Educational Psychology [15 ed.] 0136944906, 9780136944904

Table of contents :
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Brief Contents
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1 Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology
Teachers’casebook: Becoming a Great Teacher
Overview and Objectives
Learning and Teaching Today
Inside Three Classrooms
A Multilingual First Grade
A Suburban Fifth Grade
Teaching Math to Students with Learning Disabilities
Students Today: Dramatic Diversity and Remarkable Technology
Confidence in Every Context
High Expectations for Teachers and Students
Teaching the Whole Child: Social and Emotional Learning
Research on Social and Emotional Learning
Paths: an Approach to Social and Emotional Learning
Living with Social-emotional Trauma
Do Teachers Make a Difference?
Teacher–student Relationships
The Cost of Poor Teaching
What Is Good Teaching?
Models of Good Teaching
Danielson’s Framework for Teaching
Teachingworks
The Class Model
Beginningteachers
The Role of Educational Psychology
Educational Psychology Today
Is It Just Common Sense?
Learning Styles.
Answer Based on Research
Skipping Grades
Answer Based on Research
Students in Control
Answer based on Research
Obvious Answers?
Using Research to Understand and Improve Learning
Correlation Studies
Experimental Studies
Abab Experimental Designs
Scientifically Based Research and Evidence-based Practices
Clinical Interviews and Case Studies.
Ethnography
The Role of Time in Research
What’s the Evidence? Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research
Mixed Methods Research
Teachers as Researchers
Point/counterpoint: What Kind of Research Should Guide Education?
Theories for Teaching
Supporting Student Learning
Summary
Key Terms
Connect and Extend to Licensure
Teachers’ Casebook: Becoming a Great Teacher: What Would They Do?
Part I Students
Chapter 2 Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity
Teachers’ Casebook: Conversations About Race: What Would You Do?
Overview and Objectives
Education Is Cultural
What Is Culture?
Your Cultural and Educational History
Meet Two Students
Cultural Intersections and Terminology
Intersectionality
Cultural Groups and Terminology
Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination
Stereotypes: the Good and the Bad
From Stereotypes to Prejudice
Stereotype Threat
From Prejudice to Discrimination
Economic and Social Class Differences
Social Class and Socioeconomic Status
Poverty and Social Inequality
Poverty and Academic Outcomes
Health, Environment, and Stress
Low Expectations—low Academic Self-concept
Peer Influences and Resistance Cultures
Home Environment and Resources
Summer Setbacks and School Disruptions
Guidelines: Teaching Students Who Live in Poverty
Ethnicity and Race in Teaching and Learning
Defining Ethnicity and Race
Ethnic and Racial Identity
Multidimensional and Flexible Ethnic Identities
Racial Identity Development
Ethnic and Racial Differences in School Achievement
The Legacy of Racial Inequality
Racism and Discrimination
Gender and Sexual Orientation in Teaching and Learning
Sex and Gender
Gender Identity
Gender Roles
Gender Bias and Sexism in Curriculum and Media
Gender Bias in Teaching
Guidelines: Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching
Point/counterpoint: Should Girls and Boys Be Taught Differently?
Sexual Orientation
Discrimination Based on Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation
Creating Culturally Welcoming Classrooms
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
Diversity in Learning
Social Organization
Cultural Values and Learning Preferences
Sociolinguistics
Cultural Discontinuity
Lessons for Teachers: Teaching Every Student
Know Yourself
Know Your Students
Respect Your Students
Teach Your Students
Guidelines: Culturally Relevant Teaching
Summary
Key Terms
Connect and Extend to Licensure
Teachers’ Casebook: Conversations About Race: What Would They Do?
Chapter 3 Cognitive Development
Teachers’ Casebook: Symbols and Cymbals: What Would You Do?
Overview and Objectives
A Definition of Development
Three Questions Across the Theories
What Is the Source of Development? Nature Versus Nurture
What Is the Shape of Development? Continuity Versus Discontinuity
Timing: Is It Too Late? Critical Versus Sensitive Periods
Beware of Either/or
General Principles of Development
The Brain and Cognitive Development
The Developing Brain: Neurons
The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex
Brain Development in Childhood and Adolescence
Putting It All Together: How the Brain Works
Culture and Brain Plasticity
Point/counterpoint: Brain-based Education
Neuroscience, Learning, and Teaching
Does Instruction Affect Brain Development?
The Brain and Learning to Read
Emotions, Learning, and the Brain
Lessons for Teachers: General Principles
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Influences on Development
Basic Tendencies in Thinking
Organization
Adaptation
Equilibration
Four Stages of Cognitive Development
Infancy: the Sensorimotor Stage
Early Childhood to the Early Elementary Years: the Preoperational Stage
Later Elementary to the Middle School Years: the Concrete-operational Stage
Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships: Helping Families Care for Preoperational Children
Guidelines: Teaching the Concrete-operational Child
High School and College: Formal Operations
Do We All Reach the Fourth Stage?
Guidelines: Helping Students to Use Formal Operations
Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory
The Trouble with Stages
Underestimating Children’s Abilities.
Cognitive Development and Culture
Information Processing, Neo-piagetian, and Neuroscience Views of Cognitive Development
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective
The Social Sources of Individual Thinking
Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development
Technical Tools in a Digital Age
Psychological Tools
The Roles of Language and Private Speech
Private Speech: Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s Views Compared
The Zone of Proximal Development
Private Speech and the Zone
The Role of Learning and Development
Limitations of Vygotsky’s Theory
Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers
Piaget: What Can We Learn?
Understanding and Building on Students’ Thinking
Activity and Constructing Knowledge
Vygotsky: What Can We Learn?
The Role of Adults and Peers
Assisted Learning
An Example Curriculum: Tools of the Mind 123
Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the “magic Middle”
Cognitive Development: Lessons for Teachers
Summary
Key Terms
Connect and Extend to Licensure
Teachers’ Casebook: Symbols and Cymbals: What Would They Do?
Chapter 4 the Self, Social, and Moral Development
Teachers’ Casebook: Mean Girls: What Would You Do?
Overview and Objectives
Physical Development
Physical and Motor Development
Young Children
Elementary School Years
Guidelines: Dealing with Physical Differences in the Classroom
Play, Recess, and Physical Activity
Cultural Differences in Play
Exercise and Recess
Reaching Every Student: Physical Activity and Students with Disabilities
Challenges in Physical Development
Obesity
Body Image and Disordered Eating
Guidelines: Supporting Positive Body Images in Adolescents
Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development
The Importance of Context and the Bioecological Model
Families
Parenting Styles
Culture and Parenting
Attachment
Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships: Connecting with Families
Guidelines: Helping Children of Divorce
Peers
Cliques
Crowds
Peer Cultures
Friendships
Popularity
Who Is Likely to Have Problems with Peers?
Aggression
Relational Aggression
Media, Modeling, and Aggression
Videogames and Aggressive Behavior
Reaching Every Student: Teacher Support
Academic and Personal Caring
Supporting Social and Emotional Learning
Guidelines: Dealing with Aggression and Encouraging Cooperation
Teachers and Child Abuse
Mandated Reporting
What Can Teachers Do?
Identity and Self-concept
Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development
The Preschool Years: Trust, Autonomy, and Initiative
The Elementary and Middle School Years: Industry Versus Inferiority
Guidelines: Encouraging Initiative and Industry
Adolescence: the Search for Identity
Identity and Technology
Beyond the School Years
Racial and Ethnic Pride
Guidelines: Supporting Identity Formation
Self-concept
The Structure of Self-concept
How Self-concept Develops
Self-concept and Achievement
Sex Differences in the Self-concept of Academic Competence
Self-esteem
Point/counterpoint: What Should Schools Do to Encourage Students’ Self-esteem?
The Dangers of Perfectionism
Understanding Others and Moral Development
Theory of Mind and Intention
Moral Development
Kohlberg’s Theories of Moral Development
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory
Moral Judgments, Social Conventions, and Personal Choices
Moral Versus Conventional Domains
Implications for Teachers
Beyond Reasoning: Haidt’s Social Intuitionist Model of Moral Psychology
Moral Behavior and the Example of Cheating
Who Cheats?
Dealing with Cheating
Personal/social Development: Lessons for Teachers
Summary
Key Terms
Connect and Extend to Licensure
Teachers’ Casebook: Mean Girls: What Would They Do?
Chapter 5 Learner Differences and Learning Needs
Teachers’ Casebook: Including Every Student: What Would You Do?
Overview and Objectives
Language and Labeling
Impairments, Disabilities, and Handicaps
Person-first/identity-first Language
Possible Biases in the Application of Labels
Intelligence
What Does Intelligence Mean?
Intelligence: One Ability or Many?
Another View: Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
What Are These Intelligences?
Critics of Multiple Intelligences Theory
Gardner Responds
Multiple Intelligences: Lessons for Teachers
Another View: Sternberg’s Successful Intelligence
Neuroscience and Intelligence
Measuring Intelligence
Binet’s Dilemma
What Does an Iq Score Mean?
Group Versus Individual Iq Tests
The Flynn Effect: Are We Getting Smarter?
Intelligence and Achievement
Heredity or Environment?
Guidelines: Interpreting Iq Scores
Sex Differences in Intelligence and Achievement
Learning to Be Intelligent: Being Smart About Iq
Emotional Intelligence
What Is Emotional Intelligence?
Creativity: What It Is and Why It Matters
Assessing Creativity
Ok, but So What: Why Does Creativity Matter?
What Are the Sources of Creativity?
Creativity and Cognition
Creativity and Diversity
Creativity in the Classroom
Guidelines: Applying and Encouraging Creativity
Learning Styles: Proceed with Caution
Learning Styles/preferences
Cautions About Learning Styles
Why Are Learning Styles/preferences So Popular?
Beyond Either/or
Individual Differences and the Law
Idea
Least Restrictive Environment
Individualized Education Program
The Rights of Students and Families
Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships: Productive Conferences
Section 504 Protections
Response to Intervention
Students with Learning Challenges
Neuroscience and Learning Challenges
Students with Specific Learning Disabilities
Student Characteristics
Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities
Students with Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders
Definitions
Treating Adhd with Drugs
Point/counterpoint: Pills or Skills for Children with Adhd?
Alternatives/additions to Drug Treatments
Lessons for Teachers: Learning Disabilities and Adhd
Students with Communication Impairments
Speech Impairments
Language Disorders
Trauma
Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
Guidelines: Disciplining Students with Emotional Problems
Death by Suicide
Substance Use Disorder
Prevention
The Stigma of Mental Health Issues
Students with Intellectual Disabilities
Guidelines: Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities
Students with Health and Sensory Impairments
Cerebral Palsy and Multiple Disabilities
Seizure Disorders (epilepsy)
Other Serious Health Concerns: Asthma, Sickle Cell Disease, and Diabetes
Students with Visual Impairments
Students Who Are Deaf
Autism Spectrum Disorders
Interventions
Students Who Are Gifted and Talented
Who Are These Students?
What Is the Origin of These Gifts?
What Problems Do Students Who Are Gifted Face?
Identifying Students Who Are Gifted and Talented
Recognizing Gifts and Talents.
Teaching Students with Gifts and Talents
Acceleration
Methods and Strategies
Summary
Key Terms
Connect and Extend to Licensure
Teachers’ Casebook: Including Every Student: What Would They Do?
Chapter 6 Language Development, Language Diversity, and Immigrant Education
Teachers’ Casebook: Communicating and Creating Community in the Classroom: What Would You Do?
Overview and Objectives
The Development of Language
What Develops? Language and Cultural Differences
The Puzzle of Language
When and How Does Language Develop?
Sounds and Pronunciation
Vocabulary and Meaning
Grammar and Syntax
Pragmatics: Using Language in Social Situations
Metalinguistic Awareness
Emergent Literacy
Building a Foundation
When Problems Persist
Emergent Literacy and Language Diversity
Languages and Emergent Literacy
Bilingual Emergent Literacy
Guidelines: Supporting Language and Promoting Literacy
Diversity in Language Development
Dual-language Development
Second-language Learning
Benefits of Bilingualism
Language Loss
Signed Languages
What Is Involved in Being Bilingual?
Basic Communication and Academic Language
Guidelines: Promoting Language Learning
Dialect Differences in the Classroom
Dialects
Dialects and Pronunciations
Dialects and Teaching
Genderlects
Teaching Immigrant Students and English Learners
Immigrants and Refugees
Classrooms Today
Four Student Profiles
Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds
Bilingual Education and English Learners
Two Approaches to Learning English
Research on Bilingual Education
Point/counterpoint: What Is the Best Way to Teach English Learners?
Visual Strategies
Literature Response Groups
Bilingualism for All: Two-way Immersion
Sheltered Instruction
Affective and Emotional/social Considerations
Dealing with Trauma
Funds of Knowledge and Welcome Centers
Student-led Conferences
Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships: Welcoming All Families
Special Challenges: Students Who Are English Learners with Unique Learning Needs and Gifts
Students Who Are English Learners with Disabilities
Reaching Every Student: Recognizing Giftedness in Bilingual Students
Summary
Key Terms
Connect and Extend to Licensure
Teachers’ Casebook: Communicating and Creating Community in the Classroom: What Would They Do?
Part II Learning and Motivation
Chapter 7 Behavioral Views of Learning
Teachers’ Casebook: Sick of Class: What Would You Do?
Overview and Objectives
Understanding Learning
Ethical Issues
Goals
Strategies
Learning Is Not Always What It Seems
Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses
Types of Consequences
Reinforcement
Punishment
Neuroscience of Reinforcement and Punishment
Reinforcement Schedules
Extinction
Antecedents and Behavior Change
Effective Instruction Delivery
Cueing
Putting It All Together: Applied Behavior Analysis
Methods for Encouraging Behaviors
Reinforcing with Teacher Attention
Selecting Reinforcers: the Premack Principle
Shaping
Guidelines: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Praise Appropriately
Contingency Contracts, Token Reinforcement, and Group Consequences
Contingency Contracts
Token Reinforcement Systems
Group Consequences
Guidelines: Applying Operant Conditioning: Encouraging Positive Behaviors
Handling Undesirable Behavior
Negative Reinforcement
Positive Practice Overcorrection
Reprimands
Response Cost
Social Isolation
Some Cautions About Punishment
Guidelines: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Punishment
Current Applications: Functional Behavioral Assessment, Positive Behavior Supports, and Self-management
Discovering the “why”: Functional Behavioral Assessments
Reaching Every Student: Positive Behavior Supports
Self-management
Goal Setting
Monitoring and Evaluating Progress
Self-reinforcement
Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships: Applying Operant Conditioning: Student Self-management
Challenges and Criticisms
Beyond Behaviorism: Bandura’s Challenge and Observational Learning
Enactive and Observational Learning
Learning and Performance
Criticisms of Behavioral Methods
Point/counterpoint: Should Students Be Rewarded for Learning?
Behavioral Approaches: Lessons for Teachers
Summary
Key Terms
Connect and Extend to Licensure
Teachers’ Casebook: Sick of Class: What Would They Do?
Chapter 8 Cognitive Views of Learning
Teachers’ Casebook: Remembering the Basics: What Would You Do?
Overview and Objectives
Elements of the Cognitive Perspective
The Brain and Cognitive Learning
The Importance of Knowledge in Cognition
General and Specific Knowledge
Declarative, Procedural, and Self-regulatory Knowledge
Cognitive Views of Memory
Sensory Memory
Capacity, Duration, and Contents of Sensory Memory
Perception
The Role of Attention
Attention and Multitasking
Point/counterpoint: What’s Wrong with Multitasking?
Attention and Teaching
Working Memory
A Model of Working Memory
The Central Executive
The Phonological Loop
The Visuo-spatial Sketchpad
The Episodic Buffer
Capacity of Working Memory
The Duration and Contents of Working Memory
Cognitive Load and Retaining Information in Working Memory
Two (or Three) Kinds of Cognitive Load
Cognitive Load: Lessons for Teachers
Retaining Information in Working Memory
Levels of Processing Theory
Forgetting
Individual Differences in Working Memory
Developmental Differences
Individual Differences
Is Working Memory Really Separate?
Long-term Memory
Capacity and Duration of Long-term Memory
Contents of Long-term Memory: Explicit (declarative) Memories
Propositions and Propositional Networks
Images
Two Are Better Than One: Words and Images
Concepts
Prototypes, Exemplars, and Theory-based Categories
Teaching Concepts
Schemas
Episodic Memory
Contents of Long-term Memory: Implicit Memories
Retrieving Information in Long-term Memory
Spreading Activation
Reconstruction
Forgetting and Long-term Memory
Individual Differences in Long-term Memory
Teaching for Long-lasting Knowledge: Basic Principles and Applications
Constructing Declarative Knowledge: Making Meaningful Connections
Elaboration
Organization
Imagery
Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships: Organizing Learning
Context
Desirable Difficulty
Effective Practice
Mnemonics
Reaching Every Student: Make It Meaningful
If You Have to Memorize . . .
Lessons for Teachers: Declarative Knowledge
Development of Procedural Knowledge
Automated Basic Skills
Domain-specific Strategies
Guidelines: Helping Students Understand and Remember
Summary
Key Terms
Connect and Extend to Licensure
Teachers’ Casebook: Remembering the Basics: What Would They Do?
Chapter 9 Complex Cognitive Processes
Teachers’ Casebook: Uncritical Thinking: What Would You Do?
Overview and Objectives
Metacognition
Metacognitive Knowledge and Regulation
Individual Differences in Metacognition
Lessons for Teachers: Developing Metacognition
Metacognitive Development for Younger Students
Metacognitive Development for Secondary and College Students (like You)
Learning Strategies
Being Strategic About Learning
Deciding What Is Important
Summaries
Underlining and Highlighting
Taking Notes
Visual Tools for Organizing
Retrieval Practice: Powerful but Underused
Reading Strategies
Applying Learning Strategies
Appropriate Tasks
Valuing Learning
Effort and Efficacy
Reaching Every Student: Teaching How to Learn
Problem Solving
Identifying: Problem Finding
Defining Goals and Representing the Problem
Focusing Attention on What Is Relevant
Understanding the Words
Understanding the Whole Problem
Translation and Schema Training: Direct Instruction in Representing Problems
Translation and Schema Training: Worked Examples
Worked Examples and Embodied Cognition
The Results of Problem Representation
Searching for Possible Solution Strategies
Algorithms
Heuristics
Anticipating, Acting, and Looking Back
Factors That Hinder Problem Solving
Some Problems with Heuristics
Guidelines: Applying Problem Solving
Expert Knowledge and Problem Solving
Knowing What Is Important
Memory for Patterns and Organization
Procedural Knowledge
Planning and Monitoring
Guidelines: Becoming an Expert Student
Critical Thinking and Argumentation
What Critical Thinkers Do: Paul and Elder’s Model
Teaching Critical Thinking
Applying Critical Thinking in Specific Subjects
Teaching for Transfer
The Many Views of Transfer
Teaching for Positive Transfer
What Is Worth Learning?
Lessons for Teachers: Supporting Transfer
Stages of Transfer for Strategies
Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships: Promoting Transfer
Bringing It All Together: Teaching for Complex Learning and Robust Knowledge
Summary
Key Terms
Connect and Extend to Licensure
Teachers’ Casebook: Uncritical Thinking: What Would They Do?
Chapter 10 Constructivism and Interactive Learning
Teachers’ Casebook: Necessity Is the Mother of Inventive Teaching: What Would You Do?
Overview and Objectives
Cognitive and Social Constructivism
Constructivist Views of Learning
Cognitive Constructivism
Social Constructivism
How Is Knowledge Constructed?
Knowledge: Situated or General?
Common Elements of Learner-centered Teaching
Complex Learning Environments and Authentic Tasks
Social Negotiation
Multiple Perspectives and Representations of Content
Self-awareness and Reflection About the Knowledge Construction Process
Student Ownership of Learning
Designing Constructivist Learning Environments
Facilitating Deep Learning in a Constructivist Classroom
Scaffolding
Advance Organizers
Facilitating Through Asking and Answering Deep Questions
Guidelines: Facilitating Deep Questioning
Inquiry-based Learning
Examples of Inquiry
Problem-based Learning
Does Inquiry-based Instruction Improve Learning?
Point/counterpoint: Are Teaching Approaches to Support Inquiry- and Problem-based Learning Effective?
Being Smart About Inquiry Learning
Cognitive Apprenticeships
Collaboration and Cooperation
Learning in Groups
Goals of Group Work
What Can Go Wrong: Misuses of Group Learning
Learning Through Cooperation
Effects of Cooperative Learning
Teacher’s Role in Cooperative Learning
Designing Cooperative Learning Tasks
Highly Structured, Review, and Skill-building Tasks
Ill-structured, Conceptual, and Problem-solving Tasks
Social Skills and Communication Tasks
Giving and Receiving Explanations
Setting Up Cooperative Groups
Group Composition 439 Assigning Roles
Examples of Cooperative Learning Techniques
Reciprocal Questioning
Jigsaw
Constructive/structured Controversies
Reaching Every Student: Using Cooperative Learning Wisely
Guidelines: Using Cooperative Learning
Designing Interactive Digital Learning Environments
Technology and Learning
Technology-rich Environments
Mobile Learning
Virtual Learning Environments
Immersive Virtual Learning Environments
Games
Computational Thinking and Coding
Media Use, Digital Citizenship, and Media Literacy
Developmentally Appropriate Activities
Digital Citizenship
Critical Media Literacy
Guidelines: Supporting the Development of Media Literacy
Blending and Flipping: Technology-powered Pedagogy
Dilemmas of Constructivist Practice
Summary
Key Terms
Connect and Extend to Licensure
Teachers’ Casebook: Necessity Is the Mother of Inventive Teaching: What Would They Do?
Chapter 11 Social Cognitive Views of Learning and Motivation
Teachers’ Casebook: Failure to Self-regulate: What Would You Do?
Overview and Objectives
Social Cognitive Theory
A Self-directed Life: Albert Bandura
Beyond Behaviorism
Triadic Reciprocal Causality
Modeling: Learning by Observing Others
Elements of Observational Learning
Attention
Retention
Production
Motivation and Reinforcement
Observational Learning in Teaching
Directing Attention
Fine-tuning Already-learned Behaviors
Strengthening or Weakening Inhibitions
Teaching New Behaviors
Arousing Emotion
Guidelines: Using Observational Learning
Agency and Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy, Self-concept, and Self-esteem
Sources of Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy in Learning and Teaching
Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy
Guidelines: Supporting Self-Efficacy
Self-regulated Learning: Skill and Will
How Does Self-regulation Develop?
Knowledge
Motivation
Volition
Point/counterpoint: Are “grittier” Students More Successful?
Developmental Changes in Self-regulation
A Social Cognitive Model of Self-regulated Learning
Reaching Every Student: Technology and Self-regulation
Self-regulation of Emotions
Social and Emotional Learning
Teacher Stress and Self-regulation
Guidelines: Encouraging Emotional Self-regulation
Teaching Toward Self-efficacy and Self-regulated Learning
Complex Tasks
Agency and Control
Self-management
Self-evaluation
Collaboration
Bringing It All Together: Theories of Learning
Summary
Key Terms
Connect and Extend to Licensure
Teachers’ Casebook: Failure to Self-regulate: What Would They Do?
Chapter 12 Motivation in Learning and Teaching
Teachers’ Casebook: Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin: What Would You Do?
Overview and Objectives
What Is Motivation?
Meeting Some Students
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
What You Already Know About Motivation
Needs and Self-determination
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self-determination: Need for Competence, Autonomy, and Relatedness
Self-determination in the Classroom
Need-supportive Vs. Need-thwarting Classrooms
Supportive Relationships as Motivators
Guidelines: Supporting Self-determination and Autonomy
Needs: Lessons for Teachers
Goals and Goal Orientations
Goal Setting: What Am I Trying to Do?
Making Goals Work: Feedback, Framing, and Commitment
Goal Orientations: Why Am I Trying to Do This?
Wait—are Performance Goals Always Bad?
Work-avoidance Goals
Contextual Influences on Goal Orientation
Social Goals
Goals: Lessons for Teachers
Expectancies, Values, and Costs
Expectancy for Success
Task Value
Perceived Cost
Expectancy, Value, and Cost: Lessons for Teachers
Attributions and Beliefs About Ability
Attributions in the Classroom
Teacher Attributions Trigger Student Attributions
Mindsets About Ability
Ability Mindsets in the Classroom
Mindsets About Failure
Attributions and Mindsets: Lessons for Teachers
Guidelines: Encouraging a Healthy Mindset
How Do You Feel About Learning? Interest, Curiosity, and Emotions
Tapping Interests
Two Kinds of Interests
Catching and Holding Interests
Point/counterpoint: Does Making Learning Fun Make for Good Learning?
Guidelines: Building on Students’ Interests and Curiosity
Curiosity: Novelty and Complexity
Flow
Emotions
Emotion and the Body
Achievement Emotions
Emotions in the Classroom
Anxiety in the Classroom
Reaching Every Student: Coping with Negative Emotions
Guidelines: Coping with Test Anxiety
Interest, Curiosity, and Emotions: Lessons for Teachers
Strategies to Encourage Motivation to Learn
Why Am I Learning This? Is It Valuable, Useful, Relevant?
Creating Authentic Tasks
Increasing Perceived Relevance and Utility
Will I Enjoy This?
Enhancing Curiosity, Interest, and Intrinsic Value
Supporting Autonomy
Can I Do It? Building Confidence and Positive Expectations
What Do I Need to Do to Succeed? Providing Structures That Support Progress
Do I Belong in This Classroom? Creating Inclusive Opportunities
Summary
Key Terms
Connect and Extend to Licensure
Teachers’ Casebook: Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin: What Would They Do?
Part IV Teaching and Assessing
Chapter 13 Creating Supportive Learning Environments
Teachers’ Casebook: Bullies and Victims: What Would You Do?
Overview and Objectives
The What and Why of Supportive Classroom Organization
The Basic Task: Gain Their Cooperation
The Basic Goals: Access, Time, Relationships, and Self-management
Access to Learning
More Time for Learning
Management Means Relationships
Management for Self-management
Creating a Positive Learning Environment
Relevant Research Results
Routines and Rules Required: In-person Learning
Routines and Procedures
Guidelines: Establishing Class Routines for In-person Learning
Rules for In-person Teaching in Elementary School
Rules for In-person Teaching in Secondary School
Consequences
Who Sets the Rules and Consequences?
Routines and Rules Required: Remote Learning
Planning Spaces for Learning
Guidelines: Establishing Routines and Rules for Remote Learning
Personal Territories and Seating Arrangements
Interest Areas
Guidelines: Designing Learning Spaces
Getting Started: the First Weeks of Class
Effective Managers for Elementary Students
Effective Managers for Secondary Students
Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning
Encouraging Engagement
Guidelines: Keeping Students Engaged
Prevention Is the Best Medicine
Withitness
Overlapping and Group Focus
Movement Management
Student Social Skills as Prevention
Caring Relationships: Connections with School
Teacher Connections
School Connections and Belonging
Creating Communities of Care for Adolescents
Guidelines: Creating Caring Relationships 575 Dealing with Discipline Problems
Stopping Problems Quickly
If You Impose Penalties
Guidelines: Imposing Penalties
What About School Suspensions and Zero Tolerance?
Point/counterpoint: Is Zero Tolerance a Good Idea?
Reaching Every Student: Restorative Justice
Teacher-imposed Penalties Versus Student Responsibility
Bullying and Cyberbullying
Victims
Why Do Students Bully?
What Can Teachers Do? Bullying and Teasing
Cyberbullying
Special Challenges with High School Students
Guidelines: Handling Potentially Explosive Situations
The Need for Communication
Message Sent—message Received
Empathetic Listening
When Listening Is Not Enough: I-messages, Assertive Discipline, and Problem Solving
“i” Messages
Assertive Discipline
Confrontations and Negotiations
Diversity: Culturally Responsive Management
Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships: Classroom Organization and Management
Summary
Key Terms
Connect and Extend to Licensure
Teachers’ Casebook: Bullies and Victims: What Would They Do?
Chapter 14 Teaching Every Student
Teachers’ Casebook: Reaching and Teaching Every Student: What Would You Do?
Overview and Objectives
Research on Teaching
Characteristics of Effective Teachers
Clarity and Organization
Enthusiasm and Warmth
Knowledge for Teaching
Teacher Expectations
Two Kinds of Expectation Effects
Sources of Expectations
Do Teachers’ Expectations Really Affect Students’ Achievement?
Lessons for Teachers: Communicating Appropriate Expectations
Guidelines: Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher Expectations
The Goal: Ambitious Teaching
The First Step: Planning
Research on Planning
Learning Goals
An Example of State-level Goals: the Common Core
Classrooms Goals for Learning
Flexible and Creative Plans—using Taxonomies
The Cognitive Domain
The Affective Domain
The Psychomotor Domain
The Cognitive Demands of Learning Outcomes: Webb’s Depth of Knowledge
Guidelines: Using Learning Objectives
Planning from a Constructivist Perspective
Teaching Approaches
Research on Teaching Strategies
Explicit Teaching and Direct Instruction
Rosenshine’s Six Teaching Functions
Why Does Direct Instruction Work?
Evaluating Direct Instruction
Guidelines: Effective Direct Instruction
Independent Work and Homework
Independent Work
Homework
Point/counterpoint: Is Homework Valuable?
Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback
Kinds of Questions
Asking Authentic Questions
Fitting the Questions to the Students—and Waiting
Responding to Student Answers
Group Discussion and Quality Talk
Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships: Homework
Lessons for Teachers: Fitting Teaching to Your Goals
Guidelines: Productive Group Discussions
Putting It All Together: Understanding by Design
Differentiated Instruction
Within-class and Flexible Grouping
The Problems with Ability Grouping
Flexible Grouping
Guidelines: Using Flexible Grouping
Differentiated Instruction in Inclusive Classrooms
Assistive Technology
Reaching Every Student: Differentiation with Universal Design for Learning
Summary
Key Terms
Connect and Extend to Licensure
Teachers’ Casebook: Reaching and Teaching Every Student: What Would They Do?
Chapter 15 Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing
Teachers’ Casebook: Giving Meaningful Grades: What Would You Do?
Overview and Objectives
Basics of Assessment
Measurement and Assessment
Formative, Interim, and Summative Assessment
Assessing the Assessments: Reliability and Validity
Reliability of Test Scores
Validity
Absence of Bias
Classroom Assessment: Testing
Interpreting Any Test Score
Norm-referenced Test Interpretations
Criterion-referenced Test Interpretations
Using the Tests from Textbooks
Selected-response Testing
Using Multiple-choice Tests
Writing Multiple-choice Questions
Constructed Responses: Essay Testing
Constructing Essay Tests
Evaluating Essays
Assessing Traditional Testing
Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments
Informal Assessments
Exit Tickets
Journals
Involving Students in Assessments
Authentic Assessments: Performances and Portfolios
Performances
Portfolios
Guidelines: Creating Portfolios
Evaluating Portfolios and Performances
Scoring Rubrics
Reliability and Validity
Diversity and Bias in Performance Assessment
Guidelines: Developing a Rubric
Assessing Complex Thinking
Classroom Assessment: Lessons for Teachers
Grading
Norm-referenced Versus Criterion-referenced Grading
Effects of Grading on Students
The Value of Failing?
Retention in Grade
Grades and Motivation
Beyond Grading: Communicating with Families
Standardized Testing
Types of Scores
Measurements of Central Tendency and Standard Deviation
The Normal Distribution
Percentile Rank Scores
Grade-equivalent Scores
Standard Scores
Interpreting Standardized Test Reports
Discussing Test Results with Families
Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships: Conferences and Explaining Test Results
Accountability and High-stakes Testing
Making Decisions
What Do Teachers Think?
Documented Problems with High-stakes Testing
New Directions: Parcc and Sbac
Using High-stakes Testing Well: Lessons for Teachers
Reaching Every Student: Helping Students with Disabilities Prepare for High-stakes Tests
Teacher Accountability and Evaluation
Value-added Models
So How Should We Evaluate Teachers?
A Broader Approach: Measures of Teacher Effectiveness.
Summary
Key Terms
Connect and Extend to Licensure
Teachers’ Casebook: Giving Meaningful Grades: What Would They Do?
Licensure Appendix
Glossary
References
Name Index
Subject Index

Citation preview

Educational Psychology Fifteenth Edition

Anita Woolfolk The Ohio State University, Emerita

Ellen L. Usher University of Kentucky

Content Development: Curtis Vickers Content Management: Rebecca Fox-Gieg Content Production: Janelle Rogers Product Management: Drew Bennett Product Marketing: Krista Clark Rights and Permissions: Jenell Forschler Cover Designer: Carie Keller Cover Art: Courtesy of Wayne K. Hoy Text Font: PalatinoLTPro, Regular Credits and acknowledgments for ­material borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text. Every effort has been made to provide accurate and current Internet information in this book. However, the Internet and information posted on it are constantly changing, so it is inevitable that some of the Internet addresses listed in this textbook will change. Copyright © 2023, 2019, 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise. To obtain permission to use material from this work, please visit http://www.pearsoned.com/permissions/. Unless otherwise indicated herein, any third-party trademarks that may appear in this work are the property of their respective owners and any references to third-party ­trademarks, logos or other trademarks are for demonstrative or descriptive purposes only. Such references are not intended to imply any sponsorship, endorsement, authorization, or promotion of Pearson’s products by the owners of such marks, or any relationship between the owner and Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates, authors, licensees or distributors. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Hoy, Anita Woolfolk, author. | Usher, Ellen L., author. Title: Educational psychology / Anita Woolfolk, The Ohio State University, Emerita,

  Ellen L. Usher, University of Kentucky.

Description: Fifteenth edition. | Hoboken: Pearson, [2023] | Includes bibliographical   references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2021035625 (print) | LCCN 2021035626 (ebook) | ISBN 9780136944904   (paperback) | ISBN 9780136944782 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Educational psychology—Textbooks. Classification: LCC LB1051 .W74 2023 (print) | LCC LB1051 (ebook) | DDC 370.15—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021035625 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021035626

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Anita Woolfolk Hoy In memory of my mother, Marion Wieckert Pratt 1922–2020 A remarkable educator, An adventurous world traveler, A courageous advocate for all in need, And a wonderful guide in life— Thank you Ellen Usher With gratitude to my extraordinary fifth-grade teachers, Elizabeth ­Fogartie and Debbie Reeves, whose influence and inspiration shaped my life path. From Both of Us: In memory of Albert Bandura 1925-2021 He forever changed the fields of social and clinical psychology, learning, motivation, personality, and moral reasoning. As undergraduate and graduate students, we read his books and studies. As professors, we taught his theories. As researchers, we grounded our work on motivation, self-efficacy, and self-regulation in his research and scholarship. We have never known an educational psychology that did not include his thinking, nor will we ever. A lifetime of thanks to you, Professor Bandura, our professional inspiration and guide.

About the Authors So you will know your authors a bit better, here is some information. Anita Woolfolk Hoy was born in Fort Worth, Texas, where her mother taught child development at TCU and her father was an early worker in the computer industry. She is a Texas Longhorn—all her degrees are from the University of Texas, Austin, the last one a PhD. After graduating, she was a psychologist working with students in elementary and secondary schools in 15 counties of central Texas. She began her career in higher ­education as a professor of educational psychology at Rutgers University, and then moved to The Ohio State University in 1994. Today she is Professor Emerita at Ohio State. Anita’s research focuses on motivation and cognition, specifically, students’ and teachers’ sense of e­ fficacy and teachers’ beliefs about education. For many years she was the editor of Theory Into ­Practice, a journal that brings the best ideas from research to practicing educators. She is a Fellow of both the American Psychological Association and the American Educational Research Association, and has served as President of Division 15 (Educational Psychology) of APA and V ­ ice-President for Division K (Teaching & Teacher Education) of AERA. Anita also has collaborated with Nancy Perry, University of British Columbia, to write the 2nd edition of Child Development (Pearson, 2015) and with her husband, Wayne Hoy, to complete the 5th edition of Instructional Leadership: A Research-Based Guide to Learning in Schools (Pearson, 2020). Ellen L. Usher spent her early childhood in Roswell, Georgia, where she had diverse educational experiences that included attending a private nature-based school and public elementary and middle schools. She went to high school in rural South Carolina and urban Atlanta. A lifelong Francophile, she earned her Bachelor’s in foreign language education and began her professional career teaching French to elementary school students in Atlanta Public Schools. Inspired by her own favorite former teachers, Ellen transitioned to teaching fifth and sixth grades while pursuing a master’s degree in middle grades education from Oglethorpe University. After earning her PhD in Educational Studies from Emory University, Ellen began her career in higher education at the University of Kentucky in 2007, where she is director of the P20 Motivation and Learning Lab—an intergenerational, interdisciplinary team of researchers engaged in projects that explore human motivation in a variety of teaching and learning contexts. Ellen is a Fellow of the American Psychological Association and past Chair of the Motivation in Education Special Interest Group of the American Educational Research Association.

v

Preface Many of you reading this book are enrolled in an educational psychology course as part of your professional preparation for teaching, counseling, speech therapy, nursing, or psychology. The material in this text should be of interest to everyone who is concerned about education and learning, from the nursery school volunteer to the instructor in a ­community program for adults learning English. No background in psychology or education is necessary to understand this material. It is as free of jargon and technical language as possible, and many people have worked to make this edition clear, relevant, and interesting. The fifteenth edition of Educational Psychology continues to emphasize the e­ ducational implications and applications of research on child development, cognitive science, ­learning, motivation, teaching, and assessment in diverse contexts. Theory and practice are not ­separated in the text, but are considered together to solve the everyday problems of ­teaching. To help you explore the connections between research and practice, these pages include a wealth of examples, lesson segments, case studies, guidelines, and even practical tips from experienced teachers. Our goal is to provide knowledge and skills so you can build a solid foundation for a sense of teaching efficacy in every context and for every student. As you read this book, we believe you will see the immense value and usefulness of educational psychology. The field offers unique and crucial knowledge to any who dare to teach and to all who love to learn. Since the last edition appeared, there have been exciting developments in the field, and they are reflected in the upcoming chapters. We have also addressed the ways in which the COVID-19 pandemic has changed educational practices and outcomes for many teachers and learners around the world.

New Content in the Fifteenth Edition Across the book, there is increased coverage of a number of important topics. Some of these include: • A bold approach to face head-on the issues of identity, race, and privilege in teaching. After you explore the field of educational psychology in Chapter 1, in the next chapter, we ask you to examine yourself and your students. Who are you? Who are they? We consider diversity in today’s classrooms. Portraits of students in ­educational settings make diversity real and human. In a number of other chapters there are new exercises asking readers to “Put Yourself in Their Place” as a way to develop empathy for many students and situations. • Increased coverage of the brain, neuroscience, and teaching, emphasized in ­Chapter 3 and also integrated into several other chapters. • Increased coverage of the impact of technology and interactive learning environments on the lives of students and teachers today. • New sections in several chapters on social and emotional learning (SEL) and trauma-informed teaching. • New “What Would You Do?” cases and new responses from teachers around the United States and Canada, including a case that asks expert teachers what they learned from the shifts to remote instruction during COVID-19 and what they will keep doing as schools get back to “normal.” Key content changes in each chapter include: • Chapter  1: To help build your foundation for a sense of teaching efficacy, we have added a new casebook about becoming a great teacher in a world filled with online and in-person “advice.” There are responses from expert teachers and even an expert student teacher. In addition, we include new information on social and

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emotional learning (SEL) and the effects of trauma on students—two topics that will be addressed in several other chapters. Also, the section on good teaching now includes the widely used CLASS model. Chapter  2: This chapter begins with a new case that could happen in any school, “Conversations about race.” We explore the ways that education is cultural and then ask you to examine your own educational and cultural history—Who are you? What brought you here? To help you think through these important questions, there is new coverage of intersectionality, stereotypes, prejudice, and poverty as well as expanded coverage of racial and gender identity, sexual orientation, and creating inclusive classrooms. Chapter 3: New information on the brain, synaptic plasticity, and implications for teaching. Also, there is greater critical analysis of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories. Chapter  4: Updated information on early and late maturation in puberty, play, childhood obesity, disordered eating, culture and parenting, aggression, social and emotional learning, child abuse and mandated reporting, identity and technology, and dealing with cheating. Chapter  5: New sections on terms and labeling, multiple intelligences, emotional intelligence, problems with learning styles, ADHD, trauma-informed teaching, seizure disorders and other serious health concerns, and autism spectrum disorders. Chapter  6: New information on language diversity, Native American languages, and an expanded section on affective and emotional/social considerations for immigrant student and language learners, including dealing with trauma. Chapter  7: Expanded coverage of the neuroscience of reinforcement and punishment, effective instruction delivery, cautions in using time out for parents and teachers, reasons for problem behaviors, and using positive behavior supports for tier 1, 2, and 3 prevention of problems. Chapter  8: Updated coverage of the brain and cognitive learning, multitasking, working memory and cognitive load, concept teaching, effective practice, and teaching implications of cognitive learning theories. In addition, there is a new section on children and eye-witness memory, including guidelines for interviewing students. Chapter  9: New sections on how teachers can support student metacognition, using visual strategies and drawing to learn, worked examples and embodied cognition, deliberate practice, thinking critically about online sources, and ­integrating multiple sources of information. Updated coverage of problem solvi­ng and argumentation. Chapter  10: A new casebook asking about new approaches to teaching and learning that emerged during COVID-19 to facilitate meaningful learning through remote and hybrid instruction. Updated discussion of the elements of constructivist learning and teaching, scaffolding, deep questioning, collaboration, learning in a digital world, immersive learning environments, blending and flipping classrooms, and computational thinking. New sections on constructive/structured controversy, mobile learning, and media citizenship. Chapter 11: Updated coverage of social cognitive theory, self-efficacy and agency, teacher self-efficacy, self-regulated learning, grit, and teacher stress. New sections on self-regulation of emotions as relevant for both teachers and learners. Chapter  12: Chapter is reorganized around motivational components (e.g., needs, values, goals, beliefs) and the antecedents and outcomes associated with them. Updated treatment of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, self-determination, goals, school belonging, mindsets, and curiosity. New sections on social goals and achievement emotions. Completely revised section on strategies to encourage motivation to learn. ­Chapter  13: Cutting across this chapter is the challenge of creating supportive ­in-person and remote learning environments. New sections on rules and routines

viii Preface for managing remote learning including a “Welcome to Remote Learning” letter to students from an expert teacher (Anita’s daughter). Updated and expanded material on positive teacher connections, zero tolerance, bullying and cyberbullying, restorative justice, and culturally responsive classroom management. • Chapter  14: Updated research on teacher expectations, differentiated teaching, and homework, as well as new sections on ambitious teaching, Webb’s Depth of Knowledge, asking essential and authentic questions, and giving feedback. There also are new sections on Quality Talk and Universal Design for Learning. • Chapter  15: New sections on feedback and teacher evaluation. Updated material on selected-response testing, scoring rubrics, grading, retention in grade, and value-added modeling.

A Crystal Clear Picture of the Field and Where It Is Headed The fifteenth edition maintains our renowned lucid writing style presenting accurate, ­up-to-date coverage of the foundational areas within educational psychology: learning, development, motivation, teaching, and assessment. We add intelligent examinations of emerging trends in the field and society that affect student learning, such as student diversity, inclusive teaching, social and emotional learning, education and neuroscience, and technology.

Pearson eText, Learning Management System (­LMS)Compatible Assessment Bank, and Other Instructor Resources PEARSON ETEXT  The Pearson eText is a simple-to-use, mobile-optimized, personalized reading experience. It allows you to easily highlight, take notes, and review key vocabulary all in one place––even when offline. Seamlessly integrated videos and other rich media will engage you and give you access to the help you need, when you need it. To gain access or to sign-in to your Pearson eText, visit: https://www.pearson.com/ pearson-etext.

• Video Examples. One of the features in each chapter is the Video Examples that illustrate principles or concepts aligned pedagogically with the chapter. Some videos provide examples of educational psychology principles or concepts in action by showing students and teachers in classrooms. Other videos show students or teachers describing their teaching strategies or experiences. • Podcasts. In all chapters, Anita Talks podcasts provide direct links to relevant selections from Anita Talks About Teaching, a series of podcasts in which Dr. Woolfolk discusses how the chapters in this text relate to the profession of teaching.

Pearson eText Video Example 3.1 The children in this video are learning something new about growth by observing a tadpole as it changes from day to day. They can assimilate the idea that the tadpole grows legs, but how can they accommodate their concept of growth to understand why the tadpole’s tail gets smaller?

Pearson eText Podcast 3.1 Listen as textbook author Anita Woolfolk talks about brainbased education. What does this mean? Are there some clear implications for teachers, or is it still too early to say?

Preface ix LMS-COMPATIBLE ASSESSMENT BANK  With this new edition, all assessment types—quizzes, application exercises, and licensure exam practice—are included in LMS-compatible banks for the following learning management systems: Blackboard (9780136945123), Canvas (9780136944744), D2L (9780136944881), and Moodle (9780136945031). These packaged files allow maximum flexibility to instructors when it comes to importing, assigning, and grading. Assessment types include: • ­Learning Outcome Quizzes: Each chapter learning outcome is the focus of a Learning Outcome Quiz that is available for instructors to assign through their Learning Management System. Learning outcomes identify chapter content that is most important for learners and serve as the organizational framework for each chapter. The higher order, multiple choice questions in each quiz will measure your understanding of chapter content, guide the expectations for your learning, and inform the accountability and the applications of your new knowledge. Each multiple choice question includes feedback for the correct answer and for each distractor to help guide students’ learning. • Application Exercises: Each chapter provides opportunities for students to apply what they have learned through Application Exercises. One Application Exercise is available for each Learning Outcome within the chapter. The exercises require students to watch short videos, read scenarios, or think about situations and then answer ­ open-ended questions. When used in the LMS environment, a model response written by experts is provided after students submit the exercise. This feedback helps guide students’ learning and can assist the instructor in grading. • Chapter Tests: Suggested test items are provided for each chapter and include questions in multiple choice and short answer/essay formats. Some items (lowerlevel questions) simply ask students to identify or explain concepts and principles they have learned. But many others (higher-level questions) ask students to apply those same concepts and principles to specific classroom situations—that is, to actual student behaviors and teaching strategies. The lower-level questions assess basic knowledge of educational psychology. But ultimately, it is the higher-level questions that can best assess students’ ability to use principles of educational psychology in their own teaching practice.

Additional Text Features With an unswerving emphasis on educational psychology’s practical relevance for teachers and students in classrooms, the text is filled with current issues and debates, examples, lesson segments, case studies, and practical ideas from experienced teachers. Point/Counterpoint sections in each chapter present two perspectives on a controversial question related to the field; topics include debates on the kinds of research that should guide education (p. 23), should girls and boys be taught differently? (pp. 68–69), brain-based education (pp. 98–99), the self-esteem movement (pp. 165–166), pills or skills for students with ADHD (pp. 216–217), the best way to teach English language learners (pp. 265–266), using rewards to encourage student learning (pp. 316–317), what’s wrong with multitasking? (pp, 333–334), teaching critical thinking and problem solving (p. 399), problem-based education (p. 430), are “grittier” students more successful? (p. 483), the value of trying to make learning entertaining (p. 530), zero tolerance (pp. 579–580), the value of homework (pp. 623–624), and holding children back (pp, 669–670). Guidelines appear throughout each chapter, providing concrete applications of theories or principles discussed. See, for example, pages 71, 124, 139, 201, 273, 299, 349, 395, 443, 490, 528, 563, 609. Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships sections offer specific guidelines for involving all families in their children’s learning—especially relevant now, when demand

x Preface for parental involvement is at an all-time high and the need for cooperation between home and school is critical. See, for example, pages 208, 275, 405, 544, 594, 625, 672. Teachers’ Casebook sections present students with realistic classroom scenarios at the beginning of each chapter and ask “What Would You Do?”—giving students the opportunity to apply all the important topics of the chapter to these scenarios via application questions. Students may then compare their responses to those of veteran teachers appearing at the end of each chapter. See, for example, pages 82, 178, 281, 459, 499, 549, 599. Reaching Every Student sections present ideas for assessing, teaching, and motivating ALL of the students in today’s inclusive classrooms. See, for example, page 149. Lessons for Teachers are succinct and usable principles for teaching based on the research. See, for example, page 101. Put Yourself in Their Place experiences develop empathy by asking students to imagine how they would feel in different situations. See pages 60, 103, 251, 270, 588. Stop and Think activities give students firsthand experience with the concept being discussed, as on pages 15, 39, 42, 159, 164, 304, 385, 444, 517, 555.

­Supplementary Materials Many supplements to the textbook are available to enhance readers’ learning and development as teachers. INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL (9780136944812)  The Instructor’s Manual is provided as a Word

­ ocument and includes resources to assist professors in planning their course. These d ­resources consist of suggestions for learning activities, supplementary lectures, group ­activities, and additional media resources. These have been carefully selected to provide ­opportunities to support, enrich, and expand on what students read in the textbook. ®

POWERPOINT SLIDES (9780136944805)  PowerPoint®slides are provided for each ­­chapter and

highlight key concepts and summarize the content of the text to make it more meaningful for students. Often these slides also include questions and problems designed to s­ timulate ­discussion and to encourage students to elaborate and deepen their understanding of ­chapter topics. Note: All instructor resources—LMS-compatible assessment bank, instructor’s manual, and PowerPoint slides are available for download at www.pearsonhighered.com.

Acknowledgments From initial draft of this book to this most recent revision, many people have supported the project. Without their help, this text simply could not have been written. Many educators contributed to this project. Nancy Perry, our colleague from the University of British Columbia, contributed to the early planning for this edition and the redesign of several Teachers Casebook questions; recruited and collaborated with Canadian teachers for the Casebook; worked with her student, Silvia Mazabel, to research Chapters 3, 4, and 5; and drafted the first several sections of Chapter 4. Nancy’s keen eye and deep knowledge of the field made this edition more current and inclusive. In addition to working with Nancy, Silvia expertly completed research for multiple chapters, kept a sharp eye on the final versions of those chapters, and insured that the references in the chapters and the final Bibliography were accurate. In previous editions, before she became a coauthor, Ellen L. Usher contributed her remarkable scholarship and delightful writing to revise Chapters 2 and 11. Carol Weinstein wrote the section in Chapter 13 on spaces for learning. Michael Yough (Oklahoma State University) looked over several chapters including Chapter 5, “Language Development, Language Diversity, and Immigrant Education.” Chapter 6 was also improved by suggestions from Alan Hirvela, The Ohio State University. Jerrell Cassady, Ball State University,

Preface xi

provided invaluable guidance for Chapter 12, “Motivation in Learning and Teaching.” The portraits of students in Chapters 1, 2, and 6 were crafted by Nancy Knapp (University of Georgia). As we made decisions about how to revise this edition, we benefited from the ideas of colleagues around the country who took the time to complete surveys, answer our questions, and review chapters. Special thanks to Krystal Lira, Kimberly Alberts, and Alexandra Lee (Michigan State University) and Tony Perez and Arianna White-Levatich (Old Dominion University), for their input on content, structure, and flow for the ­fifteenth edition. We thank Jennifer Burris, Anastacia Cole, Candice Hargons, Sara Kuhl, and Jaylene Patterson (University of Kentucky) and Xiao-Yin Chen (University of Georgia) for their insightful input on specific sections related to privilege and diversity. For their revision reviews, thanks to Alyssa Gonzalez-DeHass, Florida Atlantic University; Carla M. Firetto, Arizona State University; Judy K. Hughey, Kansas State University Kurt Kowalski, California State University San Bernardino; Marie K. Iding, U­niversity; of Hawaii. Many classroom teachers across the country and around the world contributed their experience, creativity, and expertise to the Teachers’ Casebook. We have thoroughly enjoyed our association with these master teachers, and we are grateful for the perspective they brought to the book: AIMEE FREDETTE • 2nd grade Teacher Fisher Elementary School, Walpole, MA ALLAN OSBORNE • Assistant Principal Snug Harbor Community School, Quincy, MA AMANDA ROMANO • 6th grade Teacher, Galileo School for Gifted Learning, ­Sanford, FL AMY POCHODYLO • High School Science Teacher, Buckeye Valley High School, Delaware, OH ANNE LINERS • 9th–12th grade Student Teacher, South High School, Fort Minneapolis, MN ASHLEY RICHARDSON • 6th–8th grade Dean of Instruction and Discipline, ­Lansing Charter Academy, Lansing, MI BARBARA PRESLEY • Transition/Work Study Coordinator—High School Level, BESTT Program (Baldwinsville Exceptional Student Training and Transition Program) C. W. Baker High School, Baldwinsville, NY CARLA S. HIGGINS • K–5 Literacy Coordinator Legend Elementary School, Newark, OH CHRISTEN DILLON • K-12th grade Music Teacher, Model Laboratory School at Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY CORALIE HAFNER • Primary/1st grade Teacher, Olde Orchard Alternative Elementary, Columbus, OH CORY HILTY • 5th grade Teacher, Tyler Run Elementary School, Powell, OH DAN DOYLE • History Teacher, Grade 11 St. Joseph’s Academy, Hoffman, IL DANIELLE HARTMAN • 2nd grade Teacher Claymont Elementary School, Ballwin, MO DEMETRICK TENSLEY • 9th–12th grade Business Education & Computer Science Teacher, Seneca High School, Seneca, SC DONNIE PIERCEY • 5th grade Teacher and 2021 Kentucky State Teacher of the Year, Stonewall Elementary School, Lexington, KY DR. NANCY SHEEHAN-MELZACK • Art and Music Teacher Snug Harbor Community School, Quincy, MA INDIA CHAMBERS • 1st–8th grade Director of Academics, Northside Preparatory Academy, Cincinnati, OH JACALYN D. WALKER • 8th grade Science Teacher Treasure Mountain Middle School, Park City, UT

xii Preface JANE W. CAMPBELL • 2nd grade Teacher John P. Faber Elementary School, Dunellen, NJ JENNIFER L. MATZ • 6th grade Teacher Williams Valley Elementary, Tower City, PA JENNIFER PINCOSKI • Learning Resource Teacher, K–12 Lee County School District, Fort Myers, FL JESSICA N. MAHTABAN • 8th grade Math Teacher Woodrow Wilson Middle School, Clifton, NJ JOLITA HARPER • 3rd grade Teacher Preparing Academic Leaders Academy, Maple Heights, OH KAREN BOYARSKY • 5th grade Teacher Walter C. Black Elementary School, Hightstown, NJ KATHRYN ALBRECHT LARSEN • Junior High School Principal, Pleasant Grove Junior High, Pleasant Grove, UT KATIE CHURCHILL • 3rd grade Teacher Oriole Parke Elementary School, Chicago, IL KATIE PIEL • Kindergarten-6th grade Teacher West Park School, Moscow, ID KEITH J. BOYLE • English Teacher, Grades 9–12 Dunellen High School, Dunellen, NJ KELLEY CROCKETT • Professor and Former Elementary School Teacher, San ­Diego State University, San Diego, CA, and Fort Worth, TX Meadowbrook Elementary School, Fort Worth, TX KELLY L. HOY • 5th grade Humanities Teacher Katherine Delmar Burke School, San Francisco, CA KELLY MCELROY BONIN • High School Counselor Klein Oak High School, Spring, TX KYLE BROWN • 3rd grade Teacher, Hjorth Road Elementary, Surrey, British ­Columbia, Canada. LAUREN ROLLINS • 1st grade Teacher Boulevard Elementary School, Shaker Heights, OH LINDA GLISSON AND SUE MIDDLETON • 5th grade Team Teachers ­St. James Episcopal Day School, Baton Rouge, LA LINDA SPARKS • 1st grade Teacher John F. Kennedy School, Billerica, MA LISA WHITE • 2nd-/3rd grade combined and Third-/Fourth-Grade combined Elementary Teacher, Moody Elementary School, Port Moody, British Columbia, Canada LORI HALL • 9th grade Math Teacher, Monroe High School, Monroe, NC LOU DE LAURO • 5th grade Language Arts Teacher John P. Faber School, Dunellen, NJ LUCY ORDAZ SANCHEZ • 7th and 8th grade Family and Consumer Science Teacher, Dixon Middle School, Provo, UT M. DENISE LUTZ • Technology Coordinator Grandview Heights High School, Columbus, OH MADYA AYALA • High School Teacher of Preperatoria Eugenio Garza Lagüera, Campus Garza Sada, Monterrey, N. L. Mexico DR. MARI ANN BANKS • Equity Officer, City Schools of Decatur, Decatur, GA MARIA GALLO AVILA • 5th grade Math and Science Teacher, Stone Lakes ­Elementary School, Stonebrook, FL MARIA SOISSON • 6th grade Mathematics Teacher, Walnut Springs Middle School, Westerville, OH MARIANNE ROBINSON • 4th–5th and 6th–7th grade Teacher, Meadowbrook ­Elementary/Scott Creek Middle, Coquitlam Edmonton, Alberta, Canada MARIE HOFFMAN HURT • 8th grade Foreign Language Teacher (German and French)

Preface xiii

Pickerington Local Schools, Pickerington, OH MELISSA CHO • 3rd and 4th grade Teacher, Royal Heights Elementary School, Surrey, British Columbia, Canada MELISSA ROY • 10th grade Reading and English Teacher Lake Brantley High School, Altamonte Springs, FL MELODI STERNER • 6th -7th grade Life Science and Skills for Adolescents Teacher, Riverwatch Middle School, Suwanee, GA MICHAEL YASIS • 5th grade Teacher, L. H. Tanglen Elementary School, Minnetonka, MN L. H. Tanglen Elementary School, Minnetonka, MN MIRIAM MILLER • English Language Learning Teacher Educator, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada MONIKA STAHLSTROM • 3rd–7th grade Teacher, East Kensington Outdoor Learning School, Surrey, British Columbia, CA NANCY SCHAEFER • Grades 9–12 Teacher Cincinnati Hills Christian Academy High School, Cincinnati, OH NICOLE MACPHERSON • Kindergarten–12th grade District Learning Support Consultant, Burnaby School District, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada PAM GASKILL • 2nd grade Teacher Riverside Elementary School, Dublin, OH PATRICIA A. SMITH • High School Math Teacher Earl Warren High School, San Antonio, TX PAUL DRAGIN • English as a Second Language, Grades 9–12 Teacher Columbus East High School, Columbus, OH PAULA COLEMERE • Special Education Teacher—English, History McClintock High School, Tempe, AZ ROBBY HOVEL • 11th and 12th grade AP Psychology Teacher, Lyman High School, Longwood, FL SARA VINCENT • Special Education Teacher Langley High School, McLean, VA THOMAS NAISMITH • Science Teacher Grades 7–12 Slocum Independent School District, Elkhart, TX TIFFANY AL-LATEE • Kindergarten -1st grade Teacher, KIPP Columbus Primary, Columbus, OH VALERIE A. CHILCOAT • 5th-/6th-Grade Advanced Academics Glenmount School, Baltimore, MD VALERIE FIELDS • 11th–12th grade AP Psychology Teacher, Eagle's Landing Christian Academy, McDonough, GA VANESSA SAUER • 2nd–3rd grade Teacher Royal Heights Elementary School, Surrey, British Columbia, Canada VICKIE MORIARITY • 7th grade English and Language Arts Teacher, Bath County Middle School, Owingsville, KY On this edition, we worked with an outstanding editorial group. Their intelligence, creativity, sound judgment, style, and enduring commitment to quality can be seen on every page of this text. Rebecca Fox-Gieg, Senior Analyst for Content in Teacher Education, guided the project from reviews to completion. Her patience, persistence, and expertise made all the difference. Alicia Reilly was the outstanding developmental editor with the perfect combination of vast knowledge, organizational ability, and creative thinking. The text features, embedded videos, and excellent pedagogical supports would not exist without her tireless efforts. Kathy Smith focused her keen copyeditor's eye on the manuscript. It has been a pleasure to work with her over the years. Janelle Rogers kept all aspects of the project moving forward with amazing skill, grace, artistic vision, and good humor. Yohalakshmi Segar was the senior production project manager. Her attention to detail and instant answers to questions were remarkable. Somehow these wonderful women brought sanity to what could have been chaos and fun to

xiv Preface what might have been drudgery. What a talented and creative group—we are honored to work with them all. Finally, I (Anita) want to thank my family and friends for their kindness and support during the long days and nights that I worked on this book. To my family, Bob, Eric, Suzie, Lizzie, Wayne K., Marie, Kelly, and the newest member, Amaya—you are amazing. And of course, to Wayne Hoy, my friend, colleague, inspiration, passion, husband—you are simply the best. Thanks also to you for painting the picture that provided the cover for this edition—so much talent! I (Ellen), would like to thank Anita for inviting me to collaborate on this book. I have so much appreciation for the energy and time that such an effort requires. You are a kind and patient collaborator. Thanks also to members of the Kentucky P20 Motivation & Learning Lab, including two exceptional undergraduate students—Licia Henneberg and Olivia Huffman—who offered extensive help with literature recommendations, searches, and reference keeping. —ANITA WOOLFOLK HOY AND ELLEN L. USHER

Brief Contents PART I  SETTING THE STAGE, MEETING THE PLAYERS

1 Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology

2

2 Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity

34

PART II  DEVELOPMENT: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

3 Cognitive Development

86

4 The Self, Social, and Moral Development

130

5 Learner Differences and Learning Needs

182

6 Language Development, Language Diversity, and Immigrant Education 242

PART III  LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 7 Behavioral Views of Learning

284

8 Cognitive Views of Learning

324

9 Complex Cognitive Processes

368

10 Constructivism and Interactive Learning

414

11 Social Cognitive Views of Learning and Motivation 12 Motivation in Learning and Teaching

462

502

­PART IV   TEACHING AND ASSESSING 13 Creating Supportive Learning Environments 14 Teaching Every Student

552

602

15 Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing

644

xv

Contents Preface vi

C HAPTER 1 Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology   2 Teachers’ Casebook: Becoming a Great Teacher: What Would You Do?   2 Overview and Objectives   3 Learning and Teaching Today   4 Inside Three Classrooms   5 A MULTILINGUAL FIRST GRADE  5  •  A SUBURBAN FIFTH GRADE  5  •  TEACHING MATH TO STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES  5

Students Today: Dramatic Diversity and Remarkable Technology   Confidence in Every Context   High Expectations for Teachers and Students   Teaching the Whole Child: Social and Emotional Learning  

6 7 8 8

RESEARCH ON SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL LEARNING  9  •  PATHS: AN APPROACH TO SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL LEARNING  9  •  LIVING WITH SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL TRAUMA  10

Do Teachers Make a Difference?   10 TEACHER–STUDENT RELATIONSHIPS  11  •  THE COST OF POOR TEACHING  11

What Is Good Teaching?   12 Models of Good Teaching   12 DANIELSON’S FRAMEWORK FOR TEACHING  12  •  TEACHINGWORKS  13  •  THE CLASS MODEL  13

Beginning Teachers   15 The Role of Educational Psychology   16 Educational Psychology Today   16 Is It Just Common Sense?   17 LEARNING STYLES  17  •  ANSWER BASED ON RESEARCH  17  •  SKIPPING GRADES  17 •  ANSWER BASED ON RESEARCH  17  •  STUDENTS IN CONTROL  18  •  ANSWER BASED ON RESEARCH  18 • OBVIOUS ANSWERS?  18

Using Research to Understand and Improve Learning   18 CORRELATION STUDIES  19 • EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES  19 • ABAB EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS  20  •  SCIENTIFICALLY BASED RESEARCH AND EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICES  20  •  CLINICAL INTERVIEWS AND CASE STUDIES  21  •  ETHNOGRAPHY  21  •  THE ROLE OF TIME IN RESEARCH  21  •  WHAT’S THE EVIDENCE? QUALITATIVE VERSUS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH  21  •  MIXED METHODS RESEARCH  22  •  TEACHERS AS RESEARCHERS  23

POINT/COUNTERPOINT:  What Kind of Research Should Guide Education? Theories for Teaching Supporting Student Learning

23 24 25

Summary and Key Terms   27 Connect and Extend to Licensure ­Teachers’ Casebook: Becoming a Great Teacher: What Would They Do?

  30    30

PART I  STUDENTS CHAPTER 2 Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity   34

xvi

Contents xvii

Teachers’ Casebook: Conversations About Race: What Would You Do?   34 Overview and Objectives   35 Education Is Cultural   37 What Is Culture?   37 Your Cultural and Educational History   39 Meet Two Students   41 Cultural Intersections and Terminology   42 INTERSECTIONALITY  42  •  CULTURAL GROUPS AND TERMINOLOGY  42

Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination   43 STEREOTYPES: THE GOOD AND THE BAD  43  •  FROM STEREOTYPES TO PREJUDICE  44  •  STEREOTYPE THREAT  45  •  FROM PREJUDICE TO DISCRIMINATION  46

Economic and Social Class Differences   46 Social Class and Socioeconomic Status   47 Poverty and Social Inequality   48 Poverty and Academic Outcomes   49 HEALTH, ENVIRONMENT, AND STRESS  50  •  LOW EXPECTATIONS—LOW ACADEMIC ­ SELF-CONCEPT  51  •  PEER INFLUENCES AND RESISTANCE CULTURES  52  •  HOME ENVIRONMENT AND RESOURCES  52  •  SUMMER SETBACKS AND SCHOOL DISRUPTIONS  53  •  TRACKING AND POOR TEACHING  53

Extreme Poverty: Homeless and Highly Mobile Students   53 GUIDELINES: Teaching Students Who Live in Poverty 54 Ethnicity and Race in Teaching and Learning   55 Defining Ethnicity and Race   55 Ethnic and Racial Identity   55 MULTIDIMENSIONAL AND FLEXIBLE ETHNIC IDENTITIES  56  •  RACIAL IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT  56

Ethnic and Racial Differences in School Achievement   58 The Legacy of Racial Inequality   60 RACISM AND DISCRIMINATION  61

Gender and Sexual Orientation in Teaching and Learning   63 Sex and Gender   63 Gender Identity 63 Gender Roles 64 Gender Bias and Sexism in Curriculum and Media 65 Gender Bias in Teaching 66 GUIDELINES: Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching 67 POINT/COUNTERPOINT:  Should Girls and Boys Be Taught Differently?    68 Sexual Orientation   70 Discrimination Based on Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation   71 Creating Culturally Welcoming Classrooms   72 Culturally Relevant Pedagogy   73 Diversity in Learning   75 SOCIAL ORGANIZATION  75  •  CULTURAL VALUES AND LEARNING PREFERENCES  75 • SOCIOLINGUISTICS  76 • CULTURAL DISCONTINUITY  77

Lessons for Teachers: Teaching Every Student   77 KNOW YOURSELF  77  •  KNOW YOUR STUDENTS  77  •  RESPECT YOUR STUDENTS  79

GUIDELINES: Culturally Relevant Teaching   78 TEACH YOUR STUDENTS  79

Summary and Key Terms   78 ­Connect and Extend to Licensure   82 Teachers’ Casebook: Conversations About Race: What Would They Do?  

83

xviii Contents

CHAPTER 3 Cognitive Development   86 Teachers’ Casebook: Symbols and Cymbals: What Would You Do?   86 Overview and Objectives   87 A Definition of Development   88 Three Questions Across the Theories   89 WHAT IS THE SOURCE OF DEVELOPMENT? NATURE VERSUS NURTURE  89  •  WHAT IS THE SHAPE OF DEVELOPMENT? CONTINUITY VERSUS DISCONTINUITY  89  •  TIMING: IS IT TOO LATE? CRITICAL VERSUS SENSITIVE PERIODS  90  •  BEWARE OF EITHER/OR  90

General Principles of Development   90 The Brain and Cognitive Development   91 The Developing Brain: Neurons   91 The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex   94 Brain Development in Childhood and Adolescence   95 Putting It All Together: How the Brain Works   96 CULTURE AND BRAIN PLASTICITY  97

POINT/COUNTERPOINT:  Brain-Based Education    98 Neuroscience, Learning, and Teaching   99 DOES INSTRUCTION AFFECT BRAIN DEVELOPMENT?  100  •  THE BRAIN AND LEARNING TO READ  100  •  EMOTIONS, LEARNING, AND THE BRAIN  100

Lessons for Teachers: General Principles

101

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Influences on Development Basic Tendencies in Thinking

102 103 103

ORGANIZATION  103 • ADAPTATION  104 • EQUILIBRATION  104

Four Stages of Cognitive Development

104

INFANCY: THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE  105  •  EARLY CHILDHOOD TO THE EARLY ELEMENTARY YEARS: THE PREOPERATIONAL STAGE  106  •  LATER ELEMENTARY TO THE MIDDLE SCHOOL YEARS: THE CONCRETE-OPERATIONAL STAGE  107

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Helping Families Care for Preoperational Children

107

GUIDELINES: Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child

109

HIGH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE: FORMAL OPERATIONS  110  •  DO WE ALL REACH THE FOURTH STAGE? 111

GUIDELINES: Helping Students to Use Formal Operations Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory

112 112

THE TROUBLE WITH STAGES  112  •  UNDERESTIMATING CHILDREN’S ABILITIES.  113  •  COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND CULTURE  113

Information Processing, Neo-Piagetian, and Neuroscience Views of Cognitive Development  Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective The Social Sources of Individual Thinking Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development

114 115 115 116

TECHNICAL TOOLS IN A DIGITAL AGE  117  •  PSYCHOLOGICAL TOOLS  117

The Roles of Language and Private Speech

117

PRIVATE SPEECH: VYGOTSKY’S AND PIAGET’S VIEWS COMPARED.  118

The Zone of Proximal Development

119

PRIVATE SPEECH AND THE ZONE  119  •  THE ROLE OF LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT  120

Limitations of Vygotsky’s Theory Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers

120 120

Contents xix

Piaget: What Can We Learn?

120

UNDERSTANDING AND BUILDING ON STUDENTS’ THINKING  121  •  ACTIVITY AND CONSTRUCTING KNOWLEDGE  121

Vygotsky: What Can We Learn?

122

THE ROLE OF ADULTS AND PEERS  122  •  ASSISTED LEARNING  122

An Example Curriculum: Tools of the Mind ­Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the “Magic Middle” GUIDELINES: Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching Cognitive Development: Lessons for Teachers

123 123 124 125

Summary and Key Terms

125

Connect and Extend to Licensure

127

Teachers’ Casebook: Symbols and Cymbals: What Would They Do?   128

CHAPTER 4 The Self, Social, and Moral Development

130

Teachers’ Casebook: Mean Girls: What Would You Do?

130

Overview and Objectives

131

Physical Development Physical and Motor Development

132 132

YOUNG CHILDREN  132  •  ELEMENTARY SCHOOL YEARS  133

GUIDELINES: Dealing with Physical Differences in the Classroom

133

THE ADOLESCENT YEARS  134  •  EARLY AND LATER MATURING  134

Play, Recess, and Physical Activity

135

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN PLAY  136  •  EXERCISE AND RECESS  136

Reaching Every Student: Physical Activity and Students with Disabilities Challenges in Physical Development

137 137

OBESITY  137  •  BODY IMAGE AND DISORDERED EATING  137

GUIDELINES: Supporting Positive Body Images in Adolescents

139

140 Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development The Importance of Context and the Bioecological Model 140 Families 141 PARENTING STYLES  142 • CULTURE AND PARENTING  142 • ATTACHMENT  143

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Connecting with Families

143

DIVORCE 144

GUIDELINES: Helping Children of Divorce

144

Peers 145 CLIQUES  145 • CROWDS  145 • PEER CULTURES  146 • FRIENDSHIPS  146  •  POPULARITY  147  •  WHO IS LIKELY TO HAVE PROBLEMS WITH PEERS?  147 • AGGRESSION  148 • RELATIONAL AGGRESSION  148 • MEDIA, MODELING, AND AGGRESSION  149  •  VIDEOGAMES AND AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR  149

Reaching Every Student: Teacher Support GUIDELINES: Dealing with Aggression and Encouraging Cooperation

149 150

ACADEMIC AND PERSONAL CARING  151  •  SUPPORTING SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL LEARNING 151

Teachers and Child Abuse

152

MANDATED REPORTING  153  •  WHAT CAN TEACHERS DO?  153

Identity and Self-Concept Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development

155 155

THE PRESCHOOL YEARS: TRUST, AUTONOMY, AND INITIATIVE  156  •  THE ELEMENTARY AND MIDDLE SCHOOL YEARS: INDUSTRY VERSUS INFERIORITY  157

GUIDELINES: Encouraging Initiative and Industry ADOLESCENCE: THE SEARCH FOR IDENTITY  158  •  IDENTITY AND TECHNOLOGY  159  •  BEYOND THE SCHOOL YEARS  160  •  RACIAL AND ETHNIC PRIDE  161

157

xx Contents GUIDELINES: Supporting Identity Formation

161

Self-Concept 162 THE STRUCTURE OF SELF-CONCEPT  162  •  HOW SELF-CONCEPT DEVELOPS  163 •  SELF-CONCEPT AND ACHIEVEMENT  163

Sex Differences in the Self-Concept of Academic Competence 164 Self-Esteem 164 POINT/COUNTERPOINT:  What Should Schools Do to Encourage Students’ Self-Esteem?   165 THE DANGERS OF PERFECTIONISM  166

Understanding Others and Moral Development Theory of Mind and Intention Moral Development

167 167 167

KOHLBERG’S THEORIES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT  167  •  CRITICISMS OF KOHLBERG’S THEORY  168

Moral Judgments, Social Conventions, and Personal Choices

169

MORAL VERSUS CONVENTIONAL DOMAINS  169  •  IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHERS  170

Beyond Reasoning: Haidt’s Social Intuitionist Model of Moral Psychology Moral Behavior and the Example of Cheating

171 172

­WHO CHEATS?  172  •  DEALING WITH CHEATING  174

Personal/Social Development: Lessons for Teachers

174

Summary and Key Terms

175

Connect and Extend to Licensure

177

Teachers’ Casebook: Mean Girls: What Would They Do?   178

CHAPTER 5 Learner Differences and Learning Needs

182

Teachers’ Casebook: Including Every Student: What Would You Do?

182

Overview and Objectives

183

Language and Labeling Impairments, Disabilities, and Handicaps Person-First/Identity-First Language Possible Biases in the Application of Labels

185 185 186 187

Intelligence 187 What Does Intelligence Mean? 187 INTELLIGENCE: ONE ABILITY OR MANY?  188

Another View: Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

188

WHAT ARE THESE INTELLIGENCES?  189  •  CRITICS OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY  189 • GARDNER RESPONDS  190

Multiple Intelligences: Lessons for Teachers Another View: Sternberg’s Successful Intelligence Neuroscience and Intelligence Measuring Intelligence

191 191 192 192

BINET’S DILEMMA  192  •  WHAT DOES AN IQ SCORE MEAN?  193  •  GROUP VERSUS INDIVIDUAL IQ TESTS  193  •  THE FLYNN EFFECT: ARE WE GETTING SMARTER?  193  •  INTELLIGENCE AND ACHIEVEMENT  194

GUIDELINES: Interpreting IQ Scores 

194

Sex Differences in Intelligence and Achievement

195

HEREDITY OR ENVIRONMENT?  196

Learning to Be Intelligent: Being Smart About IQ Emotional Intelligence

196 196

WHAT IS EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE?  196

Creativity: What It Is and Why It Matters

198

Contents xxi

Assessing Creativity OK, But So What: Why Does Creativity Matter? What Are the Sources of Creativity?

198 200 200

CREATIVITY AND COGNITION  200  •  CREATIVITY AND DIVERSITY  201

Creativity in the Classroom GUIDELINES: Applying and Encouraging Creativity

201 201

Learning Styles: Proceed with Caution Learning Styles/Preferences

203 204

CAUTIONS ABOUT LEARNING STYLES  204  •  WHY ARE LEARNING STYLES/PREFERENCES SO POPULAR?  204

Beyond Either/Or

205

Individual Differences and the Law 205 IDEA 205 LEAST RESTRICTIVE ENVIRONMENT  206  •  INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATION PROGRAM  207 •  THE RIGHTS OF STUDENTS AND FAMILIES  207

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Productive Conferences  Section 504 Protections Response to Intervention

208 209 209

Students with Learning Challenges Neuroscience and Learning Challenges Students with Specific Learning Disabilities

211 211 212

­STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS  213  •  TEACHING STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES  214

Students with Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders

215

DEFINITIONS  215  •  TREATING ADHD WITH DRUGS  216

POINT/COUNTERPOINT:  Pills or Skills for Children with ADHD?

216

ALTERNATIVES/ADDITIONS TO DRUG TREATMENTS  217

Lessons for Teachers: Learning Disabilities and ADHD Students with Communication Impairments

217 218

SPEECH IMPAIRMENTS  218  •  LANGUAGE DISORDERS  219

Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders

219

TRAUMA 220

GUIDELINES: Disciplining Students with Emotional Problems

221

DEATH BY SUICIDE  223  •  SUBSTANCE USE DISORDER  223 •  PREVENTION  224  •  THE STIGMA OF MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES  224

Students with Intellectual Disabilities GUIDELINES: Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities Students with Health and Sensory Impairments

225 226 226

CEREBRAL PALSY AND MULTIPLE DISABILITIES  226  •  SEIZURE DISORDERS (EPILEPSY)  227  •  OTHER SERIOUS HEALTH CONCERNS: ASTHMA, SICKLE CELL DISEASE, AND DIABETES  228  •  STUDENTS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS  228  •  STUDENTS WHO ARE DEAF  229

Autism Spectrum Disorders

229

INTERVENTIONS. 230

Students Who Are Gifted and Talented Who Are These Students?

230 231

WHAT IS THE ORIGIN OF THESE GIFTS?  231  •  WHAT PROBLEMS DO STUDENTS WHO ARE GIFTED FACE?  232

Identifying Students Who Are Gifted and Talented

232

RECOGNIZING GIFTS AND TALENTS.  232

Teaching Students with Gifts and Talents

234

ACCELERATION  234  •  METHODS AND STRATEGIES  235

Summary and Key Terms

235

Connect and Extend to Licensure

238

Teachers’ Casebook: Including Every Student: What Would They Do?   239

xxii Contents

CHAPTER 6 Language Development, Language Diversity, and Immigrant Education 242 Teachers’ Casebook: Communicating and Creating Community in the Classroom: What Would You Do?

242

Overview and Objectives

243

The Development of Language What Develops? Language and Cultural Differences

244 245

THE PUZZLE OF LANGUAGE  245

When and How Does Language Develop?

245

SOUNDS AND PRONUNCIATION  246  •  VOCABULARY AND MEANING  246  •  GRAMMAR AND SYNTAX  248  •  PRAGMATICS: USING LANGUAGE IN SOCIAL SITUATIONS  248 • METALINGUISTIC AWARENESS  248

Emergent Literacy

249

BUILDING A FOUNDATION  249  •  WHEN PROBLEMS PERSIST  250

Emergent Literacy and Language Diversity

250

LANGUAGES AND EMERGENT LITERACY  250  •  BILINGUAL EMERGENT LITERACY  251

GUIDELINES: Supporting Language and Promoting Literacy

251

Diversity in Language Development Dual-Language Development

252 252

SECOND-LANGUAGE LEARNING  253  •  BENEFITS OF BILINGUALISM  253  •  LANGUAGE LOSS  254

Signed Languages What Is Involved in Being Bilingual? Basic Communication and Academic Language GUIDELINES: Promoting Language Learning

255 255 256 258

­Dialect Differences in the Classroom 259 Dialects 259 DIALECTS AND PRONUNCIATIONS  259  •  DIALECTS AND TEACHING  260

Genderlects 260 Teaching Immigrant Students and English Learners Immigrants and Refugees Classrooms Today Four Student Profiles

261 261 262 262

Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds Bilingual Education and English Learners

263 264

TWO APPROACHES TO LEARNING ENGLISH  264   •  RESEARCH ON BILINGUAL EDUCATION  264 

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Is the Best Way to Teach English Learners?

265

VISUAL STRATEGIES  267  •  LITERATURE RESPONSE GROUPS  267  •  BILINGUALISM FOR ALL: TWO-WAY IMMERSION  267

Sheltered Instruction Affective and Emotional/Social Considerations

268 270

DEALING WITH TRAUMA  272

Working with Families: Using the Tools of the Culture GUIDELINES: Providing Emotional Support and Increasing Self-Esteem for Students Who Are ELs

272 273

FUNDS OF KNOWLEDGE AND WELCOME CENTERS  274  •  STUDENT-LED CONFERENCES  274

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Welcoming All Families

275

Special Challenges: Students Who Are English Learners with Unique Learning Needs and Gifts Students Who Are English Learners with Disabilities Reaching Every Student: Recognizing Giftedness in Bilingual Students

276 276 277

Contents xxiii

Summary and Key Terms

278

Connect and Extend to Licensure

280

Teachers’ Casebook: Communicating and Creating Community in the Classroom: What Would They Do?

281

PART II  LEARNING AND MOTIVATION CHAPTER 7 Behavioral Views of Learning

284

Teachers’ Casebook: Sick of Class: What Would You Do?

284

Overview and Objectives

285

Understanding Learning Ethical Issues

286 287

GOALS  287 • STRATEGIES  287

Learning Is Not Always What It Seems

288

Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and Classical Conditioning

289

GUIDELINES: Applying Classical Conditioning

291

Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses Types of Consequences

292 292

REINFORCEMENT  292 • PUNISHMENT  293

Neuroscience of Reinforcement and Punishment Reinforcement Schedules

294 295

EXTINCTION 296

Antecedents and Behavior Change

296

EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION DELIVERY  297  •  CUEING  297

Putting It All Together: Applied Behavior Analysis ­Methods for Encouraging Behaviors

298 298

REINFORCING WITH TEACHER ATTENTION  298 

GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Praise Appropriately

299

SELECTING REINFORCERS: THE PREMACK PRINCIPLE  300  •  SHAPING  301

GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning: Encouraging Positive Behaviors Contingency Contracts, Token Reinforcement, and Group Consequences

302 303

CONTINGENCY CONTRACTS  303 • TOKEN REINFORCEMENT SYSTEMS  304 • GROUP CONSEQUENCES 304

Handling Undesirable Behavior

306

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT  306  •  POSITIVE PRACTICE OVERCORRECTION  307 • REPRIMANDS  307 • RESPONSE COST  307 • SOCIAL ISOLATION  307 • SOME CAUTIONS ABOUT PUNISHMENT  308

GUIDELINES: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Punishment

309

Current Applications: Functional Behavioral Assessment, Positive Behavior Supports, and Self-Management 310 Discovering the “Why”: Functional Behavioral Assessments 310 Reaching Every Student: Positive Behavior Supports 311 Self-Management 313 GOAL SETTING  313  •  MONITORING AND EVALUATING PROGRESS  313  • SELF-REINFORCEMENT  313

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Applying Operant Conditioning: Student Self-Management314 Challenges and Criticisms Beyond Behaviorism: Bandura’s Challenge and Observational Learning

314 315

ENACTIVE AND OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING  315  •  LEARNING AND PERFORMANCE  315

Criticisms of Behavioral Methods

316

xxiv Contents POINT/COUNTERPOINT:  Should Students Be Rewarded for Learning? Behavioral Approaches: Lessons for Teachers

316 318

Summary and Key Terms

318

Connect and Extend to Licensure

321

Teachers’ Casebook: Sick of Class: What Would They Do?   321

CHAPTER 8 Cognitive Views of Learning

324

Teachers’ Casebook: Remembering the Basics: What Would You Do?

324

Overview and Objectives

325

Elements of The Cognitive Perspective The Brain and Cognitive Learning The Importance of Knowledge in Cognition

326 326 327

GENERAL AND SPECIFIC KNOWLEDGE  327  •  DECLARATIVE, PROCEDURAL, AND SELF-REGULATORY KNOWLEDGE  328

Cognitive Views of Memory Sensory Memory

328 329

CAPACITY, DURATION, AND CONTENTS OF SENSORY MEMORY  330  •  PERCEPTION  331 •  THE ROLE OF ATTENTION  331  •  ATTENTION AND MULTITASKING  333

POINT/COUNTERPOINT:  What’s Wrong with Multitasking?

