Educational Psychology Developing Learners 9780137849314, 0137849311

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Pearson’s Commitment to Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion
About the Authors
Preface
Brief Contents
Contents
Chapter 1 Teaching and Educational Psychology
Case Study: The "No D" Policy
Reflecting on What You Already Know About Learning and Instruction
Studying and Learning Effectively
Developing as a Teacher
Understanding and Interpreting Research Findings
Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research
Mixed-Methods Research
Interpreting Research Results: A Cautionary Note
From Research to Practice: The Importance of Principles and Theories
Collecting Data and Drawing Conclusions About Your Own Students
Assessing Students’ Achievements and Interpreting Their Classroom Behaviors
Conducting Action Research
Part 1 Development and Diversity
Chapter 2 Cognitive and Linguistic Development
Case Study: Carrots
General Principles of Human Development
The Multiple Layers of Environmental Influence: Bioecological Systems and the Importance of Culture
Role of the Brain in Learning and Development
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Piaget’s Basic Assumptions
Piaget’s Proposed Stages of Cognitive Development
Critiquing Piaget’s Theory
Considering Diversity from the Perspective of Piaget’s Theory
Contemporary Extensions and Applications of Piaget’s Theory
Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Vygotsky’s Basic Assumptions
Critiquing Vygotsky’s Theory
Considering Diversity from the Perspective of Vygotsky’s Theory
Contemporary Extensions and Applications of Vygotsky’s Theory
Contrasting Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories
Language Development
Theoretical Issues Regarding Language Development
Diversity in Language Development
Second-Language Learning and English Language Learners
Chapter 3 Personal and Social Development
Case Study
Personality Development
Temperament
Environmental Influences on Personality Development
The “Big Five” Personality Traits
Temperament, Personality, and Goodness of Fit
Development of a Sense of Self
Factors Influencing Sense of Self
Forming an Identity: Developmental Changes in Sense of Self
Diversity in Sense of Self
Development of Peer Relationships and Interpersonal Understandings
Peers’ Influences on Development
Common Social Groups in Childhood and Adolescence
Popularity and Social Isolation
Social Cognition
Aggression
Technology and Peer Relationships
Diversity in Peer Relationships and Social Cognition
Promoting Healthy Peer Relationships
Moral and Prosocial Development
Developmental Trends in Morality and Prosocial Behavior
Factors Influencing Moral and Prosocial Development
Diversity in Moral and Prosocial Development
Encouraging Moral and Prosocial Development at School
Chapter 4 Group Differences
Case Study: Students Suddenly Not in School
Cultural and Ethnic Differences
Navigating Different Cultures at Home and at School
Cultural Competence
Creating a Culturally Inclusive Classroom Environment
Gender Differences
Gender, Sex, and Gender-Nonconformity
Research Findings Regarding Gender Differences
Origins of Gender Differences
Making Appropriate Accommodations for Gender Differences
Socioeconomic Differences
Challenges Associated with Poverty
Fostering Resilience
Working with Homeless Students
Students at Risk
Characteristics of Students at Risk
Why Students Drop Out
Supporting Students at Risk
Chapter 5 Individual Differences and Special Educational Needs
Case Study: Tim
Intelligence
Theoretical Perspectives of Intelligence
Measuring Intelligence
Nature and Nurture in the Development of Intelligence
Cultural and Ethnic Diversity in Intelligence
Being Smart About Intelligence and IQ Scores
Cognitive Styles and Dispositions
There’s No Such Thing as Learning Styles
Does It Make Sense to Teach to Students’ “Right Brains” or “Left Brains”?
Analytic and Holistic Thinking
Dispositions
Educating Students with Special Needs in General Education Classrooms
Public Law 94-142: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
Potential Benefits and Drawbacks of Inclusion
Identifying Students’ Special Needs
Students with Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties
Learning Disabilities
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Speech and Communication Disorders
General Recommendations
Students with Social or Behavioral Problems
Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
Autism Spectrum Disorders
General Recommendations
Students with General Delays in Cognitive and Social Functioning
Intellectual Disabilities
Students with Physical or Sensory Challenges
Physical and Health Impairments
Visual Impairments
Hearing Loss
General Recommendations
Students with Advanced Cognitive Development
Giftedness
Considering Diversity When Identifying and Addressing Special Needs
General Recommendations for Working with Students Who Have Special Needs
Part 2 Learning and Motivation
Chapter 6 Behaviorist Views of Learning
Case Study: The Attention Getter
Basic Assumptions of Theories of Learning
Basic Assumptions of Behaviorism
Building on Existing Stimulus–Response Associations: Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning of Involuntary Emotional Responses
Common Phenomena in Classical Conditioning
Addressing Counterproductive Emotional Responses
Learning from Consequences: Instrumental Conditioning
Contrasting Classical Conditioning and Instrumental Conditioning
The Various Forms that Reinforcement Can Take
The Various Forms that Punishment Can Take
Strategies for Encouraging Productive Behaviors and Discouraging Undesirable Ones
Using Reinforcement Effectively
Shaping New Behaviors
Encouraging Desired Behaviors through Antecedent Stimuli and Responses
Creating Conditions for Extinction
Cueing Inappropriate Behaviors
Reinforcing Incompatible Behaviors
Using Punishment When Necessary
Reflecting on the Consequences You Either Intentionally or Unintentionally Impose
Addressing Especially Difficult Classroom Behaviors
Applied Behavior Analysis
Functional Analysis
Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports
Schoolwide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports
Diversity in Student Behaviors and Reactions to Consequences
Accommodating Students with Special Needs
Chapter 7 Learning, Cognition, and Memory
Case Study: Tests on Friday
Basic Assumptions of Cognitive Psychology
A Model of Human Memory
The Nature of the Sensory Register
Moving Information to Working Memory: The Role of Attention
The Nature of Working Memory
Moving Information to Long-Term Memory: Connecting New Information with Prior Knowledge
The Nature of Long-Term Memory
Learning, Memory, and the Brain
Critiquing the Three-Component Model
Long-Term Memory Storage
How Knowledge Is Organized
How Declarative Knowledge Is Learned
How Procedural Knowledge Is Learned
Roles of Prior Knowledge and Working Memory in Long-Term Memory Storage
Encouraging a Meaningful Learning Set and Conceptual Understanding
Using Technology to Facilitate Meaningful Learning
Using Mnemonics in the Absence of Relevant Prior Knowledge
When Knowledge Construction Goes Awry: Addressing Learners’ Misconceptions
Obstacles to Conceptual Change
Promoting Conceptual Change
Long-Term Memory Retrieval
Factors Affecting Retrieval
Why Learners Sometimes Forget
Diversity in Cognitive Processes
Facilitating Cognitive Processing in Students with Special Needs
Chapter 8 Complex Cognitive Processes and Self-Regulation
Case Study: Taking Over
Thinking About Thinking and Learning How to Learn: The Importance of Metacognition
