his chateau of Chantilly with its contents would liberated by President Carnot after a few months’ go to the French Institute. On its request the Govern- nominal incarceration, and conducted to the Swiss frontier. ment repealed in 1889 his decree of exile, and he returned This escapade won for him the title of “Le Premier to France. He died in Sicily on the 7th of May 1897, Conscrit.” After the comte de Paris’s funeral, the duke his death being undoubtedly accelerated by the disaster of received his adherents in London, and then removed to the fire at the charity bazaar in Paris, where his niece, the Brussels, as being nearer France. On 5th November duchesse d’Alengon, lost her life. 1890 the duke married the Archduchess Maria Dorothea Henri, Prince of Orleans (1867-1901), eldest son of of Austria, the ceremony taking place at Vienna. : It was Bobert, due de Chartres, was born at Ham, near Bichmond, alleged that some of his followers were implicated in Surrey, on the 16th of October 1867. In 1889, at the the conspiracies against the French Bepublic in 1899. instance of his father, who paid the expenses of the tour, he A letter which the duke wrote in 1900, approving the undertook, in company with MM. Bonvalot and Dedecken, artist whose caricatures were grossly insulting to Queen a journey through Siberia to Siam. In the course of their Victoria, excited great indignation both in England and travels they crossed the mountain range of Tibet, and the in many French circles, and estranged him from many fruits of their observations, submitted to the Geographical with whom he had formerly been upon friendly terms; Society of Paris (and later incorporated in De Paris au but after Queen Victoria’s death it was allowed to become Tonkin a travers le Tibet inconnu, published in 1892), known that this affair had been forgotten and forgiven brought them conjointly the gold medal of that society. by the British royal family. In 1892 the prince made a short journey of exploration in East Africa, and shortly afterwards visited Madagascar, Ormerods Eie&r&or A. (1828-1901), English proceeding thence to Tongking. From this point he set entomologist, was the daughter of George Ormerod, out for Assam, and was successful in discovering the sources F.B.S., author of The History of Cheshire, and was born of the river Irrawaddy, a brilliant geographical achieve- at Sedbury Park, Gloucestershire, on the 11th of May ment which secured the medal of the Geographical Society 1828. From her earliest childhood insects were her of Paris and the cross of the Legion of Honour. In 1897 delight, and the opportunity afforded for entomological he revisited Abyssinia, and political differences arising study by the large estate upon which she grew up and the from this trip led to a duel with the comte de Turin, in interest she took in agriculture generally soon made her which both combatants were wounded. While on a trip a local authority upon this subject. When, in 1868, the to Assam in 1901 he died at Saigon of dysentery on 9th Boyal Horticultural Society began forming a collection August. Prince Henri was a somewhat violent Anglo- of insect pests of the farm for practical purposes, Miss phobe, and his diatribes against Great Britain contrasted Ormerod largely contributed to it, and was awarded the rather curiously with the cordial reception which his Flora medal of the society. In 1877 she issued a pamphlet, position as a traveller obtained for him in London, where Notes for Observations on Injurious Insects, which was dishe was given the gold medal of the Boyal Geographical tributed among persons interested in this line of inquiry, Society. who readily sent in the results of their researches, and was thus the beginning of the well-known Annual Series of Orleans, Louis Philippe Robert, Dued’ Reports on Injurious Insects and Farm Pests. In 1881 (1869 ), eldest son of the comte de Paris, was Miss Ormerod published a special report upon the “ turnipborn at York House, Twickenham, 6 th February 1869. fly,” and in 1882 was appointed consulting entomologist The law of exile against the French princes having been to the Boyal Agricultural Society, a post she held until abrogated in 1871, he returned with his parents to France. 1892. For several years she was lecturer on scientific He was first educated by a private tutor, and then followed entomology at the Boyal Agricultural College, Cirencester. the courses of the municipal college at Eu. In 1882 he Her fame was not confined to England: she received entered the College Stanislas, Paris, and took a first prize silver and gold medals from the University of Moscow for in a competitive Latin translation. On the death of the her models of insects injurious to plants, and her treatise comte de Chambord, the comte de Paris became head of on The Injurious Insects of South Africa showed how wide the Bourbons; and in 1886 he and his son were exiled was her range. In 1899 she received the large silver from France. Queen Victoria appointed the duke of medal from the Societe Nationale d’Acclimatation de Orleans a supernumerary cadet at the Boyal Military France. Among others of her works are the Cobden College, Sandhurst. After passing his examinations he Journals, Manual of Injurious Insects, and Handbook received a commission in the 4th battalion of the 60th of Insects injurious to Orchard and Bush Fruits. ' Almost Bifles, then quartered in India. In January 1888 the the last honour which fell to her was the honorary degree duke went out to India, accompanied by Colonel de of LL.D. of Edinburgh University—a unique distinction, Parseval as military governor and adviser. At Bombay for she was the first woman upon whom the university he was received by the duke of Connaught and Lord had conferred this degree. The dean of the legal faculty Beay, and at Calcutta he became the guest of the Viceroy, in making the presentation aptly summed up Miss Ormerod’s the marquis of Dufferin, who organized for the duke and services as follows : “ The pre-eminent position which Miss his cousin, Prince Henry of Orleans, a grand tiger-shooting Ormerod holds in the world of science is the reward of expedition in Nepaul. The duke now reported himself to patient study and unwearying observation. Her investigathu commander-in-chief (now Earl Boberts), and joined his tions have been chiefly directed towards the discovery of regiment at Chakrata. After seeing considerable service, methods for the prevention of the ravages of those insects the duke ceased his connexion with the Indian army in which are injurious to orchard, field, and forest. Her February 1889, and returned to England. On attaining labours have been crowned with such success that she is his majority, he entered Paris, and proceeding to the entitled to be hailed the protectress of agriculture and the mairie, expressed his desire, as a Frenchman, to perform fruits of the earth—a beneficent Demeter of the 19th his military service. This act caused great excitement, and ! century.” She died at St Albans on the 19th of July 1901.

ORMSKIRK — ORTA Ormskifk, a market town and, since 1894, urban district in the Ormskirk parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 11 miles north-east of Liverpool by rail. In 1896 a corn exchange and news-room were erected. Public pleasure grounds were opened in 1894, and in the same year an isolation hospital. Population (1881), 6651; (1891), 6298; (1901), 6857..

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nature of ornament and its subjection to conditions lead to its frequent repetition, which results in pattern, repeated forms falling inevitably into lines, always selfasserting, and liable to annoy in proportion as they were not foreseen by the designer. He cannot, therefore, safely disregard them. Indeed, his first business is to build pattern upon lines, if not intrinsically beautiful, at least helpful to the scheme of decoration. He may disguise them; but capable designers are generally quite frank about the construction of their pattern, and not afraid of pronounced lines. Of course, adaptation being all-essential to pattern, an artist must be versed in the technique of any manufacture for which he designs. His art is in being equal to the occasion. (l. f. d.) Orne, a department of the north-west of France, watered by the Orne. Area, 2372 square miles. The population decreased from 376,126 in 1881 to 325,445 in 1901. Births in 1899, 5961, of which 315 were illegitimate ; deaths, 7554 ; marriages, 2311. Out of 1,414,780 acres of land cultivated in 1896, 773,110 acres were arable, and nearly 494,000 acres were green crop and grass lands. In 1899 the wheat crop was valued at £682,000 ; barley, £206,000 ; oats, £402,000 ; potatoes, £336,000 ; green crop (trefoil, lucern, and sainfoin), £278,000; natural pastures, £448,000; grass lands, £496,000; cider-apples, £480,000. The live stock in 1899 included 62,000 horses, 216,100 cattle, 70,460 sheep, and 37,000 pigs. Though without metallic ores, Orne possesses industries in metals —pin factories at Laigle, &c. The textile industry is especially developed around Tiers and Alenin, where cotton stuffs are manufactured. Alen§on, the capital, had 14,886 inhabitants in 1901. Oroshaza, a market town of Hungary, in the county of Bekes, 33 miles north-east of Szegedin. The inhabitants are mainly agriculturists and artisans, and carry on a brisk trade in swine. There are five steam mills and many financial institutions. Population (1891), 19,956 ; (1901), 21,385. Orsha, a district town of Russia, government of Moghileff, and 112 miles by rail west-south-west of Smolensk on the Moscow-Brest railway, on the Dnieper. Its industries are insignificant, but it is an important entrepot for grain, seeds, and timber, which are shipped both by rail and on the Dnieper. Population (1897), 13,161. It is a very old town, mentioned in the annals under the name of Rsha in 1067. In the 13th century it was taken by the Lithuanians, who fortified it. In 1604 the Poles founded there a Jesuit college. The Russians besieged Orsha more than once in the 16th and 17 th centuries, and finally annexed it in 1772. Orsk, a district town of Russia, government and 150 miles south-east of Orenburg, on the right bank of the Ural river. Being situated on the prairies, cattle-breeding prospers. It has tanneries and tallow-melting establishments, and is a centre for trade in cattle and various animal produce imported from central Asia. Population (1897), 14,036. OrSOVa, a market town of Hungary, in the county of Krassd-Szoreny, near the pass of Vaskapii (Iron-Gates), on the Danube. As an important railway station on the frontiers of Hungary, Servia, and Rumania, it has a thriving trade. It has numerous financial institutions, a sawmill, and several Government edifices. The private walls of the old Roman city of Tierna have been demolished. Near the railway station stands a handsome chapel, called the Crown Chapel, which was erected in 1855 on the spot where Louis Kossuth concealed the crown at the close of the Hungarian war of liberty. The islet of AdaKaleh, opposite to the town, was ceded in 1878 by the Turkish Government to Hungary. Population (1891), 3564; (1901), 4610.

Ornament.—Ornament is in its nature accessory, and implies a thing to be ornamented, which is its active cause and by rights suggests its design. It does not exist apart from its application. Nor is it properly added to a thing already in existence (that is but a makeshift for design), but is rather such modification of the thing in the making as may be determined by the consideration of beauty. For example, the construction and proportions of a chair are determined by use (by the necessity of combining the maximum of strength with the minimum of weight, and of fitting it to the proportions of the human body, &c.) ; and any modification of the plan, such as the turning of legs, the shaping of arms and back, carving, inlay, mouldings, &c.—any reconsideration even of the merely utilitarian plan from the point of view of art—has strictly to do with Ornament, which thus, far from being an afterthought, belongs to the very inception of the thing. Ornament is good only in so far as it is an indispensable part of something, helping its effect without hurt to its use. It is begotten of use by the consideration of beauty. The test of ornament is its fitness. It must occupy, a space, fulfil a purpose, be adapted to the material in which and the process by which it is executed. This implies treatment. The treatment befitting a wall space does not equally befit a floor space of the same dimensions. What is suitable to hand-painting is not equally suitable to stencilling; nor what is proper to mosaic proper to carpet-weaving. Neither the purposes of decoration nor the conditions of production allow great scope for naturalism in ornament. Its forms are derived from nature, more or less; but repose is best secured by some removedness from nature— necessitated also by the due treatment of material after its kind and according to its fashioning. In the case of recurring ornament it is inept to multiply natural flowers, &c., which at every repetition lose something of their natural attraction. The artist in ornament does not imitate natural forms. Such as he may employ he transfigures. He does not necessarily set out with any idea of natural form (this comes to him by the way); his first thought is to solve a given problem in design, and he solves it perhaps most surely by means of abstract ornament—witness the work of the Greeks and of the Arabs. The extremity of tasteless naturalism, reached towards the beginning of the Victorian era, was the opportunity of English reformers, prominent amongst whom was Owen Jones, whose fault was in insisting upon a form of ornament too abstract to suit English ideas. William Morris and others led the way back to nature, but to nature trained in the way of ornament. The Styles of ornament, so-called, mark the evolution of design, being the direct outcome of Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Gothic, or other conditions, in days when fashion moved slowly. Post-Renaissance ornament goes by the name of the reigning king; but the character of the historic periods was not sought by artists; it came of their working in the way natural to them and doing their best. “ Style,” as distinguished from “ the Styles,” comes of an artist’s intelligent and sympathetic treatment of his material, and of his personal sincerity and strength. International traffic has gone far to do away with Orta, a lake of Italy, lying west from Lago Maggiore, national characteristics in ornament, which becomes yearly more and more alike all the world over. The subsidiary and due north of Vercelli. It has an area of 7 square

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ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH miles, and is 8 miles long and from to 4^ miles wide. of detail, but standing in full communion with one another, A subaqueous ridge divides it into two basins, of which the and united as equals in what has been described as one north is the deeper, descending to a maximum depth of great ecclesiastical federation. However, in using such 469 feet. The altitude of the lake is 951 feet above sea- language it must be remembered that we are not dealing level. The area of the drainage basin is 39 square miles. with bodies which were originally separated from one The temperature of the bottom never falls below 39•2° F. another and have now entered into fellowship, but with This lake seems to owe its origin to glacial action. By bodies which have grown naturally from a single origin means of the Strona, which flows out of its northern and have not become estranged. These bodies are the extremity, it communicates with the Toce, which flows following:— into Lago Maggiore. 1. The Patriarchate oj Constantinople or New Rome.— The Ecumenical Patriarch, as he has been called since Orthodox Eastern Church. —The object early in the 6th century, is the most exalted ecclesiastic of this article is to enumerate all the Christian Churches of the Eastern churches, and his influence reaches far of the East, and to sketch shortly their present condition; outside the lands of the patriarchate. His jurisdiction i.e., both those which together constitute the Orthodox extends over the dominions of the Sultan in Turkey, Eastern Church and also those which have a common together with Asia Minor and the Turkish islands of the origin with it, but which, for one reason or another, have Aegean ; there are eighty-two metropolitans under him, separated from communion with it. (See Ency. Brit., and the “ monastic republic ” of Mount Athos. He has ninth edition, art. Greek Church.) great privileges and responsibilities as the recognized head I. The Orthodox Eastern Church, which is frequently of the Greek community in Turkey, and enjoys also many spoken of as “ the Greek Church,” and which has for its full personal honours which have survived from the days of official title “The Holy Orthodox Catholic Apostolic Eastern the Byzantine emperors. Church ” (rj aylcl 6p668o^os KaOoXiKr] dvaroXiKrj ck/cA-^cr/a), The Patriarch has his own court at Phanar, and his own prison, is the historical representative of the churches of the with a large civil jurisdiction over, and responsibility for, the Greek community. In ecclesiastical affairs he acts "with two ancient East. It consists of (a) those churches which have bodies—(a) a permanent Holy Synod ('lepa Evvodos tt}s accepted all the decrees of the successive general councils governing ’EkkXijo-icls KuvaTavTivov-rrbXew), consisting of twelve metropolitans, and have remained in full communion with one another, six of whom are re-elected every year from the whole number of (6) such churches as have derived their origin from these metropolitans, arranged in three classes according to a fixed by missionary activity, or by abscission without loss of cycle ; (6) the Permanent National Mixed Council (Aiapicls ’EOv'ik'ov ZvfifioijXiov), a remarkable assembly, which is at once the communion. In the Eastern churches, unlike the Western, XIiktov of great power by introducing a strong lay element into there has never been any pronounced tendency towards an source the administration, and of a certain amount of weakness by its organized unity under a single head, of the kind which in liability to sudden changes of popular feeling. It consists of four the Roman world gave rise to the Papacy. Their bishops metropolitans, members of the Holy Synod, and eight laymen. All of these are chosen by an electoral body, consisting of all the preserve, indeed, their ancient dignities and precedence, members of the Holy Synod and the National Mixed Council, and but are equals in their inherent power; and the authority twenty-five representatives of the parishes of Constantinople. The of patriarchs and metropolitans is recognized as being election of the Patriarch is also, to a considerable extent, popular. J committed to them by the synodical voice of their An electoral assembly is formed for the purpose, consisting of the twelve members of the Holy Synod, the eight lay members of the brethren. Again, not only is it the fact that the ancient National Mixed Council, twenty-eight representatives of as many patriarchs and other heads of local churches have in- dioceses (the remaining dioceses having only the right to nominate dependent authority within their own spheres, but it has a candidate by letter), ten representatives of the parishes of been fully recognized, from the end of the 16th century at Constantinople, ten representatives of all persons who possess any rate, that a separate and independent organization is political rank, ten representatives of the Christian trades of Conthe two representatives of the secretariat of the the natural corollary of complete political separation. On stantinople, patriarchate, and such metropolitans, to the number of ten but the other hand, the Orthodox Eastern Church has always no more, as happen to be in Constantinople at the time for some laid especial stress upon the unchanging tradition of the canonical reason (irapemdrjp.ouvTes). On the death or deposition of faith, and has claimed orthodoxy as its especial character- the Patriarch, the Holy Synod and the National Mixed Council once meet and elect a temporary substitute for the Patriarch istic. The “Feast of Orthodoxy” (?) Kypiaur) r^s 6p9o- at (ToTroT7)p'r]Tris). Forty days afterwards the electoral assembly meets, So£i'as), celebrated annually on the first Sunday of the under his presidency, and proceeds to make a list of twenty canGreek Lent, was founded in honour of the restoration of didates (at the present day they must be metropolitans), who may the Holy Images to the churches after the downfall of be proposed either by the members of the electoral assembly or by any of the metropolitans of the patriarchate by letter. This list is Iconoclasm (19th February 842); but it has gradually sent to the Sultan, who has by prescription the right to strike out assumed a wider significance as the celebration of victory five names. From the fifteen which remain the electoral assembly over all heresies, and is now one of the most characteristic chooses three. These names are then submitted to the clerical festivals of the Eastern Church. In addition to the members of the assembly, i.e., to the members of the Holy Synod the irapemd-pp.ovvTes, who meet in church, and, after the usual ancient churches which have separated themselves from and service, make the final selection. The Patriarch-elect is presented the orthodox faith, many have ceased to have an in- to the Porte, which thereupon grants the berat or diploma of independent existence, owing either to the conquests of vestiture and several customary presents; after which the new Islam or to their absorption by other churches. For ruler is enthroned. The Patriarch has the assistance and support of a large household, a survival from Byzantine times. Amongst example, the church of Mount Sinai may be regarded as them, actually or potentially, are the Grand Steward (pJyas all that survives of the ancient church of northern Arabia ; oLKovopos), who serves him as deacon in the liturgy and presents the autocephalous Slavonic churches of Ipek and Okhrida, candidates for orders; the Grand Visitor (peyas caKeXXdpios), who which derived their ultimate origin from the missions of superintends the monasteries; the Sacristan (aKevocpvXa^); the Chancellor (xapTO See Egypt: Military Operations. approach to the old harbour, as well as the anchorage outside, has been improved by cutting three gaps, each Osnabruck, a town and episcopal see of Prussia, 16| feet minimum depth, and 1640 feet, 1150 feet, and province of Hanover, 31 miles by rail north-east of Munster, 2620 feet wide respectively, through the Strombank sandin a valley on the north side of the Teutoburger Forest. bar, which stretches 12 miles parallel to the shore at a The town is adorned with a bronze equestrian statue of distance of 1| miles from it. Ostend is also one of the the Emperor William I. (1899), a monument of the war of principal fishing ports of the kingdom, the deep-sea fishing 1870-71 (1880), and statues of Justus Moser (1836) and being carried on by about 300 men in sailing smacks and the Hanoverian minister Stiive (1882). The cathedral is 1300 men in steam trawlers. Oysters and lobsters are undergoing extensive alteration. Osnabruck is a place of preserved and fattened on a large scale, being brought in considerable industry, possessing iron and coal mines, iron the first instance from the east of England, France, and foundries, machine shops, stone quarries, and various iron Norway. Ostend is even more celebrated as a seaside resort manufactures. Population (1885), 35,899; (1900), 51,574. than as a seaport. In the height of the season, which lasts Osscttj with Gawthorpe, a municipal borough (in- from 1st May to 15th October, it is visited by some 40,000 corporated 1890), railway station, and parish in the Morley persons, attracted partly by the excellent sea-bathings parliamentary division of Yorkshire, England, 3 miles west- partly by the fashionable social life and the amusements north-west of Wakefield. It has baths similar in their which minister to it, and partly by the licensed gambling properties to those of Cheltenham. New technical school which takes place in the Jcursaal. Along the sea-front of buildings were erected in 1890, and a public library has the town extends for a distance of 2| miles, that is, as far been opened. Population (1891), 11,123 ; (1901), 12,886. west as Mariakerke (which was incorporated with Ostend in 1899), a magnificent promenade, 100 feet broad, conOssining1, a village of Westchester county, New structed entirely of hardened bricks, and backed by handYork, U.S.A., known as Sing-Sing previous to 1901. It some villas with open fronts; by a crowd of hotels, someis situated on the east bank of the Hudson river, where of them built on a palatial scale; by the hursaal, which it widens into Tappan Bay, 31 miles north of New York has a concert hall capable of seating 5000 persons; and City, and on the New York Central Railroad. Its situation by the villa of the king of the Belgians. Out of the is on a steep slope descending from a height of from 200 season almost all the hotels on the sea-front are closed. to 300 feet to the river, on which it is laid out irregularly. The licence for public gaming in Ostend was extended, toSing-Sing prison is located here, and several excellent the lessees who then held it, for the space of two years schools for boys and girls. Population (1900), 7939, of from the autumn of 1901. The two principal churches whom 1642 were foreign-born and 308 negroes. are both quite new—St Peter and St Paul’s, originally founded in 1072, has been rebuilt, after being burnt down Ostashkoff, a district town of Russia, government in 1896; and St Catherine’s was built in 1883, on the and 162 miles west-north-west of Tver, on Lake Seliger, model of a Ghent church of the 13th century. There

OSTERODE — OSTROG is also a third church, St Joseph’s (1901). The pleasureresorts embrace the large Leopold Park, the Marie Henriette Park, the casino or ball-rooms in the Hotel de Ville, and the restaurant at the pier-head (estacade). Ostend vies with Scheveningen in Holland for priority as the most expensive seaside resort on the Continental shores of the North Sea. It is connected by steam tramway with the quieter sea-bathing resorts of Blankenberghe (13 miles), to the north-east, and Middelkerke, Westende, and Nieuport (11 miles), to the south-west. By the Canal de Bruges, Ostend has water communication with the city of Bruges, and thence by other canals with Ghent, Eecloo, Sluis, and other towns of Belgium. Population (1880), 19,307; (1890), 24,688; (1900), 39,484. OsterodGy a town of Prussia, province of Hanover, at the south foot of the Harz Mountains, 34 miles northwest of Nordhausen by rail. It is the seat of various industries—woollens, cottons, white lead, copper and puddling works, tanning, gypsum quarries, dyeworks, &c. The church of St Hlgidius contains tombs of the dukes of Grubenhagen. Population (1885), 6435; (1900), 7099. OsterodGy a town of Prussia, province of East Prussia, 75 miles by rail north-east of Thorn, on Lake Drewenz. It has three churches, a synagogue, a castle built by the Teutonic knights in 1270, and a normal school (males). The place has a trade in agricultural products and timber, and such industries as saw-milling, tar production, dyeing, brewing, and manufacture of paper and machinery. Population (1885), 7123 ; (1900), 13,163. Ostersundy a town of Sweden, capital of the county of Jamtland, situated on the east shore of Stor (Great) Lake, 364 miles north by west of Stockholm by rail. Immediately facing the town is the lofty island of Eros, with which it is connected by a bridge 1418 feet long. It was founded in 1786. Population (1880), 2854 ; (1890), 5333; (1900), 6866. Ostia, the ancient port of Rome, Italy, situated at the mouth of the Tiber. The principal survivals of the place are graves, from which numerous remains have been taken ; baths, excavated in 1891 ; the headquarters of the fire-cohort; the forum, excavated in 1880-81, with the basement of a temple, 82 feet long by 39 feet broad ; theatre ; sanctuary of Mithras ; three tiny temples, one dedicated to Venus; the sanctuary of Cybele; and another large temple. The modern village of Ostia, which gives name to one of the most important episcopal sees of the Church of Rome, was founded by Pope Gregory IV. in 830. At Porto the chief edifices are the cathedral of Santa Rufina, dating from the 10th century, but modernized; the bishop’s palace; and the villa of Prince Torlonia. At Fiumicino, a port since 1825, there is sea-bathing. Population of all three places, about 1200. In 1884 a beginning was made with the draining of the Agro Romano, that is, the marshes of Ostia, the Isola Sacra, and Maccarese, by constructing banks and canals, and lifting out the water from the enclosed marshes by turbines. Ostrau, the name of two Austrian towns in the Ostrau - Karwin coal-mining district. 1. MahrischOstrau (Moravian Ostrau), situated on the right bank of the Ostrawitza, near its confluence with the Oder. It has a station on the Austrian Northern Railway, between Vienna and Cracow. It derives its importance from the extensive neighbouring coal-mines, and the blast furnaces and ironworks which they have called into existence. The manufactures comprise sheet-iron, boilers, zinc, brick and tiles, paraffin, petroleum, soap, rum, liqueurs, &c. The Rothschild iron-works at Witkowitz are in the vicinity. Population (1890), 19,243; (1900), 30,125. 2. Polnisch-

389

Ostrau (Polish Ostrau), a mining town in the government district of Freistadt in Austrian Silesia, opposite Mahrisch-Ostrau. It has large coal-mines, which form the south-western portion of the extensive Upper Silesian coal-fields, the largest Austrian deposit. Population (1890), 13,176; (1900), 18,761. Ostrofsky, Alexander Nikolaivich (1823-1886), Russian dramatic author, was born on the 12th of April 1823 in Moscow, where his father was an official of the Senate. After passing through the gymnasium, he studied law in the university, which he quitted without having submitted to the final examination. He was then employed as a clerk in the office of the “ Court of Conscience,” and subsequently in that of the Commercial Court at Moscow. Both tribunals were called upon to settle disputes chiefly among the Russian merchant class, from which Ostrofsky was thus enabled to draw the chief characters for his earliest comedies. Among these are Byednaya Nivesta (“ The Poor Bride ”), Byednost ne Porok (“ Poverty not a Vice ”), and Ne v’svoi sani ne sadis (literally “ Don’t put yourself in another’s sledge,” but really meaning “ Don’t put yourself in a position for which you are not suited ”). Of this last Nicholas I. said, “ it was not a play, but a lesson.” The uncultured, self-satisfied Moscow merchants are strikingly portrayed in Groza (“ The Tempest ”) and Svoyi lyudi sochtyomsya (“ Between near relatives no accounts are needed”), which was originally called “The Bankrupt.” The last-mentioned comedy was prohibited for ten years, until the accession of Alexander H., and Ostrofsky was dismissed the Government service and placed under the supervision of the police. The Liberal tendencies of the new reign, however, soon brought relief, and with a view to the great reforms of the ’sixties, then under consideration, Ostrofsky was one of several wellknown literary men who were sent into the provinces to report on the condition of the people. Ostrofsky’s field of inquiry lay along the upper Volga, a part of the country memorable for some of the most important events in Russian history. This mission induced him to write several historical dramas of great merit, such as Kuzma Zakharich Minin Soukhorouk (the full name of the famous butcher who saved Moscow from the Poles); “The False Demetrius” and “Vassily Shuisky”; Vassilisa Melentieva (the name of a favourite Court lady of Ivan the Terrible), and the comedy, Voivoda eeli Son na Volge (“ The Military Commander,” or “A Dream on the Volga”). Many of his later works treat of the Russian nobility, and include Byeshani Dengi (literally “ Mad Money ”), Vospeetinitsa (“A Girl brought up in a Stranger’s Family”), and Volki e Ovtsi (“ Wolves and Sheep ”); others relate to the world of actors, such as Liess (“Forest”), Bez vini vinovatiya (“Guiltlessly guilty”), and Talenti e Pokloniki (“Talents and their Admirers”). Ostrofsky enjoyed the patronage of Alexander III., and received a pension of 3000 roubles a year. With the help of Moscow capitalists he established in that city a model theatre and school of dramatic art, of which he became the first director. He also founded the Society of Russian Dramatic Art and Opera Composers. His death took place on 24th June 1886, while travelling to his estate in Kostroma. (g. d.) Ostrogf, a district town of Russia, government of Volhynia, 90 miles west of Zhitomir and near the Zdolbunovo railway junction, at the confluence of the Wilia with the Goryn. It has, besides the usual primary schools, gymnasia for boys and for girls, and a brotherhood of Cyril and Methodius, which also maintains schools of its own. The tanning of lighter leather is a widelyspread domestic trade. Population (1897), 14,530.