333

ATTENTION AND TEACHING  334

GUIDELINES: Gaining and Maintaining Attention Working Memory

335 336

A MODEL OF WORKING MEMORY  336  •  THE CENTRAL EXECUTIVE  337  •  THE PHONOLOGICAL LOOP  337  •  THE VISUO-SPATIAL SKETCHPAD  338  •  THE EPISODIC BUFFER  338  •  CAPACITY OF WORKING MEMORY  338  •  THE DURATION AND CONTENTS OF WORKING MEMORY  338

Cognitive Load and Retaining Information in Working Memory

339

TWO (OR THREE) KINDS OF COGNITIVE LOAD  339  •  COGNITIVE LOAD: LESSONS FOR TEACHERS  339  •  RETAINING INFORMATION IN WORKING MEMORY  340  •  LEVELS OF PROCESSING THEORY  341  •  FORGETTING  341

Individual Differences in Working Memory

341

DEVELOPMENTAL DIFFERENCES  342  •  INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES  342

Is Working Memory Really Separate? Long-Term Memory ­Capacity and Duration of Long-Term Memory Contents of Long-Term Memory: Explicit (Declarative) Memories

343 343 343 344

PROPOSITIONS AND PROPOSITIONAL NETWORKS  344  •  IMAGES  344  •  TWO ARE BETTER THAN ONE: WORDS AND IMAGES  345  •  CONCEPTS  345  •  PROTOTYPES, EXEMPLARS, AND THEORY-BASED CATEGORIES  345  •  TEACHING CONCEPTS  346  • SCHEMAS  347 • EPISODIC MEMORY  348

GUIDELINES: Interviewing Young Students and Eyewitness Testimony Contents of Long-Term Memory: Implicit Memories Retrieving Information in Long-Term Memory

349 350 351

SPREADING ACTIVATION  351 • RECONSTRUCTION  351 • FORGETTING AND LONG-TERM MEMORY  352

Individual Differences in Long-Term Memory Teaching for Long-Lasting Knowledge: Basic Principles and Applications Constructing Declarative Knowledge: Making Meaningful Connections

352 353 353

ELABORATION  353 • ORGANIZATION  354 • IMAGERY  354 

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Organizing Learning CONTEXT  355 • DESIRABLE DIFFICULTY  355 • EFFECTIVE PRACTICE  355

354

Contents xxv

Reaching Every Student: Make It Meaningful

356

MNEMONICS 357

If You Have to Memorize . . . Lessons for Teachers: Declarative Knowledge Development of Procedural Knowledge

358 359 359

AUTOMATED BASIC SKILLS  359  •  DOMAIN-SPECIFIC STRATEGIES  360

GUIDELINES: Helping Students Understand and Remember

360

Summary and Key Terms

362

Connect and Extend to Licensure

364

Teachers’ Casebook: Remembering the Basics: What Would They Do?   365

CHAPTER 9 Complex Cognitive Processes

368

Teachers’ Casebook: Uncritical Thinking: What Would You Do?

368

Overview and Objectives

369

Metacognition 371 Metacognitive Knowledge and Regulation 371 Individual Differences in Metacognition 371 Lessons for Teachers: Developing Metacognition 372 METACOGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT FOR YOUNGER STUDENTS  372  •  METACOGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT FOR SECONDARY AND COLLEGE STUDENTS (LIKE YOU)  373

Learning Strategies Being Strategic About Learning

375 376

DECIDING WHAT IS IMPORTANT  376  •  SUMMARIES  377  •  UNDERLINING AND HIGHLIGHTING  377 • TAKING NOTES  378

Visual Tools for Organizing Retrieval Practice: Powerful but Underused Reading Strategies Applying Learning Strategies

379 381 381 382

APPROPRIATE TASKS  382  •  VALUING LEARNING  382  •  EFFORT AND EFFICACY  383

Reaching Every Student: Teaching How to Learn Problem Solving Identifying: Problem Finding Defining Goals and Representing the Problem

383 383 384 384

FOCUSING ATTENTION ON WHAT IS RELEVANT  385  •  UNDERSTANDING THE WORDS  385  •  UNDERSTANDING THE WHOLE PROBLEM  385  •  TRANSLATION AND SCHEMA TRAINING: DIRECT INSTRUCTION IN REPRESENTING PROBLEMS  387  •  TRANSLATION AND SCHEMA TRAINING: WORKED EXAMPLES  387  •  WORKED EXAMPLES AND EMBODIED COGNITION  388  •  THE RESULTS OF PROBLEM REPRESENTATION  389

Searching for Possible Solution Strategies

389

ALGORITHMS  390 • HEURISTICS  390

­ nticipating, Acting, and Looking Back A Factors That Hinder Problem Solving

391 391

SOME PROBLEMS WITH HEURISTICS  392

GUIDELINES: Applying Problem Solving Expert Knowledge and Problem Solving

393 394

KNOWING WHAT IS IMPORTANT  394  •  MEMORY FOR PATTERNS AND ORGANIZATION  394 • PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE  394 • PLANNING AND MONITORING  395

GUIDELINES: Becoming an Expert Student

395

Critical Thinking and Argumentation What Critical Thinkers Do: Paul and Elder’s Model Teaching Critical Thinking

397 397 397

APPLYING CRITICAL THINKING IN SPECIFIC SUBJECTS  398

xxvi Contents POINT/COUNTERPOINT:  Should Schools Teach Critical Thinking and Problem Solving?   399 Thinking Critically About Online Sources 399 Argumentation 400 TWO STYLES OF ARGUMENTATION  401  •  LESSONS FOR TEACHERS  402

Teaching for Transfer The Many Views of Transfer Teaching for Positive Transfer

402 402 403

WHAT IS WORTH LEARNING?  404  •  LESSONS FOR TEACHERS: SUPPORTING TRANSFER  404  •  STAGES OF TRANSFER FOR STRATEGIES  405

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Promoting Transfer

405

Bringing It All Together: Teaching for Complex Learning and Robust Knowledge What Is Robust Knowledge? Teaching for Robust Knowledge

406 406 406

PRACTICE  406 • WORKED EXAMPLES  407 • ANALOGIES  407 • INTEGRATING MULTIPLE TEXTS  407 • SELF-EXPLANATIONS  407

Summary and Key Terms

408

Connect and Extend to Licensure

410

Teachers’ Casebook: Uncritical Thinking: What Would They Do?   411

CHAPTER 10 Constructivism and Interactive Learning

414

Teachers’ Casebook: Necessity Is the Mother of Inventive Teaching: What Would You Do?

414

Overview and Objectives

415

Cognitive and Social Constructivism Constructivist Views of Learning

416 417

COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM  417  •  SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM  418

How Is Knowledge Constructed? Knowledge: Situated or General? Common Elements of Learner-Centered Teaching

419 419 420

COMPLEX LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS AND AUTHENTIC TASKS  421  •  SOCIAL NEGOTIATION  421  •  MULTIPLE PERSPECTIVES AND REPRESENTATIONS OF CONTENT  421  • ­SELF-AWARENESS AND REFLECTION ABOUT THE KNOWLEDGE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS  422  •  STUDENT OWNERSHIP OF LEARNING  423

Designing Constructivist Learning Environments Facilitating Deep Learning in a Constructivist Classroom

423 423

SCAFFOLDING  423 • ADVANCE ORGANIZERS  425 • FACILITATING THROUGH ASKING AND ANSWERING DEEP QUESTIONS  425

GUIDELINES: Facilitating Deep Questioning Inquiry-Based Learning

426 427

EXAMPLES OF INQUIRY  427  •  PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING  428  •  DOES INQUIRY-BASED INSTRUCTION IMPROVE LEARNING?  429

POINT/COUNTERPOINT:  Are Teaching Approaches to Support Inquiry- and Problem-Based Learning Effective?   430 BEING SMART ABOUT INQUIRY LEARNING  431

Cognitive Apprenticeships Collaboration and Cooperation Learning in Groups

432 433 433

GOALS OF GROUP WORK  434  •  WHAT CAN GO WRONG: MISUSES OF GROUP LEARNING  434

Learning Through Cooperation EFFECTS OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING  436  •  TEACHER’S ROLE IN COOPERATIVE LEARNING  437

435

Contents xxvii

Designing Cooperative Learning Tasks

437

HIGHLY STRUCTURED, REVIEW, AND SKILL-BUILDING TASKS  437  •  ILL-STRUCTURED, CONCEPTUAL, AND PROBLEM-SOLVING TASKS  437  •  SOCIAL SKILLS AND COMMUNICATION TASKS  438  •  GIVING AND RECEIVING EXPLANATIONS  438

Setting Up Cooperative Groups

438

GROUP COMPOSITION  439  •  ASSIGNING ROLES  439

Examples of Cooperative Learning Techniques

440

RECIPROCAL QUESTIONING  440 • JIGSAW  441 • CONSTRUCTIVE/STRUCTURED CONTROVERSIES 441

Reaching Every Student: Using Cooperative Learning Wisely GUIDELINES: Using Cooperative Learning

442 443

Designing Interactive Digital Learning Environments Technology and Learning Technology-Rich Environments

444 445 445

MOBILE LEARNING  446  •  VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS  447  •  IMMERSIVE VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS  448  •  GAMES  448

Computational Thinking and Coding Media Use, Digital Citizenship, and Media Literacy

449 450

DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE ACTIVITIES  450  •  DIGITAL CITIZENSHIP  451 •  CRITICAL MEDIA LITERACY  451

GUIDELINES: Supporting the Development of Media Literacy

453

Blending and Flipping: Technology-Powered Pedagogy Dilemmas of Constructivist Practice

454 455

Summary and Key Terms

455

Connect and Extend to Licensure

458

Teachers’ Casebook: Necessity Is the Mother of Inventive Teaching: What Would They Do?   459

CHAPTER 11 Social Cognitive Views of Learning and Motivation

462

Teachers’ Casebook: Failure to Self-Regulate: What Would You Do?

462

Overview and Objectives

463

Social Cognitive Theory A Self-Directed Life: Albert Bandura Beyond Behaviorism Triadic Reciprocal Causality

465 465 465 466

Modeling: Learning by Observing Others Elements of Observational Learning

468 469

ATTENTION  469 • RETENTION  469 • PRODUCTION  469 • MOTIVATION AND REINFORCEMENT  470

Observational Learning in Teaching

470

DIRECTING ATTENTION  470  •  FINE-TUNING ALREADY-LEARNED BEHAVIORS  471  •  STRENGTHENING OR WEAKENING INHIBITIONS  471  •  TEACHING NEW BEHAVIORS  471  •  AROUSING EMOTION  471

GUIDELINES: Using Observational Learning

472

Agency and Self-Efficacy Self-Efficacy, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem Sources of Self-Efficacy Self-Efficacy in Learning and Teaching

473 474 474 476

GUIDELINES: Supporting Self-Efficacy

477

Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Self-Regulated Learning: Skill and Will

478 479

xxviii Contents ­How Does Self-Regulation Develop?

480

KNOWLEDGE  480 • MOTIVATION  481 • VOLITION  481

POINT/COUNTERPOINT:  Are “Grittier” Students More Successful?

483

DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN SELF-REGULATION  485

A Social Cognitive Model of Self-Regulated Learning Reaching Every Student: Technology and Self-Regulation Self-Regulation of Emotions

485 487 488

SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL LEARNING  488  •  TEACHER STRESS AND SELF-REGULATION 489

GUIDELINES: Encouraging Emotional Self-Regulation

490

Teaching Toward Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated Learning 491 Complex Tasks 491 Agency and Control 492 Self-Management 493 Self-Evaluation 494 Collaboration 495 Bringing It All Together: Theories of Learning

495

Summary and Key Terms

497

Connect and Extend to Licensure

499

Teachers’ Casebook: Failure to Self-Regulate: What Would They Do?   499

CHAPTER 12 Motivation in Learning and Teaching

502

Teachers’ Casebook: Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin: What Would You Do?

502

Overview and Objectives

503

What Is Motivation? Meeting Some Students Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation What You Already Know About Motivation

505 506 507 508

Needs and Self-Determination Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self-Determination: Need for Competence, Autonomy, and Relatedness

509 509 511

SELF-DETERMINATION IN THE CLASSROOM  511  •  NEED-SUPPORTIVE VS. NEED-THWARTING CLASSROOMS 512

GUIDELINES: Supporting Self-Determination and Autonomy

513

SUPPORTIVE RELATIONSHIPS AS MOTIVATORS  514

Needs: Lessons for Teachers Goals and Goal Orientations Goal Setting: What Am I Trying to Do? Making Goals Work: Feedback, Framing, and Commitment Goal Orientations: Why Am I Trying to Do This?

514 514 515 516 517

WAIT—ARE PERFORMANCE GOALS ALWAYS BAD?  518  •  WORK-AVOIDANCE GOALS  519 •  CONTEXTUAL INFLUENCES ON GOAL ORIENTATION  519

Social Goals Goals: Lessons for Teachers Expectancies, Values, and Costs Expectancy for Success Task Value Perceived Cost Expectancy, Value, and Cost: Lessons for Teachers

519 520 520 521 521 522 522

Contents xxix

Attributions and Beliefs About Ability Attributions in the Classroom Teacher Attributions Trigger Student Attributions Mindsets About Ability ­Ability Mindsets in the Classroom Mindsets About Failure Attributions and Mindsets: Lessons for Teachers

522 523 524 525 525 526 527

GUIDELINES: Encouraging a Healthy Mindset

528

How Do You Feel About Learning? Interest, Curiosity, and Emotions Tapping Interests

528 529

TWO KINDS OF INTERESTS  529  •  CATCHING AND HOLDING INTERESTS  529

POINT/COUNTERPOINT:  Does Making Learning Fun Make for Good Learning?   530 GUIDELINES: Building on Students’ Interests and Curiosity

532

Curiosity: Novelty and Complexity   531 Flow   533 Emotions    533 EMOTION AND THE BODY  534   •  ACHIEVEMENT EMOTIONS  534  •  EMOTIONS IN THE CLASSROOM    536

Anxiety in the Classroom   536 Reaching Every Student: Coping with Negative Emotions   537 GUIDELINES: Coping with Test Anxiety

538

Interest, Curiosity, and Emotions: Lessons for Teachers   539 Strategies to Encourage Motivation to Learn Why Am I Learning This? Is It Valuable, Useful, Relevant?

539 541

CREATING AUTHENTIC TASKS  541  •  INCREASING PERCEIVED RELEVANCE AND UTILITY  541

Will I Enjoy This?

541

ENHANCING CURIOSITY, INTEREST, AND INTRINSIC VALUE  541  •  SUPPORTING AUTONOMY  542

Can I Do It? Building Confidence and Positive Expectations What Do I Need to Do to Succeed? Providing Structures That Support Progress Do I Belong in This Classroom? Creating Inclusive Opportunities

542 543 543

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Supporting the Sociocultural Foundations of Motivation

544

Summary and Key Terms

545

Connect and Extend to Licensure

548

Teachers’ Casebook: Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin: What Would They Do?

549

PART IV  TEACHING AND ASSESSING CHAPTER 13 Creating Supportive Learning Environments

552

Teachers’ Casebook: Bullies and Victims: What Would You Do?

552

Overview and Objectives

553

The What and Why of Supportive Classroom Organization The Basic Task: Gain Their Cooperation The Basic Goals: Access, Time, Relationships, and Self-Management

554 555 556

ACCESS TO LEARNING  556  •  MORE TIME FOR LEARNING  556  •  MANAGEMENT MEANS RELATIONSHIPS  557  •  MANAGEMENT FOR SELF-MANAGEMENT  558

xxx Contents Creating a Positive Learning Environment Relevant Research Results Routines and Rules Required: In-Person Learning

558 559 559

ROUTINES AND PROCEDURES  559 

GUIDELINES: Establishing Class Routines for In-Person Learning

560

RULES  561  •  RULES FOR IN-PERSON TEACHING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL  561  •  RULES FOR IN-PERSON TEACHING IN SECONDARY SCHOOL  561  •  CONSEQUENCES  562  •  WHO SETS THE RULES AND CONSEQUENCES?  562

Routines and Rules Required: Remote Learning GUIDELINES: Establishing Routines and Rules for Remote Learning Planning Spaces for Learning

563 563 566

PERSONAL TERRITORIES AND SEATING ARRANGEMENTS  566  •  INTEREST AREAS  566

GUIDELINES: Designing Learning Spaces Getting Started: The First Weeks of Class

567 568

EFFECTIVE MANAGERS FOR ELEMENTARY STUDENTS  568  •  EFFECTIVE MANAGERS FOR SECONDARY STUDENTS  569

­Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning Encouraging Engagement

569 569

GUIDELINES: Keeping Students Engaged

570

Prevention Is the Best Medicine

570

WITHITNESS  571 • OVERLAPPING AND GROUP FOCUS  571 • MOVEMENT MANAGEMENT  571  •  STUDENT SOCIAL SKILLS AS PREVENTION  571

Caring Relationships: Connections with School

573

TEACHER CONNECTIONS  573  •  SCHOOL CONNECTIONS AND BELONGING  574  •  CREATING COMMUNITIES OF CARE FOR ADOLESCENTS  574

GUIDELINES: Creating Caring Relationships

575

Dealing with Discipline Problems Stopping Problems Quickly If You Impose Penalties

576 576 577

GUIDELINES: Imposing Penalties

578

What About School Suspensions and Zero Tolerance?

579

POINT/COUNTERPOINT:  Is Zero Tolerance a Good Idea?   579 Reaching Every Student: Restorative Justice   580 Teacher-Imposed Penalties versus Student Responsibility   581 Bullying and Cyberbullying   582 VICTIMS  582   •  WHY DO STUDENTS BULLY?  584   •  WHAT CAN TEACHERS DO? BULLYING AND TEASING  584  •  CYBERBULLYING  586

Special Challenges with High School Students   587 GUIDELINES: Handling Potentially Explosive Situations

587

The Need for Communication Message Sent—Message Received Empathetic Listening When Listening Is Not Enough: I-Messages, Assertive Discipline, and Problem Solving

588 588 589 590

“I” MESSAGES  590  •  ASSERTIVE DISCIPLINE  590  •  CONFRONTATIONS AND NEGOTIATIONS  591

Diversity: Culturally Responsive Management

591

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Classroom Organization and Management

594

Summary and Key Terms

595

Connect and Extend to Licensure

598

Teachers’ Casebook: Bullies and Victims: What Would They Do?

599

Contents xxxi

CHAPTER 14 Teaching Every Student

602

Teachers’ Casebook: Reaching and Teaching Every Student: What Would You Do?

602

Overview and Objectives

603

Research on Teaching Characteristics of Effective Teachers

604 605

CLARITY AND ORGANIZATION  605  •  ENTHUSIASM AND WARMTH  605

Knowledge for Teaching Teacher Expectations

605 606

TWO KINDS OF EXPECTATION EFFECTS  607  •  SOURCES OF EXPECTATIONS  607 •  DO TEACHERS’ EXPECTATIONS REALLY AFFECT STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT?  608  •  LESSONS FOR TEACHERS: COMMUNICATING APPROPRIATE EXPECTATIONS  608

GUIDELINES: Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher Expectations The Goal: Ambitious Teaching

609 611

The First Step: Planning Research on Planning Learning Goals

611 611 612

AN EXAMPLE OF STATE-LEVEL GOALS: THE COMMON CORE  612  •  CLASSROOMS GOALS FOR LEARNING  614

Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies

614

THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN  614  •  THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN  615  •  THE PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN  616

The Cognitive Demands of Learning Outcomes: Webb’s Depth of Knowledge ­GUIDELINES: Using Learning Objectives Planning from a Constructivist Perspective

616 617 617

Teaching Approaches Research on Teaching Strategies Explicit Teaching and Direct Instruction

618 618 619

ROSENSHINE’S SIX TEACHING FUNCTIONS  619  •  WHY DOES DIRECT INSTRUCTION WORK?  619  •  EVALUATING DIRECT INSTRUCTION  620

GUIDELINES: Effective Direct Instruction Independent Work and Homework

621 622

INDEPENDENT WORK  622 • HOMEWORK  623

POINT/COUNTERPOINT:  Is Homework Valuable?

623

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Homework Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback

625 626

KINDS OF QUESTIONS  626  •  ASKING AUTHENTIC QUESTIONS  626  •  FITTING THE QUESTIONS TO THE STUDENTS—AND WAITING  627  •  RESPONDING TO STUDENT ANSWERS  628  •  GROUP DISCUSSION AND QUALITY TALK  628

Lessons for Teachers: Fitting Teaching to Your Goals GUIDELINES: Productive Group Discussions Putting It All Together: Understanding by Design

629 630 631

Differentiated Instruction Within-Class and Flexible Grouping

633 633

THE PROBLEMS WITH ABILITY GROUPING  634  •  FLEXIBLE GROUPING  634

GUIDELINES: Using Flexible Grouping Differentiated Instruction in Inclusive Classrooms

634 635

ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY  635

Reaching Every Student: Differentiation with Universal Design for Learning

636

Summary and Key Terms

637

Connect and Extend to Licensure

640

Teachers’ Casebook: Reaching and Teaching Every Student: What Would They Do?

641

xxxii Contents

CHAPTER 15 Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing

644

Teachers’ Casebook: Giving Meaningful Grades: What Would You Do?

644

Overview and Objectives

645

Basics of Assessment Measurement and Assessment

647 647

FORMATIVE, INTERIM, AND SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT  648

Assessing the Assessments: Reliability and Validity

648

RELIABILITY OF TEST SCORES  649  •  VALIDITY  649  •  ABSENCE OF BIAS  650

Classroom Assessment: Testing Interpreting Any Test Score

651 651

NORM-REFERENCED TEST INTERPRETATIONS  652  •  CRITERION-REFERENCED TEST INTERPRETATIONS 652

Using the Tests from Textbooks Selected-Response Testing

653 653

USING MULTIPLE-CHOICE TESTS  654  •  WRITING MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS  654

GUIDELINES: Writing Multiple-Choice Test Items Constructed Responses: Essay Testing

655 656

CONSTRUCTING ESSAY TESTS  656  •  EVALUATING ESSAYS  657

Assessing Traditional Testing Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments Informal Assessments

657 658 658

EXIT TICKETS  658  •  JOURNALS  658  •  INVOLVING STUDENTS IN ASSESSMENTS  659

Authentic Assessments: Performances and Portfolios

659

PERFORMANCES  659 • PORTFOLIOS  661

Evaluating Portfolios and Performances

661

SCORING RUBRICS  661 

GUIDELINES: Creating Portfolios 

662

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY  663  •  DIVERSITY AND BIAS IN PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT  664

GUIDELINES: Developing a Rubric ­Assessing Complex Thinking Classroom Assessment: Lessons for Teachers

664 664 665

Grading 666 Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Grading 666 Effects of Grading on Students 668 THE VALUE OF FAILING?  668  •  RETENTION IN GRADE  668

Grades and Motivation

668

POINT/COUNTERPOINT:  Should Children Be Held Back?

669

GUIDELINES: Using Any Grading System

670

Beyond Grading: Communicating with Families Standardized Testing Types of Scores

672 673 673

MEASUREMENTS OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND STANDARD DEVIATION  673  •  THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION  674 • PERCENTILE RANK SCORES  675 • GRADE-EQUIVALENT SCORES  675 • STANDARD SCORES  675

Interpreting Standardized Test Reports

677

DISCUSSING TEST RESULTS WITH FAMILIES  678

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS: Conferences and Explaining Test Results

 679

Contents xxxiii

Accountability and High-Stakes Testing

680

MAKING DECISIONS  680  •  WHAT DO TEACHERS THINK?  681  •  DOCUMENTED PROBLEMS WITH HIGH-STAKES TESTING  681

New Directions: PARCC and SBAC Using High-Stakes Testing Well: Lessons for Teachers Reaching Every Student: Helping Students with Disabilities Prepare for High-Stakes Tests GUIDELINES: Preparing Yourself and Your Students for Testing Teacher Accountability and Evaluation

681 682 682 683 684

VALUE-ADDED MODELS  684  •  SO HOW SHOULD WE EVALUATE TEACHERS?  685  •  A BROADER APPROACH: MEASURES OF TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS.  686

Summary and Key Terms

687

Connect and Extend to Licensure

689

Teachers’ Casebook: Giving Meaningful Grades: What Would They Do?

690

Licensure Appendix Glossary G-1 References R-1 Name Index  N-1 Subject Index  S-1

A-1

Special Features TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: WHAT WOULD YOU DO? Becoming a Great Teacher: What Would You Do?   2 Becoming a Great Teacher: Teacher Responses   30 Conversations About Race: What Would You Do?   34 Conversations About Race: Teacher Responses   83 Symbols and Cymbals: What Would You Do?   86 Symbols and Cymbals: Teacher Responses 128 Mean Girls: What Would You Do? 130 Mean Girls: Teacher Responses 178 Including Every Student: What Would You Do? 182 Including Every Student: Teacher Responses 239 Communicating and Creating Community in the Classroom: What Would You Do? 242 ­Communicating and Creating Community in the Classroom: Teacher Responses 281 Sick of Class: What Would You Do? 284 321 Sick of Class: Teacher Responses Remembering the Basics: What Would You Do? 324 Remembering the Basics: Teacher Responses 365 Uncritical Thinking: What Would You Do? 368 Uncritical Thinking: Teacher Responses 411 414 Necessity Is the Mother of Inventive Teaching: What Would You Do? Necessity Is the Mother of Inventive Teaching: Teacher Responses 459 Failure to Self-Regulate: What Would You Do? 462 Failure to Self-Regulate: Teacher Responses 500 Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin: What Would You Do? 502 549 Motivating Students When Resources Are Thin: Teacher Responses Bullies and Victims: What Would You Do? 552 Bullies and Victims: Teacher Responses 599 Reaching and Teaching Every Student: What Would You Do? 602 Reaching and Teaching Every Student: Teacher Responses 641 644 Giving Meaningful Grades: What Would You Do? Giving Meaningful Grades: Teacher Responses 690

GUIDELINES Teaching Students Who Live in Poverty   54 Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching   71 Culturally Relevant Teaching   78 Family and Community Partnerships—Helping Families Care for Preoperational Children 107 Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child 109 Helping Students to Use Formal Operations 112 Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching 124 Dealing with Physical Differences in the Classroom 133 Supporting Positive Body Images in Adolescents 139 Family and Community Partnerships—Connecting with Families 143 Helping Children of Divorce 144 Dealing with Aggression and Encouraging Cooperation 150 Encouraging Initiative and Industry 157 Supporting Identity Formation 161

xxxiv

Special Features xxxv

Interpreting IQ Scores 194 Applying and Encouraging Creativity 201 Family and Community Partnerships—Productive Conferences 208 Disciplining Students with Emotional Problems 221 Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities 226 Supporting Language and Promoting Literacy 251 Promoting Language Learning 258 Providing Emotional Support and Increasing Self-Esteem for Students Who Are ELs 273 Family and Community Partnerships—Welcoming All Families 275 Applying Classical Conditioning 291 Applying Operant Conditioning–Using Praise Appropriately 299 Applying Operant Conditioning–Encouraging Positive Behaviors 302 Applying Operant Conditioning–Using Punishment 309 Family and Community Partnerships—Applying Operant Conditioning: Student Self-Management 314 Gaining and Maintaining Attention 335 Interviewing Young Students and Eyewitness Testimony 349 ­Family and Community Partnerships—Organizing Learning 354 Helping Students Understand and Remember 360 Applying Problem Solving 393 Becoming an Expert Student 395 Family and Community Partnerships—Promoting Transfer 405 426 Facilitating Deep Questioning Using Cooperative Learning 443 Supporting the Development of Media Literacy 453 Using Observational Learning 472 Supporting Self-Efficacy 477 490 Encouraging Emotional Self-Regulation Supporting Self-Determination and Autonomy 513 Encouraging a Healthy Mindset 528 Building on Students’ Interests and Curiosity 532 Coping with Test Anxiety 538 Family and Community Partnerships––Supporting the Sociocultural 544 Foundations of Motivation Establishing Class Routines for In-Person Learning 560 Establishing Routines and Rules for Remote Learning 563 Designing Learning Spaces 567 570 Keeping Students Engaged Creating Caring Relationships 575 Imposing Penalties 578 Handling Potentially Explosive Situations 587 Family and Community Partnerships—Classroom Organization and Management 594 Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher Expectations 609 Using Learning Objectives 617 Effective Direct Instruction 621 Family and Community Partnerships—Homework 625 Productive Group Discussions 630 Using Flexible Grouping 634 Writing Multiple-Choice Test Items 655 Creating Portfolios 662 Developing a Rubric 664 Using Any Grading System 670 Family and Community Partnerships—Conferences and Explaining Test Results 679 Preparing Yourself and Your Students for Testing 683

xxxvi  Special Features

POINT/COUNTERPOINT What Kind of Research Should Guide Education?   23 Should Girls and Boys Be Taught Differently?   68 Brain-Based Education   98 What Should Schools Do to Encourage Students’ Self-Esteem? 165 Pills or Skills for Children with ADHD? 216 What Is the Best Way to Teach English Learners? 265 Should Students Be Rewarded for Learning? 316 What’s Wrong with Multitasking? 333 Should Schools Teach Critical Thinking and Problem Solving? 399 Are Teaching Approaches to Support Inquiry- and Problem-Based Learning Effective? 430 Are “Grittier” Students More Successful? 483 Does Making Learning Fun Make for Good Learning? 530 Is Zero Tolerance a Good Idea? 579 Is Homework Valuable? 623 Should Children Be Held Back? 669

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Chapter 1

Anita Woolfolk Hoy

Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology­

Teachers’ Casebook: Becoming a Great Teacher What Would You Do? You are committed to being a great teacher, but teaching is a huge job. Fortunately, you’re not alone. Every day, educators and researchers from around the globe post new guides and ideas for effective instruction. You enjoy using social media, online resources, and popular books to improve your teaching. You’re drawn to the wisdom of those who are obviously great teachers. You bookmark these resources for activity ideas, innovative approaches, and tips for reaching your ever-changing student population. Also, you just feel that staying current in your professional knowledge is important. On occasion, the advice you hear challenges your long-held beliefs about teaching and learning. But it sometimes feels overwhelming or contradictory.

2

Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 3

­Critical Thinking • What makes someone a great teacher? How are “best” practices determined? • How do you evaluate the quality of others’ advice about teaching and learning? • What would lead you to conclude that someone else’s advice is simply a trend versus a sound educational practice? • What kinds of research findings would convince you to change your practice?

­

Overview and Objectives

Like many students, you may begin this course with a mixture of anticipation and wariness. Perhaps you are required to take educational psychology as part of a program in teacher education, speech therapy, nursing, or counseling. You might have chosen this class as an elective. Whatever your reason for enrolling, you probably have questions about teaching, schools, students—or even about yourself—that you hope this course could answer. We have written the 15th edition of Educational Psychology with questions such as these in mind. In this first chapter, we begin with the state of education in today’s world. Teachers have been both criticized as ineffective and lauded as the best hope for young people. Do teachers make a difference in students’ learning? What characterizes good teaching—how do truly effective teachers think and act? What do they believe about students, learning, and themselves? When you are aware of the challenges and possibilities of teaching and learning today, you can appreciate the contributions of educational psychology. After a brief introduction to the world of the teacher, we turn to a discussion of educational psychology itself. How can principles identified by educational psychologists benefit teachers, therapists, parents, and others who are interested in teaching and learning? What exactly is the content of educational psychology, and where does this information come from? Finally, we consider an overview of a model that organizes research in educational psychology to identify the key student and school factors related to student learning (J. Lee & Shute, 2010). Our goal is for you to become a confident and competent beginning teacher so that by the time you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: 1.1  Describe the challenges facing teachers today, including increasing

student diversity, requirements of the Every Student Succeeds Act, the continuing impacts of testing and accountability for teachers and students, and the emphasis on social and emotional learning. 1.2  Discuss the essential features of effective teaching, including different

frameworks describing what good teachers do. 1.3  Describe the methods used to conduct research in the field of

educational psychology and the kinds of questions each method can address. 1.4  Recognize how theories and research in development and learning are

related to educational practice.

4  Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology

OUTLINE Teachers’ Casebook—Today’s Classrooms: What Would You Do? Overview and Objectives Learning and Teaching Today Inside Three Classrooms Students Today: Dramatic Diversity and Remarkable Technology Confidence in Every Context High Expectations for Teachers and Students Teaching the Whole Child: Social and Emotional Learning Do Teachers Make a Difference? What Is Good Teaching? Models of Good Teaching Beginning Teachers The Role of Educational Psychology Educational Psychology Today Is It Just Common Sense? Using Research to Understand and Improve Learning Theories for Teaching Supporting Student Learning Summary and Key Terms Teachers’ Casebook—Becoming a Great Teacher: What Would They Do?

Learning and Teaching Today Learning Outcome 1.1  Describe the challenges facing teachers today, including increasing student diversity, requirements of the Every Student Succeeds Act, the continuing impacts of testing and accountability for teachers and students, and the emphasis on social and emotional learning. For the first 14 editions of this book, I (Anita) focused on traditional, in-person teaching. In several chapters of this 15th edition, we will be making a distinction between in-person learning and remote learning. If you were involved with schools in any way in 2020 and 2021 as a student, sibling, teacher, parent, or family member, then you know why we will be making this distinction. Most teachers and students had to quickly learn how to “Zoom,” assuming their technologies allowed remote learning. Classes were converted to hybrid, online, or other versions to protect everyone from the spread of COVID-19. But you might be surprised to know that hybrid learning (in-person meetings combined with remote online teaching) and completely online learning were increasing even before schools had to close because of the pandemic (Pulham & Graham, 2018). Before the pandemic, Ted Cross and Laura Polk (2018) claimed that “online education is an integral part of the 21st century” (p. 1). So, we will be looking at research on both in-person and online teaching and learning strategies in many chapters. Expanding your knowledge and skills to include remote learning will prepare you for whatever the future throws at you, which brings us to our favorite topic. We invite you to join us. Welcome to our favorite topic: educational psychology—the study of development, learning, motivation, teaching, and assessment in and out of schools. We believe this is one of the most important courses you will take to prepare for your future as an educator in the classroom or the consulting office, whether your “students” are children or adults learning how to read or individuals discovering how to improve their diets. In fact, some evidence shows that new teachers who have course work in development and learning are twice as

Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 5

likely to stay in teaching (National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future, 2003). This may be a required course for you, so let us make the case for educational psychology, first by stepping into classrooms today.

Inside Three Classrooms To begin our examination of good teaching, let’s step inside the classrooms of three outstanding teachers. The three situations are real. Our colleague, Carol Weinstein, worked with the first two teachers (Weinstein & Romano, 2015). The third teacher became an expert at helping students with disabilities master specific learning strategies. A MULTILINGUAL FIRST GRADE.  Most of the 25 students in Viviana’s class have recently

emigrated from the Dominican Republic; the rest come from Nicaragua, Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Honduras. Even though the children speak little or no English when they begin school, by the time they leave in June, Viviana will have helped them master the normal first-grade curriculum for their district. She accomplishes this by teaching in Spanish early in the year to aid understanding and then gradually introducing English as the students are ready. Viviana does not want her students segregated or labeled as disadvantaged. She encourages them to take pride in their Spanish-speaking heritage and uses every available opportunity to support their developing English proficiency. Both Viviana’s expectations for her students and her commitment to them are high. She has an optimism that reveals her dedication: “I always hope that there’s somebody out there that I will reach and that I’ll make a difference” (Weinstein & Romano, 2015, p. 15). For Viviana, teaching is not just a job; it is a way of life. A SUBURBAN FIFTH GRADE.  Ken teaches fifth grade in a suburban school in central New

Jersey. Students in the class represent a range of racial, ethnic, family income, and language backgrounds. Ken emphasizes “process writing.” His students complete first drafts, discuss them with others in the class, revise, edit, and “publish” their work. The students also keep daily journals and often use them to share personal concerns with Ken. They tell him of problems at home, fights, and fears; he always takes the time to respond in writing. Ken also uses technology to connect lessons to real life. Students learn about ocean ecosystems by using a special interactive software program. For social studies, the class plays two simulation games that focus on history. One is about coming of age in Native American cultures, and the other focuses on the colonization of America. Throughout the year, Ken is very interested in the social and emotional development of his students; he wants them to learn about responsibility and fairness as well as science and social studies. This concern is evident in the way he develops his class rules at the beginning of the year. Rather than specifying do’s and don’ts, Ken and his students devise a “Bill of Rights” for the class, describing the rights of the students. These rights cover most of the situations that might need a “rule.” TEACHING MATH TO STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES.  The eighth-grade pr­­ealgebra class had 11 students with disabilities—nine with learning disabilities. While her co-teacher taught the math lesson, Joan Hamilton provided explicit instruction in learning strategies. For example, as the math teacher explained a problem, Joan drew a circle on the overhead projector, with the example problem in the middle, and then made notes on the outside of the circle about the steps to solve the problem. Students created their own graphic organizers following Joan’s lead. The next day during the homework discussion, students returned to their circle graphic organizers to review and ask questions. The teachers retaught the steps of solving the problem as needed. Most of the students “made it through the material and on to algebra with a basic understanding of the concepts and of how to structure their notes and ask questions” (Hallahan et al., 2019, p. 130).

6  Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology

Reflective Thoughtful and inventive. Reflective teachers think back over situations to analyze what they did and why, and to consider how they might improve learning for their students.

What do you see in these three classrooms? The teachers are confident and committed to their students. They must deal with a wide range of student characteristics: different languages, different home situations, and different abilities and learning challenges. They must adapt instruction and assessment to students’ needs and teach their students “how to learn.” They must make the most abstract concepts, such as ecosystems, real and understandable for their particular students. The whole time these experts are navigating through the academic material, they also are taking care of the emotional needs of their students, propping up sagging self-esteem, and encouraging responsibility. If we followed these teachers from the first day of class, we would see that they carefully plan and teach the basic procedures for living and learning in their classes. They can efficiently collect and correct homework, regroup students, give directions, distribute materials, and deal with disruptions—and do all of this while also making a mental note to find out why one of their students is so tired. Finally, they are reflective—they constantly think back over situations to analyze what they did and why, and to consider how they might improve learning for their students. And what about those students in classrooms today?

Students Today: Dramatic Diversity and Remarkable Technology Who are the students in American classrooms today? Here are a few statistics about the United States.

• About 25% of U.S. children under 18 have at least one immigrant parent, but in some Pearson eText Video Example 1.1 The middle school ­principal in this video discusses ­aspects of diversity among the 853 ­students in the school ­including students with special needs, students with diverse ­academic abilities, ­socioeconomic ­levels, languages, and cultures. What challenges are presented in schools with this level of diversity?

states such as California, the number is closer to 50% (Urban Institute, 2019). By 2045, half of the U.S. population will be members of some minority group, with about 25% being Hispanic (Frey, 2018).

• Almost 15 million children—about 21% of all children—live in poverty, defined in 2020 by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services as an income of $26,200 for a family of four ($32,750 in Alaska and $30,130 in Hawaii). And in the public schools, just over half the students qualify for free or reduced-cost lunches—a rough indicator of poverty (Child Trends Databank, 2019). The United States has the ­7th-highest rate of child poverty among the 41 economically advantaged countries of the world; only Spain, Mexico, Bulgaria, Turkey, Israel, and Romania are worse. Iceland and the Scandinavian countries have the lowest rates of child poverty (Blazier, 2017).

• The poverty rate for Black and American Indian children in the United States is about 30%, while the rate for Hispanic children is about 24% (Children’s Defense Fund, 2020a).

• About 18% of American children have a mild-to-severe developmental disability such as speech and language impairments, intellectual disabilities, cerebral palsy, or autism. This number has been increasing since the early 2000s. More than half of these children spend most of their time in general education classes (Zablotsky et al., 2019).

• In 2018, for children ages birth to 17, 23% had parents who were divorced or separated, 8% were living with someone who had an alcohol or a drug problem, 7% had a parent who had served time in jail, and 7% lived with someone with a mental illness (Children’s Defense Fund, 2020b). It is clear that American society and schools are more diverse than ever. In contrast, because of the effects of mass media, these diverse students share many similarities today, particularly the fact that most are far more technologically literate than their teachers. For example:

• In 2017, infants to eight-year-olds spent an average of a little more than 2 hours each day with screen media, particularly mobile devices (Rideout, 2017). For 9- to ­12-year-olds,

Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 7

screen time outside school jumped to almost 5 hours, and for teens their average time is an amazing 7-plus hours. Smartphone ownership is up dramatically, as you probably know. In 2019, 19% of eight-year-olds owned smartphones. By age 18, that number was 91%, with ownership more than 80% from age 14 on (Common Sense Media, 2019). Today the numbers probably have increased. These statistics are dramatic but a bit impersonal. As a teacher, counselor, recreational worker, speech therapist, or family member, you will encounter real children. In this book, you will meet many individuals such as Josué, a bright first-grader whose first language is Spanish and who is struggling to care about learning to read in a language that offers only “run, Spot, run”; Alex, an 11-year-old who has created 10 languages and 30 or 40 alphabets; Jamie Foxx, a very bright third-grade student in a small Texas town whose teacher rewards him for working hard all week by letting him do stand-up comedy for the class on Fridays; Tracy, a failing high school student who does not understand why her study strategies are not working for her; Felipe, a fifth-grade boy from a Spanish-speaking family who is working to learn school subjects and make friends in a language that is new to him; Ternice, an outspoken Black girl in an urban middle school who is hiding her giftedness; Trevor, a second-grade student who has trouble with the meaning of symbol; Maya, the head of a popular clique and tormentor of the outcast Jasmine; Eliot, a bright sixth-grade student with severe learning disabilities; and Jessie, a student in a rural high school who just doesn’t seem to care about her sinking grade-point average or school in general. If your students are from low-income families, it is likely that their learning suffered more than that of students from higher-income families in the wake of the COVID pandemic. These students from less advantaged backgrounds might have more catching up to do, but it all depends on these individuals and their specific experiences (Kuhfeld et al., 2020). Even though students in classrooms are increasingly diverse in race, ethnicity, language, and economic level, teachers are much less diverse—the percentage of White teachers is increasing (now about 80%), while the percentage of Black teachers is falling, down to about 7%. Clearly, all teachers should know and be able to work effectively with all their students. Several chapters in this book are devoted to understanding these diverse students. In addition, many times within each chapter, we will explore student diversity and inclusion through research, cases, and practical applications.

Confidence in Every Context Schools are about teaching and learning; all other activities are secondary. But teaching and learning in the contexts just described can be challenging for both teachers and students. This book is about understanding the complex processes of development, learning, motivation, teaching, and assessment so that you can become a capable and confident teacher. Throughout this text, we—Anita Woolfolk and Ellen Usher—will share our professional and personal experiences. We see this book as an ongoing conversation with you. To learn more about us, see the “About Your Authors” section on page 11. Here is the first example of many more shared experiences, this time from Anita: Much of my own research has focused on teachers’ sense of efficacy, defined as a teacher’s belief that he or she can reach even difficult students to help them learn. This confident belief appears to be one of the few personal characteristics of teachers that predict student achievement (Çakıroğlu et al., 2012; Klassen & Tze, 2014; Woolfolk Hoy, in press; Zee & Kooman, 2016). Teachers with a high sense of efficacy work harder and persist longer even when students are difficult to teach, in part because these teachers believe in themselves and in their students. Also, they are less likely to experience burnout and more likely to be satisfied with their jobs (Fernet et al., 2012; Fives et al., 2005; Klassen & Chiu, 2010). If you would like to take the teacher self-efficacy survey that I developed, go to my website for the measure and scoring instructions (https://u.osu.edu/hoy.17/research/instruments/#Sense). I have found that prospective teachers tend to increase in their personal sense of efficacy as a consequence of completing student teaching. But sense of efficacy may decline after the first year as a teacher, perhaps because the support that was provided during student teaching

Teachers’ sense of efficacy Teachers’ beliefs about how capable they are of reaching even the most difficult students and helping them learn.

8  Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology is gone (Taylor et al., 2019; Woolfolk Hoy & Burke-Spero, 2005). Teachers’ sense of efficacy is higher in schools where the other teachers and administrators have high expectations for students and the teachers receive help from their principals in solving instructional and management problems (Capa, 2005). Efficacy grows from real success with students, not just from the cheerleading of professors and colleagues. Any experience or training that helps you succeed in the day-to-day tasks of teaching will give you a foundation for developing a sense of efficacy in your career. This book was written to provide the knowledge and skills that form a solid foundation for an authentic sense of efficacy in teaching.

High Expectations for Teachers and Students Teachers and students are affected by the expectations and requirements of their school districts, which are themselves influenced by state and national education policies. For example, in 2002, the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act became a federal law. NCLB required that all students reach proficiency by the end of the 2013–2014 school year, based on standardized test scores. You probably noticed—that did not happen. For a while, NCLB dominated education. Testing expanded. Schools and teachers were penalized if they did not perform. Federal money could be taken away, teachers and principals could be fired, and schools could be converted to charter schools or closed. As you can imagine, or may have experienced yourself, such high-stakes penalties pushed teachers and schools to “teach to the test” or worse. The curriculum narrowed, and much time was spent on drill and practice—many teachers we worked with said teaching just wasn’t fun anymore (Davidson et al., 2015; Meens & Howe, 2015; Strauss, 2015). All in all, NCLB requirements were widely criticized as “blunt instruments, generating inaccurate performance results, perverse incentives, and unintended negative consequences” (Hopkins et al., 2013, p. 101). In general, math achievement did increase with NCLB, but over time student engagement declined—and student engagement is a powerful link to learning. Students can’t learn what they ignore (Markowitz, 2018). In 2015, NCLB was replaced with the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA). ESSA dropped the requirement for proficiency for all students by a certain date and returned most control to the states to set standards and develop interventions. For example, schools must test the same subjects in the same grades, as specified in NCLB, and at least 95% of students must participate in the testing. But the local districts now can decide when to test, whether to break one big test into several smaller tests, and even how to find better tests that really capture important student learning. At least one additional measure of school quality such as school climate and safety or student engagement must be included, along with measures of progress toward English language proficiency for English learners (Korte, 2015). Even after ESSA, many excellent teachers still believe they are spending too much time preparing for tests and not enough time supporting student learning in subjects not tested, such as social studies, art, music, physical education, and technology (Cusick, 2014). Which leads to another high expectation for today’s teachers—teaching the whole child.

Social and emotional learning (SEL) The process of integrating thinking, emotion, and behavior into teaching and learning so that adults and children develop skills to be aware of themselves and others, learn to manage their own and others’ emotions and behavior, make responsible decisions, and build positive relationships.

­ eaching the Whole Child: Social and T Emotional Learning In the preceding paragraphs, you may have noticed an interest in non-academic outcomes such as school climate or student engagement and worries about subjects left behind such as art, music, or physical education. These concerns are consistent with a larger emphasis on social and emotional learning (SEL) and teaching the whole child, concerns shared by Viviana, Ken, and Joan, the expert teachers we described earlier. Social and emotional learning is: the process of integrating cognition, emotion, and behavior into teaching and learning such that adults and children build self- and social awareness skills, learn to manage their own and others’ emotions and behavior, make responsible decisions, and build positive relationships . . . (Brackett et al., 2019, p. 144).

Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 9

Social and emotional learning gained attention in 1994 when a group of educators, researchers, and psychologists formed the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL). Their mission is to be “a trusted source for knowledge about ­high-quality, evidence-based social and emotional learning” and to encourage schools “to educate the whole child, equipping students for success in school and in life” (CASEL, 2020, casel.org). Since the founding of CASEL, interest in SEL has grown. Programs and interventions for schools and classrooms have expanded—see the CASEL website for many excellent examples (cassel.org). Today, many psychologists believe schools can promote students’ mental health and academic learning by incorporating these SEL programs and practices (­Schonert-Reichl, 2019). In fact, Educational Psychologist, a premier journal in our field, devoted an entire issue to this topic in 2019, with articles on theory, research, school interventions, assessment, teaching practices, social justice, and neurobiology (Wentzel, 2019). Does SEL make a difference? RESEARCH ON SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL LEARNING.  There is good evidence that SEL can

have positive effects on students’ academic achievement and social behaviors (Hart et al., 2020). For example, Rebecca Taylor and her colleagues (2017) published a meta-analysis (an integration and summary of many individual studies) on the effects of 82 different SEL programs involving 97,000 students from kindergarten through high school. Students were followed from at least six months and up to 18 years after the programs ended. The results of the meta-analysis were impressive. In the eight studies that measured academic achievement, 3.5 years after the programs ended the average achievement of students in SEL programs was 13 percentile points higher than that of students in the control groups (we explain percentiles in Chapter 15, but for now, let’s just say this is pretty good). In other studies, students in SEL programs had lasting decreases in behavior problems, less emotional distress, less drug use, and increases in high school and college graduation rates. In a more recent review of research, Stephanie Jones and her colleagues (2019) concluded that individual SEL interventions show the largest gains for students with the greatest number of risks and needs. When what is measured in the studies is closely matched to the goals of the program, effects are more positive as well. By the way, this matching principle is important in many areas of teaching. School achievement tests and classroom tests should measure the learning goals and objectives taught. Don’t teach one thing and test another. Upcoming chapters in this book will describe how social and emotional learning is related to the brain, cognitive development and learning, social development, motivation, and teaching. For now, let’s consider one example of SEL in action. PATHS: AN APPROACH TO SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL LEARNING.  SEL interventions can be

as small as kernels, strategies that teach one skill, such as deep breathing to manage anger, or larger classroom practices and kits that teach many skills, such as PATHS (Promoting Alternative THinking Strategies), or even more extensive, whole-school programs that engage students, parents, teachers, and administrators, such as RULER, which stands for Recognizing, Understanding, Labeling, Expressing, and Regulating emotions (Brackett ­ iddle-level curriculum intervenet  al., 2019; Jones et  al., 2017, 2019). Let’s consider m tions, with PATHS as an example, because these are interventions you could encounter as a teacher. The PATHS curriculum is used in more than 3,000 kindergarten through sixth-grade classrooms in the United States and another 500 around the world (Domitrovich et al., 2019). The goal of PATHS is to develop students’ social and emotional skills in self-control and emotional regulation, attention, communication, and problem solving. The curriculum has modules for pre-K through grade 5 and for middle school. Each module includes teaching resources such as a curriculum manual, instructor’s manual, posters and other visual aids (charts, stickers, cards, etc.), puppets for young children, novels for older children, and family communication materials (https://pathsprogram.com/overview). Let’s look inside the curriculum for grades 5/6. One component is centered around four novels: Bridge to Terabithia by Katherine Paterson, Maniac Magee by Jerry Spinelli, Number the

Meta-analysis An integration and summary of many individual studies to synthesize the outcomes into one result that characterizes the findings from the studies.

10  Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology Stars by Lois Lowry, and Hatchet by Gary Paulsen. In the lesson on the first three chapters of Maniac Magee, the students read the chapters aloud and then discuss such questions as “Why was Amanda Beale suspicious of Jeffrey Magee?” (Amanda’s family is Black, and Jeffrey is White, so maybe he is not from her part of town. Jeffrey wants to borrow one of Amanda’s dearest possessions, a book. Will he return it?) Students might talk about inequality, racism, trust, sharing, or empathy. After the lesson, students may journal and then share their ideas about such topics as “Amanda kept her books in a suitcase to protect them— they were her most important possessions. What would you put into a suitcase—what are your most important possessions? Why?” Other lesson follow-ups might introduce the idea of character analysis, so the PATHS curriculum supports academic goals as well (https:// pathsprogram.com/grade-5-6). Explore the PATHS website for more information. As you will see in future chapters, some applications of SEL have been criticized for viewing the social skills of students of color through a deficient lens, overemphasizing ­self-regulation and underemphasizing student agency to resist injustice and avoiding the difficult issues that true social awareness and empathy would open up for students. One goal of SEL should be to create caring communities that tackle courageous conversations about injustice, hate, violence, and inequality, not just anger management or decision making (Simmons, 2019). Chapter 4 explores these possibilities. LIVING WITH SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL TRAUMA.  Almost half of all elementary school students

in the United States have experienced or witnessed traumatic events (Koslouski & Stark, 2021). An entire issue of the American Psychologist was devoted to adverse childhood experiences and trauma (Portwood et al., 2021). What kinds of traumas do students experience? The last few years provide so many examples: hurricanes and tornadoes that rip through communities, floods and fires that destroy homes, lockdowns from pandemic viruses, undrinkable water, police brutality replayed endlessly in videos, protests and counterprotests, attacks on the U. S. Capitol, televised images of collapsing buildings, and mass shootings, including in many schools. But trauma has always been in children’s lives in the form of child abuse, divorce, deaths, parental drug and alcohol addictions, bullying, food insecurity, community violence, medical procedures, and even serious accidents. Teachers may not be aware that many students show up in their classrooms straining under the weight of “invisible backpacks” filled with traumatic burdens. Students living in poverty, students facing racism every day, students with disabilities, and immigrant students are especially vulnerable (Santiago et al., 2018). Because trauma can affect so many aspects of teachers’ and students’ lives, including brain development and learning, we will revisit this topic in several upcoming chapters. The educational challenges, health care inequalities, and economic devastation that came with the coronavirus pandemic certainly set the stage for increased trauma among students and teachers. No matter what policies your school or the government adopt, what trends affect schools, or what traumas your students experience, capable and confident teachers will be required. But is that true? Do teachers really make a difference? Good question. Pearson eText Video Example 1.2 The teacher in this video describes the importance of caring for your students, no matter the color of your skin or theirs. He believes,“If you don’t care, they will never learn.” In his class, his students are part of his family and know they can count on him to help.

Do Teachers Make a Difference? We usually consider school achievement to be an outcome—a goal for our students. But doing well in school can also cause other outcomes. In fact, there is some evidence that education and doing well in school are related to well-being and to high IQ scores in adulthood (Ritchie & Tucker-Drob, 2018; Tomsaik et al., 2019). So, education can make a difference, but what about teaching and how would you decide? Perhaps one of your teachers influenced your decision to become an educator. Even if you had such a teacher, and we hope you did, one of the purposes of educational psychology in general and this text in particular is to go beyond individual experiences and testimonies, powerful as they are, to examine larger groups. The results of many large-group studies speak to the power of teachers in the lives of students, as you will see next.

Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 11 TEACHER–STUDENT RELATIONSHIPS.  Bridgett Hamre and Robert Pianta (2001) monitored

all the children who entered kindergarten one year in a small school district and continued to do so in that district through the eighth grade. The researchers concluded that the quality of the teacher–student relationship in kindergarten (defined in terms of level of conflict with the child, the child’s dependency on the teacher, and the teacher’s affection for the child) predicted several academic and behavioral outcomes through the eighth grade, particularly for students with many behavior problems. Even when the gender, ethnicity, cognitive ability, and behavior ratings of the student were accounted for, the relationship with the teacher still predicted aspects of school success. So, students with significant behavior problems in the early years are less likely to have problems later in school if their first teachers are sensitive to their needs and provide frequent, consistent feedback. Of course, forming positive relationships with challenging students isn’t easy. When students act out, teachers can respond negatively, and the cycle of student behavior problems and teacher conflict continues. Forming positive relationships with students also means breaking the cycle of conflict by teaching the students better ways to deal with anger and frustration—the role of social and emotional learning again (de Jong et al., 2018). The connection between teacher relationships and student outcomes is widespread. Pianta’s research team has documented the importance of teacher–student relationships in many other studies that followed students for years (e.g., Ansari et al., 2020). Daniel Quin (2017) reviewed 46 studies, including studies that followed students over time, and reached similar conclusions—better teacher–student relationships predicted student engagement. In Germany, secondary students who reported higher levels of teacher support also were more satisfied with school, and in the United States, positive teacher relationships predicted ­social-emotional development and reading achievement for elementary school students (Aldrup et al., 2018; Rucinski et al., 2018). And as you will learn in Chapters 13 and 14, teacher warmth is one element of effective teaching (Sandilos et al., 2019). Positive relationships with students are important for teachers as well. Remember our expert teacher Ken, who always took the time to respond to students’ personal concerns shared in their journals? He would not be surprised that teachers who have close relationships with their students experience high levels of accomplishment and that teachers who report more conflict in student relationships feel more emotional exhaustion and burnout (Corbin et al., 2019). So, evidence is mounting for a strong association between the quality of teacher–student relationships and important outcomes for both students and teachers. THE COST OF POOR TEACHING.  Several years ago, in a widely publicized study, researchers examined how students are affected by having several effective or ineffective teachers in a row (Sanders & Rivers, 1996). They looked at fifth-graders in two large metropolitan school systems in Tennessee. Students who had highly effective teachers for third, fourth, and fifth grades scored at the 83rd percentile on average on a standardized mathematics achievement test in one district and at the 96th percentile in the other district (99th percentile is the highest possible score). In contrast, students who had the least effective teachers 3 years in a row averaged at the 29th percentile in math achievement in one district and 44th percentile in the other—a difference of more than 50 percentile points in both cases! Students who had average teachers or a mixture of teachers with low, average, and high effectiveness for the 3 years had math scores between these extremes. Sanders and Rivers concluded that the best teachers encouraged good-to-excellent gains in achievement for all students, but lowerachieving students were the first to benefit from good teaching. The effects of teaching were cumulative and residual; that is, better teaching in a later grade can partially make up for less effective teaching in earlier grades but cannot erase all the deficits traced to poor teachers (Hanushek et al., 2005; Rivkin et al., 2001). Effective teachers who establish positive relationships with their students appear to be a powerful force in those students’ lives. Students who have problems seem to benefit the most from good teaching. So an important question is, “What makes a teacher effective? What is good teaching?”

Pearson eText Podcast 1.1 In this podcast, textbook author Anita Woolfolk talks about the importance of teachers in students’ lives. Did you know that “  teacher involvement and caring are the most significant predictors of a student’s engagement in school from first grade through twelfth grade?” Listen to learn more. If you listen carefully, you will catch that two chapter numbers she mentions have changed—14 is now 15, and 10 is now 12.

12  Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Teacher Professionalism (IV, A2) Begin your own development by reading educational publications. One widely read periodical is Education Week. You can access it online at edweek.com.

What Is Good Teaching? Learning Outcome 1.2  Discuss the essential features of effective teaching, including different frameworks describing what good teachers do. Educators, psychologists, philosophers, novelists, journalists, filmmakers, mathematicians, scientists, historians, policy makers, and parents, to name only a few groups, have examined this question; there are hundreds of answers. And good teaching is not confined to classrooms. It occurs in homes and hospitals, museums and sales meetings, therapists’ offices, and summer camps. In this book we are primarily concerned with teaching in classrooms, but much of what you will learn applies to other settings as well. So, is good teaching science or art? The application of research-based theories or the creative invention of specific practices? Is a good teacher an expert explainer (“a sage on the stage”) or a great coach (“a guide by the side”)? These debates have raged for years. In your other education classes, you probably will encounter criticisms of the scientific, ­teacher-centered sages. You will be encouraged to be inventive, student-centered guides. But beware of either/or choices. Teachers must be both knowledgeable and inventive. They must have some basic research-based routines for managing classes, but they must also be willing and able to break from the routine when the situation calls for change. They must know the research on student development, and they also need to know their own particular students, who are unique combinations of cultures, genders, and geographies. Personally, we hope you all become teachers who are both sages and guides, wherever you stand. Another answer to “What is good teaching?” involves considering what different models and frameworks for teaching have to offer. We look at them next.

Models of Good Teaching

Pearson eText Video Example 1.3 In this video, teachers discusses the question,“What is your model teacher like?” Compare the characteristics described by these teachers with characteristics described in the textbook. What characteristics would you include?

We will briefly examine three frameworks to help answer the question “What is good teaching?” Another reason to consider these models is that when you become a teacher, you might be evaluated based on one of these approaches or something like them—teacher evaluation is a very hot topic these days! In fact, the Every Student Succeeds Act requires teacher evaluation systems to use multiple measures of effectiveness. We will look at Charlotte Danielson’s Framework for Teaching, the high-leverage practices identified by TeachingWorks at the University of Michigan, and the CLASS framework developed by Robert Pianta and his colleagues (2008). DANIELSON’S FRAMEWORK FOR TEACHING.  The Framework for Teaching was first published in 1996 and has been revised three times since then, most recently in 2013 (see danielsongroup.org for information about Charlotte Danielson and the Framework for Teaching). According to Charlotte Danielson (2013):

The Framework for Teaching identifies those aspects of a teacher’s responsibilities that have been documented through empirical studies and theoretical research as promoting improved student learning. While the Framework is not the only possible description of practice, these responsibilities seek to define what teachers should know and be able to do in the exercise of their profession. (p. 1) Danielson’s Framework has 4 domains or areas of responsibility: Planning and Preparation, Classroom Environment, Instruction, and Professional Responsibilities. Each domain is further divided into 5 or 6 components, making a total of 22 components for the entire framework. For example, Domain 1: Planning and Preparation, is divided into 6 components:

1a Demonstrating knowledge of content and pedagogy 1b Demonstrating knowledge of students 1c Setting instructional objectives 1d Demonstrating knowledge of resources 1e Designing coherent instruction 1f Designing student assessments

Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 13

When the Framework is used for teacher evaluation, each of these 22 components is further divided into elements (76 in all), and several indicators are specified for each component. For example, component 1b, demonstrating knowledge of students, includes the elements describing knowledge of

• child and adolescent development • the learning process • students’ skills, knowledge, and language proficiency • students’ interests and cultural heritage • students’ special needs Indicators of this knowledge of students include the formal and informal information about students that the teacher gathers when planning instruction, the students’ interests and needs the teacher identifies, the teacher’s participation in community cultural events, opportunities the teacher has designed for families to share their cultural heritages, and any databases the teacher has for students with special needs (Danielson, 2013). The evaluation system further defines 4 levels of proficiency for each of the 22 ­components— unsatisfactory, basic, proficient, and distinguished—with a definition, critical attributes, and possible examples of what each level might look like in action. Two examples of distinguished knowledge of students are a teacher who plans lessons with three different follow-up activities designed to match different students’ abilities and a teacher who attends a local Mexican heritage event to meet members of her students’ extended families. Many other examples are possible, but these two give a sense of distinguished knowledge of students (component 1b). You can see that it would take extensive training to use this framework well for teacher evaluation. When you become a teacher, you may learn more about this concept of good teaching because your school district is using it—this framework forms the basis of teacher evaluation in several states. For now, be assured that you will gain knowledge and skills in all 22 components in this text. For example, you will gain knowledge of students (component 1b) in Chapters 2 through 6. TEACHINGWORKS.  TeachingWorks is a national project based at the University of Michigan that is dedicated to improving teaching practice. Project members working with experienced teachers have identified 19 high-leverage teaching practices, defined as the basic fundamentals of teaching—actions that are central to teaching and useful across most grade levels, academic subjects, and teaching situations (see Table 1.1 on the next page). Again, you will develop skills and knowledge about all of these practices in this text. (For a more complete description of the 19 high-leverage practices, see teachingworks.org/work-of-teaching/ high-leverage-practices.) When you compare the high-leverage practices in Table 1.1 with the Danielson components listed earlier, do you see similarities and overlaps? THE CLASS MODEL.  An important conception of good teaching is based on a large-scale

program of longitudinal research by Robert Pianta and his colleagues (Allen et al., 2013; Crosnoe et al., 2010; Hafen et al., 2012; Jerome et al., 2009; Luckner & Pianta, 2011; Pianta et al., 2008; Pianta et al., 2008). Pianta’s work has identified three domains of teacher–­student interactions in the classroom that are related to development and learning for preschool through high school students, regardless of where the students live or their families’ incomes, as you can see in Table 1.2 on the next page. Using these three domains, the researchers have also developed a set of classroom observation instruments called CLASS—for the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (https://teachstone.com/class/). Schools in your district might use these instruments for class observation or professional development. The affective domain in Pianta’s model is teacher emotional support, similar to teacher warmth and enthusiasm identified in early research on teacher effectiveness and described in Chapter 14. The cognitive domain is instructional support, which includes different dimensions, depending on the age of the student. For example, language modeling is a

Pearson eText Video Example 1.4 Teachers must be both knowledgeable and ­inventive. They must be able to use a range of strategies, and they must also be capable of ­inventing new strategies. In this video, the teacher knows her students and uses ­strategies that help each student learn. Notice how she supports students who are English ­language learners, and observe her method of grouping students to meet diverse needs.

14  Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology

Table 1.1  TeachingWorks 19 High-Leverage Teaching Practices These practices are based on research evidence, the wisdom of practice, and logic. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Leading a group discussion Explaining and modeling content, practices, and strategies Eliciting and interpreting individual students’ thinking Diagnosing particular common patterns of student thinking and development in a subject-matter domain Implementing norms and routines for classroom discourse and work Coordinating and adjusting instruction during a lesson Specifying and reinforcing productive student behavior Implementing organizational routines Setting up and managing small-group work Building respectful relationships with students Talking about a student with parents or other caregivers Learning about students’ cultural, religious, family, intellectual, and personal experiences and resources for use in instruction Setting long- and short-term learning goals for students Designing single lessons and sequences of lessons Checking student understanding during and at the conclusion of lessons Selecting and designing formal assessments of student learning Interpreting the results of student work, including routine assignments, quizzes, tests, projects, and standardized assessments Providing oral and written feedback to students Analyzing instruction for the purpose of improving it

Source: Reprinted with permission from TeachingWorks (2014), High-leverage practices. Retrieved from http://www.teachingworks.org/ work-of-teaching/high-leverage-practices.

Table 1.2  A Model of Teacher–Student Interactions in Early Elementary Classrooms ASPECT OF TEACHING

DOMAIN OF TEACHER–STUDENT INTERACTIONS

DIMENSIONS

DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES

Affective

Emotional Support

Positive Climate

Warmth, mutual respect, positive emotional connections between teacher and students

Negative Climate (negative predictor of learning)

Disrespect, anger, hostility

Teacher Sensitivity

Consistency and effectiveness in responding to students’ academic and emotional needs

Regard for Students’ Perspectives

Activities that encourage student autonomy and emphasize students’ interests, motivations, and points of view

Concept Development

Activities and discussion that promote higher-order thinking skills and cognition

Quality of Feedback

Consistency in providing specific, process-oriented feedback and back-and-forth exchanges to extend students’ learning

Language Modeling

Teachers’ modeling more complex language for students in conversations with them and encouraging student talk

Cognitive

Instructional Support

Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 15

ASPECT OF TEACHING Behavioral

DOMAIN OF TEACHER–STUDENT INTERACTIONS Classroom Organization

DIMENSIONS

DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES

Behavior Management

Teachers’ effectiveness in monitoring, preventing, and redirecting misbehavior

Productivity

How consistently learning is maximized with clear activities and routines, teacher preparation, efficient transitions, and minimal disruptions

Instructional Learning Formats

How well materials, modalities, and activities are used to engage students in learning

Source: Based on Brown, et al. (2010). Improving classroom quality: Teacher influences and experimental impacts of the 4Rs program. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 153–167 and Gregory, et al. (2017). My teaching partner-secondary: A video-based coaching model. Theory into Practice, 56(1), 38–45.

dimension of instructional support through early elementary school, but content understanding, analysis, and inquiry become important in the later grades. Quality of feedback is included for every grade. The third domain is classroom organization, which includes behavioral concerns such as classroom and lesson management, with clear activities and routines that make more time for student learning and are really engaging—we explore these critical organizational dimensions of teaching in depth in Chapter 13. Is all this talk about expert teachers and effective teaching making you a little nervous? Viviana, Ken, and Joan are experts at the science and art of teaching, but they have years of experience. What about you?

­Beginning Teachers Stop & Think  Imagine walking into your first day of teaching. List the concerns, fears, and worries you have. What assets do you bring to the job? What would build your confidence to teach? Beginning teachers everywhere share many concerns, including maintaining classroom discipline, motivating students, meeting students’ different needs, evaluating students’ work, dealing with parents, getting along with other teachers, being evaluated by supervisors, and dealing with paperwork and lesson planning (Brichinall et al., 2019; Melnick & Meister, 2008). Many teachers also experience what has been called “reality shock” when they take their first job because they really cannot ease into their responsibilities. On the first day of their first job, beginning teachers face the same tasks as teachers with years of experience. Student teaching, while a critical element, does not really prepare prospective teachers for starting off a school year with a new class. If you listed any of these concerns in your response to the Stop & Think question, you shouldn’t be troubled. They come with the job of being a beginning teacher (Armstrong, 2018; Borko & Putnam, 1996). With experience, hard work, and good support, seasoned teachers can focus on their students’ needs and judge their own success by looking at their students’ accomplishments. One experienced teacher described the shift from concerns about yourself to concerns about your students in this way: “The difference between a beginning teacher and an experienced one is that the beginning teacher asks, ‘How am I doing?’ and the experienced teacher asks, ‘How are the children doing?’” (Codell, 2001, p. 191). But here is one study that ought to give you confidence, even as a beginner: When Linda Graham and her colleagues (2020) analyzed CLASS observation data from 80 elementary grade teachers, they concluded, “ Beginning teachers are doing as well or better than teachers with more years of experience, but . . . the overall quality of teaching could be

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Teacher Professionalism (IV, A1) Your professional growth relies on your becoming a member of a community of practice. The national organizations listed here have hundreds of affiliations and chapters across the country, with regular conferences, conventions, and meetings to advance instruction in their areas. Take a look at their websites to get a feel for their approaches to issues related to professionalism. • National Council of Teachers of English (ncte.org) • International Reading Association (reading.org) • National Science Teachers Association (nsta.org) • National Council for the Social Studies (ncss.org) • National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (nctm.org)

16  Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology

Table 1.3  Advice for Student Teachers from Their Students The students in Ms. Amato’s first-grade class gave this advice as a present to their student teacher on her last day. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Teach us as much as you can. Give us homework. Help us when we have problems with our work. Help us to do the right thing. Help us make a family in school. Read books to us. Teach us to read. Help us write about faraway places. Give us lots of compliments, like “Oh, that’s so beautiful.” Smile at us. Take us for walks and on trips. Respect us. Help us get our education.

Source: Nieto, Sonia, Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of multicultural education, 4th ed., © 2004. Reprinted and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

higher” (p. 8). So, enter your teaching career with confidence and strive to get even better every year. Our goal in writing this book is to give you the foundation for becoming an expert as you gain experience. One thing experts do is listen to their students. Table 1.3 shows some advice a first-grade class gave to their student teacher: It looks like the students know about good teaching, too. We began this chapter claiming that educational psychology is the one of the most important courses you will take. OK, maybe we are a bit biased—we have been teaching the subject for a combined total of more than 50 years! So let us tell you more about our favorite topic.

The Role of Educational Psychology A quick look at history shows that educational psychology and teaching have been closely linked since the beginning. The founders of psychology in the United States believed education was an important arena for investigation (Alexander, 2018). At Harvard in 1890, William James founded the field of psychology and developed a lecture series for teachers entitled Talks to Teachers about Psychology (it’s worth a read, by the way). These lectures were given in summer schools for teachers around the country and then published in 1899. James’s student, G. Stanley Hall, founded the American Psychological Association. Teachers helped him collect data for his dissertation about children’s understandings of the world. Hall encouraged teachers to make detailed observations to study their students’ d ­ evelopment—as his mother had done when she was a teacher. Hall’s student John Dewey founded the Laboratory School at the University of Chicago and is considered the father of the progressive education movement. Another of William James’s students, E. L. Thorndike, wrote the first educational psychology text in 1903 and founded the Journal of Educational Psychology in 1910 (Berliner, 2006; Hilgard, 1996; Pajares, 2003). We go way back! Educational psychology The discipline concerned with teaching and learning processes; applies the methods and theories of psychology and has its own as well.

Educational Psychology Today What is educational psychology today? The view generally accepted is that educational psychology is a distinct discipline with its own theories, research methods, problems, and techniques. Educational psychologists do research on learning and teaching and, at the same time, work to improve educational policy and practice (Anderman, 2011). To understand

Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 17

as much as possible about learning and teaching, educational psychologists examine what happens when someone (a teacher or parent or software designer) teaches something (math or weaving or dancing) to someone else (student or co-worker or team) in some setting (classroom or theater or gym) (Berliner, 2006). So educational psychologists study child and adolescent development; learning and motivation—including how people learn different academic subjects such as reading or mathematics; social and cultural influences on learning; teaching and teachers; and assessment, including testing (Alexander & Winne, 2006). But even with all this research on so many topics, are the findings of educational psychologists really that helpful for teachers? After all, most teaching is just common sense, isn’t it? Let’s take a few minutes to examine these questions.

Is It Just Common Sense? In many cases, the principles set forth by educational psychologists—after spending much thought, time, and money for research—sound pathetically obvious. People are tempted to say, and usually do say, “Everyone knows that!” Consider these examples. LEARNING STYLES.  Students have different learning styles that are dominated by particular senses (visual, auditory, etc.), and they will learn best when they receive information in their preferred learning style.

Commonsense Answer.  Of course, we are all different. Some of us are visual learners, and some have to hear information to learn. Most people can describe their own learning style and learn best using that style. ANSWER BASED ON RESEARCH.  This is one of the most persistent myths in education—a

“zombie” belief that just won’t die. In fact, Kelly Macdonald and her colleagues (2017) found that 93% of the general public and 76% of educators believed this myth even though study after study has shown that students do not learn more when taught in their preferred style (Pashler et al., 2009, Willingham et al., 2015). There are two underlying truths that encourage the persistence of this myth: People do have a preference for how to receive information, and teachers do achieve better results if they present information in multiple sensory modes. So, this myth is made up of a seed of facts, some emotional bias, and just plain wishful thinking that a simple key to good teaching exists. Unfortunately, what you prefer, say ice cream and cake as your dinner every night, is not always good for you. People simply do not learn best when taught in their preferred style (Scudellari, 2015). OK—we sense your skepticism. In Chapter 5 we will dig deeper into the question of learning styles. SKIPPING GRADES.  Should a school encourage exceptionally bright students to skip

grades or to enter college early? Commonsense Answer.   No! Very intelligent students who are several years younger than their classmates are likely to be social misfits. They are neither physically nor emotionally ready for dealing with older students and would be miserable in the social situations that are so important in school, especially in the later grades. ANSWER BASED ON RESEARCH.  Maybe. In the report A Nation Empowered: Evidence Trumps the Excuses Holding Back America’s Brightest Students, the authors note, “Extensive research has indicated that acceleration has positive effects on the academic as well as the affective lives of students” but “decisions about individual students must be based on more than research” (Assouline et al., 2015, p. 2). One example of positive long-term effects is that mathematically talented students who skipped grades in elementary or secondary school were more likely to go on to earn advanced degrees and publish widely cited articles in scientific journals (Park et al., 2013). Whether acceleration is the best solution for a particular student depends on many specific individual characteristics, including the intelligence and maturity of the student as well as the other available options. For some students, moving quickly through the material and working in advanced courses with older students can be a very positive experience (Kretschmann et al., 2014). See Chapter 5 for more on adapting teaching to students’ abilities.

18  Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology STUDENTS IN CONTROL.  Does giving students more control over their own learning—

more choices—help them learn? Commonsense Answer.  Of course! Students who choose their own learning materials and tasks will be more engaged and thus learn more. ­A NSWER BASED ON RESEARCH.  Not so fast! Sometimes giving students more control and

choice can support learning, but many times it doesn’t. For example, giving lower-ability students choice in learning tasks sometimes means the students just keep practicing what they already do well instead of tackling tougher assignments. This happened when hairdressing students were given choices. The lower-ability students kept practicing easy tasks such as washing hair but were reluctant to try more difficult tasks such as giving permanents. When they developed portfolios to monitor their progress and received regular coaching and advice from their teachers, the students made better choices—so, guided choice and some teacher control may be useful in some situations (Kicken et al., 2009). OBVIOUS ANSWERS?  Years ago, Lily Wong (1987) demonstrated that just seeing research

results in writing can make them seem obvious. She selected 12 findings from research on teaching. She presented 6 of the findings in their correct form and 6 in exactly the opposite form to both college students and experienced teachers. Both the college students and the teachers rated about half of the wrong findings as “obviously” correct. Jeanne Oakes has an idea about why “obvious answers” are so powerful: “Everybody’s firsthand schooling experience often makes research seem irrelevant—that it unnecessarily documents what everybody already knows or unhelpfully contradicts what’s obviously true” (2017, p. 94). Paul Kirschner and Joren van Merriënboer (2013) made a similar point when they challenged several “urban legends” in education, including the assertion that learners (like the hairdressing students just described) know best how to learn. These current, strongly held beliefs about students as self-educating digital natives who can multitask, have unique learning styles, and always make good choices about how to learn have no strong basis in research, but still they are embraced. You might have thought that educational psychologists spend their time discovering the obvious. The preceding examples point out the danger of this kind of thinking. When a principle is stated in simple terms, it can sound simplistic. A similar phenomenon takes place when we see a professional dancer or athlete perform: The well-trained performer makes it look easy. But we see only the results of the training, not all the work that went into mastering the individual movements. And bear in mind that any research finding—or its opposite—may sound like common sense. The issue is not what sounds sensible but what is demonstrated when the principle is put to the test in research—our next topic.

Using Research to Understand and Improve Learning Learning Outcome 1.3  Describe the methods used to conduct research in the field of educational psychology and the kinds of questions each method can address. Stop & Think  Quickly list all the different research methods you can think of. Educational psychologists design and conduct many different kinds of research studies. But before we explore some of the main methods in those studies, let’s take a moment to emphasize critical thinking about research in general. In this book and many others, you will encounter studies and research claims. Sometimes the claims will seem contradictory. Being a critical consumer of research, not just in your profession but also in the general media, is important. How strong is the evidence for a claim? Did the researchers study just a few people or many, over a short time or longer? Did what was assessed match what was taught or the goals of the program? Are the students in the study similar to yours? Is the school and community context like your situation? Research results can give you ideas to try, new concepts—tools to think with. But you must bring your own inventiveness and clear thinking to the process.

Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 19

OK, with that caution, let’s examine a common research method that involves simply describing events in a particular situation, called (you guessed it) descriptive studies. CORRELATION STUDIES.  Often, the results of descriptive studies include reports of corre-

lations. You will encounter many correlations in the coming chapters, so let’s take a minute to examine this concept. A correlation is a number that indicates both the strength and the direction of a relationship between two events or measurements. Correlations range from +1.00 to –1.00. The closer the correlation is to either +1.00 or –1.00, the stronger the relationship. For example, the correlation between adult weight and height is about .70 (a strong relationship); the correlation between adult weight and number of languages spoken is about .00 (no relationship at all). The sign of the correlation tells the direction of the relationship. A positive correlation indicates that the two factors increase or decrease together. As one gets larger, so does the other. Weight and height are positively correlated because greater weight tends to be associated with greater height. A negative correlation means that increases in one factor are related to decreases in the other; for example, the less you pay for a theater or concert ticket, the greater your distance from the stage. It is important to note that correlations do not prove cause and effect (see Figure 1.1). For example, weight and height are correlated—but gaining weight obviously does not cause you to grow taller. Knowing an individual’s weight simply allows you to make a general prediction about that person’s height. Educational psychologists identify correlations so they can make predictions about important events in the classroom. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES.  A second type of research—experimentation—allows educa-

tional psychologists to go beyond predictions and actually study cause and effect. Instead of just observing and describing an existing situation, the investigators introduce changes and note the results. First, several comparable groups of participants are created. In psychological research, the term participants (also called subjects) generally refers to the people being studied—such as teachers or ninth-graders. One common way to make sure that groups of participants are essentially the same is to assign each person to a group using a random procedure. Random means each participant has an equal chance of being in any group. Quasi-experimental studies meet most of the criteria for true experiments, with the important exception that the participants are not assigned to groups at random. Instead, existing groups such as classes or schools participate in the experiments. In experiments or quasi-experiments, for one or more of the groups studied, the experimenters change some aspect of the situation to see whether this change or “treatment” has an expected effect. The results in each group are then compared, often using statistics.

When research shows that landscaped lawns and school achievement are correlated, it does not show causation. Community wealth, a third variable, may be the cause of both school achievement and landscaped lawns.

ion

to ds lea

ti o n

School achievement

Landscaped lawns

Correlation

Faulty Assumption

r re l a

C o rrelat

Co to

School achievement

ds

lead to

Correlations Statistical descriptions of how closely two variables are related.

Positive correlation A relationship between two variables in which the two increase or decrease together. Example: calorie intake and weight gain.

Negative correlation A relationship between two variables in which a high value on one is associated with a low value on the other. Example: height and distance from top of head to the ceiling.

Experimentation Research method in which variables are manipulated and the effects recorded.

Participants/subjects

­Random Without any definite pattern; following no rule.

Community wealth lea

Landscaped lawns

­ tudies that collect detailed S information about specific situations, often using observation, surveys, interviews, recordings, or a combination of these methods.

People or animals studied.

Figure 1.1  Correlations Do Not Show Causation

Correlation

Descriptive studies

More Likely Assumption

Quasi-experimental studies Studies that fit most of the criteria for true experiments, with the important exception that the participants are not assigned to groups at random. Instead, existing groups such as classes or schools participate in the experiments.

20  Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology Statistically significant Not likely to be a chance occurrence.

When differences are described as statistically significant, it means that they probably did not happen simply by chance. For example, if you see p < .05 in a study, this indicates that the result reported could happen by chance less than 5 times out of 100, and p < .01 means less than 1 time in 100. Several studies we will examine attempt to identify cause-and-effect relationships by asking questions such as this: If some teachers receive training in how to teach spelling using word parts (cause), will their students become better spellers than students whose teachers did not receive training (effect)? This actually was a field experiment because it took place in real classrooms and not in a simulated laboratory situation. In addition, it was a quasi-experiment because the students were in existing classes and had not been randomly assigned to teachers, so we cannot be certain the experimental and control groups were the same before the teachers received their training. The researchers handled this by looking at improvement in spelling, not just final achievement level, and the results showed that the training worked (Hurry et al., 2005). ABAB EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS.  The goal of ABAB designs is to determine the effects of a

therapy, teaching method, or other intervention by first observing the participants for a baseline period (A) and assessing the behavior of interest; trying an intervention (B) and noting the results; removing the intervention and going back to baseline conditions (A); and finally reinstating the intervention (B). This form of design can help establish a c­ ause-and-effect relationship (Plavnick & Ferreri, 2013). For example, a teacher might record how much time students are out of their seats without permission during a weeklong baseline period (A). The teacher then tries ignoring those who are out of their seats but praising those who are seated, again recording how many are wandering out of their seats for the week (B). Next, the teacher returns to the baseline conditions of just recording how many students are out of their seats with no comments to any of them (A) and then reinstates the ­praise-and-ignore strategy (B). In the classic study that first tested this intervention, the ­praise-and-ignore strategy proved effective in increasing the time students spent in their seats (C. H. Madsen et al., 1968). Laws and policies from the U.S. government today emphasize experimental and quasiexperimental research, often called scientifically based research. SCIENTIFICALLY BASED RESEARCH AND EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICES.  The No Child

Left Behind Act emphasized scientifically based research, and the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) requires “evidence-based” interventions in failing schools. In fact, we use the term “evidence-based” 10 times in this chapter and many more times in this book. What does this mean? Robert Slavin (2020) explains: Evidence of effectiveness is defined as evidence from rigorous experiments in which students experiencing experimental programs are compared over significant periods (say, a semester or more) to those using traditional control methods in terms of gains on valid measures of achievement or other outcomes. Ideally, students, teachers, and/or schools are assigned at random to experimental or random treatments. . . . but at a minimum, experimental and control students are well matched at pretest on measures such as achievement and demographic variables. (p. 22) What Works Clearing House A service of the U.S. Institute of Educational Studies that reviews the existing research on different programs, products, practices, and policies in education in order to provide educators with the information they need to make evidence-based decisions.

Where can teachers and schools find evidence-based practices (besides in this book, of course)? The U.S. Institute of Education Sciences (IES) has established a What Works ­Clearinghouse with a series of Practice Guides that contain recommendations from experts about various challenges that educators face—guides to action based on strong evidence from large-scale, well-designed research studies (https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/­practiceguides). Each of the Practice Guides describes several strategies and rates the evidence supporting their use as “strong,” “moderate,” or “minimal.” In the upcoming chapters we will explore several of these guides, for example, Improving Mathematical Problem Solving in Grades 4 Through 8 in Chapter 9 (Woodward et al., 2018). Educational psychologists also conduct other kinds of research—read on.

Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 21 CLINICAL INTERVIEWS AND CASE STUDIES.  Jean Piaget pioneered an approach called the clinical interview to understand children’s thinking. The clinical interview uses open-ended questioning to probe responses and to follow up on answers. Questions go wherever the child’s responses lead. Here is an example of a clinical interview with a 7-year-old. Piaget is trying to understand the child’s thinking about lies and truth, so he asks, “What is a lie?”

What is a lie?—What isn’t true. What they say that they haven’t done.—Guess how old I am.—Twenty. No, I’m thirty.—Was that a lie you told me?—I didn’t do it on purpose.— I know. But is it a lie all the same, or not?—Yes, it is the same, because I didn’t say how old you were.—Is it a lie?—Yes, because I didn’t speak the truth.—Ought you be punished?—No.—Was it naughty or not naughty?—Not so naughty.—Why?—Because I spoke the truth afterwards! (Piaget, 1965, p. 144) Researchers also may employ case studies. A case study investigates one person or situation in depth. For example, years ago Benjamin Bloom and his colleagues conducted ­in-depth studies of highly accomplished concert pianists, sculptors, Olympic swimmers, tennis players, mathematicians, and neurologists to try to understand what factors supported the development of outstanding talent. The researchers interviewed family members, teachers, friends, and coaches to build an extensive case study of each of these highly accomplished individuals (B. S. Bloom et al., 1985). Some educators recommend case study methods to identify students for gifted programs because the information gathered is richer than just test scores. ETHNOGRAPHY.  Ethnography, borrowed from anthropology, involves studying the natu-

rally occurring events in the life of a group to understand the meaning of these events to the people involved. In educational psychology research, ethnographies might study how students from different cultural groups are viewed by their peers or how teachers’ beliefs about students’ abilities affect classroom interactions. In some studies the researcher uses participant observation, actually participating in the group, to understand the actions from the perspectives of the people in the situation. Teachers can do their own informal ethnographies to understand life in their classrooms. THE ROLE OF TIME IN RESEARCH.  Many things that psychologists want to study, such as

cognitive development (Chapter 3), happen over several months or years. Ideally, researchers would study the development by observing their participants over many years as changes occur. These are called longitudinal studies. They are informative, but ­time-consuming, expensive, and not always practical: Keeping up with participants over several years as they grow up and move can be impossible. As a consequence, much research is c­ ross-sectional, focusing on groups of students at different ages. For example, to study how children’s conceptions of numbers change from ages 3 to 16, researchers can interview children of several different ages rather than follow the same children for 14 years. WHAT’S THE EVIDENCE? QUALITATIVE VERSUS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH.  Here is a dis-

tinction you will encounter in your journey through educational psychology: the contrast between qualitative research and quantitative research. These are large categories, and like many categories, a bit fuzzy at the edges; but here are some simplified differences: Qualitative Research.  Case studies and ethnographies are examples of qualitative research. This type of research uses words, dialogue, events, themes, and images as data. Interviews, observations, and analysis of transcripts are key procedures. The goal is to explore specific situations or people in depth and to understand the meaning of the events to the people involved in order to tell their story. Qualitative researchers assume that no process of understanding meaning can be completely objective. They are more interested in interpreting subjective, personal, or socially constructed meanings. Quantitative Research.  Both correlational and experimental types of research generally are quantitative because measurements are taken and computations are made. Quantitative research uses numbers, measurements, and statistics to assess levels or sizes of relationships

Case study Intensive study of one individual or one situation.