Effective Learning Strategies
Factors Affecting Strategy Use
Metacognitive Strategies in the Digital Age
Diversity, Disabilities, and Exceptional Abilities in Metacognition
Transfer
Factors Affecting Transfer
Problem Solving and Creativity
Factors Affecting Problem-Solving Success and Creative Thinking
Teaching Problem-Solving Strategies
Fostering Creative Thinking
Using Computer Technology to Foster and Support Creative Problem-Solving
Critical Thinking
Encouraging Critical Thinking in the Classroom, the Outside World, and Cyberspace
Self-Regulation
Self-Regulated Behavior
Self-Regulated Learning
Self-Regulated Problem Solving
Promoting Self-Regulation in Students at Risk
Diversity in Transfer, Problem Solving, Creativity, Critical Thinking, and Self-Regulation
Accommodating Students with Special Needs
Chapter 9 Learning and Cognition in Context
Case Study: The Costs and Benefits of Immigration
Basic Assumptions of Contextual Theories
Social Interactions as Contexts
Interactions with More Advanced Individuals
Interactions with Peers
Creating a Community of Learners
Cultures as Contexts
Schemas, Scripts, and Worldviews as Aspects of Culture
Communities of Practice as Aspects of Culture
Societies as Contexts
Authentic Activities
Digital Technologies as Contexts
Technology in Learning and Instruction
Promoting Technological Literacy
Online Learning
Taking Student Diversity into Account
Chapter 10 Motivation: Confidence, Values, and Needs
Case Study: Two Students, Same Problem
The Nature of Motivation
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Framing Motivation Around Questions Students Ask Themselves
Can I Do This?
Motivated Behaviors and Skills That Can Be Learned Through Modeling
Characteristics of Effective Models
Essential Conditions for Successful Modeling
Self-Efficacy
How Self-Efficacy Affects Motivation
Some Overconfidence—But Not Too Much—Can Be Beneficial
Factors in the Development of Self-Efficacy
Teacher Self-Efficacy
Revisiting Reciprocal Causation
Revisiting Reinforcement and Punishment
Comparing Theoretical Perspectives of Learning
Would I Want to Do This?
Expectancies and Values
Interests
Brief Motivation Interventions
If I Do This, Will It Meet My Needs?
Basic Human Needs
Arousal
Self-Determination
Diversity in Addressing Needs
Chapter 11 Motivation, Affect, and Engagement
Case Study
What Is My Goal When I’m Doing This?
Mindsets
Why Did I Succeed (or Not Succeed) at a Task?
Diversity in Cognitive and Sociocultural Factors Affecting Motivation
What Are My Teachers’ Beliefs and Expectations for Me?
How Teacher Attributions and Expectations Affect Students’ Achievement
Are Motivation and Engagement Basically the Same?
Benefits of Academic Engagement
How Do I Feel When I’m Working on Academic Tasks?
How Affect and Motivation Are Interrelated
Anxiety in the Classroom
Socioemotional Learning
Diversity in Affect
Motivating Students in Any Environment
Part 3 Classroom Strategies
Chapter 12 Creating a Setting Conducive to Learning
Case Study: A Contagious Situation
Creating a Setting Conducive to Learning
Arranging the Classroom
Establishing and Maintaining Productive Teacher–Student Relationships
Creating an Effective Psychological Climate
Setting Limits
Planning Activities that Keep Students on Task
Monitoring What Students Are Doing
Modifying Instructional Strategies to Promote a Positive Climate
Taking Developmental Differences into Account
Taking Individual and Group Differences into Account
Expanding the Sense of Community Beyond the Classroom
Working with Other School Personnel
Working with the Community at Large
Working with Parents
Dealing with Misbehaviors
Ignoring Certain Behaviors
Cueing Students
Discussing Problems Privately with Students
Teaching Self-Regulation Skills
Conferring with Parents
Conducting Planned, Systematic Interventions
Taking Students’ Cultural Backgrounds into Account
Addressing Aggression and Violence at School
Bullying and Cyberbullying
Addressing Gang-Related Problems
Chapter 13 Instructional Strategies
Case Study Westward Expansion
General Principles That Can Guide Instruction
Planning for Instruction
Identifying the Goals of Instruction
Conducting a Task Analysis
Developing a Lesson Plan
Using Technology to Share Goals and Facilitate Communication throughout the School Year
Teacher-Directed Instructional Strategies
Presenting New Material through Traditional Expository Methods: Lectures and Textbooks
Asking Questions and Giving Feedback
Providing Practice through In-Class Assignments
Giving Homework
Conducting Direct Instruction
Promoting Mastery
Using Internet Resources Effectively
Promoting Deliberate Practice
Helping Students Learn How to Learn
Learner-Directed Instructional Strategies
Stimulating and Guiding Class Discussions
Conducting Reciprocal Teaching Sessions
Conducting Discovery and Inquiry Activities
Conducting Cooperative Learning Activities
Structuring Peer Tutoring Sessions
Conducting Technology-Based Collaborative Learning Activities
Academic Content Domains as Contexts
Language Arts: Reading and Writing
Mathematics
Science
Social Studies
Considering Group Differences
Accommodating Students with Special Needs
Taking Instructional Goals and Student Diversity into Account
Chapter 14 Classroom Assessment Strategies that Promote Learning
Case Study The Math Test
The Many Forms and Purposes of Assessment
Guiding Instructional Decision Making
Determining What Students Have Learned from Instruction
Evaluating the Quality of Instruction
Diagnosing Learning and Performance Problems
Promoting Learning
Enhancing Learning Through Ongoing Assessments and Regular Feedback
Including Students in the Assessment Process
Using Digital Technologies in Formative Assessment
Qualities of Good Assessments
Reliability
Standardization
Validity
Assessing Students’ Progress and Achievement Both Informally and Formally
Informally Observing Students’ Behaviors
Using Formal Classroom Written Assessments
Using Performance Assessments
Additional Considerations in Assessment
Taking Student Diversity into Account in Classroom Assessments
Accommodating Group Differences
Accommodating Students with Special Needs
Chapter 15 Summarizing Students’ Achievements and Abilities
Case Study B in History
Summarizing the Results of a Single Assessment
Raw Scores
Criterion-Referenced Scores
Norm-Referenced Scores
Using Criterion-Referenced versus Norm-Referenced Scores in the Classroom
Determining Achievement Using Final Grades and Portfolios
Considering—Or Not Considering—Other Factors in Grading
Including Students in the Grading Process
Using Portfolios
Types and Purposes of Portfolios
Benefits and Limitations of Portfolios
Helping Students Construct Portfolios
Standardized Tests
Types of Standardized Tests
Individual versus Group Administration of Standardized Tests
Guidelines for Choosing and Using Standardized Tests
Interpreting Standardized Test Scores
High-Stakes Testing and Teacher Accountability
The Every Student Succeeds Act
Problems with High-Stakes Testing
Productive Steps Forward in High-Stakes Testing
Taking Student Diversity into Account
Cultural Bias in Test Content
Cultural and Ethnic Differences
Language Differences and English Language Learners
Accommodating Students with Special Needs
Confidentiality and Communication about Assessment Results
Communicating Assessment Results to Students and Parents
Appendix A Describing Associations with Correlation Coefficients
Appendix B Determining Reliability and Predictive Validity
Appendix C Matching Text and Digital Content to the PRAXIS® Principles of Learning and Teaching PreK-12 Test
Glossary
References
Name Index
Subject Index