390

OSTROGOZHSK—-OTTAWA a district town of Russia, govern- Gatineau (245 miles), Coulonge, Black, Dumoine, and ment and 86 miles by rail south of Voronezh (yid Liski), Keepawa; from the right bank, the South Nation, Mison the Tikhaya Sosna. It was founded by Little sissippi, Madawaska, Petewawa, Mattawa, Montreal,-and Russians in 1652. It is a centre for wholesale trade Blanche. Canals at St Anne, Carillon, and Grenville in horses, cattle, and tallow, and has several tanneries. permit the passage of vessels, drawing 9 feet, up to Population (1897), 21,891. Ottawa city, thence the Ottawa and Georgian Bay canal Ostrdw (Russian, Ostrov), a town of Russian is projected, by way of the Ottawa, Mattawa, and French I oland, government of Lomza, 53 miles north-east of livers, to Lake Huron. This canal, if constructed, will Warsaw, 10 miles north of the railway to St Petersburg. form the shortest route from Chicago, Duluth, &c., to the It has agricultural machinery works. Population (1897), sea-board. 11,264. Another town of the same name is in the government of Siedlce, district of Wlodawa. Population, Ottawa (formerly Bytown), a city of Carleton 4410. A third town of the same name is the Russian county, Ontario, and the capital of the Dominion of district town Ostrov, in the government of and 33 Canada, situated on the right bank of the river of the miles by rail south-south-west of PskofF, on Velikaya same name, 101 miles west of Montreal. The main river. It is a centre for trade in flax and linseed. tower of the parliament buildings is in 75° 42' 03" W. and 45 25' 28" N. The city stands on ground elevated from 60 Population, 6252. to 155 feet above the river—185 to 280 feet above the Oswego, a city of Hew York, U.S.A., capital of Oswego county, on the southern shore of Lake Ontario, sea—and is underlain by rocks of the Trenton and Utica at an altitude of 300 feet. It is regularly laid out on a groups, the former outcropping in precipitous bluffs on level site, with broad, mainly unpaved streets, is divided the river front. It is on the main line of the Canadian into eight wards, and its water-supply is pumped from the Pacific Railway and is the terminus of the Canada Oswego river, the works being owned by private parties. Atlantic, Ottawa and Parry Sound, Ottawa and New York, Oswego is on the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western, the and Ottawa and Gatineau railways, and of the Montreal New York Central and Hudson River, and the New York, and Ottawa, Prescott and Brockville branches of the firstOntario, and Western railways, and these, with boats on named railway. Electric railways afford rapid and easy the. lake, give it a large commerce, principally in coal, communication with all parts of the city and with the grain, and lumber. The ample water-power furnished by neighbouring towns of Aylmer and Britannia, and the Oswego river has caused a great development in during the summer months steamers ply to Montreal and manufactures. In 1900 the city contained 207 manufac- poits on the Ottawa river and Rideau canal. A railway turing establishments, with a total capital of $7,322,907. bridge and a road bridge—the latter a new structure They employed 3845 hands, and the product was valued replacing the famous Chaudiere suspension bridge—connect at $8,137,950. Chief among these products are those of Ottawa with the city of Hull on the opposite or Quebec foundry and machine shops, hosiery and knitted goods, bank of the river, and a third for railway and vehicular and malt. Population (1890), 21,842; (1900), 22,199, of traffic gives the Pontiac Pacific Junction and Ottawa and Gatineau railways access to the centre of the city. Ottawa whom 3989 were foreign-born and 57 negroes. is the seat of the Dominion Government, the supreme and Oswestry, a municipal borough and market town exchequer courts, and residence of the Governor-General. in the Oswestry parliamentary division of Shropshire, The parliament and departmental buildings are beautifully England, 18 miles north-west of Shrewsbury, on the Great situated on Parliament Hill, a park of about 25 acres in Western and Cambrian railways. The old town hall has extent, elevated 150 feet above the river and with prebeen demolished and new municipal buildings have been cipitous limestone bluffs facing the river and canal. The opened. Hie Cambrian Railway Company employ some parliament and eastern and western departmental buildings 300 men at their carriage and engine works here. The are in Italian Gothic of the 13th century, and form three castle grounds, laid out by public subscription, were opened sides of a great quadrangle, the fourth side being occupied in 1890. Population (1891), 8496; (1901), 9579. by the Langevin departmental building. The latter, a fine massive structure, built of brown sandstone from New Otago. See New Zealand. Biunswick, stands just outside the parliament grounds Otaheite. See Tahiti. proper and on the opposite side of Wellington Street. Otley, a market town and railway station in the The University of Ottawa—the Roman Catholic university Otley parliamentary division of Yorkshire, England, 10 of Ontario — occupies an advantageous situation on miles north of Bradford. A recreation hall was opened in M ilbrod Street. It grants degrees in arts and sciences, 1895. In 1897 premises for art and science schools were and has about 475 students, drawn from all parts of Other prominent erected. One of the chief industries is the making of Canada and the United States. printing machines. The neighbouring range of hills, buildings are the post office, city hall, normal school, known as the Chevin, abounds in good stone for building collegiate institute, printing bureau, court-house, Christ purposes, which was used for the foundations of the Houses Church Cathedral, and the Basilica. The city charities are of Parliament, and is despatched to all parts of England. numerous, and include eight hospitals (three general hospitals and five others), nine homes for children and Population (1891), 7838; (1901), 9230. the aged and infirm, and two training schools for nurses, Ott3,W3,, a river of Canada and the largest tributary there are eighteen public schools, with 109 teachers and °L Ale, ^ Lawrence. It rises in northern Quebec, in 6145 pupils, including kindergartens ; twenty-four Roman 75 35 W. and 47° 53' N., and flows westwards 330 Catholic separate schools, with 96 teachers and 4140 pupils; miles to Lake Temiscaming; from the outlet of the also a collegiate institute, the normal school for eastern latter it flows in a south-easterly direction for 250 miles, Ontario, model school, ladies’ college, six convents, and two and then easterly to its confluence with the St Lawrence monasteries. Ottawa contains many flourishing industries, at the island of Montreal. It drains an area of 56,470 including large saw, flour, and planing mills, foundries square .miles, and is 730 miles long. The principal and manufactories of calcium carbide, street cars, waggons, tiibutaries from the left bank are the Rouge (120 miles and porcelain and carbon for electrical purposes. It is long), North Nation, Petite Nation, Lievre (215 miles), the seat of the head office of the Bank of Ottawa, and

391 O T T A W A — o U S E L E Y contains eleven branches of other banks. Incorporated as regulation ” province, with an independent judicial system ; the existence of the talukdars will always preserve an a city in 1854, the population in 1881 numbered 27,412 ; and in 1887 New Edinburgh was annexed, and in 1889 interesting distinction. statistics of Oudh are for the most part included under three other suburbs, Stewarton, Kochesterville • and Mount theThe North-Western Provinces {q.v.)- Between 1881 and 1891 the Sherwood, were brought in. In 1891 the population had population increased by 11 per cent., or more than twice as last increased to 44,154, and in 1901 to 59,928. The total as in the North-West, owing to the extension of cultivation in assessment in 1885, exclusive of corporation and Govern- the submontane tract. Excluding the two cities of Lucknow and Fyzabad, the average density ranged from 305 persons pelment property, was $11,545,735; in 1895, $21,247,220; square mile in the northern district of Ivheri to 649 persons in the and in 1902, $27,420,740 ; exemptions in 1902, central district of Bara Banki. Classified according to religion, $16,337,150; assessed value of real estate, $24,738,690. Hindus numbered 11,016,209, or 87 per cent, of the total populaThe value of the exports for the year ending 30th June tion; Mahommedans, 1,620,930, or nearly 13 percent. ; Christians, of whom 5493 were Europeans and 1545 Eurasians, leaving 1901 was $464,587 ; imports, $3,356,791 ; customs 9312, 2274’for native converts ; “others” (chiefly Sikhs and Jains), 4380. duty, $592,445. The city returns two members to the Out of a total area of 15,337,846 acres, the amount permanently Dominion House of Commons, and two to the provincial settled with talukdars on privileged terms is 1,112,921, chiefly legislature. A mayor and twenty-four aldermen the in the two districts of Gonda and Bahraich. The incidence oj latter representing the eight wards into which the city is assessment is R. 1 :1 : 9 on the temporarily settled and Rs.O : 14 : 7 divided—constitute the municipal government. It is the on the permanently settled land. In 1896—97 the total cultivated area was 8,072,586 acres, of which 2,398,200 acres were seat of a Roman Catholic archbishop and an Anglican cropped more than once. The irrigated area was 2,266,346 acres, J Wh entirely from wells and tanks, for there are no Government canals bishop. (* *-) in Oudh. The principal crops are rice, wheat, barley, pulse, millet, Ottawa, a city of Illinois, U.S.A., capital of Lasalle sugar-cane, and opium. The area under indigo was 22,877 acres. county, on the Illinois river, at the mouth of the Fox, Oudh has no manufactures or mines. The only large factory is on the Illinois and Michigan canal, and on the Chicago, one for making paper at Lucknow. The chief railway system that of the Oudh and Rohilkhand, which crosses the Ganges Burlington, and Quincy, and the Chicago, Rock Island, is opposite Cawnpore and Benares, and is now connected with and Pacific railways, north of the centre of the state, at an northern Bengal. altitude of 484 feet. The city is on a level site on the OligTGC, a town of Belgium, in the province and first terrace above the river, and its plan is regular. Its four miles south-west of the town of Liege by rail. It water-supply is derived from artesian wells, and it has a good sewer system. In 1900 it contained 120 manu- has five blast-furnaces and large industrial establishments, facturing establishments having a capital of $2,783,35 fragment of pinna. Inferior Oolite, Eng- to Juan Fernandez, are in Some exceptionally perfect land‘ majority of cases fragments of rhizomes have been found by Dr C. Bommer of the founded on sterile leaves, Fig. -Dictyophyllum. Rhsetie rocks of Brus se s iu some Europe. {After Schenk.) GIelchen~ far ^ Baume Wealden deposits at Bracquegnies (not and of little or no fr, oin n laceee. . Belgium; but these arefronds not yet botanical value. On the other hand, there are several fossil Ferns of described. The) idichotomously - branched of Jurassic age possessing cup-like sori like those of 7%rsthe type represented by several recent species of Gleichenia, opteris and other Cyatheaceous Ferns, which indicate a Cyathea■ e.g., G. dichotomy, &c., are abundant in Lower Cretaceous plant- wide Mesozoic distribution for this family. Anion" beds of Greenland, and suggest that in the latter part of the Jurassic species which should probably be classed as Cyatheacese Mesozoic period the Gleicheniaceaj held a position in the vegeta- Coniopteris hymenophylloides is recorded from England, France’ tion of the far north similar to that which they now occupy in the Poland, Bornholm, Italy, the Arctic regions, North America' southern tropics of India and other regions. China, Australia, and India. A few tree-ferns which may Ilia recent Malayan genus Matonia (Map B, Matonia), repre- Japan, be included in this family, such as Protopteris, have been described sented by two species, M. pectinata and M. sarmentosa, is clearly from ealden and Lower Cretaceous rocks of England, Germany, Matoai- a survival in tropical latitudes of a family which and Austria. It is by no means easy in dealing with fossil Ferns aese. occupied an important place in the vegetation of the certain Polypodiaceae—such as species of Kinetic, Jurassic, and Wealden periods. The genera to distinguish between members of the Cyatheaceae. Laccopteris and Matonidium (Fig. 8) may be cited as the two most Davallia—and It is a striking fact that among the numerous Mesozoic Ferns important types, both as regards geographical and geological range, there are comparatively few that can with good reason be referred ot this Mesozoic family ; these Ferns are recorded from England the Polypodiacese, a family which plays so dominant >0 France Belgium Germany, Austria, Portugal, Poland, and Italy ato role at the present day. The frequent occurrence of ^ diacew ^’ n X1 ’ a S? £°m G^nland (Map B, M2), Spitsbergen such names as Asplenium, Adiantum, Davallia, and P° a (hemisphere, P G’ on and Persia (Map B, M ). From the southern other Polypodiaceous genera in lists of fossil Ferns is thoroughly the other hand, we know4 of one or two fragments misleading. are, indeed, a certain number of species which only which can reasonably be referred to the Matonineae (Map show traces ofThere sori like those of modern species of Asplenium and B, M5), a fact which may point to a northern origin for this other genera, but in most cases the names of recent Ferns have been

mesozoic]

PALEOBOTANY

used on insufficient grounds. The Wealden and Jurassic genus, Onychiopsis of England, Portugal, Belgium, Germany, Japan, and Australia, bears a close resemblance to the recent Onychium (Cryptogamme). Other Jurassic Ferns described by Raciborski from Poland suggest a comparison with L)avallia. Supposed fertile fronds ot Glossopteris have been described by several authors and referred to the Polypodiacese, but in no instance is the evidence enough to warrant more than the suggestion that this abundant southern Fern is a Polypodiaceous genus. The majority of the specimens included in the genus Cladophlebis, the Mesozoic representative of the Paheozoic Pecopteris type of frond, are known only in a sterile condition,

427

and cannot be assigned to their family position. A Wealden plant, Weichselia Mantelli, is worthy of mention as a species of very wide geographical distribution, and one of the most characteristic members of the Wealden flora. This type is distinguished by its large bipinnate fronds bearing long and narrow pinnae with closeset pinnules, characterized by the anastomosing secondary veins. No traces of sori have so far been found in the fronds. Similarly, the genus Sagenopteris, characterized by a habit like that of Marsilm, and represented by fronds consisting of a few spreading broadly oval or narrow segments, with anastomosing veins, borne on the apex of a common petiole, is abundant in rocks ranging fiom

the Rhsetic to the Wealden, but has not so far been satisfactorily placed. The evidence which led Nathorst and some other writers to refer this plant to the Marsiliaceae is not convincing, and until we find well-preserved sporocarps we incline to the opinion that .Sagenopteris is probably a genus of Ferns. The abundance of Cycadean plants is one of the most striking features of Mesozoic floras, in most cases we have only the of sterile fronds, and this is necessarily unCycadales. evidence satisfactory ; but the occurrence of numerous stems and fertile shoots demonstrates the wealth of Cycadean plants in many parts of the world, more particularly during the Jurassic and AYealden periods. From Palaeozoic rocks a few fronds have been described, such as Pterophyllum Fayoli, P. Combrayi, Plagiozamites, and Sphenozamites, chiefly from l rench localities, which are referred to the Cycads because of their similarity to the pinnate fronds of modern Cycadaceae. In the succeeding Triassic system Cycadean plants become much more abundant, especially in the Keuper period ; from Rhaetic rocks a still greater number of types _ have been recorded, among which may be mentioned Nilssonia (Fm. 10), Anomozamites, Pterophyllum, Otozamites, Cycaditespig11)?' The species of Nilssonia shown in Fig. 10 {N. compta) is a characteristic member of the Jurassic flora, practically identical with a form from Rhaetic rocks described as Nilssonia polymorpha. The laro-e frond of Cycadites represented in Fig. 11 (G. Sciportce) is from the Wealden strata of Sussex, and possibly identical with Cycadites tenuisectus from Portugal. In addition to these genera there are others, such as Ctenozamites, Ctenis, and Podozavntcs, the position of which is less certain. Ctenozamites occurs chiefly in the Rluetic coal-bearing beds of Scania, and has been found also in the Liassic clays of Dorsetshire and m the Inferior Oolite

beds of Yorkshire, as well as in Rhsetic strata in Persia and elsewhere ; it is characterized by its bipinnate fronds, and may be compared with the recent Australian genus Powenia peculiar among living Cycads in having bipinnate Ironds. Ctenis has been placed among the ferns by more than one author, on account of the occurrence of supposed sporangia on its pinnae ; but there is reason to believe that these so-called sporangia are probably nothing more than prominent papillose cells of the epidermis. Podozamites (Fig. 12) is usually considered to be a Cycad, but the broad pinnae (or leaves) and their arrangement on the axis suggests

Pig. 10.—Nilssonia compta. Inferior Oolite, England. a possible relationship with the southern Coniferous genus Agathis, represented by the Kauri Pine and other recent species, the considerable variation in the size of the pinnae ot Podozamites, as represented by species from the Jurassic rocks in the Arctic regions and various European localities, recalls the variation in length and breadth of the leaves of Agathis. With regard to the distinguishing features and the distribution of the numerous Cycadean leaves of Mesozoic age, the most striking fact is the abundance of fronds, which there is good reason to refer to the Cycadales in Upper Triassic, Rhaetic, Jurassic, and AYealden rocks in India, Australia, Japan, China, and elsewhere in the southern hemisphere, as well in North America, Greenland, and other Arctic

428 lands and throughout Europe. It is noteworthy that Tertiary plant-beds have yielded hardly any specimens that can he recognized as Cycads. ° A more important question is, What knowledge have we of the reproductive organs and stems of these fossil Cycads ? Cycadean stems have recently been found in extraordinary abundance in Jurassic and possibly higher strata in Wyoming and other parts of the United States. Cycadean stems have been found also in the uppermost Jurassic, Wealden, and Lower Cretaceous rocks of England, India, and other parts of the world. An example of an Indian Cycadean stem from Upper G ond wan a rocks is represented in Fig. 13; the surface of the trunk is covered with persistent bases (Fig. 13, A) of the fronds known as Ptilophyllum Cutchense, which are practically the same as the European species Williamsonia pectcn (Fig. 17). In a section of the stem (Fig. 13, B) a large pith is seen to occupy the axial region, and this is surrounded by a zone of secondary wood, which appears to differ from the characteristic wood of modern Cycads (see Gymnospeems) in having a more comFia. 11. —Cycadites Saportce. Wealden, England. Pact structure. The lozenge - shaped areas external to the axis of the stem represent the sections of petioles, some of which are shown in Fig. 13, A, attached to the stem. The majoi ity of Mesozoic stemsagree in external appearance with those of recent species of Enccphalartos, Macrozamia, and some other genera; the trunk is encased in a mass of persistent petiole-bases separated fiom one another by a dense felt or packing of scaly ramenta. The structure of the leaf-stalks is like that of modern Cycads, but the

B Fig. 13.—Cycadean stem, from Upper Gondwana rocks, India. A, surface view: B, transverse section of stem. ramenta, instead of having the form of long unicellular hairs like those on the petioles and bud-scales of existing species, are exactly like the paleae or ramental scales characteristic of the majority of teius. this fern-like character affords an interesting survival of the close relationship between Cycads and Ferns. Some recently discovered Jurassic Cycadean stems from Wyoming are characterized by an unusually rich development of ramental scales ; the Fig. 12.—Podozamites lanceolatus. Inferior Oolite, England.

[mksozoic lamenta from the old leaf-bases form an almost complete covering over the surface of the trunk. Professor Lester Ward has instituted a new generic name, Cycadella, for these woolly forms. In a few cases the fossil stems show no trace of any lateral flowering shoots and m that respect agree with modern forms: an instance of this is afforded by a large Cycadean trunk discovered a few years ao-o in one of the Portland quarries, and named Cycadcoidea gigantca (Fig. 14) In this stem the flowers may have been terminal, as in existCa( a ru e V-75' ^'s modern 1 ^ ’ however, difference ^from forms in the fossil stems show a marked the possession of lateral shoots given off from the axils of leaves, and terminating in a flower of complex structure containing numerous orthotropous seeds. These reproductive shoots differ in many important respects from the flowers of recent Cycads, and, chiefly on this account, it is customary to include the plants in a separate genus, Bennettites, and in a family — the Bennettitaceai — distinct from that of .the Cycadaccse as represented by existing Cycads. The best preserved specimens of the true Bennettites type so far described are from the Lower Greensand and Wealden of England, and from Upper Mesozoic strata in North America, Italy, and France. A study of the anatomical structure of the vegetative stem, which on the whole is very similar to that of recent Cycads (Fig. 15, 1 and 2), reveals certain characters which are not met with in modern Cycads. The chief distinguishing feature is afforded by the leaftraces ; in recent species (see Gymnospekms) these pursue a somewhat complicated course as they pass from the petiole towards Fig the vascular cylinder of the stem - 14—Cycadeoidea gigantea. but in Bennettites the vascular Portland rocks, England. bundles from the leaves followed a more direct course through the cortex of the stem (Fig. 15, 3). Among existing types the genus Macrozamia appears to show the nearest approach to this simpler structure of theJeaf-traces. The typical Bennettites female flower (Fig. 15, 4 and 7), as investigated in English, French, Italian, and American specimens, may be briefly described as a short lateral shoot or peduncle, arising in a leaf-axil and terminating in a bluntly lounded apex, bearing numerous linear bracts enclosing a central group of appendages, some of which consist of slender pedicels traversed by a vascular strand and bearing a single terminal ovule enclosed in an integument, which forms a distal canal or micropyle. Associated with these seminiferous pedicels occur sterile appendages consisting of slender stalks, terminating in distal expansions which form a fleshy covering over the surface of the flower, leaving small apertures immediately above the micropyles for the entrance of the pollen-grains. 1 he seeds have in some cases been preserved in wonderful perfection, enabling one to make out the structure of the embryo, with its bluntly conical radicle and two fleshy cotyledons filling tue ex albuminous seed (Fig. 15, 11). Our knowledge of the reproductive organs of the Bennettitacea; has until lecently been confined to the female flowers, as described by Carruthers, Solms-Laubach, Lignier, and others. The fortunate discovery of several hundred Cycadean stems in the United States, of Lower Cretaceous and Upper Jurassic age, has supplied abundant material, which is now being examined by Mr Wieland. This investigator has already published several short accounts of his discoveries, which give valuable information as to the morpholooy of the male organs, and lead us to expect results in the future'of the greatest importance and interest. On some of the American stems flowers have been found, borne at the apex of lateral shoots, which possess fully developed male organs consisting of sporangia with spores (pollen-grains), surrounding a conical central receptacle bearing numerous small and probably functionless or immature ovules (Fig. 15, 10). The structure of this type of flower may be bueflj described as follows. In shape and size the flower is similar to that long known as the female flower of Bennettites and It illiamsonia. A number of hairy linear bracts enclose the whole ; internal to these occur 12 to 20 crowded pinnate leaves (sporophylls), with their apical portions bent over towards the axis of the flower, the bases of the petioles being fused laterally into a disc surrounding the base of the conical receptacle. Numerous pairs of pinnules are attached to the rachis of each sporophyll, and

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the larger pinnules bear 20 to 30 synangia (sori or plurilocular sporangia) (Fig. 15, 8 and 9). The synangia consist of a stout wall c c Sfi ) primal vus. covered in Europe in strata of this age, but Heer records a poplar-like leaf from Urgonian III. Tertiary. strata, a stage newer than the Valenginian, in Greenland, After the Wealden period, and before the deposition of and Saporta has described from strata of the same date in the lowest strata of the Chalk, so remarkable a change Portugal a Euphorbiaceous ta es plant apparently closely Lower ^ l^ace in the character of the vegetation Cretathis break must be taken as, botanically, allied to the living Phyllceous. fke transition point from a Secondary to a anthus and named by him Tertiary flora. A flora consisting entirely, with Choffatia Francheti (Fig. a single doubtful exception, of Gymnosperms and Crypto2). We must turn to North gams gives place to one containing many flowering plants ; America for a fuller knowand these increase so rapidly that before long they seem ledge of the earliest flowerto have crowded out many of the earlier types, and to have intr plants. themselves become the dominant forms. Not only do In Dakota a remarkable Angiosperms suddenly become dominant in all known series has been discovered, plant-bearing deposits of Upper Cretaceous age, but lying unmistakably bestrangely enough the earliest found seem to belong to tween marine Upper Jurliving orders, and commonly are referable to existing assic rocks below and genera. From Cretaceous times onwards local distribution Upper Cretaceous above. may change; yet the successive floras can be analysed in There has been a certain the same way as, and compared with, the living floras of amount of confusion as to different regions. Y\ orld-wide floras, such as seem to the exact strata in which characterize some of the older periods, have ceased to be, the plants occur, but this and plants are distributed more markedly according to has now been cleared up geographical provinces and in climatic zones. This being by the research^, of Lester Fig. 2.—Choffatia Francheti. the case, it will be most convenient to discuss the Tertiary who has shown how floras in successive order of appearance, since the main the Secondary flora gives placeWard, to one of Ter interest no longer lies in the occurrence of strange extinct tiary character. The lower strata—Le., those most American plants or of transitional forms connecting orders now com- allied to the Jurassic—contain only Gymno- Creta' pletely isolated. sperms and Cryptogams. The next division I he accurate correlation in time of the various scattered (Dakota No. 2 of Meek and Hayden) contains Gymno-

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sperms and Ferns of Neocomian types, or even of Neocomian are, that it includes a fair representation of the existing species ; but mingled with these occur a few dicotyledonous orders of warm-temperate deciduous trees ; that the more leaves belonging to four genera. The specimens are very primitive types, such as the Amentacece, do not appear to fragmentary, and all that can be said is that one of the preponderate to a greater extent than they do in the forms may be allied to oak, another to fig, a third to existing temperate flora ; that the assemblage somewhat Sapinduz, and the fourth may perhaps be near to elm. The suggests American afhnities j and that when we take into “ Potomac Formation ” of Virginia and Maryland is doubt- account deficient collecting, local conditions, and the nonless also mainly of Neocomian age, for though it rests preservation of succulent plants, there is no reason for unconformably on much older strata, the successive floras saying that certain other orders must have been absent. found in it are so allied to those of Dakota as to leave The great rarity of Monocotyledons is a common characterlittle doubt as to the general homotaxis of the series. istic of fossil floras known only, as this one is, from leaves Lester Ward records no fewer than 737 distinct forms, principally belonging to deciduous trees. With regard to consisting chiefly of Ferns, Cycads, Conifers, and Dicoty- suggested American affinities, it must be borne in mind ledons, the Ferns and Cycads being confined mainly to the that the Neocomian Angiosperms are little known except Older Potomac, while the Dicotyledons are principally in America and in Greenland, and that we therefore cannot represented in the Newer Potomac, though occurring more yet say whether families now mainly American were not rarely even down to the base of the series. Six successive formerly of world-wide distribution. We know that this stages have been defined in the Potomac formation. The was the case with some, such as Liriodendron; and in Mount Vernon beds, which occur about the middle of the Eucalyptus we see the converse, where a genus formerly series, have as yet yielded only a small number of species, American is now confined to a far distant region. The though these include the most interesting early Angio- Neocomian flora has been collected from an area extending sperms. Among them are recorded a Casmirina, a leaf of over about 30° of latitude; but there is little evidence of Sagittaria (which however, as observed by Zeiller, may any corresponding climatic change. We cannot yet say, belong to Smilax), two species of poplar-like leaves with however, that the deposits are exactly contemporaneous, remarkably cordate bases, Menispermites (possibly a water- and the great climatic variations that have taken place, in lily), and Celastrophyllum (perhaps allied to (Jelastrus). the northern hemisphere during the existence of our living Proteophyllum, found in the same bed, and also in the flora should make us hesitate to correlate too minuteV Infra-Cretaceous of Portugal, seems to have belonged to a from the evidence of plants alone. The highest division of the Dakota series (known as Proteaceous plant, though only leaves without fruits have yet been discovered in deposits of this early date. What- Dakota No. 1) which lies immediately beneath Upper ever doubt may be left as to the exact botanical position Cretaceous strata with marine fossils, contains a flora so of these early Lower Cretaceous Angiosperms, it is clear like that of the Tertiary deposits that only the clearest that both Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons are represented geological evidence has been considered sufficient to prove by several types of leaves, and that the flora extended over that Heer was wrong when he spoke of the plants as wide areas in North America and Greenland, and is found Miocene. These highest plant-bearing strata rest, accordagain at a few points in Europe. There is as yet no clear ing to Lester Ward, somewhat unconformably on the evidence either of climatic zones or of the existence ot Dakota No. 2 ; they show also a marked difference in the included plants! The genera of Dicotyledons represented geographical provinces during this period. The next strata, the Aquila Creek series, contain a are Quercus, Sassafras, Platanus, Celastrophyllum, Cissites, well-marked dicotyledonous flora, in which both the form Viburnites. In the central parts of North America the lacustrine and nervation of the leaves begin to approximate to those •of recent times. The leading characteristic of this Middle plant-bearing deposits are of enormous thickness, the Potomac flora is the proportion of Dicotyledons. Notwith- Dakota series being followed by marine Cretaceous strata standing this apparent passage-bed, there is a marked known as the Colorado and Montana groups, and these difference between the Older and the Newer Potomac being succeeded conformably by a thousand feet or more floras, very few species passing from the one to the other. of lacustrine shales, sandstones, and coal-seams belonging to Only 15 out of 405 plants in the older series occur in the the Laramie series. This also contains occasional marine beds above, though already more than 350 species have Upper Cretaceous fossils, as well as reptiles of Cretaceous been determined from this newer series. The plants from types. An extensive literature has grown up relating to the Amboy Clays, which form the most important division these Laramie strata, for owing to the Tertiary aspect of of the Newer Potomac series and were monographed in the contained plants, geologists were slow to recognize 1895 by Newberry, seem to belong to the commencement that they could be truly contemporaneous and interbedded of the Upper Cretaceous period. It is remarkable that with others yielding Cretaceous animals. In addition to nearly 80 per cent, of the species are Dicotyledons, and this, the earlier writers included in the Laramie series that no Monocotyledons have been found. The mere many deposits now known to be of later date and truly enumeration of the genera will indicate how close the Tertiary, and the process of separation is even now only flowering plants are to living forms. Newberry records partially completed. It will be safest in these circumJuglans, Myrica (7 species), Populus, Salix (5 species), stances to accept as our guide to the true Laramie flora Quercus, Planera, Ficus (3 species), Persoonia and another the carefully compiled “Catalogue” of Mr Knowlton. extinct Proteaceous genus named Proteoidest Magnolia (7 According to this catalogue, the true Laramie flora includes species), Liriodendron (4 species), Menispermites, Laurus, about 250 species, more than half of which are deciduous and allied plants, Sassafras (3 species), Cinnamanium, forest trees, herbaceous Dicotyledons, Monocotyledons, and Prunus, Ilymenoea, Dalbergia, Bauhinia, Caesalpinia, Cryptogams all being but poorly represented. Among the Fontainea, Colutea, and other Leguminosse, Ilex, Celastrus, few Monocotyledons are leaves and fruits of palms, and Celastrophyllum (10 species), Acer, Rhamnites, Paliurus, traces of grasses and sedges. The Dicotyledons include Cissites, Tilicephyllum, Passiflora, Eucalyptus (5 species), several water-lilies, a somewhat doubtful Trapa, and many Hedera, Aralia (8 species), Cornophyllum, Andromeda (4 genera of forest trees still common in America. The species), Myrsine, Sapotacites, Diospyros, Acerates, Vibur- genera best represented are Ficus (21 species), Quercus num, and various genera of uncertain affinities. The (16 species), Popidus (11 species), Rhamnus (9 species), points that suggest themselves with regard to this flora Platanus (8 species), Viburnum (7 species), Magnolia