Ethnography A descriptive approach to research that focuses on life within a group and tries to understand the meaning of events to the people involved.

Participant observation A method for conducting descriptive research in which the researcher becomes a participant in the situation in order to better understand life in that group.

Qualitative research Exploratory research that attempts to understand the meaning of events to the participants involved using such methods as case studies, interviews, ethnography, participant observation, and other approaches that focus on a few people in depth.

Quantitative research Research that studies many participants in a more formal and controlled way using objective measures such as experimentation, statistical analyses, tests, and structured observations.

22  Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology among variables or differences between groups. Quantitative researchers try to be as objective as possible in order to remove their own biases from their results. One advantage of good quantitative research is that results from one study can be generalized or applied to other, similar situations or people. MIXED METHODS RESEARCH.  Many researchers now are using mixed methods or comple-

mentary methods to study questions both broadly and deeply. These research designs are procedures for “collecting, analyzing, and ‘mixing’ both quantitative and qualitative methods in a single study or series of studies to understand a research problem” (Creswell, 2015, p. 537). A special issue of the journal Contemporary Educational Psychology (2019) described three basic ways of combining methods. First, a researcher collects both quantitative and qualitative data at the same time and then merges and integrates the data in the analyses. In the second approach, the researcher collects quantitative data first—for example, from surveys or observation instruments—and then follows this by performing in-depth qualitative interviews of participants selected on the basis of their quantitative responses or observed actions. Often the goal here is to explain or look for causes. Finally, the sequence can be reversed—the researcher first conducts interviews or case studies to identify research questions and then collects quantitative data as guided by the qualitative findings. Here the goal may be to explore a situation deeply (McCrudden et al., 2019). My colleagues and I (Ellen talking this time) used mixed methods to study the sources of self-efficacy for students in grades 1 to 6 who lived in a high-poverty rural area of Central Appalachia. We found that different sources supported the self-efficacy of students in mathematics compared to science and that the gender of the student mattered as well (Usher et al., 2019). In the final analysis, the methods used—quantitative, qualitative, or a mixture of both— should fit the questions asked (Bobbit Nolen, 2020). Different approaches to research can ask different questions and provide different kinds of answers, as you can see in Table 1.4. You can find reports of the findings from all types of studies in journals that are referenced in this book. For years Anita was editor of the Theory Into Practice journal (tip.ehe.osu.edu).

Table 1.4  What Can We Learn? Different approaches to research can ask and answer different questions. RESEARCH METHOD

PURPOSES/QUESTIONS ADDRESSED

EXAMPLE

Correlational

To assess the strength and direction of the relation between two variables; to make predictions

Is the average amount of homework completed weekly related to student performance on unit tests? If so, is the relation positive or negative?

Experimental

To identify cause-and-effect relations; to test possible explanations for effects

Will giving more homework cause students to learn more in science class?

ABAB Experiment

To identify the effects of a treatment or intervention for one or more individuals

When students record the number of pages they read each night, will they read more pages? If they stop recording, will their amount of reading return to the previous levels?

Case Studies

To understand one or a few individuals or situations in depth

How does one boy make the transition from a small rural elementary school to a large middle school? What are his main problems, concerns, issues, accomplishments, fears, supports, etc.?

Ethnography

To understand experiences from the participants’ points of view: What are their meanings?

How do new teachers make sense of the norms, expectations, and culture of their new school, and how do they respond?

Mixed Methods

To ask complex questions involving causes, meanings, and relations among variables; to pursue both depth and breadth in research questions

Based on a study of 20 classrooms using quantitative observational instruments, select the 5 classes with the fewest behavior problems and the 5 with the most problems late in the year. Next, interview those teachers and their students, and analyze videotapes made the first weeks of school to answer the question “Did the effective and ineffective teachers differ in how they established rules and procedures in their classes?”

Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 23

For a great overview of the past 50 years in educational research and practice, see the Special 50th Anniversary issue of Theory Into Practice (Gaskill, 2013). You might find some ideas for your own teaching and try them out—do your own action research, described next. TEACHERS AS RESEARCHERS.  Research also can be a way to improve teaching in one

classroom or one school. The same kind of careful observation, intervention, data gathering, analysis, inquiry, close listening to students, and viewing the classroom through their eyes that occurs in research projects can be applied in any classroom to answer questions such as “Which writing prompts seem to encourage the most creative writing in my class?” “When does Kenyon seem to have the greatest difficulty concentrating on academic tasks?” “Would assigning task roles in science groups lead to more equitable participation of girls and boys in the work?” This kind of problem-solving investigation is called action research. By focusing on a specific problem and making careful observations, teachers can learn a great deal about both their teaching and their students. Meghan Manfra (2019) says that action research lets us conceptualize teaching as inquiry—teachers continually learn and improve through research and reflection on their own practices. So, after all this discussion about different approaches to research, you might be wondering, “Enough already—what kind of research should guide education?” Not a simple question. The Point/Counterpoint takes a deeper dive.

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Kind of Research Should Guide Education? Policies in both health care and the treatment of psychological problems have emphasized evidence-based practices (McHugh & Barlow, 2010). Is this right for education?

Point Yes, research should be scientific; educational reforms should be based on solid evidence.  According to Robert Slavin (2020), tremendous progress has taken place in fields such as medicine, agriculture, transportation, and technology because these fields base their practices on scientific evidence. Randomized clinical trials and replicated experiments are the sources of the evidence. Until recently, however, teachers, principals, and superintendents were more likely to choose instructional programs for their schools by asking friends in another district or listening to sales representatives for commercial packages (Dagenais et al., 2012). But thanks to recent government policies that require evidence-based interventions for failing schools, educators are turning to proven programs that have been developed and tested using rigorous quantitative research. Not only is scientifically based research identifying promising practices; there are also websites available for educators to explore and compare the programs. See: Evidence for ESSA (https://www.evidenceforessa.org) lets you locate K–12 programs that meet ESSA standards in reading, math, social-emotional learning, attendance, science, and writing., What Works Clearinghouse (https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/) with K–12 programs and practices in many areas including for students with disabilities, English learners, behavior programs, and subject areas such as science or math. Best Evidence Encyclopedia (http://www.bestevidence.org): full-scale academic reviews of research on programs in specific areas such as reading, math, and science.

Counterpoint Experiments and controlled studies are not the only or even the best source of evidence for education.  David Olson (2004) disagrees strongly with Slavin’s position. He claims that we cannot use medicine as an analogy to education. “Treatments” in education are much more complex and unpredictable than administering one drug or another in medicine.

Pearson eText Video Example 1.5 Teachers can be researchers at various levels. The ­educators in this video discuss data ­collection about one student’s behavior. The teachers launch a problem-solving investigation by collecting data to understand the student’s behavior and discover effective ways to teach new and appropriate behaviors. You will learn in Chapter 7 that ABC refers to “  Antecedent, Behavior, Consequence.” Can you ­identify the ABCs for this student? Action research Systematic observations or tests of methods conducted by teachers or schools to improve teaching and learning for their students.

24  Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology

And every educational program is changed by classroom conditions and the way it is implemented. Patti Lather, Anita’s colleague at Ohio State, says, “In improving the quality of practice, complexity and the messiness of practice-in-context cannot be fantasized away. To try to do so yields impoverishment rather than improvement. That loss is being borne by the children, teachers, and administrators in our schools” (Lather, 2004, p. 30). David Berliner (2002) makes a similar point: ­ oing science and implementing scientific findings are so difficult in education D because humans in schools are embedded in complex and changing networks of social interaction. The participants in those networks have variable power to affect each other from day to day, and the ordinary events of life (a sick child, a messy divorce, . . . a birthday party, alcohol abuse, a new principal, a new child in the classroom, rain that keeps the children from a recess outside the school building) all affect doing science in school settings by limiting the generalizability of educational research findings. Compared to designing bridges and circuits or splitting either atoms or genes, the science to help change schools and classrooms is harder to do because context cannot be controlled. (p. 19)

Design-based research Practitioners identify research questions based on problems of practice; then researchers gather and analyze the data to address those problems.

Beware of Either/Or.  Qualitative research tells us specifically what happened in one or a few situations. Conclusions can be applied deeply but only to the issue that was studied. Quantitative research can tell us what generally happens under certain conditions. Conclusions can be applied more broadly. Complex problems in education require a whole range of methods for study as well as input from both researchers and educators. Educators must help researchers target the most important problems that need evidence-based solutions. Some current proponents of evidence-based interventions in education suggest that we benefit from the knowledge and wisdom of both practitioners and researchers. Design-based research does just that. Practitioners identify research questions based on problems of practice. Researchers then bring their time and talent to gather and analyze the data to address those problems (Scanlan, 2015).

Theories for Teaching Learning Outcome 1.4  Recognize how theories and research in development and learning are related to educational practice.

Principle Established relationship between factors.

Theory Integrated statement of principles that attempts to explain a phenomenon and make predictions.

As we saw earlier, the major goal of educational psychology is to understand what happens when someone teaches something to someone else in some setting (Berliner, 2006; Schwab, 1973). Reaching this goal is a slow process. There are very few landmark studies that answer a question once and for all. There are so many different kinds of students, teachers, tasks, and settings; and besides, human beings are pretty complicated. To deal with this complexity, research in educational psychology examines limited aspects of a situation—perhaps a few variables at a time or life in one or two classrooms. If enough studies are completed in a certain area and findings repeatedly point to the same conclusions, we eventually arrive at a principle. This is the term for an established relationship between two or more factors— between a certain teaching strategy, for example, and student achievement. Another tool for building a better understanding of the teaching and learning processes is theory. The commonsense notion of theory (as in “Oh well, it was only a theory”) is “a guess or hunch.” But the scientific meaning of theory is quite different. A theory in science is a set of interrelated concepts, definitions, assumptions, and generalizations used to describe and explain data and to make predictions (Hoy & Adams, 2016). Educational psychologists have developed explanations for the relationships among many variables and even whole systems of relationships. There are theories to explain how language develops, why goals affect motivation, and, as noted earlier, how people learn. You will encounter many theories of development, learning, and motivation in this book. Theories are the beginning and ending points of the research cycle. In the beginning,

Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 25

theories provide the research hypotheses to be tested (predictions about what will happen) or the questions examined. For example, Piaget’s theory might suggest the hypothesis that instruction cannot teach young children to think more abstractly, whereas Vygotsky’s theory might suggest the competing hypothesis that instruction will be effective. Of course, at times, psychologists don’t know enough to state hypotheses, so they just ask research questions. An example question might be: “Is there a difference in the Internet usage of male and female adolescents from different ethnic groups?” Research is a continuing cycle that involves:

• Clear specification of hypotheses, problems, or questions based on current theories • Systematic gathering and analysis of all kinds of information (data) about the questions from well-chosen research participants in carefully selected situations

• Interpretation and analysis of the data gathered using appropriate methods to answer the questions.

• Modification and improvement of explanatory theories based on the results of those analyses.

• Formulation of new and better hypotheses based on the improved theories . . . and on and on. This empirical process of collecting data to test and improve theories is repeated over and over. Empirical means “based on data.” When researchers say that identifying an effective antibiotic or choosing a successful way to teach reading is an “empirical question,” they mean that you need data and evidence to make the call. Constructing decisions from empirical analyses protect psychologists from developing theories based on personal biases, rumors, fears, faulty information, or preferences (Mertler & Charles, 2005). Good research is self-correcting. If predictions do not play out or if answers to carefully formulated questions do not support current best understandings (theories), then the theories have to be changed. You can use the same kind of systematic and self-correcting thinking in your work with students. Few theories explain and predict perfectly. In this book, you will see many examples of educational psychologists taking different theoretical positions and disagreeing on the overall explanations of such broad topics as learning and motivation. Because no one theory offers all the answers, it makes sense to consider what each has to offer. So why, you may ask, is it necessary to deal with theories? Why not just stick to principles? The answer is that both are useful. Principles of classroom management, for example, will give you help with specific problems. A good theory of classroom management, on the other hand, will give you a new way of thinking about discipline problems; it will give you cognitive tools for creating solutions to many different problems and for predicting what might work in new situations. A major goal of this book is to provide you with the best and the most useful theories of development, learning, motivation, and teaching—those theories that have solid evidence behind them. Although you might prefer some theories to others, consider them all as ways of understanding the challenges teachers face. We began this chapter by asserting that Educational Psychology is our favorite topic as well as a key source of knowledge and skills for teaching. We end this chapter with one more bit of evidence for our enthusiasm: Educational psychology will help you support student learning—the goal of all teaching.

Supporting Student Learning In an article in the Educational Psychologist, a major journal in our field, Jihyun Lee and Valerie Shute (2010) reported sifting through thousands of studies of student learning conducted over the course of 60 years, seeking to identify those that had direct measures of student achievement in reading and mathematics. Then they narrowed their focus to studies with strong effects. About 150 studies met all their rigorous criteria. Using the results from these studies, Lee and Shute identified about a dozen variables that were directly linked to K–12 student achievement. The researchers grouped these factors into two categories: student

Hypothesis/hypotheses A prediction of what will happen in a research study based on theory and previous research.

Empirical Based on systematically collected data.

26  Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology personal factors and school and social-contextual factors, as you can see in Table 1.5. When we read this article, we were pleased to see that our favorite subject, educational psychology, provides a base for developing knowledge and skills in virtually every area except principal leadership (for that subject, you have to consult a book Anita wrote with her husband on principals as instructional leaders—Woolfolk Hoy & Hoy, 2020).

Table 1.5  Research-Based Personal and Social-Contextual Factors That Support Student Achievement in K–12 Classrooms STUDENT PERSONAL FACTORS

EXAMPLES

WHERE IN THIS TEXT

Engaging Students’ Behavior

Make sure students attend classes, follow rules, and participate in school activities.

Chapters 5–7, 13

Engaging Students’ Minds and Motivations

Design challenging tasks, tap intrinsic motivation, support student investment in learning, and nurture student self-efficacy and other positive academic beliefs.

Chapters 2, 3, 4, 10, 11, 12

Engaging Students’ Emotions

Connect to student interest, pique curiosity, foster a sense of belonging and class connections, diminish anxiety, and increase enjoyment in learning.

Chapters 4, 5, 6, 10, 12

Cognitive Strategies

Directly teach knowledge and skills that support student learning and deep processing of valuable information (e.g., summarizing, inferring, applying, and reasoning).

Chapters 7–9, 14

Metacognitive Strategies

Directly teach students to monitor, regulate, and evaluate their own cognitive processes, strengths, and weaknesses as learners; teach them about when, where, why, and how to use specific strategies.

Chapters 7–9, 11

Behavioral Strategies

Directly teach students strategies and tactics for managing, monitoring, and evaluating their actions, motivations, effects, and environments, such as skills in:

Chapters 7–15

Student Engagement

Learning Strategies

time management test taking help seeking note taking homework management SOCIAL-CONTEXTUAL FACTORS

EXAMPLES

WHERE IN THIS TEXT

Set high expectations for your students, and encourage the whole school to do the same; emphasize positive relations with the school community.

Chapters 11–13

School Climate Academic Emphasis

Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 27

SOCIAL-CONTEXTUAL FACTORS

EXAMPLES

WHERE IN THIS TEXT

Teacher Variables

If possible, teach in a school with the positive qualities of collective efficacy, teacher empowerment, and sense of affiliation.

Chapters 1, 11, 13

Principal Leadership

If possible, teach in a school with the positive qualities of collegiality, high morale, and clearly conveyed goals.

See Woolfolk Hoy and Hoy (2020).

Parental Involvement

Support parents in supporting their children’s learning.

Chapters 3–6, 12

Peer Influences

Create classroom and school norms that honor achievement, encourage peer support, and discourage peer conflict.

Chapters 4, 10, 13, 15

Social-Familial Influences

Source: Based on Lee, J., & Shute, V. J. (2010). Personal and social-contextual factors in K–12 academic performance: An integrative perspective on student learning. Educational Psychologist, 45, 185–202.

As you can see in Table 1.5, this text should help you become a capable and confident teacher who can get students engaged in the classroom learning community—a community that respects its members. This book will guide you toward becoming a teacher who helps students develop into interested, motivated, self-regulated, and confident learners. As a consequence, you will be able to set high expectations for your students, rally the support of parents, and build your own sense of efficacy as a teacher.

Summary Learning and Teaching Today (pp. 4–11) What are classrooms like today? About 25% of U.S. children under 18 are living in immigrant families. By 2045, half of the U.S. population will be members of some minority group, with about 25% being Hispanic. Around 21% of American children currently live in poverty. More than half of school-age students with disabilities receive most of their education in general education classrooms. Even though students in classrooms are increasingly diverse in race, ethnicity, language, and economic level, teachers are much less diverse—the percentage of White teachers is increasing, while the percentage of Black teachers is falling. This book is about understanding the complex processes of development, learning, motivation, teaching, and assessment so that you can become a capable and confident teacher with a high but authentic sense of efficacy. What are NCLB and ESSA?  The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2002 required extensive standardized achievement testing. The law also required all students in the schools to reach full proficiency in these subjects by the end of the 2013–2014 school year; it didn’t happen. Largely because there were major penalties for schools that did not perform well, several negative consequences followed in the wake

of the tests—teaching to the test, narrowing the curriculum to a few subjects, driving teachers out of the classroom. The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), which replaced NCLB, returned most of the control to the states. Testing in the same grades and subjects still takes place, but states and local schools decide when and how to test and how to intervene in the lowest-performing schools. The states must use evidence-based practices to intervene in failing schools. ESSA also supports the establishment of teacher education academies outside colleges and universities. What is SEL––social-emotional learning?  SEL is learning to understand and manage emotions, set and achieve positive goals, feel and show empathy for others, establish and maintain positive relationships, and make responsible decisions. The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) provides resources and information for educators. There is good evidence that SEL can have positive effects on students’ academic achievements and social behaviors. Teachers can introduce specific strategies or larger curriculum programs such as PATHS. Even-more-comprehensive curricular programs can support both academic and social-emotional objectives. Important social and emotional concerns include the traumatic events that many students have experienced or witnessed.

28  Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology

What evidence is there that teachers make a difference? Several studies speak to the power of teachers in the lives of students. The first found that the quality of the teacher–student relationship in kindergarten predicted several aspects of school success through the eighth grade. The second study found similar results for students from preschool through fifth grade, a finding confirmed by almost 100 students in countries around the world. The third study examined math achievement for students in two large school districts as they moved through third, fourth, and fifth grades. Again, the quality of the teacher made a difference: Students who had three ­high-quality teachers in a row were way ahead of peers who spent 1 or more years with less-competent teachers. In a study that followed children from third through fifth grades, two factors helped children with lower skills in mathematics begin to close the achievement gap: higher-level (not just basic skills) instruction and positive relationships with teachers.

What Is Good Teaching? (pp. 12–16) Teachers must be both knowledgeable and inventive. They must be able to use a range of strategies, and they must also be capable of inventing new strategies. They must have some basic research-based routines for managing classes, but they must also be willing and able to break from the routine when the situation calls for change. They must know the research on student development, and they also need to know their own particular students, who are unique combinations of culture, gender, and geography. What are some research-based models of effective teaching?  Charlotte Danielson describes a Framework for Teaching, which has 22 components organized into four domains or areas of teaching responsibility: Planning and Preparation, Classroom Environment, Instruction, and Professional Responsibilities. This framework is the basis for a widely used system of teacher evaluation. TeachingWorks, a national project based at the University

of Michigan and dedicated to improving teaching practice, has identified 19 high-leverage teaching practices, defined as actions that are central to teaching and useful across most grade levels, academic subjects, and teaching situations. Finally, a program of large-scale, longitudinal research has identified three aspects of classroom climate that are related to the development and learning of preschool and elementary school students. These three dimensions are consistent with the characteristics of teachers identified in earlier research on teaching and cover affective, behavioral, and cognitive dimensions. The affective dimension is teacher emotional support, similar to teacher warmth and enthusiasm identified in early research. The cognitive dimension is instructional support, which includes concept development (activities and discussions that promote students’ higherorder thinking) and quality feedback that is specific and focused on the learning process. The third dimension is classroom organization, which includes behavioral concerns such as classroom and lesson management with clear activities and routines that make more time for learning and really engage students. What are the concerns of beginning teachers?  Learning to teach is a gradual process. The concerns and problems of teachers change as they grow in their ability. During the beginning years, attention tends to be focused on maintaining discipline, motivating students, accommodating differences among students, evaluating students’ work, dealing with parents and paperwork, being evaluated by supervisors, and getting along with other teachers. Even with these concerns, many beginning teachers bring creati­ vity and energy to their teaching and improve every year. The more experienced teacher can move on to concerns about professional growth and effectiveness in teaching a wide range of students.

The Role of Educational Psychology (pp. 16–24) What is educational psychology?  Educational psychology has been linked to teaching since it began in the United States more than a century ago. The goals of educational psychology are understanding and improving the teaching and learning processes. Educational psychologists develop knowledge and methods; they also use the knowledge and methods of psychology and other related disciplines to study learning and teaching in everyday situations. Educational psychologists examine what happens when someone/something (a teacher or parent or computer) teaches something (math or weaving or dancing) to someone else (student or co-worker or team) in some setting (classroom or theater or gym). What are the research methods in educational psychology?  Correlational methods identify relationships and allow predictions. A correlation is a number that indicates both the strength and the direction of a relationship between

Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 29

two events or measurements. The closer the correlation is to either +1.00 or –1.00, the stronger the relationship. Experimental studies allow researchers to detect causes, not just make predictions. Experimental studies should help teachers implement useful changes. Instead of just observing and describing an existing situation, the investigators introduce changes and note the results. Quasi-experimental studies meet most of the criteria for true experiments, with the important exception being that the participants are not assigned to groups at random. Instead, existing groups such as classes or schools participate in the experiments. In ABAB experimental designs, researchers examine the effects of treatments on one or more people, often by using a baseline/intervention/­ baseline/intervention approach. Clinical interviews, case studies, and ethnographies look in detail at the experiences of a few individuals or groups. If participants are studied over time, the research is called longitudinal. No matter what method is used, results from the research are used to further develop and improve theories so that even-better hypotheses and questions can be developed to guide future research. What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative research? A general distinction between qualitative and quantitative research exists. These are large categories, and, like many categories, they a bit fuzzy at the edges. Qualitative methods such as case studies and ethnographies use words, dialogue, events, themes, and images as data. Their goal is to explore specific situations or people in depth and to understand the meaning of the events to the people involved in order to tell their stories. Quantitative research uses numbers, measurements, and statistics to assess levels or sizes of relationships among variables or differences between groups—correlational and experimental research are examples. Different types of research can answer different questions. Today many researchers are using mixed methods to study questions both broadly and deeply. There are three basic ways of combining methods. First, a researcher collects both quantitative and qualitative data at the same time and then merges and integrates the data in the analyses. Second, the researcher collects quantitative data first, from, for example, surveys or observation instruments, and then follows this by performing in-depth

qualitative interviews of selected participants. Often the goal is to explain or look for causes. Finally, the sequence can be reversed—the researcher first conducts interviews or case studies to identify research questions and then collects quantitative data as guided by the qualitative findings. Here the goal may be to explore a situation thoroughly. Scientifically based research, which is more consistent with quantitative research, systematically uses observations or experiments to gather valid and reliable data; involves rigorous and appropriate procedures for gathering and analyzing the data; is clearly described so that it can be repeated by others; and has been rigorously reviewed by appropriate independent experts. Evidence-based practices, the kind that must be used to intervene in failing schools under the ESSA, are grounded in the results of systematic, rigorous research. When teachers or schools make systematic observations or test methods to improve teaching and learning for their students, they are conducting action research. Distinguish between principles and theories. A principle is an established relationship between two or more factors—­ between, for example, a certain teaching strategy and student achievement. A theory is an interrelated set of concepts that is used to explain a body of data and to make predictions. The principles from research offer several possible answers to specific problems, and the theories offer perspectives for analyzing almost any situation that may arise. Research is a continuing cycle that involves clear specification of hypotheses or questions based on good theory, systematic gathering and analyzing of data, interpretation and analysis of the data gathered using appropriate methods to answer the questions, modification and improvement of explanatory theories based on the results, and the formulation of new, better questions based on the improved theories. What key factors support student learning?  A synthesis of about 150 studies of student learning found two broad categories of influence: student personal factors and school and socialcontextual factors. Educational psychology provides a base for developing knowledge and skills in virtually every area except principal leadership.

Key Terms Action research Case study Correlations Descriptive studies ­Design-based research Educational psychology Empirical Ethnography Experimentation

Hypothesis/hypotheses Meta-analysis Negative correlation Participant observation Participants/subjects Positive correlation Principle Qualitative research Quantitative research

Quasi-experimental studies Random Reflective Social and emotional learning (SEL) Statistically significant Teachers’ sense of efficacy Theory What Works Clearinghouse

30  Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology

Connect and Extend to Licensure Multiple-Choice Questions 1.

Novice teachers face numerous tasks and scenarios with which they have little prior experience. For teachers currently entering the field, which of the following is not a challenge they are apt to encounter? A. Students who may exhibit superior technology skills as compared to their teachers B. An increasingly diverse population of students and families C. Inadequate resources to ensure the safety of their students while using technology in the classroom D. Students who face the challenges associated with living in poverty

2.

Both students and teachers work harder and persist longer when they have a high sense of efficacy. Which of the following does not enhance self-efficacy in both students and teachers? A. Formal school relationships that focus solely on skills B. Day-to-day success in achieving tasks C. High expectations from those in the environment D. Assistance from more knowledgeable partners

3.

C. Miranda Ruiz, whose English is excellent even though her parents moved to the United States from Mexico only 10 years ago

All the students in Ms. Clare’s third-grade class engage in weekly test reviews. Ms. Clare believes that these reviews will enhance student retention when standardized testing occurs in the spring. Which of Ms. Clare’s students will have his or her scores reported separately under the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)? A. Susan Frasier, who was recently identified with having a learning disability B. Brendan Kincaid, who must wear corrective lenses in order to read

D. Lauren Stone, who is a member of the third grade’s cohort of students who are gifted and talented

Constructed-Response Questions Case Sandra Chapman was determined to add to her repertoire of teaching skills as she entered her second year of teaching. Her first year as a high school teacher proved to be more of a challenge than she had expected. Her school, located in the heart of the city, drew students from all walks of life and economic circumstances. Last year, she initially hoped that all of her students would master the history curriculum that she had inherited, but by midyear several of her students were not attending class on a regular basis. In an effort to increase attendance, she took points off students’ grades when they missed class and intentionally ignored them when they returned. She believed that by not taking an interest in where they were, she would not reinforce their “skipping” behavior. She also thought that by continually reminding students of how much they did not know, she would encourage them to study. Sadly, these methods did not work well, and attendance only further declined. She is now in the process of designing some new strategies. 4.

Identify the methods Sandra Chapman used to encourage attendance, and explain why these methods might have been unsuccessful.

5.

What advice would you offer Sandra Chapman as she prepares to develop new methods?

What Would They Do? Teachers’ Casebook: Becoming a Great Teacher

Anne Liners • 9th–12th grade Student Teacher

At the beginning of this chapter, we asked you to think critically about what makes a great teacher and what sources of information might help. Now, as you consider these expert teachers’ responses to the case, we again suggest that you think critically. Do the following responses reflect (or contradict) any of the concepts discussed in this chapter? Do the suggestions and solutions described here make sense in light of what you have learned in this or other classes about best practices? How do these ideas align with or challenge your personal philosophy of teaching?

I believe the most important part of being a reflective teacher is recognizing what your students need. If you’re putting in the effort to listen, kids are pretty open about what is or isn’t working for them. One of the strongest characteristics of good teachers is that they can effectively read their classrooms to see if the students are engaged, excited, bored, exhausted, confused, or antsy, and then use what they see to adapt their lessons and objectives. New research or cutting-edge ­approaches are effective only when they actually enhance the

South High School, Fort Minneapolis, MN

Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 31

experiences and learning of students. A good teacher’s loyalty is not necessarily to the latest studies and best-selling books (although those can help!) but instead to the well-being of the young people they are responsible for. The master teachers who have mentored me have been very forthcoming about the fact that they know they aren’t able to effectively implement every possible new idea—no one is. Instead, they pick the research they can apply using their strengths, implement that research, then evaluate the effectiveness of the techniques based on the students’ responses. Always keeping the practical realities of students in mind helps me define my own goals and practices.

India Chambers, ED.S. • 1st–8th grade Director of Academics Northside Preparatory Academy, Cincinnati, OH Great teachers have a genuine love for children and dedicate their practice, time, and knowledge base to helping their scholars shatter that glass ceiling. Great teachers devote their efforts to tangibly closing the achievement gap and tapping into the untapped talents of their students. They embrace the promise and potential in every learner they encounter even through difficult times. When evaluating the quality of others’ advice about teaching and learning, I base my evaluation upon the realities and practices in their classrooms. The same advice given should be clearly evident and observed in that individual’s classroom. That would help me discern whether the teachers really “know” what they are talking about and if the given advice is even practical. Best practices are determined by the realities of each teacher’s classroom and what has been proven by research to work for the population being served by the educator. It is helpful to research instructional strategies, interventions, and practices that have been shown by research studies to work for students who are similar demographically to the students in your classroom. Research that would convince me to change my practice include the studies that show substantial improvement depicted in data. These data would reflect quantitative analysis, trends, and correlations that prove the proposed action tested in the study positively impacted student outcomes.

Mari Ann Banks, PH.D. • Equity Officer City Schools of Decatur, Decatur, GA There is no singular representation of a great teacher. Good teachers come in all shapes, sizes, and dispositions, but the good become great by doing a few key things: 1. Great teachers identify the needs of their students, meet them where they are, and then help them develop the courage and skills to go further than they ever thought they could.

2. Great teachers know they will always be students themselves—and they are happy about that. They work to keep abreast of groundbreaking changes in the field and integrate valuable new knowledge into their praxis. 3. Great teachers implement culturally relevant, critical care for their students. They don’t just “love all students” or claim that they “don’t see color.” Instead, they care by unmasking the hidden (and overt) curriculum that is so prevalent throughout the United States. They expose and unveil various forms of privilege, expand their curriculum to include multiple voices and perspectives, and show directly and by personal example how to make systemic change. When evaluating the quality of teachers’ advice and ideas, I make sure to look at their results. Not just test scores and grades of the advisor’s students—in fact, that’s the last thing I find important. Instead, I look to see what types of relationships they have established with students. Do students grow under their care? Are students challenged to think deeply about issues? Do students feel safe enough to ask questions about the way the world works, and, if so, are they encouraged to find the answers? If the answer to all of these is yes—that’s the advice I want to hear. When faced with too much information or conflicting information, this is also how I decide in whom I will place my trust and energy.

Kathryn Larsen • Junior High School Principal Pleasant Grove Junior High, Pleasant Grove, UT

• What makes someone a great teacher? How are “best” practices determined? Great teachers foster belonging, equity, and unity in their classrooms. Many use best practices to accomplish this. Best practices are determined through both research and a genuine understanding of the students in your classroom. What works well with one group of students may not work the next year with another group of students. Every group has its own culture. When looking to research to help determine best practices, it is important to find seminal research that is supported by additional research. I have found that the results of the best education researchers are not contradictory. Instead, their work supports the work of many others.

• How do you evaluate the quality of others’ advice about teaching and learning? Try it for yourself! If you get advice from a trusted colleague, modify it to fit the needs of your own students and then go for it. This is where action research comes in. Implement the advice, modify it, try it again, and keep refining your practice. If the individual who gave you the advice is a trusted friend and colleague, ask that person to help you refine your practice. Teaching is very personal. What works for others may not work for you. However, by making small shifts to others’

32  Chapter 1  Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology advice about teaching and learning, you will figure out what works for you and your students. Ask for student input when evaluating the quality of the advice you have received from others. Students know what works, but we rarely give them the autonomy and the voice they deserve to take part in evaluating teaching and learning.

• What would lead you to conclude that someone’s advice was simply a trend versus a sound educational practice? If I have gone through the action research process using advice from a colleague and am not seeing a pattern of positive results, higher levels of student achievement, and more engagement, I would know that I need to continue to modify that advice to make it work in my own classroom. I may also need to reconsider whether that advice should become a permanent part of my own practice. A practice you can trust becomes sound educational practice.

• What kinds of research findings would convince you to change your practice? I am especially drawn to research that is conducted by teacherresearchers who are still in the classroom. The credibility this gives to the researcher is invaluable. When I read a researchbased book about literacy practices written by a teacher-­ researcher who is working with her or his own students, I am more convinced that these same practices will work in my own classroom. The research findings from teacher-­ researchers feel very authentic and trustworthy, and I am more likely to change my own practice as a result.

Donnie Piercey. • 5th grade Teacher and 2021 Kentucky State Teacher of the Year Stonewall Elementary School, Lexington, KY When I reflect back on my own time in school—before I became a teacher—there are a few things that still stand out to me about what made some of my favorite teachers great: They just seemed to run their classrooms differently. They weren’t satisfied with the mold that other teachers before them created; rather, they wanted their classrooms to feel different, to be different. They took time to tailor-make lessons and experiences just for us (based on the time that they spent with us at recess or during brief conversations in between classes). They weren’t afraid to establish a relationship with their students to let them know that they care. Trends in education often look like one teacher, school, or district copying something that they saw others do or say that they heard was successful. This could be after-school programs, a textbook curriculum, or even a piece of technology that was purchased. While this definitely doesn’t mean that all of these borrowed ideas are bad for schools and students (many are great), the danger comes when schools look at others before trying to creativity figure out how best to serve their own students first. I’ve always placed a lot of value on the importance of teacher and student creativity, especially when a teacher’s idea is grounded in sound educational practice.

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Chapter 2

Anita Woolfolk Hoy

Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity

Teachers’ Casebook: Conversations About Race What Would You Do? A video is widely circulated on social media of an unarmed Black teenager being injured by police over the weekend in a town not far from your school. On Monday morning, as students are settling into class, you overhear a conversation about what happened. One student, whose dad is a police officer and whose backpack sports a “Blue Lives Matter” tag, remarks that what the teen was doing was wrong. Another student responds, “Well, my parents have always taught me that I’d better watch out for the police because I’m Black. Black lives matter too, don’t they?” Students around the room begin to chatter. One girl sighs audibly, “Why does everything have to be about race? Can’t we just agree that all lives matter?” Her comment immediately reminds you of how upset one of your colleagues became earlier this year when she found her “Black Lives Matter” bumper sticker defaced in the school parking lot. Perhaps this is a teachable moment.

34

Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity 35

Critical Thinking • How could you use this as an opportunity to talk about race in your classroom? How would you design the classroom space for difficult conversations about race? What would be essential for you to do in order to set up the classroom for productive and courageous discursive interactions? • If you knew that students of color were upset by White students’ comments, how would you respond? • When, if ever, is it a good idea to bring up group-based identity and the systems of privileges, advantages, and disadvantages those identities might bring with them? • What are your fears about having conversations about race (or other social identities)?



Overview and Objectives

Who are you? How have the various facets of your cultural and social identities shaped your own experiences and views? Who are your students? How will their cultural backgrounds affect their learning, development, and motivation in your class? Nearly all aspects of educational psychology— from how brains work to how you can create a positive workflow in your classroom—are better understood when we are able to recognize the ways in which our cultural and social backgrounds have uniquely shaped who we are. The cultural composition of classrooms in the United States and around the world is constantly evolving. Frank Pajares, who was my (Ellen in this chapter) advisor in graduate school and one of the wisest educational psychologists I know, speaking at a meeting of the American Educational Research Association, observed that “the critical questions in education involve matters that cannot be settled by universal prescription. They demand attention to the cultural forces that shape our lives” (Pajares, 2000, p. 5). I believe he is right. In this chapter, we explore the ways in which culture forms the fabric of our society. We will start with a look inward. Understanding yourself and your own frame of reference is key to understanding others. Then we will meet two individuals whose stories bring the statistics on cultural diversity and intersectionality to life. We will consider the development of culturalbased stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination as they affect teaching and learning. With a broad conception of culture as a basis, we then examine three dimensions of every teacher’s and student’s identity: social class, race/ ethnicity, and gender and sexual orientation. Then we turn to a consideration of culturally responsive education, an approach to teaching that embraces diversity, and we look at ways to create culturally welcoming classrooms.

36  Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity

The last section presents four general principles for teaching every student. By the time you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: 2.1 Describe the meaning of culture and discuss how cultural diversity in

American education today is related to learning and teaching. 2.2 Discuss what defines social class and socioeconomic status, including how SES differences relate to school achievement. 2.3 Explain how race, ethnicity, prejudice, discrimination, and stereotype

threat might affect student learning and achievement in schools. 2.4 Describe the development of gender, gender identity, and sexual orientation and discuss their roles in teaching and learning. 2.5 Define multicultural education and apply research on diversity to the creation of culturally relevant classrooms.

OUTLINE Teachers’ Casebook—Conversations About Race Overview and Objectives Education Is Cultural What Is Culture? Your Cultural and Educational History Meet Two Students Cultural Intersections and Terminology Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination Economic and Social Class Differences Social Class and Socioeconomic Status Poverty and Social Inequality Extreme Poverty: Homeless and Highly Mobile Students Poverty and Academic Outcomes Ethnicity and Race in Teaching and Learning Defining Ethnicity and Race Ethnic and Racial Identity Ethnic and Racial Differences in School Achievement The Legacy of Racial Inequality Gender and Sexual Orientation in Teaching and Learning Sex and Gender Gender Identity Gender Roles ­Gender Bias and Sexism in Curriculum and Media Gender Bias in Teaching Sexual Orientation Discrimination Based on Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation Creating Culturally Welcoming Classrooms Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Diversity in Learning Lessons for Teachers: Teaching Every Student Summary and Key Terms Teachers’ Casebook—Conversations About Race: What Would They Do?

Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity 37

Education Is Cultural Learning Outcome 2.1  Describe the meaning of culture and discuss how cultural diversity in American education today is related to learning and teaching. Classrooms are culturally diverse places. Classrooms and schools have their own cultures, too. Throughout this text we take a broad interpretation of culture and cultural diversity. We begin with a look at the meaning of “culture.” Then we invite you to explore your own ­cultural and educational backgrounds. This exploration will be important for how you ­relate not only to the rest of your studies in education but also to your future students. We will then consider social groups and identities and the cultural significance they hold. We will specifically examine social class, race, ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation because they reflect some of the most researched social categories in education.

What Is Culture? There are many definitions of culture. Most include some or all of the following: the knowledge, skills, rules, norms, practices, traditions, self-definitions, institutions (e.g., educational, legal, communal, religious, political), language, and values that shape and guide beliefs and behaviors in a particular group of people as well as the art, literature, folklore, and artifacts produced and passed down to the next generation (Banks & Banks, 2016; Cohen, 2009, 2010). Cultures have scripts—programs for living—that are communicated to members. This communication is for the most part tacit—understood or implied without being explicitly stated. Cultural boundaries are socially constructed and fluid. Cultural and social groups can be defined along regional, ethnic, religious, racial, gender, social class, or other lines. These lines are sometimes drawn to maintain or resist systems of power (Causadias, 2020). For example, the Black Lives Matter movement arose in resistance to a dominant culture built on the foundation of White supremacy in the United States. Each of us is a member of many groups, so we all are influenced by many different cultures. Sometimes these influences are incompatible or even contradictory. For example, if you are a feminist but also a Roman Catholic, you might have trouble reconciling the two different cultures’ beliefs about the ordination of women as priests. Your personal belief will be based, in part, on how strongly you identify with each group. Many different cultures thrive within every modern country. In the United States, students growing up in a small rural town in the Great Plains are part of a cultural group that is quite different from that of students in a large Northeastern urban center or students in a Texas suburb. Within those small towns in the Great Plains, the child of a convenience store clerk grows up in a different culture than does the child of the town doctor or ­dentist. Individuals of African, Asian, Hispanic, Native American, or European descent have distinctive histories and traditions even though great cultural variety exists among ­members of these groups. People living within a particular country may share common experiences and values, but many aspects of their lives are shaped by their different cultural affiliations and increasingly by their social networks that have no geographical boundaries. Members of different cultural groups are treated differently by the larger cultural structures within society. Culture has been compared to an iceberg. A small part of the iceberg is visible; the rest is hidden and often unknown. The visible signs of culture, such as costumes and marriage traditions, reflect only a small portion of the differences among cultures, as you can see in Figure 2.1. Many aspects of our cultural selves exist “below the surface.” Many of our cultural affiliations are not readily visible to others. In addition, your own cultural “database”— the basis for your assumptions, norms, and actions—might not be visible even to you. I once gave a research presentation in France and was worried when I saw that no one was nodding along as I spoke. Was it my accent? My message? I realized that cultural rules for appropriate interpersonal behaviors differ. In some groups, listeners give a slight affirmative nod of the head and perhaps an occasional “uh huh” to indicate they are

Culture The knowledge, values, attitudes, and traditions that guide the behavior of a group of people and allow them to solve the problems of living in their environment.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® The Larger Community (IV, B1, 3) Familiarize yourself with the predicted changes in the U.S. population over the next several decades. How are those changes likely to affect education? What can schools and teachers do to adjust positively to those changes?

38  Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity

Figure 2.1  Culture as an Iceberg Just as most of the iceberg is out of sight and below the water line, so are most cultural differences invisible to others and even out of conscious awareness. The out-of-awareness differences are often the causes of misunderstandings and conflicts.

Heroes and Heroines Cooking and foods Literature Myths Music Dress Games Language Notions of modesty Holiday customs

Childrearing beliefs Understanding of the natural world Rules of eye contact

Roles of men and women

Explanations of disease Beliefs about effort and ability Conception of justice and fairness Conception of cleanliness

Beliefs about social mobility

Definition of insanity Roles in relation to age, sex, class, occupation, kinship, and so forth Nature of friendship

Facial expressions

Preference for competition or cooperation Definitions of showing respect

Sense of time Conceptions of learning and teaching

Concept of personal space

AND MUCH, MUCH MORE…

listening carefully. But members of other cultures listen without giving ­acknowledgment, or with eyes downcast, as a sign of respect. In some cultures, high-status individuals initiate conversations and ask the questions, and low-status individuals only respond. In other cultures, the pattern is reversed. These are the elements of culture beneath the ­surface—they are implicit, unstated beliefs about acceptable ways of thinking, being, and doing (Kahneman, 2011; Sheets, 2005). I was unaware of this culture-based expectation I held of my audience. Cultural influences are widespread and pervasive. Some psychologists have shown that culture can determine even how a group defines intelligence (Nisbett, 2009). For example, physical grace is essential in Balinese social life, so the ability to master physical movements is a mark of intelligence in that culture. Manipulating words and numbers is important in Western societies, so in these cultures such skills are indicators of intelligence (Gardner, 2011). Even symptoms of psychological disorders are affected by culture. In industrialized cultures where cleanliness is emphasized, people with obsessive-compulsive disorders often become obsessed with cleaning their hands, whereas in Bali, where social networks are emphasized, people with obsessive-compulsive disorders often become ­obsessed with knowing all the details about the lives of their friends and family—their social network (Lemelson, 2003).

Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity 39

Your Cultural and Educational History To better understand educational psychology and human development, let’s begin by exploring your own cultural and educational background. More than 100 years ago, father of American psychology William James, whom you met in Chapter 1, famously observed that “introspection is what we have to rely on first, foremost, and always.” Stop & Think  So let’s conduct a little introspective research (we might call this “me” search). Look back at your life. How would you describe your educational and cultural background? What were your formal and informal educational experiences like? Which cultural groups were you part of growing up? Which have you chosen for yourself? In what ways have you been advantaged? In what ways have you been disadvantaged? How does this affect you now? I recently asked my undergraduate students to conduct their own autobiographical research project about their educational background (we called it a “me” search project). To help them reflect, I provided a few guiding questions (see the list in Table 2.1 on the next page). We also spent some time discussing how talking openly about our individual, ­social, and cultural backgrounds can be an emotionally vulnerable thing to do. I encouraged students to share with others only those details about their experiences that they felt ­comfortable sharing. The activity was mostly designed to help students reflect ­introspectively on the circumstances of their lives that contributed to who they have become. How would you answer the questions in Table  2.1? Your own experiences and ­circumstances, whether you selected them or not, have shaped the way you see yourself and ­others. They are also part of your cultural background. Your social and educational ­experiences have helped you build a rich cultural “database.” As my students selected details about their educational autobiographies to share with others in the class, many used words like “normal” or “typical” to describe their schooling experiences. However, as they listened to their classmates, they were asked to write down at least one aspect of each classmate’s cultural or educational experience that was different from their own. Here are a few of the distinctions my students noticed as they listened to one another:

• “He is from a big family and did not move, which is the opposite of my small, ­fractured family and many moves.”

• “She was raised in an affluent community outside of Chicago—she had more ­opportunities for growth than I had. My dad drank our money away.”

• “I never went to a predominantly White school like he did.” • “I grew up with no ethnic minority students in my school system. I missed out on a valuable learning experience.”

• “She went to an all-girls high school, which was probably a very difficult experience.” • “He has lived in three different states throughout his life, and I’ve never left K ­ entucky. My family has lived in the same house since my parents got married.”

• “She became super close friends with one of her teachers, which I wouldn’t have even imagined possible in my experience.”

• “Christian farm life must be so different from my non-Christian suburban life. I have never even been on a farm before.”

• “He had advanced musical opportunities from a pretty young age. He has been very well trained by world-class musicians.”

• “Being from a poorer area and school district shaped her educational experience. Unlike me, she learned more from her informal education than from her formal ­education due to the low funding.”

40  Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity

Table 2.1  Your Educational Autobiography REFLECTIVE QUESTIONS • What was your family’s educational background? What was your household income? Whom have you lived with? • How would you describe your parents’ social class and status? • Where have you lived? How would you describe your home(s) and neighborhood(s)? Where have you traveled? • What were the values, norms, and expectations in your home? • What learning tools (e.g., books, computers, games, people) were available to you at school and at home? • What were your formal schooling experiences like? What kinds of schools did you attend? What kinds of classes were you in (or not in)? How did you feel at school? • What were your informal learning experiences (e.g., faith groups, sports, travel, music, camps, work) like? • How were your teachers? Who or what has been your most influential teacher? • How would you describe your peers and classmates? • What was the most typical aspect of your education? What was most atypical? • In what areas do you feel less educated than you would like to be? Why? • How have you felt different from others? When, where, and by whom did you feel most and least accepted? • How much trust did you feel in people in your community (e.g., peers, teachers, neighbors)? • How would you describe your own cultural background? How has it affected you? • How were you as a learner? Where has learning been easiest? Where has it been most difficult? • How would you describe your academic motivation? • How has your educational experience influenced what you want out of life? • What social or cultural events, ceremonies, or rituals did you take part in? • How would you describe the health (e.g., physical, psychological) of your family members? • Who were the members of the “in” and “out” groups in your schools and communities? Which were you in? • How would you describe your interactions with members of other racial groups? • Were you a part of any social group for which you had to qualify? • Were you a member of any selective groups (e.g., girls only, advanced students, special education, varsity athletics)? • Did you have financial or social resources that gave you additional educational opportunities? • Do you or does someone close to you (a) speak more than one language, (b) play a musical instrument, (c) participate in a civic organization, (d) have a private tutor, (e) read extensively, or (f) have an advanced degree? • How much choice did you or your parents have in where you went to school, what classes you were in, and who your teachers were? • What resources (e.g., books, transportation, high-speed Internet, family members who attended college, a trusted adult confidant, a personal bank account, a job opportunity, a private tutor) were available to you? • What was your relationship to the natural environment? How often did you spend time outdoors? • What job(s) have you held? How and why did you get those job(s)? What have they taught you? • In what capacity have you had to work with others toward a common goal? • Where have you felt that the doors to opportunity were open to you? Where have the doors felt closed to you? Why? • What did you learn, whether directly or indirectly, about groups of people who were different from you?

What did you notice? I hope you can see that no single educational or cultural experience exists. We can all find commonalities and differences. Becoming more aware of your own social and cultural upbringings and those of others will help you become a more culturally conscious teacher. This awareness will increase the likelihood that you honor ­cul­tural differences when you plan your instruction. Later in this chapter, we will provide specific examples of ways you can do this. For now, let’s meet two students who provide a more in-depth look at cultural diversity.

Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity 41

Meet Two Students In Chapter 1, you read some statistics about students in America and saw that classrooms are becoming more diverse. But teachers do not work with statistics; they work with ­students—unique individuals. In this section, Nancy Knapp from the University of ­Georgia invites us to meet two individuals. These students are not specific people; they are composites of the characteristics of real people Nancy has known and taught. The names and schools are fictional, but the descriptions of these students’ lives are very real. Ternice Mattox is a seventh-grader who lives with her mother and three younger ­s iblings in a large city in the Northeast. Her mother works the 7:00 to 3:00 shift at a ­dry-­cleaning plant and then cleans offices some nights and weekends to make ends meet, so Ternice gets her brothers and sister up and ready for school every day, feeds them dinner when they get home, and makes sure they do their homework at night; she has been doing this since she was 10. School hasn’t ever been very hard for Ternice. In elementary school she usually got B’s, but she never really liked school until sixth grade, when her English teacher “let you write about whatever you wanted, even your own life; and she didn’t count off for every mistake right away, but let you work with her and with the other kids until you had a final copy you could be really proud of.” Ternice found out that she really enjoyed writing and was good at it, too. She talked so much in English class that Anthony Bailey criticized her about “actin’ so White.” Ternice got mad; it really bothered her. She and Anthony kind of “talk,” and she likes him a lot. Her teacher wants her to take some tests to see whether she can get into the program for students with gifts and talents, but Ternice is not so sure. Even if she got in, she’s afraid she wouldn’t know anyone; almost all the kids in “gifted” are White, and the few Black kids are from another part of town. Besides, her friends, especially Anthony, might not like it. Her mama wants her to try and says there’s no telling where she can go from there, but Ternice doesn’t want to go anywhere that’s away from all her friends. Still, she wishes she could have more classes like her English class last year. Jessie Kinkaid is a junior at Red Falls High School in Wisconsin. She lives with her mother, who works as a doctor’s receptionist, in a small house in town. Her father lives just outside of town with his second wife and Jessie’s three-year-old half-brother, so she sees him pretty often. Jessie is in the vocational track at school and mostly makes Cs, with a few Ds. Once in a while, she fails a course, but she’ll have enough credits to graduate by the end of next year, which is all she really cares about. Her family and consumer sciences teacher says she has a real flair for cooking and wants Jessie to bring up her grades so that she can apply to chef’s school. Jessie likes to cook and knows she’s good at it, but she doesn’t see any point in getting more schooling. She’s graduating only to please her parents; she knows what she’s going to do with her life. After graduation she’s going to get a job in town somewhere for a couple years to save up some money, and then she’ll marry Walter Aiken. She and Walt have been dating since she was a freshman and he was a junior. Walt started this year at UW–Platteville to get a degree in animal science, and they plan to wait until he is finished before they get married. Then they’ll move into the small house on the Aikens’ farm until Walt’s dad is ready to retire, probably in another 3 or 4 years. Then Walt will take over the farm, and they’ll move into the large farm house; Jessie hopes they’ll have at least one child by then. So, Jessie doesn’t see any point in worrying about her grades, as long as they’re good enough for her to graduate. Her father agrees that it would be foolish to waste time and money on extra schooling she’ll never use. Jessie’s mother, who left school at 17 to marry, is the one urging Jessie to think about continuing her education. She says she just wants Jessie to “keep all her options open.” Ternice and Jessie are just two students, and there are millions more—unique ­collections of abilities and experiences. They use different vocabularies, have different ethnic and ­racial backgrounds, and live in different kinds of communities. Some come from f­ amilies in ­poverty, others from families with power and privilege—but all face challenges in their education. For the remainder of the chapter, we look at several dimensions of cultural ­differences in schools today.

42  Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity

Cultural Intersections and Terminology As we discuss cultural differences, we need to keep several important points and terms in mind. First, we will focus sections of this chapter on social class, ethnicity, race, gender, and sexual orientation because much of the available research has focused on these categories. Of course, real people are not just African American, or middle class, or male; they are complex beings and members of many groups, just like Ternice and Jessie, the two students you just met. Stop & Think  Stop here for a moment and think of three to five groups (gender, sexual orientation, class, ethnicity, religion, socioeconomic status, age, etc.) to which you belong. You might use the identity wheel pictured in Figure 2.2 to help. How do the intersections of your memberships influence your interactions with others? How might your own cultural heritage and chosen cultural affiliations affect how you see yourself and what you do? What have been the major advantages of your group ­affiliations or social identities? What, if any, disadvantages have you experienced?

Intersectionality Our overlapping, intersecting social identities (gender, sexual orientation, class, ethnicity, religion, socioeconomic status, age, etc.) that shape each and every one of us in unique ways.

INTERSECTIONALITY.  The fact that you belong to many social groups results in a

fascinating tapestry of cultural intersectionality. Intersectionality refers to our ­overlapping, intersecting social identities (gender, sexual orientation, class, ethnicity, ­religion, socioeconomic status, age, etc.) that shape each of us in unique ways (Rosenthal, Cultural and Gender Differences in the Classroom (III, B) 2016). Individuals who are members of multiple social groups that have been disempowWhat are the sources of posered by others can experience additional psychological, educational, and health risks. sible miscommunication among As Audre Lorde, an African American author who dedicated her career to c­ onfronting students and teachers in the racism, sexism, homophobia, and classism, once said, “There is no such thing as a classroom because of cultural or ­single-issue struggle because we do not live single-issue lives” (Lorde, 1982). For example, gender differences? Identify steps students who are in gender and sexual minority groups are at greater risk of h ­ omelessness, a teacher can take to minimize such problems. and this risk increases if they are also members of an ethnic minority group (Tierney & Ward, 2017). As you read on, think of your own examples of how such cultural ­intersectionalities might influence learning and teaching. Figure 2.2  Cultural Identity Wheel Intersectionality also means that knowing that a person is a People belong to many cultural and social groups. How member of a particular cultural group does not define what that would you describe yourself in each category? Which person is like. As you just saw, you belong to many social and of these groups is most important to you? Which do cultural groups—some visible and some invisible. Even m ­ embers you think about most often? of the same cultural group can have widely different behaviors. This means that we must resist the tendency to predict or explain a person’s behavior from their membership in a particular group. The reasons for human behavior are much too ­c omplicated! Religious Neighborhood beliefs ­C onsider, for example, how many explanations there might be for why a student in your class consistently arrives late. It might be that the student has a job before school, must walk a Gender Race long d ­ istance, or, like Ternice, is responsible for getting younger Family Peer siblings to school. Maybe the student dreads school. Why, then, status groups Physical Abilities do we use these cultural categories to label people at all?

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II®

Traits

National origin

Sexual identity Ethnicity

Work experience

Source: Image above created by Ellen Usher

Social class Age

Political affiliation

CULTURAL GROUPS AND TERMINOLOGY.  The identity wheel in Geographic location

Figure 2.2 offers some broad categories behind which are many more terms people use to describe their cultural affiliations and social group memberships. As we will explore throughout the book, language is a powerful cultural tool. Behind the words we use are concepts that have been socially agreed upon, sometimes through force and domination. For example, the concept of “nationality” has often been decided based on who conquered a given territory or people. Similarly, the concept of “race” has been redefined over centuries using an assortment of arbitrarily selected ­physical ­features, including skin pigmentation.

Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity 43

Neuroscientist Lisa Feldman Barrett (2020) observed that we tend to “treat the labeled boxes as if they’re part of nature when in fact we build them. . . . We, as a culture, choose the ­features of discrimination and draw dividing lines that magnify the differences between the group we call ‘us’ and the group we call ‘them’” (pp. 121–122). When labels are used in ways that show an inclination toward or against ­members of a certain group, the label is considered biased and can cause harm. Consider how ­children might feel when the term “illegal alien” (versus “immigrant” or “refugee”) is used to ­describe them. As an educator, you should strive to use bias-free language. This can be ­challenging because language is dynamic and fluid, changing over time and among groups. Also, the labels that in-group members use to describe themselves might differ from those used by out-group members. For example, “Latinx” has been used increasingly as a g ­ ender-inclusive alternative to “Latino” or “Latina” to refer to people in the United States with ethnic roots in Latin America or Spain. However, a recent study found that only 25% of Hispanic-identifying people had heard of the term, and only 3% actually use it ­(Noe-­Bustamante et al., 2020). How should you determine which labels to use? What will you teach your students about labels? There is no set of rigid rules for the “correct” terms to use. However, some terms are considered oppressive or obsolete and are therefore always unacceptable. The American Psychological Association has published guidelines for bias-free language. One overarching recommendation is that it is best “to use the terms that individuals and/or communities use to describe themselves, their experiences, and their practices” (APA, 2019, p. 131). However, if the terms that people use to describe themselves are considered stigmatizing, it is best to avoid using them. Remember that language holds great power. When in doubt, r­ espect ­people’s humanity. We will all make mistakes, but we can apologize and use the more ­appropriate term next time. In this book, we will make linguistic decisions as responsibly as we can, knowing that some readers will prefer that we had used different terminology and that language is always evolving. You can read more specific recommendations about­ language ­related to race, ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, disability, and sexual orientation here: https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/bias-free-language

Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination Now that you have explored your own cultural background and reflected on the many ­intersecting cultural groups to which you belong, let’s look at how you have learned to understand people in social and cultural groups similar to and different from your own. We will specifically examine the human tendency to categorize people and things and what can happen when those categorizations become too rigid and lead to cultural conflicts, ­prejudice, and discrimination. Understanding this process will help you develop more ­culturally supportive practices and support your students’ social development. STEREOTYPES: THE GOOD AND THE BAD.  The social and cultural information that your

mind has been sifting through during your lifetime—your “database”—permits you to quickly categorize things, people, and places according to the common features that you have learned about them. As you will learn in later chapters, your mind works more ­efficiently by grouping things together based on their common features rather than by ­treating things individually. We develop schemas—organized bodies of knowledge—about objects, events, and actions. Stop & Think  List three traits most characteristic of: College freshmen Politicians Athletes Buddhists Members of the National Rifle Association

Pearson eText Video Example 2.1 As this teacher learned from a student, respecting students’ cultures is very different than expecting students to have particular interests, skills, or behaviors simply because they have a particular cultural background.

44  Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity Stereotype A widely held, often oversimplified, schema that organizes knowledge or perceptions about a category.

Prejudice Prejudgment or irrational generalization about an entire category of people.

Bias A prejudicial preference or action.

From a very young age, we also form schemas, or stereotypes, about groups of people. For the Stop & Think activity on the previous page, your mind consulted your e­ xperiential database to help furnish you with a list of several traits most characteristic of college ­freshmen, politicians, athletes, Buddhists, and members of the National Rifle Association. That list would reveal your stereotypes about each group. These stereotypes organize what you know, believe, and feel about the group. Nothing is inherently wrong with stereotyping. Throughout your life, your mind has been busy gathering and categorizing data to help you understand the world around you and make predictions about what will happen. Stereotypes are based on your own social and cultural experiences. This includes your exposure to media such as television, films, books, and the Internet. You passively consume a lot of information each day and are not always aware of the massive number of implicit associations your brain is making along the way (Greenwald & Lai, 2020). Any time you encounter a new situation—even as you read the words in this textbook—your mind will refer back to your own experiences to help you make sense of it. This is a natural starting place. But what if some of that information is ­incomplete or, worse, inaccurate or biased? You probably also know that stereotypes can be problematic. One reason for this is that stereotypes are oversimplified (e.g., all Californians are relaxed). Another is that stereotypes are based on limited data (I will not meet every Californian or learn everything about each one of them). Even seemingly positive stereotypes can lead to problems. For example, Asians and Asian Americans have been stereotyped as “model minority” students—quiet, hardworking, passive students who universally succeed (Yi et al., 2020). These stereotypes can reinforce conformity and stifle assertiveness. They also set up harmful social comparisons between Asian-heritage students and students of other ethnicities. Stacey Lee and her colleagues have described another stereotype confronting Asian Americans: They are seen as perpetual foreigners (Lee et al., 2017). No matter how many decades their families have lived in America, even fourth- or fifth-generation Asian American students might not be perceived as “real” Americans (J. Lee & Zhou, 2015). In fact, researchers have shown that teachers tend to refer to these students as “Asian,” not as “Asian American” or “American. ” Too often, students who are the target of teachers’ cultural stereotypes take them to heart and feel pressured, burdened, or even invisible. ­F ROM STEREOTYPES TO PREJUDICE.  When people think stereotypically about social groups, they tend to make evaluations about two group characteristics: warmth (Are ­members of this group friendly? Trustworthy?) and competence (Are people in this group capable? Assertive?). For example, older adults are often stereotyped as high in warmth but low in ­assertiveness. How would you rate each group in the previous Stop & Think activity on these two dimensions? According to psychologist Susan Fiske (2018), your evaluation of social groups leads you hold certain feelings toward people within them. For instance, people a­ dmire those whom they judge to be high in warmth and competence, but they feel pity or contempt for those who lack these qualities. Research has shown that these feelings about a group (e.g., admiration, contempt, pity) can quickly give way to prejudice—rigid and unfair generalizations about an entire category of people. For example, you are prejudiced against people who are overweight if you think they are lazy, feel disgusted when you see them, and refuse to date them (Aboud et al., 2012). Likewise, bias refers to a prejudicial preference or action. Like stereotypes, prejudice and bias can be positive or negative; that is, you can have positive as well as negative irrational beliefs about a group. They can be directed toward individuals of any group categorization, such as race, ethnicity, religion, politics, age, geographic location, language, sexual orientation, gender, ability, or appearance. How do our prejudices develop? Prejudice starts early. Humans have a tendency to divide the social world into two categories: us and them, or the in-group and the out-group. We tend to see members of the out-group as inferior to and different from us but similar to each other—“they all look alike.” Even in infancy, children are more likely to accept a toy from people familiar to them (Rhodes & Baron, 2019). Results from studies around the world show that prejudice based

Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity 45

on ethnic group membership begins by age 4 or 5 (Aboud et al., 2012; Anzures et al., 2013). In-group and out-group prejudices might be based on race, religion, gender, age, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or even athletic team membership. Another source of prejudice is that people tend to make favorable attributions to ­themselves and less favorable attributions to others, thus assuming their own superiority. For example, people who have more (money, social status, prestige) might justify their ­privilege by claiming it was earned entirely by their individual efforts and skills. This can lead to blaming the victims: People who live in poverty or women who are raped are seen as ­causing their problems by their behaviors—“they got what they deserved.” What follows can be the myth of meritocracy—the idea that all people are on equal playing fields and that success is just a matter of working hard. This overlooks the many unearned advantages or disadvantages people have by virtue of their life circumstances, such as when or where they were born. Emotions play a part as well. When things go wrong, we look for someone or some whole group to blame. For example, after the global coronavirus outbreak, some people vented their anger by attacking innocent Asian Americans (Lee & Waters, 2021). But prejudice is more than a tendency to form in-groups, a self-justification, or an ­emotional reaction—prejudice is also the product of a large storehouse of information and ­values that we gather throughout our lives. Children learn both explicitly and implicitly about traits and characteristics that are (or are not) valued by their families, peers, and ­teachers and by the broader world around them. The media also perpetuates ­stereotypical messages about who is (and is not) successful. For years, the “powerful” and “smart” ­characters presented in books, films, television, and advertising were European ­Americans and men. People of different ethnic and racial backgrounds were seldom the “heroes” (Ward, 2004). This is changing. In 2020, the United States elected its first African ­American, ­southeast Asian American, and female Vice President; its first female Secretary of the ­Treasury; and its first African American Secretary of Defense. Even so, seeing historically oppressed groups acknowledged favorably by the ­media is not a given. Negative portrayals in the media of women, racial minorities, and certain religious minority groups have been amplified in some media outlets in recent years and by some elected officials. The Southern Poverty Law Center reported a surge in White ­n ationalism, hate speech, racism, and far-right extremism during the 2016 and 2020 ­presidential campaigns (see Costello, 2016, https://www.splcenter.org). How does this affect young ­learners and, ­particularly, those in minoritized groups? STEREOTYPE THREAT.  When learners feel that they must constantly monitor the e­ nvironment for possible stereotypes and prejudice, their academic performance can be ­undermined—a concept referred to as stereotype threat. The term stereotype threat refers to an “apprehensiveness about confirming a stereotype” (Aronson, 2002, p. 282). The basic idea is that when individuals are in situations in which a stereotype applies, they bear extra emotional and cognitive burdens—the possibilities of confirming the stereotype, either in the eyes of others or in their own eyes. So, when girls are asked to solve complicated ­mathematics problems or when African Americans take the SATs, for example, they are at risk of confirming widely held stereotypes that girls are inferior to boys in mathematics or that African Americans score lower on the SATs than do other ethnic groups. Believing the stereotype is not necessary: All that matters is that the individual is aware of the stereotype and cares about performing well enough to disprove its unflattering implications. Steven Spencer and his colleagues (2016) pointed out that “Every individual is ­potentially vulnerable to stereotype threat, because every individual has at least one social identity that is targeted by a negative stereotype in some given situation” (p. 415). The impact seems to be worse for learners who strongly identify with the group or activity under threat (“I am proud to be African American,” “Science is really important to me!”) (Appel & Kronberger, 2012; Huguet & Régner, 2007). For example, studies have shown that stereotype threat has worsened the performance of students from lower-SES backgrounds, older adult test takers, elite athletes, White male college students who were very strong in mathematics but were told that Asian students performed much better on a particular

Pearson eText Video Example 2.2 Have most of your teachers shared your racial or cultural background? How did this affect you and your ­beliefs? Teacher Dani Ramsey addresses the ways that ethnic and racial representation matters in the classroom. Think of how you might ­increase the opportunities for students to encounter people who are similar to and different from them.

Stereotype threat The emotional and cognitive burdens that can result from heightened awareness that your performance in an academic situation might confirm a stereotype that others hold about you.

46  Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity test, and school-age boys who believed they were inferior to girls (Hartley & Sutton, 2013; Spencer et al., 2016). How, exactly, does the threat of confirming a stereotype affect learners? E ­ xperiencing a psychological threat can (a) prevent individuals from performing at their best on tests and assignments; (b) interfere with attention, working memory, and learning in the ­subject (e.g., math); and (c) decrease connections to and valuing of that subject (­Spencer et al., 2016). Thus, stereotype threat might be one cause, but not the sole cause, of ­performance ­d ifferences between some groups (Nadler & Clark, 2011). Students who experience ­stereotype threat are less likely to feel a sense of belonging and connection in the context where the threat is “in the air.” When they feel disconnected, motivation and engagement suffer (Thoman et al., 2013). They might lose interest, develop self-defeating ­strategies to avoid looking stupid, or feel anxious in testing situations (read more about these in ­Chapter 12). Experiencing persistent threats can lead to negative, long-term consequences such as withdrawal of effort or even dropping out of school. As soon as students psychologically disengage from school, they are unlikely to exert the effort needed for real ­learning. One way that teachers can help reduce these effects is by developing a curricu­­­­­­­­ lum that provides rich counterevidence to stereotypical messages and by affirming students in their diverse identities (Spencer et al., 2016). FROM PREJUDICE TO DISCRIMINATION.  As we have seen, prejudice consists of rigid,

Discrimination Treating or acting unfairly toward particular categories of people.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Economic Conditions/Socioeconomic Status (SES) (IV, B2) Be aware of the possible effects of SES on student achievement. Consider what steps teachers can take to minimize those effects.

­irrational beliefs and feelings (usually negative) about an entire category of people. The third element of prejudice is a tendency to act, called discrimination. Discrimination refers to unequal treatment of particular groups of people. Clearly, many Americans face prejudice and discrimination in subtle or blatant ways every day. Mistreatment of unarmed Black men by the police is an example of discrimination with life-and-death consequences. However, ample evidence of discrimination can be found in childhood and adolescence, from the playground to the classroom to the principal’s office. Although prejudice and discrimination come from many places—peers, media, social encounters outside of school—evidence suggests that perceiving discrimination from a teacher may be the most damaging for educational outcomes (Benner & Graham, 2013). As noted earlier, teachers are often unaware of their prejudices. Yet these prejudices can affect teachers’ expectations for their students and how they interpret students’ behaviors. In her book Discrimination in Childhood and Adolescence, psychologist Christia Brown (2017) shows that even young children are highly attuned to whether they are welcomed and included by others at school. Perceiving that one is being unfairly treated can have negative psychological, physical, academic, and social consequences in both the short and the long terms. Feeling undervalued, overlooked, or excluded makes staying focused and motivated at school difficult. In addition, being the target of others’ prejudices and discrimination can lead learners to feel that they must constantly monitor the environment for further prejudice and discrimination, causing immense stress and undermining academic achievement. In the sections that follow, we will look more closely at how members of different ­cultural groups experience school. Specifically, we focus on economic and social class, ethnicity and race, gender and sexual identities, and how learners’ experiences are related to learning, ­development, and motivation. We will also share evidence about how group-based stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination can alter learners’ self-beliefs, motivation, emotions, and learning.

Economic and Social Class Differences Learning Outcome 2.2  Discuss what defines social class and socioeconomic status, including how SES differences relate to school achievement. Even though most researchers would agree that social class is one of the most meaningful cultural dimensions in people’s lives, those same researchers have great difficulty defining social class (Liu et al., 2004; Macionis, 2019). Different terms are used—social class, socioeconomic

Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity 47

status, economic background, wealth, poverty, capital, and privilege. Some people consider only economic differences; others add considerations of power, influence, mobility, educational ­attainment, occupational status, control over resources, access to opportunities, and prestige.

­Social Class and Socioeconomic Status Most researchers identify five general social class distinctions in U.S. society: u ­ pper, ­u pper middle, middle, working, and lower classes. The main characteristics of these five groups in the United States are summarized in Table 2.2. These are rough approximations; people’s lived experiences might not fall neatly within these categorical lines. Across the past five decades, the number of ­American adults living in middle-income households has steadily decreased as the number of wealthy and poor households in America has increased (Horowitz et al., 2020a). The richest 5% of families in the United States have seen the most rapid growth in wealth. The trends reflect growing income ­inequality in the United States, which outpaces that of other countries. Another way to assess people’s standing in society commonly used in research by sociologists and psychologists is by combining variations in wealth, power, control over resources, and prestige into an index called socioeconomic status (SES). SES is usually ­ascribed to people by researchers; different formulas for determining SES might lead to different categorizations (Macionis, 2019; Sirin, 2005). No single variable, not even income, is an effective measure of SES. Rather, SES refers to a composite ranking of these various ­measures of social inequality. You might be thinking that your own social standing does not fit into any of these rigid ­categories. One reason is that levels of wealth, power, and prestige are not always ­consistent. Some people—for instance, university professors—are members of professions that are ­reasonably high in terms of social status and prestige but that provide considerably less wealth or power (believe me). Other people have political power even though they are

Socioeconomic status (SES) Relative standing in a society based on income, power, background, and prestige.

Table 2.2  Selected Characteristics of Different Social Class Memberships UPPER CLASS Percentage of U.S. population

UPPER MIDDLE CLASS

5%

MIDDLE CLASS 40–45%

WORKING CLASS

LOWER CLASS

33%

20%

Income

$239,000 to billions

$134,000–$238,000

$55,000–$134,000

$30,000–$55,000

Below $27,000

Occupation/Source of Money

Family money, “old money,” investments, CEO

Corporate, professional, income earned in some way

White-collar, skilled blue-collar

Blue-collar

Minimum wage, unskilled labor

Education

Home-schooled, tutors, prestigious private schools and colleges

Prestigious colleges and graduate schools

High school, college, or professional school

High school; about 20% go to college

High school

Home Ownership

Several homes, private jets for transportation

At least one home

Usually own home

About half own a home

About 40% own a home

Health Coverage

Full

Full

Usually

Limited

Uncommon

Neighborhoods

The most exclusive

Exclusive or comfortable

Comfortable

Modest

Deteriorating, least desirable areas

Afford Children’s College

Easily

Usually

Seldom

Rarely

Uncommon

Political Power

National (perhaps international), state, local

National, state, local

State or local

Limited

No

Note: All descriptions are rough categorizations. Many exceptions can occur within each category according to individuals and context. For example, income markers differ by number in household and geographic region. In very expensive areas such as San Francisco, it may take at least $150,000 for a family of three to be in the lower middle class. ­ ource: Information from Macionis, J. J. (2019). Sociology (17th ed). Pearson; Gorski, P. (2013). Reaching and teaching students in poverty: Strategies for erasing the opportunity gap. Teachers College S Press.

48  Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity not wealthy, or they might be members of the elite social register in a town even though their family money is long gone. Most people are generally aware of their social class; that is, they perceive that some groups are above them in the social class hierarchy and some are below (Diemer et al., 2013). In fact, people quickly evaluate small social cues (e.g., ­physical ­appearance, language, ­behaviors) to determine what social class others are in relative to them (Kraus et al., 2017). These subjective evaluations, in turn, guide people’s beliefs, ­behaviors, and well-being, thereby reinforcing actual social class boundaries. Students (and teachers) may even show a kind of “classism” (like racism or sexism), believing that they are superior to members of lower social classes and avoiding association with them. For example, Marissa, a member of the most popular and privileged clique in her high school, described the “grits”—the least popular group—as follows: Grits are poor. I think they mostly live in the country. We—[quickly correcting herself] some of my friends call them hicks or rednecks. I guess most live on the Hill—that’s over on the west side of town. It’s the slums. Grits smoke, do drugs, dress grungy. They have those hick accents. They usually get bad grades. They don’t like school so I think they drop out a lot. They don’t really fit in. They are troublemakers. I don’t see them much; they aren’t in any of my classes. (Brantlinger, 2004, pp. 109–110) Author Isabel Wilkerson would say that Marissa is describing a “caste” system of social hierarchy in the United States (Wilkerson, 2020). “Caste” is defined as the “invisible structure that created and maintains hierarchy and inequality” based on our many intersectional cultural group memberships, including class, wealth, power, race, gender, i­mmigration status, and other cultural identities (pp. 69–70). This invisible ­structure becomes reinforced in our policies, structures, and habitual ways of thinking. A caste “affix[es] people to certain roles based upon what they look like and what they historically have been assigned to or the characteristics and stereotypes by which they have been categorized” (p. 71).

Poverty and Social Inequality Experiencing poverty can amplify other disadvantages related to a person’s social ­standing. In 2019, about 14.5% of Americans under the age of 18 lived below the federal poverty line of a $26,172 annual income for a family of four (Semega et al., 2020). If we add children living in low-income families (earning about $48,000 for a family of four), then 44% of all children in the United States lived in low-income or poor families, and 30 million students qualified to receive free or reduced-price lunches at school in 2016 (Jiang et al., 2016; U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2016). The absolute number of children living in poverty is similar for non-Hispanic White ­c hildren (3.2  million), Latino children (4.4  million), and African American children (3.0 million). However, these numbers are misleading. The rate of poverty is much higher for African American, Latino, and Native American children—30% of African American and 24% of Latino children lived in poverty in 2018, whereas 11% of Asian and 9% of nonHispanic White children were poor (Children’s Defense Fund, 2020). Contrary to many ­stereotypes, the absolute number of poor children living in rural and suburban areas is greater than that in central cities. But poverty rates are high in urban schools. Childhood poverty rates declined steadily during the period of economic expansion in the United States between 2010 and 2020 (Semega et al., 2020); however, the ­COVID-19 pandemic is exacerbating social and economic inequalities, which are worse for Latino, African American, and indigenous children and families (Bauer et al., 2020; Benner & Mistry, 2020). Even before the pandemic, wealth gaps between the upper class and other income groups in the United States had been widening over the previous two ­decades; White households are approximately 10 times wealthier than Black households and 8 times wealthier than Hispanic households (Killewald et al., 2017). Discriminatory ­practices (e.g., lending practices, segregation, school districting) and institutionalized racism continue to put African Americans at a disadvantage when it comes to accumulating wealth.

Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity 49

Poverty and Academic Outcomes Living in poverty can affect learners’ development and academic outcomes. The average correlation between SES and achievement tests is moderate, about .30 to .40 (Sackett et al., 2009; Sirin, 2005). In general, students of all ethnic groups with high SES show higher average levels of achievement on test scores and stay in school longer than students with low SES, and this difference widens with the student’s age, from 7 to 15 (Cutuli et al., 2013). And the longer the child is in poverty, the stronger the impact is on achievement. For example, even when we take into account parents’ education, the chance that children will be held back in school or placed in special education classes increases by 2% to 3% for every year the children live in poverty (Ackerman et al., 2004). Figure 2.3 shows the trends in reading achievement from third through eighth grade for students in several income risk groups (homeless/highly mobile, free lunch, reduced-cost lunch) compared both to the national average for those grades and to students who were never a part of any of these risk groups (labeled “general” in the figure). You can see that the growth rates are similar but that these groups begin at different levels in third grade. This is one reason that early interventions (preschool and primary school) are especially important for students placed at risk. One troubling trend is that the educational inequalities are growing between children from privileged families (income at the 90th percentile) and children from poor families ­(income at the 10th percentile). These inequalities were 30% to 40% greater for children born in 2001 compared to children born in 1976. These increasingly dramatic income differences

­Figure 2.3  Trends in Reading Achievement from Third Through Eighth Grade for Students in Several Income Risk Groups

240 Risk group

Reading achievement

General

Reduced meals National norm

220

Free meals HHM 200

180

3

4

5

6

7

8

Grade Note: General = students who were never a part of any of the risk groups; HHM = homeless/highly mobile. Source: Cutuli, J. J., Desjardins, C. D., Herbers, J. E., Long, J. D., Heistad, D., Chan, C-K, Hinz, E., & Masten, A. S. (2013). Academic achievement trajectories of homeless and highly mobile students: Resilience in the context of chronic and acute risk. Child Development, 84, p. 851. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

50  Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity between the wealthy and the poor have led to greater segregation of low-income children in lower-quality schools. Economic resources available to wealthy children allow them to reap tremendous advantages from informal learning opportunities, such as travel, specialized summer camps, and tutoring services—resources that poor families can’t afford (Berliner, 2013; Reardon, 2011). This has led some researchers to refer to differences in the educational performances of rich and poor students as an “opportunity gap” rather than an achievement gap (Gorski, 2013; Milner, 2010, 2015). When it comes to the effects of poverty on academic achievement, however, it is ­important to remember that correlation is not causation. In fact, determining how and why poverty affects children’s performance can be challenging. Researchers have studied many related factors, such as family and environmental stress, availability of resources, the types of educational investments parents make, school and neighborhood characteristics, and c­ ultural beliefs and expectations (Diemer et al., 2020; Duncan et al., 2017). Figure 2.4 provides some examples; others include poor health care, dangerous home environments, interruptions in schooling, and exposure to violence, overcrowding, homelessness, and ­discrimination. In turn, academic difficulties can lead to low-paying jobs—and another generation born into poverty. Numerous scholars have offered other possible explanations ­(Ehrlich, 2020; Gorski, 2013; Jensen, 2016). Let’s take a closer look at some of them. HEALTH, ENVIRONMENT, AND STRESS.  The negative effects of poverty begin even before

a child is born. Families in poverty have less access to good prenatal and infant health care and nutrition. More than half of all adolescent mothers receive no prenatal care at all. Poor mothers and adolescent mothers are more likely to have premature babies, and prematurity is associated with many cognitive and learning problems. Children in poverty are more likely to be exposed to both legal drugs (nicotine, alcohol) and illegal drugs (cocaine, heroin) before birth. Children whose mothers take drugs during pregnancy can have problems with organization, attention, and language skills. Poor children are four times as likely to experience chronic stress due to e­ victions, lack of food, overcrowding, or utility disconnections. Increased stress is related to ­increased school absences, decreased attention span and concentration ability, problems with ­memory and thinking, reduced motivation and effort, increased depression, and ­reduced neurogenesis (growth of new brain cells) (Blair & Raver, 2016; Evans & Kim,

Figure 2.4  Mechanisms by Which Poverty Affects Children’s Educational Outcomes Family and Environmental Stress • • • • •

Threats to basic needs Inability to buy goods/services Stress/depression Greater household hostility Exposure to environmental hazards

Culture • • • • •

Norms, behaviors, and values Beliefs and worldview Cultural scripts Structural and economic factors Neighborhood/community context

How Might Poverty Affect Child Outcomes? Resources and Investments Caregivers influence children via: • Skills, preferences, and values • Availability of financial resources • Learning and enrichment opportunities • Decisions made on behalf of children

Developmental Factors • • • • •

Brain development Cognitive and emotional control (e.g., executive functions) Cumulative or snowballing effects Timing and duration of poverty Anxiety, internalized oppression

Source: Duncan, G. J., Magnuson, K., & Votruba-Drzal, E. (2017). Moving beyond correlations in assessing the consequences of poverty. Annual Review of Psychology, 68(1), 413–434.

Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity 51

2013; Jensen, 2013). In the early years, children in poverty experience higher levels of stress hormones than do children in middle-class and wealthy families. High levels of these h ­ ormones can interfere with the flow of blood in the brain, decrease the development of ­synaptic c­ onnections, and deplete the body’s supply of tryptophan, an amino acid that calms impulsive and violent behaviors (Hudley & Novak, 2007). As they grow, poor c­ hildren breathe more polluted air and drink more contaminated water—recall the ­scandal ­surrounding the water in Flint, Michigan. Poor children are at least twice as likely as non-poor children to have lead poisoning, which is associated with lower school achievement and long-term neurological impairment (Evans, 2004). E ­ conomically ­d isadvantaged c­ hildren and particularly those who also experience maltreatment or discrimination are at increased risk of obesity, high blood pressure, and other i­ nflammatory diseases (Boyce et al., 2021). Exposure to these and other environmental stressors during critical periods of development can affect many aspects of neurological, cognitive, and emotional development (Hyde et al., 2020). LOW EXPECTATIONS—LOW ACADEMIC SELF-CONCEPT.  Poor students are also at risk

of being stigmatized by their teachers and peers. For example, students from homes with ­limited resources might wear older clothes or be less familiar with certain books and school activities. Their teachers and other students might in turn believe that these students are not bright. The teacher might avoid calling on them, assuming they don’t know the a­ nswer, set lower standards, place them in lower-ability groups, and accept poor work. Even without awareness, teachers and peers can send social “signals” that relay a message to students lower in socioeconomic standing that they are less valued (Piff et al., 2018). Thus, low e­ xpectations become institutionalized, and the educational resources provided to these children are minimal and inadequate (Borman & Overman, 2004). Low expectations, along with a lower-­quality educational experience, can lead children to internalize others’ ­negative evaluations and develop a sense of learned helplessness, described in Chapter 12 (Ruck et  al., 2019). Students with low SES, particularly those who also encounter racial discrimination, might decide that school is a dead end. Without a high school diploma, these students find few rewards awaiting them in the work world. Many available jobs barely pay a living wage. In his 2015 book Rac(e)ing to Class, Richard Milner describes the ways in which the intersection of poverty and race have led to chronic inequalities in the educational opportunities of poor students of color. PEER INFLUENCES AND RESISTANCE CULTURES.  Students who attend schools where

most of their peers are from middle- and high-income families are 68% more likely to attend college compared to students in schools where most of the students are from low-income homes. Even after controlling for many possible causes, Gregory Palardy (2013) concluded that peer influences are the strongest predictors of this difference in college attendance. Students in high-poverty schools are much less likely to have friends who plan to attend college and much more likely to have friends who drop out of school. Some researchers have suggested that certain students from low-SES backgrounds might cope with the inequities around them by becoming part of a resistance culture. To members of this culture, making it in school means selling out and trying to act “middle class.” To maintain their identity and their status within the group, these students might cope by rejecting the behaviors that would make them succeed in school—studying, cooperating with teachers, and even coming to class (Bennett, 2011; Ogbu, 1987, 1997). This is an understandable reaction from students who might view such attempts as futile in an oppressive or discriminatory system (Cokley et al., 2011). John Ogbu linked identification with a resistance culture to poor Latino American, Native American, and African American groups, but similar reactions have been noted for poor White students both in the United States and in England and also in high school students in Papua New Guinea (Woolfolk Hoy et al., 2002).