Citation preview

Eleventh Edition

Educational Psychology Developing Learners

Eric M. Anderman The Ohio State University

Lynley H. Anderman The Ohio State University (Emerita)

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod University of Northern Colorado (Emerita)

Content Management: Brooke Nethers Content Production: Janelle Rogers Product Management: Drew Bennett Product Marketing: Krista Clark Rights and Permissions: Jenell Forschler Please contact https://support.pearson.com/getsupport/s/ with any queries on this content Cover Image by kali9/E+/Getty images Copyright © 2024, 2020, 2017, by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates, 221 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030. All Rights Reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise. For information regarding permissions, request forms, and the appropriate contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights and Permissions department, please visit www.pearsoned.com/ permissions/. Acknowledgments of third-party content appear on the appropriate page within the text which constitutes an extension of this copyright page. PEARSON is exclusive trademark owned by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates in the U.S. and/or other countries. Unless otherwise indicated herein, any third-party trademarks, logos, or icons that may appear in this work are the property of their respective owners, and any references to third-party trademarks, logos, icons, or other trade dress are for demonstrative or descriptive purposes only. Such references are not intended to imply any sponsorship, endorsement, authorization, or promotion of Pearson’s products by the owners of such marks, or any relationship between the owner and Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates, authors, licensees, or distributors. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Eric M. Anderman, Lynley H. Anderman. Ormrod, Jeanne Ellis, author. Title: Educational psychology: developing learners/Eric M. Anderman Description: Eleventh edition. | Hoboken, NJ: Pearson, [2024] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2022047503 | ISBN 9780137849314 (paperback) Subjects: LCSH: Educational psychology. | Teaching. | Learning. | Classroom management. Classification: LCC LB1051 .O66 2024 | DDC 370.15–dc23/eng/20221007 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022047503

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ISBN-10: 0-13-784931-1 ISBN-13: 978-0-13-784931-4

Dedication To our parents Gloria and Arthur, Myra and Noel, and our children Sarah and Jacob —Eric and Lynley To Jack —Jeanne

Pearson’s Commitment to Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Pearson is dedicated to creating bias-free content that reflects the diversity, depth, and breadth of all learners’ lived experiences. We embrace the many dimensions of diversity, including but not limited to race, ethnicity, gender, sex, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, ability, age, and religious or political beliefs. Education is a powerful force for equity and change in our world. It has the potential to deliver opportunities that improve lives and enable economic mobility. As we work with authors to create content for every product and service, we acknowledge our responsibility to demonstrate inclusivity and incorporate diverse scholarship so that everyone can achieve their potential through learning. As the world’s leading learning company, we have a duty to help drive change and live up to our purpose to help more people create a better life for themselves and to create a better world. Our ambition is to purposefully contribute to a world where • Everyone has an equitable and lifelong opportunity to succeed through learning

• Our educational products and services are inclusive and represent the rich diversity of learners

• Our educational content accurately reflects the histories and lived experiences of the learners we serve

• Our educational content prompts deeper discussions with students and motivates them to expand their own learning (and worldview)

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About the Authors Eric M. Anderman holds a B.S. degree from Tufts University, an Ed.M. from Harvard University, and a Ph.D. in Educational Psychology from The University of Michigan. After completing his Masters degree, he worked as a high school and middle school teacher for several years, before returning to graduate school. He is currently Professor of Educational Psychology and of Quantitative Research, Evaluation, and Measurement at The Ohio State University. His research focuses on (a) academic motivation, (b) academic cheating, (c) motivation and risky behavior during adolescence, and (d) violence perpetrated against educators. He is currently the editor of the journal Theory into Practice, and formerly was associate editor of the Journal of Educational Psychology. He has published over 100 articles and chapters. In addition to this book, he co-authors the textbook Adolescent Development for Educators, with Alison Ryan and Tim Urdan (also published by Pearson). He also is co-author with Lynley Anderman of Classroom Motivation: Linking Research to Teacher Practice (now in its third edition) and he co-edited the third edition of the Handbook of Educational Psychology with Lyn Corno and The Visible Learning Guide to Student Achievement with John Hattie. He also is the author of the book Sparking Student Motivation: The Power of Teachers to Rekindle a Love for Learning.