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(6 species), Cornus (5 species), Cinnamomum (5 species), Juglans (4 species), Acer (4 species), Halix (4 species), Aralia (3 species), Rhus (3 species), Sequoia (3 species). Of trees now extinct in America, Eucalyptus and Ginkgo are perhaps the most noticeable. So large a proportion of the trees still belongs to the flora of North America that one is apt to overlook the fact that among the more specialized plants some of the largest American orders, such as the Compositoe, are still missing from strata belonging to the Cretaceous period. The imperfection and want of continuity of the records in Europe have made it necessary in dealing with the Cretaceous floras for us to give the first place t° America. But it is now advisable to return to Europe, where Upper Cretaceous plants are not uncommon, and the position of the deposits in the Cretaceous series can often be fixed accurately by their close association with marine strata belonging to definite subdivisions. As these divisions of Cretaceous time will have to be referred to more than once, it will be useful to tabulate them, thus showing which plant-beds seem to be referable to each, and what are the British strata of like age. It has not yet been found possible so closely to correlate the strata of Europe with those of America, where distance has allowed geographical differences in both fauna and flora to come into play; therefore, beyond the references to Lower or Upper Cretaceous, no classification of the American Cretaceous strata has here been given. In Europe the most commonly accepted divisions of the Cretaceous period are as follows :— England. Wanting Upper Chalk Middle Chalk Lower Chalk ) Upper Greensand J Gault

France, &c. Danian Senonian Turonian Cenomanian AlbianAptian Lower Greensand Yalenginian Urgonian Wealden Neocomian In the Continental classification the deposits from the Gault downwards are grouped as Lower Cretaceous ; but in Great Britain there is a strong break below the Gault and none above ; and the Gault is therefore classed as Upper Cretaceous. The limits of the divisions in other places do not correspond, the British and Continental strata often being so unlike that it is almost impossible to compare them. The doubt as to the exact British equivalent of the Yalenginian strata of Portugal, which yield the earliest Dicotyledon, has already been alluded to. The plant-bearing deposits next in age, which have yielded Angiosperms, appear to belong to the Cenomanian, though from Westphalia a few species belonging to the Cryptogams and Gymnosperms, found in deposits correlated with the Gault, have been described by Hosius and von der Marck. In Great Britain the whole of the Upper Cretaceous strata are of marine origin, and have yielded no land-plants beyond a few fir-cones, drift-wood, and rare Dicotyledonous leaves in the Lower Chalk. Most of the deposits which have yielded Angiosperms of Cretaceous age in central Europe correspond in age with the English Upper Chalk (Senonian) but a small Cenomanian flora has been collected from the Unter Quader in Moravia. Heer described from this deposit at Moletein 13 genera, of which 7 are still living, containing 18 species, viz., 1 fern, 4 Conifers, 1 palm, 2 figs, 1 Credneria, 2 laurels, 1 Aralia, 1 Chondrophyllum (of uncertain affinities), 2 magnolias, 2 species of Myrtacece, and a species of walnut. Saxony yields from strata of this

[tertiary

period at Niederschoena 42 species, described by Ettingshausen. This small flora is most remarkable, for no fewer than 6 genera, containing 8 species, are referred to the Proteaceae. The Cenomanian flora of Bohemia is larger and equally peculiar. Among the Dicotyledons described by Yelenovsky are the following :—Credneria (5 species), Ara/facece (17 species), Proteaceoe (8 species), Myrica (2 species), Ficus (5 species), Quercus (2 species), Magnoliacece (5 species), Bombacece (3 species), Laurineai (2 species), Ebenacece (2 species), Yerbenacece, Combretacece, Sapindacece (2 species), Camelliacece, Ampelidece, Mimoseac, Caesalpiniece (5 species), Eucalyptus (2 species), Pisonia, Phillyrea, Rhus, Prunus, Bignonia, Laurus, Salix, Benthamia. To this list Bayer adds Aristolochia. The Cenomanian flora of central Europe appears to be a subtropical one, with marked approaches to the living flora of Australia. The majority of its Dicotyledons belong to existing genera, but one of the most prolific and characteristic Cretaceous forms is Credneria (Fig. 3), a genus of doubtful affinities, which has been compared by different authors to the poplars, planes, limes, and other Fig. 3.—Credneria triacuminato,. orders. The Cretaceous plant-beds of Westphalia include both Upper and Lower Senonian, the two floras being very distinct. Hosius and von der Marck describe, for instance, 12 species of oak from the Upper and 6 from the Lower strata, but no species is common to the two. The same occurs with the figs, with 3 species above and 8 below. The 6 species of Credneria are all confined to the older deposits. In fact, not a single Dicotyledon is common to these two closely allied divisions of the Cretaceous series; a circumstance not easy to explain, when we see how well the oaks and figs are represented in each. Four species of Dewalquea, a ranunculaceous genus allied to the hellebore, make their appearance in the Upper Senonian of Westphalia, other species occurring at Aix-la-Chapelle in deposits of about the same age. The Senonian flora of the last-named place, and that of Maestricht, are still only imperfectly known. It is unnecessary to trace the variations of the Upper Cretaceous flora from point to point; but the discoveries within the Arctic circle have been so surprising that attention must again be called to them. Besides the Lower Cretaceous plants already mentioned, Ileer has described from Greenland a flora of Cenomanian age, and another belonging to the Senonian. The Cenomanian strata have yielded already 177 species, the different groups being represented in these proportions :— Cryptogams, 37, 30 of which are Ferns; Cycads, 8; Conifers, 27 ; Monocotyledons, 8; Apetake, 31 ; other Dicotyledons, 66. The Senonian strata have yielded 118 species, 21 of which are Cryptogams, 11 Conifers, 5 Monocotyledons, 75 Dicotyledons. Forest trees, especially oaks, are plentiful, and many of the species are identical with those found in Cretaceous deposits in more southern latitudes. Both of these floras suggest, however, that the climate of Greenland was somewhat colder than that of Westphalia, though scarcely colder than warm-temperate.

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of plants, but most of the species are represented by fruits alone, not by leaves. This circumstance makes it difficult to compare the flora with that of other formations, for not only is it uncertain which leaves and fruits belong to the same plant, but there is the additional source of doubt, that different elements of the same flora may be represented at different localities. Of some plants only the deciduous leaves are likely to be preserved, whilst other succulent-leaved forms will only be known from their woody fruits. Among the 200 plants of the London Clay are no Ferns, but 6 genera of. Gymnosperms, viz., Callitris(2 species),Sequoia, Athrotaxis(t) Ginkgo, Podocarpus, Finns; and several genera of palms, of which the tropical JVipa is the most abundant and most characteristic, among the others being fan-palms of the genera Sabal and Chamcerops. The Dicotyledons need further study. Among the fruits Ettingshausen records Quercus,Liquidambar, Laurus, JVyssa, Diospyros, Symplocos, Magnolia, Victoria, JJightea, Sapindus, Cupania, Eugenia, Eucalyptus, Amygdolus; he suggests that the fruits of the London Clay of Sheppey may belong to the same plants as the leaves found at Alum Bay in the Isle of Wight. The next stage is represented by the Lower Bagshot leaf-beds of Alum Bay. These pipeclays yield a varied flora, Ettingshausen recording 274 species, belonging to 116 genera and 63 families. Gardner, however, is unable to reconcile this estimated richness with our knowledge of the flora, and surmises that fossil plants from other localities must have been inadvertently included. He considers the flora to be the most tropical of any that has so far been studied in the northern hemisphere. Its most conspicuous plants are Ficus Powerbankii, Aralia primigenia, Gomptonia acutiloba, Dryandra Bunburyi, Cassia Ungeri, and the fruits of Caesalpinia. The floras which it chiefly resembles are first, that of Monte Bolca, and second, that of the Gres du Soissonais, which latter Gardner thinks may be of the same age, and not earlier, as is generally supposed. The total number of species found at Alum Bay, according to this author, is only about 50 or 60. To the Bagshot Sand succeeds the thick mass of sands with intercalated plant-beds seen in Bournemouth cliffs. Each bed yields peculiar forms, the total number of species amounting to many hundred, most of them differing from those occurring in the strata below. The plants suggest a comparison of the climate and forests with those of the Malay Archipelago and tropical America. At one place we find drifted fruits of Nipa, Pdightea, and Anona; at another perfect limbs of an American form of cactus, found also at Bovey Tracey. Other beds yield principally palms, willows, laurels, Eucalyptus, or Ferns;, but there Oligocene menced by Gardner and Ettingshausen in 18/9 are no Cycads. As showing the richness of this flora, we Of Great having reached no farther than the Ferns and may mention that in the only orders which have yet been Britain. Qymnosperms. This deficiency makes it im- monographed, Ferns are represented by 17 species and possible adequately to deal with the British Eocene plants, Gymnosperms by 10, though these are not the groups best most of the material being either unpublished or needing represented. Gardner speaks of the Bournemouth flora as re-examination. In the earliest Eocene plant-beds, in the appearing to consist principally of trees or hard-wooded Woolwich and Reading series, a small but interesting flora shrubs, comparatively few remains of the herbaceous is found, which suggests a temperate climate less warm vegetation being preserved. The lignite deposits and than that of earlier or of later periods. Leaves of planes pipeclays of Bovey Tracey, in Devon, referred by Heer are abundant, and among the plants recorded are two figs, and Pengelly to the Miocene period, have now been shown a laurel, a Robinia, a Grevillea, and a palm. Ferns are by Gardner to be of the same age as the Bournemouth scarce, Ettingshausen and Gardner recording only Anemia Beds; many of the species, including all the Dicotyledonous subcretacea and Pteris (1) Prestwichii. The only Gymno- leaves of Bovey, occurring also at Bournemouth. One of sperms determined are Libocedrus adpressa, which is close the commonest Ferns at both localities, Osmunda lignita, to L. decurrens of the Yosemite, and Taxodium europcBum. is scarcely distinguishable from a species found in the A few plants have been found in the next stage, the Philippines. The higher Eocene strata of England—those Oldhaven beds, and among these are fig and cinnamon. above the Bournemouth Beds—are of marine origin, and Gardner considers the plants to point to subtropical con- yield only drifted fruits, principally fir-cones In the volcanic districts of the south-west of Scotland ditions. The London Clay has yielded a large number

The Cretaceous deposits just described are followed by a series of Tertiary formations, but in Europe the continuity between Cretaceous and Tertiary is not quite complete. The Tertiary formations have been assigned to six periods; these are termed — Palseocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, and each has its own botanical peculiarities. During the first period the plants were not markedly different from those of the Upper Cretaceous. Its flora is still but imperfectly known, for we are dependent on two or three P Ceae ?ants localities for the plants. There is found at P an S ' Sezanne, about 60 miles east of Paris, an isolated deposit of calcareous tufa full of leaves, which gives a curious insight into the vegetation which flourished in Palseocene times around a waterfall. Sezanne yields Ferns in profusion, mingled with other shade-loving plants such as would grow under the trees in a moist ravine; its vegetation is comparable to that of an island in the tropical seas. Monocotyledons are rare, the only ones of much interest being some fragments of pandanaceous leaves. The absence of Gymnosperms is noticeable. The Proteaceae are also missing; but other Dicotyledons occur in profusion, many of them being remarkable for the large size of their deciduous leaves. Among the flowering plants are Deivalquea, a ranunculaceous genus alreadymentioned as occurring in the Upper Cretaceous, and numerous living genera of forest-trees, such as occur throughout the Tertiary period, and are readily comparable with living forms. Saporta has described about seventy Dicotyledons, most of which are peculiar to this locality. The plant-bearing marls of Gelinden, near Liege, contain the debris of a paheocene forest. The trees seemed to have flourished on neighbouring chalky heights. The most abundant species of this forest were the oaks and chestnuts, of which a dozen have been collected; laurels, Viburnum, ivy, several Aralias, Dewalquea, a Thuja, and several Ferns may be added. This flora is compared by Saporta and Marion with that of southern Japan. Other deposits of this age in I ranee have furnished plants of a more varied aspect, including myrtles, araucarias, a bamboo, and several fan - leaved palms. Saporta points out the presence in these Palseocene deposits of certain types common, on the one hand, to the American Tertiary strata between the Missouri and the Rocky Mountains, and on the other, to the Tertiary flora of Greenland. The Palseocene deposits of Great Britain are of marine origin, and only yield pine-cones and fragments of Osmunda. The British Eocene and Oligocene strata yield so large a flora, and contain plant-beds belonging to so many ^ocene subject, the one comEocene different stages, thatonitthe is unfortunate we have n0 monograph

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P A L JE O and the north-east of Ireland plant-beds are found intercalated between the lava - flows. These also, like the lignites of Bovey Tracey, have been referred to the Miocene pei iod, on the supposed evidence of the plants • but more recent discoveries by Gardner tend to throw doubt on this allocation, and suggest that, though of various ages, the flrst-formed of these deposits may date back to early kocene times. The flora found in Mull points distinctly to temperate conditions j but it is not yet clear whether this indicates a different period from the sub-tropical flora of the south of England, or whether the difference depends on latitude or local conditions. The plants include a Fern, Onoclea hebridica, close to a living American form; four Gymnosperms belonging to the genera Cryptomeria, Ginkgo, Taxus and Podocarpas; Dicotyledons of about 30 species, several of which have been figured. Among the Dicotyledons may be mentioned Platanua, Acer (?), Quercus (?), Viburnum, Alnus, Magnolia, Gorylus (T), Castanea (1), Zizyphus, Populus, and the nettle-like Baehmeria antiqua. The absence of the so-called cinnamon-leaves and the Smilacece, which always enter into the composition of Middle Eocene and Oligocene floras, is noticeable. The Irish strata yield two Ferns ; 7 Gymnosperms, Cupressus, Cryptomeria, Taxus, Podocarpus, Pinus (2 species), Tsuga; and leaves of about 25 Dicotyledons. The most abundant leaf, according to Gardner, does not seem distinct from Celastrophyllum Benedeni, of the Palaeocene strata of Gelinden; a water-lily, Nelumbiurn Buchii, occurs also in Oligocene beds on the Continent; the species of MacGlintockia (Fig. 4) is found both in the Arctic floras and at Gelinden. Among the other plants are an alder, an oak, and a doubtful cinnamon. Leaving these Scottish and Irish deposits of doubtful age, we find in the Hampshire Basin a thick series of fluviatile, lacustrine, and marine deFio. i.—MacGlintockia posits undoubtedly of Lower and Middle Oligocene date. Their flora is still a singularly poor one, though plants have been obtained at many different levels; they perhaps indicate a somewhat cooler climate than that of the Bournemouth series. Among the more abundant plants are nucules of several species of Chara, and drifted fruits and seeds of waterlilies, of Folliculites (a genus probably close to Stratiotes) and of Limnocarpus (allied to Potamogeton); there is little else mixed with these. Other seams are full of the twigs and cones of A throtaxis, a Conifer now confined to Tasmania. Ferns are represented by Gleichenia, Lygodium, and Chrysodium Lanzceanum, which last has a very wide range in time; Monocotyledons, by a Sabal and a featherpalm, as well as by the two aquatic genera above mentioned; Gymnosperms, by the extinct araucarian genus Doliostrobus, by rare pine-cones, and by Athrotaxis. Dicotyledonous leaves are not plentiful, the genera recorded being Andi-omeda, Ginnamomum, Zizyphus, Rhus, Viburnum. Above the Oligocene strata in Great Britain there is a complete break, no species of plant ranging upwards into the next fossiliferous division. >Space will not allow us to deal with the numerous scattered deposits which have yielded Tertiary plants. It will be more to the purpose to take distant areas, where

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[tertiary the order of the strata is clear, and compare the succession of the floras with that met with in other geographical regions and in other latitudes. For this study it will be most convenient to take next south and central France, for in that area can be found a series of plant- r t i bearing strata in which is preserved a nearly an(j continuous history of the vegetation from Upper southern Eocene down to Pliocene. The account is taken Fran^. mainly from the writings of Saporta. The gypsum-deposit of _ Upper Eocene date at Aix in Provence commences this series, and is remarkable for the variety and perfect preservation of its organic remains. Among its Gyinnosperms are numerous Gupressineoe of African affinity belonging to the genera Gallitns and Widdringtonia, and a juniper close to one indigenous in Greece. Fan-palms, several species of dragon-tree, and a banana like one living in Abyssinia represent the more peculiar Monocotyledons. Among the noticeable Dicotyledons are the Myricacecr, Proteaceuz, Laurineae, Bombax, the Judas-tree, Acacia, Ailanthus, while the most plentiful forms are the Araliaceie. A\ illows and poplars, with a few other plants of more temperate regions, are found rarely at Aix, and seemingly point to casual introduction from surrounding mountains. In a general way, spiny plants, with stiff branches and dry and coriaceous leaves, dominate the flora, as they now do in Central Africa, to which region on the whole Saporta considers the flora to be most allied. The succeeding Oligocene flora appears to be more characterized by a gradual replacement of the Eocene species by allied forms, than by any marked change in the assemblage or in the climatic conditions. It forms a perfectly gradual transition to the still newer Miocene period, the newer species slowly appearing and increasing in number. Saporta considers that in central and southern Europe the alternate dry and moist heat of the Eocene period gave place to a climate more equally and more universally humid, and that these conditions continued without material change into the succeeding Miocene stage. Among the types of vegetation which make their appearance in Europe during the Oligocene period may be mentioned the Conifers Libocedrus salicornioides, several species of Chamascyparis and Sequoia, Taxodium distichum, and Glyptostrobus europaeus. The palms include Bahai hairingiana, B. major and Flabellaria. Among the Myricaceae several species of Comptonia are common. These new-comers are all of American type. Aquatic plants, especially water-lilies, are abundant and varied; the dry-soil Gallitris and Widdringtonia become scarce. Though we do not propose to deal with the other European localities for Eocene and Oligocene plants, there is one district to which attention should be drawn, on account of the exceptional state of preservation of the specimens. On the Baltic shores of Prussia there is found a quantity of amber, containing remains of insects and plants. This is derived from strata amber ” of Oligocene age, and is particularly valuable am er' because it preserves perfectly various soft parts of the plants, which are usually lost in fossil specimens. The tissues, in fact, are preserved just as they would be in Canada balsam. The amber yields such things as fallen flowers, perfect catkins of oak, pollen grains, and fungi. It enables us to determine accurately orders and genera which otherwise are unknown in the fossil state, and it thus aids us in forming a truer idea of the flora of the period than can be formed at any locality where the harder parts alone are recognizable. No doubt this amber flora is still imperfectly known, but it is valuable as giving a good idea of the vegetation, during Oligocene times, of a mixed wood of pine and oak, in which there is a mixture of herbaceous and woody plants, such as would now be

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found under similar conditions. The plants of which the position suggests that the Miocene flora of Switzerland floral organs or perfect fruits are preserved include the must have been both larger and more varied than that now' amber-bearing Firms succinifera, Srnilax, Phoenix, the living in the same country. The best known locality for spike of an aroid, 11 species of oak, 2 of chestnut, a beech, the Upper Miocene plants is Oeningen, on the Lake of Urticacece, 2 cinnamons and Trianthera among the Constance, where have been collected nearly 500 species Lauraeece, representatives of the Gistaceae, Ternstroe- | of plants, the total number of Miocene plants found in miacece, Dilleniaceoe (3 species of Hibbertia), Geraniacece Switzerland being stated to be now over 900. Among {Geranium and Erodium), Oxalidacece, Acer, Celastraceae, the characteristics of this Miocene flora are the large Olacacece, Pittesporaceai, Ilex (2 species), Euphorbiacecc, number of families represented, the marked increase in the Umbelliferce (Chcerophyllum), Saxifragacece (3 genera), deciduous-leaved plants, the. gradual decrease in the Hamamelidaceoe, Rosaceoe, Connaracece, Ericaceae [Andro- number of palms and of tropical plants, and the replacemeda and Glethra), Myrsinaceoe (3 species) Rubiaceae, ment of these latter by Mediterranean or North American Sambucm (2 species), Santalacece, Loranthacem (3 species). forms. According to Heer, the tropical forms in the We here discover for the first time various living families Swiss Miocene agree rather with Asiatic types, while the and genera, but there is still a noticeable absence of many subtropical and temperate plants are allied to forms now of our most prolific existing groups. Whether this living in the temperate zone in North America. Of the 920 species described by Heer, 114 are Cryptogams and deficiency is accidental or real time will show. The Miocene flora, which succeeds to that just described, 806 flowering plants. Mosses are extremely rare, Heer is well represented in Europe; but till recently there has only describing 3 species. Vascular Cryptogams still been an unfortunate tendency to refer Tertiary floras of all include one or two large Horsetails with stems over an dates to the .Miocene period, unless the geological position inch thick, and also 37 species of Fern, amongst the most of the strata was so clear as obviously to forbid this interesting of which are 5 species belonging to the climbassignment. Thus the Eocene lignites of Devon ing Lygodium, a genus now living in Java. The number Miocene. an(| plant-beds in the basalt of Scotland and of°Ferns is just equal to that now found in Switzerland. Ireland were called Miocene; and in the Arctic regions Cycads are only represented by fragments of two species, and in North America even plant-beds of Upper Cretaceous and this seems to be the last appearance of Cycads in age were referred to the same period. The reason for this Europe. The Coniferse include no fewer than 94 species was that some of the first Tertiary floras to be examined of Cupressinece and 17 of Abietineoe, including several were certainly Miocene, and, when these plants had been species of Sequoia. Monocotyledons form one-sixth of the studied, it was considered that somewhat similar assem- known Miocene flora, 25 of them being grasses and 39 blages found elsewhere in deposits of doubtful geological sedges j but most of these need further study,'and are age must also be Miocene. For a long time it was not very insufficiently characterized. Heer records one species recognized that changes in the marine fauna, on which our of rice and four of millet. Most of the other Monogeological classification mainly depends, correspond scarcely cotyledons call for little remark, though among them at all with changes in the land plants. It was not sus- is an Iris, a Bromelia, and a ginger. Smilax, as in earlier pected, or the fact was ignored, that the break between times, was common. Palms, referred to 11 species, are Cretaceous and Tertiary—made so conspicuous by striking found, though they seem to have decreased in abundance; changes in the aquatic animals—had little or no importance of them 7 are fan-palms, the others including Phoenicites a form allied to the date—and a trailing palm, Calain botanical history. It was not realized that an Upper Cretaceous flora needed critical examination to distinguish mopsis, allied to the canes and rattans. Among the it from one of Miocene age, and that the two periods were Dicotyledons, the Leguminosse take the first place with not characterized by a sweeping change of generic type, 131 species, including Acacia, Ccesalpinia, and Cassia, such as took place among the marine invertebrates. It each represented by several forms. The occurrence of 90 may appear absurd to a geologist that any one could mis- species of Amentacese shows that, as the climate became take a Cretaceous flora for one of Miocene date, since the less tropical, the relative proportion of this group to the marine animals are completely different and the differences total flora increased. Evergreen oaks are a marked are striking. In the case of the plants, however, the characteristic of the period, more than half the Swiss species Tertiary generic types in large part appeared in Upper being allied to living American forms. Fig-trees referred to Cretaceous times. Few or no extinct types are to be found 17 species occur, all with undivided leathery leaves; one another to the indiarubber tree. in these older strata—there is nothing among the plants is close to the banyan, T equivalent to the unmistakably extinct Ammonites, Belem- The Laurinese w ere plentiful, and include various true nites, and a hundred other groups, and we only meet with laurels, camphor-trees, cinnamon, Persea, and Sassafras. constant variations in the same genus or family, these The Proteacese, according to Heer, are still common, the variations having seldom any obvious relation to phyto- Australian genera Hakea, Dryandra, Grevillea, and Banksia being represented. Amongst gamopetalous plants geny. The Miocene period is unrepresented by any deposits in several of our largest living families, including CampanuGreat Britain; we will therefore commence with the best lacese, Labiatae, Solanaceae and Primulaceae, are still missknown region—that of central Europe and especially of ing ; and of Boraginese, Scrophularineaq Gentianeae, and Switzerland, whence a prolific flora has been collected Caprifoliacese there are only faint and doubtful indicaand described by Oswald Heer. The Miocene lacustrine tions. The Compositse are represented by isolated fruits deposits are contained in a number of silted-up lake-basins, of various species. Twining lianas are met with in a which were successively formed and obliterated during the species of Bignonia : Uinbellifene, Ranunculaceae, and uprise of the Alps and the continuous folding and bending Cruciferae are represented by a few fruits. These families, of the earth’s crust which was so striking a feature of the however, do not appear to have had anything like their period. These undulations tended to transform valleys present importance in the temperate flora, though, as they into chains of lakes, into which the plants and animals of are mainly herbaceous plants wflth fruits of moderate hardthe surrounding area fell or were washed. We thus find ness, they may have decayed and left no trace. ^ The preserved in the Upper Miocene lacustrine deposits of American Liriodendron still flourished in Europe. M aterSwitzerland a larger flora than is known from any other lilies of the genera Nymphaea and Nelumbium occur. period, of similar length; in fact, an analysis of its com- Maples were still plentiful, 20 species having been described.

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PALEOBOTANY [tertiary liosaceai are rare, Crataigus, Prunus, and Amygdolus flora of Australia and not to that of other continents. being the only genera recorded. It is obvious that many Australasia had then as now a peculiar flora of of these Swiss Miocene plants will need more close study its own, though the former wide dispersal of the Austra,ia' before their specific characters, or even their generic Proteacese and Myrtaceaj, and also the large number of position, can be accepted as thoroughly made out; still, Amentaceaj then found in Australia, make the Eocene this will not affect the general composition of the flora, plants of Europe and Australia much less unlike than are with its large proportion of deciduous trees and evergreens, the present floras. and its noticeable deficiency in many of our largest living Within the Arctic circle a large number of Tertiary families. plants have been collected. These were described by I rom Europe it will be convenient to pass to a distant Heer, wno referred them to the Miocene period; he region of similar latitude, so that we may see to what recognized, in fact, two periods during which Angiosperms extent botanical provinces existed in Eocene and Oligocene flourished within the Arctic regions, the one Upper Cretimes. It so happens that the interior of temperate North taceous, the other Miocene. To this view of the Miocene Tertiary America is almost the only region outside age of the plant-bearing strata in Greenland and Spitsberof North Europe in which a series of plant-bearing strata gen there are serious objections, which we will again refer America. give a connected history of these periods, and to when the flora has been described. in which the plants have been collected and studied. It is The Tertiary flora of Greenland is of great interest, from unfortunately still very difficult to correlate even approxi- the extremely high latitude at which the plants flourished, mately the strata on the two sides of the Atlantic, and thirty of the species having been collected so there is great doubt as to what strata belong to each far north as lat. 81°. Taking first this most Arctic division of the Tertiary period even in different parts of northerly locality, in Grinnell Land, we find the regions. North America. This difficulty will disappear as the flora to comprise 2 horsetails, 11 Conifers (including strata become better known, but at present each of the the living Pinus Abies), 2 grasses, a sedge, 2 poplars, a silted-up lakes has to be studied separately, for we cannot willow, 2 birches, 2 hazels, an elm, a Viburnum, a waterexpect so close a correspondence in their faunas and floras lily, and a lime. Such an assemblage at the present day ■as is found in the more crowded and smaller basins in would suggest a latitude quite 25° farther south ; but central Europe. it shows decidedly colder conditions than any of the Perhaps the most striking characteristic of the Tertiary European Eocene, Oligocene, or Miocene strata. From floras of North America, as distinguished from those of lat. 78 in Spitsbergen Heer records 136 species of fossil Europe, is the greater continuity in their history and plants. More to the south, at Disco Island in lat. 70°, the greater connexion with the existing flora of the same Tertiary wood seem to have been principally composed of regions. This difference is readily explained when we planes and Sequoias ; but a large number of other genera remember that in Europe the main barriers which stop occur, the total number of plants already recorded being migration, such as the Alps and the Mediterranean, run 137. From various parts of Greenland they now amount east and west, while in America the only barriers of any to at least 280. Among the plants from Disco, more than importance run north and south. In consequence of this a quarter are also found in the Miocene of central Europe. peculiarity, climatic or orographic changes in Europe tend The plants of Disco include, besides the plane and Sequoia, to drive animals and plants into a oil de sac, from which such warm-temperate trees as Ginkgo, oak, beech, poplar, there is no escape ; but in America similar climatic waves maple, walnut, lime, and magnolia. If these different merely cause the species alternately to retreat and advance. deposits are contemporaneous, as is not improbable, there This difficulty in migration is probably the reason why is a distinct change in the flora as we move farther from the existing European flora is so poor in large-fruited trees the pole, which suggests that difference of latitude then as compared with what it was in Miocene times or with the now was accompanied by a difference in the flora. But if existing flora of North America. In America the contrast this process is continuous from latitude to latitude, then between the Eocene forests and those now living is much we ought not to look for a flora of equivalent age in the less striking, and this fact has led to the wrong assumption warm-temperate Miocene deposits of central Europe, but that the present American flora had its origin in the should rather expect to find that the temperate plants of American continent. Such a conclusion is by no means Greenland were contemporaneous with a tropical flora in warranted by the facts, for in Tertiary times, as we have central Europe. As Mr Starkie Gardner has pointed out, seen, the European flora had a distinctly “ American ” it does not seem reasonable to assume that the same flora facies. Therefore the so-called American forms may have could have ranged then through 40° of latitude ; it is more originated in the Old World, or more probably, as Saporta probable that an Eocene temperate flora found in the ests, in the polar regions, whence they were driven by Arctic regions travelled southwards as the climate became the increase of cold southwards into Europe and into cooler, till it became the Miocene temperate flora of America. The American Tertiary flora is so large, and central Europe. Mr Gardner suggests, therefore, that the the geology of the deposits is so intricate, that it is out of plant-beds of Greenland and Spitsbergen represent the the question to discuss them more fully within the limits period of greatest heat, and are therefore wrongly referred of this article. We may point out, however, that the to the Miocene. At present the evidence is scarcely early Tertiary floras seem to indicate a much closer sufficient to decide the question, for if this view is right, connexion and a greater community of species than is we ought to find within the Arctic circle truly Arctic found between the existing plants of Europe and America. floras equivalent to the cool Lower Eocene and Miocene Or, rather, we should perhaps say that ancient floras sug- periods • but these have not yet been met with. gest recent dispersal from the place of origin, and less A steady decrease of temperature marked the Pliocene time in which to vary and become modified by the loss of period throughout Europe, and gradually brought the different groups in the two continents. Geographical climatic conditions into correspondence with provinces are certainly indicated by the Eocene flora of those now existing, till towards the end of the Phocene' Europe and America, but these are less marked than those period neither climate nor physical geography differed now existing. greatly from those now existing. Concurrently with this If we turn to a more isolated region, like Australia, we change, the tropical and extinct forms disappeared, and find a Lower Eocene flora distinctly related to the existing the flora approached more and more nearly to that now