Resistance culture Group values and beliefs about refusing to adopt the behaviors and attitudes of the majority culture.

52  Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity This is not to say that all or even most students with low SES resist achievement. Many young people are high achievers in spite of either their economic situation or negative peer influences (O’Connor, 1997). And we should not forget that some aspects of schooling— competitive grading, public reprimands, stressful testing and assignments, and repetitive work that is too hard or too easy—can (and probably should) encourage resistance in all students (Okagaki, 2001). Focusing solely on students’ resistance (or their lack of resilience) is a way of blaming students for their lower achievement; instead, educators should focus on making school an inclusive place that does not invite resistance from anyone (Stinson, 2006). One way to do this is by realizing how our own cultural backgrounds, socialization, and rigid stereotypes “might hinder our abilities to connect with low-income families, or any families, in the most authentic, open way” (Gorski, 2013, p. 59). In Gorski’s words, educators need to become “equity literate.” HOME ENVIRONMENT AND RESOURCES.  Families in poverty seldom have access to high-

quality preschool care for their young children—the kind of care that enhances cognitive and social development (Duncan & Brooks-Gunn, 2000; Vandell, 2004). Poor children read less and spend more time watching television; they have less access to books, computers, the Internet, libraries, and trips—opportunity gaps again (Kim & Guryan, 2010). Even the ways in which parents talk with their children can vary by SES (Rowe, 2018). Again, these are averages and do not apply to all low-income families. Many families provide rich learning environments for their children and help them develop considerable strengths by coping with adversity (Frankenhuis & Nettle, 2020). When parents of any SES level support and encourage their children—by reading to them, providing books and cognitively stimulating toys, taking the children to the library, making time and space for learning—the children tend to become better, more enthusiastic readers (Cooper et al., 2010). Home and neighborhood resources seem to have the greatest impact on children’s achievement when school is not in session. SUMMER SETBACKS AND SCHOOL DISRUPTIONS.  Children in poverty begin school about 6 months behind in reading skills compared to those from wealthier homes, but the skill difference between the groups grows to almost 3 years by sixth grade. This gap in reading skills between students in poverty and middle-class students has been ­increasing since the early 1970s. One explanation for this growing gap is that the children from poorer homes, and especially those whose first language in not English, lose ground over the ­summer, when school is not in session. Even though both groups make comparable achievement gains during the school year, every summer vacation creates about a 3-month reading achievement gap between poor and advantaged children (Kim & Guryan, 2010; Kim & Quinn, 2013). One study suggested that the four summer vacations between second and sixth grade accounted for 80% of the achievement differences between poor and a­ dvantaged students (Allington & McGill-Frazen, 2003, 2008). This truly is a case of the rich getting richer. Wealthier children have greater access to books all the time but especially over the summer. They read more, and the more children read, the better readers they become—volume of reading matters. The good news is that quality summer reading programs for low-income families and their children can be effective in helping students improve their reading skills (Kim & Quinn, 2013). The COVID-19 pandemic has widened the economic and opportunity gaps between students whose families face economic hardships and those who are financially stable. One immediately apparent gap emerged when schools closed to in-person instruction and instructional delivery moved online. Suddenly the classroom became the living room, bedroom, or kitchen. Resources available in most school districts, such as reliable access to learning materials, regular meal service, and transportation, were disrupted. Many families—­including some teachers—lack sufficient resources, technological equipment, and access to Internet connectivity to participate in high-quality remote instruction. In some school districts, students have been alternating between remote and in-person learning

Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity 53

for many months, with no clear end in sight. In schools that have been unable to deliver online instruction to some or all students, teachers have been doing their best to get materials to students to learn at home. Student absenteeism is at an all-time high; by one estimate, 3 ­million U.S. students did not attend school in 2020–2021 (Korman et al., 2020). Scholars have projected that students will experience disproportionate learning loss as a function of their SES and prior achievement levels (Kuhfield et al., 2020). Stories abound about the ways in which the pandemic has highlighted, and exacerbated, economic inequalities and opportunity gaps. These gaps are worse for ethnic minority students, English language learners, students with disabilities, and students experiencing homelessness. TRACKING AND POOR TEACHING.  A final explanation for the lower achievement of many

students who live in low-SES environments is that these students are more often placed in lower academic tracks, and they are therefore actually taught differently (Oakes, 2005). If they are tracked into “low-ability,” “general,” “practical,” or “vocational” classes, they might be taught to memorize and to learn more passively than their more advantaged peers. Middle-class students are more likely to be encouraged to think and be creative in their classes. Even if they are not tracked, students from low-income families are more likely to attend schools with inadequate resources and less effective teachers (Evans, 2004; ­Goldhaber et al., 2018). For example, in high-poverty schools, more than 50% of math teachers and more than 60% of science teachers are inexperienced or teaching outside their subject area expertise; they were not trained for the subjects they are teaching (­ Jensen, 2009). When students with low SES receive a substandard education, this gives them inferior academic skills and limits their life chances, beginning with not preparing them for higher education (Knapp & Woolverton, 2003). Having effective teachers improves students’ short- and long-term learning, school attendance, and graduation rates.

Extreme Poverty: Homeless and Highly Mobile Students According to the National Center for Children in Poverty, nearly 10% of U.S. children who are 9 years old and younger live in deep poverty—their family income is less than half of the federal poverty line (Nguyen et al., 2020). When families live in extreme poverty, they sometimes lack even a stable home. In the 2018–2019 school year, nearly 1.4 million students were homeless in the United States (National Center for Homeless Education, 2021). That represents about 2.7% of all enrolled students. Those experiencing homelessness in adolescence were more likely Black, Hispanic, lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender, partly because of increased exposure to victimization and abuse (Morton et al., 2018; Tierney & Ward, 2017). Students who are homeless or who move very often are at additional risk of a range of physical and mental health problems and social and learning difficulties (Herbers et al., 2020). For example, even after taking many other risk factors and income levels into account, researchers found that students who moved three or more times during a school year were 60% more likely to repeat a grade (Cutuli et al., 2013). According to the National Center on Family Homelessness, 75% of elementary students and 85% of high school students who were homeless performed below grade level in reading and math. Homelessness and high mobility contribute to chronic risks and problems in school, problems that are difficult to overcome. Even with such risks, many of these students are resilient. Cutuli and his colleagues (2013) analyzed the math and reading test scores of more than 26,000 students from third through eighth grades and found that 45% of the homeless and highly mobile students achieved in the average-or-better range across time in spite of their challenges. The researchers concluded that factors such as effective parenting, student self-regulation skills (see Chapter 11), academic motivation (see Chapter 12), and the quality of teaching and teachers’ relationships with students (see this whole book) support resiliency for these students. The early years in school are particularly important. Homeless students who develop reading and self-regulation skills in the early grades are more likely to be successful throughout school (Buckner, 2012). For more ideas about quality teaching for students who live in poverty, see the Guidelines: Teaching Students Who Live in Poverty on the next page.

54  Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity

­GUIDELINES Teaching Students Who Live in Poverty Educate yourself about the effects of poverty on student learning. Examples Read articles from good journals. Seek diverse sources to inform you. For example: a. Eric Jensen’s (2013), Engaging Students with Poverty in Mind: Practical Strategies for Raising Achievement b.  Paul Gorski’s (2013) Reaching and Teaching Students in Poverty: Strategies for Erasing the Opportunity Gap. 1. 2.

Set and maintain high expectations for all students. Examples 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Guard against feeling sorry for students, excusing poor work, and expecting less. Replace pity with empathy based on solid knowledge of your students. Communicate to students that they can improve and succeed with good effort. Engage higher-order thinking skills that validate students’ intellectual capacities. Provide constructive criticism because you believe your students can do quality work. Add challenging subjects and Advanced Placement classes.

Develop caring relationships with your students (see the 2015 Center for Promise report “Don’t Quit on Me.”) Examples 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Use inclusive language—“our class,” “our projects,” “our school,” “our efforts.” Talk to students outside of class. Make a point to identify their interests and abilities. Attend sports or other events in which your students participate. Create a class Welcome Center for families (see Chapter 6). Help a student connect with a mentor, tutor, and/or coach.

Build learning and self-regulation skills as part of the curriculum. Examples 1. 2.

Teach students how to organize work, focus attention, or seek appropriate help. Include conflict management and social problem-solving skills in lessons.

Notice health problems. Examples 1. 2. 3.

Notice who seems to be absent or tardy often. Check to see whether some students struggle to hear the class discussions. Can they see from the back of the room? Model healthy eating and physical activity.

Assess student knowledge; start where they are, but don’t stay there (Milner, 2010). Examples 1. 2.

Use short, ungraded assessments that target the learning objectives for each unit. Differentiate instruction based on results (see Chapter 14).

Source: Jensen, E. (2013). Engaging students with poverty in mind: Practical strategies for Rraising achievement. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.; Gorski, P. (2013). Reaching and teaching students in poverty: Strategies for erasing the opportunity gap. New York, NY: Teachers College Press; Center for Promise. (2015). Don’t quit on me: What young people who left school say about the power of relationships. Washington, DC: America’s Promise Alliance.

Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity 55

Ethnicity and Race in Teaching and Learning Learning Outcome 2.3  Explain how race, ethnicity, prejudice, discrimination, and stereotype threat might affect student learning and achievement in schools. The United States truly is a diverse society. The National Center for Education Statistics p ­ rojects that by Fall 2029, more than half of the school-age population will be African ­American, Asian, Latino/a, or from other ethnic groups (National Center for Education Statistics, 2020). Before we look at the research on ethnicity and race in school settings, let’s understand how people come to understand their own and others’ ethnic and racial group membership.

Defining Ethnicity and Race Ethnicity usually refers to a group’s shared, common cultural characteristics such as h ­ istory, homeland, language, traditions, or religion. We all have some ethnic heritage, whether our background is Italian, Ukrainian, Hmong, Chinese, Japanese, Navajo, Hawaiian, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Hungarian, German, African, or Irish—to name only a few. Race is defined as a socially constructed category of people who share certain physical characteristics (e.g., skin color or hair texture) that members of a society have considered important (­Macionis, 2019). There are no biologically pure races. For any two humans chosen at random, an ­average of only 0.012% (about one-hundredth of 1%) of the alphabetic sequence of their genetic codes is different due to race (Myers, 2005). Both ethnicity and race are therefore primarily social constructions that gain meaning within particular social or political contexts (Lee & Bean, 2010). At the individual level, they become part of our identity—how we understand ourselves and interact with others. At the group level, both ethnicity and race are often institutionally imposed labels involving educational, economic, political, and power structures (Macionis, 2019). In this book we use the labels ethnicity, race, or race/ethnicity based on which label seems most appropriate to the findings being discussed. Sociologists sometimes use the term “minority group” to label a group of people that receives unequal or discriminatory treatment. But this practice of referring to people as minorities because of their racial or ethnic heritage has been criticized because doing so is misleading and has negative historical connotations (APA, 2019; Milner, 2010). For example, in certain places such as Chicago and Mississippi, African Americans are in the numeric majority, and European Americans are in the numeric minority. Unless otherwise specified, when we refer to ethnic minority groups, we do so using the entire U.S. population as a r­ eference group. We often use the terms White, Black, and Latino instead of European American, African American, and Hispanic, respectively, because the former terms are more inclusive of students with ­diverse national origins (e.g., Canada, Haiti, or the Dominican Republic) and various immigration statuses. As we noted earlier in the chapter, teachers should be mindful of their own use of these terms when addressing their students’ racial/ethnic heritages (for more information on terminology, see Christia Brown’s 2017 book about students’ perceptions of ­discrimination and the link to the APA’s guidelines for reducing bias provided earlier).

Ethnicity A cultural heritage shared by a group of people.

Race A socially constructed category based on appearances and ancestry.

Ethnic and Racial Identity At some point during their development, young people begin to understand themselves as members of racial and ethnic groups. Young children often make little or no ­distinction ­between their own race and their ethnic identity—the two are inextricably intertwined. Moreover, although a group may share an ethnicity, its members can include people of ­different races or vice versa. Therefore, researchers have suggested that terms such as “racialethnic-cultural identity may be more appropriate when attempting to accurately represent the psychological experiences of young people (Umaña-Taylor et al., 2014). Ethnic-racial identity generally refers to how people think and feel about their own ethnic and racial groups and the significance and meaning they ascribe to them (Seaton et al., 2018; Umaña-Taylor et al., 2014). Identity evaluations might include how important or central one’s ethnicity or race is to their life, how group members see themselves (private regard) or perceive others seeing them

Ethnic-racial identity The beliefs, feelings, significance, and meaning people have about their ethnicity or race.

56  Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity (public regard), or a sense of pride (see Rivas-Drake et al., 2014). Children may begin with an unexamined racial or ethnic identity, either because they have not explored at all or because they have accepted the identity labels that have been encouraged by others around them. European American adolescents are less likely to have examined their own ethnic-racial identity given their membership, particularly if most of their experiences have put them in the numeric majority. Early adolescents who have ethnically diverse friends engage in their own ethnic-racial identity exploration, which is an important part of healthy identity development (Rivas-Drake et al., 2017). You will learn more about identity development processes in Chapter 4. Pearson eText Video Example 2.3 A Native American who grew up on a reservation talks about the effect of being taught ­history from the perspective of his colonizers. His ancestors occupied this land long before Columbus “discovered” America. How do dominant cultural narratives that erase or disempower certain groups affect children’s identity development? Consider comparable types of discrimination that affect other groups.

MULTIDIMENSIONAL AND FLEXIBLE ETHNIC IDENTITIES.  At the beginning of this c­ hapter, you explored your own complex cultural identity. How would you describe your ­ethnic and racial identity? For many students in the United States, ethnic-racial identity is ­multidimensional and intersects with other identities such as nationality (Parker et al., 2015). For example, a Pew Research Center survey revealed that two thirds of Hispanic adults consider their Hispanic background to be part of their racial background. However, when asked for their race on the U.S. Census, many Hispanic adults identify more with the country or region of their ancestors (Cuba, Mexico, the Dominican Republic, the Caribbean, etc.) than with a general notion of Hispanic or Latino. Others highlight different aspects of their racial identities, such as their African heritage or Caribbean roots (Noe-Bustamante et al., 2020). Members of other ethnic and cultural groups respond in similar ways. Adolescents in immigrant or refugee families might be more motivated to identify strongly with their ­nationality or origin—for instance, with their Chinese, Syrian, Japanese, Filipino, Vietnamese, or ­Moroccan heritage in certain situations; in other situations, they might identify with their new country or with broader ethnic groups such as Asian or Black (Seaton et al., 2018; Verkuyten, 2016). Similarly, students from indigenous communities might view their tribal identity as c­ entral in some contexts but identify with colonial (i.e., White) norms in others (Galliher et al., 2017; Jones & Galliher, 2015). Determining an ethnic-racial identity may be even more complicated for biracial or multiracial adolescents. The parent they live with, the makeup of their neighborhood, their appearance, and their experiences of discrimination or support can influence how these adolescents identify themselves. Some psychologists think that these challenges help multiracial youth develop stronger and more complex identities, but other psychologists ­argue that the challenges present an extra burden in an already-tough process ( Herman, 2004; Ritchey, 2015). Perhaps the outcome depends in part on the support adolescents receive when facing the challenges. One thing is certain: The complexity of identity makes clear how limiting labels can be, particularly labels that are imposed by others who have more power. Teachers should understand that their students might be navigating multiple cultures and identities (Fuligni & Tsai, 2015). Incorporating instructional strategies that e­ ncourage students to reflect on their own and others’ ethnic-racial identities can offer needed s­ upport (Branch, 2020). Perhaps the best advice is to try to understand that many of your students will be constructing complex identities that allow them to move in and out of several ­cultures and languages. Get to know the individual students and respect their growing identities by creating an “identity-safe” learning environment (Spencer et al., 2016). RACIAL IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT.  Richard Milner (2003, 2015) has pointed to the importance

Nigrescence The process of developing a Black racial identity.

of racial identity development and awareness, especially in teaching. To reckon with how we and our students have come to understand ourselves and others as members of different races is helpful for moving toward more racially just and equitable education. The process of racial ­identity development is also helpful for understanding people’s race-related beliefs, behaviors, and experiences. Let’s examine one model that has focused on Black racial identity development. William Cross (1991; Cross & Cross, 2007; Cross et al., 2012) devised a framework that specifically addresses African American racial identity and consciousness—that is, the ­process of becoming Black. The process, which he called nigrescence, has five stages:

• Pre-Encounter: At this stage, Cross says that an African American’s attitude might range from ignoring race to feeling neutral about race and to actually being anti-Black. ­African Americans at this stage might adopt certain beliefs of White Americans, including the tendency to see “Whiteness” as superior. Some level of self-hate is a possible

Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity 57

consequence. At the pre-encounter stage, people value other aspects of their identities, such as religion, profession, or social status.

• Encounter: This stage is often triggered by encounters with overt, covert, or institutional racism. For instance, when an African American is followed around in an upscale store, is assaulted by police, or sees news reports about such assaults, then his or her eyes are opened to the reality that race matters in society. The individual ­becomes attuned to their Blackness.

• Immersion/Emersion: Cross sees this stage as a transition—an in-between state that might cause people to be anxious about “becoming the ‘right kind’ of Black person” (Cross, 1991, p. 202). In response to encounters with discrimination, the individuals fill their lives with symbols of Blackness; they buy books about Black experiences and socialize mainly with other African Americans, for example. They are eager to understand their racial heritage more deeply.

• Internalization: Individuals are firmly connected to and secure in their sense of racial identity. They don’t worry about what friends or outsiders think—they are confident in their own standards of Blackness.

• ­Internalization-Commitment: This stage is very closely connected with internalization. The main difference is an individual’s continued interest in and commitment to Black affairs. Such individuals chart their lives to connect to their Black racial identity; for example, a painter might dedicate his life to painting images of Black life or a researcher might dedicate her life to studying the educational experiences of African Americans. No single model describes identity development for all members of a race group living in United States. For example, the stages in the nigrescence model might not be appropriate for understanding the identity development of first-generation, U.S.-born African students or for students with both a Latino and a Black heritage such as that of some Dominican Americans (DeWalt, 2013). Similar racial identity development models have been explored for individuals of other racial backgrounds. For example, Janet Helms (1995, 2014) put forth a model ­describing stages of White identity development. White people have historically held power over indigenous people and people of color in the United States. Consequently, their healthy ­identity development requires, in part, that they come to terms with this history and the ­unearned privileges that Whiteness has given them (Helms, 2020). Whitney Dow, a ­filmmaker and founder of “The Whiteness Project,” recalled being asked by a seventh-grade student what he had learned about his own racial identity after working on the project with his ­African American collaborator, Marco Williams: “It was like suddenly getting x-ray glasses. . . . [I realized that] the most day-to-day manifestation of my White privilege is not being forced to think about the fact that I am White. I think that for most people who aren’t White, they don’t have that luxury” (PBS, 2017). Some White people have difficulty recognizing the privileges and affordances of being born White. Table 2.3 on the next page provides a list that may be helpful in understanding some of these advantages. For Black individuals and members of other racial and ethnic minority groups who have been historically oppressed or marginalized in the United States, having strong ­positive feelings about one’s own group seems to be important for good mental health as well as for engagement and success in school (Cook & Cook, 2014; Steinberg, 2005). How central or salient people’s race is to how they view themselves might also be related to how they handle discrimination (Brown, 2017). Ultimately, the importance of your racial ­identity depends on several contextual factors. For example, researchers studied the effect of the sociopolitical context of the Black Lives Matter movement on children’s racial identity ­development between 2014 and 2016. Black and multiracial children who were interviewed at each time point reported that their racial identity had become more important to them, whereas White children did not (Rogers et al., 2021). Parents, peers, and media also affect ­ eachers who children’s developing racial identities (Huguley et al., 2019; Williams et al., 2020). T ­understand the complexity of students’ racial identity development and expose s­ tudents to diverse ­social models who have developed their own healthy racial identities are better able to support their students’ healthy development (DeCuir-Gunby, 2009; Spencer et al., 2016).

Pearson eText Video Example 2.4 As young Black students in this video compare two Cinderella stories from Africa and the Caribbean, they have the opportunity to appreciate their Black racial identity in new light rather than focusing on the traditional Cinderella story with White culture and values. How might this approach ­promote racial identity development and awareness?

58  Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity

Table 2.3  Privileges Often Afforded by Being White in America ARE YOU ABLE TO ... • Browse leisurely in a store without being watched closely by an employee? • Congregate in public spaces with other members of your race without being perceived as threatening? • Observe more positive than negative portrayals of your race group in the media? • Experience failures in work or school without fearing that people will attribute them to your race? • Take classes on just about any topic that are taught by people who look like you? • Choose healthcare professionals who are members of your race? • Share the same race with most of your immediate colleagues and high-level leaders in your field? • Call the police when a crime has been committed without fear that your race will affect how you will be treated? • Walk around in your residential community without being asked if you really live there? • Go to any salon or barbershop and find someone who can appropriately style and care for your hair? • Go through your daily life without fear of being viewed as “out of place” because of your race? • Offer your opinions without an expectation that they reflect the views of your entire racial group? • Be an expert or highly skilled in something without it being attributed to your race? • Find numerous books and films that feature lead characters who look like you? • Receive an education that will highlight the traditions and accomplishments of people of your race? • Interact with others without being asked what country you are from? Source: Statements created with input from Jennifer Burris, Xiao-Yin Chen, Anastacia Cole, Candice Hargons, and Jaylene Patterson.

Ethnic and Racial Differences in School Achievement A major concern in schools is that some ethnic groups consistently achieve below the average for all students (Matthews et al., 2010; Uline & Johnson, 2005). This pattern of results tends to hold for all standardized achievement tests, but the gaps have been narrowing since about the 1980s and are smaller than the gaps seen between wealthy and poor students (Raudenbush, 2009; Reardon, 2011). For example, as you can see in Figure 2.5, on the National Assessment of Educational Progress in mathematics, the gap between scores of White and Black fourth-graders has narrowed from 34 points in 1996 to 25 points in 2019 (U.S. Department of Education, 2019). The gap between White and Hispanic fourthgraders has narrowed from 25 in 1996 to 18 in 2019. These gaps are larger in eighth grade (32-point gap between White and Black students; 24-point gap between White and Hispanic students). Asian and Pacific Islander students scored the highest in math at both grade levels. Proponents of this notion of an “achievement gap” have been criticized for taking a narrow view and assuming that the scores of White, middle-class students are the norm that all other students must be compared to and measured by (Anyon, 2012) or that students who are underperforming are somehow to blame for their inadequacies (Zirkel & Pollack, 2016). Milner (2013, 2015) suggests that we think about other kinds of “gaps” such as teacher education and quality gaps, challenging curriculum gaps, affordable housing and health care gaps, school integration and funding gaps, and quality childcare gaps, digital divide gaps, wealth and income gaps, and employment gaps—all culminating in opportunity gaps for many students of color. For example, a case analysis of one high school in Berkeley, California, showed that school staff implemented science learning labs before and after school to decrease achievement gaps between White students and African American and Latino students. These opportunity structures were not actually equally accessible to all students and ended up widening rather than narrowing the learning gap between students (Zirkel & Pollack, 2016). Gloria Ladson Billings (2006) described the educational debt (based on decades of underinvestment and discrimination) that we owe students of color and students living in poverty. Other educational psychologists have pointed out that students of color often experience a discrepancy between their own needs and the opportunity structures provided by schools, which can result in a decreased sense of school belonging, academic motivation, and, in turn, performance (Gray et al., 2018).

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Figure 2.5  Scores on The National Assessment of Educational Progress in FourthGrade Mathematics The figures below show the math achievement scores of American fourth-graders between 1990 and 2019. The top figure compares White and Hispanic students. The bottom figure compares White and African American students. SCALE SCORE 500 320 300 280 260

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60  Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity Opportunity gaps and educational debts lead to education completion gaps. Across the United States in 2018, about 89% of White students graduated from high school, ­compared to 79% of African American students, 81% of Hispanic students, 92% of Asian/Pacific ­Islander students, and 74% of American Indian and Alaska Native students (Hussar et al., 2020). But again, these are averages across all states—variations occur by state and district. For example, graduation rates for Hispanic students ranged widely from 65% in the District of Columbia to 90% in West Virginia (U.S. Department of Education, 2019). Be aware of the ­graduation rates in the district where you teach and the factors that might influence those rates. Although consistent differences still exist among groups on tests of academic a­ bilities, most researchers agree that the reasons for these differences are mainly the legacy of ­discrimination, the product of cultural mismatches and language differences, or a result of growing up in poverty. Because many students from ethnic groups are also economically disadvantaged, separating the effects of these two sets of influences on school a­ chievement is important (Milner, 2015; Shores et al., 2020). For example, one study found that l­ earning and self-regulation skills (e.g., attentiveness, persistence, organization, learning i­ ndependence) explain the literacy development of African American boys from kindergarten through fifth grade, even after taking into account the effects of the boys’ SES, home environment, and problem behaviors (Matthews et al., 2010). So, early development of these learning skills can help to close the opportunity gap, at least for African American boys, and probably for others. Rather than focusing on achievement gaps, many educators have called for more research on the school-based assets that facilitate the growth and successes of African American and Latino students (Del Toro & Wang, 2020). Berry (2005) studied two ­middle-school-age African American boys who were successful in mathematics. In the lives of those students, Berry found support and high expectations from family and teachers; positive math experiences in preschool and elementary school; connections to church and athletic extracurricular activities; and positive identities as math students. One final theme characterized the successful African American boys: Their families had prepared them to understand and deal with a legacy of inequality in schools, our next topic.

The Legacy of Racial Inequality

Pearson eText Video Example 2.5 This brief video documents ­several historical events ­surrounding ­desegregation and attempts by the federal ­government to deal with ­resistance. Consider the ­opportunity gaps that prevail in today’s schools as a result of continued inequality.

When we considered explanations for why students with low SES have trouble in school, we mentioned the limited educational opportunities and low expectations/biases of teachers and fellow students. This also has been the experience of many students from ethnic and racial ­minority groups. For example, in some areas of the South in 1924, Black students attended their own, separate schools for only 6 months out of the year because they were expected to work in the fields the other 6 months. White students attended school a full 9 months. The highest grade available for the Black students was eighth grade (Raudenbush, 2009). A minister in Topeka, Kansas, was upset about how far his young daughter had to travel just to get to her elementary school. Despite the fact that Linda Brown was accustomed to playing in her neighborhood with White, Black, and Native American children, the closest elementary school, just four blocks from her home, would not admit her because she was Black. Instead, Linda had to traverse a rail yard, cross a busy road, and then wait for a bus to take her across town to the school that served Black students. She recalled her misery on one bitter cold winter day that made her tears turn to ice. Linda wondered why she couldn’t just attend the school closer to home (Genzlinger, 2018). Her parents’ answer to this question, with the help of other concerned families, was to file a suit challenging the school policy. You know the outcome of the 1954 Brown v. the Board of Education of Topeka ruling: “Separate but equal” schools for Black children were declared inherently unequal.

­PUT YOURSELF IN THEIR PLACE  Legal segregation came to an end in 1954. Take a moment to imagine that you were living back then and that the child described above was your own. What would you do?

Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity 61

Almost 70 years later, pages of research have mostly shown that legally mandated integration is not a quick solution to the detrimental effects of centuries of racial inequality. White students left desegregated schools and neighborhoods as the number of students of color increased, leaving many urban schools today more segregated than they were before the Supreme Court ordered desegregation measures such as busing (Orfield et al., 2016). Schools in Los Angeles, Miami, Baltimore, Chicago, Dallas, Memphis, Houston, and Detroit have fewer than 11% White, non-Hispanic students. In fact, two thirds of the schools that African American and Latino students attend are quite segregated, with high concentrations of students living in poverty, which means that racial segregation is often aligned with economic segregation ­(Ladson Billings, 2004; Mickelson et al., 2013; Shores et al., 2020). In school districts where Latino children make up at least 10% of student enrollment, Latino students are experiencing more segregation over time and are less likely to interact with White peers (Fuller et al., 2019). Parent and journalist Nikole Hannah-Jones (2016) described the tension she and her husband experienced when deciding whether to allow their daughter to attend a racially segregated, low-income public school in New York City. “Hadn’t we worked hard . . . precisely so that she would not have to go to the types of schools that trapped so many Black children?” This is the question many families face (see Hannah-Jones, 2015 episode on This American Life). Research suggests that the demographic composition of schools does indeed affect long-term psychological and academic outcomes (Graham, 2018). For example, economist Rucker Johnson (2019) found that Black adults who attended more racially desegregated schools as children lived longer, were more likely to attend college and live in racially integrated neighborhoods, and were less likely to be poor, to suffer from chronic health problems, and to go to jail than were those adults who had attended racially segregated schools. Similar research has shown that Asian American adolescents who have more cross-race friendships report better psychological well-being, particularly in contexts where anti-Asian prejudice was most prevalent (Liu et al., 2020). But even in “integrated” schools, too often students from historically disadvantaged ethnic or racial minority groups are resegregated in low-ability tracks due to teachers’ lower expectations about them (Kogachi & Graham, 2020; Tenenbaum & Ruck, 2007; Tyson, 2013). Simply putting people in the same building does not mean that they will come to respect each other, become friends, or even experience the same quality of education (Johnson, 2019; Ladson Billings, 2004; Mickelson et al., 2013). For more information on how to understand and reduce ethnic and racial disparities in education, look at the report by the American Psychological Association’s Presidential Task Force on Educational Disparities (2012). One critical step in reducing disparities in educational outcomes is to acknowledge the roles that racism and discrimination play in education. RACISM AND DISCRIMINATION.  Racial prejudice (racism) is pervasive in the United

States. Although racism is not confined to one racial group, anti-Black racism has remained in the spotlight because of the killings of unarmed Black people such as Breonna Taylor and George Floyd, which sparked nationwide protests for racial justice in 2020. Even so, White and Black Americans differ in their beliefs about whether the United States should take further action to protect civil rights. More than 10,000 American adults were asked in September 2020 whether the country has done enough when it comes to giving Black people rights equal to those of White people. The perceptions were starkly different by race: 42% of White people responded that the country’s response has “been about right,” whereas only 5% of Black respondents chose this response (Horowitz et al., 2020b). More than 86% of Black respondents said the country had “not gone far enough.” Subtle, below-the-surface racism remains. Even though it may be outside conscious awareness, it can lead to discriminatory behavior. Researchers have demonstrated this in numerous ways. For example, in response to police killings of unarmed Black men, researchers created a videogame that showed a series of White or Black men holding either a gun or a non-weapon such as a flashlight or wallet. Participants in the research were told to “shoot” whenever the person in the videogame held a weapon. Race was not mentioned.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Racial Bias (IV, B4) Describe the possible effects of racial discrimination and bias on minority students. What can teachers and schools do to address the lingering effects of this discrimination?

62  Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity Nevertheless, participants shot armed targets more quickly and more frequently when those targets were Black and more quickly and more frequently decided not to shoot unarmed targets when they were White (Greenwald et al., 2003). When the participants in another study were actual police officers, they were more likely to mistakenly shoot unarmed Black suspects compared with unarmed White suspects (Plant & Peruche, 2005). You might think that police officers and teachers are quite different. Think again. Researchers have used similar techniques to show that teachers are more likely to expect less of students from ethnic minority groups than they expect from students from ­ethnic majority groups. They are also more likely to disproportionately refer students from ­historically disadvantaged groups—and particularly Black students—for special education or disciplinary interventions (Morris & Perry, 2016; van den Bergh et al., 2010). In fact, teachers hold similarly pro-White, anti-Black biases in roughly the same proportion as members of the general public (Starck et al., 2020), and these biases have been shown to exacerbate achievement differences between their Black and White students (Chin et al., 2020). In a profession that prides itself on educating all learners equally, how and why does this happen? People tend to over-rely on rigid, possibly biased categories when they are under stress or have limited resources (Baumeister & Bargh, 2014). Teachers know these conditions well! Teachers, like police officers and all humans, can distort information to make it fit their schema better, especially if their stereotypes include prejudiced beliefs about a group. We notice information that confirms or agrees with our stereotypes—our schema—and miss or dismiss information that does not fit (Kahneman, 2011). This can lead to actions that discriminate against others who are members of social groups whom we have categorized less favorably. Although prejudice and discrimination come from many places—peers, media, social encounters outside of school—evidence suggests that perceiving discrimination from a teacher might be the most damaging for educational outcomes (Benner & Graham, 2013). Even if teachers are unaware of their prejudices, those very prejudices can affect the ­expectations teachers hold for their students and how they interpret students’ behaviors (Brown, 2017). For example, researchers at Yale asked teachers to watch videos featuring racially diverse preschool children. Some teachers were primed to expect the students to show “­challenging behaviors,” whereas others were not. Teachers primed to look for ­misbehavior gazed longer at Black children—especially Black boys—than at White children, suggesting a form of implicit bias. Both Black and White teachers showed similar patterns (Gilliam et al., 2016). This type of unconscious bias could be partly responsible for the disproportionate ­number of suspensions of Black students relative to their White peers (U.S. Department of ­Education, 2016). Another study found that non-Black high school teachers held lower ­expectations of Black students (particularly of boys) than did Black teachers (Gershenson et al., 2016). Implicit biases can have serious effects (even if unintentional) on students’ educational attainment. Clearly, many learners face prejudice and discrimination in subtle or blatant ways every day. Black and Hispanic students begin to lose out in science and math as early as e­ lementary school. They are chosen less often for gifted classes and acceleration or for ­enrichment programs. They are more likely to be tracked into “basic skills” classes (Tyson, 2013). As they progress through middle school, high school, and college, their paths take them further and further out of the pipeline that produces our scientists. If they do persist and become scientists or engineers, they, along with women, will still be paid less than White e­ mployees for the same work (National Science Foundation, 2019; Shen, 2016). Hispanics, African Americans, and Native Americans make up about 35% of the U.S. population, but in 2019, about 8% of the doctorates awarded went to Hispanic students, 7% to African Americans, and fewer than 1% to Native Americans. In contrast, 38% of the doctorates were awarded to nonresidents of the United States (National Science Foundation, 2020). The families of racial and ethnic minority students often have to be vigilant about discrimination to protect their children from its adverse psychological, social, and ­academic consequences. Some evidence has shown that children who have been socialized to ­understand racism and discrimination are better equipped to handle them when they arise (Park et al., 2018; Yip et al., 2019).

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Gender and Sexual Orientation in Teaching and Learning Learning Outcome 2.4  Describe the development of gender, gender identity, and sexual orientation, and discuss their roles in teaching and learning. In this section we examine the development of gender identity and sexual orientation. We particularly focus on how people develop, how they are socialized, and the role of teachers in providing an equitable education for all students, regardless of their particular identities.

Sex and Gender The word gender usually refers to traits and behaviors that a particular culture judges to be appropriate for boys and girls, men and women. In contrast, sex typically refers to biological differences assigned at birth. As with other cultural labels, the terms used in this area can be complex and controversial (Hyde et al., 2019). An individual’s identity in terms of gender and sex is multifaceted. In this section, we examine the role of three important facets: gender identity, gender roles, and sexual orientation (Ruble et al., 2006). Gender ­identity is an individual’s self-identification as a gendered person. Although gender identity has historically been described in binary terms (i.e., male or female), it is better conceptualized along a c­ ontinuum. This more inclusive view recognizes that physiologically and psychologically, gender is more like a mosaic than an either/or categorization (Hyde et al., 2019). It is therefore no surprise that many forms of gender expression exist. Gender roles are those behaviors and characteristics that the culture stereotypically associates with a binary (male/ female) view of gender. Sexual orientation is also a multidimensional construct that can r­ efer to people’s sexual identity, sexual attraction, and/or sexual behavior (APA, 2015; Wolff et al., 2017). Relations among these three elements are complex. For example, a young woman might identify herself as female (gender identity) but behave in ways that are not consistent with the stereotypical female gender role (play football or wrestle) and might be attracted to both men and women (e.g., bisexual). Let’s look at some of these facets in further detail.

Gender Identity Gender identity refers to one’s individual sense of being a woman, a man, both, or neither (Brown & Stone, 2016). Erikson and many other earlier psychologists thought that identifying one’s gender is straightforward; one simply realizes that they are a man or a woman and acts accordingly. But today, we know that an individual’s gender identity might be ­different from the sex assigned at birth. The term cisgender (pronounced “sis-gender”) is used to d ­ escribe an individual whose gender identity matches the biological sex that they were a­ ssigned at birth. Transgender individuals often report feeling trapped in the wrong body: They experience themselves as female, whereas their biological sex is male, or vice versa (Lhamon & Gupta, 2016; Ruble et al., 2006). In a poignant self-disclosure, one of my undergraduate ­students recently told our class that they spent their childhood knowing that they were ­really a boy, not the girl they were raised as. The student described having the distinct feeling that “my i­nsides don’t match my outsides.” Others might simply behave in gender-expansive, gender nonconforming, or gender atypical ways (Diamond, 2020). A young boy might surround himself with girls, play with dolls, and dress as girls do. He might identify with most girls more than he identifies with most boys and might therefore resist a binary gender label. Some children’s gender identity is formed early and remains relatively permanent. However, gender identity formation might take longer for others. Students who express themselves in gender-atypical ways might be vulnerable to stigma, discrimination, or low self-beliefs. For example, researchers in Holland asked seventh-grade students how gender typical they felt. Students who reported higher gender atypicality felt less confident in their academic capabilities than did gender-typical students (Vantieghem et al., 2014). Teachers can play an important role in supporting students during their process of gender

Gender identity The sense of self along the female-to-male continuum or as neither female nor male (i.e., nonbinary).

Gender roles The behaviors and characteristics that the culture stereotypically associates with being a man or a woman.

Sexual orientation A multidimensional construct that refers to people’s sexual identity, sexual attraction, and/or sexual behavior.

64  Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity identity formation (Fabes et al., 2019; Leaper & Brown, 2018). Three major ways that they can do this is by addressing harassment and bullying, making school spaces more gender inclusive (avoiding segregation by gender), and dealing respectfully with students’ records, names, pronouns, and privacy (see Beyond the Binary: Discussing Transgender and Gender Non-­ Conforming Identity in K–12 Schools, ADL, 2019).

Gender Roles

Pearson eText Video Example 2.6 In this video, 7-year-old Callie answers questions about ­subjects she likes and dislikes in school and math games she likes to play. As you listen to her answer the questions, ­consider the extent to which her answers do or do not follow stereotypical gender patterns.

Gender schemas Organized cognitive structures that include gender-related information that influences how children think and behave.

Gender roles are expectations about how people should behave in gender-conforming ways—in other words, in ways consistent with what is considered masculine or f­ eminine. Gender roles vary by culture, time, and place. What was expected of women in the United States in the 1700s definitely has changed even though women generally still are the primary caregivers and are in charge of the home. When and how do children develop their understandings of masculine and f­ eminine gender roles? As early as age 2, children are aware of gender differences. They know whether they are girls or boys and that mommy is a girl and daddy is a boy. By age 3 or so, many begin to believe that their sex cannot be changed. Biology plays a part in gender-role development: Very early, hormones affect activity level and aggression, with boys tending to prefer active, rough, noisy play. Play styles lead young children to prefer same-sex play partners with similar styles, so by age 4, children spend three times as much play time with same-sex playmates as with opposite-sex playmates; by age 6, the ratio is 11 to 1 (Halim et al., 2013; Hines, 2004). Biology is not the whole story, however. The fact that boys tend to play with boys and girls tend to play with girls might lead to a gender-segregation cycle by which binary gender-role norms are defined and reinforced (Martin et al., 2014). Boys and girls might be treated differently, too. Researchers have found that boys are given more freedom to roam the neighborhood and are allowed to attempt potentially ­dangerous activities earlier, such as crossing the street alone. Thus, independence and initiative seem to be encouraged more in boys than in girls. In fact, parents, peers, and teachers might reward behaviors that seem gender appropriate—gentle kindness in girls and strong assertiveness in boys (Brannon, 2002; Brown, 2014). Then there are the toys! Walk through most stores’ toy sections or order a child’s fast food meal, and see what is offered for girls and boys. Dolls and kitchen sets for girls and toy weapons for boys have been with us for decades. Then came aisles of princess ­paraphernalia for girls and battle videogames for boys. Are consumers partly to blame? Adults often select gender-typed gifts for children, and some fathers discourage their young sons from playing with “girl” toys (Brannon, 2002; Brown, 2014). When a large retailer announced recently that it would no longer segregate toys by gender, many parents were outraged. And let’s face it, gender socialization does not stop in childhood. I was recently helping a first-year student move into his co-ed dormitory on campus. His door was decorated with a hot-rod car with his name on it; his female dorm-mates had princess tiara name cards on their doors. What are the consequences of such environmental messages about gender? Through their interactions with family, peers, teachers, toys, media, and the broader ­social environment, children begin to form gender schemas, or organized networks of knowledge about what it means to be a man or a woman (Ward & Grower, 2020). Gender schemas help children make sense of the world and guide their behavior (see Figure 2.6). So a young girl whose schema for “girls” includes “girls play with dolls and not with trucks” or “girls can’t be scientists” will pay attention to, remember, and interact more with dolls than with trucks, and she might avoid science activities (Golombok et al., 2008; Leaper, 2002). Of course, these are averages, and individuals do not always fit the average. An individual girl might decide, for example, that the gender schema “trucks are for boys” doesn’t matter to her. She will play with the truck if it interests her (Bigler & Liben, 2007). By age 4, children have an initial sense of gender roles, and by 5 or so, they have developed a gender schema that describes what clothes, games, toys, behaviors, and careers are “right” for boys and for girls—and these ideas can be quite rigid (Ellemers, 2018; Halim et al., 2013).

Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity 65

Figure 2.6  Gender Schema Theory According to gender schema theory, children and adolescents use gender as an organizing theme to classify and understand their perceptions about the world. Influences processing of social information— attention, memory, etc. Society’s beliefs about the traits of females and males

Gender Schema Influences self-esteem (only behavior or attitudes consistent with gender schema are acceptable)

Even in this era of great progress toward equal opportunity, a preschool girl is more likely to tell you that she wants to become a nurse than to say that she wants to become an engineer. After she had given a lecture on the dangers of sex stereotyping in schools, a colleague of mine brought her young daughter to her college class. The students asked the little girl, “What do you want to be when you grow up?” The child immediately replied, “A doctor,” and her professor/mother beamed with pride. Then the girl whispered to the students in the front row, “I really want to be a nurse, but my Mommy won’t let me.” Actually, this is a common reaction of young children. Preschoolers tend to have more stereotyped notions of sex roles than do older children, and all ages seem to have more rigid and traditional ideas about male occupations than about what occupations women should pursue (Woolfolk & Perry, 2015). Later, as children approach and enter puberty, they might become even more focused on behaving in “masculine” or “feminine” ways, as defined by their peer culture, social media, parents, or the environment. For example, in one study, children and early a­ dolescents who were shown sexualized and nonsexualized images of girls rated the s­ exualized girls as more popular than the nonsexualized girls but also viewed the s­ exualized girls as not as athletic, smart, or nice (Stone et al., 2015). The sexualized gender stereotype was more strongly endorsed by girls and by older students, suggesting that exposure to sexualized images in the media increases as children get older and might be especially important to girls as they form their schemas about gender. Other research has shown that when parents (particularly mothers) see the usefulness and value of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields, their children enroll in more STEM courses throughout high school (Rozek et al., 2015). Even small changes in the learning environment (e.g., when a computer science classroom contains ­stereotypical objects such as science fiction books versus plants) can invoke gender ­stereotypes that disadvantage some students. One study showed that just reading about a stereotypical computer science classroom caused adolescent girls to feel less like taking the class for fear they would not belong (Master et al., 2016). The bottom line is that so many factors, from biology to cultural norms, play roles in gender-role development. Beware of either/or explanations!

Gender Bias and Sexism in Curriculum and Media While I (Anita here) was reviewing this very page for a previous edition, riding crosscountry on a train, the conductor stopped beside my seat. He said, “I’m sorry, dear, for interrupting your homework, but do you have a ticket?” I had to smile at his (I’m sure unintended) sexism. I doubt that he had asked the same question of the man across the aisle who was writing on his legal pad. Like racial discrimination, messages of sexism and gender biases can be subtle, and they can and do appear in classrooms (see Brown & Stone, 2016; Leaper & Brown, 2014).

Gender biases Different views of men, women, or gender non-conforming people often favoring one group over the other.

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Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Gender Bias (IV, B4) There has been much debate in the news media over possible gender bias in schools. What can you as a teacher do to reduce or eliminate gender bias and its effects?

Unfortunately, schools often foster sexism in several ways. Publishers have established guidelines to prevent gender bias in educational materials, but it still makes sense to check those materials for stereotypes, particularly given the slow turnover of books that populate school library shelves. For example, even though children’s books now have equal numbers of men and women as central characters, there still are more men in the titles and the illustrations, and the characters (especially the boys) continue to behave in stereotypical ways. Boys are aggressive and argumentative, and girls are expressive and affectionate. Girl characters sometimes cross gender roles to be more active, but boy characters seldom show “feminine,” expressive traits (Brannon, 2002; Brown, 2014). Also, virtual learning sites, social media sites, and online sources such as YouTube have not been carefully screened for gender, racial, ethnic, economic, religious, or age stereotypes and biases, and they can be sources of stereotyped messages (Henry, 2011; Ward & Grower, 2020). Digital games and even school materials often feature hypermasculine or hyperfeminine characters. One look at the body features of men and women in video combat games shows what unreal and unhealthy body images they promote. Another “text” that students read long before they arrive in your classroom is t­ elevised and online media. A content analysis of television commercials found that White male characters are more prominent than any other group. Even when only the actor’s voice can be heard, men are 10 times more likely to narrate commercials. And the same pattern of men as the “voice of authority” on television occurs in the United Kingdom, Europe, Australia, and Asia. Women are more likely to be depicted as dependent on men and often are shown at home (Brannon, 2002). The #MeToo movement has brought greater ­awareness to pervasive sexism in televised media and advertising. The documentary film Miss Representation (Newsom, 2011) offers numerous compelling (and rather shocking) examples of how mainstream media and culture depict girls and women in ­hypersexualized and underpowered positions. Similarly, the film The Mask You Live In explores how boys are often subjected to narrow definitions of masculinity that cause stress and dissonance (see http://therepresentationproject.org for more information, including an educator toolkit). Disclosure, a 2020 Netflix documentary, shows how unfavorably ­transgender individuals have been depicted in films and on television. How might these messages affect how people think about themselves and others?

Gender Bias in Teaching Quite a bit of research has examined teachers’ gendered treatment of students. You should know, however, that most of these studies have focused on White students. Emerging research points to the ways in which intersectionality provides a useful lens for understanding teachers’ different interactions with students of various gender and race groups. The Guidelines: Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching, provides ideas for teaching all your students effectively and empathetically. Let’s look at some related research findings. Many studies describe what seem like biases favoring boys. One of the best-­documented findings of the past 30 years is that teachers have more overall interactions with boys than with girls; however, this includes more negative interactions with boys but not more positive interactions (Jones & Dindia, 2004). This is true from preschool to college. Teachers ask more questions of male students, give them more feedback (praise, criticism, and correction), and offer them more specific and valuable comments. Of course, these differences are not evenly distributed. Some boys, generally high-achieving White students, receive more than their share, whereas high-achieving White girls receive the least teacher attention. On average, teachers rate boys as more competent in mathematics than girls, unless girls are perceived as working harder, behaving better, and being more eager to learn than boys. Only then do teachers rate girls’ math competence similarly to that of boys (Robinson-­Cimpian et al., 2014). Recent efforts have also examined how teachers’ implicit beliefs and attitudes might differentially affect girls and boys. For instance, some evidence has shown that girls pick up on the attitudes of their teachers. In one study, girls whose teachers had higher math anxiety scored lower on end-of-year math tests and were more likely to endorse the view that boys are better than girls in math (Beilock et al., 2010). Another study showed that middle school girls who perceived that their math teachers treated them differently because of their gender performed

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GUIDELINES Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching Check to see whether textbooks and other media you are using present an honest view of the options open to men, women, and to gender nonconforming individuals. Examples 1. 2.

Identify whether men, women, and gender nonbinary people are portrayed in traditional or nontraditional roles at work, at leisure, and at home. Discuss your analyses with students, and ask them to help you find gender-role biases in other materials—magazine advertising, TV programs, and news reporting, for example.

Watch for any unintended biases in your own classroom practices. Examples 1.

2. 3.

Monitor whether you group students by gender for certain activities. Consider how being in gendered groups might feel to students who do not identify as boys or girls. Is the grouping appropriate? Monitor whether you call on one gender group more frequently for certain answers—boys for math and girls for poetry, for example. Consider the quality of your feedback to students. Monitor your metaphors. Don’t ask students to “tackle the problem.”

Look for ways in which your school might be limiting the options open to students with different gender identities or expressions. Examples 1. 2. 3.

Find out what curricular or career advice guidance counselors give to students. Look into whether a good sports program is accessible to all. ­See whether girls are encouraged to take advanced courses in science and mathematics and whether boys are encouraged to take English and foreign language classes.

Use gender-free language as much as possible. Examples 1. 2. 3.

Make sure you use inclusive terms (e.g., speak of “law-enforcement officer” and “mail carrier” instead of “policeman” and “mailman”). Be sure you name a committee “head” instead of a “chairman.” Discuss personal pronouns with your students. Make sure you are using the pronoun they would like you to use (e.g., her, him, they).

Provide counter-stereotypical gender role models. Examples 1. 2. 3.

Assign articles written by female research scientists or mathematicians. Have recent female graduates who are majoring in science, math, engineering, or other technical fields come to class to talk about college. Create electronic mentoring programs for students that connect them with gender diverse adults who are working in areas of interest to the students.

Make sure all students have a chance to do complex, technical work. Examples 1. 2.

Experiment with collaborative groups to avoid gender-stereotypical work assignments (e.g., girls as the secretaries, boys as the scientists). Rotate jobs in groups or randomly assign responsibilities.

What if you witness gender bias as a student teacher? For ideas, see https://LearningFor­Justice.org and search for “classroom resources.”

68  Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity worse on subsequent math tests and reported decreased motivation for math in high school (McKellar et al., 2019). Teachers might not be aware of how their behaviors are influenced by their own attitudes, but through direct instruction, modeling, or differential interactions with boys and girls, they can have a powerful influence on both how students see themselves and how they perform (Gunderson et al., 2012). Not all biases in school favor boys. In the past 10 years in North America, Western Europe, Australia, and some Asian countries, educators have raised questions about whether schools are serving boys well. This concern is fueled by data from many countries that seem to show underachievement in boys. In fact, the underachievement of boys in school has been called “one of the most pressing educational equality challenges of current times” (Hartley & Sutton, 2013, p. 1716). More dramatic accusations include that schools are trying to destroy “boys’ culture” and force “feminine, frilly content” on boys. Boys are referred to special education services at greater rates than are girls, and these rates are even higher for boys who are members of ethnic or racial minority groups (Artiles, 2019). One possible explanation put forth for why boys struggle in school is that the expectations of schooling do not fit the way boys learn (Gurian & Stevens, 2005), particularly African American boys (Stinson, 2006). Another suggestion is that boys sabotage their own learning by resisting school expectations and rules to “display their masculinity and get respect” (Kleinfeld, 2005, p. B6). Some have suggested that boys need smaller classes, more discussions, better discipline, mentoring programs, and more men in their schools—90% of elementary teachers are women. One suggestion for making schools more effective for both boys and girls is single-sex classrooms. In 2008, The New York Times Magazine had a cover story about that topic (Weil, 2008), and in 2015 and 2016, The Atlantic reported on its “resurgence” (Anderson, 2015; Yap, 2016). During the past decade, many school districts across the United States have experimented with single-sex classrooms in core subjects such as English, science, and mathematics (Herron, 2013). Do gender-segregated approaches work? Read the Point/Counterpoint for the arguments.

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Girls and Boys Be Taught Differently? ­Point Proponents say that students are better off learning some things with their same-gender counterparts. Critics say that gender-segregated classrooms change little for learners and reinforce problematic stereotypes that could lead to greater gender disparities. Boys and girls have unique strengths and challenges and should be taught in different ways.  Many educators paid attention when, in 2001, the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act began to allow public schools to offer same-sex classes, which led to the 2006 amendment to the Title XI regulation that removed the ban on single-sex public education. In the spirit of innovation, many schools took up the call and began catering instruction to the unique needs of boys and girls. After all, findings from the 2012 PISA test revealed that among 15-year-olds worldwide, boys were disproportionately over-represented at the lowest and highest ends of achievement in math and reading, and girls generally reported lower selfconfidence and higher anxiety in math than boys (OECD, 2015). It seemed logical to examine whether all students would benefit from gender-specific instruction (Bigler et al., 2014). Since then, thousands of school districts across the United States have implemented some degree of single-sex education (Klein et al., 2014). Some organizations, such as the Gurian Institute (http://www.gurianinstitute.com/), have offered books and professional development workshops for schools focused on how best to educate each gender based on the core assumption that boys and girls have different learning “styles” (Gurian & Stevens, 2005). A staunch proponent of single-sex classrooms, Leonard Sax (2005) has suggested that these styles are rooted

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in fundamental biological differences between boys and girls that require different instructional approaches. Single-sex classrooms can help girls develop their own strengths and boost their self-confidence, interests, and achievements, particularly in STEM disciplines. Boys, on the other hand, can focus on strengthening their literacy skills and cooperativeness. Anecdotal findings reported by Gurian and others, primarily in popular media, have shown gains for both genders (e.g., Gurian et al., 2009). Students and their families might have some choice in whether students attend a single-sex or a mixed-sex school, which could mean that such students are predisposed to respond well to the single-sex learning environment.

Counterpoint Girls and boys are more similar than different and should be taught together.  Researchers who have looked critically at data used to support gender-segregated educational approaches have argued that these approaches come up short in fulfilling their promise of promoting gender equity in learning and psychological well-being. In their 2011 article “The Pseudoscience of Single-Sex Schooling,” Diane Halpern and her colleagues noted that research studies on samesex education have been “deeply misguided, and often justified by weak, cherry-picked, or misconstrued scientific claims rather than by valid scientific evidence” (p. 1706). For example, when researchers take into account students’ initial performance levels, many students’ achievement gains in single-sex classrooms disappear. These scholars argue that studies of single-sex schooling have lacked the statistical rigor of randomized assignment, and therefore findings could be due to sampling or researcher bias. In fact, Halpern and colleagues claim that separating boys and girls actually worsens outcomes by making gender differences (and, therefore, stereotypes) more noticeable. They point to research showing that when any group of humans is set apart from another (based on gender, eye color, or even t-shirt color), people develop intergroup biases. Single-sex education, they argue, minimizes the very opportunities needed for gender equity—namely, teaching boys and girls to work alongside each other. “Positive and cooperative interaction with members of other groups is an effective method for improving intergroup relationships” (p. 1707). But what about the evidence of biological differences between men and women? Are men really from Mars and women from Venus? Hyde (2005) conducted a meta meta-analysis (i.e., a review of 46 meta-analyses) summarizing hundreds of studies on sex differences in a range of human behaviors. Her findings provided evidence for what she called the “gender similarities hypothesis.” With some important exceptions, men and women are highly similar on numerous psychological and performance metrics. The magnitude of these differences fluctuates across the lifespan and in different contexts, which can lead researchers to overestimate the size and stability of sex differences and ignore the fact that gender is better treated as a continuum (Hyde et al., 2019). For example, much of the evidence on sex differences has come from studies with adults who have had years of socialization; these sex differences are not necessarily present in children. Maybe boys and girls are from the same planet after all . . . and should therefore be educated in similar ways. Beware of Either/Or.  So, do single-sex schools or classrooms improve learning? The answer is, “It depends.” One meta-analysis offers the most comprehensive answer to date, addressing some of the methodological problems identified by Halpern and her colleagues. Pahlke et al. (2014) examined results from 184 studies involving 1.6 million students in Grades K–12 from 21 countries. They looked at whether students learning in single-sex schools versus those learning in co-educational schools displayed different performances and attitudes. To account for variable quality in research designs, the researchers ran separate analyses for studies that used random assignment and those that did not. Among studies that randomly assigned students to single-sex classrooms, only trivial differences emerged between students in the two settings. Both girls and boys performed marginally better in single-sex schools, but girls attending co-educational schools had higher educational aspirations than did girls attending same-sex schools. Furthermore, gender non-binary and gender non-conforming students have been overlooked in studies that consider gender as a binary variable.

70  Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity Both proponents and critics of single-sex schools generally agree that good education is never one-size-fits-all. Teachers must realize that there are no boy- or girl-specific teaching strategies—good teaching is good teaching, and inclusive approaches serve all students. R ­ egrouping students by sex does not make teaching easier; in fact, it can make class management more difficult and can reinforce rigid gender stereotypes that are ­harmful (Fabes et al., 2019). The Guidelines: Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching provide additional ideas about ways to prevent gender bias for all students in your classes. Giving careful attention to each student’s motivation and achievement might mean that ­different approaches are called for at different times. As William James (1899/2001) long ago reminded teachers: “One can draw no specific rules for all this. It depends on close ­observation in the particular case” (p. 55).

Sexual Orientation  Researchers have often defined sexual orientation in terms of sexual attraction—“an ­internal mechanism that directs a person’s sexuality to females, males, or both, perhaps to varying degrees” (Savin-Williams & Vrangalova, 2013, p. 59). However, some people identify as asexual, and may not experience sexual attraction to others (see The Asexual V ­ isibility & Education Network, n.d.). Sexual orientation can also be defined in terms of how a person identifies or behaves (Wolff et al., 2017). Sexual orientation and ­gender ­identity are separate and distinct aspects of human development (Orr et al., 2015). For ­example, a person who identifies as a woman might be attracted to both men and women (i.e., a bisexual orientation). Some labels for sexual orientation include gay, lesbian, ­bisexual, asexual, and pansexual. Another frequently used category is “questioning,” which refers to being unsure of one’s sexual orientation, or “queer,” which some people use to define their more fluid sexual or gender identity (Robinson & Espelage, 2012). But sexual orientation labels, like identity labels, can be incomplete representations of how individuals refer to themselves, and some view sexual orientation on a continuum or prefer no label at all (Savin-Williams, 2016). This makes it somewhat difficult to assess the precise number of individuals of different sexual orientations within a population (Bailey et al., 2016). However, the Division of Adolescent and School Health at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that among U.S. adolescents, 84.4% identify as heterosexual, 2.5% as gay or lesbian, 8.7% as bisexual, and 4.5% as not sure (CDC, 2020). Quite a few identity-development models have included a description of how individuals come to understand their sexual orientation if they are not heterosexual. Generally, the models include the following or similar stages (Savin-Williams & Cohen, 2015).

• Feeling different—Beginning around age 6, the child might be less interested in the activities of other children who are the same sex. Some children might find this difference troubling and fear being “found out.” Others do not experience these anxieties.

• Feeling uncertain—In adolescence, as they feel attractions for peers of the same sex, students might be confused, upset, lonely, and unsure of what to do. They might lack role models and might try to change themselves by becoming involved in activities and dating patterns that fit heterosexual stereotypes.

• Acceptance—As adolescents or young adults, many individuals develop a sexual orientation and identify themselves as gay, lesbian, or bisexual. They may or may not make their sexual orientation public but might share the information with a few friends. One problem with phase models of identity development is that the identity achieved is assumed to be final. Actually, newer models emphasize that sexual orientation can be flexible, complex, and multifaceted: It can change over a person’s lifetime (Diamond, 2020). For example, people may have dated or married opposite-sex partners at one point in their lives but have same-sex attractions or partners later in their lives, or vice versa (Garnets, 2002).

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Discrimination Based on Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation Children and adolescents who express their gender or sexual orientation in nonconforming ways (that is, whose expressions are not typical of others their age) are more likely than their classmates to face discrimination by peers and adults (Brown, 2017; Brown & Stone, 2016; Horn, 2019). For example, a boy whose preferences or behaviors differ from the norms of masculinity is often teased, subjected to homophobic slurs, stigmatized as being too feminine, or worse––physically assaulted. This is an affront to all gender groups. Youth who identify as lesbian, gay, transgender, or bisexual (often referred to under the more inclusive term sexual minority youth) are more likely to be victims of aggression at school, according to a meta-analysis (Toomey & Russell, 2016). National survey data have shown this, too. The 2019 National School Climate Survey asked more than 16,000 adolescents to report their experiences in the past year. Among sexual minority youth who took the survey, almost all (98.8%) had heard the word “gay” being used in a derogatory manner, 69% had been victims of verbal harassment or threats, and 26% were physically harassed or assaulted in the past year (Kosciw et al., 2020). Almost all reported feeling distressed over these incidents, and many said they did not feel safe at school because of their sexual ­orientation (59%) or gender expression (43%). Furthermore, two-thirds of students said that they had heard teachers or other school staff make negative remarks about gender expression and more than half had heard teachers make homophobic remarks. These stressors can lead to academic disengagement and lower academic performance among gender and sexual minority youth (Poteat et al., 2014). The stress associated with such victimization is one reason sexual minority students are at greater risk than their heterosexual peers of missing school and attempting ­s uicide (Robinson & Espelage, 2012). Transgender students are particularly susceptible to i­ ncreased stress and suicide (dickey & Budge, 2020). Fortunately, educational programs and ­a ctivities that are run by schools receiving U.S. federal assistance must abide by Title IX of the ­Education Amendments of 1972. Title IX was designed to protect the educational rights of all students and ensures them a safe and nondiscriminatory environment, regardless of their gender identity (Lhamon & Gupta, 2016). However, the Trump administration rolled back some of the protections for transgender and gender nonbinary students. An executive order signed by the Biden administration has signalled that protections will once again be put into place under Title IX (Gupta et al., 2021). These shifts indicate that the struggle for equal rights continues for gender and sexual minority individuals. How can teachers create a safe learning environment for all students, ­regardless of their gender identity or sexual orientation? A teacher ’s ultimate goal, as one ­s uperintendent observed, should be to determine what a child needs “to feel safe, included, and supported” (Orr et al., 2015, p. ii). We talk about bullying and teachers’ roles in handling all types of bullying in Chapter 13. For now, let’s consider what you can do if ­ rientation. students come to you with concerns about their gender identity or sexual o Even though parents and teachers are seldom the first people to hear about an adolescent’s identity concerns, you can be prepared. If a student does seek your ­c ounsel, Table 2.4 on the next page provides some ideas for reaching out and creating a safe e­ nvironment for gender and sexual minority youth (see more ideas from the 2019 Safe Space Kit: A Guide to Supporting Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Queer Students in Your School, published by GLSEN). In addition, you might find it helpful ­ ransition: A Guide for Supporting Transgender Students in K–12 to consult Schools in T Schools (Orr et al., 2015). Both resources are readily available online. By simply offering a nonjudgmental ­p resence, teachers can help gender and sexual minority youth to develop a more ­p ositive and healthy identity (Riggle & Rostosky, 2012). They can also be advocates for school policies and protections that make school a safe place for

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Table 2.4  Reaching Out to Help Students of Diverse Sexual Orientations The GLSEN Safe Space Kit provides tips for youth-service providers in schools for creating a safe and supportive learning environment for LGBTQ youth. TIPS FOR CREATING A SAFE ENVIRONMENT FOR LGBTQ STUDENTS It is important to create and maintain an environment in which lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queeridentifying youth and youth questioning their own sexual orientation feel welcome and safe. Here are several steps you can take: MAKE YOUR SUPPORT VISIBLE  Safe Space stickers, posters, or other LGBTQ-affirming materials in your classroom can signal to students that you are an ally. Also consider letting staff in your school know that you support LGBTQ individuals. LISTEN  One of the best things that you can do is to invite students to express what is going on in their lives and to listen without judgment. AFFIRM  Use stories, curricula, and words to convey to students that they are not alone. Some LGBTQ youth feel isolated and lack a supportive social network with whom they can discuss their sexual orientation. Allow students to self-identify and use terms that affirm their identity. CONNECT STUDENTS TO RESOURCES  You do not have to be the expert. Refer distressed students to someone who is trained to deal with sexual identity development. This is a demonstration of care, not a dismissal of responsibility. You can also help interested students find LGBTQ-affirming organizations and clubs. INTERVENE  If you see or hear about a student being verbally or physically harassed, take action immediately. It is important that targeted students know that you will intervene and that perpetrators know that any form of harrassment is unacceptable. RESPECT CONFIDENTIALITY  Be sure to let students who confide in you know that you won’t share their information unless they ask for your help. FOLLOW UP  If a student confides in you, check in with them with acceptance and understanding and to see if there is anything further you may be able to do. Additional steps you can take: • Work on your own sense of comfort around issues of sexual orientation and gender identity. • Dispel myths around sexual orientation by knowing facts and sharing that information. • Work on setting aside your own personal biases to better serve students dealing with issues around sexual orientation and gender identity. Source: Adapted from GLSEN. (2019). Safe Space kit: A guide to supporting lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer students in your school.

all students (see Collins & Ehrenhalt, 2018, Best Practice for Serving LGBTQ Students, from https://www.learningforjustice.org/). We have dealt with a wide range of cultural differences in this chapter. How can teachers provide an appropriate education for all of their students? We turn now to this question.

Creating Culturally Welcoming Classrooms Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Multicultural Education (III, B) Know the major dimensions of multicultural education. Describe how these dimensions influence each other.

Learning Outcome 2.5  Define multicultural education and apply research on ­diversity to the creation of culturally relevant classrooms. Picture a tenth-grade class in urban Philadelphia, a first-grade class in rural Kentucky, and an eighth-grade class in El Paso. Now picture the classrooms where you were educated (those that you thought about at the beginning of the chapter) and those you see on television. Classrooms are the daily gathering places for a unique blend of individuals who are poor and rich and everything in between, who hail from widely varying cultural heritages, who express their gender and sexual orientation in stereotypical and nonstereotypical ways,

Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity 73

and who display a rich tapestry of differences in other important aspects of life, such as religion, family composition, political affiliation, and (dis)ability. How can teachers, who begin their work from their own unique cultural locations, create classrooms that can hold, protect, and even embrace cultural diversity? Some educators have noted that creating culturally compatible classrooms is the foundation of providing a multicultural education, defined as A process of comprehensive school reform and basic education for all students. It challenges and rejects racism and other forms of discrimination in schools and society and accepts and affirms the pluralism (ethnic, racial, linguistic, religious, economic, and gender, among others) that students, their communities, and their teachers reflect. (Nieto & Bode, 2012, p. 42) James Banks (2015) described five core dimensions of multicultural education. Teachers are likely to be most familiar with the content integration dimension, which involves using examples and content from a variety of cultures when teaching a subject. And because they believe that multicultural education is simply a change in content, some teachers assume that multicultural education is irrelevant for subjects such as science and mathematics. But multicultural education is more than a change in curriculum. To make education welcoming and inclusive for all students in all subjects, we must consider other dimensions as well. Teachers enact multicultural education by embracing an equity pedagogy, which means they diversify their teaching practices to meet the needs of a wide range of learners from different socioeconomic, cultural, and ethnic backgrounds. They also pay attention to the ways in which students’ cultural frames affect the knowledge construction process. Multicultural education also involves prejudice reduction efforts, which focus on teaching practices that help reduce negative attitudes and biases about different cultural groups. Finally, an empowering school culture and social structure are critical. The way the athletics and counseling programs are structured, the teaching method used, lessons about prejudice, perspectives on knowledge—these and many more elements contribute to a true multicultural education that empowers all people. Banks’ (2015) five-dimensional model is just one framework providing ways to create a multicultural learning environment. An examination of the alternative approaches to multicultural education is beyond the scope of an educational psychology text, but be aware that no general agreement exists about the “best” approach to use. Nevertheless, many educators have suggested that a culturally relevant and culturally sustaining pedagogical approach is beneficial in all classrooms.

Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Many scholars have described methods for teaching in a culturally relevant and culturally sustaining way (Delpit, 1995, 2012; Emdin, 2016; hooks, 1994; Love, 2019; Milner, 2015; S ­ iddle Walker, 2001; Stevenson, 2014). The work of Gloria Ladson Billings (1990, 1992, 1994, 1995, 2009) is a good example. For 3 years, she studied excellent teachers in a California school district that served an African American community. To select the teachers, she asked parents and principals for nominations. Parents nominated teachers who r­ espected them, created enthusiasm for learning in their children, and understood their children’s needs to operate successfully in two different worlds—the home community and the White world beyond. Principals nominated teachers who had few discipline referrals, high attendance rates, and students with high standardized test scores. Ladson ­Billings was able to examine in depth 8 of the 9 teachers who were nominated by both parents and principals. Ladson Billings developed a conception of teaching excellence based on her research. She used the term culturally relevant pedagogy to describe teaching that rests on three propositions.

Multicultural education ­ ducation that promotes equity E in the schooling of all students and challenges racism and other forms of discrimination.

Pearson eText Video Example 2.7 A school in Chicago invites parents of English learners to an open house to familiarize them with the acclimation process their children are experiencing in their classrooms. Observe the comments of educators who practice culturally relevant pedagogy.

Culturally relevant pedagogy Excellent teaching that supports students’ cultural identities by promoting academic success, developing/maintaining cultural competence, and developing a critical consciousness to challenge the status quo.

74  Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity 1. Students must experience academic success. “Despite the current social inequities and hostile classroom environments, students must develop their academic skills. The ways those skills are developed may vary, but all students need literacy, numeracy, technological, social, and political skills in order to be active participants in a democracy” (Ladson Billings, 1995, p. 160). 2. ­Students must develop/maintain their cultural competence. As they become more ­academically skilled, students still retain their cultural competence. “Culturally relevant teachers utilize students’ culture as a vehicle for learning” (Ladson Billings, 1995, p.  161). For example, one teacher used rap music to teach about literal and figurative meaning, rhyme, alliteration, and onomatopoeia in poetry. Another brought in a community expert known for her sweet potato pies. Follow-up lessons included investigations of George Washington Carver’s sweet potato research, numerical analyses of taste tests, marketing plans for selling pies, and research on the educational preparation needed to become a chef. In this way, pedagogies also serve to sustain cultural diversity. 3. Students must develop a critical consciousness to challenge the status quo. In addition to developing academic skills while retaining cultural competence, excellent teachers help students “develop a broader sociopolitical consciousness that allows them to critique the social norms, values, mores, and institutions that produce and maintain social inequities” (Ladson Billings, 1995, p. 162). For example, in one school, students were upset that their textbooks were out of date. They mobilized to investigate the funding formulas that allowed middle-class students to have newer books, wrote letters to the newspaper editor to challenge these inequities, and updated their texts with current information from other sources.

Pearson eText Video Example 2.8 Two kindergarten teachers from Shakopee, Minnesota, discuss how they integrate children’s cultures into their lessons to create a caring and respectful community of learners.

Ladson Billings (1995) noted that many people have said her three principles “are just good teaching.” She agrees that she is describing good teaching but questions “why so little of it seems to be occurring in classrooms populated by African American students” (p. 159). Lisa Delpit (2003) also described three steps for teaching students that are consistent with culturally relevant pedagogy. First, teachers must be convinced of the inherent ­intellectual capabilities, humanity, and spiritual character of their students—they must believe in the children. She has provided many examples from schools around the United States where e­ thnically diverse students from low-income families are reading well above grade level and doing advanced math (Delpit, 2012). When scores are low, the fault is not in the students but in their education. Second, teachers must fight the foolishness of asserting that high test scores or scripted lessons are evidence of good learning and good teaching. Successful instruction is “constant, rigorous, integrated across disciplines, connected to students’ lived cultures, ­connected to their intellectual legacies, engaging, and designed for critical thinking and ­problem solving that is useful beyond the classroom” (Delpit, 2003, p. 18). Third, teachers must learn who their students are and what legacies they bring. Then, students can explore their own intellectual legacies and understand the important reasons for academic, social, physical, and moral excellence—not just to “get a job” but also “for our community, for your ancestors, for your descendants” (p. 19). Drawing on the cultural strengths of and advantages of students whose cultures have been historically erased, such as those from indigenous communities, is one way to honor their knowledge and ways of life (Kana‘iaupuni et al., 2017). In the past, discussions about teaching low-income students and those from racial, ethnic, or linguistic minority groups have focused on remediating problems or overcoming perceived deficits. But a culturally sustaining approach conveys to students that they are fully seen within the particular struggles and oppressive forces that they face. In her book We Want to Do More Than Survive: Abolitionist Teaching and the Pursuit of Educational Freedom, Bettina Love (2019) emphasized that “Dark children cannot thrive without a community

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of love, refusal, protection, knowledge, and resource-sharing” (p. 53). Full acceptance also means acknowledging the role that racism and power have played in systems of oppression. This is not easy, particularly for White teachers for whom these ideas might be new. Becoming an “abolitionist” teacher, Love argues, means you are ready to lose something, you are ready to let go of your ­privilege, you are ready to be in solidarity with dark people by recognizing your Whiteness in dark spaces, recognizing how it can take up space if unchecked, using your Whiteness in White spaces to advocate for and with dark people. And you ­understand that your White privilege allows you to take risks that dark people cannot take in the fight for educational justice. (pp. 158-159)

Diversity in Learning How might classrooms be organized to reflect the diverse ways in which students learn? Let’s look at four aspects that teachers can consider to help them honor the cultural differences present in their classes: social organization, cultural values and learning preferences, sociolinguistics, and cultural discontinuity. These were first introduced by Roland Tharp (1989) and offer useful suggestions for teachers. SOCIAL ORGANIZATION.  Social structure or organization refers to the ways people interact to accomplish a particular goal. For example, the social organization of Hawaiian society depends heavily on collaboration and cooperation. Children play together in groups of friends and siblings, with older children often caring for the younger ones. When ­cooperative work groups of four or five boys and girls were established in Hawaiian classrooms, student learning and participation improved (Okagaki, 2001, 2006). The teacher worked intensively with one group while the children in the ­remaining groups helped each other. But when the same structure was tried in a Navajo classroom, students would not work together. These children are socialized to be more solitary and not to play with children of the opposite sex. By setting up same-sex working groups of only two or three Navajo students, teachers encouraged them to help each other. Providing choices and variety in grouping structures creates greater flexibility in the social organization of the classroom. CULTURAL VALUES AND LEARNING PREFERENCES.  As noted throughout this chapter, all

learners (and teachers) have distinct values and preferences related to their diverse cultural backgrounds. For example, research has shown that some Hispanic American students are more oriented toward family and group loyalty. This might mean that these students ­prefer cooperative activities and dislike being made to compete with fellow students (Garcia, 1992; Vasquez, 1990). It might also mean that some students will behave in ways that reflect certain Latino values, such as these four identified by Dingfelder (2005): Familismo: Tightly knit families. Discussing family problems or business might be seen as disloyal. Simpatia: Value of interpersonal harmony. Assertively voicing personal opinions or ­arguing might be seen as inappropriate. Respeto: Respect for people in authority, for example, teachers and government officials. Personalismo: Valuing of close interpersonal relationships; discomfort with distant, cold, professional relationships. The learning approaches of African Americans might be inconsistent with teaching approaches in some schools. For example, some student learning is facilitated by taking a visual/global approach rather than a verbal/analytic approach; a preference for reasoning by inference or improvisation rather than by formal logic; a focus on people and relationships; a

76  Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity preference for energetic involvement in several activities simultaneously rather than routine, step-by-step learning; a tendency to approximate numbers, space, and time; and a greater dependence on nonverbal communication. Students of color who identify with their heritage cultures might respond better to open-ended questions with more than one answer, as opposed to single, r­ ight-answer questions. Questions that focus on meaning or the “big picture” might be more productive than questions that focus on details (Bennett, 2011; Gay, 2010; Sheets, 2005). In many indigenous communities, humility and harmony are valued more than competition. Teaching and learning often take place through oral narrative forms that emphasize holistic, integrated, and “high context” ways of knowing that use cultural metaphors and ­imagery (Cajete, 2020). For example, research has shown that Navajo students preferred ­hearing a story all the way through to the end before discussing parts of the story. Teachers who stopped reading to ask comprehension questions seemed odd to these students and interrupted their learning process (Tharp, 1989). Also, these students sometimes show strong preferences for learning privately through trial and error, rather than having their mistakes made public ­(Morgan, 2009). But as you saw earlier, there are dangers in stereotyping any group, especially in terms of their cultural values or learning preferences. A heated debate exists today about whether identifying group differences in learning preferences is a dangerous, racist (and/or sexist, colonialist) exercise. In our society, we are quick to move from the notion of “difference” to the idea of “deficits” and stereotypes (Christopher et al., 2014). The latter view assumes that White, middle-class culture is “normal” and valuable and can lead to the perpetuation of oppressive teaching approaches that silence or erase students’ ancestral and cultural roots (McIntosh, 2009; Paris, 2012; Sabzalian, 2019). The best advice for teachers is to be sensitive to individual differences in all your students and to make available alternative paths to learning. Never prejudge how a student will learn best based on assumptions about the student’s ethnicity, race, or gender. Get to know the individual and get to know their culture. Sociolinguistics The study of the formal and informal rules for how, when, about what, to whom, and how long to speak in conversations within cultural groups.

Pragmatics The rules for when and how to use language to be an effective communicator in a particular culture.

Participation structures The formal and informal rules for how to take part in a given activity.

SOCIOLINGUISTICS.  Sociolinguistics is the study of “the courtesies and conventions of conversation across cultures” (Tharp, 1989, p. 351). The classroom is a special setting for communicating; it has its own set of rules for when, how, to whom, about what subject, and in what manner to use language. To be successful, students must know these communication rules; that is, they must understand the pragmatics of the classroom—when, where, and how to communicate. This is not such an easy task. As class activities change, rules change. Sometimes you have to raise your hand (during the teacher’s presentation), but sometimes you don’t (during story time on the rug or during an experiment in the lab). Sometimes asking a question (during discussion) is good, but other times (such as when the teacher is reprimanding you), asking a question isn’t so good. These differing activity rules are called participation structures, and they define appropriate participation for each class activity. Most classrooms have many different participation structures. To be competent communicators in the classroom, students sometimes have to read very subtle, nonverbal cues telling them which participation structures are currently in effect. For example, when the teacher moves to the whiteboard, students should look up and be ready for instructions. Some children are simply better than others at reading classroom situations because the participation structures of the school match the structures they have learned at home (Tyler et al., 2008). The communication rules for most school situations are similar to those in middle-class homes, so children from these homes often appear to be more competent communicators. They know the unwritten rules. However, it seems that even students who speak the same language as their teachers might still have trouble communicating and so have trouble learning school subjects. What can teachers do? You can begin by making communication rules for activities clear and explicit. Do not assume students know what to do. Use cues to signal students

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when changes occur. Explain and demonstrate desired behavior. I have seen teachers show young children how to use their “inside voices,” “six-inch voices,” or “whisper voices.” One teacher said and then demonstrated, “If you have to interrupt me while I’m working with other children, stand quietly beside me until I can help you.” Be consistent in responding to students. If students are supposed to raise their hands, don’t call on those who break the rules. In these ways you will help students learn the rules of communication in the school context. CULTURAL DISCONTINUITY.  What happens when students’ values, participation struc-

tures, and learning preferences conflict with those espoused in mainstream school culture? After all, a value-free learning environment does not exist (Christopher et al., 2014). Kenneth Tyler and his colleagues (2008) referred to this phenomenon as cultural discontinuity, which they defined as “a school-based behavioral process where the cultural value-based learning preferences and practices of many ethnic minority students—those typically originating from home or parental socialization activities—are discontinued at school” (p. 281). Some learners who arrive at school have difficulty finding their own values reflected in the school culture, which is predominantly based on White, middle-class norms. Consequently, some students “learn quickly that they are expected to divorce themselves from their culture in order to be academically successful,” as Christopher Emdin (2016) poignantly asserted in his book, For White Folks Who Teach in the Hood (p. 13). What is the cost to students of being in a school culture with dissimilar values? “A loss of their dignity and a shattering of their personhood,” says Emdin. “Urban youth who enter schools seeing themselves as smart and capable are confronted by curriculum that is blind to their realities and school rules that seek to erase their culture” (p. 13). Such students learn that they must conform or else risk becoming invisible and devalued in the eyes of their teachers and peers.

Lessons for Teachers: Teaching Every Student To be effective, instruction should be coupled with humility and respect for cultural differences (Delpit, 2012). The set of cultural behaviors and values that works in one c­ ontext might not work in another. That does not mean that one is correct and the other is not. How will you understand, support, and build on all the cultures of your students? Here are ­several general teaching principles to guide you in finding answers to these questions. See the Guidelines: Culturally Relevant Teaching for more ideas. KNOW YOURSELF.  We began this chapter with a bit of introspective “me”search. Doing more

of this will help you to become familiar and at ease with your own racial and ethnic heritage, ­cultural and linguistic background, gender identity, and sexual orientation (Love, 2019). Developing an understanding of your own many identities is essential to your being able to create a safe space for students to do the same. Self-awareness also involves questioning the assumption that your values and experiences are the “norm” and therefore are the yardstick by which others should be measured. Scholars like Peggy McIntosh (2009) encourage all teachers—White teachers in ­particular—to explore their own varied identities. This means reflecting on the ways in which we, in our unique and intersecting racial, economic, ethnic, religious, gender, and sexual identities (to name just a few), have reaped advantages and disadvantages from the various systems of power around us. We would like to underscore this point: To varying degrees, all people face both unearned privileges and unearned disadvantages in their lives tied to the ways their identities are (or are not) valued by others in different contexts. Take a moment to return to the Stop & Think activities earlier in this chapter. How has some aspect of your identity advantaged you? How has some aspect of your identity led to disadvantages? How can this help you to understand your students’ experiences? KNOW YOUR STUDENTS.  We must learn who our students are and understand the legacies they bring (Delpit, 2003). Nothing you read in a chapter on cultural differences will teach you enough to understand the lives of all your students. If you can take other courses in

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GUIDELINES Culturally Relevant Teaching Experiment with different grouping arrangements to encourage social harmony and cooperation. Examples 1. 2. 3.

Try “study buddies” and pairs. Organize heterogeneous groups of four or five. Establish larger teams for older students.

Provide a range of ways to learn material to accommodate a range of learning preferences. Examples 1. 2. 3. 4.

Give students verbal materials at different reading levels. Offer visual materials—charts, diagrams, and models. Provide audio and video for listening and viewing. Set up activities and projects.

Teach classroom procedures directly, even ways of doing things that you thought everyone would know. Examples 1. 2. 3. 4.

Tell students how to get the teacher’s attention. Explain when and how to interrupt the teacher if students need help. Show which materials students can take and which require permission. Demonstrate acceptable ways to disagree with or challenge another student.

Learn the meanings of your students’ different behaviors. Examples 1. 2.

Ask students how they feel when you correct or praise them. What gives them this feeling? Talk to family and community members and other teachers to discover the meanings of expressions, gestures, or other responses that are unfamiliar to you.

Emphasize meaning in teaching. Examples 1. 2. 3.

Make sure students understand what they read. Try storytelling and other modes that don’t require written materials. Use examples that relate abstract concepts to everyday experiences; for instance, relate negative numbers to being overdrawn in your bank account.

Get to know the customs, traditions, and values of your students. Examples 1. 2. 3.

Use holidays as a chance to discuss the origins and meanings of traditions. ­Analyze different traditions for common themes. Attend community fairs and festivals.

Help students detect racist, classist, sexist, and homophobic messages. Examples 1. 2. 3. 4.

Analyze curriculum materials for biases. Make students “bias detectives,” reporting biased comments in the media. Discuss the ways that students communicate biased messages about each other, and decide what should be done when this happens. Capitalize on teachable moments. Discuss expressions of prejudice such as antiSemitism or homophobia when they arise in the media, in curricular materials, or in class.