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vi About the Authors

Lynley H. Anderman received her B.A. and M.A. (Hons.) in Education from the University of Auckland, New Zealand, and her Ph.D. from the Combined Program in Education and Psychology at The University of Michigan. A graduate of North Shore Teachers College (Auckland, New Zealand), she taught for several years in primary and intermediate schools in Auckland. Currently, she is Professor of Educational Psychology (Emerita) at The Ohio State University. She has published and presented extensively on academic motivation, particularly in relation to the roles of instructional and socialrelational characteristics of classrooms that support students’ motivation and engagement, including students’ sense of belonging, teacher–student and peer relationships. She also has written and presented on the role of educational psychology in teacher education. Dr. Anderman is the former editor of the Journal of Experimental Education, and former associate editor of Theory into Practice. She is co-author of Classroom Motivation: Linking Research to Teacher Practice (now in its third edition), and has co-edited Psychology of Classroom Learning (published by Cengage) and Teaching to Prepare Advocates (published by Information Age).

About the Authors

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod received her A.B. in psychology from Brown University and her M.S. and Ph.D. in educational psychology from The Pennsylvania State University. She earned licensure in school psychology through postdoctoral work at Temple University and the University of Colorado at Boulder and has worked as a middle school geography teacher and school psychologist. She was Professor of Educational Psychology at the University of Northern Colorado until 1998; she is currently Professor Emerita there. She has published and presented extensively on cognition and memory, cognitive development, instruction, and related topics but is probably best known for this book and four others: Human Learning (currently in its eighth edition); Essentials of Educational Psychology (now in its sixth edition and now coauthored with Brett D. Jones); Child Development and Education (co-authored with Teresa McDevitt, now out in its seventh edition); and Practical Research: Design and Process (recently released in its thirteenth edition). She and her husband Richard live in New Hampshire, where (she is happy to report) she is within a 90-minute drive of her three young grandchildren.

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Preface About this Book Educational Psychology: Developing Learners (Eleventh edition) presents cutting-edge, up-to-date research on teaching and learning in conversational language for preservice and inservice education professionals. The material is presented throughout the book in an applied manner, with contemporary examples reflecting the lived experiences of teachers and students in today’s classrooms. Each chapter attends to the developmental, social, and cultural diversity of our classrooms.

New to This Edition The new edition continues to include many of the features that have made previous editions of the book so popular with instructors and students, including a conversational writing style, “Experiencing Firsthand” features, organizational tables and diagrams, a focus within each chapter on both developmental issues and diversity, and an emphasis on classroom applications. Yet there are also significant changes. We have re-ordered some of the chapters based on feedback from users. Specifically, after the first five chapters (which have not changed in order), we reorganized a few chapters so that there would be a more chronological flow to the groupings of chapters. Thus in the eleventh edition, Chapters 6–9 focus on various theories of learning, having moved Chapter 9 (which focuses on behaviorist views on learning) to Chapter 6. In the new edition, content on different aspects of student motivation are distributed across Chapters 10 and 11, reducing the amount of content previously covered solely in Chapter 11. We also have added new sections on both engagement and socioemotional learning (which were not discussed in detail in previous editions) into the new Chapter 11. We moved Chapter 13 (which focuses on creating supportive learning environments) to Chapter 12, so that the sections on motivation and emotion now serve as a transition into discussions of how to create supportive classroom environments. Finally, we moved the content on instruction in the content areas (e.g., language arts and mathematics) from Chapter 8 to Chapter 13; thus Chapter 13 now focuses exclusively on instructional practices––starting out with a general discussion of practice, and moving into a section on specific content areas. We also substantially revised the chapter on complex cognitive processes (which is in the new Chapter 8) so that all of the material on self-regulation (including strategies for teaching students to become self-regulated learners) is now presented in one single chapter. All 15 chapters have been updated to reflect recent advances in research, theory, and classroom practices. In this edition, we have continued with our efforts to discuss technology throughout the book. In particular, we acknowledge and openly discuss the ways in which the Covid-19 pandemic has affected technology use in classrooms. We also have added several new “Experiencing Firsthand” activities. We have continued to enhance the eTextbook, so that readers can regularly apply what they are learning to actual and hypothetical classroom scenarios and problems. Interactive features include Learning Objective Quizzes, Application Exercises, and case study analyses in the Licensure Exam activities; all of these features ask readers to respond to either open-ended or multiplechoice questions, and then give readers immediate feedback about their responses. Such features, along with many hotlinked Video Examples and Video Explanations—the latter of which target concepts and principles that students in educational psychology classes sometimes struggle to understand and apply—make the eleventh edition of the book a truly multimedia learning experience. In this edition of Educational Psychology: Developing Learners, Eric and Lynley Anderman revised all of the chapters.

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Preface

Key Content Updates by Chapter More specific additions and changes to this edition include the following: • Chapter 1: Descriptions of the various types of quantitative research have been rewritten so that they are explained in more straightforward, nontechnical language, with examples that directly reflect research questions focusing on teachers and students. • Chapter 2: Added updated content on neuroscience, along with a discussion of the need to use caution when applying brain research to teaching and learning; added a sample assignment aligned with the concrete operational level of cognitive development; added a discussion of why Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories can both be simultaneously applied to support student learning; added a table addressing contemporary “myths” about bilingual children. • Chapter 3: Added a new case study on how one teacher was surprised about the diversity of interests expressed by her students; updated the section on family dynamics to reflect both the importance of considering larger social contexts and the ways in which parents exert control; condensed the section on Erikson’s stages to more succinctly focus on implications for teaching and learning; added a summary table describing various crowd groups; added a new “Experiencing Firsthand” feature on perspective-taking with regard to wearing masks during the Covid-19 pandemic; added a discussion on using collaborative social reasoning to enhance social reasoning; added additional discussion of how adolescents are using social media with their peers. • Chapter 4: Added an updated case study on immigration; added information about nonacademic factors that affect achievement; added a section on cultural differences in norms for personal space; added a new section discussing current conceptions of gender, sex, and gender nonconformity (including a new table of current terms and phrases); increased focus on sexual minority students being at risk of experiencing academic and psychological difficulties. • Chapter 5: Reduced discussion of history of research on intelligence, while improving focus on applications to teaching and learning; updated information on prevalence of ADHD; added data from CDC on prevalence of psychological problems by age; increased discussion of disproportionality of ethnically diverse students in gifted and special education programs; included a new discussion of use of virtual reality to support learning in students with special needs. • Chapter 6 (formerly Chapter 9): We reorganized a few of the chapters on theories of human learning, in order to provide a more streamlined approach to instruction. We begin this set of chapters with the revised chapter on behaviorist views of learning. The chapter begins with an updated section describing basic assumptions of all theories of learning. We then present classical conditioning, emphasizing some examples of how classical conditioning can help to explain some students’ physiological responses to classroom phenomena. This section includes a new discussion of spontaneous recovery (i.e., the re-emergence of a seeming previously extinguished conditioned response). In the section on instrumental conditioning, we have added a figure that should help students to understand the many different types of reinforcers that can be used in classrooms. We added a new section on “Timing of Reinforcers” in order to help prospective teachers understand that reinforcement schedules can have significant effects on students’ learning. We also have updated the section on punishments to help students understand the distinctions between reinforcement and punishment. • Chapter 7 (formerly Chapter 6): This chapter includes a new case study focusing on students’ varying approaches to memorization tasks. The sections discussing