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1 .-v-v Six different companies have students in classics and modern subjects the iatter especially in obtained concessions from the city authorities for the electric reference to commerce and its practical application. In all lighting of prescribed sections for a period of eighteen years. these establishments the number of day pupils is increasing, t These 'concessions do not confer a monopoly, but are simply of boarders decreasing. There are now five which g authorizations. The city has retained the management of the can receive secondary education: Fenelon, Racine,mMoliere, La municipal electrical works under the central markets (Halles mar tine and Victor Hugo. The five faculties of medicine, law Centrales! The difficulties introduced into the administration by science ’literature, and Protestant theology, and the higher school these arrangements have left Paris far behind many lesser towns of pharmacy form the body of faculties, the association of which in its application of the system of electric lighting. has taken the name of the University of Paris. This university has The services d'hygiene of the city have developed rapidly, l ie acquired corporate rights which allow of its receiving gifts. At the Conseil d’Hygiene et de Salubrite of the department of the Seine, Sorbonne (seat of the university) there is also established the Ecole composed of 24 members nominated by the prefect o des Chartes. The faculty of Roman Catholic theology no longer Public Uce and 17 members called to it in virtue of their depends upon the State. This course is given at the independent health. 0ffiCe has published since 1895 an account of its biRoman Catholic University, which includes also faculties of science monthlv meetings. It inquired into and reported upon six literature, and law. But no university except that of the State can hundred cases in 1896. To it are referred such questions as the confer a degree. The city of Paris, besides founding special chairs sources from which to obtain drinking-water for town the at the Sorbonne, has opened special courses, at the Hotel deVi e. sanitary measures to be taken during important works, the work The Agricultural Institute, now installed m a separate building connected with the main sewers for the cleaning of the Seine from that of the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, has developed and the utilization of the sewage water, the health of workpeople greatly. The Pasteur Institute not only treats patients threatened employed in factories, the sanitary condition of the occupants of with hydrophobia and prepares serums which successfully combat schools and prisons, questions relating to the disinfection of certain diseases, but gives a course of biological chemistry m coninfected districts, the heating of public vehicles and dwellings the nexion with the faculty of science. The Ecole du Louvre impaits conveyance of infected persons, night shelters, &c. Since 1892 the such practical instruction as can be drawn from flections an service dcs epidemics has been active inquiring into the ongi museums. The Ecole Coloniale prepares colonial officials teaches these scourges and seeking to arrest their progress. It is this body natives from French colonies, and trains pupils for colonial liie. 011 that receives the compulsory declarations of doctors the subject Paris has 70 Roman Catholic churches, without reckoning the of contagious affections under their treatment. Special vehicles chapels attached to the Invalides and the Sorbonne or those ol are now set apart for the conveyance of persons suffering from the religious orders, which have services mostly open Churcbes, contagious diseases, whereas formerly public vehicles which had to the public. The Reformed or Calvinist Church carried such persons were afterwards used, without undergoing has 17 places of worship, and the Lutherans or Confession of disinfection, to convey healthy persons. Special municipal 10 Augsburg, the adherents of which are mainly Alsatians, have 10. chambers disinfect all personal belongings believed to be infected, The Jews have 4 synagogues. The priests, pastors, and rabbis while houses are attended to by special disinfectors. Akboratory of these four bodies receive stipends from the State. The lioteshas been fitted up for the diagnosing of certain complaints (diph- tant Free Church, a secession from the Reformed Church, has 4 theria and typhoid fever, for example) which cannot be identified congregations ; and French Protestantism also comprises 1 Swedenwithout scientific tests. A central sanitary association has been borgian, 2 Methodist, and 3 Baptist communities. The Englishformed and has commenced the registration of every house, entenn speaking colonies have 3 Anglican churches, 1 Scottish, 1 against the name of each all information as to its sanitary condition. Wesleyan, 1 Independent, 2 American Episcopal, 1 American This association will be the chief auxiliary of the commission, long

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PARIS Presbyterian, and 1 Roman Catholic. The other foreign colonies Roquette have been closed, demolished, and replaced by the new have a United Greek, a Russian, an Armenian, a Spanish, a prison of Fresnes-les-Rungis. This establishment covers 50 acres. German Lutheran, and a Swedish Protestant church. The mission The prisoners, kept in solitary confinement, are divided founded in 1872 by the late Dr R. W. McAll, chiefly supported into three groups: those undergoing short sentences, those Justice. by American and British subscriptions, has 17 stations, and the sentenced to hard labour while awaiting transference to their final Salvation Army 8. No religious census has been taken in France place of detention or to sentences over a year, and sick prisoners since 1872. occupying the central infirmary of the prison. The Petite Roquette The old Salle des Etats at the Louvre has received a Rubens col- (occupied by children) is also to be demolished, and to be replaced lection, which was opened at'the same time as fourteen rooms con- by the agricultural and horticultural colony of Montesson. Paris is to retain only the Conciergerie and depot of the Prefecture of Qallerles aGaining enerapictures of the Dutch school. This necessitated Police, both within the walls of the Palais de Justice, and the and l rearrangement of the Louvre, and the artistic prison co£ ec ns of La Sante, which will receive prisoners awaiting trial and museums in ^theti° small of palace the town of Paris have been installed of the Champs Elysees. The political prisoners. Musee Historique de I’Armee has been set up at the InThe only crematorium in France has been built at Pere la Chaise, valides; the museum of the town of Paris, called the Musee Car- for the cremation of those who have expressed a desire rCremat,on navalet, has been completely remodelled, and the town library for it and for the destruction of human remains from established at the Hotel Le Pelletier St Fargeau, Rue de Sevigne. the dissecting rooms. The Musee des Arts Decoratifs still awaits its installation in the The fire brigade (sapeurs-porapiers) is a regiment of the army, pavilion de Marsan, in the Tuileries. The Musee Guimet, near consisting of 2 battalions and 12 companies, the War Office the Trocadero, contains a collection of objects illustrative of the sharing the control of it with the Prefect of Police re religions of the Far East. The Musee Cernuschi, bequeathed to and the Minister of the Interior. It consists of 52 ’ the town, consists chiefly of Japanese and Chinese collections ; the officers, 185 non-commissioned officers, 291 corporals, and 1225 Grandidier collection at the Louvre includes Chinese and Oriental privates. It is composed of volunteer conscripts who have been articles. The Musee Galliera contains very fine tapestry belonging brought up to the building trades. They have a dark blue to the town of Paris. uniform, with a gilt helmet. Like soldiers in the regular army, The sum dispensed in public charity in 1896 amounted to they serve three years, but may re-enlist for seven years. They £1,473,845, about two - thirds of which was appropriated by have nightly duties at the theatres, and may be engaged for Char'itv doormedical remaining thirdinto Paris out- private entertainments. There are 24 stations, each provided with relief. department, In that yearthe511,880 persons 4 engines, 2 vans, a fire-escape, and a steam pump. There are 184 received public charity. The hospitals provided 26,294 beds, and horses, the property of a contractor. There are 6928 fire-plugs, 110,000 patients were treated in their own homes ; 48,000 paupers placed at intervals of 100 metres, and the pressure at most of these and 73,000 indigent persons received assistance, the number is sufficient to dispense with pumps; but formerly, when the waterof charity children being 48,000. The cost of public charity has supply was less perfect, by-standers had to be impressed to pass the considerably increased, having risen from £1,000,000 to £1,500,000 buckets from hand to hand. There were in 1901, besides 1544 since 1880 without a proportionate increase in the population during chimney fires and 436 false alarms, 1422 calls, but only 23 of these that period. The sum of £360,000 is devoted to the maintenance were serious fires. The aggregate damage was 5,927,000 francs, but of charity children or those deserted by their parents. Several new in the previous year the burning down of the Comedie Fram;aise had societies have devoted themselves to the protection of abandoned raised the total to 10,346,000 francs. The cost of the force in 1901 children, to the suppression of begging, to finding work for the was 2,729,000 francs, besides 892,000 francs supplementary expense unemployed, and to the reformation of prisoners. The Society for for plant, repairs, and rebuilding. The charge falls on the Paris the Protection of Deserted and Criminal Children has assisted municipality. In recognition of the unquestionable efficiency and thousands of children. Other associations attend to the treatment courage of the force, President Loubet, at the Longchamps review of consumptives and sick children. of the 14th July 1902, affixed to its flag the cross of the Legion of Several new hospitals have been built. Amongst them may be Honour. named the Bichat, for important surgical operations ; Herold, The 2,511,955 inhabitants of the city consumed in 1896, 352,021 . Broussais, chiefly for epidemic cases; and Boucicaut, tons 8 cwt. of bread; 123,362,426 gallons of wine and p ' founded by the liberality of the founder of the Bon spirits; 171,043 tons 9 cwt. of meat; 26,737 tons 14 „ . Marche establishment. On the other hand, the military hospital of cwt. of fish ; 27,724 tons 4 cwt. of poultry and MarketsGros Caillou has been demolished to make way for a new quarter. game; 491,799,240 eggs; 20,199 tons of butter; 8572 tons The Mont de Piete, which formerly lent only upon the pledging 8 cwt. of oysters ; 667 tons 8 cwt. of cheese ; 1207 tons 15 cwt. of of portable property, has for several years made loans to the early fruits and vegetables (only the fish and early produce arriving the central markets are reckoned ; those arriving elsewhere escape Pawn bearer of certain financial securities quoted on the at computation). The Marche de la Yillette continues to be the great br kinsr■*' of Bourse. There isonnow limit fixed to thebut magnitude transactions thenoformer security, on the centre for the supply of cattle, and its abattoir is still the principal latter not more than £20 can be lent. The number of loans con- one in the city. But on the left bank of the Seine the abattoirs tinues to decline. In 1897, 1,155,564 securities to the value of of Grenelle, Villejnif, and les Fourneaux have been replaced by that £1,315,215 were pledged, 1,026,271 to the value of £1,208,553 of Morillons, which occupies an area of 25 acres near the station were cleared, 729,205 to the value of £916,678 were renewed, of the Brittany Railway. The corn trade is still carried on at the and 129,442 to the value of £88,563 were sold. old corn-market {luille aux lies) transformed into the bourse du The amount of the deposits at the Caisse d’Epargne, or savings commerce, flour dealers meeting in the district between the Louvre bank, of Paris continuing to increase (in 1895 it reached the sum and St Germain I’auxerrois. For several years manual labour has been the subject of supply and demand at the Labour Exchange Banks 400,000),from the 3 rate of interest on cent., deposits been reduced per cent, to 2| per and has the {bourse du travail). maximum deposit permitted to each depositor has been reduced The following are the general results of the navigation statistics from £80 to £60. Beyond this sum the surplus is employed in of the Seine for 1898 : entrances, 5,202,700 tons ; traffic l. the purchase of rentes (stock) on behalf of the depositor. The clearances, 1,689,000 tons; transit, 1,397,800 tons; Ppmg. deposits were thus reduced to £6,098,386 at the end of 1896, and local, 641,300 ; total, 8,930,800 tons. Detailed results for 1897 to £5,906,377 at the end of 1897. The National Savings Bank, are given in the following table :— wfliich transacts its operations at the various State post offices, in 1895 had 2,280,000 depositors and £28,000,000 in deposits. One Entrances. Clearances. Transit. quarter of its transactions took place within Paris. In the same Total proportion Paris was concerned in the business done by the National Towards Towards Towards Towards MoveOffice for Old Age Pensions, which in 1894 paid out £1,328,673 to Lower Upper the the the ment. the Seine. Seine. Lower Upper Lower Upper 196,987 annuitants. The interest paid when the association was Seine. Seine. Seine. Seine. founded in 1852 was 5 per cent. ; since 1894 it has fallen to 3J per cent. The privilege of issuing bank notes enjoyed by the Bank of Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. France has been extended from 1897 to 1920. The maximum issue 1,066,026 1,735,149 612,120 713,171 957,118 987,608 6,071,192 has been fixed at 5,000,000,000 francs, or £200,000,000. The bank can now discount the stock of the agricultural syndicates, and has Navigation of the Canals in 1897. a branch in the capital of each department and in numerous other commercial centres, in addition to sub-offices which yearly increase St Martin’s Canal. Total for Ourcq Canal. St Denis Canal. in number ; all its officials must be French. The circulation of the three bank notes in 1897 amounted in value to £151,361,227. (See also Canals. Down. Down. Up. Up. Up. the article Banking.) The Court of Appeal now consists of seven civil chambers, besides Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. one for preliminary proceedings and one for appeal from the cor97,685 525,148 1,400,497 399,171 763,537 351,447 3,537,485 rectional police. The prisons of Mazas, Ste Pelagic, and La Grande

PARIS The postal department of Paris was served in 1897 by 98 offices (exclusive of the great central office), 96 of which were telegraph offices ; there were also 48 auxiliary offices managed by shopkeepers, continueof to inoffice, x-c. crease jn num&e. ber, asThese also dosub-offices the letter-boxes, which there are no less than 2000. The circulation of letters for specified years is shown by the following tables :— Unpaid Prepaid Year. Letters. . Letters. 478,000 49,193,000 1886 57,930,000 473,000 1890 67,011,000 467,918 1895 67,352,348 460,075 1897 There were also despatched from Paris in 1897, 15,264,000 postcards, price 10 centimes ; 3,127,400 letter-cards, price 15 centimes ; 53,110 cards, reply prepaid, price 20 centimes ; 19,580 foreign letter-cards, price 25 centimes ; 502,055 registered letters for Paris, 4,492,315 registered letters for France, 770,472 registered foreign letters, 862,424 registered packets for France, 410,160 registered foreign packets ; 85,299 letters containing money orders for Paris, 1,059,700 letters containing money orders for France, and 260,027 for abroad ; 31,556 boxes containing money orders for Paris, and 408,002 for France. Mo^OrderJ. ' Amoimts UnI re- recovered. Issued. Paid. covered. Paid. Issued. £212,000 £148,000 1887 £3,388,000 £5,424,000 £452,000 £680,000 272,000 1894 4,021,000 6,688,000 428,000 728,000 476,000 1897 4,174,040 6,794,510 461,090 817,510 306,523 154,683 French Money Orders.

The following table shows the number of newspapers sent by post in specified years to addresses {a) in the department of the Seine, (5) in other departments or abroad :—Political and Periodical Journals. Depts. Department Other or Foreign of the Seine. Countries. 1887 18,000,000 104,000,000 1890 | 20,000,000 112,000,000 1895 j 22,216,000 119,000,000 1897 S 22,774,812 120,992,934

Non-political Periodicals. Depts. Department OtherForeign of the Seine. or Countries. 17,000,000 40,000,000 18,000,000 48,000,000 22,300,000 .52,913,815 22,-974,945 53,475,201

stations. The time allowed for conversation is usually fixed at five minutes. The rate of charge varies according as the communication is exchanged with Paris or beyond, and the distance from the inner office. Telephonic messages can be conveyed, if desired, from the receiving office to specified addresses. Conversations are most frequent between Paris and, among foreign towns, Brussels, London, and Geneva. In France, Rouen, Havre, Lille, Lyons, Marseilles, and Reims are the towns that most frequently communicate with the capital. On the 31st December 1896 the telephone staff comprised four higher officials, 230 clerks, 1401 women assistants, 148 under-officials. The network of telephones increases continuously, and about 2500 new subscribers are added every year. The International Exhibitions which may be said to follow one another periodically in Paris (1855, 1867, 1878, 1889 1900) offer a means of reviewing the progress made during the ^xbibi= intervals between them in the various branches of art tloas &c and industry, especially as each Exhibition carries out a programme vaster than that of its predecessor. Ihus, whilst the 1855 Exhibition concerned itself only with contemporary art and industry, that of 1867 told the story, of their development In 1878 the Rue des Nations reproduced in Paris a monument ol every foreign country with its local colour. In 1889 the Rue du Caire enabled one to live for a time in that celebrated capital. But these, after all, were but temporary shows, designed for the entertainment of crowds. The progress of greatest importance demonstrated in 1889 was that made in the art of construction in iron, as illustrated by two notable examples—the Eiilel Tower, the most gigantic tower of the whole world, 990 feet nigh, and the Gallery of Machinery, with its boldly designed girders (remarkable for their immense span). Glass buildings are features of the time ; and in place of the fiat and uniform facades which border the boulevards opened during the Second Empire, contemporary architects build carved and sculptured facades, with ledges and projections. And notwithstanding the heavy cost of the disasters of 1870, several important public buildings have been erected since—the Opera, the Tuileries, the new Sorbonne, the schools of medicine and law, the general post office, central tel®' phone office, the galleries of the natural history museum, _ the Opera Comique, amongst others. . Several lycecs and hospitals and numerous schools have been either built or enlarged railway stations are magnificent structures ; among bank buildings those of the Credit Lyonnais may be quoted as models of thenkind, and several handsome new museums have been opened, mainly by private individuals who see in such foundations the best means of safeguarding the future of their collections. Dwellinghouses, too, are much more intelligently arranged than those of older date, and are fitted with all the latest improvements devised by science for the comfort of man. (g. Ms.)

In the parcel post department 4,508,277 packages were received in Paris from places in France, 735,783 from abroad; 16,232,742 were despatched from Paris into the provinces, 1,834,314 abroad. The receipts of the Paris post office amounted in 1887 to £2,320,000, in 1894 to £2,600,000. The personnel of the service on’the ’sist December 1896 consisted of 211 higher officials, 1696 clerks, 271 women assistants, 2972 letter-carriers. It employed 300 horses, 120 drivers, 35 two-horse vans, 53 one-horse vans, 59 tilburys, 37 factors’ omnibuses. Cyclists carry special collections to the railway stations. Automobiles have been employed in collecting the contents of letter-boxes. In connexion with the telegraph service of Paris there are 104 offices. The telegraphic circulation is tabulated thus (numbers in thousands):— Paris. 1886 1890 1895 1897

3168 4058 4490 4692

Despatched to The Provinces. Abroad. 1244 3394 1487 7551 1591 8563 1374 8967

471

Received from The Abroad. Paris. |, Provinces.; 959 3168 3337 1170 7722 4058 1250 4490 8817 1063 9035 4692

To this number must be added the telegrams passing through Paris, which in 1886 numbered 16,798,000 ; in 1897, 25,402,000. A large number of the messages sent in Paris for delivery within the city are forwarded through pneumatic tubes. In 1886 the number so despatched was 3,095,997 ; in 1897, 4,410,400. The staff consisted on the 31st December 1896 of 24 higher officials, 1220 clerks, and 839 women assistants. The telephone service, like the postal and telegraph services monopolized by the State, consists of a central office communicating with eleven divisional offices, to which subscribers in various districts nome for connexion. The public can make use of telephone boxes in the post, telegraph, and telephone offices, and in certain railway

Parisian Events since 1875.—After the adoption of the Constitution of 1875, the first important political event in Paris was the dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies, pronounced by the Senate on 19th June 181 7, at the request of Marshal MacMahon, then President of the Republic. The elections that followed this act gave a large majority to the Republicans. The Universal Exhibition of 1878, destined to show Europe that France had recovered her material prosperity and moral power, attracted a large concourse, but the different sovereigns abstained. The number of admissions was about 13,000,000. A grand fete, full of gaiety and enthusiasm, was held on 30th June. This was the first public rejoicing since the war. Marshal MacMahon resigned the Presidency in 1879, and was succeeded by M. Jules Grevy. The terrible winter of 1879-80 was the severest of the century; the Seine, entirely frozen, resembled a sea of ice. The 14th of July, the anniversary of the taking of the Bastille, was adopted as the French national holiday, and celebrated for the first time in 1880. A grand military review was held in the Bois de Boulogne, at which President Grevy distributed flags to all the regiments of the army. On 17th March 1881 a national loan of a thousand million francs was issued for the purpose of executing important public works. This loan was covered fifteen times, Paris alone subscribing for ten thousand millions. At the time of the legislative elections, on 21st August and 4th September 1881, several tumults occurred in the Belleville district. Gambetta, who was a candidate in the two wards of that district, vainly tried to address the electors.

472

PARIS

The great orator died in the following year, on the 31st of December, from the effects of an accident, and his funeral, celebrated in Paris at the expense of the State, was attended by an immense gathering. A slight Legitimist agitation followed Gambetta’s death. An unfortunate event occurred on 29th September 1883, the day when the king of Spain, Alphonso XII., returned from his visit to Berlin, where he had reviewed the 15th regiment of Prussian Uhlans, of which he was the honorary colonel. The cries of “ Down with the Uhlan ! ” with which he was greeted by the Paris crowd, gave rise to serious diplomatic incidents. On 26th May 1885 the following decree was rendered : “ The Pantheon is restored to its primitive and legal destination. The remains of the great men who have merited national recognition will be disposed therein.” But it was only on 4th August 1899 that the ashes of Lazare Carnot, Hoche, Marceau, Latour d’Auvergne, and Baudin were solemnly transported to the Pantheon. Victor Hugo’s funeral was celebrated on 1st June 1885, and by an urgency vote they were made national obsequies. It was decided that the corpse should be exposed one day and one night under the Arc de Triomphe, veiled with an immense crape. A few days before, upon the occasion of the anniversary of the fall of the Commune, a tumultuous political manifestation had been made in front of the tomb of the Communists buried in Pere Lachaise cemetery. M. Jules Grevy was re-elected President of the French Republic in 1885. The following year the Monarchists renewed their political demonstrations ; the most important one was the reception given by the Count of Paris at the Galliera mansion on the occasion of the marriage of his daughter with the King of Portugal. The Count of Paris had invited to this reception all the foreign ambassadors, and some disturbance having taken place, the Chamber of Deputies, on 11th June 1886, voted a law interdicting sojourn upon French territory to the Orleanist and Bonapartist pretenders to the throne of France, and also to their direct heirs. At that epoch Paris was in a state of agitation and discontent, and various catastrophes occurred. First of all came the disastrous bankruptcy of a large financial concern called the Union Generale; then the scandal concerning the traffic in decorations, in which M. Wilson, son-inlaw of M. Jules Grevy, was compromised, and which eventually led to the resignation of the President; finally, the deplorable Panama affair profoundly enervated the Parisians, and made them feel the necessity of shouting for a military master, some adventurer who would promise them a revenge. All this led to Boulangism. It was by wild acclamations and frantic shouts that General Boulanger was greeted, first at the review of the army on the 14th of July, then two days later at the opening of the Military Club, afterwards at the Winter Circus, where the Patriots’ League held a mass meeting under the presidency of Paul Deroulede, and finally, on 8th July, at an immense demonstration at the Lyons railway station, when “le brav’ General” left Paris to take command of the 13th army corps at Clermont Ferrand. Popular refrains were sung in the streets in the midst of immense excitement on 27th January 1889 at the time of the election of General Boulanger as deputy for the Seine department. A majority of 80,000 votes had invested him with an immense moral authority, and he appeared as though elected as the candidate of the entire country; but he lacked the necessary audacity to complete his triumph, and the Government having decided to prosecute him for conspiracy against the security of the State, before the Senate acting as a High Court of Justice, he fled with his accomplices, Rochefort and Dillon. All three were condemned by default, on 14th August, to imprisonment in a fortified enclosure.

Other events had also troubled this astonishing interlude of Boulangism. On 23rd February 1887 a terrible fire destroyed the Opera Comique during a performance, and a great many of the audience perished in the flames. The first performance of Lohengrin, which took place at the Eden Theatre on 1st May 1887, was also the cause of street rioting. In 1888 there were several strikes. That of the day labourers, which lasted more than a month, occasioned violent scenes, owing to the sudden death of Emile Eudes, a Communist, while he was speaking in favour of the strike at a public meeting. On 2nd December there were manifestations in memory of Baudin, a representative of the people, killed upon the barricades in 1851 while fighting in the defence of the Republic. But a calm finally came, and then the Parisians thought only of celebrating the centenary of the Revolution of 1789 by a universal exhibition. This Exhibition contained a profusion of marvels such as had never before been seen, and indicated what enormous industrial progress had been accomplished. Sadi Carnot, who had succeeded M. Jules Grevy as President of the Republic on 3rd December 1887, officially opened the Exhibition on 6th May 1889. Numerous fetes were held in the grounds while the exhibition lasted. The Eiffel Tower and the illuminated fountains enraptured the crowd of visitors, while the Rue du Caire, with its Egyptian donkey-drivers, obtained a prodigious success. Most of the nations were represented at this Exhibition. Germany alone confined her co-operation to the display of some paintings. The Shah of Persia, in honour of whom splendid fetes were organized, and the King of Greece, the Prince of Wales, the Lord Mayor of London, several Russian grand dukes, Annamite, Tunisian, Moorish, Egyptian, and African princes, successively visited the Exhibition. There were 30,000,000 visitors. On the 18th of August a banquet was offered in the Palais de PIndustrie by the Paris Municipal Council to all the mayors in France, and 15,000 of these officials were present. In 1890 the duke of Orleans, having attained his majority, came to Paris to draw for military service with the young conscripts of his class. He was arrested, and placed, first in the Conciergerie, and later in the prison at Clairvaux, but was released after a few months’ incarceration. The following years were remarkable for more strikes and several demonstrations by the students, which led in 1893 to conflicts with the police, in one of which a student was killed. On the 17th of October an enthusiastic welcome was extended to Admiral Avellan and the Russian sailors upon their arrival in Paris. It was about this time that dynamite began to be used by the Anarchists. After Ravachol, who commenced the sinister exploits of the “ propaganda by acts,” it was Yaillant that threw a bomb into the “ Temple of the Laws” on 9th December 1893, and wounded fortysix deputies. Then there was a succession of these attacks during the two following months, for Ravachol and Yaillant had found emulators. Henry scattered fright and death among the peaceable customers of a brasserie, while bombs were thrown into the doorways and staircases of houses inhabited by wealthy people. Upon the steps of the Madeleine Church, Parvels, who was already the author of two dynamite plots, was struck down by the destructive machine that he was about to throw into the body of the church. Laurent Tailhade himself, who had celebrated with his pen the beauty of Yaillant’s gesture, was subsequently wounded by dynamite thrown into the Cafe Foy, where he was lunching. Finally came the attack on President Carnot, who, on 24th June 1894, fell at Lyons under the blow of the Italian anarchist Caserio’s dagger. His funeral was

PARIS

473

celebrated at Paris on 1st July. M. Casimir-Perier, elected and all being of an astonishing diversity. To the right President of the Kepublic on the preceding day, followed were the pavilion of the city of Paris and the enormous the procession on foot. He resigned office on 15th January greenhouses, and in the distance Old Paris, so pic1895, and on the 17th M. Felix Faure was chosen as his turesquely constructed by Robida. In short, exotic edifices and scintillating cupolas arose with unparalleled profusion, successor. The visit of the Emperor and Empress of Russia, on creating in the heart of Paris a veritable city of dreams the 5th, 6th, and 7th of October 1896, was celebrated and illusion. The most distant countries sent their art by incomparable fetes. The Rue de la Paix was decorated treasures or the marvels of their industry. The number of with ropes and sails, stretched across the street like the visitors was 51,000,000, and the personages of mark inrigging of a vast vessel, in honour of the Russian cluded the Shah of Persia, the King of Sweden, the King sailors. Nothing could be seen anywhere except flags, of the Belgians, and the King of Greece, all of whom were cockades, and badges formed of the colours of the two successively the guests of France. On the 22nd of friendly nations. In the evening there were open-air September 22,000 mayors accepted the invitation to the balls, with farandoles and orchestras at all the street banquet offered in their honour by President Loubet, and corners. Popular enthusiasm was again manifested ori thus solemnly affirmed their Republican faith. This ad31st August, when President Faure returned from his mirably organized banquet was spread in the luileries visit to the Russian court. On 4th May 1897 the Gardens. The Exhibition of 1900, a brilliant epilogue of terrible conflagration at the Charity Bazaar in the Rue the closing century, was a grand manifestation of uniJean Goujon threw into mourning one hundred and versal concord, of the union of peoples by art, science, (de b.) forty families of the nobility or the aristocracy of Paris, industry, all branches of human genius. and spread sorrow among the class always considerate Paris, a city of Texas, U.S.A., capital of Lamar in its benevolence. Then all minds were again troubled and disturbances occurred in the streets for more than county. It is in the north-eastern part of the state, two years over the Dreyfus case, dividing the French on the Gulf, Colorado, and Santa Fe, the St Louis and people into two camps. Certain newspapers kept up the San Francisco, the Texas and Pacific, and the Texas Midland railways, at an altitude of 563 feet. It is in a agitation, which was the cause of numerous prosecutions. grain and cotton region, for which it is a collecting and Felix Faure died suddenly on the 18th of February 1899. The very day of his funeral, Paul Deroulede and distributing point, and has a large trade and some manuPopulation (1880), 3980; (1890), 8254; Marcel Habert tried to make a coup d'etat by urging factures. General Roget to lead his troops, which had formed part (1900), 9358, of whom 182 were foreign-born and 3061 of the guard of honour at the obsequies, against the negroes. Elysee. Immediately arrested and put on trial, Deroulfede Paris, Louis Philippe Albert cTOrand Habert were acquitted by a timorous jury. lath. Anat. u. z. allg, Path., Ziegler, on their setiology and pathology; and several diseases xxix., 1901, p. 92.—Kickhefel. “ Histology of Mucoid,” Arch. mentioned in the following classification are not further ' path. Anat., cxxix. 1892, p. 450.—Krawkow. “Chemistry referred to in the text, because little or nothing, beyond of Amyloid,” Arch. f. exper. Path. u. Pharmakol. xh, 1897, p. 195; also, “Experimental Amyloid,” Arch. f. path. Anat, clii., what has already appeared, can be given. For example, 1898, p. 162.—Krompecher. “Plasma-Cells,” Bcitr. z.path. Anal Boil and Carbuncle, and Anthrax or Splenic Fever, had u. s. allg. Path, xxiv., 1898, p. 163. — LabbT. La cytologic been as fully studied when the articles for the ninth edition expirimentale. Paris, 1898.—Lazarus-Barlow. “Lymph Forma- were written as they are at the present time; it is there; tion,” J. Physiol. Camb. xix., 1895-96, p. 418 ; also, Manual of General Pathology. London, 1898.—Loeb. “ Certain Activities fore unnecessary to write what could only be of the of the Epithelial Tissue of Skin of Guinea-Pig, &c.,” Johns Hop- nature of repetition. In certain conditions, such as kins Hasp. Bull., Balt., ix., 1898, p. 1 ; also, “Artificial Pro- Rheumatism, Vaccinia, Mumps, Dengue, Epidemic Dropsy, duction of Normal Larvae,” Amer. Journ. Physiol, iii., 1899, p. Oriental Sore, Verruga, Framboesia or Yaws, Beriberi, J35.—Lowit. “Relationship of Leucocytes to Bacterial Action,” 520

PATHOLOGY (PARASITIC DISEASES).