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college or read about other cultures, we encourage you to do so. But reading and studying are not enough. You will learn much more by getting to know your students. This means fully seeing your students as complex, developing, and culturally-situated individuals. Get to know your students’ families and communities too. Elba Reyes, a successful bilingual teacher for children with special needs, describes her approach: ­Usually I find that if you really want to know a parent, you get to know them on their own turf. This is key to developing trust and understanding the parents’ perspective. First, get to know the community. Learn where the local grocery store is and what the children do after school. Then schedule a home visit at a time that is convenient for the parents. The home environment is not usually as ladened with failure. I sometimes observed the child being successful in the home, for ­example, riding a bicycle or helping with dinner. (Bos & Reyes, 1996, p. 349) Try to spend time with students and parents on projects outside school. Ask parents to help in class or speak to your students about their jobs, their hobbies, or the history and heritage of their ethnic group. Don’t wait until a student is in trouble to have the first meeting with a family member. Watch for and listen to the ways that your students interact in large and small groups. Have students write to you, and write back to them. Eat lunch with one or two students. Spend some nonteaching time with them. RESPECT YOUR STUDENTS.  From knowledge should come respect for your students’ learning

strengths—for the struggles they face and the obstacles they have overcome. Love (2019) emphasizes the importance of celebrating the full selfhood of students, particularly students of color. Not just their culture, language, sexuality, or current circumstances, but their entire selves, past, present, and future. Their ancestors, their family members, their friends, their religion, their music, their dress, their language, the ways that they express their gender and sexuality, and their communities must all be embraced and loved. (p. 120) For a child, genuine acceptance is a necessary condition for developing self-esteem. ­Sometimes the self-image and occupational aspirations of some children actually decline in their early years in public school, probably because of the emphasis on majority culture values, accomplishments, and history. One solution is to engage in what Emdin (2016) calls “reality pedagogy—an approach to teaching and learning that has a primary goal of meeting each student on his or her own cultural and emotional turf” (p. 27). By inviting students to bring their group’s culture into the classroom (in the form of literature, art, music, or any other cultural knowledge), teachers can help students maintain a sense of pride in their cultural group. This integration of culture must be more than the “­ tokenism” of sampling ethnic foods or wearing costumes. Students should teach and learn with others about the socially and intellectually important contributions of various groups. Many excellent references provide background information, history, and teaching strategies for different groups of students (e.g., Banks, 2014; Emdin, 2016; Gay, 2010; Irvine & Armento, 2001; Ladson Billings, 1995). TEACH YOUR STUDENTS.  The most important thing you can do for your students is teach

them to read, write, speak, compute, think, and create—through constant, rigorous, culturally connected instruction (Delpit, 2003). A strong emphasis on academics and high expectations combined with caring support for students are key (Palardy, 2013). Beware of how hidden ­biases can creep in. Sometimes, in an attempt to be compassionate or to relieve the stress on students at risk, teachers give these students more positive feedback than they would privileged students. This well-intended but overly positive feedback can contribute to lowering expectations and reducing the academic challenge for these students (Harber et al., 2012). Too often, goals for students with low SES or from ethnic minority groups have focused ­exclusively on basic skills. Students are taught words and sounds, but the meaning of the story is supposed to come later.

Pearson eText Video Example 2.9 In this video, a middle school language arts teacher uses a writing activity to build community among her diverse students. Her teaching practices model principles for teaching in a multicultural classroom: know your students, respect your students, teach your students.

80  Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity And finally, teach students directly about how to be students. In the early grades, this could mean directly teaching the courtesies and conventions of the classroom: how to get a turn to speak, how and when to interrupt the teacher, how to whisper, how to get help in a small group, how to give an explanation that is helpful, how to respect difference when interacting with others. In the later grades, it might mean teaching the academic language and study skills that fit your subject. You can ask students to learn “how we do it in school” without violating the third principle—respect your students. Ways of asking questions around the kitchen table at home might be different from ways of asking questions in school, but students can learn both ways without deciding that either way is superior. And you can expand ways of doing it in school to include more possibilities.

Summary Education Is Cultural (pp. 37–38) What is culture, and how does cultural diversity affect ­learning culture, and teaching?  There are many conceptions of ­ but most include the knowledge, skills, rules, ­traditions, beliefs, and values that guide behavior in a ­ particular group of people: Culture is a program for living. The differences between cultures might be very obvious, tip-of-the-iceberg characteristics, or they might be very ­ subtle, below-the-surface differences. When subtle c­ ultural differences meet, misunderstandings and conflicts are ­common. These conflicts can happen when the values and competencies of the dominant, mainstream culture are used to determine what is considered “normal” or appropriate behavior in schools. In these cases, children who have been socialized in different cultures might be perceived as acting inappropriately, not following the rules, or being rude and disrespectful.

Your Cultural and Educational History (pp. 39–46) Why is it important to understand your own cultural background?  Everyone is a member of many cultural groups, defined in terms of geographic region, nationality, ethnicity, race, gender, social class, and religion. Membership in a particular group does not determine behavior or values but makes certain values and kinds of behaviors more likely. Wide variations exist within each group. You met two individuals, Ternice and Jessie, who embody that diversity. What terms should I use when describing my own and others’ cultures? Examining the different social groups to which we belong can serve to guide the terms we use. However, labels that show a prejudicial evaluation for or against a group should be avoided. When in doubt, use the terms that ­i ndividuals in the group would prefer you to use when describing their group and its practices. Remember that intersectionality refers to the overlapping cultural identities that people have. These might shape individuals in unique ways that no single group would have done.

What are the differences among prejudice, discrimination, and stereotype threat? Prejudice is a rigid and unfair ­generalization—a prejudgment or attitude—about an entire category of people. Prejudice might target people in particular racial, ethnic, religious, political, geographic, or language groups, or it might be directed toward the gender or sexual orientation of an individual. Discrimination is unequal treatment of or actions toward particular categories of people. Stereotype threat is the extra emotional and cognitive burden that your performance in an academic situation might confirm a stereotype that others hold about you. It is not necessary that the individual even believe the stereotype. All that matters is that the individual is aware of the stereotype and cares about performing well enough to disprove its unflattering implications. In the short run, the fear that you might confirm a negative stereotype can induce test anxiety and undermine performance. Over time, experiencing stereotype threat might lead to disidentification with schooling and academic achievement.

­ conomic and Social Class Differences E (pp. 46–54) What is SES, and how does it differ from social class? Social class reflects a group’s prestige and power in a society. Most people are aware of the social class that they share with similar

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peers. Sociologists use the term SES for variations in wealth, power, control over resources, and prestige. Socioeconomic status is determined by several factors—not just income—and often overpowers other cultural differences. No single variable is an effective measure of SES, but most researchers identify four general levels of SES: upper, middle, working, and lower classes. The main characteristics of these different SES levels are summarized in Table 2.2. What is the relationship between SES and school achievement?  Socioeconomic status and academic achievement are moderately correlated. Students of all ethnic groups with high SES show higher average levels of achievement on test scores and stay in school longer than students with low SES. The longer the child is in poverty, the stronger the impact is on achievement. Why is there a correlation between SES and school achievement? Students with low SES might experience inadequate health care, teachers’ lowered expectations of them, low self-esteem, learned helplessness, ­participation in resistance cultures, school tracking, understimulating home environments, and summer setbacks. This last, striking finding is that children with low SES lose academic ground outside school over the summer, whereas children with higher SES continue to advance.

larger social environment influence children’s understandings of their gender roles. Through their interactions with family, peers, teachers, and the environment in general, children begin to form gender schemas, or organized networks of knowledge about what it means to belong to a particular gender group. How are gender biases communicated?  In children’s books, there are more males in the titles and the illustrations, and the characters (especially the boys) continue to behave in stereotypical ways. Girl characters sometimes cross gender roles to be more active, but boy characters seldom show “feminine,” expressive traits. Some over-representation of gender exists in television commercials and online media, too. Teachers interact more with boys in both positive and negative ways. Lately some educators have claimed that schools are not supportive of boys, and single-gender classrooms have been suggested as an answer. The research on the value of these classrooms is mixed. What are the stages of developing one’s sexual orientation?  Stages of developing a sexual orientation can also follow a pattern from discomfort to confusion to acceptance, particularly for sexual minority (e.g., gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender) students. Some researchers contend that one’s sexual orientation is not always permanent and can change over the years.

Ethnicity and Race in Teaching and Learning (pp. 55–62)

­ reating Culturally Welcoming Classrooms C (pp. 72–80)

Distinguish between ethnicity and race.  Ethnicity (culturally transmitted behavior) and race (a socially constructed categorization based on physical traits) are significant categories people use to describe themselves and others. ­ Ethnic or racial minority groups (either numerically or historically marginalized) are rapidly increasing in population.

What is multicultural education?  Multicultural education is a field of study designed to increase educational equity for all students. According to the multicultural ideal, America should be transformed into a society that values diversity. James Banks suggests that multicultural education has five dimensions: integrating content, helping students understand how knowledge is influenced by beliefs, reducing prejudice, creating social structures in schools that support learning and development for all students, and using teaching methods that reach all students.

How can differences in the ethnicity of teachers and students affect school performance?  Conflicts can arise from differences between teachers and students in culture-based beliefs, values, and expectations. Cultural conflicts are usually about below-the-surface differences because when subtle cultural differences meet, misunderstandings are common. Students in some cultures learn attitudes and behaviors that are more consistent with school expectations. Differences in cognitive and academic abilities among ethnic groups are largely the legacy of racial segregation and continuing prejudice and discrimination.

Gender and Sexual Orientation in Teaching and Learning (pp. 63–72) What are gender identity and gender roles, and how do they develop? Gender identity is a personal view of oneself along the female-to-male continuum or in a nonbinary way. Gender roles refer to a set of stereotypically masculine or feminine characteristics and behaviors. The differential behavior of ­parents and teachers toward male and female children and the

What is culturally relevant pedagogy? Gloria Ladson Billings (1995, 2004) describes culturally relevant teaching that rests on three propositions: Students must experience academic success, develop/maintain their cultural competence, and develop a critical consciousness to challenge the status quo. This includes recognizing power structures and racism and the ways they have perpetuated inequalities. What are some aspects of diversity in learning?  Teachers should pay attention to the social organization and participation structures in their classrooms and teach students directly how to be successful in these structures, strategically use information about students’ cultural values and learning preferences, avoid cultural discontinuities in class, and embrace themselves and their students as individuals with complex identities. These accomplishments can lead to respecting every student and teaching more effectively.

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Key Terms Bias Culturally relevant pedagogy Culture Discrimination Ethnic-racial identity Ethnicity Gender biases Gender identity

Race Resistance culture Sexual orientation Socioeconomic status (SES) Sociolinguistics Stereotype Stereotype threat

Gender roles Gender schemas Intersectionality Multicultural education Nigresence Participation structures Pragmatics Prejudice

­Connect and Extend to Licensure Multiple-Choice Questions 1.

Socioeconomic status and school achievement are often correlated. Which one of the following statements is NOT true regarding the relationship between SES and levels of achievement? A. The longer a child lives in poverty, the greater the impact on achievement. B. Children who are poor are no more likely to be kept back in school than children who are not. C. Students of all ethnic groups with high SES generally show higher levels of achievement on test scores and stay in school longer than students with low SES. D. Children who are poor are more likely to live in suburban and rural areas than to live in central cities.

2.

C. Damon might be exhibiting performance-avoidance goals because he doesn’t want to look dumb. D. Damon’s high self-efficacy makes him think that testing is a waste of his time. 4.

To prevent gender bias in his fourth-grade classroom, Mr. Bonner used gender-free language, provided positive role models, and ensured that all his students had opportunities to engage in various activities by rotating classroom jobs and activities. His school was also experi­ menting with single-sex classrooms. Next year, Mr. Bonner thought he might opt to teach in one of those classrooms. Which of the following statements concerning single-sex classrooms is NOT true?

Educators often assume that students are not bright because they have inadequate resources at home. This inadequacy manifests itself as a lack of familiarity with school-related activities. When this occurs, what is the likely outcome?

A. Single-sex classrooms have positive effects on learning, motivation, and engagement when certain conditions are met.

A. These students work harder to prove themselves to their teachers.

C. Teachers must use teaching strategies that are geared specifically for students of a particular sex.

B. Teachers might have low expectations that have negative impacts on future academic success. C. The students will perform poorly because they will never catch up with their peers. D. Teachers understand that not all students will be able to achieve academically. 3.

B. She might have made the test too difficult for her African American students, so she should make an easier test next time.

Damon, an African American student in Diane Collins’s math class, pushed his math test away after a few minutes and proclaimed, “This is stupid. I don’t know why we even have to do this.” What is Ms. Collins most likely to think? A. She should send Damon to the principal’s office for insubordination.

B. Teaching is not easier in a single-sex classroom than it is in a mixed-sex classroom.

D. Students in single-sex classrooms are often less concerned about making positive impressions on peers.

Constructed-Response Questions Case Paulo Nzambi moved from his home in Angola to the United States in the fifth grade. Although Paulo’s English and schooling were adequate in Angola, his teacher, Katie Wyant, worried about his social adjustment. His quiet demeanor and soft voice were, in many ways, the opposite of those of his male peers. Paulo appeared hesitant when interacting with her, as though he was unsure about how to behave. As the year

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progressed, Katie noticed that he had not made any progress in adjusting to the classroom. She decided she needed to be proactive in finding a solution. 5.

To acquire a better understanding of Paulo and make school a more positive experience, what three types

of relationships would assist Paulo as well as Miss Wyant? 6.

What aspects of culturally relevant teaching might Katie Wyant employ to assist Paulo Nzambi in his transition to an American classroom?

What Would They Do? Teachers’ Casebook: Conversations About Race At the beginning of this chapter, we asked you to think critically about students who were disputing an incident involving an unarmed Black teenager and the police. As you now consider these teachers’ responses to that question, we again suggest that you think critically. Do the following responses reflect (or contradict) any of the concepts discussed in this chapter? Do the suggestions and solutions described here make sense in light of what you have learned about best practices in this or other classes? How do these ideas align with or challenge your personal philosophy of teaching?

Dr. Mari Ann Banks • System Equity Coordinator City Schools of Decatur, Decatur, GA The U.S. is a country scarred by its history of racism, so if we wish to be great teachers, it is essential that we either have or develop the ability to examine race with students and in our own praxis. Many of us have been indoctrinated with the belief that conversations about race are injurious and impolite. Nevertheless, the current racial climate shows us that the time for polite conversation that circumnavigates race is over. Black people are being murdered. We do much more harm in bypassing such subject matter than we will ever do by engaging students in thoughtful conversation about how we make it stop. In the U.S., race has always been the paisley elephant in the room, but it’s an elephant that only White people have had the privilege to ignore while the rest of us are crushed in its wake. It’s time for White people to shoulder their share of the weight. This requires active engagement. However, teachers need to be thoughtful and careful when having such conversations. That’s why it’s so important for us to develop our understanding of race and use appropriate discussion protocols with our students. For example, I might directly ask the Blue Lives Matter students, “What would it mean to ‘Blue’ lives if Black lives mattered?” Or, I might provide the following journal prompt: “Police have chosen to serve and to risk their lives. Black people have no choice in being Black and do not want their lives to be at risk. Explore what these two statements mean together.” After students have had time to think privately, I would facilitate discussion of these ­topics using one or more protocols such as “Critical Friends” or “Courageous Conversations” to help guide discussions in a healthy manner.

Amy Pochodylo • High School ScienceTeacher Buckeye Valley High School, Delaware, OH This situation is not an unusual one, so thinking about it beforehand is key to avoiding a knee-jerk, emotional ­response. As a teacher, I have spent time considering my own identities and the privileges that come along with those identity groups, to help me understand my own biases and blind spots. Other important pre-work that ­ I do with my classes is to establish norms. Ideally, these norms make the classroom a safe space for every learner, and ­address how to have conversations that respectfully consider a range of viewpoints. As a science teacher, I try to ground everything in data. Black Lives Matter should not be a political or controversial statement, and there is so much data to support that. I would present data on the ­racial differences in the use of deadly force or stops by police officers to demonstrate why policing is often at the center of the conversation around Black Lives Matter. I would also use data around environmental justice movements and race-based differences in healthcare outcomes. After spending time as a class analyzing these sets of data, I would have the class work together (or in small groups) to write a claim, evidence, [and] reasoning using the data to back up the claim that Black Lives Matter. My hope would be that, by approaching this topic through the scientific practices used every day in the classroom, students could better understand the statement “Black Lives Matter” and that it isn’t explicitly political. My fear as a teacher around discussing group-based identities, including race, is that I have my own set of biases and identities that will certainly lead to blind spots in my own thinking and imperfect ways of leading conversations in my classroom. While I fear saying the wrong thing and marginalizing other identities, I also believe in the importance of having these conversations in the classroom, being open about my own shortcomings, and supporting my students as they learn.

Demetrick Tensley • 9th–12th grade Business Education & Computer Science Teacher Seneca High School, Seneca, SC The topics of race and policing are ubiquitous in our society. As individuals of all ages are becoming more aware of intersectionality, these conversations will spill

84  Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity into our classrooms. For teachers, this can feel daunting. Some might hedge and think, “This is not a part of my curriculum,” and work to hide from these topics in hopes of escaping possible discomfort. That being said, the world is diversifying. The workforce will need our future graduates to be prepared to thrive in diverse teams. To establish a foundation for this end, we must c­ ultivate an environment in our classrooms for discussing difficult topics. This situation provides an authentic opportunity to guide students in a discussion of these topics. This type of ­d iscussion will also help students to hone the essential skill of civil discourse. Teachers attempting to lead students through this type of discussion will need to take an unbiased stance, lay ground rules, and preserve healthy discussion. If teachers are uncomfortable or feel ill-prepared, school guidance counselors are an excellent resource. The prospect of a potentially contentious situation can cause fear. During preparation for a controversial discussion, I work to be both unbiased and ­p repared with facts/historical background. When dealing with issues at the intersection of race and policing, students can voice provocative opinions. This can make it difficult to maintain impartiality. I’ve found that in these situations, it is best to be prepared, listen, and look for commonalities. To continue daily toward the goal of students thriving in diverse group ­s ettings, I also try to have students complete components of the curriculum in diverse teams. Facilitating group work ­ a llows me to talk to students about the ­importance of understanding peers’ beliefs, differences, and the need for mutual respect.

India Chambers • Kindergarten through 8th grade Director of Academics Northside Preparatory Academy, Cincinnati, OH The teacher must set an expectation that the classroom is a safe environment to express one’s self respectfully and to value others’ opinions. If this expectation is not in place, these difficult, uncomfortable learning conversations cannot take place. Once this expectation has been established, I would give students background stories of people around the world and have them write a journal entry as that person. This will allow them to explore other lives from a different perspective. For instance, one day we will read an excerpt from Anne Frank and note the realities of her world and experiences. Students would write a journal as Anne. Another day, they would write a journal entry as Trayvon Martin. Another day they would write it as a police officer who is trying their best to defend the community they serve while facing a difficult situation that could possibly cost someone their lives. We would do these exercises throughout the year to extend students’ perspectives and allow for them to develop empathy and respect for all persons. If I knew students of color were upset about White students’

comments, I would host a forum with a panel discussion with stakeholders from various backgrounds. Students, teachers, and parents would have the opportunity to ask questions that would be addressed by the panel. To ­a cknowledge the differences and the realities of marginalized populations would be imperative, as would coming up with a solution that can take our differences and meld them into a beautifully blended school community. I’m not fearful of having conversations about race because I believe things resonate with people when they’re uncomfortable, and this forces them to act and make a mental shift. Race talks are uncomfortable, but extremely important to change mentalities.

Lucy Ordaz Sanchez • 7th and 8th grade Family and Consumer Science Teacher Dixon Middle School, Provo, UT I would take this opportunity in a heartbeat! I would first play the line game—have students stand on both sides of a line of tape and ask random questions such as “who has a dog?” Students who have a dog step on the line. Questions could be comical at first for students [to] understand how the game works and also get them to relax a little. Then I would get more serious with the questions. Students would be able to see that they do have things in common with other students they might think are too different, as both might step onto the line after being asked, for example, “Are your parents . . . divorced?” After a couple of rounds of this game I would set up the classroom for all of us to be sitting in a circle (circle has no sides and ­s ymbolizes unity). I would start a discussion about the game to help them see that although they might look different, some of them have similar situations in their lives that they can relate to. In order for this activity to work I would have already spent time ­c reating a safe environment in my classroom where students know that they are being heard, respected, valued, and seen for who they are. It is likely that some comments would ­trigger emotions and perhaps the desire to be hurtful or offensive, but before the discussion we would have set up some rules as a class to minimize those negative comments. My only fear in talking about race would be the reactions of the parents. I know students go home and sometimes discuss what their day was like at school. I believe that the students reflect and/or believe what is being discussed at home and sometimes as adults we forget how our words, our thoughts and actions will impact the children/youth who are watching us.

Melissa Roy • 10th grade Reading and English Teacher Lake Brantley High School, Altamonte Springs, FL The majority of students in my high school remedial reading classes belong to racial and ethnic minority groups. It would

Chapter 2  Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity 85

be more comfortable for me as a White teacher to ignore this issue and stick with academics, for I sometimes fear saying the wrong thing and offending my students of color. Given the current social climate in the United States, however, that would be the wrong decision. Though I may not understand what it feels like to be a minority, as the adult in the room, it is my responsibility to facilitate opportunities for students to develop understanding for and empathy toward one another. This issue is far bigger than my classroom and could have lasting repercussions for students who are members of marginalized groups. From day one I create a space in which respectful discourse among students is not only allowed but also expected, and I model what that looks like

for them until they learn. I offer them daily opportunities to read about the world and develop their own evidencebased opinions of different topics of interest. We engage in Socratic seminars, Harkness discussions, and other activities designed to spark conversation about topics that impact their lives. Perhaps most importantly, I encourage students to share their stories so they can get to know each other on a deeper personal level. My hope is that this will help them understand those who look, live, and believe differently than they do. I believe the most significant lessons I can teach my students are to care for others, notice when injustice happens, and stand up for those who

Chapter 3

Anita Woolfolk Hoy

Cognitive Development

­ eachers’ Casebook: Symbols and T Cymbals What Would You Do? The district curriculum guide calls for a unit on poetry, including lessons on symbolism in poems. You are concerned that many of your fourth-grade students may not be ready to understand this abstract concept. To test the waters, you ask a few students what a symbol is. “It’s sorta like a big metal thing that you bang together,” Tracy says as she waves her hands like a drum major. “Yeah,” Sean adds, “my sister plays one in the high school band.” You realize that they are on the wrong track here, so you try again: “I was thinking of a different kind of symbol, like a ring as a symbol of marriage or a heart as a symbol of love, or. . . .” You are met with blank stares. Trevor ventures, “You mean like the Olympic torch?” “And what does that symbolize, Trevor?” you ask. Trevor replies, “Like I said, a torch,” but he thinks, “Duh!”

86

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Critical Thinking • What do these students’ reactions tell you about children’s thinking? • How would you approach this unit? • What more would you do to “listen” to your students’ thinking so that you could match your teaching to their level of thinking? • How would you give your students concrete experiences with symbolism? • How will you decide whether the students are developmentally ready for this material?



Overview and Objectives

What is going on with Trevor? In this chapter, you will find out. We begin with a definition of development and examine three basic questions. Psychologists have debated the answers to these questions for many years: nature versus nurture, continuity versus discontinuity, and critical versus sensitive periods for development. Next we look at general principles of human development that most psychologists affirm. To understand cognitive development, we begin by studying how the brain works and then explore the ideas of two of the most influential cognitive developmental theorists, Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Piaget’s ideas have implications for teachers about how their students think and what they can learn. We will consider criticisms of his ideas as well. The work of Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, highlights the important roles teachers and parents play in the cognitive development of the child. Vygotsky’s theory is becoming more and more influential in the field of child development. By the time you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: 3.1 Provide a definition of development that takes into account three agreed-upon principles and describe three continuing debates about development, along with current consensus on these questions. 3.2 Summarize research on the physical development of the brain and possible implications for teaching. 3.3 Explain the principles and stages presented in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, including criticisms of his theory. 3.4 Explain the principles presented in Vygotsky’s theory of development, including criticisms of his theory. 3.5 Discuss implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky ‘s theories for teaching.

OUTLINE Teachers’ Casebook—Symbols and Cymbals: What Would You Do? Overview and Objectives A Definition of Development Three Questions Across the Theories General Principles of Development

88 Chapter 3 Cognitive Development The Brain and Cognitive Development The Developing Brain: Neurons The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex Brain Development in Childhood and Adolescence Putting It All Together: How the Brain Works Neuroscience, Learning, and Teaching Lessons for Teachers: General Principles Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Influences on Development Basic Tendencies in Thinking Four Stages of Cognitive Development Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory Information Processing, Neo-Piagetian, and Neuroscience Views of Cognitive Development Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective The Social Sources of Individual Thinking Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development The Roles of Language and Private Speech The Zone of Proximal Development Limitations of Vygotsky’s Theory Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers Piaget: What Can We Learn? Vygotsky: What Can We Learn? An Example Curriculum: Tools of the Mind Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the “Magic Middle” Cognitive Development: Lessons for Teachers Summary and Key Terms Teachers’ Casebook—Symbols and Cymbals: What Would They Do?

A Definition of Development Learning Outcome 3.1  Provide a definition of development that takes into account three agreed-upon principles, and describe three continuing debates about development, along with current consensus on these questions. In the next few chapters, as we explore how children develop, we will encounter some surprising situations.

• ­Leah, a 5-year-old, is certain that rolling out a ball of clay into a snake creates more clay because “it’s longer.”

• A 9-year-old child in Geneva, Switzerland, firmly insists that being Swiss and being Genevan at the same time is impossible: “I’m already Swiss. I can’t also be Genevan.”

• Jamal, a very bright elementary school student, cannot answer the question “How would life be different if people did not sleep?” because he insists, “People HAVE TO SLEEP!” Development Orderly, adaptive changes we go through between conception and death; these developmental changes remain for a reasonably long period of time.

• A 2-year-old brings his own mother to comfort a friend who is crying, even though the friend’s mother is available, too. What explains these interesting events? You will soon find out because you are entering the world of child and adolescent development. The term development in its most general, psychological sense refers to certain changes that occur in human beings (or animals) between conception and death. The term is not

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applied to all changes but, rather, to those that appear in orderly ways and remain for a reasonably long period of time. A temporary change caused by a brief illness, for example, is not considered a part of development. Human development can be divided into several different aspects: Physical development, as you might guess, deals with changes in the body. Personal development is the term generally used for changes in an individual’s identity and personality. Social development refers to changes in the way an individual relates to others. And cognitive development refers to changes in thinking, reasoning, and decision making. Many changes during development are simply matters of growth and maturation. ­Maturation refers to changes that occur naturally and spontaneously and that are, to a large extent, genetically programmed. Such changes emerge over time and are relatively unaffected by environment, except in cases of malnutrition or severe illness. Much of a person’s physical development falls into this category. Other changes are brought about through learning, as individuals interact with their environments. Such changes make up a large part of a person’s social development. But what about the developments of thinking and personality? Most psychologists agree that in these areas, both maturation and interaction with the environment (or nature and nurture, as they are sometimes called) are important, but they disagree about the amount of emphasis to place on each one. Nature versus nurture is one of three continuing discussions in theories of development.

­Three Questions Across the Theories Because there are many different approaches to research and theory, there also are continuing ­debates about key questions surrounding development. WHAT IS THE SOURCE OF DEVELOPMENT? NATURE VERSUS NURTURE.  Which is more

important in development: the “nature” of an individual (heredity, genes, biological processes, maturation, etc.) or the “nurture” of environmental contexts (education, parenting, culture, social policies, etc.)? This debate has raged for at least 2,000 years and has accumulated many labels along the way, including “heredity versus environment,” “biology versus culture,” “maturation versus learning,” and “innate versus acquired abilities.” In earlier centuries, philosophers, poets, religious leaders, and politicians argued the question. Even in scientific explanations, the pendulum has swung back and forth between nature and nurture (Cairns & Cairns, 2006; Miller, 2016). Scientists now bring new tools to the discussion because they can map genes or trace the effects of drugs on brain activity, for example (Gottlieb et al., 2006). Today the environment is seen as critical to development, but so are biological factors and individual differences. In fact, some psychologists assert that behaviors are determined 100% by biology and 100% by environment—they can’t be separated (Miller, 2016). Current views emphasize complex coactions (joint actions) of nature and nurture. For example, a child born with a very easygoing, calm disposition will likely elicit different reactions from parents, playmates, and teachers than will a child who is often upset and difficult to soothe; this shows that individuals are active in constructing their own environments. But environments shape individuals as well—if not, what good would education be? So today, the either/or debates about nature and nurture are of less interest to educational and developmental psychologists. As a pioneering developmental psychologist said more than 100 years ago, the more exciting questions involve understanding how “both causes work together” (Baldwin, 1895, p. 77). WHAT IS THE SHAPE OF DEVELOPMENT? CONTINUITY VERSUS DISCONTINUITY.  Is human

development a continuous process of increasing abilities, or are there leaps to new stages when abilities actually change? A continuous process would be like gradual improvements in your running endurance through systematic exercise. A discontinuous change (also called qualitative) would be like many of the changes in humans during puberty, such as the ability to reproduce—an entirely different ability.

Physical development Changes in body structure and function over time.

Personal development Changes in personality that take place as one grows.

Social development Changes over time in the ways we relate to others.

Cognitive development Gradual, orderly changes by which mental processes become more complex and sophisticated.

Maturation Genetically programmed, naturally occurring changes over time.

Coactions Joint actions of individual biology and the environment—each shapes and influences the other.

90 Chapter 3 Cognitive Development You can think of continuous or quantitative change like walking up a ramp to go higher and higher: Progress is steady. A discontinuous or qualitative change is more like walking up stairs: There are level periods, and then you ascend the next step all at once. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, described in the next section, is an example of qualitative, discontinuous change in children’s thinking abilities. But other explanations of cognitive development based on learning theories emphasize gradual, continuous, quantitative change.

Sensitive periods Times when a person is especially ready to learn certain things or is responsive to certain experiences.

TIMING: IS IT TOO LATE? CRITICAL VERSUS SENSITIVE PERIODS.  Are there critical periods during which certain abilities, such as language, need to develop? If those opportunities are missed, can the child still “catch up”? These are questions about timing and development. Many earlier psychologists, particularly those influenced by Freud, believed that early childhood experiences are critical, especially for emotional/social and cognitive development. But does early toilet training really set all of us on a particular life path? Probably not. More recent research shows that later experiences are powerful, too, and can change the direction of development. Most psychologists today talk about sensitive periods, not critical periods. There are “windows of opportunity”—times when a person is especially ready for or responsive to certain experiences (Scalise & Felds, 2017; Schunk, 2020). BEWARE OF EITHER/OR.  As you might imagine, these debates about development

proved too complicated to be settled by splitting alternatives into either/or possibilities (Miller, 2016). Today, most psychologists view human development, learning, and motivation as a set of interacting and coacting contexts, from the inner biological structures and processes that influence development, such as genes, cells, nutrition, and disease, to the external factors of families, neighborhoods, social relationships, educational and health institutions, public policies, time periods, historical events, and so on. So the effects of a childhood disease on the cognitive development of a child born in the 16th century to a poor family and treated by bloodletting or leeches will be quite different from the effect of the same disease on a child born in 2022 to a wealthy family and given the best treatment available for that time period. Throughout the rest of this book, we will try to make sense of development, learning, motivation, and teaching without falling into the either/or trap.

­General Principles of Development Although there is disagreement about exactly how development takes place, there are a few general principles that almost all theorists would support. 1. People develop at different rates. In your own classroom, you will have a broad range of examples of different developmental rates. Some students will be larger, better coordinated, or more mature in their thinking and social relationships. Others will be much slower to mature in these areas. Except in rare cases of very rapid or very slow development, such differences are typical and should be expected in any large group of students. 2. Development is relatively orderly. People develop abilities in a logical order. In infancy, they sit before they walk, babble before they talk, and see the world through their own eyes before they can begin to imagine how others see it. In school, they will master addition before algebra, Harry Potter before Shakespeare, and so on. But “orderly” does not necessarily mean “linear” or “predictable”—people might advance, stay the same for a period of time, or even go backward. 3. Development takes place gradually. Very rarely do changes appear overnight. A student who cannot manipulate a pencil or answer a hypothetical question may well develop this ability, but the change is likely to take time.

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The Brain and Cognitive Development Learning Outcome 3.2  Summarize research on the physical development of the brain and possible implications for teaching. If you have taken an introductory psychology class, you have read about the brain and nervous system. You probably remember that the brain has several different areas and that certain areas are involved in particular processes. For example, the brain stem handles basic functions such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure as well as levels of arousal such as sleeping and wakeful attention. The feathery-looking cerebellum coordinates and orchestrates balance and smooth, skilled movements—from the graceful gestures of the dancer to the everyday action of eating without stabbing yourself in the nose with a fork. The cerebellum may also play a role in higher cognitive functions such as learning. The hippocampus is critical in recalling new information and recent experiences and helps establish information in long-term memory, while the amygdala directs emotions and aggression and is important for emotional memories. Almost all sensory signals pass through the thalamus to affect brain activity. Also, the thalamus is involved in our ability to learn new information, particularly if it is verbal. The corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres of the brain to allow communication between them for complex mental processing. The frontal lobe is the area that sets humans apart from other animals by enabling us to process information for planning, remembering, making decisions, solving problems, and thinking creatively. Rather than being a single organ, the brain is a “society of experts” that collaborate to affect what we think and do (Gluck et al., 2020; Schunk, 2020). Figure 3.1 shows the various regions of the brain. Advances in brain imaging techniques have allowed scientists remarkable access to the functioning brain. For example, computerized axial tomography (CAT) scans give ­three-dimensional images of the brain. Positron emission tomography (PET) scans can track brain activity amid different conditions. An electroencephalograph (EEG) measures electrical patterns in the brain, and event-related potential (ERP) uses EEG data to study the brain as people perform activities such as reading or learning vocabulary words. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) shows how blood flows within the brain when children or adults do different cognitive tasks. Finally, a new approach, near-infrared ­optical tomography (NIR-OT), uses infrared light through the scalp to assess brain activity. Table 3.1 on the next page summarizes what each of these techniques can and cannot do. Let’s begin our look at the brain by examining its tiny components: neurons, synapses, and glial cells.

The Developing Brain: Neurons A newborn baby’s brain weighs about 1 pound, barely one-third of the weight of an adult brain. But this infant brain has billions of neurons, the specialized nerve cells that accumulate and transmit information (in the form of electrical activity) in the brain and other

A technique that uses X-ray technology to provide enhanced, 3-dimensional images of the part of the body scanned.

Positron emission tomography (PET) A method of localizing and measuring brain activity using computer-assisted motion pictures of the brain.

Electroencephalograph (EEG) A technique that uses electrodes attached to the scalp to measure electrical patterns in the brain created by neuron movements.

Event-related potential (ERP) Measurements that assess electrical activity of the brain through the skull or scalp.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) An MRI is an imaging technique that uses a magnetic field along with radio waves and a computer to create detailed pictures of the inside of the body. A functional MRI uses an MRI to measure the tiny changes that take place in the brain during brain activity.

Near-infrared optical tomography (NIR-OT)

Figure 3.1  Regions of the Brain Cerebrum Parietal lobe

Corpus callosum

Basal ganglia

Frontal lobe Temporal lobe Hypothalamus Pituitary gland Amygdala

Computerized axial tomography (CAT)

Thalamus Occipital lobe Hippocampus Pons

A technique that uses an optical fiber to transmit near-infrared light through the scalp and into the brain. Some of the light is reflected back, indicating blood flow and oxygenation in the blood, which reveals brain activity.

Cerebellum

Medulla oblongata

Neurons Brain stem

Nerve cells that store and transfer information.

92 Chapter 3 Cognitive Development

Table 3.1  Brain Imaging Techniques Advances in brain imaging have led to greater understanding of how the brain functions. Each technique can give some kinds of information but not others. LIMITATIONS/WHAT IT CAN’T DO

COMMON NAME

WHAT IT DOES

EXAMPLE USES

CAT Scan

Uses X-ray technology to provide enhanced, 3-dimensional images of the brain.

Locating and studying tumors or lesions in the brain.

Cannot use too often because of radiation exposure; does not give detailed information about brain activity.

Shows the extent of activity in different parts of the brain. A small amount of radioactive glucose is injected into the body and carried to the brain. Greater brain activity in various areas uses more glucose and shows up as brighter colors on computerized brain maps.

Studying how the brain works and which areas are more or less involved in different cognitive activities such as reading; diagnosing brain diseases such as tumors, strokes, and dementia.

Because radioactive injections are needed, cannot do many sessions; because there is a brief lag, does not capture fast-paced neural activity; tells more about where in general the activity takes place than about when it does.

Uses electrodes attached to the scalp to measure electrical patterns in the brain created by neuron movements. No drugs or radiation are required.

Studying sleep disorders, epilepsy, language disorders, and cognitive load (Chapters 5 and 8).

Does not provide either 2- or 3-dimensional pictures of the brain; reflects activity for the whole brain and cannot show specifically where activity is occurring.

Provides a calculation based on EEG data that reflects the brain’s response to a stimulus or event.

Studying sensory and cognitive activity, especially language, as well as visual problems and brain disorders.

Is good at assessing speed of neural activity but not at identifying location.

Shows momentby-moment blood flow within the brain associated with neural activity when children or adults do different cognitive tasks, revealing the amount of work done in certain areas. No radiation or injections are necessary.

Studying brain processes and structures related to perception, emotion, thinking, and action; diagnosing when to use drugs to treat strokes; mapping patients’ brains before surgery.

Has few limitations and has largely replaced PET scans, but there is a brief lag between changes in brain activity and the changes in blood flow picked up by the fMRI.

Uses an optical fiber to transmit near-infrared light through the scalp and into the brain. Some of the light is reflected back, indicating blood flow and oxygenation in the blood, which reveals brain activity.

Studying brain processes and changes during particular activities, social interactions, classroom learning. Not invasive, no chemicals or radiation are used; can be mobile and used over longer periods of time.

Has few limitations, but it can detect activity only a few centimeters into the brain where the light can penetrate.

Computerized Axial Tomography

PET Scan Positron Emission Tomography

EEG Electroencephalograph

ERP Event-Related Potentials

fMRI Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

NIR-OT Near-Infrared Optical Tomography

parts of the central nervous system. Neurons are a grayish color, so they sometimes are called the gray matter of the brain. One neuron has the information-processing capacity of a small computer. This means the processing power of one 3-pound human brain is likely greater than the power of all the computers in the world! Of course, computers do many things, like calculate square roots of large numbers, much faster than human brains can

Chapter 3  Cognitive Development 93

(Anderson, 2020). These incredibly important neuron cells are Figure 3.2  A Single Neuron tiny; about 30,000 could fit on the head of a pin (Sprenger, 2010). Each neuron (nerve cell) includes dendrites that bring Scientists once believed that all the neurons a person would ever in messages and an axon that sends out messages. possess are present at birth, but now we know that the produc- This is a single neuron, but each neuron is in a network tion of new neurons, neurogenesis, continues into adulthood, with many others. especially in the hippocampus region (Scalise & Felde, 2017). Axon sends messages Neurons come in many shapes and sizes depending on to other cells their functions, but they all have a similar structure. These cells send out long arm- and branch-like fibers, called axons and den- Neuron Myelin cover on the axon accelerates drites, to connect with other neuron cells. The fiber ends from transmission of different neurons don’t actually touch; there are tiny spaces impulses between them, about one-billionth of a meter in length, called synapses. Neurons share information by using electrical signals and by r­ eleasing chemicals that jump across the synapses. ­Axons transmit information to muscles, glands, or other neurons; dendrites receive information and transmit it to the neuron Dendrites receive messages from cells ­themselves. Connections between neurons via these syn- other neurons aptic transmissions become stronger with use or practice and Synapse Dendrite weaker when not used. The neural pathways reinforced by use Axon form memory traces that are the end result of learning (Scalise & In the synapse, Felde, 2017; Schunk, 2020). So the strength of these synaptic conneurotransmitters nections is dynamic—always changing as learning occurs. This carry information is called synaptic ­plasticity, or just plasticity, a very important between neurons concept for e­ ducators, as you will see soon. Researchers have found that physical exercise plays a critical role in maintaining Neurotransmitters a healthy, plastic brain (Doidge, 2015; Dubinsky et al., 2013). Figure 3.2 shows these components of the neuron system. At birth, each of a child’s approximately 100 to 200 billion neurons has about 2,500 synapses. However, the number of fibers that reach out from the neurons and the number of Neurogenesis synapses between the fiber ends increase during the first years of life, perhaps into adoles- The production of new neurons. cence or longer. By ages 2 to 3, each neuron has around 15,000 synapses; children this age have many more synapses than they will have as adults. In fact, they are oversupplied with neurons and synapses they will need to adapt to their environments. However, only those Synapses neurons that are used will survive, and unused neurons, up to 40%, will be “pruned.” This The tiny spaces between pruning is necessary and supports cognitive development. Researchers have found that neurons—chemical messages are some developmental disabilities are associated with a gene defect that interferes with prun- sent across these gaps. ing (Siegler et al., 2020). Two kinds of overproduction and pruning processes take place. One is called ­experience-expectant because synapses are overproduced in certain parts of the brain dur- Synaptic plasticity ing specific developmental periods, awaiting (expecting) stimulation. For example, during The brain’s tendency to remain the first months of life, the brain expects visual and auditory stimulation. If a normal range somewhat adaptable or flexible. of sights and sounds occurs, then the visual and auditory areas of the brain develop. But children who are born completely deaf receive no auditory stimulation, and, as a result, the ­auditory-processing area of their brains becomes devoted to processing visual information. Plasticity Similarly, the visual-processing area of the brain for children blind from birth becomes de- The brain’s tendency to remain somewhat adaptable or flexible. voted to auditory processing (Siegler et al., 2020). Experience-expectant overproduction and pruning processes are responsible for general development in large areas of the brain and may explain why adults have difficulty with pronunciations that are not part of their native language. For example, the distinction between the sounds of r and l is important in English but not in Japanese, so by about 10 months of age, Japanese infants lose the ability to discriminate between r and l; those neurons are pruned away. As a result, Japanese adults learning these sounds require intense instruction and practice. Just think about the cognitive advantages and extra capacities of an infant growing up learning two languages (Broderick & Blewitt, 2015; Hinton et al., 2008)!

94 Chapter 3 Cognitive Development

Glial cells The white matter of the brain. These cells greatly outnumber neurons and appear to have many functions such as fighting infections, controlling blood flow and communication among neurons, and providing the myelin coating around axon fibers.

Myelination The process by which neural fibers are coated with a fatty sheath called myelin that makes message transfer more efficient.

The second kind of synaptic overproduction and pruning is called ­experience-dependent. Here, synaptic connections are formed based on the individual’s experiences. New synapses are formed in response to neural activity in very localized areas of the brain. Examples are learning to ride a bike or use a spreadsheet. The brain does not “expect” these behaviors, so new synapses form in response to these experiences. Again, more synapses are produced than will be kept after “pruning.” Experience-dependent processes are involved in individual learning, such as mastering unfamiliar sound pronunciations in a second language you are studying. Stimulating environments may help in the pruning process in early life (­experienceexpectant period) and also may support increased synapse development in adulthood ­(experience-dependent period) (Broderick & Blewitt, 2015; Cook & Cook, 2014). In fact, animal studies have shown that rats raised in stimulating environments (with toys, tasks for learning, other rats, and human handling) develop and retain 25% more synapses than rats who are raised with little stimulation. Even though the research with rats might not apply directly to humans, it is clear that extreme deprivation can have negative effects on human brain development. But extra stimulation, for example, flash cards, “educational” tablets, or baby brain games, will not necessarily improve development for young children who are already getting adequate or typical amounts (Berk, 2019). So, spending money on expensive toys or baby education programs probably offers more stimulation than is necessary and might be harmful. Pots and pans, blocks and books, sand and water all provide excellent, appropriate stimulation—especially if accompanied by caring conversations with parents or teachers. Look back at Figure 3.2. It appears that there is nothing between the neurons but air. Actually, that is incorrect. The spaces are filled with glial cells, the white matter of the brain. There are trillions of these glial cells; they greatly outnumber neurons. Glial cells appear to have many functions, such as fighting infections, controlling blood flow and communication among neurons, and providing the myelin coating (see Figure 3.2) around axon fibers. Myelination, the coating of axon neuron fibers with an insulating, fatty glial covering, influences thinking and learning. This process is something like coating bare electrical wires with rubber or plastic. This myelin coating makes message transmission faster and more efficient and is important for brain functioning. For example, in multiple sclerosis the myelin coating degenerates, which leads to trouble with movements, coordination, vision, and speech. Myelination happens quickly in the early years but continues gradually into adolescence, with the child’s brain doubling in volume in the first year of life and doubling again around puberty. Myelination of the areas involved in judgment and decision making, the prefrontal regions, is not complete until early adulthood—more about this later (J. R. Anderson, 2020; Gluck et al., 2020).

The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex Let’s move from the neuron level to the brain itself, which amazingly is almost 80% water, with the rest being fat and protein (Schunk, 2020). The outer 1/8-inch-thick covering is the cerebral cortex—the largest area of the brain. The cerebral cortex is a thin sheet of neurons that is almost 3 square feet in area for adults. To get all that area in your head, the sheet is crumpled together, with many folds and wrinkles (J. R. Anderson, 2020). In humans, this area of the brain is much larger than in lower animals. The cerebral cortex accounts for about 85% of the brain’s weight in adulthood and contains the greatest number of neurons. The cerebral cortex thus allows for the greatest human accomplishments, such as complex problem solving and language. The cortex is the last part of the brain to develop, so it is believed to be more susceptible to environmental influences than other areas of the brain. Parts of the cortex mature at different rates. The region of the cortex that controls physical motor movement matures first, then the areas that control complex senses such as vision and hearing, and last, the frontal lobe, which controls higher-order thinking processes. The temporal lobes of the cortex that play major roles in emotions, judgment, and language do not develop fully until the high school years and maybe later (Berk, 2019; Siegler et al., 2020).

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Different areas of the cortex seem to have distinct functions, as shown in Figure 3.3  A View of the Cerebral ­Figure 3.3. Even though different functions are found in particular areas of the Cortex brain, these specialized functions are quite specific and elementary. To accomplish This is a simple representation of the more complex functions such as speaking or reading, the various areas of the cor- left side of the human brain, showing tex must communicate and work together (J. R. Anderson, 2020). the cerebral cortex. The cortex is Another aspect of brain functioning that has implications for cognitive devel- divided into different areas, or lobes, opment is lateralization, or the specialization of the two hemispheres of the brain. each having a variety of regions with We know that each half of the brain controls the opposite side of the body. Dam- different functions. A few of the major age to the right side of the brain will affect movement on the left side of the body functions are indicated here. and vice versa. In addition, certain areas of the brain affect particular behaviors. Body movement Body sensation For most of us, the left hemisphere of the brain is a major factor in language pro- and coordination Parietal cessing, and the right hemisphere handles much of our s­ patial-visual information lobe and emotions (nonverbal information). For some left-handed people, the relation- Frontal Visual ship might be reversed, but for most left-handers, and for females on average, lobe cortex there is less hemispheric specialization altogether. The brains of young children show more plasticity (adaptability) because they are not as specialized or lateralized as the brains of older children and adults. Young children with damage to the left side of the brain are somewhat able to overcome the damage, which allows language development to proceed. Different areas of the brain take over the funcAuditory tions of the damaged area. But in older children and adults, this compensation cortex Occipital is less likely to occur after damage to the left hemisphere (J. R. Anderson, 2020; Temporal lobe lobe Ormrod, 2020). These differences in performance by the brain’s hemispheres, however, are more relative than absolute; one hemisphere is just more efficient than the other in performing certain functions. Language is processed “differently, but simultaneously” Lateralization by the left and right hemispheres (Alferink & Farmer-Dougan, 2010, p. 44). Nearly any The specialization of the two task, particularly the complex skills and abilities that concern teachers, requires simultanehemispheres (sides) of the brain ous participation of many different areas of the brain in constant communication with each cortex. other. For example, the left side of the brain is where grammar and syntax are understood, but the right side is better at figuring out the meaning of a story or interpreting sarcasm, irony, metaphors, or puns, so both sides of the brain have to work together when you read or make sense of literature, films, and jokes. Remember, no mental activity is exclusively the work of a single part of the brain, so there is no such thing as a “right-brained student,” unless that individual has had the left hemisphere removed—a rare and radical treatment for some forms of epilepsy (Ormrod, 2020).

Brain Development in Childhood and Adolescence The brain continues to develop throughout childhood and adolescence. In infancy, children identify patterns in their world and in the language(s) spoken by the people who care for them. Infants learn—form neural connections and networks—by exploring, acting, and observing. They are self-directed in this adventure—which is a good thing because they have so much to learn. During this time a stimulating, responsive, and safe environment is a much better “teacher” than flashcards or structured lessons because young children follow their own interests and curiosities. In the elementary school years, children’s brains continue to grow. The different parts of the brain that support various processes such as perception, memory, and emotion become more networked and connected. These interconnections enable children to reflect on their feelings and thoughts—to think about their own thinking. Children also can add to their store of knowledge and hold more information in memory at one time. At this age they are ready to learn more vocabulary and grammar in their first language and also to learn a second language. But they still have limited attention spans, so longer lessons, activities, or directions should be divided into manageable and memorable pieces (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2020). In addition, all of the ideas in Chapter 11 for developing self-regulated learning can support elementary school students as their growing brains open new possibilities for understanding and controlling their own cognitive processes.

96 Chapter 3 Cognitive Development During adolescence, changes in the brain increase individuals’ abilities to control their behavior in both low-stress and high-stress situations, to be more purposeful and organized, and to inhibit impulsive behavior (Wigfield et al., 2006). But these abilities are not fully developed until the early twenties, so adolescents may “seem” like adults, at least in ­low-stress situations, but their brains are not mature. They often have trouble avoiding risks and controlling impulses. This is why adolescents’ brains have been described as “high horse power, poor steering” (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2007, p. 6). One explanation for this problem with avoiding risks and impulsive behaviors looks to differences in the pace of development for two key components of the brain—the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex of the brain (Casey et al., 2008). The limbic system, which is involved with emotions and reward-seeking/novelty/risk-taking/sensation-seeking behaviors, develops earlier. The prefrontal lobe takes more time to develop and is involved with judgment and decision making. As the limbic system matures, adolescents become more responsive to pleasure seeking and emotional stimulation. In fact, adolescents appear to need more intense emotional stimulation than either children or adults, so these young people are set up for taking risks and seeking thrills. Risk taking and novelty seeking can be positive factors for adolescent development as young people courageously try new ideas and behaviors—and learning is stimulated (Luna et al., 2013). But their less mature prefrontal lobe is not yet good at saying, “Whoa—that thrill is too risky!” So in emotional situations, thrill seeking wins out over caution, at least until the prefrontal lobe catches up and becomes more integrated with the limbic system toward the end of adolescence. Then risks can be evaluated in terms of long-term consequences, not immediate thrills (Casey et al., 2008; Smith et al., 2012). In addition, there are individual differences: Some adolescents are more prone than others to engage in risky behaviors. Teachers can take advantage of their adolescent students’ intensity by helping them devote their energy and passion to areas such as politics, the environment, public service, or social causes (Price, 2005) or by guiding them to explore emotional connections with characters in history or literature. Connections to family, school, community, and positive belief systems help adolescents “put the brakes” on reckless and dangerous behaviors (McDevitt & Ormrod, 2020). Other changes in the neurological system during adolescence affect sleep; teenagers need about 9 hours of sleep per night, but many students’ biological clocks are reset, making it difficult for them to fall asleep before midnight. Some experts interviewed by Sumathi Reddy (2014a) have recommended that ideally, high school should start at 9:00 or even 10:00 in the morning—sounds good to us! Yet in many school districts, high school begins by 7:30, which makes 9 hours of sleep impossible to get, so students are continually sleep deprived. Research in neuroscience shows that sleep deprivation impairs the initial formation of memories for facts, so learning suffers. This means that losing sleep to cram for tests actually interferes with learning by shutting down the very parts of the brain needed to remember what you are studying (Scalise & Felde, 2017). Classes that keep students in their seats taking notes for the full period may literally “put the students to sleep.” With no time for breakfast and little for lunch, these students’ nutritional needs are often deprived as well (Sprenger, 2005).

­Putting It All Together: How the Brain Works What is your conception of the brain? Is the brain a culture-free container that holds knowledge the same way for everyone? Is the brain like a library of facts or a computer filled with information? Do you wake up in the morning, download what you need for the day, and then go merrily on your way? Is the brain like a pipe that transfers information from one person to another—a teacher to a student, for example? Kurt Fischer—a developmental psychologist and Harvard professor—offers a different view, one based on neuroscience research. Knowing is actively constructing understandings and actions. Knowledge is based on our activities, and the brain is constantly changing. Experience shapes our brains, actually altering our neurons and their connections (Fischer, 2009). See Table 3.2 for some other myths and truths about the brain.

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Table 3.2  Myths and Truths about the Brain COMMON MYTHS

TRUTH

1. You use only 10% of your brain.

1. You use all your brain. That is why strokes are so devastating. Your brain is 2% of your body weight but uses 20% of available energy.

2. Listening to Mozart will make children smarter.

2. Listening to music won’t make you smarter, but learning to play a musical instrument is associated with increased cognitive achievement.

3. Some people are more “right brained,” and others are more “left brained.”

3. It takes both sides of your brain to do most things.

4. A young child’s brain can manage to learn only one language at a time.

4. Children all over the world can and do learn two languages at once.

5. You can’t change your brain.

5. Our brains are changing all the time.

6. Damage to the brain is permanent.

6. Most people recover well from minor brain injuries.

7. Playing games like Sudoku keeps your brain from aging.

7. Playing Sudoku makes you better at playing Sudoku and similar games. Physical exercise is a better bet to prevent decline.

8. The human brain is the biggest brain.

8. Sperm whales have brains five times heavier than those of humans.

9. Alcoholic beverages kill brain cells.

9. Heavy drinking does not kill brain cells, but it can damage the nerve ends called dendrites, and this causes problems with communicating messages in the brain. This damage is mostly reversible.

10. The adolescent’s brain is the same as that of an adult.

10. Critical differences between adolescents’ and adults’ brains exist, especially in the areas of judgment and risk assessment.

11. Students learn best with their preferred learning style.

11. Teaching according to a student’s preferred style does not improve learning.

12. You can learn while you sleep.

12. Sorry, no.

Source: Based on Aamodt & Wang (2008); Fischer, (2009); Freeman (2011); Holmes (2016); Macdonald et al. (2017); Schunk (2020).

CULTURE AND BRAIN PLASTICITY.  All experiences sculpt the brain—play and deliber-

ate practice, formal and informal learning (Dubinsky et al., 2013). Earlier you encountered the term that describes the brain’s capacity for constant change in neurons, synapses, and ­activity—plasticity. Cultural differences in brain activity provide examples of how interactions in the world shape the brain through plasticity. For example, in one study, when Chinese speakers added and compared Arabic numbers, they showed brain activity in the motor (movement) areas of their brains, whereas English speakers performing the same tasks had activity in the language areas of their brains (Tang et al., 2006). One explanation is that Chinese children are taught arithmetic using an abacus—a calculation tool that ­involves movement and spatial positions. These children retain a kind of visual-motor sense of numbers when they become adults (Varma et al., 2008). There also are cultural differences in how languages affect reading. For example, when they read, native Chinese speakers activate parts of their brains associated with spatial information processing, probably because the language characters used in written Chinese are pictures. But Chinese speakers also activate these spatial areas of the brain when they read English, demonstrating that reading proficiency can be reached through different neural pathways (Hinton et al., 2008). So, thanks to plasticity, the brain is ever changing, shaped by activity, culture, and context. We build knowledge as we do things, as we manipulate objects and ideas mentally and physically. As you can imagine, educators have looked for and disagreed about instructional applications of neuroscience research. See the Point/Counterpoint on the next page.

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POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Brain-Based Education Educators are hearing more and more about brain-based education. Are there clear educational implications from the neuroscience research on the brain?

Point No, the implications are not clear. Early on, John Bruer, president of the James S. McDonnell Foundation, wrote articles that were critical of the brain-based education craze (Bruer, 1997, 1999, 2002). He noted that many so-called applications of brain research begin with solid science but then move to unwarranted speculation and end in a sort of appealing folk tale about the brain and learning. In the title of his 1997 article, he called that journey “a bridge too far.” He suggested that for each claim, the educator should ask, “Where does the science end and the speculation begin?” One claim that Bruer questioned was the notion of right-brain, left-brain learning, a popular idea that has been around for more than 30 years, in spite of the fact that neuroscientists keep debunking the claims. Even though different brain areas are specialized for different tasks, this specialization occurs at very fine levels of analysis, and forming visual images involves many parts of the brain. As we will see later in this book, imagery can be a good learning strategy—but not because it enlists the “underutilized” right brain in learning (Bruer, 1999). Kurt Fischer (2009), president of the International Mind, Brain, and Education Society, has lamented that many neuromyths, like those in Table 3.2 (blatantly wrong beliefs about how the brain and body work), still are widely accepted—zombie ideas that won’t die. No teacher doubts that the brain is important in learning. As Steven Pinker (2002), professor of psychology at Harvard University, observed, does anyone really think that learning takes place somewhere else, like the pancreas? But knowing that learning affects the brain does not tell us how to teach. All learning affects the brain; “this should be obvious, but nowadays any banality about learning can be dressed up in neurospeak and treated like a great revelation of science” (Pinker, 2002, p. 86). Virtually all of the socalled best practices for brain-based education are simple restatements of good teaching based on understandings of how people learn, not how their brains work. For example, we have known for more than 100 years that learning in many short practice sessions is more effective than learning in one long cramming session. Building more dendrites through short study sessions may be one of many reasons why the strategy works, but it does not offer teachers new strategies (Alferink & Farmer-Dougan, 2010). Have things changed lately? Jeffrey Bowers says no: “There are still no examples of EN [educational neuroscience] providing new insights to teaching in the classroom, . . . no examples of EN providing new insights to remedial instruction for individuals, and . . . no evidence that EN is useful for the diagnosis of learning difficulties” (Bowers, 2016a, p. 628). Bowers also said, “There are no examples of novel and useful suggestions for teaching based on neuroscience thus far” (2016b, p. 609), and Dougherty and Robey (2018) concluded, “The idea that neuroscience can have a direct impact in the classroom is a bit farfetched” (p. 401).

Counterpoint Yes, teaching should be brain-based. In their article “Applying Cognitive Neuroscience Research to Education” in the Educational Psychologist, Tami Katzir and Juliana ParéBlagoev (2006) concluded, “When applied correctly, brain science may serve as a vehicle for advancing the application of our understanding of learning and development. . . . Brain research can challenge common-sense views about teaching and learning by suggesting additional systems that are involved in particular tasks and activities” (p. 70). One influential commonsense view to challenge is that brain functioning is fixed early in life. In fact, when adolescents were taught about neuroplasticity and the brain’s ability to

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change across the lifespan, their academic achievement and self-concept were higher compared to their peers who did not receive that message (Howard-Jones et al., 2016). There is also promising work on very early detection of brain indicators for later risks of learning problems such as dyslexia. Early detection would allow early intervention (Thomas, 2019). If we are to guard against overstating the links between brain research and education, then we should not ask whether to teach neuroscience to preservice teachers but, instead, how best to do that teaching (Dubinsky et al., 2013). Several universities, including Harvard, Cambridge, Dartmouth, the University of Texas at Arlington, University of Minnesota, University of Southern California, Beijing Normal University, Southeast University in Nanjing, and Johns Hopkins are pioneering this process. They have established training programs for educators in brain-education studies (Dubinsky et al., 2013; Fischer, 2009; Wolfe, 2010). Other educational psychologists have called for a new professional specialty—neuro-educators (Beauchamp & Beauchamp, 2013). If you want to learn more about the brain and learning, many online sources provide courses and information for educators. Two good ones are the Science of Learning course offered by Future Learn (http://www.futurelearn.com/courses/science-of-learning) and Neuroscience & the Classroom: Making Connections, offered by Annenberg Learner (http://www.learner.org/ courses/neuroscience/). In his presidential address for the First Conference of the International Mind, Brain, and Education Society, Kurt Fischer (2009) also noted that the primary goal of that organization is to ground education in solid research from biology, cognitive science, development, and education while preventing myths and popular misconceptions. Fischer makes the point that we can go from understanding how the brain works to understanding cognitive processes and then to developing educational practices. But jumping directly from knowledge about the brain to educational practices probably involves too much speculation—a bridge too far. Even enthusiastic supporters believe that educational neuroscience does not claim a direct link between measures of brain functioning and teaching practices. Instead, educational neuroscience and teaching should work together to develop and test different practices (Howard-Jones et al., 2016). Beware of Either/Or. Few educators have a background in neurobiology, and most neuroscientists can’t create concrete and useful applications of research on the brain because they just don’t know enough about the specifics of teaching in kindergarten to high school classrooms (Beauchamp & Beauchamp, 2013). Insights from studies of the brain can likely produce medical treatments for educational problems, such as drugs that act on the brain to help with ­attention-deficit disorder. Teaching approaches for students with attentiondeficit disorder can be powerful, but they grow from educational psychology research, not from medical research (Bowers, 2016a). However, to ignore what we do know about the brain would be irresponsible. Brain-based learning offers some direction for educators who want more purposeful, informed teaching. At the very least, the neuroscience research is helping us understand why effective teaching strategies, such as distributed practice, work. The person in the best position to create, invent, and apply strategies is the teacher who understands both the way the brain works and the way children learn (Scalise & Felde, 2017). Resources: Podcast on understanding the brain: http://www.oecd.org/edu/ceri/understandingthebrainthebirthofalearningscience.htm

Neuroscience, Learning, and Teaching In 2017, Richard Mayer noted that only 6 articles out of 9,000 in the Journal of Educational Psychology database contain the words brain or neuroscience. Why so few? As you saw in the Point/Counterpoint, there has been vigorous debate between the enthusiastic educational advocates of brain-based education and the skeptical neuroscience researchers who caution that studies of the brain do not really address major educational questions yet.

100 Chapter 3 Cognitive Development DOES INSTRUCTION AFFECT BRAIN DEVELOPMENT?  There are differences in brain activity

Pearson eText Podcast 3.1 Listen as textbook author Anita Woolfolk talks about brainbased education. What does this mean? Are there some clear implications for teachers, or is it still too early to say?

associated with instruction. For example, the intensive instruction and practice provided to rehabilitate stroke victims can help them regain functioning by forming new connections and using new areas of the brain (Bransford et al., 2000; McKinley, 2011). In a dramatic e­ xample of how teaching can affect brain development, K. W. Fischer (2009) describes two children who each had one brain hemisphere removed as a treatment for severe epilepsy. Nico’s right hemisphere was removed when he was 3, and his parents were told he would never have good visual-spatial skills. However, with strong and constant support and teaching, Nico grew up to be a skilled artist! Brooke’s left hemisphere was removed when he was 11. His parents were told he would lose his ability to talk. Again, with strong support, he regained enough speaking and reading abilities to finish high school and attend community college. THE BRAIN AND LEARNING TO READ.  Brain-imaging research is revealing interesting dif-

ferences between skilled and less-skilled readers as they learn new vocabulary. For example, one imaging study showed that less-skilled readers had trouble establishing high-quality representations of new vocabulary words in their brains, as indicated by ERP measurements of electrical activity of the brain. When they later encountered one of the new words, less-skilled readers’ brains often didn’t recognize that they had seen the word before even though they had learned it in an earlier lesson. If words you have learned previously seem unfamiliar later, you can see why it would be hard to understand what you read (Balass et al., 2010). Reading is not innate or automatic—every brain has to be taught how to read (Frey & Fisher, 2010). Reading is a complex integration of the systems in the brain that recognize sounds, written symbols, meanings, and sequences and then connect those things with what the reader already knows. This has to happen quickly and automatically (Wolf et al., 2009). What are some strategies suggested? Use multiple approaches that teach sounds, spelling, meanings, sequencing, and vocabulary through reading, writing, discussing, explaining, drawing, and modeling. Different students may learn in different ways, but all students need practice in literacy. EMOTIONS, LEARNING, AND THE BRAIN.  Finally, another clear connection between the

brain and classroom learning is in the area of emotions and stress. Let’s step inside a high school math classroom described by Christine Hinton and her colleagues (2008, p. 91) for an example: Patricia, a high school student, struggles with mathematics. The last few times she answered a mathematics question she got it wrong and felt terribly embarrassed, which formed an association between mathematics . . . and negative emotions. . . . Her teacher had just asked her to come to the blackboard to solve a problem. This caused an immediate transfer of this emotionally-charged association to the amygdala, which elicits fear. Meanwhile, a slower, cortically-driven cognitive appraisal of the situation is occurring: she remembers her difficulty completing her mathematics homework last night, notices the problem on the board contains complicated graphs, and realizes that the boy she has a crush on is watching her from a front-row seat. These various thoughts converge to a cognitive confirmation that this is a threatening situation, which reinforces her progressing fear response and disrupts her ability to concentrate on solving the mathematics problem. In Chapter 7 you will learn about how emotions can become paired with particular situations; and in Chapter 12 you will see that anxiety interferes with learning, whereas challenge, interest, and curiosity can support learning. If students feel unsafe and anxious, they are not likely to be able to focus their attention on academics. But if students are not challenged or interested, learning suffers too. Keeping the level of challenge and support “just

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right” is not simple for teachers. And helping students learn to regulate their own emotions and motivation is an important goal for education (see Chapter 11). Simply put, learning will be more effective “if educators help to minimize stress and fear at school, teach students emotional regulation strategies, and provide a positive learning environment that is motivating to students” (Hinton et al., 2008).

Stop & Think  As a teacher, you don’t want to fall for overly simplistic “brain-based” teaching slogans. But obviously, the brain and learning are intimately related—this is not a surprise. So how can you be a savvy, “neuroscientific” teacher (Murphy & Benton, 2010)?

Lessons for Teachers: General Principles What can we learn from neuroscience? One overarching idea is that teachers and students should transform the notion of learning from “using your brain” to “changing your brain”—embrace the amazing plasticity of the brain (Howard-Jones et al., 2016). Here are some general teaching implications drawn from Brown et al. (2014), Driscoll (2005), Dubinsky, et al. (2013), Murphy and Benton (2010), Sprenger (2010), Scalise and Felde (2017), and Schunk (2020). 1. Human capabilities—intelligence, communication, problem solving, and so on— emerge from each person’s unique synaptic activity overlaid on his or her genetically endowed brain anatomy; nature and nurture are in constant activity together. The brain can place some limits on learning in the form of genetic brain anomalies in neural wiring or structure, but learning can occur via alternate pathways in the brain (as Nico and Brooke demonstrate). So, there are multiple ways both to teach and to learn a skill, depending on the student. 2. Many cognitive functions are differentiated; they are associated with different parts of the brain. Using a range of modalities for instruction and activities that draw on different senses may support learning—for example, using maps and songs to teach geography. Using different modalities also helps students stay focused and engaged. Assessment should be differentiated, too. 3. The brain is relatively plastic, so enriched, active environments and flexible instructional strategies are likely to support cognitive development in young children and learning in adults. The brain is constantly changing at many levels, from cells to connections to remapping skills in new areas in response to an injury—think plasticity! 4. Changing the brain takes time, so teachers must be consistent, patient, and compassionate in teaching and reteaching in different ways, as Nico’s and Brooke’s parents and teachers could tell you. Don’t overwhelm the brain with a heavy cognitive load (see Chapter 8) that presents too much too quickly. Give students ways of managing the cognitive load using graphic organizers, visuals, tables, glossaries, notes, and other “external brain” tools. 5. Some learning disorders may have a neurological basis; neurological testing can assist in diagnosing and treating these disorders as well as in evaluating the effects of various treatments. 6. Learning from real-life problems and concrete experiences helps students construct knowledge and also gives them multiple pathways for learning and retrieving information. Knowledge learned should be clearly connected with situations in which it is useful. “Inert” knowledge that is memorized but not used is quickly forgotten. Results of both research on learning and research on the brain support using problem-based learning, simulations and role plays, active discussions, graphics, and visuals. 7. Our brains are wired to be curious as we attempt to make sense of all the incoming sensory information. Harnessing this curiosity can engage and motivate students.

102 Chapter 3 Cognitive Development 8. ­The brain seeks meaningful patterns and connections with existing networks, so teachers should tie new information to what students already understand and help them form new connections. Use both concrete and abstract examples when possible, and ask students to think of their own examples. Information that is not linked to existing knowledge will be easily forgotten. Help students recognize patterns by pointing out similarities and differences and teaching them how to detect patterns. 9. Because the brain naturally looks for patterns and makes predictions about what to expect, feedback is critical because feedback is a form of evidence that helps the brain correct and improve its predictions. 10. It takes a long time and extensive practice to build and consolidate knowledge. Changing the brain (learning) benefits from elaborating, extending, and applying concepts in different situations and academic subjects over time and revisiting the applications often. Probing questions, worked-out examples, annotated and carefully labeled charts and graphs, reflection, and asking students to explain new learning to themselves and each other all help. 11. Large, general concepts should be emphasized over small, specific facts so students can build enduring, useful knowledge categories and associations that are not constantly changing. 12. Stories should be used in teaching. Stories engage many areas of the brain—memories, experiences, feelings, and beliefs. Stories also are organized and have a sequence— beginning, middle, and end—which makes them easier to remember than unrelated or unorganized information. 13. Emotions and health affect learning—positive emotions can support learning and memory, whereas negative emotions can interfere. Emotions also are related to motivation, as you will see in Chapter 12. Stress, lack of sleep, poor nutrition, and lack of exercise all can affect the brain’s ability to learn. 14. Helping students understand how activity (distributed practice, problem solving, making connections, inquiry, etc.) changes their brain and how emotions and stress affect attention and memory can be motivating, leading to greater self-efficacy and self-regulated learning (we talk more about this in Chapter 11). One important message to students is that they are responsible for doing what it takes to change their own brains; they have to work (and play) to learn. For the rest of the chapter, we turn from the brain and cognitive development to examine several major theories of cognitive development, the first one offered by a biologist turned psychologist, Jean Piaget.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Learning Outcome 3.3  Explain the principles and stages presented in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, including criticisms of his theory. Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget was a true prodigy. In fact, in his teens, he published so many scientific papers on mollusks (marine animals such as oysters, clams, octopuses, snails, and squid) that he was offered a job as the curator of the mollusk collection at the Museum of Natural History in Geneva. He told the museum officials that he wanted to finish high school first. For a while, Piaget worked in Alfred Binet’s laboratory in Paris developing intelligence tests for children. The reasons children gave for their wrong answers on these tests fascinated him. What were they thinking? That question intrigued him for the rest of his life. He continued to write until his death at the age of 84 (Green & Piel, 2010; Miller, 2016). During his long career, Piaget devised a model describing how humans go about making sense of their world by gathering and organizing information (Piaget, 1954, 1963, 1970a, 1970b). He studied a wide range of topics including the development of scientific and mathematical reasoning, moral judgments, language, drawing, cause and effect, concepts of time and number, and memory for past events, to name just a few. Piaget really started the field of cognitive development. He is still studied today because his insights about children’s

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thinking ring so true and provide such a good description of the development of thinking from infancy to adulthood (Siegler et al., 2020). Put Yourself in a Child’s Place  Can you be in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and in the United States at the same time? Is this a difficult question for you? How long did it take you to answer? According to Piaget (1954), certain ways of thinking that are quite simple for an adult, such as the Pittsburgh question in Put Yourself in a Child’s Place, are not so straightforward for a child. For example, do you remember the 9-year-old child at the beginning of the chapter who was asked if he could be a Genevan? He answered, “No, that’s not possible. I’m already Swiss. I can’t also be Genevan” (Piaget, 1965/1995, p. 252). Imagine teaching this student geography. He has trouble classifying one concept (Geneva) as a subset of another (Switzerland). There are other differences between adult and child thinking. Children’s concepts of time may be different from your own. They may think, for example, that they will someday catch up to a sibling in age, or they might confuse the past and the future. Let’s examine why.

Influences on Development Cognitive development is much more than the addition of new facts and ideas to an existing store of information. According to Piaget, our thinking processes change radically, though slowly, from birth to maturity because we constantly strive to make sense of the world. Piaget identified four factors—biological maturation, activity, social experiences, and equilibration—that interact to influence changes in thinking (Piaget, 1970a). Maturation is the unfolding of the biological changes that are genetically programmed. Parents and teachers have little impact on this aspect of cognitive development, except to be certain that ­children get the nourishment, sleep, and care they need to be healthy. With physical maturation comes the increasing ability to act on the environment and learn from it. When a young child’s coordination is reasonably developed, for example, the child can discover principles about balance by walking on a low balance beam or a curb. Thus, physical and mental ­activity—exploring, testing, observing, and eventually organizing information—changes our thinking processes. Our cognitive development also is influenced by social transmission, or learning from others. Without social transmission, we would need to reinvent all the knowledge already offered by our culture. The amount people can learn from social transmission varies according to their stage of cognitive development. We’ll return to a discussion of the fourth influence on thinking, equilibration, in the next section. Maturation, activity, and social transmission all work together to influence cognitive development. How do we respond to these influences?

Basic Tendencies in Thinking As a result of his early research in biology, Piaget concluded that all species inherit two basic tendencies, or “invariant functions.” The first of these tendencies is toward organization— the combining, arranging, recombining, and rearranging of behaviors and thoughts into coherent systems. The second tendency is toward adaptation, or adjusting to the environment. ­O RGANIZATION.  People are born with a tendency to organize their thinking processes

into psychological structures—systems for understanding and interacting with the world. Simple structures are continually combined and coordinated to become more sophisticated and thus more effective. Very young infants, for example, can either look at an object or grasp it when it comes in contact with their hands. They cannot coordinate looking and grasping at the same time. As they develop, however, infants organize these two separate behavioral structures into a coordinated, higher-level structure of looking at, reaching for, and grasping the object. They can, of course, still use each structure separately (Miller, 2016; Siegler et al., 2020).

Organization Ongoing process of arranging information and experiences into mental systems or categories. Ordered and logical network of relations.

Adaptation Adjustment to the environment.

104 Chapter 3 Cognitive Development Piaget gave a special name to these psychological structures: schemes. In his theory, schemes are the basic building blocks of thinking. They are organized systems of actions or thoughts that allow us to mentally represent or “think about” the objects and events in our world. Schemes can be very small and specific—for example, the sucking-through-a-straw scheme or the recognizing-a-rose scheme. Or they can be larger and more general—for example, the drinking scheme or the gardening scheme. ADAPTATION.  In addition to the tendency to organize psychological structures, people also

Pearson eText Video Example 3.1 The children in this video are learning something new about growth by observing a tadpole as it changes from day to day. They can assimilate the idea that the tadpole grows legs, but how can they accommodate their concept of growth to ­understand why the tadpole’s tail gets smaller? Schemes Mental systems or categories of perception and experience.

Assimilation Fitting new information into existing schemes.

Accommodation Altering existing schemes or creating new ones in response to new information.

Equilibration Search for mental balance between cognitive schemes and information from the environment.

Disequilibrium In Piaget’s theory, the “out-ofbalance” state that occurs when an individual realizes that his or her current ways of thinking are not working to solve a problem or understand a situation.

inherit the tendency to adapt to their environment. Two basic processes are involved in adaptation: assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation involves trying to understand something new by fitting it into what we already know—by using our existing schemes. At times, we may have to distort the new information to make it fit. For example, the first time many children see a raccoon, they call it a “kitty.” They try to match the new experience with an existing scheme for identifying animals. Accommodation occurs when we must change existing schemes to respond to a new situation. If we cannot make new data fit any existing schemes, then we must develop more appropriate structures. We adjust our thinking to fit the new information, instead of adjusting the information to fit our thinking. Children demonstrate accommodation when they add the scheme for recognizing raccoons to their other systems for identifying animals. People adapt to their increasingly complex environments by using existing schemes whenever these schemes work (assimilation) and by modifying and adding to their schemes when something new is needed (accommodation). In fact, both processes are required most of the time. Even using an established pattern such as sucking through a straw requires some accommodation if the straw is of a different size or length than the type you are used to. If you have ever tried drinking juice from box packages, you know that you have to add a new skill to your sucking-through-a-straw scheme: Don’t squeeze the box, or you will shoot juice through the straw, straight up into the air, and into your lap. Whenever new experiences are assimilated into an existing scheme, the scheme is enlarged and changed somewhat, so assimilation involves some accommodation (Siegler et al., 2020). Sometimes, neither assimilation nor accommodation is used. If people encounter something that is too unfamiliar, they might ignore it. Experience is filtered to fit the kind of thinking a person is doing at a given time. For example, if you overhear a conversation in a foreign language, you probably will not try to make sense of the exchange unless you have some knowledge of the language. EQUILIBRATION.  According to Piaget, organizing, assimilating, and accommodating can be viewed as a kind of complex balancing act. In his theory, the actual changes in thinking take place through the process of equilibration—the act of searching for a balance. Piaget assumed that people continually test the adequacy of their thinking processes in order to achieve that balance. Briefly, the process of equilibration works like this: If we apply a particular scheme to an event or situation and the scheme works, then equilibrium exists. If the scheme does not produce a satisfying result, then disequilibrium exists, and we become uncomfortable. This motivates us to keep searching for a solution through assimilation and accommodation, and thus our thinking changes and moves ahead. Of course, the level of disequilibrium must be just right or optimal—too little and we aren’t interested in changing, too much and we may be discouraged or anxious and not change. Piaget thought that interactions with peers the same age are more likely to provoke disequilibrium than interactions with older children or adults because children will accept the ideas of older people but will question and think deeply about the ideas of children their own age (Siegler et al., 2020).

Four Stages of Cognitive Development Now we turn to the actual differences that Piaget hypothesized for children as they grow. Piaget believed that all people pass through the same four stages in exactly the same order. The stages are generally associated with specific ages, but these are only general guidelines,

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Table 3.3  Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development STAGE

APPROXIMATE AGE

CHARACTERISTICS

Sensorimotor

0–2 years

Learns through reflexes, senses, and movements—actions on the environment. Begins to imitate others and remember events; shifts to symbolic thinking. Comes to understand that objects do not cease to exist when they are out of sight— object permanence. Moves from reflexive actions to intentional activity.

Preoperational

Begins about the time the child starts talking, to about 7 years old

Develops language and begins to use symbols to represent objects. Has difficulty with past and future—thinks in the present. Can think through operations logically in one direction. Has difficulties understanding the point of view of another person.

Concrete Operational

Begins about first grade, to early adolescence, around 11 years old

Can think logically about concrete (hands-on) problems. Understands conservation and organizes things into categories and in series. Can reverse thinking to mentally “undo” actions. Understands past, present, and future.

Formal Operational

Adolescence to adulthood

Can think hypothetically and deductively. Thinking becomes more scientific. Solves abstract problems in logical fashion. Can consider multiple perspectives and develops concerns about social issues, personal identity, and justice.

not labels for all children of a certain age. Piaget noted that individuals may go through long periods of transition between stages and that a person could show characteristics of one stage in one situation but show traits of a higher or lower stage in other situations. Therefore, remember that knowing a student’s age is never a guarantee that you will know how the child thinks (Orlando & Machado, 1996). Table 3.3 summarizes the stages. INFANCY: THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE.  The earliest period is called the sensorimotor stage because the child’s thinking involves seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, moving, and so on. During this period, infants develop object permanence, the understanding that objects exist in the environment whether they perceive the objects or not. This is the beginning of the important ability to construct a mental representation. As most parents discover, before infants develop object permanence, taking something away from them is relatively easy. The trick is to distract them and remove the object while they are not looking—“out of sight, out of mind.” The older infant who searches for the ball that has rolled out of sight is indicating an understanding that objects still exist even when they are not in view (Berk, 2019). A second major accomplishment in the sensorimotor period is the beginning of logical, goal-directed actions. Think of the familiar clear plastic container baby toy with a lid and several colorful items inside that can be dumped out and replaced. A 6-month-old baby is likely to become frustrated trying to get to the toys inside. An older child who has mastered the basics of the sensorimotor stage will probably be able to deal with the toy in an orderly fashion by building a “container toy” scheme: (a) get the lid off, (b) turn the container upside down, (c) shake the container if the items jam, and (d) watch the items fall. Separate, lower-level schemes have been organized into a higher-level scheme to achieve a goal.

Sensorimotor Involving the senses and motor activity.

Object permanence The understanding that objects have a separate, permanent existence.

Goal-directed actions Deliberate actions toward a goal.

106 Chapter 3 Cognitive Development Operations Actions an individual carries out by thinking them through instead of literally performing the actions.

Preoperational The stage before a child masters logical mental operations.

Semiotic function The ability to use symbols— language, pictures, signs, or gestures—to represent actions or objects mentally.

Reversible thinking Thinking backward, from the end to the beginning.

Conservation Principle that some characteristics of an object remain the same despite changes in its appearance.

Decentering Focusing on more than one aspect at a time.

Egocentric Assuming that others experience the world the way you do.

Pearson eText Video Example 3.2 In this video, children participate in tasks that show their understanding of conservation of volume and conservation of number. Compare the responses, and identify each child’s stage of cognitive development, according to Piaget’s theory.

The child is soon able to reverse this action by refilling the container. Learning to reverse actions is a basic accomplishment of the sensorimotor stage. As we will soon see, however, learning to reverse thinking—that is, learning to imagine the reverse of a sequence of actions—takes much longer. ­E ARLY CHILDHOOD TO THE EARLY ELEMENTARY YEARS: THE PREOPERATIONAL STAGE.  By the end of the sensorimotor stage, the child can use many action schemes.

However, as long as these schemes remain tied to physical actions, they are of no use in recalling the past, keeping track of information, or planning. For this, children need what Piaget called operations, or actions that are carried out and reversed mentally rather than physically. At the preoperational stage, the child is moving toward mastery but has not yet mastered these mental operations (which means thinking is preoperational). According to Piaget, the first type of thinking that is separate from action involves making action schemes symbolic. The ability to form and use symbols—words, gestures, signs, images, and so on—is thus a major accomplishment of the preoperational period and moves children closer to mastering the mental operations of the next stage. This ability to work with symbols to represent an object that is not present, such as using the word horse or a picture of a horse or even pretending to ride a broomstick horse, is called the semiotic function. In fact, children’s earliest use of symbols is in pretending—pretending to drink from an empty cup, showing that they know what the object is for. This behavior also shows that their schemes are becoming more general and less tied to specific actions. The drinking scheme, for example, can be used in playing “tea time.” During the preoperational stage, that very important symbol system, language, also rapidly develops. Between the ages of 2 and 4, most children enlarge their vocabularies from about 200 to about 2000 words. As the child moves through the preoperational stage, the developing ability to think about objects in symbolic form remains somewhat limited to thinking in one direction only, or using one-way logic. “Thinking backward,” or imagining how to reverse the steps in a task, is very difficult for the child. Reversible thinking is involved in many tasks that are difficult for the preoperational child, such as the conservation of matter. Conservation is the principle that the amount or number of something remains the same even if the arrangement or appearance is changed, as long as nothing is added and nothing is taken away. You know that if you tear a piece of paper into several pieces, you will still have the same amount of paper. To prove this, you know that you can reverse the process by taping the pieces back together, but a child using preoperational thinking can’t think that way. Here is a classic example of difficulty with conservation: Leah, a 5-year-old, is shown two identical glasses, both short and wide in shape. Both have exactly the same amount of colored water in them. She agrees that the amounts are “the same.” The experimenter then pours the water from one of the glasses into a taller, narrower glass and asks, “Now, does one glass have more water, or are they the same?” Leah responds that the tall glass has more water because “It goes up more here” (she points to the higher level on the taller glass). Piaget’s explanation for Leah’s answer is that she is focusing, or centering, her attention on the dimension of height. She has difficulty considering more than one aspect of the situation at a time (height and width), or decentering. Thus, children at the preoperational stage have trouble freeing themselves from their own immediate perceptions of how the world appears. This brings us to another important characteristic of the preoperational stage. Preoperational children, according to Piaget, have a tendency to be egocentric, to see the world and the experiences of others from their own viewpoint. This is one reason it is difficult for preoperational children to understand that your right hand is not on the same side as theirs when you are facing them. The concept of egocentrism, as Piaget intended it, does not mean “selfish”; it simply means children often assume everyone else shares their feelings, reactions, and perspectives. For example, the 2-year-old at the beginning of this chapter who brought his own mother to comfort a distressed friend—even though the friend’s mother was available—was simply seeing the situation through his own eyes and providing for his friend what he would want for himself.

Chapter 3  Cognitive Development 107

Research has shown that young children are not totally egocentric in every situation, however. Children as young as age 2 use more details when describing a situation to a parent who was not present than they provide to the parent who experienced the situation with them. So, young children do seem quite able to take the needs and different perspectives of others into account, at least in certain situations (Flavell et al., 2002). And in fairness to young children, even adults can make assumptions that others feel or think like they do— consider all the politicians who believe “the people agree with me!” The Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships give ideas for working with preoperational thinkers and for guiding families in supporting the cognitive development of their children. LATER ELEMENTARY TO THE MIDDLE SCHOOL YEARS: THE CONCRETE-OPERATIONAL STAGE.  Piaget coined the term concrete operations to describe this stage of “hands-on” thinking. The basic characteristics of the stage are the recognition of the logical stability of the physical world; the realization that elements can be changed or transformed and still conserve many of their original characteristics; and the understanding that these changes can be reversed.

GUIDELINES Family and Community Partnerships Helping Families Care for Preoperational Children Encourage families to use concrete props and visual aids whenever possible. Examples 1. 2.

When family members use words such as part, whole, or one half, encourage them to demonstrate using objects in the house such as cutting an apple or pizza into parts. Let children add and subtract with sticks, rocks, or colored chips. This technique also is helpful for early concrete-operational students.

Make instructions relatively short—not too many steps at once. Use actions as well as words. Examples 1. 2.

When giving instructions, such as how to feed a pet, first model the process, and then ask the child to try it. Explain a game by acting out one of the parts.

Help children develop their ability to see the world from someone else’s point of view. Examples 1. 2.

Ask children to imagine “how your sister felt when you broke her toy.” ­Be clear about rules for sharing or using materials. Help children understand the value of the rules, and work with them to develop empathy by asking them to think about how they would like to be treated. Avoid long lectures on “sharing” or being “nice.”