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x Preface various aspects of the Information Processing model now include updated examples. We also have integrated new research on human memory (e.g., the role of memory capacity in achievement; the use of yoga to reduce students’ stress and support cognitive processes) into the text along with examples applying this to school settings, as well as applied explanations of recent research on the role of memory capacity in math and reading achievement. We also discuss the ever-changing role of technology in student learning, particularly with regard to ways in which the Covid-19 pandemic has changed educators’ use of technology. This chapter also includes a new “Experiencing Firsthand” feature, focused on long-term memory. • Chapter 8 (formerly Chapter 7 and part of Chapter 10): The chapter includes updated suggestions for ways to incorporate technology into instruction to support problem solving (e.g., through video recordings), as well as updated applied research on reducing misconceptions and building students’ problem-solving strategies. The chapter also contains a new “Experiencing Firsthand” feature on critical thinking. The biggest change to this chapter is that we have moved the discussion of selfregulation (and self-regulated learning strategies) into one place. Although much of the discussion of self-regulation appeared in Chapter 10 in the previous edition, there were various sections discussing aspects of self-regulated learning (SRL) in other chapters as well. All of that information has now been integrated into an updated section in this chapter. We begin by explaining what self-regulation is and discussing developmental considerations. We then provide a framework for prospective teachers to see how they can support SRL in their future students, by breaking SRL down into three components (SRL before starting a task, while doing a task, and after completing a task). We have also expanded the discussion of cultural differences that can affect SRL. • Chapter 9 (formerly Chapter 8): This chapter has been updated to focus more specifically on sociocultural perspectives on learning, and less on the instructional practices that are associated with various content domains (the section on learning within subject domains has been moved to Chapter 13, formerly Chapter 12). The chapter begins with a new case study on immigration, which is designed to introduce students to the importance of considering the effects of contexts on learning. The chapter also includes updated examples with regard to culture, including a new discussion of families as communities of practice. The section that examines digital technologies as contexts has been updated to reflect the increased use of technology for instruction that has occurred since the onset of Covid-19, along with updated information and statistics regarding children’s and adolescents’ social media and technology use. We have added a new example of a curricular innovation designed to encourage schools to work collaboratively (using technology) to discuss complex issues that may have more than one solution. The chapter concludes with an updated discussion of the ways in which a variety of aspects of student diversity (e.g., in terms of family structure, culture, gender, etc.) need to be considered when examining contextual influences on learning. • Chapter 10: Both Chapters 10 and 11 have been significantly updated, reorganizing the substantial content on student motivation. Although social cognitive theory was included in Chapter 10 in the previous edition, we have reframed the discussion of social cognitive theory so that the theory serves as a “bridge” between the chapters on learning theories and the chapters on motivation. As noted earlier, the portions of Chapter 10 that focused on self-regulated learning have been moved to Chapter 8 in this edition. In the previous edition, Chapter 11 included a great deal of content on student motivation, resulting in a chapter that was considerably longer than most. In addition to newly emerging research in this area, we have now added sections on student engagement and social-emotional learning. To accommodate this content, we have reorganized that material across two chapters.

Preface

Some of the content that was included in Chapter 11 in the prior edition has been moved into Chapter 10. We begin by introducing some basic definitions and tenets of motivation (e.g., intrinsic and extrinsic motivation). Then, we organize our discussion of motivation around questions that students ask themselves while engaged in learning tasks. The three questions addressed in Chapter 10 are (1) Can I do this? (2) Would I want to do this? and (3) If I do this, will it meet my needs? Theories and implications for instruction are introduced within the discussions of each of these questions. Thus social cognitive theory (e.g., self-efficacy) is discussed in response to “Can I do this?”; expectancy-value theory is discussed in response to “Would I want to do this?”; that section also includes updated information about brief motivation interventions, and how some of those can be adapted for use in future educators’ classrooms. Self-determination theory is discussed in response to the third question. • Chapter 11: Chapter 11 also has been substantially revised. The chapter again is organized around questions that students might ask themselves. These include (1) What is my goal when I’m doing this? (2) What are my teachers’ beliefs and expectations for me? and (3) How do I feel when I’m working on academic tasks? Achievement goal theory and related conceptions of students’ goals are introduced in response to the first question. This section also includes discussions of mindsets and attribution theory. The section framed around the second question focuses on teacher expectations and attributions. New to this edition, the chapter includes a section focusing on similarities and differences between motivation and engagement. We discuss different types of engagement (e.g., cognitive, behavioral, emotional, and agentic engagement), and implications for instruction. Affect (i.e., emotion) is discussed in the section framed around the third question. Also new to this edition is a section on socioemotional learning that has been incorporated into this part of Chapter 11. • Chapter 12 (formerly Chapter 13): We moved the chapter on creating a setting that is supportive of learning to Chapter 12, so that there would be a meaningful flow of conversations about motivation, engagement, and socioemeotional well-being (as covered in Chapters 10 and 11) into topics of creating positive environments (in Chapter 12). There is a greater emphasis in the new edition on thinking about the topics covered in Chapters 10 and 11 as strategies to create engaging classroom environments. For example, in the section on “Creating an Effective Psychological Climate,” clearer references are made to the topics covered in the previous chapters. We also moved the discussion of applications of the TARGET acronym from Chapter 11 into Chapter 12, since it aligns with the updated focus of this chapter. We have revised the section on aggression and violence at school to reflect updated research on prevalence, bullying, and cyberbullying. In addition, greater attention is paid to considering student diversity as teachers work toward creating supportive learning environments. • Chapter 13 (formerly Chapter 12 and parts of Chapter 8): This chapter has been substantially revised. The major change is that the updated sections on teaching in the content areas (e.g., math, science, etc.) have been moved from Chapter 8 into this chapter. Thus, the entire chapter now focuses on instruction. Moreover, the sections on teaching in the content areas can now be examined with regard to motivation and engagement (since these sections now come after Chapters 10 and 11). We also expanded the section on using technology for instruction, replacing the prior focus on websites to reflect more updated technologies and platforms. We have expanded the section on using technology to support collaborative learning to reflect changes in available technological platforms. The discussion of considerations of group differences has been revised substantially as well. • Chapter 14: Just as Chapters 12 and 13 have been revised to reflect on how educators can create engaging learning environments for their students, this chapter also has been updated to focus more on integrating the previous chapters on learning and motivation with the forms of assessment that are used in the classroom. The section on feedback has been updated with additional application examples.