Plate VII.

Fig. 8

M"Lagan & Gumming-, Lith., Kdm. Drawn by Rd. Muir.

Fig. 1.—Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus, from a 12-hours’ agar culture. x ^ia™u x 1000 diam. cuuUre. 6.—Micrococcus mditensis vel Brucei (Micrococcus of Malta x ,ooo diam. 8.—Fraenkel’s diplococcus Pneumonia; (pneumococcus), from a 12. L 13. -Preparation of Glanders Bacillus (B. mallei), from a 12-hours agar cuUure. x 1 the fear of over-production was justifiable, for the growth of the trade in countries already using petroleum products for the purposes specified could not be very rapid, and new markets had to be sought in less civilized countries, where inferior illuminating agents and lubricating materials were in use. With the recognition, however, of the value of petroleum as liquid fuel, and as a source of gas for illuminating purposes, the whole complexion of the case became altered, and the industry at once assumed an extensive character, which, notwithstanding its vast aggregate volume, it had not previously possessed. The effect of this upon the Russian petroleum trade has already been mentioned, but it remains to be said that the substitution of petroleum for coal in gas-making has also been a prominent feature of the development which the industry as a whole has undergone in recent years. A very large proportion of the gas used as a source of light in the United States is water-gas, to which light-giving power is furnished by carburetting it with the gaseous products of petroleum, and already in Great Britain large quantities of petroleum distillate are similarly employed. Amongst other recent uses to which petroleum products are being put is that of furnishing power, through the agency of an internal-combustion motor similar to a gas engine, the most successful types of automobile vehicles for carrying light weights at high speed for long distances being furnished with petroleumspirit motors. Oil engines, in which the ordinary petroleum burning oil is similarly used, are also now largely employed in rural districts where gas is not obtainable, or is comparatively costly. Apart from these modern features of the industry, there has been a steady progression in the world’s consumption of petroleum, and especially in the substitution of mineral oils for animal and vegetable oils in the lubrication of machinery. To afford some idea of the present magnitude of the trade, it may be stated that a pipe 41 inches in diameter would be needed for the conveyance of the petroleum which the world is at present using, assuming a rate of flow of 3 feet a second; and that for the storage of a year’s supply, a tank 929 feet in length, breadth, and height would be required. The technology of the business has been marked by several important advances. The system of drilling the wells in the United States, which closely readvances sembles the ancient method practised by the Chinese, has been improved only in points of detail, and has remained practically unaltered for many years. In Russia a different system, in which the drilling instruments are attached to iron rods instead of to a manila cable, is usually employed. The wells in the latter country, though of less depth than the majority of those in the United States, are of far larger diameter and are much more costly to bore. The productiveness of a Russian oil “fountain” is, however, enormously in excess of the average production of wells in America, though the flow is not, as a rule, long sustained. In the Russian and Rumanian oil-fields electric motors have been substituted to a considerable extent for steam engines, and in a few instances oil engines have been successfully introduced. From those wells in the Russian oil-fields which do not flow, it is customary to raise the oil by means of a cylindrical baler, the presence of sand in the oil interfering with the use of the ordinary lift-pump adopted in the United States. Recently a system of raising the oil by means of a stream of compressed air has

Industry

[production

been successfully tested in the Baku district, and seems likely to be largely employed. In the refining of petroleum the principal features of improvement have been, in Russia, the general introduction of the continuous system of distillation, which effects considerable economy in time, fuel, and labour; and in the United States, the successful treatment of crude oil containing sulphur compounds, whereby these impurities are practically eliminated, and a class of crude oil, which could not previously be advantageously worked, is rendered commercially valuable. Doubtless, however, the salient feature of advance has been the general adoption of the bulk system of transport and distribution. It is not many years since competent authorities expressed grave doubts as to the possibility of safely carrying petroleum in bulk across the Atlantic in stormy weather, and it must be admitted that the first experiments in this direction were not attended with hopeful results. The Russian petroleum trade was the first to benefit by the successful introduction of a system of marine transport of petroleum, the credit for which belongs to the brothers Nobel. Subsequently British shipbuilders, and notably the firm of Armstrong, Mitchell and Company, directed their attention to the construction of steamships suitable for this traffic, and at the present time the fleet of petroleum tank steamers is a large and very valuable one. These vessels sail regularly at frequent intervals from American and Russian ports, carrying cargoes of oil in bulk for the supply not only of the markets of Great Britain and the European continent, but also those of the East and elsewhere. Concurrently with this general introduction of marine transport in bulk, there has been a corresponding extension in the use of pipe lines, tank barges, tank railway waggons, and tank road waggons for distribution, so that much of the oil finds its way from the mouth of the well to the shop of the retailer, or even to the premises of the actual consumer, without having been put into any special package, such as the 40-gallon barrel or 4-gallon tin can in which it was formerly delivered; and this, as will be readily understood, results in a considerable saving of expense. The closer study which has for some years been devoted to the geological features of petroliferous territories has resulted in the acquisition of more exact knowledge of the age and structure of the rock- aeol°g,caI formations concerned. This knowledge has been found of high practical value in enabling the expert to select favourable sites for boring operations, and it may be urged that no labour should be spared which may contribute to the completeness and accuracy of the available records. On all well-conducted petroleum properties it is now customary to note with care and precision the character of the strata perforated by the drill, so that a complete section may be prepared from the recorded data. In some cases the depths are stated with reference to sealevel instead of being taken from the surface, and it is much to be desired that this practice should become universal, as the correlation of the rapidly-accumulating data is thus simplified. There is scarcely any part of the globe which does not afford some trace of bitumen, in the gaseous, liquid, or solid state, and it is a common fallacy that petroleum is a comparatively rare substance, in the sense of occurring in only a few localities. On the other hand, while the areas in which it occurs in sufficient concentration, or in such quantity as to be of commercial value, are both fairly numerous and extensive, the discovery of petroleum in a given locality is not necessarily of industrial importance. There are few substances more widely distributed in nature, but the conditions requisite

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for the creation of a valuable store of the material exist only in a limited number of places. No definite connexion can be traced between the localities where it is known to occur and the present limits of sea and land, equally rich and equally scanty deposits being found in the hearts of continents and in the oceanic islands. Similarly, the tropics, the temperate and the polar circles are about equal in respect of their possession of bitumen, but it may be noted that the greater part of the known oil-bearing territory is north of the equator. Several writers have pointed out that the principal petroleum deposits of the world are intimately associated with the great mountain chains. It must not, however, be assumed that there is any necessary connexion between the origin of petroleum and the positions of the deposits in relation to the mountain ranges, the rational explanation of the intimate relation referred to being that it is usually in the neighbourhood of the mountains that the strata have, by the same changes as those which created the mountains and valleys, been thrown into a form suitable for the collection or concentration of the oil. The geographical distribution of petroleum affords most valuable evidence in relation to its origin. For a rare mineral special local conditions may be of paramount importance, but for a substance of almost world-wide occurrence, the theory of origin must harmonize with conditions that were either widespread simultaneously or of frequent recurrence in various places. We find that every one of the great divisions of geological time has produced some form of bitumen, and in the following table Mr W. H. Dalton has attempted to classify on this basis the various localities in which petroleum has been found in large or small quantities :— Geological Periods. Localities. Quaternary Lancashire, Schleswig-Holstein, Red Sea, Mexico. Pliocene . Italy, Sumatra, Borneo, New Zealand. Miocene . Auvergne, Italy, Algeria, Egypt, Zante, Rumania, Austria, Caucasus, Persia, Turkestan, Assam, Burma, Eastern Archipelago (Java, Sumatra, Borneo, &c.), Japan, Alaska, California, Mexico, West Indies, New Zealand. Oligocene Switzerland, Alsace, Galicia, Caucasus, Alaska, and other areas included under Eocene or Miocene by various authors. Eocene Spain, Italy, Egypt, Turkey, Rumania, Austria, Caucasus, Baluchistan, Punjab, Assam, Burma, Eastern Archipelago, Utah, Texas, Mexico, New Zealand. Cretaceous Switzerland, Hanover, Greece, California, Wyoming, Colorado, Athabasca, New Zealand. Neocomian Spain, East France, Switzerland, Hanover, Austria, Rumania, Syria, Venezuela, West Indies, and other areas included under Cretaceous by various authors. Jurassic . England, Switzerland, Alsace, Hanover, Colorado, Mexico, Argentine Republic, and possibly other South American regions. Triassic . Alsace, Hanover, Punjab, China. Permian . Autun, Saxony. Carboniferous Great Britain, South Russia, Central and Eastern United States, New Brunswick. Some of the deposits now assigned to the Carboniferous were formerly classified with the Devonian. Devonian England, North Russia, Ontario. Silurian . East Canada, Central and Eastern United States, Newfoundland. Cambrian British Columbia and Alberta (Kootenay Pass). Archaean. Sweden (bituminous gneiss of Nullaberg), East Canada (graphite). It should be pointed out that the deposits which are of chief commercial importance occur in the older rocks (Carboniferous and Silurian) on the one hand, and in the comparatively new Tertiary formation on the other, the intermediate periods yielding but little, or at any rate far less abundantly.

641

The anticlinal or terrace structure which characterizes the principal oil-fields of the world is a most important factor in the accumulation of oil and gas. The anticlines, which have been formed by the slow Formacontractile movements of the earth, usually occur ^pos/fs as a series of broad low arches separated by synclines. They often extend for long distances, with great regularity, but are not infrequently crossed by subsidiary anticlines, which themselves play a not unimportant part in the aggregation of the oil. Owing to difference of density the oil and water present in the anticlines separate into two layers, the upper consisting of oil which fills the anticlines, while the water remains in the synclines. Any gas which may be present rises to the summits of the anticlines. When the slow folding of the strata is accompanied by a gradual local descent, a modified or “ arrested ” anticlinal structure, known as a “ terrace,” is produced, the upheaving action at that part being sufficient only to arrest the descent which would otherwise occur. The terraces may thus be regarded as flat and extended anticlines. They need not be horizontal, and sometimes have a dip of a few feet per mile, as in the case of the Ohio and Indiana oil-fields, where the dip varies from 1 to 10 feet. These slight differences in level, however, are found to have a most powerful effect in the direction already mentioned. Generally, it may be said that the strata from which the main supplies of oil and gas have been obtained in the United States are unusually unbroken, nearly horizontal, and but little disturbed. The importance of the anticlinal structure has been equally observed in the oil-fields of the Caucasus, the Carpathians, and elsewhere. The formation of large deposits of petroleum is, however, dependent upon something more than we have yet considered. We may have the necessary deposit of organic matter, subjected to the requisite conditions to effect its conversion into petroleum, and we may have the anticlinal structure favouring the accumulation of the oil produced, but in addition we need a rock of sufficient porosity to serve as a reservoir for the oil, and above it an impervious stratum to preserve the oil from evaporation and oxidation, and from being displaced by water. The principal deposits which provide the necessary porosity for the storage of the oil are sandstones, conglomerates, and limestones. Shaly sandstones and slaty shales also serve as reservoir-rocks in a lesser degree. In the case of limestones, a natural porosity, such as is found in the coarsely crystalline varieties, or a certain amount of chemical change resulting in the formation of interspaces capable of receiving the oil, appears to be necessary for the formation of a true reservoir-rock. Such change is usually dolomitic, consisting in the conversion of the calcium carbonate forming the limestone into the double carbonate of calcium and magnesium known as “dolomite,” which occupies less space than the unaltered limestone. It is therefore characterized by the production of such numerous spaces between the dolomite crystals that the rock becomes capable of retaining a large volume of oil. This dolomitic change appears to be capable of occurring only in the purer limestones. The Trenton limestone, for instance, is thus modified only where almost free from silica, the changed parts showing about 54 per cent, of calcium carbonate and 44 per cent, of magnesium carbonate. A large proportion of the Trenton limestone is too impure to permit of the change, and is destitute of oil and gas. Even in rich oil-fields the dolomite has only been formed in a small portion of the stratum. When followed northwards into Ohio and Indiana, the Trenton limestone is found to have become dolomitic through a small thickness only of its upper beds. The changed and S. YU. — 81

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unaltered portions occur at short intervals, but only the former contain the oil and gas. The change usually affects from 10 to 50, and in some cases 100 feet of the stratum, and has occurred along a line passing into Indiana through the principal oil and gas fields of Ohio. In addition to possessing a porous structure, the reservoir-rock must be entirely covered by an impervious layer, the commonest and most perfect cover being a fine-grained shale. The fractured character of the strata in central and eastern Pennsylvania may account for the absence of oil and gas in those districts. In oil-bearing territory the occurrence of a porous rock beneath a cover-rock usually results in the formation of an oil-field. Oil and gas are often met with in drilled wells under great pressure, which is highest as a rule in the deepest wells. The closed pressure in the Trenton limestone in Ohio and Indiana is about 200-300 Bb per square inch, although a much higher pressure has been registered in many wells. The gas wells of Pennsylvania indicate about double the pressure of those drilled in the Trenton limestone, 600-800 lb not being unusual, and even 1000 lb having been recorded. The extremely high pressure under which oil is met with in wells drilled in some parts of the Russian oil-fields is a matter of common knowledge, and a fountain or spouting well resulting therefrom is one of the “sights” of the country. A famous fountain in the Groznyi oil-field in the northern Caucasus, which began to flow in August 1895, was estimated to have thrown up during the first three days 1,200,000 poods (over 4,500,000 gallons, or about 18,500 tons) of oil a day. It flowed continuously, though in gradually diminishing quantity, for fifteen months, quickly destroying the derrick which had been erected; afterwards the flow became intermittent. In April 1897 there was still an occasional outburst of oil and gas. The manner in which Nature created and put away in her storehouses the petroleum which is being lavishly poured out to-day is a subject of more than academic interest, since it is closely connected with the question of the permanence of the supplies. The various theories of origin may be broadly classified into two groups, one consisting of those which assign to the product an inorganic origin, and the other those which account for its production from animal or vegetable matter, or both. The latter group of theories are the more generally accepted, and the researches of Engler have furnished strong support to the view previously advanced by Hofer that the organic matter from which the petroleum was derived was, at any rate in many instances, animal rather than vegetable. To our knowledge of the chemical composition of petroleum no very striking or commercially important addition has been made within recent years, although from time to time interesting results have been announced which have thrown light upon the subject, and afforded confirmation of views previously based largely upon deduction. The “production” of petroleum by means of drilled wells in the United States was fully described in the article Petroleum in the ninth edition of the EncycloProduc- pcedia Britannica. The system remains substanpetroleum. unchanged to-day, but in consequence of the increased depth of the wells, extending in some districts to upwards of 3000 feet, heavier tools are commonly employed. In the method hitherto most largely adopted in drilling in the Russian oil-fields a percussion or “jumper” drill is also used, but the tools are suspended from the mechanism, which imparts to them a vertical reciprocating motion by means of screw-jointed iron rods instead of the manila cable which fulfils a

[production

similar purpose in the American system. Cable drilling is also practised to some extent in the Baku district, and as it is admittedly far more expeditious than drilling with rods, it is probable that it will be increasingly adopted, on account of the greater depth at which the oil has to be sought. Although the Russian oil wells are of less depth than most of those in the United States, they are of much greater diameter, and are therefore comparatively expensive, some of them costing as much as ,£5000. Owing to the high price of screwed artesian casing of large diameter, and the difficulty of handling it, riveted casing of iron plate is generally used, although it is not easy with such casing effectively to exclude water from the bore-hole. Recently, on some properties in the Russian oil-fields, artesian casing has been employed advantageously. The character of the strata and mode of occurrence of the oil necessitate the drilling of wells of large diameter in these fields; but even such wells frequently get choked when a fountain is struck, the soft sand and boulders of the oilbearing formation being driven into the bore-hole by the immense pressure often exerted by the outflowing oil. The large diameter is also highly advantageous when the well has ceased to flow, for, owing to the great quantity of sand present in suspension, the oil cannot be raised with ordinary lift-pumps, as in the United States, and has to be brought to the surface by means of a baler (a long cylindrical vessel made of sheet iron, with a valve at the lower end): it is therefore obvious that the quantity of oil thus obtained in the course of a day would be but small unless the size of the well were such as to admit of the use of a baler of considerable diameter. Some success has attended the trial in the Baku district of a method of raising the oil from the well by the use of compressed air. In this system, which has been for some time past employed in raising water, the compressed air is forced down a pipe of small diameter, fixed centrally in the well, and issues at the bottom through an outlet fitted Avith an inverted cone. The stream of air is thus made to impinge against the inner surface of the casing of the well, so as to fill the annular space, and in its upward rapid fioAV it carries the oil to the surface. It is found that oil can thus be raised far more rapidly than by baling, and as the air-lift system can be employed in a well of comparatively small diameter, it is possible that its general introduction may lead to a reduction in the diameter of the wells, especially in those parts of the territory in Avhich fountains do not commonly occur. Electrical poAver has been substituted for steam power in both drilling and pumping by Messrs Nobel on their Russian petroleum properties, and by a Dutch company working in Rumania. This may prove to be one of the most important advances made in this branch of the industry. In Galicia, as in Russia, preference has, up to the present time, usually been given to the rod system of drilling, Avooden rods, however, being in most instances employed. The rod system has also always been adopted in the Canadian oil-fields, and aatis, in fact, introduced into Galicia by Canadian drillers. Experts differ as to the relative merits of the cable and rod systems, and as very feAV drillers have had practical experience of both, it is difficult to get data for an effective comparison. It is asserted that the comparative rigidity of the rod is sometimes highly ad\Tantageous, but, on the other hand, it is admitted that the cable system is far more expeditious, especially in drilling at considerable depth, the disconnecting and reconnecting of the rods for the frequently recurring operation of “ dressing ” the bit and removing the detritus from the well involving much loss of time. In this connexion mention should be made of what is knoAvn as the Avater-flush system of drilling, Avhich has

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been usefully employed on the Pechelbronn (Alsace) property and elsewhere. In this system tubular rods attached to a bit with a hollow shank and apertures above the cutting edge are used. The rods are connected with a force-pump by means of flexible tubing, and water is driven through them while the drilling is in progress. The water escapes through the orifices in the bit, and flows from the top of the casing, carrying away the detritus from the well. This method has been found successful where the strata .are soft, and in such cases is inexpensive and rapid, but it is unsuitable for use in hard rock. Attempts are being made to substitute a rotary “crown” borer for the percussion drill in sinking wells for petroleum. The instrument in question, which is known as the Calyx drill, is furnished with a steel-toothed cutter of annular form, by means of which the bulk of the rock to be removed is obtained in the form of a solid core, instead of being broken up. It is thus similar in action to the well-known diamond drill. With the Calyx drill good work has already been done in drilling for water; and as the study of the nature of the strata perforated by the drill is greatly facilitated by the preservation of a core, it is to be hoped that this form of drill may in the future find employment in the oilfield. The system of continuous distillation, to which brief reference has already been made as an important feature Russian petroleum refiningInbusiness, was e a ng. of the adopted by Nobel Brothers. the ordinary nr intermittent system of distillation the crude oil is subjected in the still to gradually increased heat, with the object of separating or classifying the various hydrocarbons of which the crude oil is composed by taking advantage of their differences in volatility, and thus obtaining the desired commercial products. The crude oil, on being treated in this manner, first parts with the very volatile hydrocarbons forming the various descriptions of petroleum spirit (gasolene, benzene, &c.). As the temperature rises, the less volatile compounds, met with in commerce as kerosene, are removed, and at still higher temperatures lubricating oils and other products are obtained. The hydrocarbons, of course, leave the still in the form of vapour, but are brought back to the liquid state by being passed through a condenser. It will be evident that we have thus a means of effecting such division and subdivision of the crude oil as we may desire. In the continuous system of distillation, on the other hand, we have, instead of a single still with a progressive temperature, a series of stills heated to successively higher temperatures, which are carefully maintained, and the crude oil is caused to flow slowly and continuously through the whole series, being thus subjected to a steadily increasing heat while the temperature of the contents of each still remains practically constant. In this manner each still yields continuously a product of given volatility, corresponding with the temperature at which it is maintained, and from the series of stills a range of products is continuously obtained corresponding with that yielded by the intermittent system within the same limits of temperature. In this system the loss of time, waste of fuel, and injury to plant involved in the cooling down and re-heating of the stills and furnaces in the intermittent system are avoided. The continuous system is now employed at all the principal refineries in Russia, and is in use in Burma, Galicia, Java, and elsewhere. In the United States, on the other hand, it has not found favour, although considerable sums of money have been spent in attempts to introduce it. For a second important improvement in refining, viz., the desulphurizing of oils containing sulphur compounds,

643

the credit belongs to the Standard Oil Company. Two processes are employed, both based on the use of cupric oxide as a desulphurizer. In one of these the vapour passes from the still through a vessel containing cupric oxide, where the sulphur is separated as cuprous sulphide, and thence to the condenser. In this way the whole of the volatile constituents of the oil are subjected to the desulphurizing treatment. In the other method, which, in spite of its involving a double operation, is understood to be generally adopted, the petroleum spirit and kerosene distillates, obtained by the ordinary process of distillation, are redistilled with a large excess of finely divided cupric oxide in a still fitted with an agitator, by means of which the contents are kept actively stirred. From the cuprous sulphide the cupric oxide is recovered for further use by burning off the sulphur. The introduction of this process was of great commercial importance, since it rendered available, as a source of burning oil, the sulphuretted petroleum yielded by the prolific oil-fields of Ohio. In view of the large extent to which pipe lines are employed in the United States for the conveyance of crude petroleum, it has been a matter of surprise that, notwithstanding the admittedly inadequate trans- Transport port facilities afforded by tank waggons on the ^ibu'Jon Transcaucasian Railway, a pipe line has not been laid from Baku to Batum or some other port on the Black Sea. In the United States the refining business was many years ago largely transferred from the neighbourhood of the oil-fields to the Atlantic seaboard, the crude oil being pumped through pipe lines to the refineries in New York and Philadelphia, the guiding principle apparently being to refine the oil in a locality as near as possible to the point of shipment for export, or in a central position as regards consumption for the home trade. Two circumstances stood in the way of the adoption of a similar principle in Russia. One was that the revenue derived by the railway from the transport of petroleum products could not be spared, and the other that any considerable transference of the refining business from the shore of the Caspian Sea to that of the Black Sea would seriously diminish the value of the Baku refineries, many of which are establishments upon which very large sums of money have been expended. But now a pipe line for refined oil has been laid along a part of the 560 miles of railway from Baku to Batum, and this is to be extended so as to be available for the transport of refined oil from the Caspian to the Black Sea. The 8-inch pipe already completed extends from Michaelov to Batum, a distance of 140 miles, over the portion of the railway most subject to interruption of traffic by floods and snowstorms, and by employing it in conjunction with the railway tank waggons already in use, the carrying capacity of the railway will be largely increased. The building of tank steamships for the marine transport of petroleum has steadily progressed, and every year sees important additions to a fleet of these vessels, which now number about 160, exclusive of the large number employed in the local trade in America and Russia. Increase in number has been accompanied by increase in tonnage of the individual vessels, some having a carrying capacity of as much as 10,000 tons. Concurrently there has been a corresponding increase in the number of tank barges, tank railway waggons, and tank road waggons employed in the distribution of the oil, as well as in the number and capacity of the tank storage installations. Much difference of opinion exists as to what is a desirable minimum flash-point for oil intended to be burned in household lamps of the usual construction. Attention has been drawn to the number of deaths and cases of personal injury resulting from accidents with mineral oil

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lamps, and it has been contended that the remedy lies in a sufficient raising of the standard. Since the early days of the petroleum industry most civilized countries Flashhave prescribed by law a test of flashing-point point. or inflammability, designed in most cases primarily to afford a definition of oils for lighting purposes which may be safely stored without the adoption of special precautions. In the United Kingdom the limit has, for the purpose in question, been fixed by the legislature at 73 Fahr. by the present legal test (a form of “ close test,” devised by the late Sir Frederick Abel), which is the equivalent of the former standard of 100° Fahr. by the “ open^test.” In Germany the law prescribes a close test of 21° C., equal to about 70° Fahr., whilst in Russia the standard is 28° C., equal to 84'4° Fahr., by the close test. In the United States various methods of testing and various minimum standards have been adopted. In Pennsylvania the prescribed limit is a “fire test” of 110° Fahr., equivalent to about 70° Fahr. close test, while in the state of New York it is 100° Fahr. close test. The subject of the testing of petroleum for legislative purposes, with which in later inquiries that of accidents with mineral oil lamps has been associated, has been investigated in Great Britain by committees of both branches of the legislature, and voluminous evidence has been taken. It has been strongly contended that the raising of the standard from 73° to 100° Fahr. would put an end to lamp accidents, but this view has been equally forcibly combated; and although the committee reported in 1898, by a narrow majority, in favour of such an alteration, no action has been taken upon the recommendation. The questions involved are in truth by no means simple. Obviously, the higher the flashing-point the “safer” the oil in one sense; but there are equally evident objections to a course which would to some extent reduce the available supply, and thus might lead to an increase in price or a deterioration in quality. Moreover, since lamp accidents have occurred with oil of a higher flash-point than 100° Fahr. Abel test, it cannot be held to be proved that the adoption of this standard would prevent such accidents. Apart from this, it does not appear to have been sufficiently borne in mind by the advocates of a high standard that the object of the Petroleum Acts passed in the United Kingdom has hitherto been to regulate storage. Petroleum spirit, “flashing” at zero Fahr., has always been obtainable for use as an illuminating agent, and, on the other hand, commercial enterprise has, without any legislative help, placed oils of high flashing-point at the disposal of those who prefer them. Moreover, if the legislature should, by putting difficulties in the way of the use in lamps of oil of the present legal test, lead to the creation of an impr.ession that oil of, say, 100° Fahr. test can be safely used without the adoption of ordinary precautions, accidents with lamps would probably increase in number. It has been said by advocates of a higher test that with a safe oil any lamp is safe, but it may with equal truth be asserted that in a properly-constructed lamp used with reasonable care the ordinary oil of commerce is a safe illuminant. The report of the United States Geological Survey on the production of petroleum in the United States during the year 1899, compiled by Mr F. H. Oliphant, American indicates that the most conspicuous features of supply. the industry for the period in question were : (1) The total production was considerably in excess of that of the previous year; (2) there was a large increase in the number of wells completed in both the Appalachian and the Lima-Indiana oil-fields ; (3) in south-eastern Ohio and in Texas there was a largely increased production; and (4) only about 7 per cent, of the total production was obtained outside the Appalachian and the Lima-Indiana

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fields. The Appalachian field embraces all the districts producing what is known as “ Pennsylvania oil.” It extends from Wellsville in New York state on the northeast, through western Pennsylvania into West Virginia, and includes a large portion of south-eastern Ohio. Its extension through Kentucky and Tennessee into northern Alabama has not been attended with any noteworthy developments. The total production in the Appalachian field for 1899 was 33,050,07.6 barrels, as compared with 31,711,857 barrels in 1898. The greatest increase was in south-eastern Ohio, where the output was more than doubled, and the greatest falling off was in Pennsylvania. The Lima-Indiana field includes the whole of Indiana and that portion of north-western Ohio in which Lima petroleum, found in the Trenton limestone, is produced. The production decreased from 20,321,323 barrels in 1898 to 20,225,356 barrels in 1899. The total production of crude petroleum in the United States during 1899 was 57,070,850 barrels (of 42 American gallons or about 35 imperial gallons), as compared with 55,364,233 barrels in 1898 and 60,475,516 barrels in 1897. The following is a tabular statement of the production in the various states for the years 1897, 1898, and 1899 :— State. New York . Pennsylvania West Virginia Ohio . Indiana Kentucky Missouri Colorado California Texas . Indian Tern tory Illinois Wyoming Kansas

Barrels. 1897 1,279,155 17,982,911 13,090,045 21,560,515 4,122,356 322 19 384,934 1,903,411 65,975 625 500 3,650 81,098

Production. Barrels. 1898 1,205,250 14,743,214 13,615,101 18,738,708 3,730,907 5,568 10 444,383 2,257,207 546,070 0 360 5,475 71,980

Barrels. • 1899 1,320,909 13,053,603 13,910,630 21,142,108 3,848,182 18,280 132 390,278 2,642,095 669,013 0 360 5,560 69,700

60,475,516

55,364,233

57,070,850

Much attention has been attracted by the rapid development of the Beaumont oil-field in Texas and the large yield of the “gushers” or spouting wells characteristic of what is known as the Spindle Top area. The oil, which will doubtless be used chiefly as fuel, is apparently obtainable in very large quantities at low cost, and having regard to the proximity of the field to the sea-board, the expense of transport is also small. The discovery of this new source of supply has led to renewed consideration of the advantages possessed by liquid fuel, and arrangements are being made on a large scale for the transport and distribution of the produce of the Beaumont field, principally with a view to its use as a substitute for coal. Oil-fields in various parts of the world which had been regarded as of minor importance have become more prominent, and much evidence has concurrently been furnished of the commercial value of other areas of petroliferous territory at present unworked. The producing territory in the Baku district comprises the oil-fields of Balachani, Sabuntchi, Romany, Binagadi, and Bibi-Eibat, the aggregate area being under 10 square miles. The Balachani-Sabuntchi- Supply" Romany territory, and the adjacent district of Binagadi, are situated on the Apsheron Peninsula from 8 to 12 miles north-east and north of the town of Baku, while the Bibi-Eibat field lies 2 to 3 miles south of Baku. The production of these fields from 1897 to 1899 is shown in the following table tv

LIQUID FUEL] District. Balachani Sabuntchi Romany . Binagadi Bibi-Eibat

PETROLEUM 1898. 1897. Poods. Poods. Poods, i 100,336,495 108,836,439 114,854,151 162,610,054 179,828,697 230,757,289 96,266,133 100,523,699 98,581,782 213,386 227,730 197,462 62,514,479 96,526,783 80,840,807 421,924,623 485,943,348 525,247,415

In the year 1893 attention was directed to the prolific character of the oil-bearing lands of Grozny! in the Terek district, about 300 miles north-east of Baku, and recent developments in this field point to the conclusion that the Groznyi oil-field will be a formidable rival to those at Baku. The production in the Groznyi district during the years 1897, 1898, and 1899 was as follows :— 1897 .... 27,568,794 poods. 1898 .... 17,716,899 „ 1899 .... 25,194,566 „ Petroleum also occurs in many other places in the Caucasus, in the Kuban district, in the Crimea, and at Petchora in the north of Russia, near the Ural Mountains. In Canada petroleum has been produced in large quantities for many years in the Enniskillen district in Lambton county, Ontario. The production for the other year 1898 was 758,391 barrels (of 35 imperial S

°uppiy0t gall°ns)j and for 1899, 704,794. Petroleum is also reported to occur in the province of Quebec, near the extremity of the Gaspe Peninsula, and in the North-West Territories, in the district of Athabasca. On the European continent there is a considerable production of petroleum in Galicia (Austria-Hungary), Rumania, and Alsace. The Galician oil-belt extends for a distance of about 220 miles along the northern slopes of the Carpathian Mountains, whilst the Rumanian deposits occupy the south-eastern and southern slopes of the southern Carpathians or Transylvanian Alps. The Galician oil-fields have been worked by means of drilled wells for many years, but it is only recently that those of Rumania have been similarly developed, petroleum having until within the past few years been obtained in the latter country by means of hand-dug wells. Owing to its favourable geographical position and to the successful results of recent borings, Rumania appears destined to assume a position of importance among petroleum-producing countries. The production of petroleum in Galicia during the year 1898 amounted to 330,451 metric tons, and in 1899 to 321,681 metric tons. In Rumania the production was about 240,000 tons in 1898 and about 300,000 tons in 1899. Much activity has been displayed in the drilling of wells in the Alsace oil-fields, and a profitable local industry has been created. In Italy the production of petroleum is small, but the oil, which is chiefly found in the Milan district, commands a high price. The Eastern Archipelago (Java, Sumatra, Borneo, &c.) bids fair to rank before long among the chief sources of the oil-supply of the world. In Java there has been a large production for many years; in Sumatra the results which have attended the drilling operations in the Moeara Enim field and elsewhere have demonstrated the existence of a rich oil-bearing formation; and in Borneo the recent work of development, at Kotei, on the east coast of the island, on which much money has been expended, has already resulted in the discovery of abundant supplies of fuel oil, for the distribution of which arrangements are being made on a large scale. The petroleum industry of 1 1 pood = 36'll27 tb avoirdupois! In comparing the production of crude petroleum in Russia with the production of crude petroleum in the United States, 8 poods may he taken as the equivalent of the American “ barrel ” unit.