Give children a great deal of hands-on practice with the skills that serve as building blocks for more complex skills such as reading comprehension or collaboration. Examples 1. 2.

Provide cut-out letters or letter magnets on the refrigerator for building words. Do activities that require measuring and simple calculations—cooking, dividing a batch of popcorn equally.

Provide a wide range of experiences in order to build a foundation for concept learning and language. Examples 1. 2.

Take trips to zoos, gardens, theaters, and concerts; encourage storytelling. Give children words to describe what they are doing, hearing, seeing, touching, tasting, and smelling.

Concrete operations Mental tasks tied to concrete objects and situations.

108 Chapter 3 Cognitive Development Identity Principle that an individual or object remains the same over time.

Compensation The principle that changes in one dimension can be offset by changes in another dimension.

Reversibility A characteristic of Piagetian logical operations—the ability to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse the steps and return to the starting point; also called reversible thinking.

Classification

Look at Figure 3.4 to see examples of the different tasks given to children to assess their understanding of conservation. According to Piaget, the ability to solve conservation problems depends on having an understanding of three basic aspects of reasoning: identity, compensation, and reversibility. With a complete mastery of identity, the child knows that if nothing is added or taken away, the material remains the same. With an understanding of compensation, the child knows that an apparent change in one direction can be compensated for by a change in another direction—that is, if the glass is narrower, the liquid will rise higher in the glass. And with an understanding of reversibility, the child can mentally cancel out the change that has been made. Leah apparently knew that it was the same water (identity), but she lacked compensation and reversibility, so she was still moving toward conservation. Another important operation mastered at this stage is classification. This operation depends on a student’s abilities to focus on a single characteristic of objects in a set (e.g., color) and group the objects according to that characteristic. More advanced classification at this stage involves recognizing that one class fits into another. A city can be in a particular state or province and also be in a particular country, as you probably knew when we

Figure 3.4  Some Piagetian Conservation Tasks In addition to the tasks shown here, other tasks involve the conservation of number, length, weight, and volume. These tasks are all achieved during the concrete-operational period.

Grouping objects into categories.

Suppose you start with this

(a) conservation of mass

Then you change the situation to this

Roll out clay ball B

A

Which is bigger, A or B?

A

B

(b) conservation of weight

A

B

B

B

B

A

A

B

C

B

A

Which beaker has more liquid, B or C? A

A

Break candy bar B into B pieces

Which will weigh more, A or B?

When I put the clay back into the water beakers, in which beaker will the water be higher?

Pour water in beaker A into beaker C

(d) conservation of continuous quantity

(e) conservation of number

Roll out clay ball B

Take clay ball out of water and roll out clay ball B

(c) conservation of volume A

The question you would ask a child is

B

C

A B

Which is more candy? A or B?

Source: Woolfolk, A., & Perry, N. E., Child Development (2nd ed.), © 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Chapter 3  Cognitive Development 109

asked you earlier about Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA. As children apply this advanced classification to locations, they often become fascinated with “complete” addresses such as Lee Jary, 5116 Forest Hill Drive, Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada, North America, Northern Hemisphere, Earth, Solar System, Milky Way, Universe. Classification is also related to reversibility. The ability to reverse a process mentally allows the concrete-operational student to see that there is more than one way to classify a group of objects. The student understands, for example, that shapes can be classified by color and then reclassified by size or by the number of sides. Seriation is the process of making an arrangement of items in order from large to small or vice versa. This understanding of sequential relationships permits a child to construct a logical series in which A < B < C (A is less than B is less than C) and so on. Unlike the preoperational child, the concrete-operational child can grasp the notion that B can be larger than A but still smaller than C. In any grade you teach, knowledge of concrete-operational thinking will be helpful (see Guidelines: Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child). In the early grades, the students are moving toward this logical system of thought. In the middle grades, the system is in full flower, ready to be applied and extended by your teaching. Students in high school and even adults still commonly use concrete-operational thinking, especially in areas that are new or unfamiliar to them.

GUIDELINES Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child Continue to use concrete props and visual aids, especially when dealing with sophisticated material. Examples 1. 2.

Use timelines in history and three-dimensional models in science. Use diagrams to illustrate hierarchical relationships such as branches of government and the agencies under each branch.

Continue to give students a chance to manipulate and test objects. Examples 1.

2.

Set up simple scientific experiments such as the following involving the relationship between fire and oxygen: What happens to a flame when you blow on it from a distance? (If you don’t blow it out, the flame gets larger briefly because it has more oxygen to burn.) What happens when you cover the flame with a jar? Have students make candles by dipping wicks in wax, weave cloth on a simple loom, bake bread, set type by hand, or do other craft work that illustrates the daily occupations of people in the colonial period.

Make sure presentations and readings are brief and well organized. Examples 1. 2.

Assign stories or books with short, logical chapters, moving to longer reading assignments only when students are ready. Break up a presentation, giving students an opportunity to practice the first steps before introducing the next steps.

Use familiar examples to explain more complex ideas. Examples 1.

2.

­ ompare students’ lives with those of characters in a story. After the class reads Island C of the Blue Dolphins (the true story of a girl who grew up alone on a deserted island), ask, “Have you ever had to stay alone for a long time? How did you feel?” Teach the concept of area by having students measure two schoolrooms that are different sizes.

Seriation Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, or volume.

110 Chapter 3 Cognitive Development

Give opportunities to classify and group objects and ideas on increasingly complex levels. Examples 1. 2.

Give students slips of paper with individual sentences written on each slip, and ask the students to group the sentences into paragraphs. Compare the systems of the human body to other kinds of systems: the brain to a computer, the heart to a pump. Break down stories into components from the broad to the specific: author, story, characters, plot, theme, place, time.

Present problems that require logical, analytical thinking. Examples 1.

2.

Discuss open-ended questions that stimulate thinking: “Are the brain and the mind the same thing?” “How should the city deal with stray animals?” “What is the largest number?” Use sports photos or pictures of crisis situations (Red Cross helping in disasters, victims of poverty or war, older adults who need assistance) to stimulate problem-solving discussions.

HIGH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE: FORMAL OPERATIONS.  With the abilities to handle

Formal operations Mental tasks involving abstract thinking and coordination of several variables.

Hypothetico-deductive reasoning A formal-operations problemsolving strategy in which an individual begins by identifying all the factors that might affect a problem and then deduces and systematically evaluates specific solutions.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Reasoning (II, A1) Be able to distinguish between inductive and deductive reasoning. Explain the role that each plays in the learning of concepts.

operations such as conservation, classification, and seriation, the student at the ­concrete-operational stage has finally developed a complete and very logical system of thinking, but this thinking is still tied to physical reality and the way things actually are. The student is not yet able to reason about hypothetical, abstract problems that involve the coordination of many factors at once. Such coordination is part of Piaget’s final stage of cognitive development, formal operations. At this stage the focus of thinking can shift from what is to what might be. Situations do not have to be experienced to be imagined. You met Jamal at the beginning of this chapter. Even though he is a bright elementary school student, he could not answer the question “How would life be different if people did not have to sleep?” because he insisted, “People HAVE TO SLEEP!” In contrast, the adolescent who has mastered formal operations can consider contraryto-fact questions. In answering, the adolescent demonstrates the hallmark of formal operations—­hypothetico-deductive reasoning. The formal-operational thinker can consider a hypothetical situation (people do not sleep) and reason deductively (from the general assumption to specific implications, such as longer workdays, more money spent on energy and lighting, smaller houses without bedrooms, or new entertainment industries). Formal operations also include inductive reasoning, or using specific observations to identify general principles. For example, the economist observes many specific changes in the stock market and attempts to identify general principles about economic cycles from this information. Using formal operations is a new way of reasoning that involves “thinking about thinking” or “mental operations on mental operations” (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958). For example, the child using concrete operations can categorize animals by their physical characteristics or by their habitats, but a child using formal operations can perform “­second-order” operations on these category operations to infer relationships between habitat and physical characteristics—such as understanding that the physical characteristic of thick fur on animals is related to their arctic habitats (Kuhn & Franklin, 2006). Abstract ­formal-operational thinking is necessary for success in many advanced high school and college courses. Most math is concerned with hypothetical situations, assumptions, and givens: “Let x = 10” or “Assume x 2 + y 2 = z 2 ” or “Given two sides and an adjacent ­angle. . . .” Work in social studies and literature requires abstract thinking, too: “What did President Wilson mean when he called World War I the ‘war to end all wars’?” “What

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are some metaphors for hope and despair in Shakespeare’s sonnets?” “What symbols of old age does T. S. Eliot use in The Waste Land?” “How do animals symbolize human character traits in Aesop’s fables?” Stop & Think  You are packing for a long trip but want to pack light. How many different three-piece outfits (slacks, shirt, jacket) will you have if you include three shirts, three pairs of slacks, and three jackets (assuming, of course, that they all go together in fashion perfection)? Time yourself to see how long it takes you to arrive at the answer. The organized, scientific thinking of formal operations requires that individuals systematically generate all possibilities for a given situation. If asked the Stop & Think question above, a person using formal operations can identify all 27 possible combinations. (Did you get it right?) A concrete-operational thinker might name just a few combinations, using each piece of clothing only once. Another characteristic of this stage is adolescent egocentrism. Unlike egocentric young children, adolescents do not deny that other people may have different perceptions and beliefs; adolescents just become very focused on their own ideas and thoughts. This leads to what Elkind (1981) calls the sense of an imaginary audience— the feeling that everyone is watching: “Everyone noticed that I wore this shirt twice this week!” “The whole class thought my answer was dumb!” You can see that social blunders or imperfections in appearance can be devastating if “everyone is watching.” Luckily, this feeling of being “on stage” seems to peak in early adolescence by age 14 or 15, although in unfamiliar situations we all might feel our mistakes are being broadcast for everyone to see. The ability to think hypothetically, consider alternatives, identify all possible combinations, and analyze their own thinking has some interesting consequences for adolescents. Because they can think about worlds that do not exist, they often become interested in science fiction. Because they can reason from general principles to specific actions, they often are critical of people whose actions seem to contradict their principles. Adolescents can deduce the set of “best” possibilities and imagine ideal worlds (or ideal parents and teachers, for that matter). This explains why many students at this age develop interests in utopias, political causes, and social issues. Adolescents also can imagine many possible futures for themselves and may try to decide which is best. Feelings about any of these ideals can be strong. DO WE ALL REACH THE FOURTH STAGE?  Most psychologists agree that there is a level of

thinking more sophisticated than concrete operations, but do we all reach that level? The first three stages of Piaget’s theory are forced on most people by physical realities: Objects really are permanent. The amount of water doesn’t change when poured into another glass. Formal operations, however, are not as closely tied to the physical environment. Being able to use formal operations may be the result of practice in solving hypothetical problems and using formal scientific reasoning—abilities that are valued and taught in literate cultures in high school and college. But even in these cultures, not all high school students or adults can perform Piaget’s formal-operational tasks (Shayer, 2003). Formal thinking might develop only in areas where adolescents and adults have experience or interest or take advanced classes (Piaget, 1974; Siegler et al., 2020). So, expect many students in your middle school or high school classes to have trouble thinking hypothetically, especially when they are learning something new. Students sometimes find shortcuts for dealing with problems that are beyond their grasp; they may memorize formulas or lists of steps. These systems might be helpful for passing tests, but real understanding will take place only when students can go beyond this superficial use of memorization. The Guidelines: Helping Students to Use Formal Operations on the next page will help you support the development of formal operations in your students.

Adolescent egocentrism Assumption that everyone else shares one’s thoughts, feelings, and concerns.

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GUIDELINES Helping Students to Use Formal Operations Continue to use concrete-operational teaching strategies and materials. Examples 1. 2.

Use visual aids such as charts and illustrations as well as somewhat more sophisticated graphs and diagrams, especially when the material is new. Compare the experiences of characters in stories to students’ experiences.

Give students opportunities to explore many hypothetical questions. Examples 1.

2.

Have students write position papers and then exchange these papers with the opposing side to debate topical social issues such as the environment, the economy, and national health insurance. Ask students to write about their personal visions of a utopia; write a description of a universe that has no sex differences; write a description of Earth after humans are extinct.

Give students opportunities to solve problems and reason scientifically. Examples 1. 2.

Set up group discussions in which students design experiments to answer questions. Ask students to justify two different positions on animal rights with logical arguments for each position.

Whenever possible, teach broad concepts, not just facts, using materials and ideas relevant to the students’ lives (Delpit, 1995). Examples 1. 2.

When discussing the Civil War, consider racism or other issues that have divided the United States since then. When teaching about poetry, let students find lyrics from popular songs that illustrate poetic devices, then discuss how these devices do or don’t work well to communicate the meanings and feelings the songwriters intended.

Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory Although most psychologists agree with Piaget’s insightful descriptions of how children think, many disagree with his explanations of why thinking develops as it does. THE TROUBLE WITH STAGES.  Some psychologists have questioned the existence of four separate stages of thinking even though they agree that children do go through the changes that Piaget described (Mascolo & Fischer, 2005; Miller, 2016). One problem with the stage model is the lack of consistency in children’s thinking. For example, children can conserve number (the number of blocks does not change when they are rearranged) a year or two before they can conserve weight (the weight of a ball of clay does not change when you flatten it). Why can’t they use conservation consistently in every situation? Another problem with the idea of separate stages is that the processes may be more continuous than they seem. Changes seem like discontinuous, qualitative leaps when we look across longer time periods. The 3-year-old persistently searching for a lost toy seems qualitatively different from the infant who doesn’t miss a toy or search when the toy rolls under a sofa. But if we watched a developing child very closely and observed m ­ oment-to-moment or hour-to-hour changes, we might see gradual, continuous changes. The older child knows that the toy is under the sofa because her more developed memory allows her to remember seeing it roll there, whereas the infant can’t hold on to that memory. The longer you require children to wait before searching—the longer you make them remember the object—the older they have to be to succeed (Siegler et al., 2020).

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Change can be both continuous and discontinuous, as described by a branch of mathematics called catastrophe theory. Changes that appear sudden, like the collapse of a bridge, are preceded by many slowly developing changes such as gradual, continuous corrosion of the metal structures. Similarly, gradually developing changes in children can lead to large changes in abilities that seem abrupt (Bjorklund, 2012; Siegler et al., 2020). In fairness, we should note that in his later work, even Piaget put less emphasis on stages of cognitive development and gave more attention to how thinking changes through equilibration (Miller, 2016). UNDERESTIMATING CHILDREN’S ABILITIES.  It now appears that Piaget underestimated

the cognitive abilities of children, particularly younger ones. The problems he gave young children may have been too difficult and the directions too confusing. His subjects have understood more than they could demonstrate when solving these problems. For example, work by Gelman and her colleagues (Gelman, 2000; Gelman & Cordes, 2001) shows that preschool children know much more about the concept of number than Piaget thought, even if they sometimes make mistakes or get confused. As long as preschoolers work with only three or four objects at a time, they can tell that the number remains the same even if the objects are spread far apart or clumped close together. Mirjam Ebersbach (2009) demonstrated that most of the German kindergartners in her study considered all three dimensions— width, height, and length—when they estimated the volume of a wooden block (actually, how many small cubes would make bigger blocks of different sizes). In other words, we might be born with a greater store of cognitive tools than Piaget suggested. Some basic understandings or core knowledge, such as the permanence of objects or the sense of number, may be part of our evolutionary equipment, ready for use in our cognitive development (Berk, 2019; Woodward & Needham, 2009). Finally, Piaget argued that the development of cognitive operations such as conservation or abstract thinking cannot be accelerated. He believed that children had to be developmentally ready to learn. Quite a bit of research, however, has shown that with effective instruction, children can learn to perform cognitive operations such as conservation. They do not have to naturally discover these ways of thinking on their own. Knowledge and experience in a situation affect the kind of thinking that children can do (Brainerd, 2003). COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND CULTURE.  One final criticism of Piaget’s theory is that it overlooks the important effects of a child’s cultural and social groups. Research across different cultures, however, has generally confirmed that Piaget was accurate about the sequence of the stages in children’s thinking. The difference is that in some cultures, the age ranges for the stages varied. Western children typically move to the next stage about 2 to 3 years earlier than children in non-Western societies (Siegler et al., 2020). But careful research has shown that these differences across cultures depend on the subject or domain tested and whether the culture values and teaches knowledge in that domain. For example, children in Brazil who sell candy in the streets instead of attending school appear to fail a certain kind of Piagetian task—class inclusion. (Are there more daisies, more tulips, or more flowers in the picture?) But when the tasks are phrased within concepts they understand—selling candy— then these children perform better than Brazilian children of the same age who attend school (Saxe, 1999). When a culture or context emphasizes a particular cognitive ability, children growing up in that culture tend to acquire that ability sooner. In a study that compared Chinese first-, third-, and fifth-grade students to American students in the same grades, the Chinese students mastered a Piagetian task that involved distance, time, and speed relationships about 2 years ahead of American students, most likely because the Chinese education system puts more emphasis on math and science in the early grades (Zhou et al., 2001). Even concrete operations such as classification might develop differently in different cultures. For example, when individuals from the Kpelle people of Africa were asked to sort 20 objects, they created groups that made sense to them—a hoe with a potato, a knife with an orange. The experimenter could not get the Kpelle to change their categories; they

114 Chapter 3 Cognitive Development said this way of sorting is how a wise man would do it. Finally, the experimenter asked in ­desperation, “Well, how would a fool do it?” They promptly created the four neat classification piles the experimenter had expected—food, tools, and so on (Rogoff & Morelli, 1989).

Information Processing, Neo-Piagetian, and Neuroscience Views of Cognitive Development

Executive functioning All those processes that we use to organize, coordinate, and perform goal-directed, intentional actions, including focusing attention, inhibiting impulsive responses, making and changing plans, and using memory to hold and manipulate information.

Neo-Piagetian theories ­ ore recent theories that M integrate findings about attention, memory, and strategy use with Piaget’s insights about children’s thinking and the construction of knowledge.

As you will see in Chapter 8, there are explanations for why children have trouble with conservation and other Piagetian tasks. These explanations focus on the development of ­information-processing skills, such as attention, memory capacity, and learning strategies. As children mature and their brains develop, they are better able to focus their attention, process information more quickly, hold more information in memory, and use thinking strategies more easily and flexibly (Berk, 2019; Siegler, 2004). One critical development is improvement in executive functioning. Executive functioning involves all those cognitive processes that we use to organize, coordinate, and perform goal-directed, intentional actions such as focusing attention, inhibiting impulsive responses, making and changing plans, organizing, and using memory to hold and manipulate information (Best & Miller, 2010; Morgan et al., 2019). As children develop more sophisticated and effective executive functioning skills, they are active in advancing their own development: They are constructing, organizing, and improving their own knowledge and strategies (Siegler et al., 2020). For example, one classic Piagetian task is to show children 10 daisies and 2 roses and then ask whether they see more daisies or more flowers. Young children see more daisies and jump to the answer “daisies.” As they mature, children are better at resisting (inhibiting) that first response based on appearances and can answer based on the fact that both daisies and roses are flowers. But even adults have to take a fraction of a second to resist the obvious, so inhibiting impulsive responses is important for developing complex knowledge throughout life (Borst et al., 2013). Some developmental psychologists have formulated neo-Piagetian theories that retain Piaget’s insights about children’s construction of knowledge and the general trends in children’s thinking but add findings from cognitive neuroscience and information processing theories about the role of attention, memory, and strategies (Bjorklund, 2018). Perhaps the best-known neo-Piagetian theory was developed by Robbie Case (1992, 1998). He devised an explanation of cognitive development suggesting that children develop in stages within specific domains such as numerical concepts, spatial concepts, social tasks, storytelling, reasoning about physical objects, and motor development. As children practice using the schemes in a particular domain (e.g., using counting schemes in the number concept area), accomplishing the schemes requires less attention and working memory space. The schemes become more automatic because the child does not have to “think so hard.” This frees up mental resources and memory to do more, so the child can combine simple schemes into more complex ones and invent new schemes when needed—assimilation and accommodation in action (Siegler et al., 2020). Kurt Fischer (2009) connected cognitive development in different domains to research on the brain. Even though children may follow different pathways as they master skills in speaking, reading, and mathematics, their growth patterns show a similar series of spurts, and they go through predictable levels of development. When learning a new skill, children move through three tiers—from actions to representations to abstractions. Within each tier, the pattern moves from accomplishing a single action to mapping or coordinating two actions together, such as coordinating addition and multiplication in math, to creating whole systems of understanding. At the level of abstractions, children finally move to constructing explanatory principles. This might remind you of sensorimotor, concrete operations, and formal operations in Piaget’s theory. For each skill level, the brain reorganizes itself, too. In this process, skills develop sooner at each level with the chance to practice and with quality support. Support and practice are keys in a­ nother explanation of cognitive development we discuss next—Vygotsky’s theory.

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Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective Learning Outcome 3.4  Explain the principles presented in Vygotsky’s theory of development, including criticisms of his theory. Psychologists today recognize that culture shapes cognitive development by determining what and how a child will learn about the world—the content and processes of thinking. For example, cultures that prize cooperation and sharing teach these abilities early, whereas cultures that encourage competition nurture competitive skills in their children. The stages observed by Piaget are not necessarily “natural” for all children because to some extent, the stages reflect the expectations and activities of Western cultures, as the Kpelle people described earlier have taught us (Kozulin, 2003; Kozulin et al., 2003; Rogoff, 2003). A major spokesperson for this sociocultural theory (also called sociohistoric theory) was a Russian Jewish psychologist who was born the same year as Piaget—1896. Lev Semenovich ­ roduced Vygotsky was only 37 when he died of tuberculosis, but during his brief life he p more than 100 books and articles. Some of the translations are now available (e.g., Vygotsky, 1978, 1986, 1987a, 1987b, 1987c, 1993, 1997). Vygotsky began studying learning and development to improve his own teaching. He went on to write about language and thought, the psychology of art, learning and development, and educating students with special needs. His work was banned in Russia for many years because he referenced Western psychologists in his writings. But in the past 50-plus years, with the rediscovery of his work, Vygotsky’s ideas have become major influences in psychology and education and have provided alternatives to many of Piaget’s theories (Gredler, 2012; Moll, 2014; Van Der Veer, 2007; Wink & Putney, 2002). Vygotsky believed that human activities take place in cultural settings and that they cannot be understood apart from these settings. Instead of being little scientists constructing understandings on their own, as Piaget described, Vygotsky believed that children construct the skills needed for living in their particular culture with the support of other people eager to help them learn. So, one of Vygotsky’s key ideas was that our specific mental structures and processes can be traced to our interactions with others. These social interactions are more than simple influences on cognitive development—they actually create our cognitive structures and thinking processes. In fact, “Vygotsky conceptualized development as the transformation of socially shared activities into internalized processes” (John-Steiner & Mahn, 1996, p. 192). We develop by internalizing our culture. We will examine three themes in Vygotsky’s writings that explain how social processes form learning and thinking: the social sources of individual thinking; the role of cultural tools in learning and development, especially the tool of language; and the zone of proximal development (Berger, 2018; Gredler, 2012; Siegler et al., 2020).

Sociocultural theory Emphasizes role in development of cooperative dialogues between children and more knowledgeable members of society. Children learn the culture of their community (ways of thinking and behaving) through these interactions.

The Social Sources of Individual Thinking Vygotsky assumed that Every function in a child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level and later on the individual level; first between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relations between human individuals. (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 57; our emphasis) In other words, higher mental processes, such as directing your own attention and thinking through problems, first are co-constructed during shared activities between the child and another, more skilled person such as a parent, older sibling, or teacher. Then these ­co-constructed processes are internalized by the child and become part of that child’s cognitive development (Gredler, 2009a, 2009b; Mercer, 2013). For example, children first use language in activities with others to try to regulate their own behavior (“No nap!” or “I wanna cookie.”). Later, however, the children can regulate their own behavior using private

Co-constructed process A social process in which people interact and negotiate (usually verbally) to create an understanding or to solve a problem. The final product is shaped by all participants.

116 Chapter 3 Cognitive Development speech (“careful—don’t spill”), as you will see in a later section. So, for Vygotsky, social interaction was more than influence: It was the origin of higher mental processes such as problem solving. Other people guiding the child become mentors in an apprenticeship of thinking (Vygotsky, 2012). Consider this example: A six-year-old has lost a toy and asks her father for help. The father asks her where she last saw the toy; the child says “I can’t remember.” He asks a series of questions—did you have it in your room? Outside? Next door? To each question, the child answers, “no.” When he says “in the car?” she says “I think so” and goes to retrieve the toy. (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988, p. 14)

Pearson eText Video Example 3.3 Sue Bredekamp describes the value of a community of learners and how children learn from other children, as Vygotsky described. She also notes that earlier psychologists may have underestimated the capabilities of young children because they studied these children individually.

Who remembered? The answer is really neither the father nor the daughter but the two together. The remembering and problem solving were co-constructed—between people—in the interaction. But the child (and the father) may have internalized strategies to use the next time something is lost. At some point, the child will be able to function independently to solve this kind of problem. So, like the strategy for finding the toy, higher functions appear first between a child and a “teacher” before they exist within the individual child (Kozulin, 2003; Kozulin et al., 2003; Miller, 2016). Here is another example of the social sources of individual thinking. Richard Anderson and his colleagues (2001) studied how fourth-graders in small-group classroom discussions appropriate (take for themselves and use) argument stratagems that occur in the discussions. An argument stratagem is a particular form such as “I think [POSITION] because [REASON],” where the student fills in the position and the reason. For example, a student might say, “I think that the wolves should be left alone because they are not hurting anyone.” Another strategy form is “If [ACTION], then [BAD CONSEQUENCE],” as in “If they don’t trap the wolves, then the wolves will eat the cows.” Other forms manage participation, for example, “What do you think, [NAME]?” or “Let [NAME] talk.” Anderson’s research identified 13 forms of talk and argument that helped to manage the discussion, get everyone to participate, present and defend positions, and handle confusion. The use of these different forms of talking and thinking snowballed: After a useful argument was employed by one student, it spread to other students, and the argument stratagem appeared more and more in the discussions. Open discussions—students asking and answering each other’s questions—were better than teacher-dominated discussion for the development of these argument forms. Over time, these ways of presenting, attacking, and defending positions could be internalized as mental reasoning and decision making for the individual students. Both Piaget and Vygotsky emphasized the importance of social interactions in cognitive development, but Piaget saw a different role for interaction: He believed that interaction encourages development by creating disequilibrium—that is, cognitive conflict motivated change. As we saw earlier, Piaget believed that the most helpful interactions are those with peers because peers are on an equal basis and can challenge each other’s thinking. Vygotsky, on the other hand, suggested that children’s cognitive development is fostered by interactions with people who are more capable or advanced in their thinking—people such as parents and teachers. Of course, students can learn from both adults and peers, and today, computers can play a role in supporting communication across distances or in different languages.

Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development Cultural tools The real tools (computers, scales, etc.) and symbol systems (numbers, language, graphs) that allow people in a society to communicate, think, solve problems, and create knowledge.

Vygotsky believed that cultural tools, including technical tools (e.g., printing presses, plows, rulers, abacuses, graph paper—today, we would add mobile devices, computers, the Internet, real-time translators for mobile devices and chats, search engines, digital organizers and calendars, assistive technologies for students with learning challenges, etc.) and psychological tools (signs and symbol systems such as numbers and mathematical systems, Braille and sign language, maps, works of art, codes, and language) play very important roles in cognitive development. For example, as long as the culture provides only Roman numerals for representing quantity, certain ways of thinking mathematically—from long

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division to calculus—are difficult or impossible. But if a number system has a zero, fractions, positive and negative values, and an infinite quantity of numbers, then much more is possible. The number system is a psychological tool that supports learning and cognitive development—it changes the thinking process. This symbol system is passed from adult to child and from child to child through formal and informal interactions and teachings. TECHNICAL TOOLS IN A DIGITAL AGE.  The use of technical tools such as calculators and

spell checkers has been somewhat controversial in education. Technology is increasingly “checking up” on us. We rely on the spell checker in our word processing program to protect us from embarrassment. But we also read student papers or text messages with spelling replacements that must have come from decisions made by the word processing program— without a “sense check” by the writer. Is student learning harmed or helped by these technology supports? Just because students learned mathematics in the past with ­paper-and-pencil procedures does not mean that this is the best way to learn. In fact, the research on calculators has found that rather than eroding basic skills, calculator use has positive effects on students’ problem-solving skills and attitudes toward math (Ellington, 2003, 2013; Waits & Demana, 2000). There is a catch, however: For simple math problems it probably is better to attempt recalling or calculating the answer first before turning to a calculator. Math fact learning and fluency in arithmetic are supported when students self-generate answers before resorting to calculators (Mao et al., 2017; Pyke & LeFevre, 2011). PSYCHOLOGICAL TOOLS.  Vygotsky believed that all higher-order mental processes such as reasoning and problem solving are mediated by (accomplished through and with the help of) psychological tools. These tools allow children to transform their thinking by enabling them to gain greater and greater mastery of their own cognitive processes; they advance their own development as they use the tools. Vygotsky believed that the essence of cognitive development is mastering the use of psychological tools such as language to accomplish the kind of advanced thinking and problem solving that could not be accomplished without those tools (Gredler, 2012). The process goes something like this: As children engage in activities with adults or more capable peers, they exchange ideas and ways of thinking about or representing concepts—drawing maps, for example, as a way to represent spaces and places. Children internalize these co-created ideas. Children’s knowledge, ideas, attitudes, and values develop through appropriating or “taking for themselves” the ways of acting and thinking provided by both their culture and other members of their group (Wertsch, 2007). In this exchange of signs and symbols and explanations, children begin to develop a “cultural tool kit” to make sense of and learn about their world (Wertsch, 1991). The kit is filled with technical tools, such as graphing calculators or rulers, directed toward the external world and psychological tools for acting mentally, such as concepts, problem-solving strategies, and (as we saw earlier) argument strategems. Children do not just receive the tools, however. They transform the tools as they construct their own representations, symbols, patterns, and understandings. These understandings gradually change as the children continue to engage in social activities and try to make sense of their world (Siegler et al., 2020). In Vygotsky’s theory, language is the most important symbol system in the tool kit and is the one that helps fill the kit with other tools.

The Roles of Language and Private Speech Language is critical for cognitive development because it provides a way to express ideas and ask questions, the categories and concepts for thinking, and the links between the past and the future. Language frees us from the immediate situation so we can think about what was and what might be (Mercer, 2013). Vygotsky thought that: the specifically human capacity for language enables children to provide for auxiliary tools in the solution of difficult tasks, to overcome impulsive action, to plan a solution to a problem prior to its execution, and to master their own behavior. (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 28)

118 Chapter 3 Cognitive Development Vygotsky placed more emphasis than Piaget on the roles of learning and language in ­cognitive development. Vygotsky also believed that language in the form of private speech (talking to yourself) guides cognitive development. PRIVATE SPEECH: VYGOTSKY’S AND PIAGET’S VIEWS COMPARED.  If you have spent

Collective monologue Form of speech in which children in a group talk but do not really interact or communicate.

Private speech Children’s self-talk, which guides their thinking and actions. Eventually, these verbalizations are internalized as silent inner speech.

much time around young children, you know that they often talk to themselves as they play. This can happen when the child is alone or, even more often, in a group of children—each child talks enthusiastically, without any real interaction or conversation. Piaget called this the collective monologue, and he labeled all of the children’s self-directed talk “egocentric speech.” He assumed that this egocentric speech is another indication that young children can’t see the world through the eyes of others, so they chat away without taking into account the needs or interests of their listeners. As they mature, and especially as they have disagreements with peers, Piaget believed children develop socialized speech. They learn to listen and exchange (or argue) ideas. Vygotsky had very different ideas about young children’s private speech. He suggested that rather than being a sign of cognitive immaturity, these mutterings play an important role in cognitive development because they move children in stages toward self-regulation: the ability to plan, monitor, and guide your own thinking and problem solving. First the child’s behavior is regulated by others using language and other signs such as gestures. For example, the parent says, “No!” when the child reaches toward a candle flame. Next, the child learns to regulate the behavior of others using the same language tools. The child says, “No!” to another child who is trying to take away a toy, often even imitating the parent’s voice tone. The child also begins to use private speech to regulate her own behavior, saying, “No” quietly to herself as she is tempted to touch the flame. Finally, the child learns to regulate her own behavior by using silent inner speech (Berk, 2019; Siegler et al., 2020). For example, in any preschool room you might hear 4- or 5-year-olds saying, “No, it won’t fit. Try it here. Turn. Turn. Maybe this one!” while they do puzzles. Around the age of 7, children’s self-directed speech goes underground, changing from spoken to whispered speech and then to silent lip movements. Finally, the children just “think” the guiding words. The use of private speech peaks at around age 9 and then decreases, although one study found that some students from ages 11 to 17 still spontaneously muttered to themselves during problem solving (McCafferty, 2004; Winsler & Naglieri, 2003). Vygotsky called this inner speech “an internal plane of verbal thinking” 1987c, p. 279)—a critical accomplishment on the road to higher-order thinking. This series of steps from spoken words to silent inner speech is another example of how higher mental functions first appear between people as they communicate and regulate each other’s behavior and then emerge again within the individual as cognitive processes. Through this fundamental process, the child is using language to accomplish important cognitive activities such as directing attention, solving problems, planning, forming concepts, and gaining self-control. Research supports Vygotsky’s ideas (Berk & Spuhl, 1995; Emerson & Miyake, 2003). Children and adults tend to use more private speech when they are confused, having difficulties, or making mistakes. Have you ever thought to yourself something like, “Let’s see, the first step is” or “Where did I use my glasses last?” or “If I read to the end of this page, then I can . . .”? You were using inner speech to remind, cue, encourage, or guide yourself. This internal verbal thinking is not stable until about age 12, so children in elementary school may need to continue talking through problems and explaining their reasoning in order to develop their abilities to control their thinking (Gredler, 2012). Because private speech helps students regulate their thinking, it makes sense to allow, and even encourage, students to use private speech in school. Teachers’ insisting on total silence when young students are working on difficult problems may make the work even harder for the students. Take note when muttering increases in your class—this could be a sign that students need help. Table 3.4 contrasts Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories of private speech. We should note that Piaget accepted many of Vygotsky’s arguments and came to agree that language could be used in both egocentric and problem-solving ways (Piaget, 1962).

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Table 3.4  Differences Between Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories of Egocentric, or Private,

Speech

PIAGET

VYGOTSKY

Meaning and Purpose

Represents an inability to take the perspective of another and engage in reciprocal communication.

Represents externalized thought; its function is to communicate with the self for the purpose of self-guidance and self-direction.

Course of Development

Declines with age.

Increases at younger ages and then gradually loses its audible quality to become internal verbal thought.

Relationship to Social Speech

Negative; the least socially and cognitively mature children use more egocentric speech.

Positive; private speech develops out of social interaction with others.

Relationship to Environmental Contexts

No relationship

Increases with task difficulty. Private speech serves a helpful self-guiding function in situations where more cognitive effort is needed to reach a solution.

Source: From “Development of Private Speech among Low-Income Appalachian Children,” by L. E. Berk and R. A. Garvin, 1984, Developmental Psychology, 20, p. 272. Copyright © 1984 by the American Psychological Association. Adapted with permission.

The Zone of Proximal Development According to Vygotsky, at any given point in development, a child is on the verge of solving certain problems—“processes that have not matured at the time but are in a period of maturation” (Vygotsky, 1998, p. 201). The child just needs some structure, demonstrations, clues, reminders, help with remembering details or steps, encouragement to keep trying, and so on. Some problems, of course, are beyond the child’s capabilities, even if every step is explained clearly. The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the area between what the child already knows and what the child isn’t ready to understand or learn yet. The ZPD is the level of performance that the child could achieve with adult guidance or by working with “a more fully developed child” (p. 202). It is a dynamic and changing space as student and teacher interact and understandings are exchanged. This is the area where instruction can succeed. Kathleen Berger (2018, p. 52) called this area the “magic middle”—somewhere between “the boring and the impossible.” As you probably can guess, this zone varies from time to time and student to student. In some situations, a student may only move a bit, no matter how much support is provided, but another student can soar and benefit from more and more support. PRIVATE SPEECH AND THE ZONE.  We can see how Vygotsky’s beliefs about the role of private speech in cognitive development fit with the notion of the ZPD. Vygotsky once noted that thoughts have movement—they unfold. But what happens when the unfolding gets stuck? Often, an adult uses verbal prompts and structuring to help a child get unstuck—to solve a problem or accomplish a task (Hermkes et al., 2018). We will see later that this type of support has been called scaffolding. This support can be gradually reduced as the child takes over the guidance, perhaps first by giving the prompts as private speech and finally as inner speech. As an example, think of the young girl described earlier who had lost her toy. Let’s move forward several years in her life and listen to her thoughts as an older student when she realizes that a schoolbook is missing. They might sound something like this:

“Where’s my math book? Used it in class. Thought I put it in my book bag after class. Dropped my bag on the bus. That dope Larry kicked my stuff, so maybe. . . .” The girl can now systematically search for ideas about the lost book without help from anyone else.

Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Developmental phase at which a child can master a task if given appropriate help and support from a more capable person.

Pearson eText Video Example 3.4 In this video, one teacher guides young children in ­putting together puzzles and ­another guides a boy to create a pattern by organizing toy trucks based on color. Is the process of organizing toys in a pattern based on color a skill that is in the boy’s zone of proximal development, or is it still too advanced for a child at his ­developmental level?

120 Chapter 3 Cognitive Development THE ROLE OF LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT.  Piaget defined development as the active

construction of knowledge and learning as the passive formation of associations (Siegler, 2000). He was interested in knowledge construction and believed that cognitive development has to come before learning—the child has to be cognitively “ready” to learn. Children can memorize, for example, that Geneva is in Switzerland but still insist that they cannot be Genevan and Swiss at the same time. True understanding will take place only when the child has developed the operation of class inclusion—that one category can be included within another. But as we saw earlier, research has not supported Piaget’s position on the need for cognitive development to precede learning (Brainerd, 2003). In contrast, Vygotsky believed that learning is an active process that does not have to wait for readiness. He saw learning as a tool in development: Learning pulls development up to higher levels, and social interaction is a key in learning. In other words, what develops next is what is affected by learning (Bodrova & Leong, 2012; Gredler, 2012). This means that other people, including teachers, play significant roles in cognitive development. It does not mean that Vygotsky believed memorization is learning. When teachers try to directly communicate their understandings, the result can be a “meaningless acquisition of words” and “mere verbalization” (1987b, p. 356) that actually hides an understanding vacuum (Gredler, 2012). In Vygotsky’s words, the teacher “explains, informs, inquires, corrects, and forces the child to explain” (p. 216). We can sum up (and maybe oversimplify) the contrast between Piaget and Vygotsky on learning by saying that Piaget favored discovery learning and Vygotsky advocated guided discovery.

Limitations of Vygotsky’s Theory Vygotsky’s theory added important considerations by highlighting the roles of culture and social processes in cognitive development, but he may have gone too far. As you have seen in this chapter, we may be born with a greater store of cognitive tools than either Piaget or Vygotsky suggested. Some basic understandings, such as the idea that adding increases quantity, might be part of our biological predispositions, ready for use to guide our cognitive development. Young children appear to figure out much about the world before they have the chance to learn from either their culture or their teachers (Schunk, 2020; Woodward & Needham, 2009). The major limitation of Vygotsky’s theory, however, is that it consists mostly of general ideas: Vygotsky died before he could expand and elaborate on his ideas and pursue his research. His students continued to investigate his ideas, but much of that work was suppressed by Stalin’s regime until the 1950s and 1960s (Gredler, 2005, 2009b; Kozulin, 2003; Kozulin et al., 2003). A final limitation might be that Vygotsky did not have time to detail the applications of his theories for teaching even though he was very interested in instruction. As a result, most of the applications described today have been created by others—and we don’t even know whether Vygotsky would agree with them. It is clear that some of his concepts, like ZPD, have been misrepresented at times (Gredler, 2012).

Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers Learning Outcome 3.5  Discuss implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky ‘s theories for teaching. Piaget did not make specific educational recommendations, and Vygotsky did not have enough time to develop a complete set of applications. But we can glean some guidance from both men.

Piaget: What Can We Learn? Even though Piaget’s theory is not the overarching explanation of cognitive development anymore, his findings are still relevant in part “because he studied universal aspects of cognitive development, mainly children’s understanding of physics—from object permanence, to conservation, to time and space” (Bjorklund, 2018, p. 2298). Piaget believed that the main

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goal of education should be to help children learn how to learn and that education should “form not furnish” the minds of students (Piaget, 1969, p. 70). Piaget has taught us that we can learn a great deal about how children think by listening carefully and by paying close attention to their ways of solving problems. If we understand children’s thinking, we will be better able to match teaching methods to children’s current knowledge and abilities; in other words, we will be better able to differentiate instruction. Even though Piaget did not design programs of education based on his ideas, his influence on current educational practice is huge. For example, the National Association for the Education of Young Children has guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) that incorporate Piaget’s findings (Bredekamp, 2017; Copple & Bredekamp, 2008; Gestwicki, 2017). UNDERSTANDING AND BUILDING ON STUDENTS’ THINKING.  The students in any class will

vary greatly in both their level of cognitive development and their academic knowledge. As a teacher, how can you determine whether students are having trouble because they lack the necessary thinking abilities or because they simply have not learned the basic facts? To do this, Case (1985) suggests you observe your students carefully as they try to solve the problems you have presented. What kind of logic do they use? Do they focus on only one aspect of the situation? Are they fooled by appearances? Do they suggest solutions systematically or by guessing and forgetting what they have already tried? Ask your students how they tried to solve the problem. Listen to their strategies. What kind of thinking is behind repeated mistakes or problems? Students are the best sources of information about their own thinking. An important implication of Piaget’s theory for teaching is what J. Hunt years ago (1961) called “the problem of the match.” Students must be neither bored by work that is too simple nor left behind by teaching they cannot understand. According to Hunt, disequilibrium must be kept “just right” to encourage growth. Setting up situations that lead to unexpected results can help create an appropriate level of disequilibrium. When students experience some conflict between what they think should happen (a piece of wood should sink because it is big) and what actually happens (it floats!), they may rethink the situation, and new knowledge may develop. Many materials and lessons can be understood at several levels and can be “just right” for a range of cognitive abilities. Classics such as Alice in Wonderland, myths, and fairy tales can be enjoyed at both concrete and symbolic levels. ACTIVITY AND CONSTRUCTING KNOWLEDGE.  Piaget’s fundamental insight was that indi-

viduals construct their own understanding; learning is a constructive process. At every level of cognitive development, you will also want to see that students are actively engaged in the learning process. In Piaget’s words: Knowledge is not a copy of reality. To know an object, to know an event, is not simply to look at it and make a mental copy or image of it. To know an object is to act on it. To know is to modify, to transform the object, and to understand the process of this transformation, and as a consequence to understand the way the object is constructed. (Piaget, 1964, p. 8) For example, research in teaching mathematics indicates that students from kindergarten to college remember basic facts better when they have learned these facts using manipulative materials such as counting sticks, pattern blocks, fraction strips, or blocks versus using abstract symbols only (Carbonneau et al., 2013). Beware, however, of assuming that you can just give students manipulatives to work with and they will learn automatically. In one study, middle school students learned more science when teachers accompanied manipulatives with in-depth guidance about how to use them. Research in other subject areas has found similar results (Hushman & Marley, 2015; Marley & Carbonneau, 2014). This active experience, even at the earliest school levels, should not be limited to the physical manipulation of objects but should also include mental manipulation of ideas that arise out of class projects or experiments (Gredler, 2005, 2012). For example, after a social studies lesson on different jobs, a primary-grade teacher might show students a picture of a woman and ask, “What could this person be?” After answers such

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Implications of Piaget’s Theory (I, A2) The music, physical education, and art teachers in a rural preKto-8 school district work with students who characterize several of Piaget’s stages. How should these three teachers adjust their teaching from level to level over the course of a week?

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Pearson eText Video Example 3.5 The geometry students in this video engage in imitative learning, instructed learning, and collaborative learning. How does the teacher employ these three methods in her teaching?

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Implications of Vygotsky’s Theory (I, A2) Make a list of scaffolding techniques that would be appropriate with different instructional levels and content areas. Think of scaffolding techniques that others used when you learned things outside of school (e.g., sports, hobbies).

as “teacher,” “doctor,” “administrative assistant,” “lawyer,” “sales representative,” and so on, the teacher could suggest, “How about a daughter?” Answers such as “sister,” “mother,” “aunt,” and “granddaughter” may follow. This should help the children switch dimensions in their classifications and center on another aspect of the situation. Next, the teacher might suggest, “American,” “jogger,” or “poet.” With older children, hierarchical classification might be involved: It is a picture of a woman, who is a human being; a human being is a primate, which is a mammal, which is an animal, which is a life form. All students need to interact with teachers and peers in order to test their thinking, to be challenged, to receive feedback, and to watch how others work out problems. Disequilibrium is often set in motion quite naturally when the teacher or another student suggests a new way of thinking about something. As a general rule, students should act on, manipulate, observe, and then talk and/or write about (to the teacher and each other) what they have experienced. Concrete experiences provide the raw materials for thinking. Communicating with others makes students use, test, and sometimes change their thinking strategies.

Vygotsky: What Can We Learn? Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that the main goal of education was the development of higher mental functions, not simply filling students’ memories with facts. So Vygotsky probably would oppose educational curricula that are an inch deep and a mile wide or seem like “trivial pursuit.” As an example of this trivial pursuit curriculum, Margaret Gredler (2009a) described a set of materials for a 9-week science unit that had 61 glossary terms such as aqueous solution, hydrogen bonding, and fractional crystallization—many terms described with only one or two sentences. Higher mental functions can be developed through cultural tools and passed from one individual to another in at least three ways: imitative learning (one person tries to imitate the other), instructed learning (learners internalize the instructions of the teacher and use these instructions to self-regulate), and collaborative learning (a group of peers strives to understand each other, and learning occurs in the process) (Tomasello et al., 1993). Vygotsky was most concerned with the second type, instructed learning through direct teaching or by structuring experiences that encourage another’s learning, but his theory supports learning through imitation or collaboration as well. Thus, Vygotsky’s ideas are relevant for educators who teach directly, intentionally use modeling to teach, or create collaborative learning environments (Miller, 2016; Wink & Putney, 2002). That group pretty much includes all of us. THE ROLE OF ADULTS AND PEERS.  Vygotsky believed the child is not alone in the world

Scaffolding Support for learning and problem solving. The support could be clues, reminders, encouragement, breaking the problem down into steps, providing an example, or anything else that allows the student to grow in independence as a learner. Teachers and students make meaningful connections between what the teacher knows and what the students know and need in order to help the students learn more.

Assisted learning Providing strategic help in the initial stages of learning, gradually diminishing that help as students gain independence.

“discovering” the cognitive operations of conservation or classification. This discovery is assisted or mediated by family members, teachers, peers, and even software tools (Puntambekar & Hubscher, 2005). Most of this guidance is communicated through language, at least in Western cultures. In several other cultures, observing a skilled performance, not talking about it, guides the child’s learning (Rogoff, 1990). Some people have called this adult assistance scaffolding, which is taken from Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976). The idea is that children use the help for support while they build a firm understanding that will eventually allow them to solve the problems on their own. Actually, when Wood and his colleagues introduced the term scaffolding, they were talking about how teachers set up or structure learning environments, but Vygotsky’s theory implies more dynamic exchanges that allow the teacher to support students in the parts of the task they cannot do alone—the interactions of assisted learning, as you will see next (Schunk, 2020). ASSISTED LEARNING.  Vygotsky’s theory suggests that teachers need to do more than just arrange the environment so that students can discover on their own. Students cannot and should not be expected to reinvent or rediscover knowledge already available in their cultures. Rather, they should be guided and assisted in their learning. Assisted learning, or guided participation, requires first learning from the students what is needed; giving information, prompts, reminders, and encouragement at the right times and in the right amounts; and gradually allowing the students to do more and more on

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Table 3.5  Strategies to Provide Scaffolding and Assisted Learning • Model the thought process for the students: Think out loud as you solve the problem or outline an ­essay, for example. • Provide organizers or starters such as who, what, why, how, and what next? • Complete part of the problem. • Give hints and cues. • Encourage students to set short-term goals and take small steps. • Connect new learning to students’ interests or prior learning. • Use graphic organizers: timelines, charts, tables, categories, checklists, and graphs. • Simplify the task, clarify the purpose, and give clear directions. • Teach key vocabulary words, and provide examples.

their own. Teachers can assist learning by adapting materials or problems to students’ current levels; demonstrating skills or thought processes; walking students through the steps of a complicated problem; doing part of the problem (e.g., in algebra, the students set up the equation, and the teacher does the calculations, or vice versa); giving detailed feedback and allowing revisions; or asking questions that refocus students’ attention (Rosenshine & ­Meister, 1992). Cognitive apprenticeships (Chapter 10) are examples. Look at Table 3.5 for more ideas about strategies that you can use in any lesson.

Pearson eText Video Example 3.6 Ms. Roberts provides ­feedback to a student by thinking out loud, asking the student to read her words aloud, and then pausing to allow the ­student to correct her mistake. How closely does this align with your understanding of scaffolding?

An Example Curriculum: Tools of the Mind Deborah Leong and Elena Bodrova (2012) worked for years to develop a curriculum for preschool through second-grade children based on Vygotsky’s theory. In Russia, Dr. Bodrova had studied with colleagues of Vygotsky and wanted to bring his ideas to teachers. The result is the Tools of the Mind project that includes curriculum ideas for preschool, kindergarten, and students with special needs (see toolsofthemind.org). One key idea taken from ­Vygotsky is that as children develop mental tools such as strategies for focusing their attention, they cease being prisoners of their environment—having their attention “grabbed away” by any new sight or sound. They learn to control their attention. A second key idea is that play, particularly dramatic pretend play, is the most important activity supporting the development of young children. Through dramatic play children learn to focus their attention, control their impulses, follow rules, use symbols, regulate their own behaviors, and cooperate with others. So a key element of the Tools of the Mind curriculum for young children is play plans, created by the children themselves. Children draw a picture of how they plan to play that day and then describe their plan to the teacher, who may make notes on the page and thus model literacy activities. Plans become more complex and detailed as children become better planners. Figure 3.5 on the next page shows a simple play plan for pretending to be a doctor.

Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the “Magic Middle” Both Piaget and Vygotsky probably would agree that students should be taught in the magic middle (Berger, 2020), or the place of the “match” (Hunt, 1961)—where they are neither bored nor frustrated. Students should be put in situations where they have to reach to understand but where support from other students, learning materials, or the teacher is also available. Sometimes the best teacher is another student who has just figured out how to solve the problem because this student is probably operating in the learner’s ZPD. Having a student work with someone who is just a bit better at the activity would be a good idea because both students benefit in the exchange of explanations, elaborations, and questions. In addition, students should be encouraged to use language to organize their thinking and to talk about what they are trying to accomplish, as in Figure 3.5. Dialogue and discussion are important avenues to learning (Schunk, 2020; Wink & Putney, 2002). The Guidelines: ­Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching on the next page give more ideas for applying Vygotsky’s insights.

Pearson eText Video Example 3.7 The children in this class are learning about earthworms. How does the teacher guide the students to encourage them to make their own discoveries?

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Figure 3.5  “I’m Going to Listen to Their Heart” Play Plan Here a child draws a nurse and a client and then dictates to the teacher, “I’m going to listen to their heart.” The teacher might encourage the child to add a stethoscope to the drawing so that the child can talk through the plan and then remember it better.

Source: Tools of the Mind. http://www. https://toolsofthemind.org/?s=play+plans. Used by permission.

GUIDELINES Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching Tailor scaffolding to the needs of students. Examples 1.

2.

When students are beginning new tasks or topics, provide models, prompts, sentence starters, coaching, and feedback. As the students grow in competence, give less support and more opportunities for independent work. Give students choices about the level of difficulty or degree of independence in projects; encourage them to challenge themselves but to seek help when they are really stuck.

Make sure students have access to powerful tools that support thinking. Examples 1.

2.

­ each students to use learning and organizational strategies, research tools, language T tools (wikis, dictionaries, or computer searches), spreadsheets, and word-processing programs. Model the use of tools; show students how you use an appointment book or calendar app on your smartphone to make plans and manage time, for example.

Build on the students’ cultural funds of knowledge (N. Gonzalez et al., 2005; Moll et al., 1992). Examples 1.

2.

Identify family knowledge by having students interview each other’s families about their work and home knowledge (agriculture, economics, manufacturing, household management, medicine and illness, religion, child care, cooking, etc.). Tie assignments to these funds of knowledge, and use community experts to evaluate assignments.

Capitalize on dialogue and group learning. Examples 1. 2.

Experiment with peer tutoring; teach students how to ask good questions and give helpful explanations. Experiment with the cooperative learning strategies described in Chapter 10.

Source: For more information about Vygotsky and his theories, see tip.psychology.org/vygotsky.html

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Cognitive Development: Lessons for Teachers In spite of cross-cultural differences in cognitive development and the different theories of development, there are some convergences. Piaget, Vygotsky, and more recent researchers studying cognitive development and the brain probably would agree with the following big ideas: 1. Cognitive development requires both physical and social stimulations. 2. To develop thinking, students have to be mentally, physically, and linguistically active. They need to experiment with, talk about, describe, reflect on, write about, and solve problems. But they also benefit from teaching, guidance, questions, explanations, demonstrations, and challenges to their thinking.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Distinctions Between Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories (I, A2) Consider how two teachers—one based in Vygotskian theory and one based in Piagetian theory— might differ in their concepts of learning and teaching and the instructional techniques that they might prefer.

3. Teaching students what they already know is boring for them. Trying to teach what the student isn’t ready to learn is frustrating and ineffective. 4. Challenge with support will keep students engaged but not fearful.

Summary A Definition of Development (pp. 88–90)

parts and systems of the brain work together to learn and

What are the different kinds of development? Human development can be divided into physical development (changes in the body), personal development (changes in an individual’s personality), social development (changes in the way an individual relates to others), and cognitive development (changes in thinking). What are three questions about development and three general principles?  For decades, psychologists and the public have debated whether development is shaped more by ­nature or nurture, whether change is a continuous process or ­involves qualitative differences or stages, and whether there are critical times for the development of certain abilities. We know today that these simple either/or distinctions cannot capture the complexities of human development. Coactions and interactions are the rule. Theorists generally agree that people develop at different rates, that development is an orderly process, and that development takes place gradually.

­ he Brain and Cognitive Development T (pp. 91–102) What part of the brain is associated with higher mental functions?  The cortex is a crumpled sheet of neurons that serves three major functions: receiving signals (such as visual or ­auditory signals) from the sense organs, controlling voluntary movements, and forming connections. The part of the cortex that controls physical motor movement develops or matures first, then the areas that control complex senses such as vision and hearing, and last, the frontal lobe, which controls higherorder thinking processes. What is lateralization, and why is it important? Lateralization is the specialization of the two sides, or hemispheres, of the brain. For most people, the left hemisphere is the major factor in language, and the right hemisphere is prominent in spatial and visual processing. Even though certain functions are associated with particular parts of the brain, the various

perform complex activities such as reading and constructing understanding. What are some implications for teachers?  Recent advances in both teaching methods and discoveries in the neurosciences provide exciting information about brain activity during learning and brain activity differences among people with varying abilities and challenges and from different cultures. These findings have some basic implications for teaching, but many of the strategies offered by “brain-based” advocates are simply good teaching. Perhaps we now know more about why these strategies work.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development (pp. 102–114) What are the main influences on cognitive development?  Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is based on the assumption that people try to make sense of the world and actively create knowledge through direct experiences

126 Chapter 3 Cognitive Development with objects, people, and ideas. Maturation, activity, social transmission, and the need for equilibrium all influence cognitive development. In response to these influences, thinking processes and knowledge develop through changes in the organization of thought (the development of schemes) and through ­adaptation—including the complementary processes of ­ assimilation (incorporating into existing schemes) and ­accommodation (changing existing schemes). What is a scheme?  Schemes are the basic building blocks of thinking. They are organized systems of actions or thought that allow us to mentally represent or “think about” the ­objects and events in our world. Schemes may be very small and specific (grasping, recognizing a square), or they may be larger and more general (using a map in a new city). People adapt to their environment as they increase and organize their schemes. As children move from sensorimotor to formal-operational thinking, what are the major changes?  Piaget believed that young people pass through four stages as they develop: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete-operational, and formal-­ operational. In the sensorimotor stage, infants explore the world through their senses and motor activity, and they work toward mastering object permanence and performing ­ goal-directed ­activities. In the preoperational stage, symbolic thinking and logical operations begin. Children in the stage of concrete operations can think logically about tangible situations and can demonstrate conservation, reversibility, classification, and ­ seriation. The ability to perform hypothetico-deductive reasoning, coordinate a set of variables, and imagine other worlds marks the stage of formal operations. How do neo-Piagetian and information processing views explain changes in children’s thinking over time?  Information processing theories focus on attention, memory capacity, learning strategies, and other processing skills to explain how children develop rules and strategies for making sense of the world and solving problems. Neo-Piagetian approaches also look at ­attention, memory, and strategies and at how thinking develops in different domains such as numbers or spatial relations. Research in neuroscience suggests that when learning a new skill, children move through three tiers—from actions to representations to abstractions. Within each tier, the pattern involves moving from ­accomplishing a single action to mapping or coordinating two actions together, such as coordinating addition and multiplication in math, to creating whole systems of understanding. ­ hat are some limitations of Piaget’s theory? Piaget’s theory W has been criticized because children and adults often think in ways that are inconsistent with the notion of invariant stages. It also appears that Piaget underestimated children’s cognitive abilities; he insisted that children could not be taught the operations of the next stage but had to develop them on their own. Alternative explanations place greater emphasis on children’s developing information processing skills and the ways teachers can enhance their development. Piaget’s work is also criticized for overlooking cultural factors in child development.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective (pp. 115–120) According to Vygotsky, what are three main influences on cognitive development?  Vygotsky believed that human ­activities must be understood within their cultural settings. He believed that our specific mental structures and processes can be traced to our interactions with others; that the tools of the culture, especially the tool of language, are key factors in development; and that the ZPD is where learning and development are possible. What are psychological tools, and why are they i­mportant?  Psychological tools are signs and symbols such as numbers and mathematical systems, codes, and language that ­support learning and cognitive development. They change the thinking process by enabling and shaping thinking. Many of these tools are passed from adult to child through formal and informal interactions and teachings. Explain how interpsychological development becomes intrapsychological development.  Higher mental processes first ­appear between people as they are co-constructed during shared activities. As children engage in activities with adults or more capable peers, they exchange ideas and ways of thinking about or representing concepts. Children internalize these co-created ideas. Children’s knowledge, ideas, attitudes, and values develop through appropriating, or “taking for themselves,” the ways of acting and thinking provided by their culture and by the more capable members of their groups. What are the differences between Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s perspectives on private speech and its role in development?  Vygotsky’s sociocultural view asserts that cognitive development hinges on social interaction and the development of language. As an example, Vygotsky describes the role of children’s self-directed talk in guiding and monitoring thinking and problem solving, whereas Piaget suggests that private speech indicates the child’s egocentrism. Vygotsky, more than Piaget, emphasized the significant role played by adults and more-able peers in children’s learning. This adult assistance provides early support while students build the understanding necessary to solve problems on their own later. What is a student’s ZPD?  At any given point in development, there are certain problems that a child is on the verge of being able to solve and others that are beyond the child’s capabilities. The ZPD (zone of proximal development) is the place where the child cannot solve a problem alone but can succeed under adult guidance or in collaboration with a more advanced peer. What are two criticisms or limitations of Vygotsky’s theory?  Vygotsky may have overemphasized the role of social interaction in cognitive development: Children figure out quite a bit on their own. Also, because he died so young, Vygotsky was not able to develop and elaborate on his ideas. His students and others since have taken up that work.

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Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers (pp. 120–125) What is the “problem of the match” described by Hunt? The “problem of the match” is that students must be neither bored by work that is too simple nor left behind by teaching they cannot understand. According to Hunt, disequilibrium must be carefully balanced to encourage growth. Situations that lead to unexpected results can help create an appropriate level of disequilibrium. What is active learning? Why is Piaget’s theory of cognitive development consistent with active learning? Piaget’s fundamental insight was that individuals construct their own understanding: Learning is a constructive process. At every level of cognitive development, students must be able to incorporate information into their own schemes. To do this, they must act on the information in some way. This active experience, even at the earliest school levels, should include both physical

manipulation of objects and mental manipulation of ideas. As a general rule, students should act, manipulate, observe, and then talk and/or write about what they have experienced. Concrete experiences provide the raw materials for thinking. Communicating with others makes students use, test, and sometimes change their thinking abilities. What is assisted learning, and what role does scaffolding play? Assisted learning, or guided participation in the classroom, requires scaffolding—understanding the students’ needs; giving information, prompts, reminders, and encouragement at the right time and in the right amounts; and then gradually allowing the students to do more and more on their own. Teachers can assist learning by adapting materials or problems to students’ current levels, demonstrating skills or thought processes, walking students through the steps of a complicated problem, completing part of the problem, giving detailed feedback and allowing revisions, or asking questions that refocus students’ attention.

Key Terms Accommodation Adaptation Adolescent egocentrism Assimilation Assisted learning Classification Coactions Co-constructed process Cognitive development Collective monologue Compensation Computerized axial tomography (CAT) Concrete operations Conservation Cultural tools Decentering Development Disequilibrium Egocentric Electroencephalograph (EEG)

Equilibration Event-related potential (ERP) Executive functioning Formal operations Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Glial cells Goal-directed actions Hypothetico-deductive reasoning Identity Lateralization Maturation ­Myelination Near-infrared optical tomography (NIR-OT) Neo-Piagetian theories Neurogenesis Neurons Object permanence Operations

Organization Personal development Physical development Plasticity Positron emission tomography (PET) Preoperational Private speech Reversibility Reversible thinking Scaffolding Schemes Semiotic function Sensitive periods Sensorimotor Seriation Social development Sociocultural theory Synapses Synaptic plasticity Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

Connect and Extend to Licensure Multiple-Choice Questions 1.

Mr. Winstel was worried about his former star student, Ramon. As the seventh-grade year progressed, Ramon was frequently being called into the principal’s office for skateboard stunts that broke school rules and bordered on dangerous. Recently, Ramon’s parents contacted Mr. Winstel to alert him to the fact that Ramon had been skipping school to hang out with some older boys in the neighborhood. Which of the following statements would typically best describe what is happening with Ramon?

A. Ramon’s culture demands that boys of his age begin to engage in behaviors that reflect fearlessness. B. Ramon’s limbic system is maturing, but his prefrontal lobe has not yet caught up. C. Ramon is engaging in deviant behaviors as a cry for attention from his parents. D. Ramon is undergoing a period of synaptic pruning, which causes adolescents to engage in risk-taking behavior.

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D. Pruning can pathways.

damage

heavily

Constructed-Response Questions

B. Concrete operations

Case

D. Sensorimotor In introducing students to persuasive advertising methods, which of the following approaches would be most apt to lead to student retention? A. Determine what students already know about the topic, and connect new information to their prior knowledge. B. Have students initially watch several commercials and take notes. C. Lecture students on the major persuasive techniques, and have a quiz to assess learning. D. Have students form groups to research persuasive techniques. 4.

C. Using different modalities for instruction and ­activities that draw on different senses may support learning.

A. Formal operations C. Preoperational ­3.

B. The production of new neurons continues into adulthood.

Miss McClintock discovered that five of the students in her class are developmentally advanced. All of the students’ language skills are exploding! Although many of the students still have trouble sharing, a few appear to understand that by sharing, everyone can be happy. Finally, there is one student who can solve conservation problems. According to Piagetian theory, in what stage are the students in Miss McClintock’s class?

Research studies involving the brain and learning indicate that all but which one of the following statements are true? A. There is no such thing as “left-brain” and “rightbrain” thinking.

used

cognitive

When planning for instruction, Mr. Gething remembers that students should be neither bored nor frustrated. Although this makes sense to him, he is unsure how he could compensate for the diverse group of students he has in his second-period language arts class. Some students have difficulty with the English language, and other students plan to participate in the school’s annual Shakespearean play. He knows that by grouping students of mixed abilities, he could occasionally draw on the talents of his knowledgeable students to assist the less advanced students. He also understands that without guidelines, students might not accomplish anything. 5.

Explain the theory of learning that Mr. Gething is initially drawing on, and identify the individual credited with it.

6.

What is the term for the assistance that more knowledgeable class members might provide to less advanced ­students in order to help the latter succeed? List some strategies that the more knowledgeable students might use to assist their peers.

What Would They Do? Teachers’ Casebook: Symbols and Cymbals Critical Thinking About Cases At the beginning of this chapter, we asked you to think critically about how to help students understand abstract concepts (symbols and cymbals). Now, as you consider these expert teachers’ responses to the case, we again suggest that you think critically. Do the following responses reflect (or contradict) any of the concepts discussed in this chapter? Do the suggestions and solutions described here make sense in light of what you have learned in this or other classes about best practices? How do these ideas align with or challenge your personal philosophy of teaching?

Coralie Hafner • Primary/1st grade Teacher Olde Orchard Alternative Elementary, Columbus, OH It is evident that these students are practical thinkers and have an understanding of basic, concrete facts. They recognize that a cymbal is a musical instrument due to personal connections (a sibling). They recognize connections that can be made between objects (heart and love, torch to the Olympics, a ring to marriage) due to their relevance and use. It’s unclear whether they

understand that items and pictures can embody the meaning of the intangible (love, commitment, triumph, perseverance). Begin with prior knowledge; the connection between things and ideas. I would show them pictures and we’d brainstorm concepts and ideas that they’re reminded of when they look at the pictures. I’d include graphics, landmarks, and sentimental items as we discuss how they connect to a concept or construct that is larger than the item itself. We’d then begin to talk about expressions and idioms (“Break a leg”) to build understanding that phrases have multiple meanings and interpretations. In order to gauge their readiness for learning, I would listen to their interactions and dialogue, providing opportunities for them to share and bring in items that represent something personal to them. I would offer concrete examples of symbolism through the use of sign language, graphics, photographs, emoticons, punctuation, labels on bottles, brochures, and math manipulatives like base ten blocks and unifix cubes. These items would help them begin to understand the connection between an object and what it represents. Research best practices on how to introduce the concept, build upon prior knowledge and how to navigate their thinking

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towards understanding. Once they build understanding, they will recognize the purpose for symbolism in poetry. Once students grasp symbolism, I would have them share their thinking and revelation with the other students for peer interaction and student-led discussions.

Amanda Romando • 6th grade Teacher Galileo School for Gifted Learning, Sanford, FL The students’ responses are telling me that they are misinterpreting a multiple-meaning word, and require some scaffolding to begin understanding the concept of symbolism. First, I would take this as a teachable moment to address multiple-meaning words and homophones. I would give some examples and explain that many words require context in order to fully ­understand their meanings. I would give some examples, and then elicit some examples from the students. Then, moving on to the lesson at hand regarding symbols, I would backtrack a bit in order to help the students understand the meaning of a symbol. Most kids in upper elementary, middle school, or high school grades are well versed in texting and computer skills. I would ask them what they use emojis for when they are texting. I would ask them what types of emojis they use and what they mean by them. This is a relatable way for students to start understanding that pictures and tangible objects can stand for (or symbolize) abstract ideas and thoughts in a ­simple, widely understood way. After I am sure that my students understand the concept of a symbol, I would play a game of “Symbolism Pictionary” in order for them to explore the concept of symbolism. For example, I would say a word like “school,” and the students would draw a quick picture of what comes to mind when they hear that word. Depending on my group of students, I might make it a game in order to encourage deeper thinking. Students could get bonus points for having unique answers, being able to clearly explain the reason they chose the symbol they did. From there, I would expand it to metaphorical and universal symbols, such as mountains to show overcoming adversity, or an owl to represent wisdom. As I proceeded with the unit, I would continue to refer back to these lessons on symbolism as we begin to analyze symbolic words and phrases in poetry. If students continue to struggle with the concept of symbolism after these lessons, it might help me decide that they are not quite ready for this material, and I would focus on teaching figurative language within the poetry unit.

Linda Glisson and Sue Middleton • 5th grade Team Teachers St. James Episcopal Day School, Baton Rouge, LA To begin the lesson, I would have the students use a dictionary to define the word symbolism (root word—symbol) to ­discover that it means “something that stands for or ­represents something else.” I would then give them a brief “across the ­curriculum” exercise in ways they incorporate symbols and ­symbolism into their thinking every day. Examples follow. Social studies, American history: The American flag is just a piece of cloth. Why then do we recite a pledge to it? Stand at attention when it passes in a parade? What does it stand for?

English, literature—fables and fairy tales:­­What does the wolf usually represent (stand for)? The lion? The lamb? Art: What color stands for a glorious summer day? Evil? Goodness and purity? I would continue with math symbols, scientific symbols, and music symbols and lead the students toward contributing other examples such as symbols representing holidays. I would then tell them about their own examples of symbolism that I had recorded. The students’ participation in and enthusiasm for the exercises would serve to determine whether they were ready for the material.

Dr. Nancy Sheehan-Melzack • Art and Music Teacher Snug Harbor Community School, Quincy, MA Even very young children can recognize symbols if the symbol is presented first and the explanation required second. A drawing of an octagon on a pole has always elicited the answer, “A stop sign,” whenever I have shown it. Children recognize symbols, but the teacher needs to work from their concrete knowledge to the more abstract concept, and there are a great many symbols in their daily life on which one can draw. Children as young as first-graders can recognize traffic sign shapes, letters of the alphabet, and numbers, and further can recognize that they stand for directions, sounds, and how many. When they talk about these very common symbols, they can also realize they all use them for the same meaning.

Valerie A. Chilcoat • 5th and 6th grade Advanced Academics Teacher Glenmount School, Baltimore, MD Concrete examples of symbolism must come from the students’ own world. Street signs, especially those with pictures and not words, are a great example. These concrete symbols, however, are not exactly the same as symbolism used in ­poetry. The link has to be made from the concrete to the abstract. Silly poetry is one way to do this. It is motivating to the students to read or listen to, and it can provide many examples of one thing acting as another. This strategy can also be used in lower grades to simply expose children to poetry containing symbolism.

Karen Boyarsky • 5th grade Teacher Walter C. Black Elementary School, Hightstown, NJ You can tell a lot about students’ thinking simply by interpreting their reactions. Knowing how to interpret students’ reactions is just as important as any other assessment tool you might use. In this case, it is clear that the students are confused about the concept of symbolism. This is a difficult concept even for many fifthgraders to understand and should be approached slowly. One approach to this topic would be to present students with pictures of familiar symbols, such as McDonald’s Golden Arches, the Nike Swoosh, or the Target logo. Students could attempt to explain what each of these symbols mean. A discussion about why manufacturers choose to use symbols instead of words would follow. Another ­approach would be to have the students interpret comparisons that use like or as. For example, “Sue is as pretty as a flower.” The teacher would guide the student to see that the author is using a flower to symbolize Sue’s looks.

Chapter 4

Anita Woolfolk Hoy

The Self, Social, and Moral Development

­Teachers’ Casebook: Mean Girls What Would You Do? You have seen it before, but this year the situation in your middle school classroom seems especially vicious. A clique of popular girls has made life miserable for one of their former friends, Jasmine, who is now rejected. Jasmine committed the social sin of not fitting in—wearing the wrong clothes or hair styles, not being pretty enough, or not showing an obvious interest in boys. To keep the status distinctions clear between themselves and Jasmine, the popular girls spread gossip about their former friend, often disclosing intimate secrets Jasmine revealed when she was still considered a close friend, which was only a few months ago. However, these girls are not passing notes or whispering in the hallways; they are using social media to humiliate Jasmine. First, they posted a long, heart-baring text from Jasmine to her former best friend, Maya. More recently, one of them used a cell phone to take a picture of Jasmine while she was changing her clothes after gym class and posted it on Instagram. Jasmine has been absent from school for three days since this latest incident.

130

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Critical Thinking • How would you respond to each of the girls? • What—if anything—would you say to your other students? • Are there ways you can address the issues raised by this situation in your classes?



Overview and Objectives

Schooling involves more than cognitive development. As you think back on your years in school, what stands out? Perhaps highlights of academic experiences but also memories of sports, relationships with teachers and friends, and a developing sense about yourself and the kind of person you would like to become. In this chapter, we examine these latter experiences, which comprise personal, social, and moral development. We begin by looking at a basic aspect of development that affects all the others—physical changes as students mature. Then we explore Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory and use it as a framework for examining three major influences on children’s personal and social development: families, peers, and teachers. Next, we explore ideas about how we come to understand ourselves by looking at self-concept and identity. Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory provides one lens for viewing these developments. Finally, we consider moral development: What factors determine our views about morality? What can teachers do to foster such personal qualities as honesty and cooperation? Why do some students cheat in their academic work? How can we support students to make “good” choices? By the time you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: 4.1 Describe general trends, group differences, and challenges in physical development throughout childhood and adolescence. 4.2 Discuss how the components of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model influence development, especially the influences of families, parenting styles, peers, teachers, and technology. 4.3 Describe general trends and group differences in the development of identity and self-concept. 4.4 Explain theories of moral development including those of Kohlberg, Gilligan, Nucci, and Haidt, and discuss how teachers can deal with one moral challenge for students—cheating.

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OUTLINE ­ eachers’ Casebook—Mean Girls: What Would You Do? T Overview and Objectives Physical Development Physical and Motor Development Play, Recess, and Physical Activity Reaching Every Student: Physical Activity and Students with Disabilities Challenges in Physical Development Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development The Importance of Context and the Bioecological Model Families Peers Reaching Every Student: Teacher Support Teachers and Child Abuse Identity and Self-Concept Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development Self-Concept Sex Differences in the Self-Concept of Academic Competence Self-Esteem Understanding Others and Moral Development Theory of Mind and Intention Moral Development Moral Judgments, Social Conventions, and Personal Choices Beyond Reasoning: Haidt’s Social Intuitionist Model of Moral Psychology Moral Behavior and the Example of Cheating Personal/Social Development: Lessons for Teachers Summary and Key Terms Teachers’ Casebook—Mean Girls: What Would They Do?

Physical Development Learning Outcome 4.1  Describe general trends, group differences, and challenges in physical development throughout childhood and adolescence. This chapter is about personal and social development, but we begin with a kind of development that is a basic concern of all individuals and families—physical development. Put Yourself in Their Place  How tall are you? What grade were you in when you reached that height? Were you one of the tallest or shortest students in your middle or high school, or were you about average? Did you know students who were teased because of their physical appearance? How important was your physical development to your feelings about yourself?

Physical and Motor Development For most children, at least in the early years, growing up means getting bigger and stronger and becoming more coordinated. It also can be a frightening, disappointing, exciting, and puzzling time. YOUNG CHILDREN.  Preschool children are very active. Their gross-motor (large muscle) skills improve greatly during these early years. Between ages 2 and about 4 or 5, preschoolers’ muscles grow stronger, their brains develop to better integrate information about movements, their

Chapter 4  The Self, Social, and Moral Development 133

balance improves, and their center of gravity moves lower, so they are able to run, jump, climb, and hop. By age 2, most children stop “toddling.” Their awkward, ­wide-legged gait becomes smooth and rhythmic; they have perfected walking. During their third year, most children learn to run, throw, and jump, but these activities are not well controlled until age 4 or 5. Most of these movements develop naturally if a child has typical physical abilities and opportunities to play. Children with physical impairments, however, may need special training to develop these skills. And because they can’t always judge when to stop, many preschoolers need interludes of rest scheduled after periods of physical exertion (Berger, 2020; Thomas & Thomas, 2008). Fine-motor skills such as tying shoes or fastening buttons, which require the coordination of small movements, also improve greatly during the preschool years. Children should be given the chance to work with large paintbrushes, fat pencils and crayons, big pieces of drawing paper, oversized Legos, and soft clay or play dough to accommodate their current skills. During this time, most children will begin to develop a lifelong preference for their right or left hand. By age 5, about 90% of students prefer their right hand for most skilled work. More boys than girls are left-handed, and a small, indeterminant proportion of people are ambidextrous—using different hands for different tasks or even switching hands during the same task (Feldman, 2004; Hill & Khanem, 2009). Handedness is a genetically based preference linked to brain development and organization, so don’t try to change it. For example, some research indicates left-handed children are more likely than their ­right-handed peers to develop advanced verbal and mathematical skills (Berk, 2019). ELEMENTARY SCHOOL YEARS.  During the elementary school years, physical develop-

ment is fairly steady for most children. They become taller, leaner, and stronger, making them better able to master sports and games. There is tremendous variation among children, however. A particular child can be much larger or smaller than average and still be perfectly healthy. Children at this age notice physical differences and are not always the most tactful people (they are still learning norms for interacting politely and considerately). You may overhear comments such as: “You’re too little to be in third grade. What’s wrong with you?” or “How come you’re so fat?” These comments more often reflect curiosity than cruelty. However, witnessing such comments signals an opportunity for teaching and modeling kind and inclusive behavior toward people who are physically different. The Guidelines for Dealing with Physical Differences in the Classroom can help with this.

GUIDELINES Dealing with Physical Differences in the Classroom Address students’ physical differences in ways that do not call unnecessary attention to the variations. Examples 1. 2. 3. 4.

Try to seat smaller students so they can see and participate in class activities, but avoid seating arrangements that are obviously based on height. Balance sports and games that rely on size and strength with games that reflect cognitive, artistic, social, or musical abilities, such as charades or drawing games. Don’t use, and don’t allow students to use, nicknames based on physical traits. Keep a good supply of tools and equipment (e.g., scissors, baseball gloves, field hockey sticks) for students who are left-handed.

Help students obtain factual information on differences in physical development. Examples 1. 2.

Set up science projects on sex differences in growth rates. Have readings available that focus on differences between early and late maturers. Make sure that you present the positives and the negatives of each.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Human Development (I, A2) Explain how development in one domain (e.g., physical, emotional) can affect development in other domains.

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3.

4.

Find out the school policy on sex education and on informal guidance for students. Some schools, for example, encourage teachers to talk to girls who are upset about their first menstrual period, whereas other schools expect teachers to send the girls to talk to the school nurse or counselor. Give the students models in literature or in their community of accomplished and caring individuals who do not fit the culture’s “ideal” physical stereotypes.

Accept that concerns about physical appearance will occupy much time and energy for adolescents. Examples 1. 2.

Puberty The physiological changes during adolescence that lead to the ability to reproduce.

­Menarche The first menstrual period in girls.

Spermarche The first sperm ejaculation for boys.

Pearson eText Video Example 4.1 Teenager Josh articulately ­describes some of the ­challenges that adolescents face, including his early ­maturation, and drugs and alcohol. What factors anchored Josh and supported him through these challenges?

Encourage teens to focus more on what they do than on how they look. Deal with some of these issues through curriculum-related materials.

THE ADOLESCENT YEARS.  Puberty marks the beginning of sexual maturity. It is not a single

event, but a series of changes involving almost every part of the body. The sex differences in physical development observed during the later elementary years become even more pronounced at the beginning of puberty. But these changes take time. The earliest visible signs of puberty in girls are the growth of nipples and budding of breasts at around age 9. On average, girls have their first menstrual period (called menarche) between ages 12 and 13, but the actual range is from age 10 to 16½, with some sociodemographic groups reporting earlier menstruation than others (e.g., Black girls in the United States, Indian and Pakistani girls in the United Kingdom, and urban compared with rural girls in China). At about the same time, boys’ testes and scrotums begin to grow larger. Boys have their first sperm ejaculation (called spermarche) between the ages of 12 and 14. Boys develop facial hair over the next several years, reaching their final beard potential by about age 18 or 19—although some boys take longer to develop their final facial hair. Less welcome changes in puberty are increases in skin oiliness, skin acne, and body odor. These trends reflect research conducted mainly in high-income countries (Brix et al., 2018; Kelly et al., 2017; Sun et al., 2012), but similar trends have also been observed in lowand mid-income countries, such as Nigeria (Irewole-Ojo et al., 2018) Girls reach their final height around ages 14 to 16, several years ahead of boys, so there is a time in middle school, as in late elementary school, when many girls are taller than their male classmates. This size discrepancy can give girls an advantage in physical activities, but some girls feel awkward about it and, as a result, downplay their physical abilities (Woolfolk & Perry, 2015). Most boys continue growing until about age 19, but both boys and girls can continue to grow slightly until about age 25 (Thomas & Thomas, 2008; Wigfield et al., 2006). EARLY AND LATER MATURING.  Psychologists have been particularly interested in examining the academic, social, and emotional implications for adolescents who mature early and those who mature later. For girls, maturing way ahead of classmates has been linked to some adverse outcomes in adolescence, especially when being larger and more “developed” than everyone else your age is not a valued cultural characteristic (Kelly et al., 2017; Mendle & Ferrero, 2012). For example, early maturation is associated with early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy, lower achievement in school, drug and alcohol abuse, emotional difficulties such as depression and anxiety during adolescence, and disordered eating. In mid- to later life, girls who mature early are at greater risk for heart disease and breast cancer. However, the timing of maturation affects girls in different ways, depending on the social context. Researchers have found fewer problems for early maturing Black girls, but studies of these girls are limited (DeRose et al., 2011; Stattin et al., 2011). Similarly, in a study of Native American (United States) and First Nations (Canada) girls, Melissa Walls and Les Whitbeck (2011) found that early maturating girls were more likely to abuse alcohol and drugs, but this association was influenced by social factors such as early dating and the attitudes of peers toward drugs. Maturing early can place girls in dating and friendship contexts where saying no to drugs is difficult. Later-maturing girls seem to have fewer problems, but they may worry that something is wrong with them, so adult reassurance and support are important for them too.

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Findings from research on early maturity in boys are mixed. Some research suggests early maturity is associated with greater social competence and popularity, whereas other research links early puberty in boys to higher involvement in crime and risky behavior (Klopack et al., 2020). The early maturing boy’s taller, broad-shouldered body type fits many cultural stereotypes for the male ideal, which might be an asset, but these boys also appear to be at greater risk for depression, victimization by bullies, eating disorders, early sexual activity, and abusing alcohol, illicit drugs, and cigarettes (Berk, 2019; Mendle & Ferrero, 2012; Westling et al., 2008). Here again, social context is important. Outcomes are contingent on such factors as peer group values, school experiences, parenting, and neighborhood organization/disorganization (Klopack et al., 2020). Boys who mature late may have a more difficult time initially because they are smaller and less muscular than the “ideal” for men (Harter, 2006). However, some studies show that in adulthood, men who matured later tend to be more creative, tolerant, and perceptive. Perhaps the trials and anxieties of maturing late teach these boys to be better problem solvers (Brooks-Gunn, 1988; Steinberg, 2014). Guidelines: Dealing with Physical Differences in the Classroom presented earlier offer some suggestions for all students. The challenges of puberty may be amplified for gender non-conforming, or ­non-binary, youth (Janika & Forcier, 2016). Many experience effects of chronic brain-body i­ ncongruence, lack of family and community support, discrimination, and ­marginalization, all of which can contribute to anxiety disorders, depression, low self-esteem, suicidal ideation, ­suicide attempts, and non-suicidal self-injury. However, recent research indicates a focus on early identification, family support, and well-timed interventions can mitigate these harms and offer long-term health benefits to these children and youth. Educators, along with medical and mental health professionals, need to be aware of sexual ­orientation and gender identity issues (SOGI) and be ready to offer support because these ­professionals might be a first point of contact for gender-diverse youth. The following resources can help: 1. The Community for Accredited Online Schools offers this teacher’s guide to creating inclusive classrooms that attend to SOGI: https://www.accreditedschoolsonline. org/education-teaching-degree/lgbtq-youth/ 2. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention offers resources for friends/supporters, teachers and school administrators, and parents, guardians and family members: https://www.cdc.gov/lgbthealth/youth-resources.htm 3. ­ The OK2BME website offers downloadable resources (including lesson plans) for elementary and secondary school teachers: https://ok2bme.ca/resources/ parents-educators/resources-for-schools-and-classrooms/ In summary, puberty can make adolescents vulnerable. All adolescents can benefit from knowing that there is a very wide range of individual differences in maturation. As a teacher, you need to be aware that some youth may require specialized attention and support during these stressful times. In addition to the challenges we have discussed in this section, we address obesity and disordered eating later in the chapter.