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xii Preface We also updated some of the language in this chapter, no longer focusing on “paper and pencil assessments,” but rather, focusing more broadly on diverse types of assessment strategies. • Chapter 15: This chapter now includes updated information about standardized assessments, with the goal of providing prospective educators with the background knowledge that they will need in order to be able to understand the types of assessments that are given to students of various ages, as well as how to carefully and critically interpret the results. We have added information describing how many assessments provide scores indicating proficiency (e.g., below proficient, proficient, advanced). We also have added a new “Experiencing Firsthand” feature that gives prospective educators the opportunity to practice analyzing class test results using a variety of measures of central tendency (i.e., using the standard deviation in addition to the mean score). The chapter also acknowledges the effects of the Covid-19 pandemic on the use of standardized testing.

General Rationale for the Book As teachers, we play critical roles in the lives of children and adolescents. Some of us help them learn to read and write. Some of us help them understand their physical and social worlds through explorations of science, mathematics, geography, history, foreign languages, or literature. Some of us help them express themselves through physical movement, the visual arts, or music. And some of us teach them specific skills they will need as adult professionals in, say, auto mechanics, cooking, or new technologies. But regardless of the subject matter we teach, we help those in the generations that follow us to become knowledgeable, self-confident, and productive citizens. In our minds, teaching is the most rewarding profession we could possibly choose. Yet it’s often a challenging profession as well. Students don’t always come to us ready or eager to learn. How can we help them develop the knowledge and skills they need to become productive adults? What strategies can we use to motivate them? What tasks and instructional materials are appropriate for students at different developmental levels? Are the instructional practices that we use sensitive to the diversity of our students? Over the years, researchers and practitioners have worked together to answer such questions. Collectively, we’re in the fortunate position of being able to benefit from the many insights that such experts offer. All three of us have been teaching educational psychology for many years, and we’ve loved every minute of it. How children and adolescents learn and think, how they change as they grow and develop, why they do the things they do, how they’re often very different from one another—our understandings of all of these things have innumerable implications for classroom practice and, ultimately, for the lives of young people. Because we want the field of educational psychology to captivate you the way it has captivated us, we’ve tried to make this book interesting, meaningful, and thought provoking as well as informative and timely.

Helping Our Readers Learn and Apply Educational Psychology You can gain much more from your study of educational psychology when you: • Focus on core concepts and principles of the discipline • See these principles in action in your own learning and behavior • Use the principles to understand the learning and behavior of children and adolescents • Consistently apply the principles to classroom practice

Preface

You’ll find numerous features throughout this book to help you do all of these things. We authors hope you’ll learn a great deal from what educational psychology has to offer, not only about the students you may be teaching but also about yourself.

Focusing on Core Concepts and Principles Rather than superficially explore every aspect of educational psychology, this book zeroes in on fundamental concepts and principles that have broad applicability to classroom practice. Throughout the book, core concepts appear in boldfaced blue font. Core principles are clearly identified within each section with boldfaced blue headings. See the following sections for some examples: General Principles of Human Development in Chapter 2 and Basic Assumptions of Cognitive Psychology in Chapter 7.

Seeing Concepts and Principles in Action in Your Own Learning A central goal of this book has always been to help our readers discover more about themselves as thinkers and learners. Thus we include Experiencing Firsthand exercises throughout the book—exercises that illustrate such diverse concepts as constructive processes, working memory, sense of self, social cognition, ethnic stereotyping, and confidentiality in assessment. All of these exercises are designed to do exactly what their name implies: help our readers observe principles of educational psychology in themselves. See the sections on The Nature of Working (Short-Term) Memory and Moving Information to Long-Term Memory in Chapter 7 for some examples.

Understanding Children’s and Adolescents’ Learning and Behavior Throughout the book we continually urge our readers to look closely at and try to make sense of what children and adolescents do and say. Each chapter begins with a Case Study that situates chapter content in a real-life scenario. We also make frequent use of real artifacts from children’s journals and school assignments to illustrate concepts and principles in action. For example, see sections Roles of Peers in Children’s Development in Chapter 3 and How Knowledge Can Be Organized in Chapter 7.

Examining Developmental Trends Unique to this book is a focus on children’s and adolescents’ development in every chapter. For example, most chapters have one or more Developmental Trends tables that summarize age-typical characteristics at four grade levels (K–2, 3–5, 6–8, and 9–12), present concrete examples, and offer suggested classroom strategies for each level. You can find examples of these tables in the sections Gender Differences in Chapter 4 and How Procedural Knowledge is Learned in Chapter 7.

Applying Core Ideas of Educational Psychology to Classroom Practice Throughout this text, psychological concepts and principles are consistently applied to classroom practice. We also provide Into the Classroom and Creating a Productive Classroom Environment boxes that suggest and illustrate strategies related to particular areas of concern for teachers. You can find examples in the sections Contemporary Extensions and Applications of Vygotsky’s Theory in Chapter 2 and How Knowledge Can Be Organized in Chapter 7. This book is consistently praised for its emphasis on application. Throughout the book we identify suggested strategies—within the text, in tables, and in the margins— with apple icons; for instance, see the Applying Brain Research feature in Chapter 2.