645

Japan exhibits steady growth, and has already reached considerable proportions, the output of crude oil, which for the year 1899 was reported to be 800,000 barrels, having increased so much that, according to estimate, it has almost doubled. Of this production the greater part was obtained in the province of Echigo. In Upper Burma British capital and energy have completely transformed the conditions which existed in the Yenangyaung oil-fields in the days of King Thibaw, when “ Rangoon oil ” (named after the port of shipment) was an unimportant article of commerce. The primitive hand-dug shafts have long been superseded by drilled wells, the produce of which is treated in a refinery provided with the most modern appliances, and an important industry has been created. In Assam an English company has met with similar success in boring operations, and has obtained a considerable production, for the treatment of which a refinery is in course of erection. Petroleum has been produced and refined in Peru in moderate quantities for many years, and has been found in Ecuador and Colombia. It also occurs in Algeria, on the Gold Coast, in Newfoundland, Alaska, the West Indies', New Zealand, and in other localities. For further information see Boverton Redwood’s Petroleum and its Products. London, 1896 (2nd ed.) (b. R.) II. Mineral Oil as Liquid Fuel. The use of petroleum as fuel had long been recognized as a scientific possibility, and some attempts had been made to adopt it in practice upon a commercial scale, but the insufficiency, and still more the irregularity, of the supplies prevented it from coming into practical use to any important extent until recent discoveries of oil specially adapted by chemical composition for fuel purposes changed the aspect of the situation. These discoveries of special oil were made first in Borneo and later in Texas, and experience in treating the oils from both localities has shown that while not less adapted to produce kerosene or illuminating oil, they are better adapted to produce fuel oil than either the Russian or the Pennsylvanian products. With regard to the chemical properties of petroleum, it is not necessary to say more in the present place than, that the lighter and more volatile constituents, known commercially as naphtha and benzene, must be removed by distillation in order to leave a residue composed principally of hydrocarbons which, while containing the necessary carbon for combustion, shall be sufficiently free from volatile qualities to avoid premature ignition and consequent danger of explosion. Attempts have been made to use crude oil for fuel purposes, and these have had some success in the neighbourhood of the oil wells and under boilers of unusually good ventilation both as regards their chimneys and the surroundings of their stokeholds; but for reasons both of commerce and of safety it is not desirable to use crude oil where some distillation is possible. The more complete the process of distillation, and the consequent removal of the volatile constituents, the higher the flash-point, and the more turgid and viscous is the fuel resulting; and if the process is carried to an extreme, the residue or fuel becomes difficult to ignite by the ordinary process of spraying or atomizing mechanically at the moment immediately preceding combustion. The proportions which .have been found to work efficiently in practice are as follows :— Carbon . . .. . -' . 88'00 per cent. Hydrogen ... . . 10'75 ,, Oxygen 1-25 „ Total .

. 100

646

.

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The standards of safety for liquid fuel as determined by flash-point are not yet finally settled, and are changing from time to time. The British Admiralty require a flashpoint of 270° Fahr., and to this high standard, and the consequent viscosity of the fuel used by vessels in the British fleet, may partly be attributed the low rate of combustion that has been found possible in them. The German Admiralty have fixed a flash-point of 187° Fahr., and have used oil of this standard with perfect safety, and at the same time with much higher measure of evaporative duty than has been attained in British war-vessels. In the British mercantile marine Lloyd’s Register has permitted fuel with a flash-point as low as 150 Fahr. as a minimum, and no harm has resulted. The Board of Trade, the department of the Government which controls the safety of passenger vessels, has fixed a higher standard upon the basis of a minimum of 185°. In the case of locomotives the flash-point as a standard of safety is of less importance than in the case of stationary or marine boilers, because the storage is more open, and the ventilation, both of the storage tanks and the boilers during combustion, much more perfect than in any other class of steam boilers. The process of refining by distillation is also necessary to reduce two impurities which greatly retard storage and combustion, i.e., water and sulphur. Water is found in all crude petroleum as it issues from the wells, and sulphur exists in important quantities in oil from the Texas wells. Its removal was at first found very expensive, but there no longer exists difficulty in this respect, and large quantities of petroleum fuel practically free from sulphur are now regularly exported from Texas to New York and to Europe. Water mixed with fuel is in intimate mechanical relation, and frequently so remains in considerable quantities even after the process of distillation. It is in fact so thoroughly mixed as to form an emulsion. The effect of feeding such a mixture into a furnace is extremely injurious, because the water must be decomposed chemically into its constituents, hydrogen and oxygen, thus absorbing a large quantity of heat which would otherwise be utilized for evaporation. Water also directly delays combustion by producing from the jet a long, dull, red flame instead of a short bright, white flame, and the process of combustion, which should take place by vaporization of the oil near the furnace mouth, is postponed and transferred to the upper part of the combustion-box, the tubes, and even the base of the chimney, producing loss of heat and injury to the boiler structure. The most effective means of ridding the fuel of this dangerous impurity is by heat and settlement. The coefficients of expansion of water and oil by heat are substantially different, and a moderate rise of temperature therefore separates the particles and precipitates the water, which is easily drawn off—leaving the oil available for use. The heating and precipitation are usually performed upon a patented system of settling tanks and heating apparatus known as the Flannery-Boyd system, which has proved itself indispensable for the successful use at sea of petroleum fuel. The laboratory and mechanical use of petroleum for fuel has already been referred to, but it was not until the year 1870 that petroleum was applied upon a Progress wider and commercial scale. In the course of fuel. U distillation of Russian crude petroleum for the production of kerosene or lamp oil, large quantities of refuse were produced—known by the Russian name of astatki—and these were found an incumbrance, and useless for any commercial purpose. To a Russian oil-refiner gifted with mechanical instinct and the genius for invention occurred the idea of utilizing the waste

[liquid fuel

product as fuel by spraying or atomizing it with steam, so that, the thick and sluggish fluid being broken up into particles, the air necessary for combustion could have free access to it. The earliest apparatus for this purpose was a simple piece of gas-tube, into which the thick oil was fed; by another connexion steam at high pressure was admitted to an inner and smaller tube, and, the end of the tube nearest to the furnace being open, the pressure of the steam blew the oil into the furnace, and by its velocity broke it up into spray. The apparatus worked with success from the first. Experience pointed out the proper proportionate sizes for the inlets of steam and oil, the proper pressure for the steam, and the proportionate sizes for the orifices of admission to the furnaces, as well as the sizes of air-openings and best arrangements of fire-bricks in the furnaces themselves; and what had been a waste product now became a by-product of great value. Practically all the steam power in South Russia, both for factories and navigation of the inland seas and rivers, is now raised from astatki fuel. In the Far East, including Burma and parts of China and Japan, the use of liquid fuel spread rapidly during the years 1899, 1900, and 1901, owing entirely to the development of the Borneo oil-fields by the enterprise of Sir Marcus Samuel and the large British corporation known as the Shell Transport and Trading Company, of which he is the head. In the United States of America liquid fuel is not only used for practically the whole of the manufacturing and locomotive purposes of the state of Texas, but factories in New York, and a still larger number in California, are now discarding the use of coal and adopting petroleum, because it is more economical in its consumption and also more easily handled in transit, and saves nearly all the labour of stoking. So far the supplies for China and Japan have been exported from Borneo, but the discoveries of new oil-fields in California, said to be of a character specially adapted for fuel, have encouraged the belief that it may be possible to supply Chile and Peru and other South American countries, where coal is extremely expensive, with Californian fuel; and there are some who believe that it will ultimately find its way across the Pacific to Japan. There are believed to be large deposits in West Africa, but in the meantime the only sources of supply to those parts of Africa where manufacture is progressing, i.e., South Africa and Egypt, are the oil-fields of Borneo and Texas, from which the import has well begun, from Texas to Alexandria via the Mediterranean, and from Borneo to Cape Town vid Singapore. In England, notwithstanding the fact that there exist the finest coal-fields in the world, there has been a surprising development of the use of petroleum as fuel. The Great Eastern Railway have adapted 120 locomotive engines to its use, and these are running with regularity and success both on express passenger and goods trains. The London, Brighton, and South Coast Railway are also commencing the adaptation of some of their locomotive engines, and they have recently entered into a contract for the delivery of a large quantity of Texas oil fuel. Several large firms of contractors and cement manufacturers, chiefly on the banks of the Thames, have made large purchases for future delivery, extending over as many as three years in some cases. The facts that the depot for the reception of Texas oil fuel is at Thames Haven, and that coal is necessarily dearer in the south of England than in the coal-bearing parts of the country, suggest that the development of liquid fuel is more likely to continue in the neighbourhood of London than elsewhere in England. The chief factors of economy are the greater calorific value of oil than coal (about 16 5) of water per lb of oil fuel evaporated from a temperature of 212° Fahr.), not only

LIQUID FUEL]

P E T R 0 L E U M

647

combustion, and to handle the residual ashes, are all indispensable to steam-raising by coal. On the other hand, a system of pipes and pumps, and a limited quantity of skilled labour to manage them, is all that is necessary for °/ueiqUld labour with shovels, waggons and locomotives, the transit and combustion of petroleum fuel; and it is horses and carts, is unavoidable for the transit certain that even in England petroleum will find places of coal; and labour to trim the coal, to stoke it when under which, from topographical and other circumstances, will in laboratory practice, but in actual use on a large scale, and the saving of labour both in transit from the source of supply to the place of use and in the act of Economy stoking the furnaces. The use of cranes, hand

more economically use petroleum than coal as fuel for manufacturing purposes. The theoretical calorific value of oil fuel is more nearly realized in practice than the theoretical calorific value of coal, because the facilities for complete combustion, due to the artificial admixture of the air by the atomizing process, are greater in the case of oil than coal, and for this reason, among others, the practical evaporative results are proportionately higher with liquid fuel. In some cases the work done in a steam engine by 2 tons of coal has been performed by 1 ton of oil fuel, but in others the proportions have been as 3 to 2, and these latter can be safely relied on in practice as a minimum. This saving, comin the near future make the use of liquid fuel compulsory, except in places so near to coal-fields that the cost of coal becomes sufficiently low to counterbalance the savings in weight of fuel consumed and in labour in handling it. In some locomotives on the Great Eastern Railway the consumption of oil and coal for the same development of horse-power has been as 17 B) oil is to 35 lb coal; all, however, have not realized so high a result. The mechanical apparatus for Liquid applying petroleum to steam-raising in locofuel in motives is very simple. The space in the tender locousually occupied by coal is closed up by steelmotlves. piating closely riveted and tested, so as to form a storage tank. From this tank a feed-pipe is led to

a burner of the combined steam-and-oil type already indicated, and this burner is so arranged as to enter a short distance inside the furnace mouth. The ordinary fire-bars are covered with a thin layer of coal, which starts the ignition in the first place, and the whole apparatus is ready for work. The burner best adapted

for locomotive practice is the Holden Burner shown in Fig. 1. The steam-pipe is connected at A, the oil-pipe at B, and the hand-wheels C and D are for the adjustment of the internal orifices according to the rate of combustion required. The nozzle E is directed towards

648

PETROLEUM

[liquid fuel the furnace, and the external ring FF, supplied by the for the promotion of combustion. This type of burner has small pipe G and the bye-pass valve H, projects a series also been tried on stationary boilers and on board ship. of steam jets into the furnace, independent of the injections It works well, although the great consumption of steam of atomized fuel, and so induces an artificial inrush of air by the supplementary ring is a difficulty at sea, where the fi Air' Pipe.

_Q_

Flanneiy Boyd Settling Tanks

i 3j

t ^ 'TPiece CoAirPtpe Air Co Sounding Pipe'i 4- filling Pipe -Aft Peak OiLFucf

This Bulkhead Tilted withic Convex OU Deck/non Spanningy belor*

Oil Fuel \OlIFucI\ Oil Fuel

HAirPipe fSluice Valve Fig. 3.—Storage of Liquid Fuel on Oil-carrying Steamers (Flannery-Boyd system). water lost by the consumption of steam cannot easily be made up. Although the application of the new fuel for land and locomotive boilers has already been large, the practice at sea has been far more extensive. The reason is chiefly to be found in the fact that although the sources of supply are at a distance from Great Britain, yet they are in countries to whose neighbourhood British steamships regularly trade, and in which British naval squadrons are regularly stationed, so that the advantages of adopting liquid fuel have been more immediate and the economy more at-sea direct. The certainty of continuous supply of the fuel and the wide distribution of storage stations have so altered the conditions that the general adoption of the new fuel for marine purposes becomes a matter of urgency for the statesman, the merchant, and the engineer. Hone of these can afford to neglect the new conditions, lest they be noted and acted upon by their competitors.

Saigon, Penang, Batavia, Surabaya, Amoy, Swatow, Fuchow, Shanghai, Hankow, Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Zanzibar, Mombasa, Yokohama, Kobe, and Nagasaki; storage arrangements are also projected in South African and South American ports.

Fig. 5.—Details of Furnace, Meyer System.

The British Admiralty are proceeding with some vigour to experiment with liquid fuel at sea, and at the same time to investigate the possibility of supply from sources within the regions of the British Empire. There is an enormous supply of shale under the northeastern counties of England, but no oil that can be pumped—still less oil with a pressure above it so as to “ gush ” like the wells in America — and the only source of liquid supply under the British flag appears to be in Burma. The Borneo fields are, however, under British control, and have been developed entirely by British capital. The Italian Admiralty have fitted several large warships with boiler apparatus to burn petroleum. The German Admiralty are regularly using liquid fuel on the China station. The Dutch navy have fitted coal fuel and liquid fuel furnaces in combination, so that the smaller powers required may be developed by coal alone, and the larger powers by supplementing coal fuel with oil fuel. The Storage and supply now exist or will shortly be established speeds of some vessels of the destroyer type have by in the following wide range of seaports :—London, Barrow, this means been accelerated nearly two knots. Southampton, Amsterdam, Copenhagen, New Orleans, The questions which govern the use of fuel in warSavannah, New York, Philadelphia, Singapore, Hong ships are more largely those of strategy and fighting Kong, Madras, Colombo, Suez, Hamburg, Port Arthur, efficiency than economy of evaporation. Indeed, the Texas, Rangoon, Calcutta, Bombay, Alexandria, Bangkok, cost of constructing and maintaining in fighting efficiency

LIQUID FUEL]

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649

a modern warship is so great that the utmost use feet of coal according to the allowance usual for ship’s strategically must be obtained from the vessel, and in bunkering. On the other hand, coal has been relied upon, when placed in the side bunkers of unarmoured ships, as a protection against shot and shell, and this advantage, if it really exists, could not be claimed in regard to liquid fuel. Kecent experiments in coaling warships at sea have not been very successful, as the least bad weather has prevented the safe transmission of coal bags from the collier to the ship. The same difficulty does not exist for oil fuel, which could be pumped through flexible tubing from one ship to the other even in comparatively rough weather. Smokelessness, so important a feature of sea strategy, has not always been attained by liquid fuel, but where the combustion is complete, by reason of suitable furnace arrangements and careful management, there is no smoke. The great drawback, however, to the use of liquid Fia. 6.—Details of Exterior Elongation of Furnace, Meyer System. fuel in fast small vessels is the confined space allotted to this comparison the cost of fuel is relatively so small the boilers, such confinement being unavoidable in view an item that its increase or decrease may be considered of the high power concentrated in a small hull. The almost a negligible quantity. The desideratum in a war- British Admiralty’s experiments, however, are gradually ship is to obtain the greatest fighting efficiency A (Ivan- based on the thickest warships

armour

> the heaviest and most numerous guns, the highest maximum speed, and, last and not least, the greatest range of effective action based upon the maximum supplies of fuel, provisions, and other consumable stores that the ship can carry. Now, if by changing the type of fuel it be possible to reduce its weight by 30 per cent., and to abolish the stokers, who are usually more than half the ship’s company, the weight saved will be represented not merely by the fuel, but by the Fig. 7.—Furnace on ss. Ferdinand Laeisz. A, it is proposed to do away with this ring' of brickwork as being consumable stores otherwise useless ; B, it is proposed to fill this space up, thus continuing lining of furnace to combustion chamber, necessary for the stokers. Conand also to fit protection bricks in way of saddle plate. versely, the radius of effective action of the ship will be doubled as regards consum- solving the problem, and the quantity of oil which can be able stores if the crew be halved, and will be increased consumed by forced draught in confined boilers now more by 50 per cent, if the same weight of fuel be carried in nearly equals the quantity of coal consumed under similar the form of liquid instead of coal. In space the gain by conditions. In view of recent accusations of insufficiency of coal using oil fuel is still greater, and 36 cubic feet of oil as stored are equal in practical calorific value to 67 cubic storage in foreign naval depots, by reason of the

allegation that coal so stored quickly perishes, it is interesting to note that liquid fuel may be stored in tanks for an indefinite time without any deterioration whatever. In the case of merchant steamers large progress has also been made. The Shell Transport and Trading Company have twenty-one vessels successfully navigating in all parts of the world and using liquid fuel. The Hamburg-

America Steam Navigation Co. have four large vessels similarly fitted for oil fuel, although diftering in furnace arrangements, as will be hereafter Advaam described. One of the large American trans- tages in atlantic lines is adopting liquid fuel, and merchant French, German, Danish, and American sb,Ps' mercantile vessels are also beginning to use it in considerable amounts. S. VII. —82

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In the case of very large passenger steamers, such as those of 20 knots and upwards in the Atlantic trade, the saving in cost of fuel is trifling compared with the advantage arising from the greater weight and space available for freight. Adopting a basis of 3 to 2 as between coal consumption and oil consumption, there is an increase of 1000 tons of dead weight cargo in a large Atlantic steamer, and a collateral gain of about 100,000 cubic feet of measurement cargo, by reason of the ordinary bunkers being left quite free, and the oil being stored in the double bottom spaces hitherto unutilized except for the purpose of wrater ballast. The cleanliness and saving of time from bunkering by the use of oil fuel is also an important factor in passenger ships, whilst considerable additional speed is obtainable. The cost of the installation, however,

[Li«mD FUEL

is very considerable, as it includes not only burners and pipes for the furnaces, but also the construction of oiltight tanks, with pumps and numerous valves and pipe connexions. Fig. 2 shows a burner of Rusden and Eeles’ patent as generally used on board ships for the purpose of injecting the oil. A is a movable cap holding the packing B, which renders the annular spindle M oil and steam tight. E is the outer casing containing the steam jacket from which the steam, after being fed through the steam-supply pipe G, passes into the annular space surrounding the spindle P. It will be seen that if the spindle P be travelled inwards by turning the handle N, the orifice at the nozzle RR will be opened so as to allow the steam to flow out radially. If at the same time the annular spindle M be drawn inwards by revolving the handle L, the oil which passes through the supply pipe F will also have emission at RR, and, coming in contact with the outflowing steam, will be pulverized and sprayed into the furnace. Fig. 3 is a profile and plan of a steamer

3

adapted for carrying oil in bulk, and showing all the storage arrangements for handling liquid fuel. Fig. 4 shows the interior arrangement of the boiler furnace of the steamship Trocas. A is broken fire-brick resting on the ordinary fire-bars, B is a brick bridge, C a casing of fire-brick intended to protect the riveted seam immediately above it from the direct impact of the flame, and D is a lining of fire-brick at the back of the combustionbox, also intended to protect the plating from the direct impact of the petroleum flame. The arrangement of the furnace on the. Meyer system is shown in Fig. 5, where E is an annular projection built at the mouth of the furnace, and BB are spiral passages for heating the air before it passes into the furnace. Fig. 6 shows the rings CO and details of the casting which forms the projection or exterior elongation of the furnace. The brickwork arrangement adopted for the double-ended boilers on the HamburgAmerica Steamship Company’s Ferdinand Laeisz is represented in Fig. 7. The whole furnace is lined with fire-brick, and the burner is mounted upon a circular disc plate which covers the mouth of the furnace. The oil is injected not by steam pulverization, but by pressure due to a steam-pump. The oil is heated to about 6(T C. before entering the pump, and further heated to 90 O. after leaving the pump. It is then filtered, and passes to the furnace injector. C at about 30 pounds pressure ; and its passage through this injector and the spiral passages of which it consists pulverizes the oil into spray, in which form it readily

ignites on reaching the interior of the furnace. The injector is on the Korting principle, that is, it atomizes by fracture of the liquid oil arising from its own momentum under pressure. The advantage of this system as compared with the steam-jet system is the saving of fresh water, the abstraction of which is so injurious to the boiler by the formation of scale. The general arrangement of the fuel in tanks and filling pipes on the Shell 6 Transport Company’s ss. Murex is shown in Fig. 8; and Fig. 9 represents the furFig. 10.—Section through Furnace nace gear of the same of ss. Murex. vessel, A being the steam-pipe, B the oil-pipe, C the injector, D the swivel upon which the injector is hung so that it may be swung clear of the

lighting]

PETROLEUM

furnace, E the fire-door, and F the handle for adjusting the injector. In Fig 10, which represents a section of the furnace, H is a fire-brick pier, and K a fire-brick baffling bridge. It is found in practice that to leave out the fire-bars ordinarily used for coal produces a better result with liquid fuel than the alternative system of keeping them in place and protecting them by a layer of broken fire-brick. Boilers fitted upon all the above systems have been run for thousands of miles without trouble. In new construction it is desirable to give larger combustion chambers and longer and narrower boiler tubes than in the case of boilers intended for the combustion of coal alone. (p. p*,) III. Mineral Oil as an Illuminant. As early as 1781 the idea was mooted of burning naphtha, obtained by the distillation of coal at low temperatures, for illuminating purposes, and in 1820, when coal gas was struggling into prominence, light oils obtained by the distillation of coal tar were employed in the Holliday lamp, which is still to be found flourishing as the chief factor in illuminating the street barrow of the costermonger. In this lamp the coal naphtha is contained in a conical reservoir, from the apex of which it flows slowly down through a long metal capillary to a rose burner, which, heated up by the flame, vaporizes the naphtha, and thus feeds the ring of small jets of flame escaping from its circumference. It was in 1847 that James Young had his attention drawn to an exudation of petroleum that occurred in the First use of biddings Colliery at Alfreton, in Derbyshire, petroleum and found that he could by distillation obtain as an Mu- from it a lubricant of considerable value. The minant. commercial success of this material, however, was accompanied by a failure of the supply, and, rightly imagining that as the oil had apparently come from the Coal Measure, it might be obtained by distillation from material of the same character, he commenced investigations in this direction, and in 1850 started distilling oils from a shale known as the “ Bathgate mineral,” in this way founding the Scotch oil industry. At first but little attention was paid to the fitness of the oil for burning purposes, although in the early days at Alfreton Young attempted to burn some of the lighter distillates in an Argand lamp, and later in a form of lamp which had been made many years before for the consumption of turpentine. About 1853, however, it was noticed that the lighter distillates were readily bought, and were being shipped to Hamburg and sent on to Germany, where lamps fitted for the consumption of the grades of oil now known as lamp oil were being made by Stohwasser of Berlin ; and some of these lamps being imported, were afterwards manufactured in Great Britain by Messrs Laidlaw in Edinburgh, undergoing several improvements during the ensuing years. In Pennsylvania in 1859 Colonel Drake’s successful boring for petroleum caused the outbreak of oil fever in the States, which resulted in the flooding of the market with oil at prices never before deemed possible, and led to the introduction of lamps from Germany for its consumption. Although the first American patent for a petroleum lamp is dated 1859, that year saw forty other applications, and for the next twenty years they averaged about eighty a year. The English lamp-makers were not behind in their attempts to improve on the methods in use for producing The perfechighest results from the various grades of tionofthe oil, and in 1865 Messrs Hinks introduced the mineral- duplex burner, while later improvements made oil lamp. jn various directions by Messrs Hinks, Silber, and Defries led to the high degree of perfection to be found in the lamps of to-day. Mineral oil for lamps as used in England at the present time may be defined as consisting of those portions of the distillate from shale oil