Play, Recess, and Physical Activity Play is spontaneous, self-initiated, and self-regulated activity (Edwards et al., 2020). When children view their activities as play, not work, they sustain their engagement for long periods of time without the need for external incentives. Play contributes to children’s cognitive, social-emotional, and physical development. For example, at every age play provides stimulation that supports brain development. In fact, some neuroscientists suggest that play might help in the important process of pruning brain synapses during childhood (Pellis, 2006). Play excites the senses and creates opportunities for children to improve eye-hand coordination as well as fine- and gross-motor coordination. Through play, children develop language, problem solving, perspective taking, and relationship skills (Hopkins et al., 2015; Lillard et al., 2013; Woolfolk & Perry, 2015). Piaget (1966) identified three types of play associated with his stages of cognitive development. Babies and toddlers engage in sensorimotor play. They are interested in the properties and functions of objects (e.g., What can this do? What sounds can it make?) and

136  Chapter 4  The Self, Social, and Moral Development learn by exploring, sucking, pounding, shaking, and throwing. Preschool children engage in symbolic, or pretend, play. They are able to use one object to represent another, and activities become more purposeful and meaningful (Howard, 2019). They may create simple games with predictable rules, and they LOVE to make-believe. Elementary school children also like fantasy, but their fantasy and rule-based play becomes more complex, signaling the development of logical thinking skills. They also are beginning to play more sophisticated games and sports, which can support language development, as well as teach cooperation, fairness, negotiation, and winning and losing. As children head toward adolescence, games and sports continue to be part of their physical and social development (Woolfolk & Perry, 2015). Play spaces correspond to Vygotsky’s ZPD, allowing children to experiment in a safe environment, try out new roles and behaviors, solve problems, and adapt to new situations (Chen & Fleer, 2016). Given that play is so important for children’s happiness and their social and cognitive development, teachers and schools might consider making learning more like play than work. Howard (2019) suggests this can be accomplished through more child-centered/ child-led activities, which are open-ended, focus on processes more than products, and offer lots of choices (Hopkins et al., 2015; Lillard et al., 2013). CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN PLAY.  Play is a common experience for children all over the

world. However, consistent with so many other topics, there are cultural differences in play. In some cultures, such as American or Turkish communities, adults, particularly mothers, often are play partners with their children. But in other cultures, such as East Indian, Indonesian, or Mayan, adults are not seen as appropriate play partners for children; siblings and peers are the ones who teach younger children how to participate in play activities (Callaghan et al., 2011; Vandermass-Peler, 2002). In some families and cultures, children spend more time helping with chores than playing. However, there are characteristic forms of play across cultures. Variations of tag and games that involve jumping rope or playing with marbles and balls are played in countries all over the world. Different materials and “toys” are used as available for play— everything from expensive toys and digital devices to sticks, rocks, and banana leaves. Children use what their cultures and communities provide to play. Also, teachers in the United States and Australia may place less emphasis on the value of play for children’s learning compared to teachers in other countries such as Norway, Sweden, New Zealand, and Japan, where a “play pedagogy” may be part of the curriculum (Lillemyr et al., 2011; Synodi, 2010). EXERCISE AND RECESS.  Physical activity and participation in athletics have benefits for

Pearson eText Video Example 4.2 As this video suggests, ­recess, school sports, and ­lessons that include ­physical ­activity help to foster not only motor ­development but also social and cognitive skills. Physical activity and participation in athletics has benefits for all ­students’ health, ­well-being, academic success, leadership skills, and their ­social relationships.

all students’ health, well-being, leadership skills, social relationships, brain development, and even learning. Because most of today’s children do not get much physical activity in their daily lives, schools have a role in promoting active play. There are good, academic reasons for recess and exercise: Exercise promotes blood flow and increased neurotransmitters in the brain, in addition to improving mood and helping students focus their attention (Berger, 2018). Well-designed recess and exercise periods can support social and emotional learning (SEL) by helping students to exercise capacities for managing emotions, showing respect and empathy for others, and maintaining positive relationships with peers (London, 2019a). Students in Asian countries, who consistently outperform U.S. students on international reading, science, and mathematics tests, have more frequent recess breaks throughout the school day. One study of 11,000 elementary students found that those who had daily recess of 15 minutes or longer every day were better behaved in class than students who had little or no recess. This was true even after controlling for student gender and ethnicity, public or private school setting, and class size (Barros et al., 2009). Unfortunately, physical education (PE) time in the United States is being cut to ­allow for more academic time focused on test preparation (Ginsburg, 2007; Zhu et al., 2010). And some groups of students are more likely to miss out on exercise and recess than ­others (e.g., children in urban, low-income schools and students with disabilities). Rebecca L ­ ondon

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(2019a, 2019b) recommends schools guard against this “opportunity gap” by asking themselves three key questions: Is recess part of the daily schedule? Is recess withheld as a punishment for bad behavior or missed school work? Has the school taken steps to make recess a safe, healthy, and inclusive experience?

Reaching Every Student: Physical Activity and Students with Disabilities Compared to their peers, students with disabilities often have limited opportunities for sports participation. This should not be the case! Regular physical activity for children with disabilities is associated with numerous benefits, such as: controlling or slowing the ­progression of diseases and disabilities; improving overall health and well-being; and ameliorating the psychosocial impact of having a disability (Woolfolk & Perry, 2015). Participating in sports and physical activity creates opportunities for children and youth with disabilities to form friendships and develop positive self-concepts and ­self-esteem (Murphy et al., 2008). Consider the achievements of individuals who compete in the Paralympics. All ­children should have the opportunity to develop their ­athletic potential. “Inclusive playgrounds” are one way to ensure every child has access and is able to participate in activities on playgrounds. These places aim to go beyond the physical aspects of accessibility by creating spaces that promote social interaction and inclusion. Inclusive playgrounds, also known as “playgrounds for all,” exist in many regions of the world, including the United States, Australia, Hong Kong, and the United Kingdom (Wenger et al., 2020). One reason for concern about physical activity for children is the increase in childhood obesity, as you will see next.

Pearson eText Video Example 4.3 In this video, a school physical therapist describes how she works with students individually to target important physical development goals such as balance, core strength, and playground skills. What is the relationship between physical development and success in school?

­Challenges in Physical Development Physical development is public. Everyone sees how tall, short, heavy, thin, muscular, or ­coordinated you are. As students move into adolescence, they feel self-conscious, as though everyone is evaluating them; and physical development is part of what is being evaluated. So, physical development also has psychological consequences (Thomas & Thomas, 2008). OBESITY.  Overweight and obesity among children and adolescents in developed countries

have increased substantially in recent decades (Bray et al., 2019). In the United States, 18.5% of children and youth met criteria for obesity in 2015–2016 (Hales et al., 2017). See Figure 4.1 on the next page for the rates of obesity among high school students in U.S. states in 2019. Some groups of children and youth had higher rates of obesity than others (e.g., Black and Latino youth compared with White and Asian youth). Also, the rates of obesity for school age children are higher than for preschool children, signaling an important role for early prevention and intervention. The consequences of obesity are serious for children and adolescents: strain on bones and joints, respiratory problems, and a greater chance of heart problems, Type 2 diabetes, and obesity as adults. Obesity also has negative effects on children’s play with friends or participation in sports. Children with obesity often are the targets of cruel teasing and might be less agile or athletic, which means they are not chosen as often by students or teachers for teams in sports. Over the long term, these children can experience depression and reductions in self-esteem (Bray et al., 2019). Like everything else involving children’s development, obesity has many interacting causes, including food insecurity, poor diet, genetic factors, increased hours sitting in front of screens (phones, computers, televisions, and tablets), and lack of exercise (Woolfolk & Perry, 2015). Children’s challenges with weight are on a continuum from minor concerns about overweight and body shape to disordered eating and other extreme efforts to control weight. BODY IMAGE AND DISORDERED EATING.  Body image refers to how people see themselves

in their mind’s eye—the image they perceive when they look in the mirror or at photographs. Body image reflects what people believe and feel about their bodies. As children

Pearson eText Video Example 4.4 Teenager Josh talks briefly about body image and having a friend with an eating disorder. How does an eating disorder affect self-esteem?

138  Chapter 4  The Self, Social, and Moral Development

Figure 4.1  Percentage of High School Students in Selected States Who Had Obesity, 2019

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Source: From Middle and secondary classroom management (5th ed.), by C. S. Weinstein and I. Novodvorsky. McGraw-Hill. Copyright © 2015 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, p. 182. Adapted with permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Engaged time Time spent actively engaged in the learning task at hand. Also referred to as time on task.

Time on task Time spent actively engaged in the learning task at hand. Also referred to as engaged time.

Academic learning time Time when students are actually succeeding at the learning task.

558  Chapter 13  Creating Supportive Learning Environments sense of self-efficacy, and self-efficacy to more cooperation. The opposite is true as well. When students sense that their teachers and peers don’t care about them, they feel no particular desire to cooperate—why cooperate with people who don’t like or respect you? The research on teacher–student relationships is clear. When teachers focus on developing ­high-quality, trusting relationships, students are less defiant, more willing to seek appropriate help, less likely to be absent or to be held back in school, and more likely to achieve (Chen et al., 2019; Dennie et al., 2019; Meyer & L. Anderman, in press). MANAGEMENT FOR SELF-MANAGEMENT.  The final goal of any organizational system is to

Self-management Management of your own behavior and acceptance of responsibility for your own actions. Also the use of behavioral learning principles to change your own behavior.

help students become better able to manage themselves. If teachers focus on student compliance, they will spend much of the teaching/learning time monitoring and correcting. Students come to perceive the purpose of school as just following rules, not constructing deep understanding of academic knowledge. And complex learning structures such as cooperative or problem-based learning require student self-management. Compliance with rules is not enough to make these learning structures work (McCaslin & Good, 1998). The movement from demanding obedience to teaching self-regulation and self-­control is a major shift in discussions of classroom management (Evertson & Weinstein, 2006). Students learn self-control by making choices and dealing with the consequences, setting goals and priorities, managing time, collaborating to learn, mediating disputes, making peace, and developing trusting relations with trustworthy teachers and classmates (Bear, 2005). Encouraging self-management requires extra time, but teaching students how to take responsibility is an investment well worth the effort. Nancy Perry and Rebecca ­Collie (2011) compared a preservice preparation program that instructed student teachers about how to coach their students to be self-regulated learners with other programs that did not emphasize self-regulation. The student teachers who developed self-regulation knowledge and skills were more confident, less stressed, and more engaged during their student teaching compared to other prospective teachers who did not learn how to help their students to become self-regulated. This makes sense—if you teach your students to manage their own behavior and learning, you should have fewer management problems, less stress, and more time to teach, which would support your growing sense of teacher efficacy. In another study of ethnic minority students in the Netherlands, researchers concluded that teaching emotional self-regulation skills such as anger management early in the school year led to better relationships and less conflict with the teachers by the end of the year (de Jong et al., 2018). These relationships probably are reciprocal, that is, teachers develop closer relationships with students who can manage their emotions, and students have less trouble managing their emotions when they feel close to and supported by teachers.

Creating a Positive Learning Environment Learning Outcome 13.2  Summarize the research on the contributions to classroom management of rules, procedures, consequences, and the design of the physical space; give special attention to establishing your management system during the first weeks of class, including the differences in requirements between in-person and remote learning. As you think about creating a positive learning environment, review what you already know from this book (retrieval practice is great for learning, right?). You know, for example, that problems are prevented when individual variations such as those discussed in Chapters 2 through 6 are taken into account in instructional planning. Sometimes students become disruptive because the work assigned is too difficult. And students who are bored by easy lessons may find more exciting activities to fill their time. In one sense, teachers prevent discipline problems whenever they make an effort to motivate students. A student engaged in learning is usually not involved in a clash with the teacher or other students at the same time. All plans for motivating students are steps toward preventing problems. And what do we know about learning? We know students need clear goals and examples, practice and review, active participation, and the chance to form connections. Learning how to live productively in classrooms is no exception.

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Relevant Research Results What else can teachers do? For several years, educational psychologists at the University of Texas at Austin investigated classroom management quite thoroughly (Emmer & Evertson, 2017; Emmer & Gerwels, 2006; Evertson & Emmer, 2017). Their general approach was to study a large number of classrooms, making frequent observations during the first weeks of school and less frequent visits later in the year. After several months, the researchers noted dramatic differences. Some classes had very few organizational or behavioral problems, whereas others had many. The most and least effective teachers were identified on the basis of the quality of their students’ classroom behavior and achievement later in the year. Next, the researchers looked at their observation records of the first weeks of class to see how the effective teachers got started, and they made other comparisons between the teachers who ultimately had harmonious, high-achieving classes and those whose classes were fraught with problems. On the basis of these comparisons, the researchers developed a number of principles. They then taught these principles to a new group of teachers, and the results were impressive. Teachers who applied the principles had fewer problems; their students spent more time learning and less time disrupting; and achievement was higher. The findings of these studies formed the basis for two books on classroom management (Emmer & Evertson, 2017; Evertson & Emmer, 2017). Many of the ideas in the following pages are from these books (personal aside—Ed Emmer was my dissertation supervisor at the University of Texas).

Routines and Rules Required: In-Person Learning Stop & Think  What are the three or four most important rules you will have for your ­in-person classroom? In this section we focus on organizing traditional in-person classrooms. At the elementary school level, teachers must lead 20 to 30 students of varying abilities through many different activities each day. Without efficient rules and procedures, a great deal of time is wasted dealing with the same questions and issues over and over. “Emily tripped me!” “I left my homework on the bus.” At the secondary school level, teachers must meet daily with more ­ econdary school than 100 students who use dozens of materials and often change rooms. S students are also more likely to challenge teachers’ authority. The effective managers studied by Emmer, Evertson, and their colleagues had planned procedures and rules for coping with all these situations. These procedures and rules were clear and concrete, stated in positive terms whenever possible (what to do instead of what not to do), observable and not vague, taught and practiced, and reviewed when needed (Skiba et al., 2016). ROUTINES AND PROCEDURES.  How will materials and assignments be distributed and collected? Under what conditions can students leave the room? How will grades be determined? What are the special routines for handling equipment and supplies in science, art, or vocational classes? Procedures and routines describe how activities are accomplished in classrooms, but they are seldom written down; they are simply the ways of getting things done in class. Carol Weinstein and her colleagues (Romano & Weinstein, 2019; Weinstein & Novodvorsky, 2015) suggest that teachers establish routines to cover the following areas for in-person instruction:

1. Administrative routines, such as taking attendance 2. Student movement, such as entering and leaving or going to the bathroom 3. Housekeeping, such as watering plants or storing personal items 4. Lesson-running routines, such as how to collect assignments or return homework 5. Interactions between teacher and student, such as how to get the teacher’s attention when help is needed 6. Talk among students, such as giving help or socializing You might use these six areas as a framework for planning your class routines. The Guidelines: Establishing Class Routines for In-Person Learning on the next page should help you as you plan.

Pearson eText Video Example 13.2 Routines and established procedures save time and set the tone for an effective learning environment. Two students in this video explain the morning routine that helps their classroom run smoothly.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Procedures and Routines (I, C4) Efficient procedures and routines reduce confusion and opportunities for misbehavior, and they save time that can be devoted to learning tasks. Identify frequent activities or classroom events that would benefit from wellstructured procedures or routines. Explain principles for establishing procedures and routines so that students are likely to observe them.

Procedures/routines Prescribed steps for an activity.

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GUIDELINES Establishing Class Routines for In-Person Learning Determine procedures for student upkeep of desks, classroom equipment, and other facilities. Examples 1. 2.

3.

Set aside a cleanup time each day or once a week in self-contained classes. Demonstrate and have students practice how to push chairs under the desk, take and return materials stored on shelves, silence or remove phones, use the sink or water fountain, assemble lab equipment, and so on. Put a rotating monitor in charge of equipment or materials.

Decide how students will be expected to enter and leave the room. Examples 1. 2. 3. 4.

Have a procedure for students to follow as soon as they enter the room. Some teachers have a standard assignment (“Have your homework out and be checking it over”). Inform students under what conditions they can leave the room, and make sure they understand when they need to ask for permission to do so. Tell students how they should gain admission to the room if they are late. Set up a policy about class dismissal. Many teachers require students to be in their seats and quiet before they can leave at the end of class. The teacher, not the bell, dismisses class.

Establish signals for getting students’ attention and teach them to your students. Examples 1.

2. 3.

In the classroom, flick the lights on and off, sound a chord on a piano or recorder, sound a bell like the “ring bell for service” at a sales counter, move to the podium and stare silently at the class, use a phrase like “Eyes, please,” or move to the front of the class. In the halls, raise a hand, clap once, or use some other signal to indicate “Stop.” On the playground, raise a hand or whistle to indicate “Line up.”

Set routines for student participation in class. Examples 1. 2. 3.

4.

Decide whether you will have students raise their hands for permission to speak or simply require that they wait until the speaker has finished. Determine a signal to indicate that you want everyone to respond at once. Some teachers raise a cupped hand to their ear. Others preface the question with “Everyone.” Make sure you are clear about differences in procedures for different activities: reading group, learning center, discussion, teacher presentation, seatwork, peer learning group, library, and so forth. ­Establish how many students at a time can be at the teacher’s desk, learning center, sink, bookshelves, class computers, reading corner, or bathroom.

Determine how you will communicate, collect, and return assignments. Examples 1.

2.

Establish a place for listing assignments. Some teachers reserve a particular corner of the board for assignments. Others write assignments in colored chalk. For younger students, it may be better to prepare assignment sheets or folders, color-coding them for the math workbook, reading packet, and science kit. When all students have home access to the Internet, teachers can post assignments online on a class calendar and include alerts or reminders for students who are not keeping up. Be clear about how and where assignments should be collected. Some teachers collect assignments in a box or bin; others have a student collect work while they introduce the next activity; some collect online.

For ideas about involving students in developing rules and procedures, see https://www.edutopia.org/article/simple-ways -promote-student-voice-classroom

Chapter 13  Creating Supportive Learning Environments 561 RULES.  Unlike routines, rules, which specify expected and forbidden actions in the

class, are often written down and posted. They are the dos and don’ts of classroom life. In ­establishing rules, you should consider what kind of atmosphere you want to create. What student behaviors will help you teach effectively? What limits do the students need to guide their behavior? The rules you set should be consistent with school rules and also in keeping with principles of learning. For example, we know from the research on small-group learning that students benefit when they explain work to peers. They learn as they teach. A rule that forbids students to help each other may be inconsistent with good learning principles. Or a rule that says, “No erasures when writing” may make students focus more on preventing mistakes than on communicating clearly in their writing (Emmer & Stough, 2001; Romano & Weinstein, 2019). Rules should be positive and observable (raise your hand to be recognized). Having a few general rules that cover many specifics is better than listing all the dos and don’ts. But, if specific actions are forbidden, such as leaving the campus, then a rule should make this clear (Emmer & Gerwels, 2006). RULES FOR IN-PERSON TEACHING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL.  Evertson and Emmer (2017) give four examples of general rules for elementary school classes:

1. Respect and be polite to all people. Give clear explanations of what you mean by “polite,” including not hitting, fighting, or teasing. Examples of polite behavior include waiting your turn, saying “please” and “thank you,” and not calling names. This applies to behavior toward adults (including substitute teachers) and peers. 2. Be prompt and prepared. This rule highlights the importance of the academic work in the class. Being prompt includes the beginning of the day as well as transitions between activities. Being prepared means the having the right materials and the right mental attitude for success. 3. Listen quietly while others are speaking. This applies to the teacher and other students, in both large-class lessons and small-group discussions. 4. ­Obey all school rules. This reminds students that all school rules apply in your classroom. Then students cannot claim, for example, that they thought it was okay to chew gum or listen to music on their smartphone in your class, even though these are against school rules, “because you never made a rule against it for us.” Whatever the rule, students need to be taught the behaviors that the rule includes and ­excludes. Examples, practice, and discussion will be needed before learning is complete. As you’ve seen, different activities often require different rules. This can be confusing for elementary students until they have thoroughly learned all the rules. To prevent confusion, you might consider making signs that list the key rules for each activity. Then, before the activity, you can post the appropriate sign as a reminder. This provides clear and consistent cues about participation structures, so all students, not just the “well behaved,” know what is expected. Of course, you’ll need to explain and discuss these rules before the signs can have their full effect. RULES FOR IN-PERSON TEACHING IN SECONDARY SCHOOL.  Emmer and Evertson (2017)

suggest five examples of rules for secondary students: 1. Be prompt and prepared. Prompt means being in class on time, but also moving quickly into and out of group work or other tasks. Being prepared means have the right materials (the type of pen, pencil, paper, laptop or tablet, notebook, texts, and so on) and the right attitude for learning. 2. Respect and be polite to all people. This covers fighting, verbal abuse, and general troublemaking, but emphasize as well positive examples of respect and kindness. All people includes the teacher and substitute teachers. 3. Listen and stay seated while someone else is speaking. This applies when the teacher or other students are talking.

Pearson eText ­Video Example 13.3 At the start of the school year, Ms. Zeiler establishes the rules for her kindergarten classroom. Her routines and her classroom environment reinforce students’ awareness of the rules throughout the year.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Rules (I, C4) Fair, consistently enforced rules can have a positive effect on motivation to learn by promoting a safe and warm classroom environment. Describe how to establish and maintain effective rules. Keep in mind ­age-related concerns.

Rules Statements specifying expected and forbidden behaviors; dos and don’ts.

562  Chapter 13  Creating Supportive Learning Environments 4. Respect other people’s property. This means property belonging to the school, the teacher, or other students. Take care of others’ property, ask permission to borrow, and return borrowed items in good shape. 5. Obey all school rules. As with the elementary class rules, this covers many behaviors and situations, so you do not have to repeat every school rule for your class. This reminds students that the school rules apply in your room too and gives you the chance to talk about which school rules are particularly important in your class (no cell phones, no texting . . .). It also reminds the students that you will be monitoring them inside and outside your class. Make sure you know all the school rules. Some secondary students are very adept at convincing teachers that their misbehavior “really isn’t against the rules.” These rules are more than ways to maintain order. In their study of 34 middle school classrooms, Lindsay Matsumura and her colleagues (2008) found that having explicit rules about respecting others in the classroom predicted the number of students who participated in class discussion, so it seems clear that respect is a gateway to student engagement and class dialogue that supports learning.

Natural/logical consequences Instead of punishing, have students redo, repair, or in some way face the consequences that naturally flow from their actions.

CONSEQUENCES.  As soon as you decide on your rules and procedures for in-person learning, you must consider what you will do when a student breaks a rule or does not follow a procedure. It is too late to make this decision after the rule has been broken. For many infractions, the logical consequence is going back to “do it right.” Students who run in the hall may have to return to where they started and walk properly. Incomplete papers can be redone. Materials left out should be put back. You can use natural or logical consequences to support social and emotional development by doing the following (Charles & Cole, 2019; M. J. Elias & Schwab, 2006):

• ­Separate the deed from the doer in your response. The problem is the behavior, not the student.

• Emphasize to students that they have the power to choose their actions and so avoid losing control.

• Encourage student reflection, self-evaluation, and problem solving. Avoid teacher lecturing.

• Help students identify and give a rationale for what they could do differently next time in a similar situation. The main point here is that decisions about consequences (positive and negative) must be made early on, so students know before they follow or break a rule or procedure what this will mean for them. I encourage my student teachers to get a copy of the school rules and their cooperating teacher’s rules, and then plan their own. Sometimes, consequences are complicated, as you will see when we discuss penalties later in this chapter. WHO SETS THE RULES AND CONSEQUENCES?  In Chapter 1, I described Ken, an expert teacher who worked with his students to establish a students’ “Bill of Rights” instead of defining rules. These “rights” cover most situations that might require a “rule” and help the students move toward the goal of becoming self-managing. In a recent class, the Bill of Rights included the rights to be treated politely, have a 2-minute break between working periods, make choices about the day’s schedule, and not have people take your things, among several others. If you are going to involve students in setting rules or creating a constitution, you may need to wait until you have established a sense of community in your classroom. Before students can contribute meaningfully to the class rules, they need to trust the teacher and the situation (M. J. Elias & Schwab, 2006). Developing rights and responsibilities rather than rules makes an important point to students. “Teaching children that something is wrong because there is a rule against it is not the same as teaching them that there is a rule against it because it is wrong, and helping

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Table 13.1  Laws to Protect Our Rights 1. Follow directions the first time. 2. Speak nicely, be courteous, and respect other people, their feelings, and their things. Follow the Bill of Rights. 3. Laugh at the right time for the right time. 4. Respect others’ right to learn. Do not distract others. Don’t be nosy. Don’t yell. Remember to get quiet at countdown. 5. Talk at the right times with the right tone of voice and volume. 6. Make sure transitions and movements are calm, quiet, careful, and elegant. 7. Follow all classroom and school procedures, like: bathroom; lunch and recess; morning; dismissal; etc. Source: From Elementary classroom management (7th ed.), p. 104, by M. E. Romano and C. S. Weinstein. McGraw-Hill. Copyright © 2019 by The McGraw-Hill Companies. Adapted with permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

them to understand why this is so” (C. S. Weinstein, 1999, p. 154). Students should understand that the rules are developed so that everyone can work and learn together. I might add that when Ken had some very difficult classes, he and his students established some “laws” that protect students’ rights, as you can see in Table 13.1.

Routines and Rules Required: Remote Learning When Emily Pulham and Charles Graham (2018) reviewed studies of the skills needed for hybrid teaching compared to the skills needed for online-only instruction, they found that management played a big role in both approaches. They also found that few preservice teachers were taught relevant skills for organizing and managing hybrid or remote learning. Some of the important competencies are setting expectations, managing time, monitoring students’ behavior, designing appropriate discipline strategies, and handling communication and collaboration. Even if students are not in the room, the managerial challenges are still the same—gain their cooperation, create community and an engaging learning environment, develop routines so students know what is expected, and build relationships. As Heather Wolpert-Gawron (2017) noted, “. . . many online educators don’t realize that the best practices in traditional environments should not be discarded simply because the participants are interacting digitally from various locations. They still need to be managed as a cohesive group of learners” (p. 1). So, what are experienced teachers learning about organizing and managing remote instruction? The Guidelines: Establishing Routines and Rules for Remote Learning will give you ideas. Some suggestions are based in part on Healy (2020), Hoy (2020), Lisciandrello (2020), Schwartz (2020), and Wolpert-Gawron (2017).

GUIDELINES Establishing Routines and Rules for Remote Learning In the first online session, give a tour of your virtual class environment. Examples 1. 2.

3. 4.

Demonstrate where online your students can find class meeting times, teacher office hours, assignments, and due dates. Determine the class norms and expectations for office hours, videoconferencing, and discussions (see next two Guidelines for details). Post these online and show students where to find them. Record this virtual tour of the class, and post it so students can go back and review. Give an extra-credit quiz on the information provided so students will pay attention and take it seriously—watch the re-viewing of your virtual tour take off!

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Give students these tips about how to use videoconferencing effectively. Examples 1. 2.

3. 4.

5.

Begin every day by restarting your computer and turning off all notifications and alerts. Make sure your device is prepared for videoconferencing. Close any browser windows and unneeded applications to ensure your computer’s processing power is able to stream and receive video. Put your iPad/Chromebook on a table or flat surface—avoid moving your device around unless you are instructed to. Make sure you are using the built-In microphone (internal microphone) and built-in output (internal speakers), then mute your microphone BEFORE you join—this limits background noise and visual distractions for all participants. Your teacher may also take control of the microphone feature for the class. If you are having technical trouble—send a chat message to your teacher.

Establish student norms and expectations for office hours and videoconferencing: Dos and Don’ts. Examples 1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

Do be on time and prepared. Have all the materials you will need. Do dress like you are in the classroom—no pajamas or t-shirts with offensive messages. Do set up your space for serious work. Remember, everyone can see your space and background. Turn off distractions such as TVs or music. Locate in a quiet area and/or use headphones to reduce background noise. Don’t chew gum or eat (except with accommodations, just like in-person school)—no crumbs or ketchup on your chin. Don’t send messages or have side conversations. This is still school, so no sharing of Minecraft strategies in private chats. Sit so you can be seen.

Establish norms and expectations for video discussions. Examples 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Don’t interrupt the speaker, but know how to request a turn. Use constructive criticism only. Be respectful and kind. Share the time—give others a chance to speak. Build on their ideas. Ask questions. ­Do not record the meeting—in some states that could be illegal.

Make special efforts to create community and build relationships, even though it is at a distance. Examples 1.

2.

3.

4. 5. 6.

Write a “Welcome Letter” to all your students before school starts, assuring them you will work together to navigate any new remote learning territory. See Figure 13.2 for the letter our daughter wrote to her fifth-grade students. Find ways for students to learn more about each other—share information about personal interests, activities, and concerns. Find commonalities in their life experiences. If everyone has Internet access, make a brief introductory video of yourself and have students do the same—post the videos in an “Our Class” folder. Create connections with small-group and breakout sessions, but don’t group randomly. Decide on criteria for forming groups—interests? goals? Similar or different skills to contribute to group projects? Have students create a contract for small-group work—how will they treat each other and how will they get the work done? Tell students they should use their real names—no changing Zoom ID or Google profile to a nickname or anything but the name used in school. Create a spreadsheet with all the ways to contact each student and the student’s caregiver—email, phone, text.

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Be present and available for students. Examples 1. 2.

3. 4. 5.

Set up a virtual office and times for students to be in touch with questions and concerns. Some teachers use Google Hangout or Skype. Be wise about contacting students. Send messages to the whole class when everyone needs to know, to individual working groups just for their concerns, and occasionally email or call an individual student when a private message is needed (use this sparingly). Participate in discussion threads. If a discussion is dying down, share your thoughts. Take more time than usual to check in with students. How are they feeling and coping? Make boundaries on your time clear. When are you not available?

Teach about plagiarism. It is easy to cheat online. Examples 1. 2. 3. 4.

Cite sources. Use your own words or indicate when you are quoting. Online plagiarism is easy to detect—let students know you are checking. Discuss examples of plagiarism.

Time management can be a big problem—address it directly. Examples 1. 2.

Establish deadlines and interim deadlines for assignments. Set a class calendar and automatic reminders if possible.

For more information, see https://www.edutopia.org/article/simple-ways-promote-student-voice-classroom

Welcome to fifth grade humanities! My name is Ms. Hoy and I wanted to take a moment and tell you how excited I am to have you in class. We will be starting the year virtually and I have many fun lessons planned for the beginning of the year and beyond. I am eager to hear about all the good books you have read and your summer antics with your family. We will take this distance learning journey one day at a time. I took the liberty of putting together a small humanities folder for each of you. No need to read anything or do anything in this folder yet—I will explain the activities and materials on the first day of class. Bring a pencil, spiral notebook, and any markers or colored pencils/crayons that you might use. In our distance learning schedule, you will have some humanities sessions on Zoom and these classes are referred to as synchronous. There are also days where you will be working independently and we refer to these classes as asynchronous (The little “a” at the beginning of synchronous changes the whole meaning of the word.) Do not fret—we will go over how to navigate your schedule. The schedule for the first partial week is a little different, so that you can meet all of your teachers in the first three days. We will spend the first few weeks of school getting to know each other as people and as learners. Our discussions will center around identity and what it means to be an ally. We will begin writing stories together, playing games, and choosing new books. Until we meet in “Zoomland” enjoy your time with your family and get some rest for the first official day of upper school on September 2, 2020. Go fifth grade! The bitmoji to the right is me closing my eyes and imagining our time together. I look forward to seeing you soon. Ms. Hoy Source: Kelly L. Hoy, September 2020. Used with permission.

Figure 13.2  Welcome to Remote Learning Sending something similar to this informative and reassuring letter should ease the stress of your students as they face a new school situation (K. Hoy, 2020). Even without an unexpected switch to different pathways for teaching and learning, every new year is stressful for most students. Make sure they feel welcome, whether in person or online, as you address their major concerns first.

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Planning Spaces for Learning Stop & Think  Think back over all the rooms in all the schools you have attended. Which ones stand out as inviting or exciting? Which ones were cold and empty? Did one teacher have a design that let students do different things in various parts of the room?

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Classroom Space (I, C4) The physical organization of a class has an effect on student behavior and learning. Describe how the physical layout of classrooms can affect the learning environment. Apply principles of classroom organization to enhance learning and minimize disruption.

Spaces for learning should invite and support the activities you plan for your classes, and they should respect the inhabitants of the space. This respect begins at the door for young children by helping them identify their classroom. One school that has won awards for its architecture paints each classroom door a different bright color, so young children can find their “home” (Herbert, 1998). Once inside, spaces can be created that invite quiet reading, group collaboration, focused lectures, discussion and debate, or independent research. ­ isabilities If students are to use materials, they should be able to reach them. Students with d should feel welcome by being able to easily navigate in the space. Of course, teachers have to design spaces for health and safety today too—so more space may be needed between students if social distancing is required. In terms of classroom arrangement, there are two basic ways of organizing space: personal territories and interest areas. PERSONAL TERRITORIES AND SEATING ARRANGEMENTS.  A personal territory is your

own (usually assigned) seat. Years of research indicate that a front seat location seems to increase participation and learning for students who are predisposed to speak in class, but a seat in the back will make it more difficult to participate and easier to sit back and daydream (Blume et al., 2019). To “spread the action around,” Romano and Weinstein (2019) suggest that teachers move around the room when possible, establish eye contact with and direct questions to students seated far away, and vary the seating so the same students are not always consigned to the back. Horizontal rows share many of the advantages of the traditional row and column arrangements. Both are useful for independent seatwork and teacher, student, or media presentations; they encourage students to focus on the presenter and simplify housekeeping. Horizontal rows also permit students to work more easily in pairs. However, this is a poor arrangement for large-group discussion. Clusters of four or circle arrangements are best for student interaction. Clusters permit students to talk, help one another, share materials, and work on group tasks. Circles are especially useful for discussions but still allow for independent seatwork. Both arrangements, however, are poor for whole-group presentations and may make class management more difficult. The fishbowl or stack special formation, where students sit close together near the focus of attention (the back row may even be standing), should be used only for short periods of time, because it is not comfortable and can lead to discipline problems. On the other hand, the fishbowl can create a feeling of group cohesion and is helpful when the teacher wants students to watch a demonstration, brainstorm on a class problem, or see a small visual aid. INTEREST AREAS.  The design of interest areas can influence the way the areas are used by

students. Years ago, for example, my friend Carol Weinstein (1977) worked with a teacher to make changes in interest areas that helped the teacher meet her objectives of having more girls involved in the science center and having all students experiment more with a variety of manipulative materials. In a second study, changes in a library corner led to more involvement in literature activities throughout the class (Morrow & Weinstein, 1986). Personal territories and interest areas are not mutually exclusive; many teachers use a ­design that combines these types of organization. Individual students’ desks—their territories—­are placed in the center, with interest areas in the back or around the periphery of the room. This allows the flexibility needed for both large- and small-group activities. No matter how you arrange your classroom, keep the Guidelines: Designing Learning Spaces in mind.

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GUIDELINES Designing Learning Spaces Note the fixed features, and plan accordingly. Examples 1. 2.

Remember that the media center, computers, and charging stations for tablets need electrical outlets. Keep art supplies near the sink, small-group work by a whiteboard.

Create easy access to materials and a well-organized place to store them. Examples 1. 2.

Make sure materials are easy to reach and visible to students. Have enough shelves so that materials need not be stacked.

Provide students with clean, convenient surfaces for studying. Examples 1. 2.

Put bookshelves next to the reading area, games by the game table. Prevent fights by avoiding crowded workspaces.

Avoid dead spaces and “racetracks.” Examples 1. 2.

Don’t have all the interest areas around the outside of the room, leaving a large dead space in the middle. Avoid placing a few items of furniture right in the middle of this large space, creating a “racetrack” around the furniture.

Arrange things so you can see your students and they can see all instructional presentations. Examples 1. 2.

Make sure you can see over partitions. Design seating so that students can see instruction without moving their chairs or desks.

­ ake sure work areas are private and quiet. M Examples 1. 2.

Make sure there are no tables or work areas in the middle of traffic lanes; a person should not have to pass through one area to get to another. Keep noisy activities as far as possible from quiet ones. Increase the feeling of privacy by placing partitions, such as bookcases or pegboards, between areas or within large areas.

Provide choices and flexibility. Examples 1. 2.

Establish private cubicles for individual work, open tables for group work, and cushions on the floor for whole-class meetings. Give students a place to keep their personal belongings. This is especially important if students don’t have personal desks.

Be sensitive to the symbolic communication of spatial features. Examples 1. 2. 3.

In a history class, in all the posters and pictures on the wall, are only white male historical characters displayed? Do students see their culture, language, and symbols represented in visuals and decorations? Are the shelves, workspaces, computers, and so on, easily accessible to students with disabilities?

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Try new arrangements; then evaluate and improve. Examples 1. 2.

Have a “2-week arrangement”; then evaluate. Enlist the aid of your students. They have to spend many hours in the room too, and designing a classroom can be a very challenging educational experience.

For more ideas on classroom design, go to www.edutopia.org and search for “classroom designs.”

Getting Started: The First Weeks of Class Determining a room design, rules, and procedures are the first steps toward having a ­well-organized class, but how do effective teachers gain students’ cooperation in those early critical days and weeks? One study carefully analyzed the first weeks’ activities of effective and ineffective elementary teachers, and found striking differences (Emmer & Evertson, 2017; Evertson & Emmer, 2017). EFFECTIVE MANAGERS FOR ELEMENTARY STUDENTS.  In the effective teachers’ classrooms,

the very first day was well organized. Nametags were ready. There was something interesting for each child to do right away. Materials were set up. The teachers had planned carefully to avoid any last-minute tasks that might take them away from their students. These teachers dealt with the children’s pressing concerns first. “Where do I put my things?” “How do I pronounce my teacher’s name?” “Can I whisper to my neighbor?” “Where is the bathroom?” The effective teachers were explicit about their expectations. They had a workable, easily understood set of rules and taught the students the most important rules right away. They taught the rules like any other subject—with lots of explanation, examples, and practice. Throughout the first weeks, the effective managers continued to spend quite a bit of time teaching rules and procedures. Some used guided practice to teach procedures; others used rewards to shape behavior. Most taught students to respond to a bell or some other signal to gain their attention. These teachers worked with the class as a whole on enjoyable academic activities. They did not rush to get students into small groups or to start them in readers. This whole-class work gave the teachers a better opportunity to continue monitoring all students’ learning of the rules and procedures. Misbehavior was stopped quickly and firmly, but not harshly. In the poorly managed classrooms, the first weeks were quite different. Rules were not workable; they were either too vague or very complicated. For example, one teacher made a rule that students should “be in the right place at the right time.” Students were not told what this meant, so their behavior could not be guided by the rule. Neither positive nor negative behaviors had clear, consistent consequences. After students broke a rule, ineffective managers gave a vague criticism, such as “Some of my children are too noisy,” or issued a warning, but did not follow through with the threatened consequence. In the poorly managed classes, procedures for accomplishing routine tasks varied from day to day and were never taught or practiced. Instead of dealing with these obvious needs, ineffective managers spent time on procedures that could have waited. For example, one teacher had the class practice for a fire drill the first day, but left unexplained other procedures that would be needed every day. Students wandered around the classroom aimlessly and had to ask each other what they should be doing. Often the students talked to one another because they had nothing productive to do. Ineffective teachers frequently left the room. Many became absorbed in paperwork or in helping just one student. They had not made plans for how to deal with late-arriving students or interruptions. One ineffective manager tried to teach students to respond to a bell as a signal for attention, but later let the students ignore it. All in all, the first weeks in these classrooms were disorganized and filled with surprises for teachers and students alike.

Chapter 13  Creating Supportive Learning Environments 569 EFFECTIVE MANAGERS FOR SECONDARY STUDENTS.  What about getting started in a

secondary school class? It appears that many of the differences between effective and ineffective elementary school teachers are the same at the secondary level. Again, effective manager­s focus on establishing rules, procedures, and expectations on the first day of class. These standards for academic work and class behavior are clearly communicated to students and consistently enforced during the first weeks of class. Student behavior is closely monitored, and infractions of the rules are dealt with quickly. In classes with less prepared students, work cycles are shorter; students are not required to spend long, unbroken periods on one type of activity. Instead, during each period, they are moved smoothly through several different tasks. In general, effective teachers carefully follow each student’s progress, so students cannot avoid work without facing consequences (Emmer & Evertson, 2017). With all this close monitoring and consistent enforcement of the rules, you may wonder if effective secondary teachers have to be grim and humorless. Not necessarily. As any experienced teacher can tell you, there is much more to smile about when the class is ­cooperative. For more ideas about getting started on the first day of class, see the helpful book by Harry and Rosemary Wong, The First Days of School: How to Be an Effective Teacher (5th ed., 2018).

Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning Learning Outcome 13.3  Discuss how to maintain a positive learning environment by encouraging student engagement, preventing problems, and developing caring, respectful relationships with your students. A good start is just that—a beginning. Effective teachers build on this beginning. They maintain their management system by preventing problems and keeping students engaged in productive learning activities. We have discussed several ways to accomplish these goals. In Chapter 12, on motivation, for example, we considered stimulating curiosity, relating lessons to student interests, establishing learning goals instead of performance goals, and having positive expectations. What else can teachers do?

Encouraging Engagement Stop & Think  What activities keep you completely engaged—the time just seems to disappear? What is it about those activities that keeps you focused? In general, as teacher supervision increases, students’ engaged time also increases. ­Obviously, this has implications for remote learning when students are entirely on their own. This does not mean that teachers should eliminate independent work for students. It simply means that this type of activity usually requires careful planning and monitoring. Activities with clear steps are likely to be more absorbing, because one step leads naturally to the next. When students have all the materials they need to complete a task, they tend to stay involved. And, as you now know, students will be more engaged if they are involved in authentic tasks—activities that have connections to real life. Also, activities are more e­ ngaging when the level of challenge is higher (Emmer & Gerwels, 2006). Of course, teachers can’t supervise every student all the time or rely on challenge to keep students motivated. In their study of elementary and secondary teachers, ­Evertson, Emmer, and their colleagues found that effective class managers at all levels had ­well-planned systems for encouraging students to manage their own work (Emmer & ­Evertson, 2017; Evertson & Emmer, 2017). The Guidelines: Keeping Students Engaged on the next page are based on their findings.

Pearson eText Video Example 13.4 The teacher in this video engages students in discussion and provides organization, cues, and materials they need to focus on the task at hand.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Promoting Student Engagement (I, C4) A principle of educational psychology is that the more students are cognitively engaged in an activity, the more they are likely to learn. What tactics can teachers employ to maximize their students’ cognitive engagement during learning tasks?

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GUIDELINES Keeping Students Engaged Make basic work requirements clear. Examples 1. 2. 3.

Specify and post the routine work requirements for headings, paper size, pen or pencil use, and neatness. Establish and explain rules about late or incomplete work and absences. If a pattern of incomplete work begins to develop, deal with it early; speak with parents if necessary. Make due dates reasonable, and stick to them unless the student has a very good excuse for lateness.

Communicate the specifics of assignments. Examples 1.

2. 3.

4.

With younger students, have a routine procedure for giving assignments, such as writing them on the board in the same place each day. With older students, assignments may be dictated, posted online, or given in a syllabus. Remind students of upcoming assignments. With complicated assignments, give students a sheet describing what to do, what resources are available, due dates, and so on. Older students should also be told your grading criteria. Demonstrate how to do the assignment, do the first few questions together, or provide a sample worksheet.

Monitor work in progress. Examples 1.

2.

­When you give an assignment in class, make sure each student gets started correctly. If you check only students who raise their hands for help, you will miss those who think they know what to do but don’t really understand, those who are too shy to ask for help, and those who don’t plan to do the work at all. Check progress periodically. In discussions, make sure everyone has a chance to respond.

Give frequent academic feedback. Examples 1. 2. 3. 4.

Elementary students should get papers back the day after they are handed in. Good work can be displayed in the classroom (but make sure it is not from the same students over and over), and graded papers sent home to parents each week. Students of all ages can keep records of grades, projects completed, and extra credits earned. For older students, break up long-term assignments into several phases, giving feedback at each point.

For more ideas, go to www.edutopia.org and search for “keeping students engaged.”

Prevention Is the Best Medicine The ideal way to manage problems, of course, is to prevent them in the first place—this certainly will make more time for learning. In a classic study, Jacob Kounin (1970) examined classroom management by comparing effective teachers, whose classes were relatively free of problems, with ineffective teachers, whose classes were continually plagued by chaos and disruption. Observing both groups in action, Kounin was surprised to find the teachers were NOT very different in the way they handled discipline once problems arose. The difference was that the successful managers were much better at preventing problems. First, these teachers captured students’ attention and maintained engagement

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in work that was at appropriate levels for all students. Second, these effective classroom managers were especially skilled in four specific kinds of prevention: “withitness,” overlapping activities, group focusing, and movement management. More recent research confirms that expert classroom managers focus on prevention (Jones & Jones, 2016; Stahnke & Blömeke, 2021). WITHITNESS.  Withitness means communicating to students that you are aware of every-

thing that is happening in the classroom. “With-it” teachers seem to have eyes in the back of their heads. They avoid becoming absorbed by distractions or interacting with only a few students, because this encourages the rest of the class to wander. These teachers are always scanning the room, making eye contact with individual students, so the students know they are being monitored (Charles & Cole, 2019; Romano & Weinstein, 2019). These teachers prevent minor disruptions from becoming major. They also know who instigated the problem, and they make sure they deal with the right people. In other words, they don’t make what Kounin called timing errors (waiting too long before intervening) or target errors (blaming the wrong student and letting the real perpetrators escape responsibility for their behavior). If two problems occur at the same time, effective managers deal with the more serious one first. For example, a teacher who tells two students to stop whispering but ignores even a brief shoving match by the bookshelves communicates a lack of awareness. Students begin to believe they can get away with almost anything if they are clever. OVERLAPPING AND GROUP FOCUS.  Overlapping means keeping track of and supervising

several activities at the same time. For example, a teacher may have to check the work of an individual and at the same time keep a small group working by saying, “Right, go on,” and stop an incident in another group with a quick “look” or reminder (Charles, 2011; Charles & Cole, 2019). Maintaining a group focus means keeping as many students as possible involved in appropriate class activities and avoiding narrowing in on just one or two students. Problems arise when teachers have students work one at a time while the rest of the class waits and watches. All students should have something to do during a lesson. For example, the teacher might ask everyone to write the answer to a question, and then call on individuals to respond while the other students compare their answers. Choral responses might be required while the teacher moves around the room to make sure everyone is participating. Group focus can be especially challenging during remote learning. How will you ensure that everyone has something productive to do, even as you interact with one student or student group? MOVEMENT MANAGEMENT.  Movement management means keeping lessons and the

group moving at an appropriate (and flexible) pace, with smooth transitions and variety. The effective teacher avoids abrupt transitions, such as announcing a new activity before gaining the students’ attention or starting a new activity in the middle of something else. When transitions are abrupt, one-third of the class will be doing the new activity, many will be working on the old lesson, several will be asking other students what to do, some will be taking the opportunity to have a little fun, and most will be confused. Another transition problem Kounin noted is the slowdown, or taking too much time to start a new activity. Sometimes teachers give too many directions at once. Clear, well-timed directions are especially important for remote teaching because it is difficult to “read” student confusion online. STUDENT SOCIAL SKILLS AS PREVENTION.  But what about the students? What can they do? When students lack social and emotional skills such as being able to share materials, read the intentions of others, or handle frustration, classroom problems often follow. So all efforts to teach social and emotional self-regulation are steps toward preventing management problems. Over the short term, educators can teach and model these skills, and then

Withitness According to Kounin, awareness of everything happening in a classroom.

Overlapping ­ upervising several activities at S once.

Group focus The ability to keep as many students as possible involved in activities.

Movement management Keeping lessons and the group moving at an appropriate (and flexible) pace, with smooth transitions and variety.

572  Chapter 13  Creating Supportive Learning Environments give students feedback and practice using them in a variety of settings. Over the long term, teachers can help to change attitudes that value aggression over cooperation and compromise (M. J. Elias & Schwab, 2006). Figure 13.3 is a lesson outline that can be used to target and improve specific social skills for an individual or small group. You can see that this is an example of good teaching. There is a clear goal defined by specific and observable targets, modeling, practice with the teacher and then (very important) practice in the natural setting like the gym or lunchroom where the problem usually occurs, and finally some kind of recognition or reinforcement (Jones & Jones, 2016).

Figure 13.3  A Social Skills Lesson Design This design can be used with individuals or groups to identify and practice targeted social skills. Describe the inappropriate behavior ______________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Rationale for a new behavior ____________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Describe the appropriate behavior ________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Skill components of the new behavior ______________________________________ 1. __________________________________________________________________ 2. __________________________________________________________________ 3. __________________________________________________________________ 4. __________________________________________________________________ 5. __________________________________________________________________ 6. __________________________________________________________________ Model demonstration example __________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Student practice example ______________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Natural setting practice (if different than initial practice) ____________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Independent practice assignment ________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Individual or group reinforcement strategy ________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Source: Jones, V. & Jones, L. Comprehensive classroom management: Creating communities of support and solving problems, Update, Loose-Leaf Version, 11th ed., p. 372. ©2016. Reprinted and Electronically Reproduced by Permission of Pearson Education, Inc., New York, NY.

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Caring Relationships: Connections with School All efforts directed toward building positive relationships with students and creating a classroom community are steps toward preventing management problems. ­T EACHER CONNECTIONS.  Results of many studies confirm that the affective quality of teacher–student relationships, that is, whether teachers and students feel close or in conflict, is important for students’ classroom engagement, academic achievement, and ­social-emotional development (Meyer & L. Anderman, in press). One powerful example is a study that followed 1,364 students from kindergarten through ninth grade. The students who experienced positive relationships with their teacher for the first 6 years in school had higher GPAs, enrolled in more advanced science classes, and set higher educational aspirations. They also had stronger social skills, as well as higher math and English self-­concepts. As the researchers noted, “. . . even though teachers are transient figures in students’ lives, the strength and influence of these relationships can (and do) have lasting consequences” (Ansari et al., 2020, p. 9). In a study of engagement in math (Rimm-Kaufman et al., 2015), students reported working harder, enjoying math more, and sharing ideas and materials with each other more when teachers were warm, caring, and responsive to student needs. The students also reported greater cognitive, social, and emotional engagement in math learning when the teachers made learning goals clear, used proactive/preventative management strategies, and orchestrated smooth transitions (more evidence for Kounin’s management strategies). Positive teacher relationships are particularly important at the transition to middle school for students who face academic risks (Hughes & Cao, 2018). In a study that followed over 1,200 students from fifth and sixth grades, Stefania Sette and her colleagues (2020) found that students who were more liked by their teacher were more likely to be included by their peers and this inclusion was associated with greater success in school. Finally, in a study of 58 high schools, when adults actively connected with students through informal greetings, questions, and conversations outside classrooms in cafeterias, hallways, and stairwells, there were fewer negative student ­behaviors (Cash et al., 2019). What else supports strong relationships? Students respect teachers who maintain their authority without being rigid or harsh, are fair and honest with them, demonstrate emotional support and caring, make sure students understand the material, ask if something is wrong when they seem upset, and use creative instructional practices to “make learning fun.” Students also value teachers who show academic and personal caring by acting like real people (not just as teachers), sharing responsibility, minimizing the use of external controls, including everyone, searching for students’ strengths, communicating effectively, and showing an interest in their students’ lives and pursuits. Finally, students like and respect teachers who show respect for their cultural identity (Meyer & L. Anderman, in press; Turner et al., 2014; Wentzel, 2002; Woolfolk Hoy & Weinstein, 2006). How can you develop positive relationships with your students? The EMR model, (which stands for Establish–Maintain–Restore), is a research-based possibility. When middle school teachers were trained to use EMR, their students were less disruptive and more ­engaged in academic tasks. The approach was especially helpful for students who had poor relationships with their teachers before the EMR intervention (Duong et al., 2019). In fact, when Laurie Kincade and her colleagues (2020) analyzed almost 800 studies that evaluated programs to improve teacher–student relationships, EMR was one of the two programs with the largest effects. Here are the highlights of the model:

• Establish—the goal is to encourage student belonging, trust, and connections by “banking time,” that is, by having individual warm interactions with students that are validating. The interactions are person to person, not academic or directive. Find some common interests. Learn about the student as a person.

• Maintain—once established, you have to work to protect the positive relationship by striving for a 5-to-1 ratio of positive-to-negative interactions. If you find yourself criticizing or correcting more than about 1 time in 5 interactions, strive to be more positive.

EMR Model A research-based strategy for developing positive relationships with students. EMR stands for Establish-Maintain-Restore.

574  Chapter 13  Creating Supportive Learning Environments • Restore—it is difficult to avoid conflicts or misunderstandings. When they occur, it is your responsibility as a teacher to make things right again by separating the deed from the doer, working to solve the problem together (more about this later in the chapter), validating the student’s feelings, not holding a grudge, and generally being the adult in the situation.

Pearson eText Video Example 13.5 Mr. Wimberly develops positive teacher–student relationships with his sixth-graders. Notice his routine of greeting students when the morning bell rings. Observe his command of the classroom and the students’ respect for him. How does he encourage students to use their time effectively and develop their own abilities?

There is more to the EMR approach than the bullets above. Go to www.edutopia.org/ and search for “Establish-Maintain-Restore.” Students who believe “their teachers are caring, empathic, and fair and help resolve personal problems,” are more likely to feel a greater sense of belonging (our next topic) than those students who perceive a negative relationship with their teachers (Allen et al., 2018, p. 25). Stop & Think  Think back to your middle school days. On a 4-point scale from 1 (Disagree) to 4 (Agree), how would you have rated these three items? 1. The adults at my school like me as much as they like other students. 2. There is an adult at my school who cares about me. 3. I enjoy going to school. How do you want your future students to answer these questions? SCHOOL CONNECTIONS AND BELONGING.  The three questions in the Stop & Think are

from the Milwaukee Youth Belonginess Scale, developed to measure students’ sense of connection to their family, peers, and school. In the Stop & Think you rated the items that focused on connections to school (Slaten et al., 2019). Students who feel connected with school are happier, more engaged in schoolwork, less likely to be absent, more likely to graduate, more self-disciplined, have higher self-efficacy, and are less likely to be involved in dangerous behaviors such as substance abuse, violence, and early sexual activity (Allen et al., 2018; Prati et al., 2018; Waters & Cross, 2010). If students perceive their schools are competitive places where they are treated differently based on race, gender, or ethnicity, then they are more likely to act out or withdraw altogether. But when they feel that they have choices, that the emphasis is on personal improvement and not comparisons, and that they are respected and supported by teachers, students are more likely to bond with schools (Osterman, 2000; Schachner et al., 2019). One way of supporting belonging in school is by connecting with students’ families and home lives (Gage et al., 2016). For example, students in China describe their teachers as high on caring. This may be because Chinese teachers spend quite a bit of time in students’ homes, learning about their home life, and offering help outside school. These teachers show respect for the families and cultures of their students by their willingness to visit and to help (Jia et al., 2009; Suldo et al., 2009). CREATING COMMUNITIES OF CARE FOR ADOLESCENTS.  The transition to high school is a particularly important time to maintain caring teacher–student relationships. Students have more teachers and fewer close relationships with teachers, just at a time when emotional, social, and academic stresses are increasing. Feeling a sense of belonging is important for all students, but particularly for students who may, because of language, race, gender, or poverty, feel disconnected from the basically white middle-class culture of most schools (Gray et  al., 2018). In one study that followed 572 students from ninth grade through high school, Cari Gillen-O’Neel and Andrew Fuligni (2013) found that girls’ sense of belonging in school was higher than boys’ in ninth grade, but over the high school years, this connection declined for girls but not for boys. One possible reason is that boys participate more often than girls in extracurricular activities such as sports; these activities connect them to the school. So, encouraging girls to participate in school activities, including sports, may build a sense of belonging for them. In addition,

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having positive relationships with students appears to support teachers’ sense of well-­ being. When we remember the basic human need for relatedness—­the feeling that others care about you described in Chapter 12—we can understand why caring relationships in school would support both students’ sense of belonging and teachers’ well-being (Spilt et al., 2011). Check & Connect, developed at the University of Minnesota, is one program that has been successful in developing caring relationships with disengaged, marginalized adolescents, although it can be used with students of all ages. A goal of Check & Connect is “to foster school completion with academic and social competence” (http://checkandconnect .umn.edu). The program works by developing a relationship between a trained mentor and students. The mentor checks on the students, monitoring their attendance, behavior, and grades, and connects with students by offering individualized interventions in partnership with other school staff, families, and community resources. Results of research on Check & Connect show that the program improves student engagement and achievement (Anderson et al., 2004; Skiba et al., 2016). When Randall Sampson, one of my former graduate students, became the assistant principal of a large, diverse high school in Columbus, Ohio, he initiated something similar to Check & Connect. He personally monitored those students who had completed basic math classes with grades good enough to move to advanced placement classes, but who had not signed up for the classes. He contacted the students’ parents, talked to the students, and signed them up for the advanced classes. Then he checked in on them every week to be sure they were engaged in class. His interventions were very successful, leading to a 600% increase in Black students enrolled in AP classes and a 35% increase in AP exam scores. His initiatives kept some potentially disengaged students on track for college admission when the students and their families had not considered college a possibility. Randall founded Liberty Leadership Development (www.LibertyLD.com) to bring these kinds of positive interventions to more schools such as Wilson Preparatory Academy in North Carolina (http://www.wilsonpreparatoryacademy.org). But beware. Just having a mentor will not necessarily be helpful for a student unless the relationship is strong, as Randall’s was with the students he supported. Having a poor-quality relationship with a mentor can actually be detrimental (Lyons & McQuillin, 2019). See the Guidelines: Creating Caring Relationships for more ideas, many taken from Jones and Jones (2016) and M. Marshall (2013).

GUIDELINES Creating Caring Relationships Get to know students as individuals. Examples 1. 2.

3. 4.

5.

Eat lunch with a different group of students every day; work with a club, extracurricular activity, or sports group; attend student activities. ­When learning is remote, make sure every student has contact with at least one adult from the school each day. Enlist teachers, librarians, reading specialists, counselors, teacher’s aides. If students do not have Internet, call on the phone. Show your interest in your students as individuals. Schedule individual conferences with students. If you are teaching remotely, have virtual office hours and make sure you meet with the students who seem to disappear or don’t seek your help. As we noted earlier, if you are starting the year with remote learning and your students have video access, do an introductory video of yourself and ask students to do the same—have students pronounce their names so all can learn.

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Communicate your respect for students’ abilities. Examples 1.

2. 3. 4.

“Model respect for diversity—by expressing admiration for a student’s bilingual ability, by commenting enthusiastically about the number of different languages that are represented in the class, and by including examples and content from a variety of cultures” (C. S. Weinstein et al., 2003, p. 272). Comment to students privately and positively about your observations of their performances in extracurricular activities. Encourage students to use personal interests as a subject for their writing. Greet students at the door to the class every day.

Keep communications authentic but professional. Examples 1.

2. 3.

4. 5.

Send brief personal notes to students acknowledging a good job performed on assignments, their hard work and persistence, a birthday, or concern about absences. Include a get-well card along with homework sent to a student who is ill. Share some stories from your own life as examples of excitement about a subject, making mistakes (and learning from them), and persistence and overcoming difficulties. Do not friend students on social media, and be very careful about your language and picture postings in all electronic communications—many things can be misinterpreted. Create ­school-related email accounts that are different from your personal accounts. Check with your school policy about sharing personal information such as religion, sexual orientation, or political views. If you are meeting alone with a student, do so in an area visible to others—sadly, teachers today must protect against having their positive relationships with students misinterpreted by others or by the student.

Seek student input and respect it, but don’t take it too personally. Examples 1. 2. 3.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Student Misbehavior (I, C4) Even the most well-managed classroom will have instances of student misbehavior. Explain the principles for dealing with common student misbehaviors. What strategies can teachers employ to deal fairly and effectively with those problems?

Consider a suggestion box or community meetings for younger students. Listen to student concerns and complaints without getting defensive. Ask for suggestions, but also share your rationales for assignments and grades. Ask students directly for anonymous feedback about whether they feel respected and cared for in your class. Use simple questionnaires that don’t reveal the identity of the student through handwriting. Consider asking the three questions found in the previous Stop & Think exercise.

Dealing with Discipline Problems Learning Outcome 13.4  Identify strategies (especially penalties and alternatives, restorative justice, and student self-discipline) for preventing and addressing student misbehaviors, including bullying. Before we even discuss dealing with discipline problems, remember that every school has policies and procedures for handling behavior problems, especially more serious issues. Make sure you know all these procedures and requirements before you ­develop your management plan. Also keep in mind that being an effective manager does not mean publicly correcting every minor infraction of the rules. This kind of public ­attention may actually reinforce the misbehavior, as we saw in Chapter 7. The key is being aware of what is happening and knowing what is important so you can prevent problems.

Stopping Problems Quickly It is critical that you have many effective ways to de-escalate rather than escalate student behavior problems. As problems escalate, students may need to save face in front of their peers by challenging or defying the teacher. This can lead to excluding students from class,

Chapter 13  Creating Supportive Learning Environments 577

sending them to detention, or suspension—all outcomes that place students, especially students of color, at greater risk of negative or dangerous outcomes such as disengaging from school or getting caught up in the juvenile justice system and the school-to-prison pipeline (Hwang, 2018; Skiba et al., 2016). It may help you to be more effective at de-escalating problems if you approach students’ social/behavioral problems more like you would academic problems—as an opportunity to learn a better way. For example, generally when students make an academic mistake we assume that they were trying to get it right and did not make the mistake on purpose. They just need smaller steps, clearer explanations, better examples, models, or practice. But when the problem is behavioral, we often assume the student is not trying or that the error was intentional. We follow with criticisms, punishments, or exclusion from the class. Successful teachers tend to see their role in improving behavior as interpersonal and instructional—helping their students learn and practice better decisions and actions. Your attributions about the problem—whether it was a mistake or intentional—matter (Jones & Jones, 2016; Stahnke & Blömeke, 2021). Most students comply quickly when the teacher redirects behavior or gives a desist (a “stop doing that”) instruction. But some students are the targets of more than their share of desists. Emmer and Evertson (2017) and Levin and Nolan (2000) suggest eight simple ways to stop misbehavior quickly, moving from least to most intrusive:

• Make eye contact with, or move closer to, the offender. Other nonverbal signals, such as pointing to the work students are supposed to be doing, might be helpful. Make sure the student actually stops the inappropriate behavior and gets back to work. If you do not, students will learn to ignore your signals.

• Try verbal hints such as “name-dropping” (simply insert the student’s name into the lecture), asking the student a question, or making a humorous (not sarcastic) comment such as, “I must be hallucinating. I haven’t called on anyone and yet I am hearing voices!”

• Ask students if they are aware of the negative effects of their actions, or send an “I” message, described later in the chapter.

• Involve the whole class in a brief interactive activity such as “Think-Pair-Share.” Especially if more than one student is “drifting,” this activity can re-engage the drifters.

• If they are not performing a class procedure correctly, remind the students of the procedure, and have them follow it correctly. You may need to quietly collect a toy, comb, cell phone, or note that is competing with the learning activities, while privately informing the students that their possessions will be returned after class. You also could put a sticky note on the student’s desk inviting the student to talk with you after the lesson is over.

• In a calm, unhostile way, ask the student to state the correct rule or procedure and then to follow it. Glasser (1969) proposes three questions: “What are you doing? Is it against the rules? What should you be doing?”

• Tell the student in a clear, assertive, and unhostile way to stop the misbehavior. (Later in the chapter, we will discuss assertive messages to students in more detail.) If students “talk back,” simply and calmly repeat your statement.

• ­Offer a choice. For example, when a student continued to call out answers no matter what the teacher tried, the teacher said, “John, you have a choice. Stop calling out answers immediately and begin raising your hand to answer or move your seat to the back of the room and you and I will have a private discussion later. You decide” (Levin & Nolan, 2000, p. 177).

If You Impose Penalties Many teachers prefer the use of logical consequences, described earlier, as opposed to penalties. For example, if one student has harmed another, you can require the offending student to make an “apology of action,” which includes a verbal apology plus somehow repairing

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Table 13.2  Seven Categories of Penalties for Students 1. Expressions of disappointment. If students like and respect their teacher, then a serious, sorrowful ­expression of disappointment may cause students to stop and think about their behavior. 2. Loss of privileges. Students can lose free time. If they have not completed homework, for example, they can be required to do it during a free period or recess. 3. Time-Out: Exclusion from the group. Students who distract their peers or fail to cooperate can be separated from the group until they are ready to cooperate. Some teachers give a student a pass for 10 to 15 minutes. The student must go to another class or study hall, where the other students and teachers ignore the offending student for that time. 4. Written reflections on the problem. Students can write in journals, write essays about what they did and how it affected others, or write letters of apology—if this is appropriate. Another possibility is to ask students to describe objectively what they did; then the teacher and the student can sign and date this statement. These records are available if parents or administrators need evidence of the ­students’ behavior. 5. Visits to the principal’s office. Expert teachers tend to use this penalty rarely, but they do use it when the situation warrants. Some schools require students to be sent to the office for certain offenses, such as fighting. If you tell a student to go to the office and the student refuses, you might call the ­office saying the student has been sent. Then the student has the choice of either going to the office or facing the principal’s penalty for “disappearing” on the way. 6. Detentions. Detentions can be very brief meetings after school, during a free period, or at lunch. The main purpose is to talk about what has happened. 7. Contacting parents. If problems become a repeated pattern, most teachers contact the student’s family. This is done to seek support for helping the student, not to blame the parents or punish the student. Source: From Elementary classroom management (7th ed.), pp. 300–301, by M. E. Romano and C. S. Weinstein. McGraw-Hill. Copyright © 2019 by The McGraw-Hill Companies. Adapted with permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

the damage done. This helps offenders develop empathy and social perspective taking as they think about what would be an appropriate “repair” (M. J. Elias & Schwab, 2006). If you must impose penalties, again, start with the least intrusive and move on only when you have to. In their case studies of four expert elementary school teachers, Romano and Weinstein (2019) found that the teachers’ penalties fell into seven categories, as shown in Table 13.2. There is a caution about penalties. As Carolyn Orange (2005) notes, “Effective, caring teachers would not use low achievement status, grades, or the like as a means of discipline. This strategy is unfair and ineffective. It only serves to alienate the student” (p. 76). If you must impose penalties, the Guidelines: Imposing Penalties give ideas about how to do it. Some of these examples are based on ideas from expert teachers described by Weinstein and ­Novodvorsky (2015) and Romano and Weinstein (2019).

GUIDELINES Imposing Penalties Delay the discussion of the situation until you and the students involved are calmer and more objective. Examples 1. 2.

­ ay calmly to a student, “Sit there and think about what happened. I’ll talk to you in a few S minutes,” or, “I don’t like what I just saw. Talk to me during your free period today.” Say, “I’m really angry about what just happened. Everybody take out journals; we are going to write about this.” After a few minutes of writing, the class can discuss the incident.

Impose penalties privately. Examples 1. 2. 3.

Make arrangements with students privately. Stand firm in enforcing arrangements. Resist the temptation to “remind” students in public that they are not keeping their side of the bargain. Move close to a student who must be disciplined and speak so that only the student can hear.

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After imposing a penalty, re-establish a positive relationship with the student immediately. Examples 1. 2. 3.

Send the student on an errand, or ask him or her for help. Compliment the student’s work, or give a symbolic “pat on the back” when the student’s behavior warrants. Look hard for such an opportunity. For 2 minutes each day for 10 days in a row, have a personal conversation with the student about something of interest to him or her—sports, games, films—make an effort to know what those interests are. This investment in time can pay off by regaining learning time for the student and the entire class.

Set up a graded list of penalties that will fit many occasions. Example 1.

For not turning in homework: (a) receive reminder; (b) receive warning; (c) hand homework in before close of school day; (d) stay after school to finish work; (e) participate in a teacher–student–parent conference to develop an action plan.

Always teach problem-solving strategies along with penalties to help students learn what to do next time (M. J. Elias & Schwab, 2006). Examples 1.

2.

Use Problem Diaries, where students record what they were feeling, identify the problem and their goal, then think of other possible ways to solve the problem and achieve the goal. Try Keep Calm 5–2–5: At the first physical signs of anger, students say to themselves: “Stop. Keep Calm,” then take several slow breaths, counting to 5 breathing in, 2 holding breath, and 5 breathing out.

What About School Suspensions and Zero Tolerance? There is quite a bit of discussion today about school suspensions and zero-tolerance penalties for rule breaking in the schools. Is this a good idea? The Point/Counterpoint: Is Zero Tolerance a Good Idea? looks at both sides.

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Zero Tolerance a Good Idea? With the very visible violence in schools today, some districts have instituted “zero-tolerance” policies for rule breaking. This usually means expelling or suspending students the first time they break a rule. It also can mean punishing minor rule infractions every time, hoping to deter major infractions in the future. Do zero-tolerance policies make sense?

Point Zero tolerance is necessary for now.  The arguments for zero tolerance focus on school safety, fairness, preparation for the future, and the responsibilities of schools and teachers to protect the students and themselves. Educators argue that zero-tolerance policies set clear expectations and allow for fast responses to misbehavior. These approaches keep students safer and create a less chaotic learning environment. Zero tolerance for all reduces favoritism because everyone must be treated the same way, but as we will see later, this does not always happen. Also, advocates of zero tolerance claim that these policies prepare students for the real world where, for example, police don’t care why you were speeding or your boss may not care why you were late (Morin, 2020; Sasser, 2017). Of course, many of the incidents reported in the news seem like overreactions to childhood pranks or, worse, to

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innocent mistakes or lapses of memory. But how do school officials separate the innocent from the dangerous? For example, it has been widely reported that Andy Williams (the boy who killed two classmates in Santee, California) assured his friends before the shootings that he was only joking about “pulling a Columbine.” Schools also claim that having zero-tolerance policies has cut down on the number of drugs in schools, because having exceptions can lead to having no clear rules at all. Finally, parents are in favor of these policies (Sasser, 2017).

Counterpoint Zero tolerance makes zero common sense.  An Internet search using the keywords “zero tolerance” and “schools” will locate a wealth of information about the policy—much of it against. For example, what sense does this story make? The newspaper St. Petersburg Times described a 10-year-old girl whose mother packed a plastic knife in the girl’s lunchbox so she could cut her apple. The girl dutifully handed the plastic knife over to her teacher and was expelled from school for possession of a weapon. In another case, a teenage boy was also expelled. He broke the “no cell phone use” rule for talking to his mother, a soldier stationed in Iraq. He had not spoken to her for a month (Hyder & Hussain, 2015). Even though supporters of zero tolerance say that these policies create fairness because punishments must be consistent, often athletes and good students are forgiven and Black adolescents are punished more often and more harshly for even minor infractions (Amemiya et al., 2020; Curwin, 2015). In addition, punishment and zero-tolerance policies have not been very successful in preventing major infractions including bullying, even though they are used often (Amemiya et al., 2020; Rigby, 2012; Welsh & Little, 2018). The American Psychological Association’s Zero Tolerance Task Force (2008) reached the following conclusions: • Schools are not any safer or more effective in disciplining students now than before they instituted zero tolerance. • The higher rates of suspension caused by zero tolerance have not led to less racial bias in disciplining students. • Zero-tolerance policies can actually lead to increases in bad behavior that then lead to higher dropout rates. In addition, zero-tolerance policies can discourage students from informing teachers when the students learn that a classmate is “planning to do something dangerous.” The zero-tolerance rules get in the way of trusting relationships between teachers and students (Syvertsen et al., 2009). Beware of Either/Or. Surely we can ask adults to use good judgment in applying rules in dangerous situations but to not feel trapped by the rules when student actions are not intended to harm and are not dangerous. Whole-school policies that are less punitive and more preventative and proactive and that improve the climate of the school are good alternatives to zero tolerance. Restorative justice is one option.

Reaching Every Student: Restorative Justice Restorative justice A system of dealing with student misconduct that focuses on building, nurturing, and repairing relationships while giving a voice to victims, offenders, and the community.

Many schools around the world and in the United States and Canada are seeking alternatives to punitive, rigid zero-tolerance systems. One possibility is restorative justice—an ­approach that teaches lifelong lessons. In the school where you teach, you might encounter a program called restorative ­i nterventions, restorative practices, restorative measures, restorative approaches, restorative ­discipline, or restorative justice—look for “restorative” (Gonzalez et al., 2018). In restorative justice, a problem behavior is harmful not because it “breaks a rule,” but rather because the negative action adversely affects members of the classroom and school community (Fronius et al., 2016). Restorative justice focuses on building, nurturing, and repairing relationships

Chapter 13  Creating Supportive Learning Environments 581

while giving a voice to victims, offenders, and the community. The goal is to reduce reliance on traditional punishments and police involvement, repair the harm to victims, but still hold misbehaving students accountable while supporting them and reintegrating them into the community. Vincent Anfara Jr. and his colleagues (2013) describe seven principles that guide restorative justice:

Meeting needs: As in functional behavioral assessment (Chapter 7), the assumption is that behaviors, even negative behaviors, have goals. Students are trying to meet some need, even if their way of reaching the goal or meeting the need is a problem. See Table 13.4 later in this chapter for some reasons for bullying. Responsibility and accountability with support and compassion: Students take res­ ponsibility for the harm they caused in a supportive community. Making things right: Harm is defined not as “breaking a rule” but as hurting members of the community. The appropriate response is to make things right. Conflict is a learning opportunity: Everyone in the school community can learn to handle conflict more productively. Students become better problem solvers and teachers learn better ways of relating to their students. Building healthy communities: Beyond responding to misbehavior, restorative justice builds respectful communities where relationships are strengthened. Restoring relationships: Even in the strongest communities, conflict happens. Rather than punish, the goal is to repair and restore. Addressing power imbalances: Restorative justice requires schools to examine whether their practices are causing harm to students and perpetuating injustice.

Pearson eText Video Example 13.6 Two students trained as conflict managers help two other students settle a dispute that respects both girls. The procedures and skills demonstrated by the conflict managers help the other students recognize ways to prevent conflicts in the future or resolve them without needing adult intervention. Notice how they use empathetic listening—something you will learn about later in this chapter.

There are different ways to implement restorative justice at the school or classroom levels, including victim–offender mediation, conferencing to resolve conflict, or peacemaking circles (Parker & Bickmore, 2020; Zehr et al., 2015). For example, in a victim–offender mediation, the participants might meet with a facilitator (often the teacher) and sometimes members of their family. The victim and the offender express their views and describe their experiences, with monitoring by the facilitator to keep discussions productive. When the process works well, the participants express remorse for hurting each other, forgive the perceived transgressions, and reconcile their conflict. The outcome of restorative justice usually is an agreement that includes how to re-establish cooperation and participation in the classroom community—perhaps an apology of action, restitution, and a plan for dealing positively with possible future conflicts. See Christen Dillon’s description in the Casebook responses on page 599. Restorative justice emphasizes student responsibility, as does the next approach, Discipline Without Stress—a goal for every teacher!

Teacher-Imposed Penalties versus Student Responsibility Marvin Marshall (2013) believes that even though classroom management is the responsibility of the teacher, discipline is really the responsibility of the student. Classroom management is about how things are done in the classroom and involves procedures, routines, and structures—the teachers’ responsibility. Discipline is about how people behave and involves self-control and emotional self-regulation—the student’s responsibility. Students must discipline themselves to be self-regulated learners and ultimately productive, successful, happy adults. A focus on obedience and teacher-imposed penalties often results in resistance, ­resentment, cheating, and even defiance, but a focus on responsibility creates a classroom community and a culture of learning. Of course, anyone who has worked with children or adolescents knows that ­self-discipline is not automatic—it must be taught and practiced like any other skill. Marshall describes strategies for achieving these goals that focus on (a) communicating in positive terms and using “when–then” contingencies (“When you finish your work, then

Pearson eText Video Example 13.7 After getting angry and throwing blocks at peers, the girl in this video exhibits a level of self-regulation by withdrawing to regain her composure. The teacher reinforces her for her selfregulating behavior, scolds her for the rule-breaking behavior, and contacts her parents. In an effective learning environment, students take responsibility for controlling their emotions and behaviors.

582  Chapter 13  Creating Supportive Learning Environments you can listen to music on your phone”); (b) offering choices and eliciting consequences from students (“What shall we do about . . .?”); and (c) encouraging reflection and selfevaluation. One approach that incorporates these three principles is to teach students a hierarchy of behaviors using explanations and examples. The hierarchy is:

• Level A: Anarchy—Aimless, chaotic. • Level B: Bossing/Bullying—Breaking laws and making your own standards; obeying only when the enforcer has more power or authority.

• Level C: Cooperation/Conformity—Complies with expectations, conforms to peer influence.

• Level D: Democracy—Self-disciplined, initiative, responsibility for your own actions. The behaviors at levels C and D may look the same on the outside, but the difference is the motivation. For example, if a student picks up a piece of trash on the floor because the teacher asks (external motivation), the level is C (cooperation), but if the student picks up the trash without being asked (internal motivation), the level is D (democracy and ­self-discipline). When a student does not act at least at level C or D, the teacher asks, “What level was that behavior?” If the student does not move to at least level C and cooperate, the teacher might ask him or her to self-reflect and write an essay that addresses three questions: What did I do? What can I do to prevent it from happening again? What will I do now? Figure 13.4 summarizes Marshall’s model. His book Discipline Without Stress ® Punishments or Rewards: How Teachers and Parents Promote Responsibility & Learning (M. Marshall, 2013) has many other strategies to encourage student self-discipline.

Bullying and Cyberbullying

Pearson eText Video Example 13.8 In this video, a girl describes her experience with bullying in an elementary classroom. Children who are bullies, as well as those who are victims of bullying, are often rejected by their peers.

Bullying is not just aggression or fighting. Bullying is intentional and repeated harmful behavior toward a victim. The goal is to achieve social dominance through intense, systematic abuse of physical or social power (Kaufman, et al., 2020). Cyberbullying adds the possibility to attack anonymously, so being more physically or socially powerful may be less of a factor. Also, with cyberbullying, a vast public audience can be involved, whereas other forms of bullying often have fewer witnesses. The line between good-natured exchanges and hostile teasing may seem thin, but a rule of thumb is that teasing someone who is less powerful or less popular, or using any racial, ethnic, impairment, or religious slur should not be tolerated. Bullying can begin as early as preschool and generally peaks during middle school, then declines a bit by the end of high school—which means bullying could be a problem in any grade you teach. Both bullies and victims are at risk for long-term academic, psychological, and behavioral problems, including drug use (Hymel & Swearer, 2015; Patton et al., 2013; Thomas et al., 2015; Ttofi et al., 2016). There are many ways to be a bully, as you can see in Table 13.3. on page 584. For students in grades 4 through 12, about 31% report being physically bullied, 51% verbally bullied, 37% socially bullied, and 12% cyberbullied, but some studies have found as many as 80% of students report being bullied in some way. Rates of physical bullying appear to be going down, but rates of cyberbullying are going up (Graham, 2016; Hymel & Swearer, 2015). VICTIMS.  Studies from both Europe and the United States indicate that about 12% of boys

and 6% of girls are chronic victims of bullying—the constant targets of physical or verbal attacks from ages 8 to 16, the longest time period measured so far (Hymel & Swearer, 2015). One kind of victim tends to have low self-esteem and to feel anxious, lonely, insecure, and unhappy. They often are prone to crying and withdrawal; in general, when attacked, they won’t defend themselves. These victims may believe that they are rejected because they have flaws that they cannot change or control—no wonder they are depressed and helpless! In addition, students who are different from the larger peer group are more likely to be bullied, including students who are obese or small, unpopular, or members of ethnic or

Chapter 13  Creating Supportive Learning Environments 583

Figure 13.4  The Discipline Without Stress® Teaching Model Here are the key concepts in Marshall’s (2013) model.

I

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT vs. DISCIPLINE The key to effective classroom management is teaching and practicing procedures. This is the teacher’s responsibility. Discipline, on the other hand, has to do with behavior and is the student’s responsibility.

II

THREE PRINCIPLES TO PRACTICE POSITIVITY

CHOICE

REFLECTION

Teachers practice changing negatives into positives. “No running” becomes “We walk in the hallways.” “Stop talking” becomes “This is quiet time.”

Choice response thinking is taught—as well as impluse control—so students are not victims of their own impulses.

Since a person can only control another person temporarily and because no one can actually change another person, asking REFLECTIVE questions is the most effective approach to actuate change in others.

III

THE RAISE RESPONSIBILITY SYSTEM (RRSystem) TEACHING THE HIERARCHY (Teaching)

CHECKING FOR UNDERSTANDING (Asking)

GUIDED CHOICES (Eliciting)

The hierarchy engenders a desire to behave responsibly and a desire to put forth effort to learn. Students differentiate between internal and external motivation—and learn to rise above inappropriate peer influence.

Students reflect on the LEVEL of chosen behavior. This approach SEPARATES THE PERSON FROM THE BEHAVIOR, thereby negating the usual tendency to defend one’s actions. It is this natural tendency towards self-defense that leads to confrontations.

If disruptions continue, a consequence or procedure is ELICITED to redirect the inappropriate behavior. This approach is in contrast to the usual coercive approach of having a consequence IMPOSED.

IV

USING THE SYSTEM TO INCREASE MOTIVATION & LEARNING Using the hierarchy BEFORE a lesson or activity and AFTER a lesson or activity increases motivation, improves learning, and raises academic achievement.

Source: Reprinted with permission from Marshall, M. (2013). Discipline Without Stress® punishments or rewards: How teachers and parents promote responsibility & learning (2nd ed.). Piper Press.

language minorities, as well as students who are gifted, have disabilities, or are lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning (LGBTQ). Unfortunately, many victims go on to become bullies themselves, creating a continuing supply of victimizers and victims (Graham, 2016; J. S. Hong & Garbarino, 2012; Walters & Espelage, 2018). Prolonged bullying has negative effects on the academic achievement, social relationships, and mental health of the victims. Children who have been chronic victims through

584  Chapter 13  Creating Supportive Learning Environments

Table 13.3  What Does Bullying Look and Sound Like? TYPE OF BULLYING

DESCRIPTION

BEHAVIORS THAT COUNT AS BULLYING

Physical Bullying

Any unwanted physical contact in which one participant exerts power or force over another

Hitting, pinching, punching, kicking, shoving Withholding/stealing/destroying property

Verbal Bullying

Any comment considered offensive or threatening to the victim

Hurtful teasing, name-calling, criticizing, humiliating, taunting, threatening, making derogatory comments about any aspect of the individual (see also identity and sexual bullying below)

Social/Relational Bullying

Intentional manipulation of people’s social lives, friendships, or reputation

Leaving people out on purpose, spreading rumors, convincing others not to be friends with someone, damaging friendships or reputations, setting someone up to look foolish

Cyberbullying

Harm by posting on Discord, Yubo, SnapChat, Twitter, Instagram, Tumblr, Monkey, WhatsApp, Houseparty, Kik, Amino, Whisper, YouNow, Reddit, BroadcastMe, Chat, Burn Note, Yik Yak, MeetMe, GroupMe, TikTok, Live.me, Omegle, email)

Spreading rumors, ghosting, subtweeting, griefing, creating fake accounts in someone else’s name, hate speech; inflicting all verbal bullying possibilities listed above and sending to many individuals 24/7; texting embarrassing/compromising pictures or videos See www.commonsensemedia.org/ and search for “cyberbullying” for more information.

Identity Bullying

Leaving people out or treating them badly because of their racial or ethnic background, religion, or disability

Calling racist names; telling jokes that mock race, religion or disability; making negative comments about race, religion, religious beliefs, or disability; taunting; intentionally making someone feel uncomfortable

Sexual Bullying

Leaving individuals out, treating them badly, or making them feel uncomfortable because of their sex

Making sexist comments or jokes, touching, pinching, grabbing in a sexual way; making crude comments about someone’s sexual behavior or orientation; spreading sexual rumors

Source: Based on http://www.prevnet.ca/bullying/types

elementary and middle school are more depressed and more likely to attempt suicide as young adults. Signs that students, like the boy in the opening case, are being bullied include anxiety, depression, headaches, and stomachaches, as well as frequent tardiness and absence from school. In fact, about 160,000 children avoid school every day, and thousands more drop out of school altogether because they are always afraid (Bradshaw et al., 2013; Holland et al., 2019; Juvonen & Schacter, 2020). Students who were victims are more likely than bullies to kill or injure others in schools (Reinke & Herman, 2002a, 2002b). In the past years, we have seen tragic consequences when bullied students turned guns on their tormentors in schools in the United States and in Europe. Having friends can help students cope with bullying. Also, being in an ethnically diverse school can lessen feelings of vulnerability, perhaps because power is divided and shared among the groups (Graham, 2016). WHY DO STUDENTS BULLY?  Ken Rigby (2012) examined the research and concluded that

students bully for four main reasons. Rigby suggests that to effectively combat bullying, schools and teachers need to address the underlying motivation, not just the bullying behavior. See Table 13.4 for the reasons and possible actions. WHAT CAN TEACHERS DO? BULLYING AND TEASING.  A longitudinal study that followed

a representative sample of first- through sixth-grade students for 2 years found that aggressive children whose teachers taught them conflict management strategies were moved away from a life path of aggression and violence (Aber et al., 2003). But when teachers are silent about aggression and teasing, students may “hear” the teacher’s agreement with the insult (C. S. Weinstein & Novodvorsky, 2015). So what should you do? Respond immediately when you see an incident—don’t ignore it. Students often think teachers won’t help, and so don’t bother to report bullying.

Chapter 13  Creating Supportive Learning Environments 585

Table 13.4  Reasons for Bullying and Possible School Responses REASONS FOR BULLYING

POSSIBLE SCHOOL AND TEACHER ACTIONS

Bullies feel annoyed, insulted, or have some grievance against the victim, so they feel justified in lashing out. There may or may not be a reasonable basis for the grievance felt.