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Helping You Prepare for Licensure All chapters end with Practice for Your Licensure Exam exercises. These exercises provide readers with opportunities to use the content they’ve learned in a particular chapter to answer multiple-choice and constructed-response questions similar to those that appear on many teacher licensure tests. See the end of any chapter.

Pedagogical Features ◀

CASE STUDY The “No D” Policy Anne Smith is a ninth-grade English teacher with 10 years of teaching experience, and by all accounts, she’s an excellent teacher. Even so, in past years many of her students haven’t invested much time or energy in their writing assignments and haven’t appeared to be bothered by the low grades they’ve earned in her classes. In an effort to more fully engage this year’s students in their schoolwork, Ms. Smith begins fall semester by initiating two new policies. First, to pass her course, students must earn at least a C; she won’t give anyone a final grade of D. Second, students will have multiple opportunities to revise and resubmit assignments; she’ll provide whatever feedback students need—and, if necessary, also provide one-on-one instruction—to help them improve their work. She solicits students’ questions and concerns about the new policies, gains their agreement to “try something new,” and engages them in a discussion of specific, concrete characteristics of A-quality, B-quality, and C-quality work. Then, as the semester progresses, she regularly administers brief surveys to get students’ feedback about her innovations, asking such questions as “How is the ‘no D’ working for you?” “Do you think your grade is an accurate reflection of your learning?” and “Any suggestions?” Students’ responses on the surveys are overwhelmingly positive. Students mention noticeable improvements in the quality of their writing and increasingly report that they believe themselves to be in control of both their learning and their grades. Furthermore, they begin to see their teacher in a new light—“as one who will help them achieve their best work, not as one who just gives out grades . . . as a coach encouraging them along the long race of learning.” Final course grades also confirm the value of the new policies: A much higher percentage of students earn grades of C or better than has been true in past years. (Action research project described in Smith, 2009.)

Each chapter begins with a case study. These cases introduce key concepts that will be discussed in the chapter. The case studies should help instructors to frame the chapters within the real worlds of teachers and students.

• Effective teachers don’t simply transmit new information and skills to students; they also work hard to help students master the information and skills. In the case study just presented, what various strategies does Ms. Smith use to foster her students’ writing development?

▶ The Experiencing Firsthand exercises allow readers to gain insights into themselves as teachers and learners. These exercises are designed to help our readers observe how principles of educational psychology work in themselves.

Experiencing Firsthand Why Are Some Students Not Motivated? Jodie is 14 years old, and her science teacher, Mr. Walters, feels that she is not motivated. Mr. Walters approaches you, as one of his teacher colleagues, and asks you to try to figure out why Jodie is not motivated. What questions would you ask Jodie to try to understand her lack of motivation? What ideas do you have for Mr. Walters to try to improve the situation? Keep your list of questions, because we will return to them later in the chapter.

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The Into the Classroom boxes provide examples of specific practices that can be incorporated into daily instruction. All of the suggested practices are supported by research discussed within each chapter.

Into The Classroom Applying Piaget’s Theory Use Piaget’s stages as a rough guide to what students at different grade levels can do, but don’t take them too literally. Knowing from both research and her own experience that 6- and 7-year-olds can understand simple proportions in familiar situations, a first-grade teacher asks her students to tackle this problem: “Two children want to share five cupcakes so that each child gets the same amount. Show how much each child can have.” When some of the students decide that each child can have two cupcakes, she points to the fifth cupcake and says, “They want to share this one too. How can they do that?” When young children show signs of egocentric thinking, express confusion or explain that others think differently. A kindergartner asks, “What’s this?” about an object that is out of the teacher’s view. The teacher responds, “What’s what? I can’t see the thing you’re looking at.” Relate abstract and hypothetical ideas to concrete objects and observable events. To help students understand that even seemingly weightless substances such as air have mass and weight, an eighth-grade teacher blows up a balloon and places it on one side of a balance scale. She then places an

uninflated balloon on the other side of the scale. The inflated balloon tips the scale downward, showing that it weighs more than the uninflated one. Ask students to explain their reasoning about physical phenomena, and challenge illogical explanations. When learning about pendulums, cooperative groups in a middle school science class conduct experiments with three variables (weight, length, and angle at which the pendulum is dropped) to see which variable or variables determine the rate at which a pendulum swings. After three of four students in one group assert that weight affects the oscillation rate, the teacher asks a series of questions that eventually lead the group to realize it has simultaneously varied both weight and length in its experiments. Draw on adolescents’ idealism to engage them in public service projects and other charitable endeavors. In a unit on nutrition, several students in a ninth-grade health class express their concern about “food deserts” in some neighborhoods in their city. The teacher mentions that a friend volunteers at a local food bank that provides fresh produce to residents. Over the next few days, the students ask their parents and neighbors for donations to contribute to the food bank.

SOURCES:

▶ Compare/contrast boxes provide summaries of theories or frameworks that are similar to each other. This feature helps readers to understand subtle and not so subtle similarities and differences across big ideas in educational psychology.

COMPARE/CONTRAST General Theoretical Approaches to the Study of Learning Theoretical Perspective

General Description

Behaviorism

Behaviorists argue that the study of learning must focus on two things that researchers can objectively observe and measure: people’s behaviors (responses) and the environmental events (stimuli) that immediately precede and follow those responses. Learning is viewed as a process of acquiring and modifying associations among stimuli and responses, largely through a learner’s interactions with the environment. Behaviorism has been especially helpful in identifying effective strategies for encouraging productive classroom behaviors and discouraging inappropriate ones.

Social cognitive theory

Social cognitive theory focuses on the ways in which people learn and think based on their observations of other people. Often people learn through modeling—that is, they watch and imitate what other individuals do. Whether people learn and perform successfully is also a function of their self-efficacy, the extent to which they believe they can actually accomplish a particular task or achieve a particular goal. As social cognitive theory has evolved over time, it has increasingly incorporated the concept of self-regulation, in which people take charge of and direct their own actions. Social cognitive theory has had a significant impact on our understanding of human motivation as well as of human learning.

Cognitive psychology

Cognitive psychologists concern themselves primarily with what people think about as they learn from and respond to their environment. Many cognitive psychologists speculate about specific internal mechanisms that may underlie human cognition (e.g., working memory and long-term memory) and about mental processes that facilitate learning and memory; this approach is called information-processing theory. Other cognitive theorists (such as the developmental theorist Jean Piaget) focus on how individual learners create knowledge through their interactions with the environment; this approach is known as individual constructivism.