651

or crude petroleum which have their flash-point above 73° E., and which are mobile enough to be fed by capillarity in sufticient quantity to the flame. The oil placed in the lamp reservoir is drawn up by the capillarity of the wick to the flame, and being there volatilized, is converted by the heat of the burning flame into a gaseous mixture of hydrogen and hydrocarbons, which is ultimately consumed by the oxygen of the air and converted into carbon dioxide and water vapour, the products of complete combustion. In order to secure high illuminating power, together with a smokeless flame and only products of complete combustion, it is necessary to pay strict attention to several important factors. In the first place, the wick must be so arranged as to supply the right quantity of oil for gasification at the burner-head—the flame must be neither starved nor overfed: if the former is the case great loss of light is occasioned, while an excess of oil, by providing more hydrocarbons than the air-supply to the flame can completely burn, gives rise to smoke and products of incomplete combustion. The action of the wick depending on the capillary action of the microscopic tubes forming the cotton fibre, nothing but long-staple cotton of good quality should be employed ; this should be spun into a coarse loose thread with as little twist in it as possible, and from this the wick is built up. Having obtained a wick of soft texture and loose plait, it should be well dried before the fire, and when put in position in the lamp must fill the wick-holder without being compressed. It should be of sufficient length to reach to the bottom of the oil reservoir and leave an inch or two on the bottom. Such a wick will suck up the oil in a regular and uniform way, provided that the level of the oil is not allowed to fall too low in the lamp, but it must be remembered that the wick acts as a filter for the oil, and that if any sediment be present it will be retained by and choke the capillaries upon which the action of the wick depends, so that a wick should not be used for too long a time. A good rule is that the wick should, when new, trail for 2 inches on the bottom of the oil vessel, and should be discarded when these 2 inches have been burnt off. When the lamp is lighted the oil burns with a heavy, smoky flame, because it is not able to obtain sufficient oxygen to complete the combustion, and not only are soot flakes produced, but products of incomplete combustion, such as carbon monoxide and even petroleum vapour, escape into the air — the first-named highly injurious to health, and the second of an offensive odour. In order to supply the necessary amount of air to the flame, an artificial draught has to be created which shall impinge upon the bottom of the flame and sweep upwards over its surface, giving it rigidity, and by completing the combustion in a shorter period of time than could be done otherwise, increasing the calorific intensity and thus raising the carbon particles in the flame to a far higher incandescence so as to secure a greater illuminating power. This in practice has been done in two ways, first by drawing in the air by the up-suck of the heated and expanded products of combustion in a chimney fitted over the flame, and secondly by creating a draught from a small clockwork fan in the base of the lamp. It is necessary to break the initial rush of the draught: this is mostly effected by discs of perforated metal in the base of the burner, called diffusers, while the metal dome which surrounds and rises slightly above the wick-holder serves to deflect the air on to the flame. These arrangements also act to a certain extent as regenerators, the air passing over the heated metal surfaces being warmed before reaching the flame, whilst other contrivances, such as discs, cones, buttons, perforated tubes, inner airtubes, &c., have from time to time been introduced with the object of increasing the illuminating power and completing the combustion. According to Dr Boverton Redwood, duplex burners which give a flame of 28 candle-power have an average oil consumption of 50 grains per candle per hour, while Argand flames of 38 candle-power consume about 45 grains of oil per candle per hour. These must, however, be e ,c e ag cy regarded as the duties obtained from lamps of the 0. °ern best types, and in order to obtain information as to . the efficiency of the lamps most extensively used in snips. daily practice, a number of the most popular types were examined, using both American and Russian oil. The results obtained are embodied in the table on the next page. The first thing that strikes one in this table is the apparent superiority of the American over Russian oil in the majority of the lamps employed, and there is no doubt that the bulk of the lamps on the market are constructed with the view of burning American or shale oil. A second interesting point is that with the flat-flame lamps the Russian oil is as good as the American. We have the authority of Dr Redwood, moreover, for the fact

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[lighting

PETROLEUM Type. Veritas, 60-line . „ 30 „ . „ 20 „ . Circular wick Ariel, 12-line centre draught Reading, 14-line . Kosmos, 10-line . Wizard, 15-line . Wanzer, no glass Solid slip, gauze and cone Flat wick, single Old slip, fixed gauze wick . duplex . | Feeder Ordinary

American oil—Sp. gr. 0-7904 ; flash-point, 110° F. that after prolonged burning the Russian oil, even in lamps least suited to it, gives highly improved results. Although the average consumption with these various forms of lamps is close upon 60 grains per candle with American oil, yet some of the burners are so manifestly wasteful that 50 grains per candlepower per hour is clearly the fairest basis to take for any calculation as to cost. Products Candles, oil, and coal gas all emit the same proof combus- ducts r of complete combustion, viz., carbon dioxide tion of oil and w ater vapour. The quantities of these comand other pounds emitted from the different illuminants for illumin- every candle of light per hour will be seen from the ants. following table :— Cubic Feet per Candle. Illuminant. Carbon Dioxide. Water Vapour. 0-41 0-41 Sperm candle 0-24 0-18 Oil lamp 0-26 Gas—Flat flame . 0-67 Argand 0-45 0-17 0-19 Regenerative 0-07 0-08 Incandescent 0-03 From these data it appears that if the sanitary condition of the air of a dwelling-room be measured by the amount of carbon dioxide present, as is usually done, candles are the most prejudicial to health and comfort, oil lamps less so, and gas least, an assumption which practical experience does not bear out, the discomfort and oppression felt being distinctly less in a room lighted by candles or oil than in one lighted by any of the older forms of gas-burner. The explanation of this is to be found in these facts :—First, where we illuminate a room with candles or oil we are contented with a less intense and more local light than when we are using gas, and in a room of ordinary size would be more likely to use a lamp or two candles placed near our book or plate than the far higher illumination we should demand if gas were employed. Secondly, the amount of water vapour given off during the combustion of gas is greater than in the case of the other illuminants, and water vapour absorbing radiant heat from the burning gas becomes heated, and, diffusing itself about the room, causes great oppression. Also the air, being highly charged with moisture, is unable to take up so rapidly the water vapour which is always evaporating from the surface of our skin, and in this way the functions of the body receive a slight check, resulting in a feeling of depression. The amount of heat emitted by our illuminants is a matter of importance upon which little has been said, and which places a ljeat distinct limit upon the size and illuminating power of emitted ^amPs- Taking the composition of lamp oil to be by oil Per cent- carbon and 14 per cent, hydrogen, the flames relative of heat gas flames and oil lampsamount for every candleevolved - power from of illumination per hour will be— British Thermal Units per Candle-power per hour. Oil lamp ..... 336 Gas—Flat flame , . . 310 Argand .... 207 Regenerative ... 88 Incandescent mantle . 36 A very successful form of oil lamp for use in engineering is that type of lamp represented by the “ Lucigen,” OH s ra “ Doty,” and “ Wells ” lights, in which the oil is lamps™y f°rced from a reservoir by air-pressure through a spiral heated by the flame of the lamp, and the heated oil being then ejected partly as vapour and

Grains of Oil per candle-power per hour. American. Russian

Total Candle-power. American.

Russian.

64-5 424352-8 97-9 63-9 56-9 42-6 84-4 60-9 56-2 51-2

112-5 122-5 78 50 60 60 58-5 40 35 70-9 18 18 85 "4 12 12 97-2 9 9 51-3 18 19 48-3 17 17 84-4 8 89-3 7 55-7 20 22 46-6 20 22 Russian oil—Sp. gr. 0‘823 ; flash-point, 83° I partly as spray, burns with a large and highly luminousflame. The great drawback to these devices is that a certain proportion of the oil spray escapes combustion and is deposited in the vicinity of the light. This form of lamp is often used for heating as well as lighting, and any one who saw the wonderful engineering -work at the Forth Bridge in progress will remember the effective way in. which the rivets needed for that colossal undertaking were heated in trays by lamps of this type at the spot where they were required. The great advantage of these lamps was that oils of but very little value could be employed, and the light obtained approximated to 750 candles per gallon of oil consumed. They may to a certain extent be looked upon as the forerunners of perhaps the most successful form of incandescent oil-burner. As early as 1885 Mr Arthur Kitson attempted to make a burner for heating purposes on the foregoing principle, that is, by injecting oil under pressure from a on applied fine tube into a chamber where it would be to incanheated by the waste heat escaping from the descent flame below, the vapour so produced being hsbting. made to issue from a small jet under the pressure caused by the initial air-pressure and the expansion in the gasifying tube. This jet of gas was then led into what was practically an atmospheric burner, and drew in with it sufficient air to cause its combustion with a nonluminous blue flame of great heating power. At the time when this was first done the Welsbach mantle had not yet reached the period of commercial utility, and attempts were made to use this flame for the generation of light by consuming it in a mantle of fine platinum gauze, which, although giving a very fine illuminating effect during the first few hours, very soon shared the fate of all platinum mantles—that is, carbonization of the platinum surface took place, and destroyed its power of light emissivity. It was not until 1897 that the perfecting of the Welsbach mantle enabled this method of consuming the oil to be employed. The Kitson lamp has given results w'hich certainly ought to ensure its future success, the only drawback to it being that it needs a certain amount of intelligent care to keep it in good working order, but where this has been forthcoming the lamp has more than fulfilled the high expectations formed of it. In this lamp as used for outside street lighting the oil reservoir is in the base of the pillar, and is made of steel in order to withstand very high pressures, so as to be absolutely safe under the conditions of ordinary use. In this reservoir the oil is by means of a small pump put under an air-pressure of 50 or 60 lb, which forces it up through a small capillary tube to the burner-head. Here it passes through a small cross-tube containing filtering material, for removing any solid particles in it, and is then ejected through a small aperture into a lower cross tube placed immediately above the top of the mantle, the heat from which passing upwards causes vaporization and partial gasification of the oil. The mixed gas and vapour rush out under considerable pressure-

PETROVSK — PETTIE from a small aperture in the under side of the tube down what is practically an inverted Bunsen tube, through the holes in the side of which it draws in a sufficient amount of air to render the flame at the burner-head not only non-luminous but sufficiently oxidizing in its character as to prevent any deposition of carbon on the mantle. By the time the burner-head is reached, the gas is practically down to atmospheric pressure again, so that the wear and tear to the mantle are not excessive. The performances of this lamp have been most carefully studied, and experiments show that with a large single burner it is perfectly easy to obtain illuminating values of from 1000 to over 1200 candles, and that 1000 candlepower could with a large installation he readily obtained for Id. per hour, a figure which makes this method of illumination only one-third the cost of electric arc lighting. The cost, however, must vary with the number of lamps employed. Where the installation is large enough to keep a man constantly employed, the labour item becomes reduced to a very small figure, but rises to an excessive degree when the number of lamps decreases. Oil gas and oil vapours differ from coal gas merely in the larger proportion and greater complexity of the hydrocarbon molecules present, and to render the oil Incandes- flame available for incandescent lighting it is only lamps.

necessary to cause the oil gas or vapour to become mixed with a sufficient proportion of air before it arrives at the point of combustion. A simple statement of this kind, however, gives no idea of the great difficulties which exist in bringing about so simple an end, as with gases so rich in hydrocarbons as those developed from oil it is excessively difficult to get the necessary air intimately and evenly mixed with the gas in sufficient proportion to bring about the desired result. If even coal gas be taken and mixed with 2'27 volumes of air, its luminosity is destroyed, but such a flame would be useless with the incandescent mantle, as if the non-luminous flame be superheated a certain proportion of its luminosity will reappear. When such a flame is used with a mantle the superheating effect of the mantle itself very quickly leads to the decomposition of the hydrocarbons and blackening of the mantle, which not only robs it of its light-giving powers, but also rapidly brings its life to a close. If, however, the proportion of air be increased, the appearance of the flame becomes considerably altered, and the hydrocarbon molecules being burnt up and so destroyed before impact with the heated surface of the mantle, all chance of blackening is avoided. As soon as attempts began to be made to construct a satisfactory oil lamp which could be used with the incandescent mantle, this trouble showed itself to be a most serious one, as although it was comparatively easy so to regulate a circular-wicked flame fed by an excess of air as to make it non-luminous, the moment the mantle was put upon this, blackening quickly appeared, while when methods for obtaining a further air supply were devised, the difficulty of producing a flame which would burn for a considerable time without constant necessity for regulation proved a serious drawback. This has been the trouble which has militated against most of the incandescent oil lamps placed upon the market. It soon became evident that if a wick were employed the difficulty of getting it perfectly symmetrical was a serious matter, and that it could only be utilized in drawing the oil up to a heating chamber where it could be volatilized to produce the oil gas, which on then being mixed with air would give the non-luminous flame. In the earlier forms of incandescent oil lamps the general idea was to suck the oil up by the capillarity of a circular wick to a point a short distance below the opening of the burner at which the flame was formed, and here the oil was vaporized or gasified by the heat of the head of the burner. An air supply was then drawn up through a tube passing through the centre of the wick-tube, while a second air current was so arranged as to discharge itself almost horizontally upon the burning gas below the cap, in this way giving a

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non-luminous and very hot flame, which if kept very carefully adjusted afforded excellent results with an incandescent mantle. It was an arrangement somewhat of this character that was introduced by the Welsbach Company. The lamps, however, required such careful attention, and were moreover so irregular in their performance, that they have never proved very successful. Many other forms have been suggested and have reached a certain degree of perfection, but have not so far attained sufficient regularity of action to make them commercial successes. One of the most successful was one devised by Herr Altmann, in which an ingenious arrangement caused the vaporization of oil and water by the heat of a little oil lamp in a lower and separate chamber, and the mixture of oil gas and steam was then burnt in a burner-head with a special arrangement of air supply, heating a mantle suspended above the burner-head. The perfect petroleum incandescent lamp on any of these systems, however, has not yet been made, but the results that have been obtained show that when the right system has been found a very great increase in the amount of light developed from the petroleum may be expected. In the case of one lamp which was experimented with for some time it was easy to obtain 3500 candle hours per gallon of oil, or three times the amount of light obtainable from the oil when burnt under ordinary conditions. The cost of obtaining illuminating power of equal intensity from the various illuminating agents has been cal- _ culated, the basis of calculation in each case being e the figure which practice shows to represent the o^ g^°^a ° average duty obtained from each. The following . . table gives the results :— Cost of 1000 Candles of Light per Hour. Electricity—3.pl. per unit d. 2 Incandescent lamp . . . • Arc ....... 34 Coal Gas—16 c.p. at 3s. per 1000 cubic feet. Flat flames ...... 6 Argand ...... 0 Incandescent 21 ,, —pressure . IS Oil— Duplex lamp—oil, 8d. per gallon. 7£ Oil gas—oil, 4d. per gallon . 6 Incandescent—lamp oil, 8d. per gallon . 21 2 ,, air gas, gasolene, lOd. . 1 ,, Kitson .... (V. B. L.) PetrOVSk, a district town and seaport of Russia, on the Caspian Sea, in the province of Daghestan, Transcaucasia, 180 miles by rail east of Vladikavkaz, and 235 miles from Baku. The fort has been abandoned, but the town has become a considerable seaport, the imports reaching 400,000 tons annually, and the exports 50,000 tons. There are naphtha wells, and the hot sulphur baths at Ah-Gol and Taiga, close by, attract many visitors in summer. Population (1897), 9810. Pettie, John (1839-1893), Scottish painter, was born at East Linton, Haddingtonshire, 17th March 1839, the son of Alexander and Alison Pettie. His first art work was done in the studio of Robert Frier, and while there he made several drawings for book illustration. At the age of seventeen he entered the Trustees’ Academy in Edinburgh, working under Robert Scott Lauder with W. Q. Orchardson, J. MacWhirter, W. M‘Taggart, Peter Graham, Tom Graham, and G. P. Chalmers. He first exhibited at the Royal Scottish Academy in 1858, the subject chosen being “The Prison Pet,” following it in 1859 with a “ Scene from the Fortunes of Nigel,” and two portraits; and at the Royal Academy with “The Armourers” in 1860. The success of this work and of its successor, “What d’ye Lack,

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PEZENAS — PHARMACOLOGY

Madam ? ” in the following year, encouraged him to settle in London (1862), where he joined Orchardson. In 1866 he was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1873 received full Academical honours in succession to Sir Edwin Landseer. His diploma picture was “Jacobites, 1745.” Pettie was a hard and rapid worker, and, in his best days, a colourist of a high order and a brilliant executant. He was a successful portrait-painter, if not quite in the front rank; but he will always be better known for his subjects drawn from the romance of history, especially that of his native country. He was an accurate and charming draughtsman, with a capacity for the dramatic arrangement of a composition, and it is probable that his works of this class will always enjoy a very considerable popular vogue. In his early days he, along with many of his fellows, produced a certain amount of book illustration (see Illustration). His connexion with Good Words began in 1861, and was continued during 1862 and 1863. In 1868 and 1869 wood-engravings after his drawings appeared in the Sunday Magazine. He also illustrated The Postman's Bag (with J. MacWhirter), Wordsworth’s Poetry for the Young (Strahan, 1863); as well as contributing to Pen and Pencil Pictures from the Poets (Nimmo, 1866) and to Touches of Nature by Eminent Artists (Strahan, 1866). His principal paintings, in addition to those already mentioned, are “ One of Cromwell’s Divines ” (1862); “The Trio,” “The Tonsure,” and “George Fox refusing to take the Oath” (1863); “The Drumhead CourtMartial” (1865); “An Arrest for Witchcraft” (1866); “Sir Hugh and Ralph in the Stocks,” “A Visit to the Necromancer,” “The Rehearsal,” “John MacWhirter, Esq.” (1871); “Terms to the Besieged” (1872); “The Flag of Truce” (1873); “A Scene in Hal o’ the Wynd’s Smithy” (1874); “The Sword and Dagger Fight” (1877, now belonging to the city of Aberdeen) ; “A Death Warrant” (1879); “Before his Peers” (1881); “Monmouth and James II.” (1882); “The Vigil” (1884, in the Chantrey Collection at the National Gallery of British Art; see Plate); “Challenged” and “Sir Peter Teazle” (1885); “The Chieftain’s Candlesticks” (1886); “The Traitor” (1889); and “The Ultimatum” (1892). Pettie died at Hastings on the 21st February 1893, at the age of fifty-four, and was buried in Paddington Cemetery. In 1894—95 a selection of his work wras included in the Winter Exhibition of the Royal Academy. See Sir Walter Armstrong’s article in the Dictionary of National Biography.—W. Matthews Gilbert in the Art JOUTTlCtl. jp ® ) Pczonas, town and railway station, arrondissement of Beziers, department of Herault, 26 miles in direct line west-south-west of Montpellier. The distilling of absinthe and other spirits, and the manufacture of distilling apparatus, casks, &c., are the principal industries. The commerce in cognac, spirits, and wines is so important that the prices current for these at the weekly sales are registered throughout the wine marts of France and Europe. A handsome monument of Moliere, who lived here for several years, was erected in 1896. Population (1881), 6502; (1901), 6951. Pfaffers. See Ragatz. Pfleiderer, otto (1839 ), German Protestant theologian and philosopher, was born near Cannstadt in Wiirtemberg on 1st September 1839. From 1857 to 1861 he studied under Baur at Tubingen, and afterwards studied in England and Scotland. He then entered the Church, and for a short time held a pastorate at Heilbronn; but in 1875 he was called to the chair of systematic theology at Berlin, having made his name by a series of articles on New Testament criticism and Johan- I

nine and Pauline theology, which appeared in Hilgenfeld’s Zeitschrift fur wissenschaftliche Theologie, and by his Paulinismus, published in 1873. Das Urchristentum was published in 1887, and in 1890 The Development of Theology since Kant, and its Progress in Great Britain since 1825, which was written for publication in England. Kant’s essay Was ist Aufkldrung 1 is taken as the programme of the task to which German philosophy has devoted itself since his day. “ The Influence of the Apostle Paul on Christianity ” was the title of a course of Hibbert Lectures given in London in 1885. In 1894 he delivered the Gifford Lectures at Edinburgh, the subject being “The Philosophy and Development of Religion.” In New Testament criticism Pfleiderer belongs to the critical school which has grown out of the impulse given by Baur. But, like other modern German theologians, he shows a greater disposition to compromise, and has none of the dogmatic narrowness that was at one time a characteristic of the German school. All his work shows a judicial tone of mind, and is remarkable for the charm of its style. Professor Pfleiderer’s younger brother Edmund (1842— 1902) devoted himself to similar studies, and distinguished himself both in philosophy and theology. He too for a time held a post in the Church, and during the FrancoGerman war served as army chaplain, an experience described in his Erlebnisse eines Feldgeistlichen (1890). He was afterwards appointed professor of philosophy at Kiel, and in 1878 he was elected to the philosophical chair at Tubingen. He published works on Leibnitz, Empiricism and Scepticism in Hume’s Philosophy, Modern Pessimism, Kantic Criticism, English Philosophy, Heraclitus of Ephesus, and many other subjects. Pforzheim, a town of Germany, grand-duchy of Baden, on the outskirts of the Black Forest, 19 miles by rail south-east of Carlsruhe. It is a centre for the manufacture of gold and silver ornaments and jewellery. Amongst its public institutions may be mentioned a technical school, a hydropathic, a lunatic asylum, and a museum. Population (1885), 27,201 ; (1895), 33,345: (1900), 43,097. PhaBtan, a native state of India, in the Deccan division of Bombay, ranking as one of the Satara Jagirs. Area, 397 square miles; population (1891), 66,383 ; gross revenue (1897-98), Rs.2,29,425, of which Rs.14,810 Was expended on public works; tribute, Rs.9600; number of police, 65; 33 schools, with 1355 pupils. The chief, whose title is desmukh, is a raj put by caste, tracing his descent to a grantee from a Delhi emperor in the 14th century. The town of Phaltan is 37 miles north-east of Satara. Population (1891), 10,564; municipal revenue (1897-98), Rs. 11,323. Pharmacology.—Systematic writers on the subject differ considerably m the exact meaning which they attach to the term pharmacology (fxxpgaKov, a drug, Aoyo?, a discourse), some making it much more comprehensive than others. Binz, for instance, defines it as treating of the origin, nature, chemical and physical qualities, physiological actions, and therapeutical uses of drugs; in France and in Italy it is restricted to the mere description of medicines and their preparations, the action and uses of which as remedies are included in the term therapeutics. In the Englishspeaking countries of the world, and by the majority of German writers also, the meaning is now restricted to the study of the action of chemical substances (as apart from foods) on all kinds of animals, from bacteria up to man ; it is, in fact, a comparative study of the action of chemical bodies on invertebrate and vertebrate animals, the ultimate aim being to obtain a wider and more accurate knowledge of remedial substances in relation to their practical

“The Yigil.” By John Pettie. (From a Photograph by IV. A. Mansell and Co.)

PHARMACOLOGY application in the treatment of disease. This meaning of the word has nowsbecome fixed in the English language by use and wont. The term pharmaco-dynamics ((f>dp/j.aKov, Svua/iLs, power), which is etymologically more correct, is often used as its equivalent, but it has never become widely adopted in the United Kingdom. Hitherto' the study of pharmacological actions has been almost entirely confined to remedial agents, and especially to those in the different national pharmacopoeias, but in many cases it has now been extended to substances which are not used for curative purposes. Being a comparatively recent development of medical science, it found, when it came into the field, numerous remedies of undoubted activity in general use, and for many years it contented itself with attempts to investigate and explain the actions of these, but latterly the introduction into practical use of many medicines, such as paraldehyde, antipyrin, and strophanthus, has followed the study of their actions on animals, and this tends to be more and more the case. Pharmacology is a branch of biology just as physiology is. It is also closely connected with pathology and bacteriology, for certain drugs produce structural as well as functional changes in the tissues, and in germ diseases the peculiar symptoms are caused by foreign substances (toxins) formed by the infective organisms present in the body. The effects of many of these toxins bear a close resemblance to the action of certain well-known drugs, as in the case of tetanus toxin and strychnine, and are studied by the same methods of observation and research. It is impossible also to dissociate pharmacology from clinical therapeutics; the former investigates the agents which are used in the treatment of disease, the latter is concerned with their remedial powers and the conditions under which they are to be used. Hence the word “ pharmaco-therapy ” has come largely into use, and most of the newer standard textbooks combine together the consideration of pharmacology and therapeutics. Pharmacology is also related to toxicology, as many remedial and other agents are more or less poisonous when given in large doses, but it does not include the detection, tests, and the other strictly medicolegal aspects of poisoning. Medical writers in ancient and mediaeval times had a very good idea of the general symptoms produceddn man b Hlsto y certain important drugs, such as opium, belladonna, and alcohol, and of the effects of certain purgatives, emetics, and so on, but they were without any accurate conception of the why or wherefore of these effects, and of the special organs on which their actions were exerted. Pharmacology necessarily had to wait on the development of chemistry, physics, physiology, pathology, and medical diagnosis. Until physiological research had investigated and explained the structure, function, and mechanism of the tissues and organs of the body in their normal conditions, it was hopeless to expect that the effect of drugs on them could be profitably studied. Pharmacology therefore took origin as the result of the application of strictly experimental methods to physiology. The discovery (early in the 19th century) that plants owe their remedial and poisonous qualities to small quantities of definite active principles, such as alkaloids and neutral bodies, which can be extracted in a chemically pure condition, had also a very important effect on its development. We meet first with some early experiments made by investigators who perceived that observations on man and animals might lead to a better understanding of the action of drugs. In 1676 Wepfer and Conrad Brunner demonstrated on dogs the tetanizing action of nux vomica, and similar rough experiments were repeated from time to time with other substances by later investigators. In 1755 Menghini published an elaborate study of the action of

655

camphor on a great variety of different kinds of animals. Albert von Haller (born 1708) sought to elucidate the action of remedies by observations on healthy men, and in 1767 William Alexander made experiments on himself with drugs, which were, however, brought to an abrupt termination by his nearly killing himself. In 1776 Daries, by observations on himself and on cats, established the mydriatic action of belladonna and other atropaceous plants. Hitherto no attempt had been made to determine what particular parts of the body were especially affected by drugs, but Fontana showed, in his great work (Florence, 1765) on the venom of the viper and on other poisons, that the general symptoms were brought about by an action on particular organs. In the course of his researches he performed more than six thousand experiments, more than four thousand of which were on animals, and he determined the effects on the heart and other isolated parts. These analytical methods of research were well known to the second Monro in Edinburgh, and to his pupils, one of whom, William Alexander, wrote a thesis in 1790 entitled “ Ue partibus corporis animalis quae viribus opii parent.” His methods were doubtless known also to the French physiologist Magendie, who improved upon them, and who in 1809 published a research on the Upas Tieute and other strychnine-containing plants, in which he showed that their effects were due to an action on the spinal cord. The researches of his pupil, Claude Bernard, on curare, were equally exact and logical, and have served as the model for many subsequent investigations. In consequence, from the time of Magendie pharmacology may be said to have been put on a more exact basis. By the middle of the 19 th century there were many workers on the subject, and the actions of such drugs as digitalis, morphine, alcohol, and many others had been frequently and minutely investigated. About this time Buchheim, professor of materia medica in Dorpat from 1846 to 1879, founded the first pharmacological laboratory on modern lines in Europe, and he performed a still greater service by introducing a more rational classification of drugs than had hitherto been in use, arranging them in groups according to their pharmacological actions. In the herbals and older treatises on materia medica and therapeutics, no explanation is usually offered of the action of medicines, and in such works as that of Cullen (1789) only a few of the more obvious actions are occasionally explained according to the current theories of physiology and pathology. In works such as Pareira’s Elements of Materia Medica and Therapeutics (1842), the physiological effects of medicines are usually described, but very briefly as compared with the materia medica. At the present day most text-books dealing with medicinal agents and treatment devote a large part of their space to pharmacology, and a corresponding change has taken place in the teaching of the subject in our universities and medical schools. Since Magendie’s time very numerous papers dealing with pharmacological subjects have appeared in such journals as the Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, the Journal of Physiology, Virchow’s Archiv, and the principal medical periodicals of all countries. In 1873 the Archiv fur experimentelle Pathologic und Pharmahologie first appeared, and in 1895 the Archives Internationales de Pharmakodynamie, both chiefly or entirely devoted to pharmacology. The methods of research are essentially those employed by physiologists, the action of substances being studied in the usual way on bacteria, leucocytes, frogs, rabbits, and other animals. Not only are the general symptoms investigated, but it is necessary to carry out experiments on the nerves, muscles, circulation, secretions, &c., so as to get a more exact knowledge of the reasons of the general action. It is true that many of these animals

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react somewhat differently to drugs, both as regards each ' other and as regards man, but for the most part the differences are quantitative rather than qualitative. After carrying out a series of observations on animals, the drug can be assigned to its special group, and a good idea can be obtained of its possible practical value or the reverse; hence there is a saving of time and an avoidance of the necessity of testing its effects on man. The action of a drug may be called direct, when it acts on any part Action of p js immediately applied, or which it rugs ' may reach through the blood ; and indirect, when one organ is affected secondarily to another, as, for instance, in strychnine poisoning when the muscles are violently contracted as the result of the action of the alkaloid upon the spinal cord. In a few cases the action is merely physical, but most frequently it is chemical in its nature, and is exerted on the living cell, the activity of which is either stimulated or depressed. In some cases the substances actually enter into a chemical combination with the protoplasm, which may be temporary or (much less frequently) permanent; in other cases they seem simply to modify or disturb the usual chemical activity of the cells. Prolonged or excessive stimulation invariably leads to depression or paralysis, the tissues becoming, in fact, fatigued, and from this condition they may recover or they may not. When we come to consider more in detail the results of these actions, we find that the various secretions of the body, such as the sweat, gastric juice, bile, milk, urine, &c., may be increased or diminished; that the heart may have its muscular or nervous apparatus stimulated or depressed; that the nerve-centres in the brain, medulla, and spinal cord may be rendered more sensitive or the reverse; and that the general metabolism of the body may be altered in various ways. In addition, the fluid constituents, such as the lymph and blood, may have their composition and bulk considerably altered, while the special senses, the temperature, and, in short, every function and tissue, may be more or less affected. Some drugs given in excess are poisons to all forms of protoplasm, but when given in doses much short of the lethal they usually exhibit a distinct tendency to affect specially, and at an early period, certain organs or tissues, and hence result differences in action; others may act only on certain organs, leaving the others practically untouched. It is often possible by appropriate dosage to contrive that these special parts or organs may be affected and the rest of the body left practically intact, and it is by taking advantage of these selective actions that remedial or therapeutical effects are usually obtained. Some substances have a very wide range of action, and involve a great variety of structures, while others, such as purgatives, have a very limited sphere.1 The most important of these circumstances is age, but speaking broadly this is really a question of bulk, the child being affected as the adult, but by smaller doses. There are exceptions to this, however, as children are more affected in proportion by opium and some other substances, and less by mercury and arsenic. In old age also the nervous system and the tissues generally do not react so readily as in youth. Habit, race, personal temperament, emotional conditions, disease, the time and circumstances of administration, and other accidental causes may also modify the action in man. Some species of animals are much more susceptible to the action of certain drugs than others, a condition which depends on obvious or unknown structural or metabolic differences. In the same way some individuals show a special tendency to poisoning by doses of certain drugs which are harmless to the great majority of mankind, 1 The action of drugs is often modified by circumstances peculiar to the individuals or animals to whom they are administered.

and hence we get unexpected or unusual results, these arising from special susceptibility on the part of certain organs. These idiosyncrasies are not confined to drugs, but are seen with a few articles of food, such as eggs and shell-fish. It is well known that the habitual consumption of certain drugs, such as tobacco, Indian hemp, opium, arsenic, alcohol, and many others, gradually induces a condition of tolerance to their effects, so that large doses can be taken without causing symptoms of poisoning. In all cases, however, there is a limit, and after it is reached the ordinary effects of these substances are seen. Some individuals, however, never become tolerant, and show poisonous effects on each repetition of the dose. The degree of tolerance often differs in individuals at different times and in different circumstances, and may become quite lost by breaking off the habit for a short time. The explanation generally given is that the nerve and other cells become accustomed to the drug, so that they cease to react, or that an antitoxin is formed which antagonizes the poison, or that the poison is rapidly destroyed in the body. Recent researches on arsenic and atropine, however, point to the leucocytes as playing an important part in the production of tolerance, as these gradually become capable of ingesting large amounts of the foreign substances, and thus render them more or less harmless to the tissues, until they are gradually excreted from the body. But in the case of arsenic an antitoxin also forms in the blood. When the amount is too large to be dealt with by the leucocytes, poisoning seems to occur even in the most habituated. Tolerance is therefore analogous to the immunity which takes place with the toxins of infectious diseases and snake poison. Certain substances, notably digitalis, lead, mercury, and strychnine, exhibit wdiat is called a cumulative action— that is to say, when small quantities have been taken over a period of time, poisoning or an excessive action suddenly ensues. The explanation in these cases is that the drug is absorbed more rapidly than it is excreted, hence there is a tendency to its accumulation in the body until a point is reached when the amount becomes poisonous. Bodies which have a close resemblance in their chemical constitution exhibit a similar resemblance in their pharmacological action, and as the constitution of the substance becomes modified chemically so does its action pharmacologically. Numerous researches have demonstrated these points with regard to individual groups of substances, but hitherto we have not been able to formulate any fixed laws regarding the relationship between chemical constitution and physiological action. When drugs are swallowed no absorption may take place from the alimentary canal; but, as a rule, they pass from there into the blood, in which they circulate, and thus exert their action on different organs. Absorption may also take place from the skin, from the rectum, from the respiratory passages, or from wounds, and from direct injection into the subcutaneous tissue or into a blood-vessel. Very rarely, as in the case of silver salts, excretion does not take place; but usually the drug is got rid of by the bowel, urine, bile, saliva, bronchial mucous membrane, or the other ordinary channels of elimination. Just as drugs act upon the tissues, so they themselves are in many cases reacted upon, and broken up or altered. While in the alimentary canal they are subjected to the action of the digestive fluids and the varied contents of the stomach and intestines, and after absorption they come under the influence of the constituents of the blood and lymph, and of the chemical action of the tissue cells. Inorganic bodies, such as metals, may enter into albuminous combinations which may greatly modify their effects, and organic substances may be split up into simpler compounds by

P H A U M A OOLOGY oxidation or reduction, or may be rendered more complex by synthesis. The antagonism between certain drugs has been much studied in relation to their use as antidotes in poisoning, but what is aimed at in these cases is to counteract the effects rather than to obtain a direct physiological antagonistic action. The substances which directly antagonize each other by acting on the same tissue are few in number, but there are numerous instances in which the effects or symptoms may be obviated by acting on another tissue. Thus curare may stop strychnine convulsions by paralysing the terminations of motor nerves, and chloroform may exercise the same effect by abolishing the irritability of the spinal cord. If two poisons act on the same tissue, one stimulating and the other paralysing it, the paralysing substance removes the action of the stimulant substance, not by bringing the tissue back to its normal state, but by abolishing its excitability; hence, although life may be saved by such an action, yet it can only be so within certain limits of dosage, because the antagonism is never complete at every point. Speaking in the widest sense, every substance has an action on living protoplasm, but for convenience’ sake pharmacological substances have come to be limited to those which are used as drugs, or which have a distinct action upon the animal organism, although they may not be put to any practical purpose. Such substances are derived from (1) the chemical elements and their compounds; (2) plants; and (3) animals. The first class includes such substances as iodine, mercury, iron, carbon, and their various compounds, and such bodies as alcohol, chloroform, and chloral, all of which are found in Nature or can be prepared by ordinary chemical processes of manufacture. From plants many substances are obtained which at the present time we are unable to make in the chemical laboratory, and of the constitution or composition of which we are in many cases ignorant. Some of these, such as resins, gums, essential oils and fats, are readily obtained as natural exudations or by very simple manipulations, while others, such as the alkaloids, glucosides, and vegetable acids, often require to be extracted by very complex processes. Substances obtained from animals include gland secretions, pepsin and other ferments, musk, cod-liver oil, Ac., and to these may be added various antitoxins. The classification of substances having pharmacoactions presents so many difficulties that no satisfactory or universally adopted method has yet been proposed. As a matter of fact, our knowledge presents so many gaps, and the mode of action of many remedies is so obscure and imperfectly understood, that any arrangement adopted must be more or less tentative in character. The close alliance between pharmacology, therapeutics, and clinical medicine has induced many authors to treat the subject from a clinical point of view, while, on the other hand, its relationships to chemistry and physiology have been utilized to elaborate a chemical and physiological classification respectively as the basis for systematic description. Certain writers in despair have adopted an alphabetical arrangement of the subject, while others have divided it up into inorganic, vegetable, and animal substances, following the botanical natural orders and the divisions of the animal kingdom. These last-mentioned methods, however, are far behind our present state of knowledge, and need not be discussed here. The objection to a strictly chemical classification is, that while many substances closely allied chemically have a somewhat similar action in certain respects, yet in others they differ very widely—a striking example of which is given in the case of sodium and potassium. A physiological classification according to an action on the brain, heart, kidney, or other

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important organ becomes still more bewildering, as many substances produce the same effects by different agencies, as, for instance, the kidneys may be acted upon directly or through the circulation, while the heart may be affected either through its muscular substance or its nervous apparatus. A clinical or therapeutical classification into such divisions as anaesthetics, expectorants, bitters, and so on, according to their practical applications, also leads us into difficulties, as many drugs are employed for numerous purposes, and they cannot therefore be strictly classified in this way. The ideal method of grouping pharmacological substances would be in reference to their chemical action on living protoplasm, but as yet our knowledge is too scanty for this. At the present time the method adopted by Buchheim, or some modification of it, is the most scientific. As the result of painstaking investigations he grouped together all those substances having similar actions, giving to each group the name of its best-known or most thoroughly investigated member. Once the groups were more or less fixed any new substance could, when its action was determined, be referred to its own group, and thus be placed or classified. As few substances are absolutely identical in action, but only broadly similar, it is often difficult to divide sharply one group from another. In a resume it is manifestly impossible to pass in review every pharmacological substance, and we shall therefore confine ourselves to those groups which are of practical importance. Many of the individual drugs have been already described, and detailed information regarding them may be obtained by reference to the particular headings in the earlier volumes (ninth edition) of this Encyclopaedia. Group I.—Acids.—This includes sulphuric, hydrochloric, nitric, phosphoric, tartaric, citric, acetic, and lactic acids, all of which owe their action to their acidity. Many of the other acids, such as carbolic and salicylic, have specific effects which have no relationship to their acid reaction. The concentrated acids have an intense local action, varying from complete destruction of the tissues to more or less irritation. When considerably diluted they lose this, and are only slightly irritating; externally applied and in the stomach they have an antiseptic action; they increase the secretion of saliva, and thus assuage thirst. In the intestine they combine with ammonia and other alkalis present, and are absorbed into the blood as neutral salts, being excreted chiefly in the urine. In small doses they somewhat increase general metabolism. Boric acid only belongs partially to this group, as it and its compound borax have certain specific actions in addition. Group II.—Alkalis.—This includes caustic potash, caustic soda, solution of ammonia, their carbonates and bicarbonates, borax, soaps, lithium carbonate and citrate, quick lime, slaked lime, chalk, magnesia, and magnesium carbonate. All these substances, apart from any other actions, exert a similar effect upon the body in virtue of their alkalinity. When they are taken internally in small amounts they neutralize the acids in the stomach and other parts of the alimentary canal, and at the same time they increase the normal acid secretion of the stomach. After absorption into the blood, which they make somewhat more alkaline, they are excreted chiefly in the urine, to which they impart an alkaline reaction if given in sufficient quantity. Some of them by stimulating the kidney cells act as diuretics, but others apparently lack this action. Caustic potash and caustic soda are locally very irritating, and destroy the tissues, but lose this quality when combined with acids as in the case of their carbonates, bicarbonates, and borax. Quick lime is also caustic, but magnesia is bland and unirritating. Weak solutions applied locally saponify fats, S. VII. — 83

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soften the epidermis, and thus act as slight stimulants and cleansers of the skin. Calcium salts form insoluble soaps with fats, and combine with albumen in a manner which makes them soothing and astringent rather than irritating locally. Apart from alkaline effects, these metals differ considerably pharmacologically. Potassium and lithium have a depressing action upon the nervous system, ammonium salts have a stimulating action, while sodium practically speaking is indifferent. Calcium and magnesium have actions somewhat similar to that of potassium. Most of these substances are normal constituents of the body, and indispensable for healthy existence. They are contained in sufficient amount in our ordinary dietary to supply the needs of the organism. Group III.—Easily absorbed Salts.—Sodium chloride may be taken as the type of those salts which diffuse readily, and which are therefore easily absorbed. Sodium nitrate, potassium nitrate, potassium chloride, ammonium chloride, the alkaline iodides and bromides, also belong partly to this group, although most of them have specific actions in addition. Locally they cause considerable irritation, and when swallowed in concentrated solution may cause vomiting. From the stomach and intestines they are rapidly absorbed, and rapidly excreted from the blood, increasing all secretions and the general metabolism. These effects are apparently due to their irritating action upon individual cells. Group IV.—Salts absorbed with difficulty.—This group includes the sulphates of sodium, potassium, and magnesium, the acetate and tartrate of potash, citrate of magnesium, sodium phosphate, sodium tartrate, and similar salts. Locally their action is slight, but when taken internally, dissolved in water, they are not absorbed from the alimentary canal except in very limited amount. They therefore remain for the most part in the intestine, and as they attract and retain large quantities of water, and at the same time slightly stimulate the mucous membrane, they come to have a purgative action and form the well-known group of saline cathartics. The small portion which is absorbed exerts a diuretic action. Group V.—Heavy Metals.—These include iron, manganese, aluminium, chromium, zinc, copper, silver, gold, platinum, lead, mercury, and probably antimony, arsenic, and bismuth. Although some of these differ very greatly in their actions after absorption, still locally they have certain effects in common due chiefly to their chemical action on albumen. Their soluble salts precipitate albumen and preserve it, strong solutions being extremely irritant or caustic, while weaker ones are astringent simply, or even soothing. They are all antiseptics. Their insoluble compounds are much less active locally than the soluble, and in many cases are only effective to the extent to which they are dissolved by the secretions. Some metals are only absorbed from the alimentary canal to such a very limited amount that they exert no general action, while others readily pass into the blood and give rise to more or less marked effects. All of them injected into the blood in large doses act as muscle and nerve poisons, and during their excretion by the kidney usually irritate it severely, but only a few are absorbed in sufficient amount to produce similar effects when given by the mouth. When iron is injected directly into a vein it depresses the heart’s action, the blood pressure, and the nervous system, and during its excretion greatly irritates the bowel and the kidneys. When taken by the mouth, however, no such actions are seen, owing to the fact that very minute quantities are absorbed, and that these become stored in the liver, where they are converted into organic compounds and ultimately go to form haemoglobin. Soluble salts of manganese, aluminium, zinc, copper, gold, platinum, and

bismuth have, when given by the mouth, little action beyond their local astringent or irritating effects; but when injected into a blood-vessel they all exert much the same depressing effect upon the heart and nervous system. Silver resembles them closely, but differs by the circumstance that it is deposited permanently in minute granules in the tissues, and, without affecting the general health, stains the skin of a bluish colour (argyria). Mercury and lead are absorbed from the bowel in considerable quantities, and are capable of inducing acute irritant poisoning as well as chronic poisoning. In the case of lead, the metal poisons the muscular and nervous systems, and gives rise to paralysis, wasting, colic, and other symptoms, while in the case of mercury, tremors, salivation, anaemia, and very marked cachexia are induced. Arsenic and antimony do not form combinations with albumen, but they both greatly depress the central nervous system and circulation* and, if their action be long continued in large doses, they cause fatty degeneration of the viscera and disappearance of glycogen from the liver. Locally they are both very irritating, and antimony has a special tendency to cause vomiting. Group VI.—Halogens.—This group includes iodine, bromine, and chlorine, in their free state or as compounds.. Locally they are all three strongly irritant or caustic, owing to their chemical action on albumen. They are in addition powerful germicides, and by splitting up water may act as oxidizing agents. Owing to their strong affinity for the hydrogen of organic compounds, they often act as bleachers and deodorizers. Iodine has a special interest, from the fact that it is a necessary constituent of our food, and is present in the secretion of the thyroid gland. Apart from certain conditions of ill-health, the iodides, as such, have no very marked influence on the healthy body beyond their saline action. Alkaline bromides, in addition to their saline action, have in sufficient doses a depressing effect upon the central nervoussystem, and less markedly upon the heart. Chlorine compounds are not known to exercise any action of a similar kind. Group VII.—Sutyhur.—Sulphur itself has no action, but when brought into contact with the secretions it forms sulphides, sulphites, and sulphuretted hydrogen, and thereby becomes more or less irritant and antiseptic. In the bowel its conversion into sulphides causes it to act as a mild laxative. Baths containing sulphuretted hydrogen or alkaline sulphides have a slightly irritating effect upon the skin, and stimulate the general metabolism. Group VIII.—Phosphorus.—This includes phosphides, and, according to some authorities, hypophosphites. Phosphorus is present in all cells, in considerable quantity in the nervous tissue, and in the bones as phosphates. It istherefore, in some form or other, a necessary part of our dietary. When the element itself is taken by the mouth it is an irritant poison in large doses; in small doses the only effects which are noticeable consist in an increased formation of bony and connective tissue, although it isalso supposed to exert a gently stimulating effect upon the nervous system. Group IX.—Oxygen.—When pure oxygen is inhaled the only effect is a slight increase of the amount of the gas in the blood, but this has no particular physiological effect. The pharmacological action of hydrogen peroxide (H20o), potassium permanganate, powdered charcoal, and some other oxidizing agents depends on the readiness with which they give up oxygen. Group X.—Carbonic Acid.—Carbonic acid gas, carbonic oxide (CO), and some other irrespirable gases produce their effects practically by asphyxiation. When dissolved in water, however, carbonic acid gas is a gentle stimulant

PHARMACOLOGY to the mouth, stomach, and bowel, the mixture being absorbed more rapidly than plain water; hence its greater value in assuaging thirst. Nitrous oxide (laughing gas) was at one time believed to act simply by cutting off the supply of oxygen to the tissues, but in addition to that it has certainly a specific effect in producing paralysis of certain parts of the central nervous system, and hence its value as an anaesthetic; when given in small amounts mixed with air it simply produces a condition of exhilaration. Group XI.— Water.—Water acts directly as a diluent and solvent in the body. It therefore increases all the secretions, especially those of the skin and kidneys, while it also stimulates the general metabolism of the body and the excretion of nitrogenous products. Mineral waters act in the same way, but their effects are very much modified by, and depend largely upon, other constituents, such as alkaline salts, iron, arsenic, sulphides, carbonic acid, &c. Group XII.—Tannic Acid.—Tannic acid is present in small quantities in the great majority of plants, but in notable quantity in gall-nuts, oak bark, bearberry leaves, rhatany root, catechu, kino, red gum, bel fruit, logwood, and witch hazel, all of which are largely used as medicines. In these the variety of tannic acid is not exactly the same, but although there are slight chemical differences, they all possess the power of tanning raw hides and of preserving albuminous tissues. The action of tannic acid is strictly local, and depends upon its power of precipitating albumen and of destroying germs. It thus acts as an astringent on all mucous membranes. After absorption into the blood it loses this effect, as it is partly broken up into gallic acid and partly combined with alkalis, both of which changes nullify its action upon albumen. Group XIII.—Local Irritants.—Although some of the drugs already considered have a local irritant action, they produce other effects which throw this into the background, but the substances which are here ranged under this heading depend entirely for their action on their local irritant effects. (a) Those which act upon the alimentary canalSimple bitters such as quassia wood, columbo root, taraxacum, gentian, chiretta, and many others, irritate gently the mucous membrane of the stomach and bowels, and by increasing the secretions improve the appetite and digestion. The aromatic bitters such as camomile iiowers, cascarilla bark, hops, absinthe, orange peel, and others, contain in addition small quantities of essential oils which increase their local action and give them a pleasanter flavour. The active principles in some of these bitters have been isolated pure, and have been found to be alkaloids or neutral compounds. Substances like pepper, cayenne pepper, mustard, horse-radish, and ginger irritate the stomach and bowel much in the same way, but are more pungent, and are consequently used as condiments. Some of these have a similar but less marked effect upon the skin. The large number of vegetable substances which are used as purgatives owe their action to an irritating effect upon the mucous membrane and the neuro-muscular apparatus of the bowel, whereby the secretions and peristalsis are more or less increased, as the result of which diarrhoea ensues. Some of them cause so much irritation that the discharge is very watery (hydragogue cathartics), while others, for example aloes, by acting gently on the lower part of the bowel and on its muscular coat, produce simply a laxative effect. A few of them, such as aloin and eolocynthin, are also purgative when injected subcutaneously or into the blood, probably owing to their being excreted into the intestinal canal. (b) Those which act on the skin:—The best known of these is cantharides (Spanish fly), the active principle of which is a colourless crystalline body—cantharidin—which is extremely irritating. On a mucous membrane or a delicate skin it exerts an irritant action, which occurs more quickly than on a thickened epidermis, such as the scalp, and according to the strength and period of application there may result redness, a blister, or an ulcer. Many other substances, such as chrysarobin, mustard, pepper, &c., are also capable of irritating the skin, the effect produced varying from mere dilatation of the cutaneous vessels to destruction of tissue.

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Group XIY.—Male-fern.—This includes the malefern, santonin, cusso, pomegranate bark, pumpkin seeds, and a very considerable number of other substances, all of which contain active principles which have a specific poisonous action on intestinal parasitic worms. Apart from this their actions vary considerably, but are of little practical importance. Group XV.—Ethereal This includes a very largenumber of substances which owe their action to the fact that they contain ethereal or essential oils. The best known of these are cloves, pimento (allspice), myrtle, eucalyptus, caraway, fennel, dill, coriander, rosemary, lavender, peppermint, spearmint, nutmeg, cinnamon, sandal-wood, turpentine, juniper berries, valerian, sumbul, and many other substances. In this group may also be included the oleo-resins, such as copaiba, cubebs, and Canada balsam; the gum-resins, such as asafoetida, myrrh, ammoniacum, and galbanum; and the true balsams, such as benzoin, storax, balsam of Tolu, and balsam of Peru. The resins when taken internally have much the _ same action as essential oils, which are closely allied chemically, while the benzoic and cinnamic acids present in the balsams modify their actions very slightly. Although individual essential oils may differ somewhat in action, yet chemically and pharmacologically they are fundamentally similar. They all have a poisonous action on protoplasm, which makes them useful in medicine as antiseptics, disinfectants, germicides, anti-fermentatives, and parasiticides; when locally applied they are more or less irritating, and, when very dilute, astringent. When swallowed in small doses they slightly irritate the mouth and gastric mucous membrane, increasing the secretions and producing a feeling of warmth. At the same time they increase the movements of the stomach, and also in this way hasten digestion, an action which extends to the upper part of the bowel. They are readily absorbed into the blood, and they are excreted chiefly by the kidneys in a more or less altered form, and probably also by the different mucous membranes, and even by the skin. After absorption their action, speaking generally, is exerted on the brain and spinal cord, and is at first slightly stimulant and afterwards depressing, even to the causing of sleepiness and stupor. Locally applied they depress the terminations of sensory nerves, and may thereby lessen pain. On the heart and circulation the effects are stimulant unless large doses are given, when the pulse becomes slow and blood-pressure much lessened. During excretion they irritate the kidneys and the sweat glands, and thereby increase the excretion of urine and of sweat. They also have the effect of increasing the number of leucocytes in the blood, and the more irritating of them increase the flow of blood to the pelvic organs, and may thus stimulate the uterus, or in large doses cause abortion. The various camphors, such as laurel camphor,. Borneo camphor, menthol, and cumarin, are oxidized derivatives of essential oils, and differ only superficially from them in their action. Group XVI. — Phenol.—This includes a very large number of bodies chemically allied to benzol, such as carbolic acid, sulpho-carbolates, creosote, wood tar, coal tar, oil of cade, thymol, salicylic acid, benzoic acid, naphthol, hydrochinon, cresol, guaiacol, ichthyol, saccharin, and many others. These all resemble carbolic acid more or less closely, and may be described as general protoplasm poisons. Locally their destructive and irritating effects vary a good deal, but even when very dilute they all have a marked poisonous action on bacteria, white blood corpuscles, yeast, and similar organisms. After absorption most of them exercise a depressing effect upon the nervous, system, and are capable of reducing high temperature. They are mostly excreted in the urine.

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PHARMA OOLOGY

Group XVII.—Alcohol.—This group also includes a very large number of chemical bodies, only a few of which are mentioned here. Ethylic alcohol is taken as a type of the action of methyl alcohol, amyl alcohol, propyl alcohol, ether, acetic ether, amyl ether, paraldehyde, .sulphonal, chloroform, methyl chloride, ethyl chloride, chloral hydrate, butylchloral hydrate, and almost any number of derivatives from these. Some of them are so volatile that they produce their effects when inhaled, •others when sprayed upon the skin cause intense cold and then anaesthesia; but taken in the broadest sense the •action of all of them after absorption into the blood is very similar, and is exerted upon the central nervous system, more especially the cerebrum. Their effects are said to be brought about by a slight coagulating action •on the substance of the grey nerve-cells. In all cases there is a longer or shorter period of excitement, followed by intoxication or narcosis, and with large doses this passes into paralysis and death from depression of the respiratory centre or of the heart. Small doses of any of them dilate the blood-vessels from an action on the vaso-motor centre in the medulla oblongata, as a result of which the heart beats more rapidly and the blood circulates more freely in the body; but larger doses have a general depressing effect upon the circulatory system. Under their action more heat is lost from the body, the .general metabolism is diminished, and the temperature falls. With some of them, such as chloral and chloroform, the stimulation period is short compared with the nar■cotic period, while with others, such as ether, the reverse is the case. Group XVIII.—Nitrites.—This group contains amyl nitrite, ethyl nitrite, methyl nitrite, nitroglycerin, sodium .and potassium nitrites, erythrol-tetranitrate, and many other •compounds containing nitrous or nitric acid The latter becomes reduced to nitrous in the body, and thereby •exercises its characteristic effects. These consist chiefly in ^an action upon non-striped muscle, vaso-motor centres, blood-vessels, and the blood. When they are given by inhalation or by the mouth their first effect is to produce marked dilatation of the small arteries, with a fall of blood-pressure and a greatly increased rapidity of the heart’s action. At the same time the non-striped muscles •slightly lose their tonicity, and when very large doses are given the haemoglobin of the blood becomes converted into the chocolate-coloured methaemoglobin. The volatile members of the group act much more raj)idly and more transiently than the others. Group XIX.—Alkaloids.—This embraces a very large number of important pharmacological substances, which differ a good deal in the details of their action, but which have this in common, that they all act upon muscle and nerve tissue. Some of them affect only certain portions -of the nervous system, others have a much wider range of action; they may act in either case as stimulants or as depressants, and hence the symptoms produced by them wary very greatly. (1) Morphine and the other opium alkaloids (codeine, narcotine, laudanine, &c.) have two prominent actions—a narcotic followed by a tetanic action. In the case of morphine, on the higher animals at least, the narcotic action is very marked, the tetanizing action slightly so ; while in the case of thebaine there is practically little narcotic effect, but a tetanizing action like that of strychnine. Morphine exercises its effects chiefly upon the cerebrum and the medulla oblongata in man. It has in addition a markedly depressing action upon the respiratory centre, it lessens all the secretions except the sweat, and diminishes bowel peristalsis and the size of the pupil. Men are much more affected by it than birds, rabbits, •dogs, and most other animals. Cats, on the other hand, show marked symptoms of cerebral excitement and increase of the reflexes. Compared with morphine, codeine and the other alkaloids are only slightly narcotizing. (2) Strychnine and brucine very closely resemble each other in

action, and under this heading curarine may also be included. These bodies stimulate the grey matter in the spinal cord, and cause tetanic convulsions. In the case of curare these are masked almost at once by paralysis of the terminations of the motor nerves. (3) Caffeine is the active principle in tea, coffee, kola, mate, and guarana ; while theobromine, a body closely allied to it, is found in cocoa and chocolate. They both stimulate the grey nerve-cells in the brain and cord, this being the foundation of their dietetic value and their use as nervine stimulants. They also markedly increase the secretion of urine by stimulating the secreting cells of the kidneys. (4) Cocaine is the active principle of the coca leaf, which is chewed as a stimulant-narcotic in Tern and Bolivia. Small doses have an exciting effect on the nervous system, while larger doses are depressing. The chief action of cocaine from a practical point of view is its power of paralysing the terminations of sensory nerves. (5) Atropine, hyoscyamine, homatropine, duboisine, daturine, and some other bodies have a paralysing action upon the ends of the motor and secretory nerves. They therefore lessen all the secretions, and among other actions dilate the pupil and increase the rapidity of the heart by paralysing the vagus. Besides this they have a stimulating action on the central nervous system. (6) Nicotine, piturine, and lobeline are the active principles of tobacco and other substances which are smoked as stimulant narcotics. In large doses they are powerful nerve poisons, but as usually taken they exercise a gently stimulant effect upon the nervous system. Pilocarpine has an action closely allied to that of nicotine, but as it is much less poisonous (the effects produced by small doses being chiefly excessive sweating and salivation), it is capable of being utilized in medicine. Muscarine has a very close resemblance in action to pilocarpine. (7) Physostigmine, the active principle of the Calabar bean, acts chiefly as a stimulant to voluntary and involuntary muscles, and at the same time exercises a depressing effect upon the spinal cord. It contracts the pupil. (8) Conine, gelseminine, and sparteine all exert a paralysing effect on the terminations of the motor nerves, to the implication of which the weakened gait and other symptoms are due. (9) Aconitine, delphinine, and many of their derivatives have a very widespread action on muscle and nerve, which are both depressed from the beginning. (10) Apomorphine is essentially a muscle poison, but owing to the fact that minute doses stimulate the vomiting centre and cause emesis before any other symptoms are observable, its emetic action is the most prominent effect in man. (11) Emetine acts as a gradual depressant to the nervous system in animals. In man its chief effect is its emetic action, which seems to be due entirely to local irritation of the stomach. (12) Quinine. Several of the other alkaloids found in cinchona bark act very much like quinine, while phenacetin, antipyrin, acetanilide, and many other artificially-made substances of the same nature resemble it and each other closely. They all depress the conducting power and the grey matter of the spinal cord, and to a much less extent that of the brain. They lessen the general metabolism and lower febrile temperature. The cinchona alkaloids have a specifically poisonous effect on the parasites of malaria when present in human blood, and are in addition poisonous to all low organisms. Group XX.—Digitalis.—This group-name has been given to a large number of substances -which have an action similar to that of the foxglove leaves, including the active principles of strophanthus, squill, Urechites suberecta, Convallaria majalis, Nerium Oleander, Helleborus niger, Antaris toxicaria (the upas tree), and several others. The active principles of these vary a good deal in chemical composition, but they are all non - nitrogenous neutral bodies. Their action is exerted upon muscle, but chiefly upon the muscle of the heart and blood-vessels. The individual muscle - fibres contract and expand more perfectly, and thus the diastole and systole of the heart are rendered more complete, the pulse is slowed, and the blood-pressure is raised. The slowing of the heart is partly brought about by an action on the vagus centre. Group XXI.—Picrotoxin.—In large doses the action of picrotoxin is exerted chiefly on the medullary nerve centres, -whereby irregular tonic - clonic convulsions are produced ; in minute doses it stops the secretion of sweat. Group XXII.—Saponin.—Saponin and allied bodies form an abundant soapy-looking froth when shaken up with water, and they are contained in a very large number

PHELPS — PHILADELPHIA of plants, the chief of which are the Quillaia saponaria, Polygala senega, sarsaparilla, and others, known collectively as soapworts. They all act as local irritants in the alimentary canal, and after absorption are more or less depressing to the muscular and nervous systems. They produce slight nausea and increased secretion of mucus. Group XXIII.—Cyanogen.—This includes compounds of cyanogen such as hydrocyanic (prussic) acid, cyanides of potassium, sodium, &c., cherry-laurel water, amygdalin, bitter almonds, and other chemical and vegetable substances which readily yield hydrocyanic acid. Hydrocyanic acid is a general protoplasmic poison, all the lower organisms being very susceptible to its action, while in the higher animals it speedily depresses or paralyses all forms of nerve tissue. It enters into combination with haemoglobin, forming a bright scarlet compound and interfering with respiration. It kills by its paralysing effect on the motor ganglia of the heart and on the respiratory centre. Group XXIY.—Ferments.—These include such bodies as pepsin, diastase, the pancreatic ferments, papain, the pine-apple ferment, taka-diastase, and others, and serve to convert starch into saccharine substances, or albumen into peptone and albumoses. Group XXY.—Animal Glands and Secretions.—Of these the thyroid gland, the suprarenal bodies, the spleen, the bile, the bone marrow, the ovaries, and some others have been investigated fully. Speaking generally, when given in small doses their action on the healthy organism is slight or nil, but in disease some of them are capable of acting as substitutes for deficient secretions. Group XXYI. — Antitoxins. — These are substances which antagonize the toxins formed in the body by pathogenic organisms, the toxins of snake venom and other animal poisons, and vegetable toxins such as abrin, ricin,