Contextual theories

Contextual theorists emphasize the ongoing and pervasive influences of learners’ physical, social, and cultural environments on thinking and learning. Some contextual theorists (such as Vygotsky) suggest that young learners initially use sophisticated thinking strategies in social interactions and gradually internalize these strategies for their own, personal use; this approach is known as sociocultural theory. Other theorists focus on how two or more people can often gain more complete understandings by working together rather than alone; this approach is sometimes called social constructivism. Still other theorists propose that various ways of thinking are inextricably tied to particular physical or social circumstances; this approach goes by a variety of labels, including situated learning and distributed cognition.

PRINCIPLES/ASSUMPTIONS

2 Basic Assumptions of Behaviorism and Their Educational Implications Assumption

Educational Implication

Example

Influence of the environment

Create a classroom environment that encourages and supports desirable student behaviors.

When a student has a history of difficulty in working independently, quietly praise her every time she completes an assignment without having to be prompted.

Learning as a behavior change

Conclude that learning has occurred only when students exhibit a change in performance.

Regularly assess students’ knowledge and skills in various content domains, and look for ongoing progress in what they know and can do.

Focus on observable events (stimuli and responses)

Identify specific stimuli—including your own actions as a teacher—that may be influencing students’ behaviors either for better or for worse.

If a student frequently engages in disruptive classroom behavior, consider whether you might be encouraging such behavior by giving them attention every time they misbehave.

Contiguity of events

If you want students to associate two events (stimuli, responses, or stimulus and response), make sure those events occur close together in time.

Include enjoyable yet educational activities in each day’s schedule as a way of helping students associate school subject matter with pleasurable feelings.

Similarity of learning principles across species

Remember that research with nonhuman species often has relevance for classroom practice.

Reinforce a hyperactive student for sitting quietly for successively longer time periods—a shaping process based on early research studies with rats and pigeons.

◀ Principles/assumptions boxes provide summaries the core principles and assumptions associated with various theories or topic areas. For each core principal/assumption, we describe the educational implications of each, and provide a real-world example.

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▶ The Developmental Trends tables emphasize that the topics covered in each chapter are best understood within a developmental framework. The ways that student learn and the ways that we teach students must always be viewed through a developmental lens, where grade levels and ages are considered.

DEVELOPMENTAL TRENDS

Table 3. 4 Moral Reasoning and Prosocial Behavior at Different Grade Levels Grade Level

Age-Typical Characteristics

Example

K–2

• Emerging awareness that behaviors causing physical or psychological harm are morally wrong • Guilt and shame about misbehaviors that cause obvious harm or damage • Some empathy for, as well as attempts to comfort, people in distress • Appreciation for the need to be fair • Increased prosocial behaviors when exposed to gratitude • Moral beliefs can be influenced by adults’ opinions.

When Jake pushes Otis off the ladder of a playground slide, several classmates are horrified. One child shouts, “That’s wrong!” and three others rush to Otis’s side to make sure he’s not hurt.

Suggested Strategies

3–5

• Knowledge of social conventions for appropriate behavior • Growing appreciation for cooperation and compromise • Growing realization that fairness doesn’t necessarily mean equality • Growing realization that truth vs. lying are nuanced concepts that vary depending on situations • Increased desire to help others as an objective in and of itself; feelings of regret when children fail to act prosocially

At the suggestion of his third-grade teacher, 8-year-old Alan acts as a “special friend” to Hank, a boy with severe physical and cognitive disabilities who joins the class for two or three days a week. Hank can’t speak, but Alan gives him things to feel and manipulate and talks to him whenever class activities allow conversation. The two boys regularly sit together at lunch. Alan comments, “Doing things that make Hank happy makes me happy, too.”

6–8

• Growing awareness that some rules and conventions are arbitrary; in some cases accompanied by resistance to these rules and conventions • Interest in pleasing and helping others, but with a tendency to oversimplify what “helping” requires • Tendency to believe that people in need are responsible for their own fate

After the winter break, 13-year-old Brooke returns to school with several large nose rings and her hair styled into long, vertical spikes above her head. The principal tells her that her appearance is inappropriate and insists that she go home to make herself more presentable. Brooke resists, claiming, “I have a right to express myself however I want!”

9–12

• Increasing concern about doing one’s duty and abiding by the rules of society, rather than simply pleasing certain authority figures • Realization that most rules and conventions serve useful purposes • Genuine empathy for people in distress • Belief that society has an obligation to help people in need

Several high school students establish a school chapter of Amnesty International, an organization dedicated to the preservation of human rights. The group invites knowledgeable guest speakers from various countries and conducts several fundraisers to help combat abusive practices against women.

Make standards for behavior very clear. When students misbehave, focus on the harm and distress they have caused others. Encourage students to comfort others in times of distress. Model sympathetic responses. Keep in mind that some selfish behavior is typical for the age group; when it occurs, encourage perspective taking and prosocial behavior.

Make prosocial behaviors (e.g., sharing, helping others) a high priority in the classroom. Explain how students can often meet their own needs while helping others. Use prosocial adjectives (e.g., kind, helpful) when praising altruistic behaviors.

Talk about how rules enable classrooms and other groups to run more smoothly. Involve students in group projects that will benefit their school or community. When imposing discipline for moral transgressions, accompany it with explanations about the harm that has been caused. Explore moral issues in social studies, science, and literature. Encourage community service as a way of engendering a sense of commitment to helping others. Ask students to reflect on their experiences in class. Have students read autobiographies and other forms of literature that depict heroic figures who have actively worked to help people in need.

SOURCES: Eisenberg, 1982; Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998; Farver & Branstetter, 1994; Flanagan & Faison, 2001; Gibbs, 1995; Gummerum et al., 2008; Hart & Fegley, 1995; Hastings et al., 2007; Helwig & Jasiobedzka, 2001; Helwig et al., 2001; Hoffman, 2000; Kohlberg, 1984; Krebs & Van Hesteren, 1994; Kurtines et al., 1995; Laupa & Turiel, 1995; Lewis & Sullivan, 2005; Li et al., 2019; Ma et al., 2011; >Nucci, 2009