Help students read the intentions of others more accurately. Use role-plays, readings, and drama to develop the capacity to “walk in someone else’s shoes.” Try conflict resolution or peer mediation.

They simply enjoy putting the victim under pressure, especially if bystanders seem to find the whole situation “fun.” The bullies claim it is innocent—“no big deal.”

Stress with students that it is not fun unless the target of the aggression is genuinely laughing too. Develop empathy through literature activities and class community building such as circle time and shared concerns; focus on what bystanders can and should do to stop bullying.

The bully believes the aggression against the victim will gain or maintain acceptance for himself or herself in a valued group. The goals are power and social dominance.

In lessons and in relations with students, emphasize making moral judgments, thinking for yourself, and resisting conformity to group pressures. Also, sensitive discussion of prejudice and homophobia can help students resist pressures from groups to harm others based on their race, ethnicity, gender identity, or language.

The bully wants something from the victim and is willing to inflict harm to get it, and/or the bully is basically sadistic—hurting other people feels good.

Restorative justice practices and community conferences may help the bullies feel genuine remorse. For older students, if the acts are criminal, there are legal sanctions.

But if teachers take an active role and if students believe their teachers will separate those involved in bullying or contact parents and the principal, they are more likely to report bullying. Check your biases and be active. Bullying of all kinds is not “harmless” or “just part of growing up.” Use the incident as a teachable moment to talk about difficult topics and discuss why bystanders often do nothing. Finally, model an appreciation of differences and diversity (Cortes & Kochenderfer-Ladd, 2014; Graham, 2016). Also, consequences for the bullies should be clear, stated in advance, escalate if the bullying continues, include a reflection on the situation (talking to the teacher or writing in a journal), and not be meant to humiliate the bully, but rather teach better ways of dealing with the reasons for bullying listed in Table 13.4 (Ansary et al., 2015). Remember functional behavioral assessment from Chapter 7. What does the student get out of the bullying behavior and what is a better way to achieve that goal? Finally, in classrooms where there are positive teacher–student relationships, students show more sympathy for the victims of bullying—another good reason to establish strong emotional bonds with your students (Waasdorp et al., 2019). One classroom approach that has proved helpful in decreasing bullying is prevention through cooperative learning. Because people tend to seek friends who share their attitudes and behavior, bullies tend to hang together and reinforce each other’s actions. Also, victims often are socially isolated students with few friends. Cooperative activities that ­create positive interdependence to reach mutual goals can support forming new friendships and including all students. When Mark Van Ryzin and Cary Roseth (2018) used c­ ooperative learning activities in a randomized experimental/control group design with 1460 ­seventh-grade students, they found significantly less bullying and victimization among students who participated in cooperative groups. Some well-researched school-wide bullying prevention programs have been successful. For example, the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program had good results in a large-scale study following 120 schools (grades 3–11) over 2 years (Limber et al., 2018). Unfortunately, however, the results are mixed on the effectiveness of many school-wide bullying prevention programs. Administrators often prefer to adopt anti-bullying programs that they heard about from colleagues rather than determine if there was real scientific evidence that the

586  Chapter 13  Creating Supportive Learning Environments programs work—and many don’t (Ansary et al., 2015; Graham, 2016; Swearer et al., 2010). And even in schools that reduce bullying, if a few students are still bullied, those victims may feel worse because they believe the school is safe so it must be their fault—something is wrong with them. They become more isolated than ever and may need extra support or counseling to realize that the bullies are seeking power—it is the bullies’ fault (Juvonen & Schacter, 2020). One general approach that can be effective is involving parents. Teachers and schools can reach out to parents to work together on preventing and responding to incidents of bullying. Parents should know about school policies and how they can support school ­anti-bullying efforts. For this to work, parents and schools need to trust each other so they can communicate effectively (Lindstrom Johnson et al., 2019). ­CYBERBULLYING.  About 95% of adolescents have access to a smartphone and thus a way

to bully or be bullied. Up to 70% of adolescents experience cyberbullying over the course of a year (Morin et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2020). For example, when 16-year-old Denise broke up with her boyfriend, he sought revenge by posting her email address and cell phone number on websites and blogs devoted to sex. For months, she got embarrassing and frightening phone calls and messages (Strom & Strom, 2005). Now bullies have new ways to torment victims using email, cell phones, text messaging, all the social media sites listed in Table 13.3, Web blogs, and online voting booths (more possibilities have probably appeared since I wrote this paragraph). This kind of bullying is difficult to combat because the perpetrators can hide, but damage can be long term. Table 13.5 has some ideas for dealing with cyberbullying.

Table 13.5  Ideas for Dealing with Cyberbullying • Develop an explicit policy for acceptable in-school use of the Internet, and include it in the school handbook (or your class rules). The policy should spell out what constitutes cyberbullying and list consequences. • Make sure that children and young people are aware that bullying will be dealt with seriously. • Ensure that parents/guardians who express cyberbullying concerns are taken seriously. • Explain to students that they –– Should never share or give out personal information, PIN numbers, passwords, phone numbers, and so on. –– Should not delete messages; they do not have to read them, but they should show them to an adult they trust. Messages can be used to take action against cyberbullies. –– Should not open a message from someone they don’t know. –– Should never reply to the message or a weblink embedded in a message. –– Probably can block the sender’s message if they are being bullied through cell phones, email, Facebook, Twitter, Snapchat, WhatsApp, instant messaging, and so on. –– Can forward the messages to their Internet service provider. –– Should tell an adult. –– Should show the message to the police if it contains physical threats. –– Should speak out against cyberbullying. –– Should never send messages when they are angry. –– Should never send messages they wouldn’t want others to see. • Focus some class projects on cyberbullying. For example, students in one school posted on a “Wall of Shame” cruel comments that others in the school had posted on Facebook (without identifying information). The same could be done for Twitter or other social network sites. • Make parents aware of the fact that all of the major Internet service providers offer some form of parental controls. • Encourage parents to keep computers in a public room in the house. • Invite members of the local police department to come to school to speak with parents and students about proper Internet use. • Make sure ethics are included in any computer instruction given at your school. Source: From Middle and secondary classroom management (5th ed.), by C. S. Weinstein and I. Novodvorsky. McGraw-Hill. Copyright © 2015 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, p. 182. Adapted with permission of the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Special Challenges with High School Students Quite a few secondary students never complete their schoolwork. Because students at this age have many assignments and teachers have many students, both teachers and students may lose track of what has and has not been turned in. It often helps to teach students how to use a daily planner—paper or electronic. In addition, teachers must keep accurate ­records. The most important thing is to enforce the established consequences for incomplete work. Do not pass a student because you know he or she is “bright enough” to pass. Make it clear to these students that the choice is theirs: They can do the work and pass, or they can refuse to do the work and face the consequences. You might also ask, in a private moment, if there is anything interfering with the student’s ability to get the work done. There is also the challenge of students who continually break the same rules, always forgetting materials, for example, or getting into fights. What should you do? Seat these students away from others who might be influenced by them. If rules are broken, be consistent in applying established consequences. Do not accept promises that they will do better next time. Teach the students how to monitor their own behavior; some of the self-regulation techniques described in Chapter 11 should be helpful. Finally, remain friendly with the students. Try to catch them in a good moment so you can talk to them about something other than their rule breaking. A defiant, hostile student can pose serious problems. If there is an outburst, try to get out of the situation as soon as possible; everyone loses in a public power struggle. One possibility is to give the student a chance to save face and cool down by saying, “It’s your choice to cooperate or not. You can take a minute to think about it.” If the student complies, the two of you can talk later about controlling the outbursts. If the student refuses to cooperate, you can tell him or her to wait in the hall until you get the class started on work, then step outside for a private talk. If the student refuses to leave, send another class member for the assistant principal. Again, follow through. If the student complies before help arrives, do not let him or her off the hook. If outbursts occur frequently, you might have a conference with the counselor, family members, or other teachers. If the problem is an irreconcilable clash of personalities, the student should be transferred to another teacher. It sometimes is useful to keep records of these incidents by logging the student’s name, words and actions, date, time, place, and teacher’s response. These records may help identify patterns and can prove useful in meetings with administrators, families, or special services personnel (Burden, 1995). Some teachers have students sign each entry to verify the incidents. Fighting or destruction of property is a difficult and potentially dangerous problem. The first step is to send for help and get the names of participants and witnesses. Then, remove any students who may have gathered to watch; an audience will only make things worse. Do not try to break up a fight without help. Make sure the school office is aware of the incident; usually the school has a policy for dealing with these situations. What else can you do? The Guidelines: Handling Potentially Explosive Situations are based on Weinstein and Novodvorsky (2015).

GUIDELINES Handling Potentially Explosive Situations Move slowly and deliberately toward the problem situation. Examples 1. 2.

Walk slowly; then be as still as possible. Establish eye-level position.

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Be respectful. Examples 1. 2. 3. 4.

Keep a reasonable distance. Do not crowd the student. Do not get “in the student’s face.” Speak respectfully. Use the student’s name. Avoid pointing or gesturing.

Be brief. Examples 1. 2. 3.

­ void long-winded statements or nagging. A Stay with the agenda. Stay focused on the problem at hand. Do not get sidetracked. Deal with less severe problems later.

Avoid power struggles. Examples 1. 2. 3.

Speak privately if possible; don’t threaten. Do not get drawn into “I won’t, you will” arguments. Don’t make threats or raise your voice.

Inform the student of the expected behavior and the negative consequence as a choice or decision for the student to make. Then withdraw from the student and allow some time for the student to decide. Examples 1.

2.

“Michael, you need to return to your desk, or I will have to send for the principal. You have a few seconds to decide.” The teacher then moves away, perhaps attending to other students. If Michael does not choose the appropriate behavior, deliver the negative consequences. (“You are choosing to have me call the principal.”) Follow through with the consequence.

Source: Based on material in Middle and secondary classroom management: Lessons from research and practice (5th ed.), by C. S. Weinstein & I. Novodvorsky. Published by McGraw-Hill. Copyright © 2015 by McGraw-Hill. Adapted with permission from the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The Need for Communication Learning Outcome 13.5  Characterize successful teacher–student and student–­student communication through such approaches as empathetic listening, I-messages, and problem solving. Put Yourself in Their Place  A student says to you, “That book you assigned is really dumb—I’m not reading it!” What do you say? Communication between teacher and students is essential when problems arise. Communication is more than “teacher talks—student listens.” It is more than the words exchanged between individuals. We communicate in many ways. Our actions, movements, voice tone, facial expressions, and many other nonverbal behaviors send messages to our students. Many times, the messages we intend to send are not the messages our students receive (Jones & Jones, 2016).

Message Sent—Message Received Teacher: Jacob, where is your homework? Jacob: I left it in my Dad’s car this morning. Teacher: Again? You will have to bring me a note tomorrow from your father saying that you actually did the homework. No grade without the note. Message Jacob receives: I can’t trust you. I need proof you did the work. ***

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Teacher: Sit at every other desk. Put all your things under your desk. Hannah and ­Gabriela, you are sitting too close together. One of you move! Message Hannah and Gabriela receive: I expect you two to cheat on this test. *** A new student comes to Ms. Lincoln’s kindergarten. The child is messy and unwashed. Ms. Lincoln puts her hand lightly on the girl’s shoulder and speaks: Ms. Lincoln: I’m glad you are here. (Her muscles tense, and she leans away from the child.) Message student receives: I don’t like you. I think you are bad. A student may respond with hostility if she or he feels insulted by the teacher but may not be able to say exactly where the feeling of being insulted came from. Perhaps it was in the teacher’s tone of voice or lack of eye contact. But the teacher senses the student’s hostility and feels attacked for no reason. The first principle of communication is that people respond to what they think was said or meant, not necessarily to the speaker’s intended message or actual words. Students in my classes have told me about one instructor who encourages accurate communication by using the paraphrase rule. Before any participant, including the teacher, is allowed to respond to any other participant in a class discussion, he or she must summarize what the previous speaker said. If the summary is wrong, indicating the speaker was misunderstood, the speaker must explain again. The respondent then tries again to paraphrase. The process continues until the speaker agrees that the listener has heard the intended message. Paraphrasing is more than a classroom exercise. It can be the first step in communicating with students. Before teachers can deal appropriately with any student problem, they must know what the real problem is. A student who says, “This book is really dumb! Why did we have to read it?” may really be saying, “The book was too difficult for me. I couldn’t read it, and I feel dumb.”

Paraphrase rule Policy whereby listeners must accurately summarize what a speaker has said before being allowed to respond.

Empathetic Listening Let’s keep going with the situation in which the student found the reading assignment “dumb.” How might a teacher handle this positively? Student: This book is really dumb! Why did we have to read it? Teacher: You’re pretty upset. This seemed like a worthless assignment to you. [Teacher paraphrases the student’s statement, trying to hear the emotions as well as the words.] Student: Yeah! Well, I guess it was worthless. I mean, I don’t know if it was. I couldn’t exactly read it. Teacher: It was a struggle to read, and that bothers you. Student: Sure, I felt really dumb. I know I can write a good report, but not with a book this tough. Teacher: I think I can give you some hints that will make the book easier to understand. Can you see me after school today? Student: Okay. Here the teacher used empathetic listening to allow the student to find a solution. (As you can see, this approach relies heavily on paraphrasing.) By trying to hear the student and by avoiding the tendency to jump in too quickly with advice, solutions, criticisms, reprimands, or interrogations, the teacher keeps the communication lines open. Here are a few unhelpful responses the teacher might have made:

• I chose the book because it is the best example of the author’s style in our library. (The teacher justifies the choice; this prevents the student from admitting that this “important” assignment is too difficult.)

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Teacher–Student Communication (III, A) A well-managed classroom requires a bidirectional line of communication between the teacher and students. Describe the various communication styles that teachers employ when interacting with students, and explain how those styles affect student behavior.

Empathetic listening Hearing the intent and emotions behind what another says and reflecting them back by paraphrasing.

590  Chapter 13  Creating Supportive Learning Environments • ­Did you really read it? I bet you didn’t do the work. (The teacher accuses; the student hears, “The teacher doesn’t trust me!” and must either defend herself or himself or accept the teacher’s view.)

• Your job is to read the book, not ask me why. I know what’s best. (The teacher pulls rank, and the student hears, “You can’t possibly decide what is good for you!” The student can rebel or passively accept the teacher’s judgment.) Empathetic, active listening is more than a parroting of the student’s words; it should capture the emotions, intent, and meaning for the student behind the words. When you are just getting started, try this simple formula for active listening: “You feel . . . because . . .” (Nemec et al., 2017). This may seem awkward at first, but when students realize they really have been heard and not evaluated negatively for what they have said or felt, they begin to trust the teacher and to talk more openly. Sometimes the true problem surfaces later in the conversation. Empathetic, active listening has proved useful beyond teaching in counseling, business management, parenting, friendships, and many other situations where trusting relationships are important (Jonsdottir & Fridriksdottir, 2020).

When Listening Is Not Enough: I-Messages, Assertive Discipline, and Problem Solving Let’s assume a student is doing something that actively interferes with teaching. The teacher decides the student must stop. Confrontation, not listening, is required. “I” MESSAGES.  Jones and Jones (2016) describe an approach first developed by Thomas

“I” message Clear, nonaccusatory statement of how something is affecting you.

Gordon—sending an “I” message to intervene and change a student’s behavior. Basically, this means telling a student in a straightforward, assertive, and nonjudgmental way what she or he is doing, how it affects you as a teacher, and how you feel about it. The student is then free to change voluntarily, and often does so. Here are two “I” messages: If you leave your book bags in the aisles, I might trip and hurt myself. When you all call out, I can’t concentrate on each answer, and I’m frustrated. Learning to use I-messages can help your students handle conflict more productively too. For example, Esme Codell, an excellent first-year teacher, taught her fifth-graders a simple 4-step process and posted the steps on a bulletin board: “1. Tell person what you didn’t like. 2. Tell person how it made you feel. 3. Tell person what you want in the future. 4. Person responds with what they can do. Congratulations! You are a Confident Conflict Conqueror!” (Codell, 2001, p. 23).

Assertive discipline Clear, firm, nonhostile response style.

ASSERTIVE DISCIPLINE.  Lee and Marlene Canter (1992; Canter, 1996) suggest other approaches called assertive discipline when student behaviors have to be changed. Many teachers are ineffective with students because they are either wishy-washy and passive or hostile and aggressive (Charles & Cole, 2019). Instead of telling the student directly what to do, teachers use a passive response style— they ask the student to try or to think about the appropriate action. The passive teacher might comment on the problem behavior without actually telling the child what to do differently: “Why are you doing that? Don’t you know the rules?” or “Sam, are you disturbing the class?” Or teachers may give the students “one more chance” every time. Finally, teachers may ignore behavior that should receive a response, or they may wait too long before responding. A hostile response style involves different mistakes. Teachers may make “you” statements that condemn the student without stating clearly what the student should be doing: “You should be ashamed of the way you’re behaving!” or “You never listen!” or “You are acting like a baby!” Teachers may also threaten students angrily, but follow through too seldom, perhaps because the threats are too vague—“You’ll be very sorry you did that when I get through with you!”—or too severe. For example, a teacher tells a student in a physical

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education class that he will have to “sit on the bench for 3 weeks.” A few days later, the team is short one member, and the teacher lets the student play, never returning him to the bench to complete the 3-week sentence. Often a teacher who has been passive becomes hostile and explodes when students persist in misbehaving. In contrast with both the passive and hostile styles, an assertive response communicates to the students that you care too much about them and the process of learning to allow inappropriate behavior to persist. Assertive teachers clearly state what they expect. To be most effective, the teachers often look into a student’s eyes when speaking and address the student by name. Assertive teachers’ voices are calm, firm, and confident. They are not sidetracked by accusations such as “You just don’t understand!” or “You don’t like me!” Assertive teachers do not get into a debate about the fairness of the rules. They expect changes, not promises or apologies. More recent versions of assertive discipline focus on teaching students how to behave responsibly and working to establish mutual respect and trust (Charles & Cole, 2019). CONFRONTATIONS AND NEGOTIATIONS.  If “I” messages or assertive responses fail and a

student persists in misbehaving, teacher and student are in a conflict. Several pitfalls now loom. The two individuals become less able to perceive each other’s behavior accurately. Research has shown that the angrier you are with another person, the more you see the other as the villain and yourself as an innocent victim. Because you feel the other person is in the wrong, and he or she feels just as strongly that the conflict is all your fault, very little mutual trust is possible. A cooperative solution to the problem is almost impossible. In fact, by the time the discussion has gone on a few minutes, the original problem can be lost in a sea of charges, countercharges, and self-defense. There are three methods of resolving a conflict between a teacher and a student. One is for the teacher to impose a solution. This may be necessary during an emergency, as when a defiant student refuses to go to the hall to discuss a public outburst, but it is not a good solution for most conflicts. The second method is for the teacher to give in to the student’s demands. You might be convinced by a particularly compelling student argument, but again, this should be used sparingly. Problems arise when either the teacher or the student gives in completely. There is a third possibility called problem solving that allows both teacher and student to have input into a solution. Many versions of problem-solving strategies can work. Jones and Jones (2016) suggest one that is grounded in positive relationships between the teacher and the students and also encourages student responsibility and accountability. Figure 13.5 on the next page shows the basic steps. Many of the conflicts in classrooms can be important learning experiences for all concerned.

Diversity: Culturally Responsive Management Learning Outcome 13.6  Explain the need for and approaches to culturally relevant classroom management. In response to concerns about increased violence in urban schools and the ongoing crisis of school shootings everywhere, many districts adopted harsh punishments and zero-tolerance policies—immediate suspension or expulsion for even minor misconduct. We discussed the problems with zero tolerance earlier in this chapter. One major concern is that these harsh codes are enforced in ways that reinforce racial inequality. Schools with higher concentrations of Black and poor students tend to have harsher discipline policies than schools with more White, Asian, or middle- and upper-income students. Black and Latino/a Americans, especially boys, are punished more often and more harshly than other students. Black students are two to three times more likely to get an office referral or be suspended compared to White students, and Pacific Islander students are more likely to be disciplined than other

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Figure 13.5  A Problem-Solving Model Here is a general set of steps to guide problem solving about student behaviors.

Step 1:

Establish a warm, personal relationship with the student. (Develop a “positive relationship bank account” with the student.)

Step 2:

Deal with the present behavior. “What happened?” (Develop a time line/functional assessment.) “What did you do?” (Help students take responsibility for their role in the problem. Help them develop an internal locus of control.)

Step 3:

Make a value judgment. “Is it helping you?” (Help students consider their own behavior and underlying assumptions.) “Is it helping others?” (Enhance student’s social cognition.) “Is it against a rule/does it violate a compelling state interest?” (Help students understand their own and others’ rights and responsibilities within the community.)

Step 4:

Work out a plan. (Social skills training) “What do you need me to do?” (Empowerment/functional assessment) “What do you need other students to do?” (Empowerment/functional assessment)

Step 5:

Make a commitment. “Are you going to do this?” (Enhance student’s accountability/responsibility.)

Step 6:

Follow up. “I’ll check later and see how the plan has worked.” (Supportive/caring environment)

Step 7:

No put-downs, but do not accept excuses. “If the plan didn’t work, let’s analyze why and develop a new plan.” (High expectations and persistence in working with students)

Source: Jones, Vern; Jones, Louise, Comprehensive classroom management: Creating communities of support and solving problems, Update, Loose-Leaf Version, 11th ed., p. 324. ©2017. Reprinted and Electronically Reproduced by Permission of Pearson Education, Inc.

Asian American or White students. These students lose time from learning as they spend more hours in detention or suspension (Fronius et al., 2016; Gregory et al., 2017; Ispa-Landa, 2018; Larson et al., 2019; Nguyen et al., 2019). Why? The notion that Black and Latino/a students are punished more because they commit more serious offenses is NOT supported by the data (Huang, 2020). Instead, these students are punished more severely for minor offenses such as rudeness or defiance—words and actions that are interpreted by teachers as meriting severe punishment. One explanation

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is a lack of cultural synchronization between teachers and students and possible implicit (unconscious) biases of teachers and administrators (Rudd, 2014). Black students may be disciplined for behaviors that were never intended to be disruptive or disrespectful. Unfortunately, when administrators learn about racial discrepancies in their schools, they seldom make changes in disciplinary actions (McIntosh et al., 2020). Culturally responsive classroom management has 5 dimensions: (a) understanding and addressing your own beliefs, biases, values, and stereotypes that are grounded in your own ethnic culture; (b) developing a knowledge of your students’ cultural ­backgrounds; (c) understanding the broader social, economic, and political context of classroom teaching—schools often reflect and reinforce the discriminatory practices of the larger society; (d) an ability and willingness to use culturally appropriate management strategies; and (e) a commitment to building caring classrooms (Sikba et al., 2016; Weinstein et al., 2004). High-quality teacher–student relationships are central to culturally responsive classroom management. Positive behavioral supports (PBS—see Demetrick Tensley’s Casebook response on page 599) that emphasize reinforcement for positive behaviors have been successful too, which makes sense because PBS focuses on positive, not negative, behavior and should encourage good teacher–student relationships (Long et al., 2019). Teachers of color are more likely to use culturally responsive strategies, so if you are not a member of this group, you will have to work at learning and applying these strategies. Specifically, you can work on developing ways of incorporating students’ perspectives into your teaching and management (Gaias et al., 2019). Culturally responsive classroom management is simply a part of the larger concept of culturally relevant teaching. Geneva Gay (2006) sums it up:

Culturally responsive classroom management Taking cultural meanings and styles into account when developing management plans and responding to students.

If the classroom is a comfortable, caring, embracing, affirming, engaging, and facilitative place for students then discipline is not likely to be much of an issue. It follows then that both classroom management and school achievement can be improved for students from different ethnic, racial, social, and linguistic backgrounds by ensuring that curriculum and instruction are culturally relevant and personally meaningful for them. I once asked a gifted educator in an urban New Jersey high school which teachers are most effective with the really tough students. He said there are two kinds: teachers who can’t be intimidated or fooled and expect their students to learn, and teachers who really care about the students. When I asked, “Which kind are you?” he answered, “Both!” He is an example of a “warm demander,” a teacher who seems to be most effective with students placed at risk (Irvine & Armento, 2001; Irvine & Fraser, 1998). Warm demanders “expect a great deal of their students, convince them of their own brilliance, and help them to reach their potential in a disciplined and structured environment” (Delpit, 2012, p. 77). They are “strong yet compassionate, authoritative yet loving, firm yet respectful” (Weinstein et al., 2004, p. 34). Sometimes these warm demanders appear harsh to outside observers. Carla Monroe and Jennifer Obidah (2002) studied Ms. Simpson, a Black teacher working with her eighth-grade science class. She describes herself as having high expectations for academics and behavior in her classes—so much so that she believed her students perceived her as “mean.” Yet she often used humor and dialect to communicate her expectations, as in the following exchange: Ms. Simpson [addressing the class]: If you know you’re going to act the fool just come to me and say, “I’m going to act the fool at the pep rally,” so I can go ahead and send you to wherever you need to go. [Class laughs.] Ms. Simpson: I’m real serious. If you know you’re having a bad day, you don’t want anybody touching you, you don’t want nobody saying nothing to you, somebody bump into you you’re going to snap—you need to come up to me and say, “I’m going to snap and I can’t go to the pep rally.” [The students start to call out various comments.]

Warm demanders Teachers who are especially effective with Black students; they show both high expectations and great caring for their students.

594  Chapter 13  Creating Supportive Learning Environments Ms. Simpson: Now, I just want to say I expect you to have the best behavior because you’re the most mature students in the building . . . don’t make me stop the pep rally and ask the eighth graders to leave. Edward: We’ll have silent lunch won’t we? [Class laughs.] Ms. Simpson: You don’t want to dream about what you’re going to have. [Class laughs.] Ok, 15 minutes for warm ups. [The students begin their warm-up assignment.] As we have seen throughout this book, families are important partners in education. This statement applies to classroom management as well. But researchers have seldom asked what Black and Latino/a parents want for their children by way of management. One study did examine this question and found that the parents saw school discipline as more than rules and punishments. For these parents, discipline was not an end in itself, but instead a way to ensure safety, order, self-discipline, self-advocacy, and academic rigor (Golann et al., 2019). When parents and teachers share the same expectations and support each other, they can create a more positive classroom environment and more time for learning. The Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships—Classroom Organization and Management provide ideas for working with families and the community. You can find more ideas through the Harvard Family Research Project (http://hfrp.org). We have looked at quite a few perspectives on classroom management. Clearly, there is no ­one-size-fits-all strategy for creating supportive social and physical spaces for learning. The American Psychological Association has a wealth of research-based resources for teachers on classroom management. See www.apa.org/ and search for “classroom management” to find videos, modules, and other possibilities. Also visit Edutopia.com and search for “classroom management.”

GUIDELINES Family and Community Partnerships Classroom Organization and Management Make sure families know the expectations and rules of your class and school. Examples 1. 2. 3.

4.

At a Family Fun Night, have your students do skits showing the rules—how to follow them and what breaking them “looks like” and “sounds like.” Make a poster for the refrigerator at home that describes, in a light way, the most important rules and expectations. ­For older students, give families a list of due dates for the major assignments, along with tips about how to encourage quality work by pacing the effort—preventing last-minute panic. Some schools require family members to sign a paper indicating they are aware of the due dates. Communicate in appropriate ways—use the family’s first language when possible. Tailor messages to the reading level of the home.

Make families partners in recognizing good citizenship. Examples 1. 2.

Send positive notes home when students, especially students who have had trouble with classroom management, work well in the classroom. Give ideas for ways any family, even those with few economic resources, can celebrate accomplishment—a favorite food; the chance to choose a game to play; a comment to a special person such as an aunt, grandparent, or minister; the chance to read to a younger sibling.

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Identify talents in the community to help build a learning environment in your class. Examples 1. 2. 3.

Have students write letters to carpet and furniture stores asking for donations of remnants to carpet a reading corner. Find family members who can build shelves or room dividers, paint, sew, laminate manipulatives, write stories, repot plants, or network computers. Contact businesses for donations of computers, printers, or other equipment.

Seek cooperation from families when behavior problems arise. Examples 1. 2.

Talk to families over the phone or in their home. Keep good records about the problem behavior. Listen to family members, and solve problems with them.

Summary The What and Why of Supportive Classroom Organization (pp. 554–558) What are the challenges of classroom management?  As you learn to teach, you should be aware of your philosophy of classroom management. Are you more teacher centered and structured or more student centered and humanistic? Classrooms are challenging because they are multidimensional, full of simultaneous activities, fast-paced and immediate, unpredictable, public, and affected by the history of students’ and teachers’ actions. A teacher must juggle all these elements every day. Productive classroom activity requires students’ cooperation. Maintaining cooperation is different for each age group. Young students are learning how to “go to school” and need to

learn the general procedures of school. Older students need to learn the specifics required for working in different subjects. Working with adolescents requires teachers to understand the power of the adolescent peer group. What are the goals of effective classroom organization and management?  The goals of effective classroom organization and management are to make ample time for learning; improve the quality of time used by keeping students actively engaged; make sure participation structures are clear, straightforward, and consistently signaled; develop positive relationships with students; and encourage student self-management, self-control, and responsibility.

Creating a Positive Learning Environment (pp. 558–569) Distinguish between rules and procedures.  Rules are the specific dos and don’ts of classroom life. They usually are written and posted. Procedures cover administrative tasks, student movement, housekeeping, and routines for accomplishing lessons, interactions between students and teachers, and interactions among students. Rules can be written in terms of rights, and students may benefit from participating in establishing these rules. Consequences should be established for following and breaking the rules and procedures so that the teacher and the students know what will happen. Rules, procedures, and consequences must fit the situation—in-person versus remote learning. Distinguish between personal territories and interest-area spatial arrangements.  There are two basic kinds of spatial organization: territorial (the traditional classroom arrangement) and functional (dividing space into interest or work areas). Flexibility is often the key. Access to materials, convenience, privacy when needed, ease of supervision, symbolic messages communicated, and a willingness to reevaluate plans are important considerations in the teacher’s choice of physical arrangements.

596  Chapter 13  Creating Supportive Learning Environments Contrast the first school week of effective and ineffective classroom managers.  Effective classroom managers spend the first days of class teaching a workable, easily understood set of rules and procedures by using lots of explanation, examples, and practice. Students were occupied with organized, enjoyable activities, and they learned to function cooperatively in the group. Quick, firm, clear, and consistent responses to infractions of the rules characterized effective teachers. The teachers had planned carefully to avoid any last-minute tasks that might have taken them away from their students. These teachers dealt with the children’s pressing concerns first. In contrast, for ineffective managers, procedures for accomplishing routine tasks varied from day to day and were never taught or practiced. Students talked to one another because they had nothing productive to do. Ineffective teachers frequently left the room. Many became absorbed in paperwork or in helping just one student. They had not made plans for how to deal with typical problems such as late-arriving students or interruptions.

Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning (pp. 569–576) How can teachers encourage engagement? In general, as teacher supervision increases, students’ engaged time also increases. When the task provides continuous cues for the student about what to do next, involvement will be greater. Activities with clear steps are likely to be more absorbing, because one step leads naturally to the next. Making work requirements clear and specific, providing needed materials, and monitoring activities all add to engagement. Explain the factors identified by Kounin that prevent management problems in the classroom.  To create a positive environment and prevent problems, teachers must take individual differences into account, maintain student motivation, and ­reinforce positive behavior. Successful problem preventers are skilled in four areas described by Kounin: “withitness,” overlapping, group focusing, and movement management. When penalties have to be imposed, teachers should impose them calmly and privately. In addition to applying Kounin’s ideas, teachers can prevent problems by establishing a caring classroom community and teaching students to use social skills and emotional self-regulation skills. How do teachers help students form connections with schools, and why are these connections important?  The affective quality of teacher–student relationships, that is, whether teachers and students feel close or in conflict, affects students’ classroom engagement, academic achievement, and social-emotional development. To get started on building connections, teachers should make expectations for both academic work and student behaviors clear. Respect for students’ needs and rights should be at the center of class procedures. Students know that their teachers care about them when

teachers try to make classes interesting, are fair and honest with them, make sure they understand the materials, and have ways to cope with students’ concerns and troubles. The EMR model (Establish, Maintain, Restore) and Check & Connect are two examples of successful programs.

­ ealing with Discipline Problems D (pp. 576–588) Describe eight levels of intervention in m ­isbehavior.  Teachers can first make eye contact with the student or use other nonverbal signals, then try verbal hints such as simply inserting the student’s name into the lecture. Next, the teacher asks if the offender is aware of the negative effects of the actions, then reminds the student of the procedure and has her or him follow it correctly. Especially if a few students are “drifting away,” you can involve the whole class in a brief interactive activity such as Think-Pair-Share. If this does not work, the teacher can ask the student to state the correct rule or procedure and then to follow it, and then tell the student in a clear, assertive, and nonhostile way to stop the misbehavior. If this fails too, the teacher can offer a choice—stop the behavior or meet privately to work out the consequences. If you must impose penalties, consider the seven categories used carefully by experienced teachers: express disappointment, remove privileges, time-out, reflecting on the problem, visit to the principal, detention, and contacting parents. All penalties must be applied with care and, ultimately, with kindness. What are some alternatives to harsh penalties and ­zero-­tolerance policies?  Beware of inflexible zero-tolerance policies. They often increase racial injustice. Restorative justice programs are a good alternative, especially if these programs involve the entire school and community. Restorative justice focuses on building, nurturing, and repairing relationships while giving a voice to victims, offenders, and the community. The goal is to reduce reliance on traditional punishments and police involvement, but still hold misbehaving students accountable. Another alternative to teacher-imposed penalties is Marshall’s Discipline Without Stress Teaching Model, which emphasizes student responsibility and autonomy. What can teachers do about bullying, teasing, and cyberbullying?  Prolonged bullying has negative effects on the academic achievement, social relationships, and mental health of the victims and the victimizers. Teachers often underestimate the amount of peer conflict and bullying, including cyberbullying, that happens in schools. Bullying involves both an imbalance of power among students and repeated attempts at harm and may take place in a variety of settings—including those in which students are not face-to-face with one another at school. Teachers can think of bullying as a form of violence and approach strategies for overcoming bullying as they would strategies to overcome other violent acts. For example, prevention of bullying can take the form of developing a

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respectful classroom community and discussing conflict. Also, ask what the bullies are getting out of their behavior and how they can achieve those goals in more positive ways. What are some challenges in secondary classrooms?  Teachers working in secondary schools should be prepared to handle students who don’t complete schoolwork, repeatedly break the same rule, or openly defy teachers. These students may also be experiencing new and powerful stressors. As a result, secondary students may benefit if teachers provide opportunities or point out resources for these students to seek out help and support. Teachers might also find consultation with guidance counselors and parents or caregivers helpful.

The Need for Communication (pp. 588–591) What is meant by “empathetic listening”? Communication between teacher and student is essential when problems arise. All interactions between people, even silence or neglect, communicate some meaning. Empathetic, active listening can be a helpful response when students bring problems to teachers. Teachers must reflect back to the students what they hear them saying. This reflection is more than a parroting of words; it should capture the emotions, intent, and meaning behind them. Distinguish among passive, hostile, and assertive response styles.  The passive response style can take several forms. Instead of telling the student directly what to do, the teacher simply comments on the behavior, asks the student to think about the appropriate action, or threatens but never follows

through. In a hostile response style, teachers may make “you” statements that condemn the student without stating clearly what the student should be doing. An assertive response communicates to the students that the teacher cares too much about them and the process of learning to allow inappropriate behavior to persist. Assertive teachers clearly state what they expect. If communication attempts fail, teachers and students can try problem-solving strategies and encourage student responsibility and accountability.

­ iversity: Culturally Responsive Management D (pp. 591–595) What is culturally responsive management, and why is it needed?  Black and Latino/a Americans, especially boys, are punished more often and more harshly than other students, but they do not commit more serious offenses. Instead, these students are punished more severely for minor offenses such as rudeness or defiance—words and actions that are interpreted by teachers as meriting severe punishment. One explanation is a lack of cultural synchronization between teachers and students. High-quality teacher–student relationships are central to culturally responsive management. Positive behavioral supports (PBS–Chapter 7) that emphasize reinforcement for positive behaviors have been successful too. Lisa Delpit suggests that warm demanders, who expect a great deal of their students, convince them of their own brilliance, and help them to reach their potential in a disciplined and structured environment, are helpful for students of color.

Key Terms Academic learning time Assertive discipline Classroom management Culturally responsive classroom ­management Empathetic listening EMR model Engaged time

Group focus “I” message Movement management Natural/logical consequences Overlapping Paraphrase rule Participation structures Procedures/routines

Restorative justice Rules Self-management Time on task Warm demanders Withitness

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Connect and Extend to Licensure Multiple-Choice Questions 1.

C. Teachers should exhibit withitness and overlapping

in their activities.

What is the aim of classroom management?

D. Teachers must understand and practice movement

A ­ . To keep an orderly classroom B. To establish the primacy of the teacher

management. 4.

C. To sustain a quiet and disciplined environment D. To maintain a positive, productive learning

environment 2.

Which of the following techniques is recommended for approaching and disciplining a student who may be prone to explosive behavior? A. Move swiftly and get as close to the misbehaving stu-

dent as possible.

Which of the following is NOT a benefit of teaching students to be self-regulated?

B. Ensure that there are several witnesses to the

confrontation.

A. Students demonstrate the ability to fulfill their own

C. Be respectful and brief.

needs without interfering with the rights and needs of others. B. Teachers have fewer management problems, less

stress, and more time to teach. C. Students require increased teacher attention; there-

fore, they learn more. D. Although it requires extra time initially, it leads to

greater teacher self-efficacy. 3.

Mr. Ruiz was constantly plagued by students disrupting his English class. Determined to finally gain control, he resorted to after-school detention, dropping letter grades, and belittling his students. When his evaluation by the principal occurred at the end of the term, he received low scores on his classroom management skills. His principal, Dr. Simon, provided feedback based on research. Which one of the following would NOT be consistent with ideal ways to deal with Mr. Ruiz’s problems? A. Teachers should begin the school year with severe

consequences so students understand the teacher controls the classroom. B. Teachers should aim to prevent classroom problems

before they occur.

D. Use a loud voice to establish power.

Constructed-Response Questions Case It happened every day. Ginny Harding had to reprimand two boys in her class continually. Instead of feeling like a coach and mentor, Ginny started to feel like a nag. It wore on both boys and also on her. The boys were not malicious, they were just third-graders being third-graders. She remembered hearing an adage, that one should not continue to do the same thing and expect different results. Over the next weekend Ginny decided to develop a more effective manner of handling this latest challenge. 5.

List several simple ways in which Ginny Harding can quickly stop the boys from misbehaving.

6.

Routines and procedures can also reduce the incidence of misbehavior by assisting students in smooth transitions from one activity to another. List several classroom operations and activities that should have an established routine or procedure.

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What Would They Do? Teachers’ Casebook: Bullies and Victims ­ t the beginning of this chapter, we asked you to think critiA cally about how to respond to problems with bullies at school. Now, as you consider these teachers’ responses to that question, we again suggest that you think critically. Do the following responses reflect (or contradict) any of the concepts discussed in this chapter? Do the suggestions and solutions described here make sense in light of what you have learned in this or other classes about best practices? How do these ideas align with or challenge your personal philosophy of teaching?

Christen Dillon • K–12th-grade Music Teacher Model Laboratory School at Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY Classroom teachers typically have colleagues who are better equipped to handle this situation from a professional standpoint. Thankfully, we as teachers are able to rely on professional learning communities for support and help with students. After informing my administration, the next step in this process would be to let my student know I am eager to support and I care, without addressing the situation directly; sexuality and gender are so personal this could cause undue stress if your relationship with the student isn’t established. A comment as simple as, “I’ve noticed your work has been declining” is enough to show your student you know something is wrong and that you are interested in helping, but does not acknowledge the situation and allows the student to make the choice to share with you if desired. Restorative justice is a practice I use in my classrooms to promote healthy student-to-student and student-to-teacher interactions. It is my job to explicitly teach students interpersonal skills needed to interact with people who look and act “differently.” Using the principles of restorative justice in this scenario would allow the bullies, bullied student, teacher, parents, and administration to come to an agreement that allows the bullies to make restitution to their victim in a way that is meaningful, rather than just punishing the bullies and moving on. This restitution could take the form of the bullies completing community service hours at their local pride center or helping to create a program at the school that teaches others about differences between gender and sexuality. It’s important to remember that representation matters—students need to see people like them in their lessons and in their schools. It is our job as teachers to make sure that all students feel accepted, regardless of our own feelings about matters such as religion and sexuality.

Demetrick Tensley • 6th–8th-grade Business Education and Computer Science Teacher Seneca Middle School, Seneca, SC The described scenario is intense and multifaceted. As a high school teacher, I would approach it layer by layer.

This situation requires a team approach. To initiate this team effort, I would cogently communicate all relevant information in writing to administration, guidance, and the school resource officer. I would also request a meeting to discuss the situation. Some schools have seen factors like gender, athletic ability, or personal connections skew disciplinary processes. By having all appropriate individuals in the loop from the onset, these pressures may be reduced and decision making more in line with policy and procedure. Intimidation and bullying could intensify as the “popular” and “successful” athletes are investigated. I would therefore implore the team to act summarily to notify the family of the student and provide appropriate arrangements for this student’s instruction. Swift action would be needed as retaliatory acts toward this student would likely be detrimental to their wellbeing. These incidents are alleged to have happened on and off school property and involve extortion of money, assault, gender discrimination, and xenophobia. To pursue these claims, a comprehensive investigation must be initiated. Witness statements and surveillance footage will be key. After review of the body of evidence, discipline in line with the district’s code of conduct and possibly legal action can be levied. I would follow up with a guided discussion on bullying in my classroom. This would be an additional measure that alone would not be sufficient. These incidents do not occur in isolation. I would press the team to conduct a schoolwide SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) analysis to determine factors that led to this extensive bullying. From there, a Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) program could be implemented to cultivate a more inclusive learning environment.

Mari Ann Banks, PH.D. • Equity Officer City Schools of Decatur, Decatur, GA I am the Chief Diversity Officer in an urban school district. If consulted about this situation, although several issues must be addressed, I would encourage the teacher to begin with reaching out to the bullied student immediately. The absenteeism and declining grades are of serious concern and they could possibly be indicating thoughts of self-harm. The student needs to know that someone sees him and cares about what he is experiencing. This can also be a time where the teacher can collect more data on the bullying incidents from this student’s perspective. Simultaneously, I would suggest increasing supervision in high-risk areas such as the hallways, locker rooms, and lunchroom to prevent a repeat of the bullying behavior. Given my position, however, I would like to specifically speak to the gender- and race-related aspects of the bullying. There’s a strong correlation between bias and bullying. Targets of children who bully are often from groups who are marginalized because of various cultural characteristics about which others

600  Chapter 13  Creating Supportive Learning Environments hold prejudiced assumptions (such as race, immigration status, sexual orientation, etc.). For example, GLSEN’s National School Climate Survey indicates that verbal and physical ­harassment as well as physical assault have only increased for students who identify as GLBTQ since 2015. Race-based ­harassment and violence in U.S. schools has increased as well. Therefore, there is little surprise that students have chosen to target someone they perceive as atypical. Because this behavior is so prevalent, teachers cannot solve it on an individual level. It must be addressed systemically. Schools must create a learning environment that is inhospitable to those who would bully.

Miriam Miller • Teacher Educator and Intermediate Teacher for English Language Learners University of British Columbia, Vancouver BC, CanadaPreparing Academic Leaders Academy, Maple Heights, OH First, I want to acknowledge how complex this situation is; there are many layers in this bullying situation, including the power imbalance related to physical development, social capital, race and gender identity, and even crime. We know that bullying is a relational problem, so my immediate response is to wonder what could have happened to prevent the situation before it escalated. As an educator, I want to create positive peer relationships and a classroom climate where prosocial, upstander behavior is the norm and bullying is unacceptable. To promote positive relationships and prevent bullying, I would use restorative practices, social and emotional learning (SEL), and instructional design (e.g., cooperative learning/positive interdependence) in my classroom. In this case, where the situation has escalated beyond prevention, intervention is required. Regardless of gender identity, I would immediately involve the school principal and counselor. I would want the student who has been bullied to feel the adults at school care about his safety and are actively doing what they can to ensure he is protected. I would encourage the student to continue to report any instance of bullying. If the family is willing, I would include the family in these conversations. With support from the counselor, I would work with the student to build social skills (e.g., learning to be assertive through role-playing) and positive self-concept and mental health (e.g., encouraging the student to find things they are good at doing). Separately, the principal and counselor would address the students who were bullying (their families would also be involved). To address the hateful comments, I would hold a community circle to discuss homophobia and racism. I would encourage my students to problem-solve what to do if they heard homophobic/racist comments. I would invite my students to refer to our co-created classroom agreements outlining our norms

for behavior and reflect on what we can do to promote inclusion and care. I  would do this regardless of which students were in my class. For the students who were bullying, I would work with the principal to create a formative (restorative) discipline plan, so that the consequences are opportunities to teach and learn, rather than punitive discipline that might only perpetuate the problem.

Jolita Harper • 3rd-grade Teacher Preparing Academic Leaders Academy, Maple Heights, OH I believe that the entire learning community has a clear role in preventing acts of intimidation between students, and that this is best accomplished with clear communication between all parties. Care should be taken to spread awareness between colleagues as to the nature of the situation. Classroom teachers who are alert to these instances of bullying are then able to provide an additional presence in situations, such as in hallways and the lunchroom, where this is likely to take place. Further, communication between individual classroom teachers and the victim of this bullying is essential. I would make certain to provide a sensitive ear to this student’s plight as we work together to formulate alternatives toward improving the situation. Finally, in the event that the two bullying students were in my classes, I would communicate with them in such a way as to make clear the effect of their actions on others in an effort to promote empathy for their victim and, hopefully, initiate a change in their behaviors.

Keith J. Boyle • 9th–12th-grade English Teacher Dunellen High School, Dunellen, NJ Errant behavior throughout the middle school may be indicative of future behavioral problems and, as many things in life, the more this misbehavior is allowed to exist, the longer it will have a chance to thrive. In this case of a child being continually bullied by two other children (gender having no bearing in this situation), the knowledge of this wrongdoing must not be ignored or isolated. I would interview both the victim and the bullies, separately, to glean as much information as possible. If this were a singular incident, I would attempt to handle it myself via contact with the pertinent parents. However, if this were a recurring problem, the administration must be made aware. Any administrator will acknowledge that to be left in the dark about a serious situation within the environs of his or her responsibility is precarious. The appropriate guidance counselor should also be involved. The gravity of abusive behavior toward fellow students must be emphasized to the offenders. Significant punitive action is integral to send a message to the entire community that their school is indeed a haven in which one can feel the uninhibited freedom to learn.

Chapter 13  Creating Supportive Learning Environments 601

Kelley Crockett • Professor and Former Elementary School Teacher San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, and Fort Worth, TX Bullying cannot be tolerated. No school, no teacher, no administrator can afford a climate in which abusive behavior is allowed to germinate. Any incident of victimization must be immediately documented and submitted to the principal. As well, I would schedule a conference that same day with the school counselor for my student to both allow another avenue of documentation and reinforce support that the problem is being aggressively addressed. How I handle the next step depends on the administration in place, but the important issue to remember is that there

is a next step. The teacher must follow up with the student. Within 48 hours I would privately ask my student if there have been any further incidents. If he hesitates or acknowledges continued harassment I would direct him to write it down, and I would document any questions I had asked him and his responses. I would then include his statement and my own in another report for both the principal and the counselor. As teachers, we hold the front line. To the children in our care, we represent one of the first relationships with authority and civilized society. We can do no less than lend our voice and action to the betterment of our world.

Chapter 14

Anita Woolfolk Hoy

Teaching Every Student

Teachers’ Casebook: Reaching and Teaching Every Student What Would You Do? You have started a new job in a high school in your hometown. The community is very diverse. In the classes you will be teaching, you are likely to find a wide range of reading levels, family incomes, learning strengths, and learning challenges. You know that two of your students are practically ready for college, while several struggle to read and write at grade level. Also, you know that reading English academic texts will be a challenge for some of your students, even though they converse in English with little trouble.

Critical Thinking • How would you differentiate instruction to meet the diverse needs of students? • Do different philosophies of teaching provide different answers to this question? • How will you assess learning if you have successfully differentiated instruction? • How could you incorporate technology into your teaching to reach all your students? 602

Chapter 14  Teaching Every Student 603



Overview and Objectives

Much of this text has been about learning and learners. In fact, we have spent 13 chapters discussing development, individual and cultural differences, learning, and motivation. Why? The ultimate goal is so you can become a great teacher. Are there particular characteristics that distinguish effective teachers from ineffective ones? Research on whole-class teaching points to the importance of several factors that we will explore, including how teachers’ beliefs about their students’ abilities—teacher expectations—might influence student learning and teacher–student relationships. What else do we know about teaching? Some researchers call for ambitious instruction that creates challenging but also engaging classes filled with complex tasks and high-quality discussions where students base their statements on evidence. We will look at this conception of teaching. Teachers also are designers—they create learning environments (Warr & Mishra, 2021). In the process they set goals for their students, develop teaching strategies and activities, and assess to see if goals have been met. We look at how teachers plan, including how to use state standards, taxonomies of learning objectives, themes, and essential questions as a basis for planning. With this foundation of knowing how to set goals and make plans, as well as an understanding of the characteristics of effective teachers, we move to a consideration of some general teacher-centered strategies: direct instruction, independent work, homework, questioning, recitation, group discussion, and Quality Talk. We then pull goals and strategies together by exploring the Understanding by Design model. In the final section of this chapter, we will focus on how to match teaching to the needs and abilities of students through differentiated instruction, flexible grouping, and universal design for learning. By the time you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: 14.1 Identify the methods used to study teaching as well as the characteristics of effective teachers and effective classroom climates, including the role of teacher expectations and the goal of ambitious teaching. 14.2 Describe the planning process, including the possibilities of lesson

study, and how to develop learning outcomes that are consistent with the standards in your state using either Bloom’s taxonomy or Webb’s Depth of Knowledge levels. 14.3 Discuss the appropriate uses of direct instruction, independent work,

homework, questioning (particularly authentic questions), feedback, dialogue, and group discussion, and explain how to use Understanding by Design to integrate outcomes, evidence for reaching those outcomes, and teaching strategies. 14.4 Define differentiated instruction and apply this approach to teaching

a diverse group of students, including how to apply the guidelines of universal design for learning in your teaching.

604  Chapter 14  Teaching Every Student

OUTLINE Teachers’ Casebook—Reaching and Teaching Every Student: What Would You Do? Overview and Objectives Research on Teaching Characteristics of Effective Teachers Knowledge for Teaching Teacher Expectations The Goal: Ambitious Teaching The First Step: Planning Research on Planning Learning Goals Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies The Cognitive Demands of Learning Outcomes: Webb’s Depth of Knowledge Planning from a Constructivist Perspective Teaching Approaches Research on Teaching Strategies ­Explicit Teaching and Direct Instruction Independent Work and Homework Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback Lessons for Teachers: Fitting Teaching to Your Goals Putting It All Together: Understanding by Design Differentiated Instruction Within-Class and Flexible Grouping Differentiated Instruction in Inclusive Classrooms Reaching Every Student: Differentiation with Universal Design for Learning Summary and Key Terms Teachers’ Casebook—Reaching and Teaching Every Student: What Would They Do?

Research on Teaching Learning Outcome 14.1  Identify the methods used to study teaching as well as the characteristics of effective teachers and effective classroom climates, including the role of teacher expectations and the goal of ambitious teaching. How would you identify the keys to successful teaching? You might ask experienced teachers, students, principals, or college professors of education to list the characteristics of good teachers. Or you could do intensive case studies of a few classrooms over a long period. You might observe classes, rate different teachers on certain characteristics, and then see which characteristics were associated with teachers whose students either achieved the most or were the most motivated to learn. (To do this, of course, you would have to decide how to assess achievement and motivation.) You could identify teachers whose students, year after year, learned more than students working with other teachers; then you could observe the more successful teachers and note what they do. You might also train teachers to apply several different strategies to teach the same lesson and then determine which strategy led to the greatest student learning. You could videotape teachers, and then ask them to view the tapes and report what they were thinking about as they taught and what influenced their decisions while teaching; this process is called stimulated recall. You might study transcripts of classroom dialogue to learn what helped students understand the material. You might use the relationships identified between teaching and learning as the basis

Chapter 14  Teaching Every Student 605

for developing teaching approaches and then test these approaches in design experiments, or by collaborating with teachers in participatory research to improve their practice. Since the 1970s, all of these approaches and more have been used to investigate teaching (see Floden, 2001; Good, 2014; Gröschner et al., 2013 for summaries of almost 50 years of research). Let’s examine some of the specific knowledge gained from these projects, keeping in mind that much of the research was conducted in K–8 classrooms, often during mathematics lessons, and that student performance on standardized tests was generally used as the indicator of good teaching.

Characteristics of Effective Teachers Stop & Think  Think about the most effective teacher you ever had—the one that you learned the most from. What were the characteristics of that person? What made that teacher so effective? Some of the earliest research on effective teaching identified three teacher characteristics related to learning: clarity, warmth, and knowledge. Recent research has focused on knowledge, so we will spend some extra time on that characteristic. ­C LARITY AND ORGANIZATION.  When Barak Rosenshine and Norma Furst (1973) reviewed

about 50 studies of teaching, they concluded that clarity was the most promising teacher behavior for future research on effective teaching. Teachers who provide clear presentations and explanations tend to have students who learn more and who rate their teachers more positively (Comadena et al., 2007; Hines et al., 1985). The clearer and less vague the teacher’s explanations and instructions were, the more the students learned. Vague explanations were filled with “somes” (some how, some way, some people, sometime, someone, something . . .) and “you knows” (Evertson & Emmer, 2017). ENTHUSIASM AND WARMTH.  Research has found that ratings of teachers’ enthusiasm are

correlated with student achievement gains (Keller et al., 2013, 2016) and are also related to student interest in the subject (Keller et al., 2014). Also, teachers’ positive emotions while working (e.g., feeling inspired, alert, attentive, interested, and not nervous, ashamed, or irritable), their job satisfaction, and their self-efficacy are all related to experiencing enthusiasm (Buric & Moè, 2020). It is possible that when teachers are enthusiastic, they capture and hold student attention, and also enthusiastic teachers model engagement and interest in learning. Student attention, interest, and engagement lead to learning. Of course, it is easier to be an enthusiastic teacher when your students are learning (Keller et al., 2013). Warmth, friendliness, and understanding seem to be the teacher traits most strongly associated with students’ liking the teacher and the class in general (Hamann et al., 2000; K. Madsen, 2003). Also, in studies of the emotional climate of the classroom, researchers consistently find that students learn more in classes where teacher–student relationships are warm, caring, nurturing, and congenial; the teacher takes student needs and perspectives into account; and teachers are not harsh or sarcastic. It is likely that the link between the positive emotional climate and student learning is student engagement (Meyer & Anderman, in press; Reyes et al., 2012; Tennant et al., 2014). What about another important teacher characteristic—knowledge?

Pearson eText Video Example 14.1 According to research on effective teaching, personal qualities of the teachers themselves include clarity, warmth, and knowledge. How does the first-grade teacher in this video demonstrates these qualities in her teaching?

Knowledge for Teaching As you saw in Chapters 8 and 9, knowledge is the defining characteristic of expertise. Expert teachers have elaborate systems of knowledge for understanding problems in teaching. For example, when a beginning teacher is faced with students’ wrong answers on math or history tests, all of these answers may seem about the same—wrong. But for an expert teacher, wrong answers are part of a rich system of knowledge that could include: 1. how to recognize several types of wrong answers, 2. the misunderstanding or lack of information behind each kind of mistake,

Expert teachers Experienced, effective teachers who have developed solutions for classroom problems. Their knowledge of the teaching process and content is extensive and well organized.

606  Chapter 14  Teaching Every Student 3. the best way to reteach and correct the misunderstanding, 4. materials and activities that have worked in the past, and 5. several ways to test whether the reteaching was successful.

Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) Teacher knowledge that combines mastery of academic content with knowing how to teach the content and how to match instruction to student differences.

Reflective Thoughtful and inventive. Reflective teachers think back over situations to analyze what they did and why, and to consider how they might improve learning for their students.

This unique kind of teacher knowledge that combines mastery of academic content with knowing how to teach the content and how to match instruction to student differences is called pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). This knowledge is very complex and specific to the situation (e.g., first-period physics), topic (e g., the concept of “force”), students (advanced? struggling? learning English as an additional language?), and even the individual teacher. These teachers are reflective practitioners, constantly trying to understand and improve their work with students (Hogan et al., 2003). Do teachers who know more about their subject have a more positive impact on their students? It depends on the subject. When H. C. Hill, Rowan, and Ball (2005) tested U.S. first- and third-grade teachers’ specific knowledge of the math concepts that they actually teach and their understanding of how to teach those concepts, they found that teachers with greater content and pedagogical content knowledge had students who learned more mathematics. In a study by Lui and Bonner (2016), math conceptual knowledge was more important in lesson planning than beliefs and theories about teaching and learning for both preservice and in-service elementary teachers. Studies in German high schools have found that math teachers with more pedagogical content knowledge have students who are more cognitively engaged and more supported in learning, and this higher-quality instruction predicts higher student math achievement (Baumert et al., 2010). When we look at teachers’ knowledge of facts and concepts in other subjects besides math, as measured by test scores and college grades, the relationship to student learning is unclear and may be indirect. Teachers who know more may make clearer presentations and recognize student difficulties more easily. They are ready for any student questions and do not have to be evasive or vague in their answers. Thus, knowledge helps teachers be clearer, more organized, and more responsive to student questions (Aloe & Becker, 2009). Pedagogical content knowledge is a foundation for effective teaching, but the real-time thinking and decision making based on that knowledge has been called pedagogical reasoning or instructional reasoning. This is “the thinking that underpins informed professional practice” (Loughran, 2019, p. 4). The thing about teaching is that there are hundreds of large and small decisions every day—who to call on next, how long to spend on a topic, whether to answer a question or turn it back on the student, for example. Pedagogical reasoning is the union of thought and action. This reasoning requires diagnosing what specific students need in specific situations and doing that quickly, all the while keeping track of what is happening “behind your back.” There is another line of important research on teacher characteristics—the examination of teacher expectations.

Teacher Expectations

Pygmalion effect Exceptional progress by a student as a result of high teacher expectations for that student; named for the mythological king Pygmalion, who made a statue, then caused it to be brought to life.

Marvin Marshall (2013) tells the story of a teacher who was delighted when she saw the listing for her new class. “Wow, have I got a bright class this year! Look at these amazing IQs—116, 118, 122, 124. . . .” The teacher designed a host of challenging activities, set high expectations for her students, and communicated her confidence in them to excel. They did. Only much later did the teacher discover that the numbers beside the students’ names were their locker numbers! Can expectations make a difference? Over 50 years ago, a study by Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson (1968) captured the attention of the national media in a way that few studies by psychologists have since then. Debate about the meaning of the results continues (De Boer et al., 2010; Jussim, 2013; Jussim et al., 2009; Snow, 1995). What did Rosenthal and Jacobson say that caused such a stir? They randomly chose several students in a number of elementary school classrooms, and then told the teachers that these students probably would make significant intellectual gains during the year. That group of students did indeed make larger gains than normal that year. The researchers presented data suggesting the existence of a Pygmalion effect or self-fulfilling prophecy in the classroom.

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A self-fulfilling prophecy is a groundless expectation that leads to behaviors that then make the original expectation come true (Merton, 1948). An example is a false belief that a bank is failing; this leads to a rush of patrons withdrawing money, which then causes the bank to fail as expected. Recent research has demonstrated that teacher expectation effects are real and matter for students (Gentrup et al., 2020; Johnston et al., 2019; Rubie-Davies et al., 2020; Van den Broeck et al., 2020). Let’s look deeper.

Self-fulfilling prophecy A groundless expectation that is confirmed because it has been expected.

Stop & Think  When you thought about the most effective teacher you ever had, was one of the characteristics that the teacher believed in you or demanded the best from you? How did the teacher communicate that belief? TWO KINDS OF EXPECTATION EFFECTS.  Two kinds of expectation effects can occur in

classrooms. In the self-fulfilling prophecy just described, the teacher’s beliefs about the students’ abilities have no basis in fact, but student behavior comes to match the initially inaccurate expectation. The second kind of expectation effect occurs when teachers are fairly accurate in their initial reading of students’ abilities and respond to students appropriately. The problems arise when students show some improvement, but teachers do not alter their expectations to take account of the improvement. This is called a sustaining expectation effect, because the teacher’s unchanging expectation sustains the student’s achievement at the expected level. The chance to raise expectations, provide more appropriate teaching, and thus encourage greater student achievement is lost. In practice, self-fulfilling prophecy effects seem to be stronger in the early grades, and sustaining effects are more likely in the later grades (Kuklinski & Weinstein, 2001).

Sustaining expectation effect Student performance is maintained at a certain level because teachers don’t recognize improvements.

SOURCES OF EXPECTATIONS.  Research in the United States and around the world docu-

ments many possible sources of teachers’ expectations, including intelligence test scores (especially if they are not interpreted appropriately), gender, notes from previous teachers, the medical or psychological reports in students’ permanent files, prior knowledge about older brothers and sisters, appearance (higher expectations for attractive students), previous achievement, SES, race and ethnicity, immigrant status, language, parents’ incarceration, diagnoses of learning challenges, being overweight, and the actual behaviors of the student (Johnston et al., 2019; Sneyers et al., 2020; Van Matre et al., 2000). Even the student’s ­after-school activities can be a source of expectations. Teachers tend to hold higher expectations for students who participate in extracurricular activities than for students who do nothing after school. And recent studies show that some teachers may hold class-level expectations; that is, they have higher or lower expectations for all the students in a particular class (­Pit-ten Cate & Glock, 2018; Rubie-Davies, 2010; Rubie-Davies et al., 2020). Some students are more likely than others to be the recipients of sustaining expectations. For example, withdrawn children provide little information about themselves, so teachers may sustain their expectations about these children simply for lack of new input (Jones & Gerig, 1994). Self-fulfilling prophecy effects tend to be stronger for students from l­ower-SES families and for Black students (De Boer et al., 2010). In a synthesis of over 50 studies, Harriet Tenenbaum and Martin Ruck (2007) found that teachers held higher expectations for and directed more positive questions and encouragement toward European American students compared to Black and Latino/a students. The highest expectations were reserved for Asian American students. Expectations and beliefs focus attention and organize memory, so teachers may pay attention to and remember the information that fits their initial expectations (Fiske, 1993). Even when student performance does not fit expectations, the teacher may rationalize and attribute the performance to external causes beyond the student’s control. For example, a teacher may assume that the low-ability student who did well on a test must have cheated and that the high-ability student who failed must have been upset that day. In both cases, behavior that seems out of character is dismissed. It may take many instances of supposedly uncharacteristic behavior to change the teacher’s beliefs about a particular student’s abilities. Thus, expectations often remain in the face of contradictory evidence (Brophy, 1998).

Pearson eText Podcast 14.1 Listen as textbook author Anita Woolfolk describes academic optimism, a new concept that Anita developed along with her husband, Wayne Hoy, a professor of educational administration. As you listen, consider how academic optimism might influence your expectations of students in positive ways.

608  Chapter 14  Teaching Every Student DO TEACHERS’ EXPECTATIONS REALLY AFFECT STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT?  The answer to the

Pearson eText Video Example 14.2 Mrs. Casey communicates clear expectations as she prepares students to work in groups at various centers. She uses ability grouping for guided reading, but her instructions to the class do not show distinctions in levels of expectation. Notice how she expresses trust in her students and encourages them to support one another. In the reading group, how does she communicate unbiased expectations and praise?

question, “Do teachers’ expectations really affect students’ achievement?” is more complicated than it might seem. There are two ways to investigate the issue. One is to give teachers unfounded expectations about their students and note if these baseless expectations have any effects. The other approach is to identify the naturally occurring expectations of teachers and study the effects of these expectations. The answer to the question of whether teacher expectations affect student learning depends in part on which approach is taken to study the question. The original Rosenthal and Jacobson experiment used the first approach—giving teachers groundless expectations and noting the effects. A careful analysis of the results revealed that even though first- through sixth-grade students participated in the study, the ­self-fulfilling prophecy effects could be traced to dramatic changes in just five students in first and second grades. Unfounded expectations likely have only a small effect on student IQ scores (the outcome measure used by Rosenthal and Jacobson) and only in the early years of a new school setting—in the first years of elementary school and then again in the first years of middle school (Raudenbush, 1984). But what about the second approach—naturally occurring expectations? Research shows that teachers do indeed form beliefs about students’ capabilities. Many of these beliefs are accurate assessments based on the best available data and are corrected as new information is collected (Jussim & Harber, 2005). But inaccuracies can make a difference. For example, a study by Christine Rubie-Davies and her colleagues (2020) followed 31 teachers (grades 2 to 7) for a year. The teachers were chosen because their reading achievement expectations for their whole class were either higher or lower than their students’ actual reading levels at the beginning of the year—so the expectations were inaccurate in one direction or the other. By the end of the year, students of the high-expectation teachers had more positive beliefs about themselves and their teachers and also achieved at higher levels compared to the students in the low-expectation teachers’ classes. In a longitudinal study by Nicole Sorhagen (2013), teachers’ over- and underestimations of students’ math and language abilities in first grade predicted the students’ math, reading comprehension, vocabulary ­knowledge, and verbal reasoning standardized test scores at age 15, and the impact was greater for students from lower-income families. Another study in high schools found that students were more likely to complete college when their 10th-grade teachers held higher expectations for them. The teachers in the study had positive biases on average, but less so when a White teacher was describing a Black student (Papageorge et al., 2020). If teachers decide that some students are less able, and if the teachers lack effective strategies for working with lower-achieving students, then students may experience a double threat—low expectations and inadequate teaching (Good & Brophy, 2008). Perhaps the underestimation of the abilities of children in poverty is one factor contributing to the opportunity gap for those students. As you become a teacher, you “need to understand the importance of teacher expectations in predicting both academic and socio-psychological outcomes, particularly for disadvantaged students”(Rubie-Davies et al., 2020, p. 1196). The power of the expectation effect depends on the age of the students (generally speaking, younger students are more susceptible) and on how differently a teacher treats high- versus low-expectation students (Kuklinski & Weinstein, 2001). Teachers may use different instructional strategies and also have different interactions and relationships with students based on expectations, as shown in Table 14.1 (Gentrup et al., 2020; Good, 2014). In terms of instruction, when students who are ready for more challenging work are not given the opportunity to try it because teachers believe they cannot handle it, a sustaining expectation effect is likely. In terms of interactions and relationships, the effects can be huge, as the expectation differences build year after year with many teachers (Trouilloud et al., 2006). ­L ESSONS FOR TEACHERS: COMMUNICATING APPROPRIATE EXPECTATIONS.  Of course,

not all teachers form inappropriate expectations or act on their expectations in unconstructive ways (Babad et al., 1982). The Guidelines: Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher Expectations may help you avoid some of these problems. But avoiding the problem might be more difficult than it seems. In general, low-expectation students also tend to be the most disruptive students. (Of course, low expectations can reinforce their desire to disrupt

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Table 14.1  Teacher Expectations and Instruction Here are some ways that teachers differentiate their instruction and communications toward students based on the teachers’ expectations about student abilities. INTERACTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

EXPECTATIONS

INSTRUCTION

High

-More challenging lessons -More opportunities for choice -More likely to be assigned to high or gifted group

-More opportunities and time to ­respond to teacher questions -More opportunity for follow-up ­questions—tell me more -More stay-with behavior—teacher provides clues or rephrases the questions -More teacher praise and positive feedback about performance -Greater teacher warmth, smiles, ­affective support -Greater encouragement to pursue higher education

Low

-Less challenging lessons, more drill and practice -Fewer opportunities for choice -More likely to be assigned to low groups

-Fewer opportunities and less time to respond to teacher questions -Less opportunity for follow-up questions -More give-up behavior—teacher ­provides the answer or calls on ­another student to do so -More teacher criticism for wrong ­answers, less praise for correct answers -Less corrective feedback for wrong answers -Fewer teacher smiles, less personal warmth

or misbehave.) Teachers may call on these students less, wait a shorter time for their a­ nswers, and give them less praise for right answers, partly to avoid the wrong, careless, or silly answers that can cause disruptions, delays, and digressions. The challenge is to deal with these very real threats to classroom management without communicating low expectations to some students or fostering their own low expectations of themselves. And sometimes, low expectations become part of the culture of the school—beliefs shared by teachers and administrators alike (Rubie-Davies et al., 2020; Weinstein et al., 1995).

GUIDELINES Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher Expectations Use information about students from tests, cumulative folders, parent communications, and other teachers very carefully. Examples 1. 2. 3. 4.

Avoid reading cumulative folders early in the year. Be critical and objective about the reports you hear from other teachers. Be flexible in your expectations—a student’s label or your judgment might be wrong. Don’t let communications from parents shape your expectations for their children—get to know the student.

Be flexible in your use of grouping strategies. Examples 1. 2. 3.

Review work of students often, and experiment with new groupings. Use different groups for different subjects. Use mixed-ability groups in cooperative exercises.

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Provide both challenge and support. Examples 1. 2. 3.

Don’t say, “This is easy, I know you can do it.” Offer a wide range of problems, and encourage all students to try a few of the harder ones for extra credit. Find something positive about these attempts. Make sure your high expectations come with academic and emotional support for students’ struggles. “Holding high standards without providing a warm environment is merely harsh. A warm environment without high standards lacks backbone” (Jussim, 2013).

Be especially careful about how you respond to low-achieving students during class discussions. Examples 1. 2. 3.

Give them prompts, cues, and time to answer. Give ample praise for good answers. Call on low achievers as often as you do high achievers.

Use materials that show a wide range of ethnic groups. Examples 1. 2.

Check readers and library books. Is there ethnic diversity? Ask students to research and create their own materials, based on community or family sources.

Make sure that your teaching does not reflect racial, ethnic, or sexual stereotypes or prejudice. ­Examples 1. 2.

Use a checking system to be sure you call on and include all students. Monitor the content of the tasks you assign. Do boys get the “hard” math problems to work at the board? Do you avoid having students with limited English give oral presentations?

Be fair in evaluation and disciplinary procedures. Examples 1. 2.

Make sure equal offenses receive equal punishment. Find out from students in an anonymous questionnaire whether you seem to be favoring certain individuals. Try to grade student work without knowing the identity of the student. Ask another teacher to give you a “second opinion” from time to time.

Communicate to all students that you believe they can learn—and mean it. Examples 1. 2.

Return papers that do not meet standards with specific suggestions for improvements. If students do not have the answers immediately, wait, probe, and then help them think through an answer.

Involve all students in learning tasks and in privileges. Examples 1. 2.

Use some system to make sure you give each student practice in reading, speaking, and answering questions. Keep track of who gets to do what job. Are some students always on the list, whereas others seldom make it?

Monitor your nonverbal behavior. Examples 1.

Do you lean away or stand farther away from some students? Do some students get smiles when they approach your desk, whereas others get only frowns?

2.

Does your tone of voice vary with different students?

For more information see chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/files/teacherexpect.html

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The Goal: Ambitious Teaching High expectations for students are a critical ingredient in ambitious teaching. Ambitious teaching (or ambitious instruction) is a relatively recent term describing an approach to teaching grounded in challenging goals, complex but engaging tasks, and high-quality discussions building on students’ ideas. The term is used most often to describe mathematics teaching, but all teachers can strive for ambitious instruction if they:

• have deep knowledge, especially of the big ideas in their field.

Ambitious teaching An approach to teaching grounded in challenging goals, complex but engaging tasks, and high-quality discussions building on students’ ideas.

• know their students well, including the lives the students live daily outside class and how they see the world.

• know how to create teaching and learning spaces to connect the big ideas of the subject matter with the lives of their students.

• hold high expectations that students’ capabilities to learn far exceed what most people expect.

• work together with students on rich academic content, authentic problems, puzzling natural events, and intriguing questions.

• press students for critical thinking and explanations based on evidence (Grant & Gradwell, 2010; Reich, 2017). In general, goals and expectations are ambitious. Teachers develop the deep-thinking processes their students need to take on intellectually demanding tasks and push their students to elaborate, clarify, support, and justify their ideas and problem solutions (Anagnostopoulos et  al., 2020). If this reminds you of the robust learning we discussed in Chapter 9, you are right—A+ for remembering! For more information, see ­ambitiousscienceteaching.org. Ambitious teaching requires careful planning—our next topic.

The First Step: Planning Learning Outcome 14.2  Describe the planning process, including the possibilities of lesson study, and how to develop learning outcomes that are consistent with the ­standards in your state using either Bloom’s taxonomy or Webb’s Depth of Knowledge levels. Stop & Think  Greta Morine-Dershimer (2006) asks which of the following are true about teacher planning: Time is of the essence.

A little planning goes a long way.

Plans are made to be broken.

You can do it yourself.

Don’t look back.

One size fits all.

Research on Planning When you thought about the “What Would You Do?” challenge at the beginning of this chapter, you were planning. Planning influences what students will learn, because planning transforms the available time and curriculum materials into activities, assignments, and tasks for students—time is of the essence in planning. When a teacher decides to devote 7 hours to language arts and 15 minutes to science in a given week, the students in that class will learn more language than science. Planning done at the beginning of the year is particularly important, because many routines and patterns, such as time allocations, are established early (Weinstein & Novodvorsky, 2015). So, a little planning does go a long way in terms of what will be taught and what will be learned.

Pearson eText Video Example 14.3 Planning is the first step in ambitious teaching. In an interview, Charles Bull describes his goal-focused planning process that begins with the Common Core Standards.

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Lesson Study As a group, teachers develop, test, improve, and retest lessons until they are satisfied with the final version.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Instructional Objectives (II, B1) Describe the key elements of behavioral and instructional objectives. Be able to write each type of objective for a content area that you expect to teach.

Second, teachers engage in several levels of planning—by the year, term, unit, week, and day. All the levels must be coordinated. As you gain experience in teaching, it will be easier to coordinate these levels of planning and incorporate the state and district curriculum standards as well. Third, plans reduce—but do not eliminate—uncertainty in teaching. Planning must allow flexibility. So plans are not made to be broken—but sometimes they need to be bent a bit. To plan creatively and flexibly, teachers need to have wide-ranging knowledge about students, their interests, their abilities, and the subjects being taught—ambitious teaching again. The plans of beginning teachers sometimes don’t work because they lack knowledge about the students or the subject—they can’t estimate how long it will take students to complete an activity, for example, or they stumble when asked for an explanation or a different example (Calderhead, 1996). In planning, you can do it yourself—but collaboration is better. Working with other teachers and sharing ideas is one of the best experiences in teaching. Some educators think that a collaborative approach to planning used in Japan called kenshu or “mastery through study” is one reason why Japanese students do so well on international tests. In the United States and many other countries, kenshu is called Lesson Study (Wood, 2020). In Lesson Study, small groups of teachers complete cycles of setting goals for learning, examining relevant research and curriculum possibilities, and designing a model lesson. Next, one group member teaches the lesson while other teachers observe or gather data, maybe even interviewing students. The lesson is videorecorded so all members can review the video, analyze student responses, and improve the lesson further. Other teachers try the revised lesson, and more improvements follow. At the end of the school year, all the study groups may publish the results of their work, so Lesson Study is a form of professional development as well as curriculum development—both teaching and the curriculum get better and better (Lee & Tan, 2020). Information about “Lesson Study” and many examples of lesson plans are available on the Internet. But even great science lesson plans taken from a terrific website must be adapted to your situation. Some of the adaptation comes before you teach and some comes after. In fact, much of what experienced teachers know about planning comes from looking back—reflecting—on what worked and what didn’t, so DO look back on your plans and grow professionally in the process. Collaborative reflection and revising lessons are major components of the kenshu or Lesson Study approach to planning. Finally, there is no one model for effective planning. One size does NOT fit all in planning. Planning is a creative problem-solving process for experienced teachers; they know how to complete many lessons and can teach segments of lessons effectively, so for familiar lessons, they don’t necessarily continue to follow the detailed lesson-planning models they learned during their teacher preparation programs, even if those detailed plans helped in the beginning. No matter how you plan, you must have a learning goal in mind. We turn to this next.

Learning Goals It is difficult to get somewhere if you don’t know where you are going. Similarly, it is difficult to plan a unit or lesson if you don’t know the point—if you don’t have a clear target. “Learning targets define academic success—they state what we want students to know and be able to do” (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2017, p. 42). Over the years, targets for student learning have been called goals and objectives, instructional objectives, learning outcomes, content standards, behavioral objectives, educational objectives, grade-level indicators, performance expectations, lesson objectives, competencies, curricular aims, benchmarks, and many other labels. Be sure to learn what language and labels are used in your school and district and what the labels actually mean (Popham, 2020). AN EXAMPLE OF STATE-LEVEL GOALS: THE COMMON CORE.  We hear quite a bit today about grand visions and goals for education such as “promote student achievement and preparation for global competitiveness by fostering educational excellence and ensuring equal access” (U.S. Department of Education, 2021). But very general goals are meaningless as potential guidelines for your instruction. States may turn these grand goals into standards or indicators. No Child Left Behind mandated that states adopt their own content

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standards in mathematics and reading, so all 50 states did. But there were problems. For example, there were redundancies across grades or missing steps between grades. Also, there was great variation among the various states’ standards in terms of rigor and difficulty. Most of these standards focused on basic proficiency, not the kinds of capabilities needed for ­21st-century careers (Petrilli, 2020). To address these problems, beginning in 2009, the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) and the National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA Center) led an effort to define consistent national standards for each grade, K–12, in two broad areas: (a) English language arts and literacy in history/ social studies, science, and technical subjects and (b) mathematics. Table 14.2 gives a few examples of Common Core Standards in these areas. State adoption of the Common Core Standards is a moving target. Initially, 45 states, the District of Columbia, and four territories adopted the standards, and one more state, Minnesota, adopted just the English/Language Arts standards. Since then, 4 states have withdrawn and at least 12 states are in the process of withdrawing. Many states that are still using the Common Core Standards have renamed them or altered them slightly. To see what your state is doing, go to your state’s Department of Education web page and search for “standards.” There is continuing debate about the value of the Common Core. Those who favor the standards note that we need higher, more consistent standards because the United States routinely performs near the bottom in international achievement tests. Students graduating under the older, basic skills standards were not really prepared for college and careers. In response to the Common Core standards, teaching materials, textbooks, and assessments are improving and becoming more aligned with the standards—we are testing what we teach. If we drop this effort altogether, we will lose the progress we have made (Calfee et al., 2014; Petrilli, 2020). Criticisms of the Common Core include that the standards limit teachers’ creativity, don’t allow states and local districts to add their own content to the curriculum, and lead to too much testing. In addition, the standardized tests students are required to take often

Table 14.2  A Few Examples of the Common Core Standards for Grades 6 and 11–12 in Literature, Writing, and Mathematics SUBJECT AND SKILL

GRADE 6

GRADES 11 AND 12

Reading Literature: Key Ideas

Cite textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text.

Cite strong and thorough textual evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text, including determining where the text leaves matters uncertain.

Conduct short research projects to answer a question, drawing on several sources and refocusing the inquiry when appropriate.

Conduct short as well as more sustained research projects to answer a question (including a self-generated question) or solve a problem; narrow or broaden the inquiry when appropriate; synthesize multiple sources on the subject, demonstrating understanding of the subject under investigation.

Find the area of right triangles, other triangles, special quadrilaterals, and polygons by composing into rectangles or decomposing into triangles and other shapes; apply these techniques in the context of solving real-world and mathematical problems.

Prove theorems about triangles. Theorems include: a line parallel to one side of a triangle divides the other two proportionally, and conversely; the Pythagorean Theorem proved using triangle similarity.

and Details

Writing: Research to Build and Present Knowledge

Mathematics: Geometry

614  Chapter 14  Teaching Every Student still are not aligned with the Common Core Standards, so students are taught one thing and tested on another (Polikoff, 2015). As a political issue, there certainly is objection to the Common Core. In a survey of attitudes about the Common Core, Morgan Polikoff and his colleagues (2016) found that Republicans were 90% more likely than Democrats to oppose the standards. But the troubling bottom line is that there is little evidence that simply adopting the Common Core standards has raised student achievement, and even in studies that find some gain, the improvement is small, perhaps in part because the standards were implemented inconsistently (Loveless, 2020; Polikoff, 2020). Beware of Either/Or As a teacher you should be familiar with the standards in your state— they may be very close to the Common Core. These standards impact what is taught (curriculum materials, textbooks, course planning) and what is assessed in every grade. But remember, the standards are goals—they do not tell you how to teach, just what outcomes to aim for. CLASSROOMS GOALS FOR LEARNING.  Whatever the term—objectives, outcomes, targets, standards, indicators, or other labels—having a clear learning goal helps teachers avoid what Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe (2006) call the “twin sins” of instructional design—activityfocused teaching (lots of hands-on, interesting activities—but no goal) and ­coverage-focused teaching (a forced march through the textbook—but no goal). In either case, learning can be lost if the teacher is not clear about why students are doing the activities or reading the texts. Frame your learning objectives broadly enough so they help organize your instruction but specifically enough to serve as a guide to your assessment, then test what you teach.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Taxonomies of Educational Objectives (II, B1) Taxonomies influence every aspect of instruction from textbook design to lesson planning. List the major objectives of each of the taxonomies, and describe the focus of each objective. Be able to incorporate these objectives into instructional objectives that you design.

Taxonomy Classification system.

Cognitive domain In Bloom’s taxonomy, memory and reasoning objectives.

Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies Stop & Think  Think about your assignments for one of your classes. What kind of thinking is involved in doing the assignments? Remembering facts and terms? Understanding key ideas? Applying information to solve problems? Analyzing a situation, task, or problem? Making evaluations or giving opinions? Creating or designing something new? In the 1950s, a group of experts in educational evaluation led by Benjamin Bloom set out to improve college and university examinations. The impact of their work has affected education at all levels around the world (Anderson & Sosniak, 1994). Bloom and his colleagues developed a taxonomy, or classification system, of educational outcomes divided into three domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. In real life, of course, behaviors from these three domains occur simultaneously. While students are answering essay questions, they are writing or using a keyboard (psychomotor), remembering or reasoning (cognitive), and also might have some emotional response to the task (affective), even if the major domain involved is cognitive (Popham, 2020). ­T HE COGNITIVE DOMAIN.  Bloom’s taxonomy of the thinking domain, or cognitive

domain, was considered one of the most significant educational writings of the 20th century (Anderson & Sosniak, 1994). The six basic outcomes are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (Bloom et al., 1956). It is common to consider these outcomes as a hierarchy, with each skill building on those below, but this is not entirely accurate, especially in subjects such as mathematics. Still, you will hear many references to lower-level and higher-level outcomes or objectives, with knowledge, comprehension, and application considered lower level and the other categories considered higher level. As a rough way of thinking about learning targets, this can be helpful. The taxonomy can also be useful in planning assessments because different procedures are appropriate for outcomes at the various levels, as you will see in Chapter 15.

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Table 14.3  A Revised Taxonomy in the Cognitive Domain The revised taxonomy includes cognitive processes operating on different kinds of knowledge. The verbs in the chart are examples of what might be used to create objectives. THE COGNITIVE PROCESS DIMENSION THE KNOWLEDGE

1. REMEMBER

2. UNDERSTAND

3. APPLY

4. ANALYZE

5. EVALUATE

6. CREATE

A. Factual Knowledge

list

summarize

classify

order

rank

combine

B. Conceptual Knowledge

describe

interpret

experiment

explain

assess

plan

C. Procedural Knowledge

tabulate

predict

calculate

differentiate

conclude

compose

D. Metacognitive Knowledge

appropriate use

execute

select strategy

change strategy

reflect

invent strategy

DIMENSION

Source: Anderson\Krathwohl\Airasian\Cruikshank\Mayer\Pintrich\Raths\Wittrock. A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives, Abridged Edition, 1st edition, © 2001. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc. NJ.

In 2001, a group of educational researchers published the first major revision of the cognitive taxonomy, and this is the one we use today (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). 1. Remembering: Remembering or recognizing something without necessarily understanding, using, or changing it. 2. Understanding: Understanding the material being communicated without necessarily relating it to anything else. 3. Applying: Using a general concept to solve a particular problem. 4. Analyzing: Breaking something down into its parts. 5. Evaluating: Judging the value of materials or methods as they might be applied in a particular situation. 6. Creating: Creating something new by combining different ideas. The 2001 revision of Bloom’s taxonomy added a new dimension—to recognize that cognitive processes must process something—you have to remember or understand or apply some form of knowledge. If you look at Table 14.3 you will see the result. We now have the six processes of remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating acting on four kinds of knowledge—factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. Consider how this revised taxonomy might suggest learning targets for a social studies/language arts class. Here’s an example that targets analyzing conceptual knowledge: After reading a historical account of the battle of the Alamo, students will be able to explain the author’s point of view or bias. And here’s an outcome for evaluating metacognitive knowledge: Students will reflect on and describe their strategies for identifying the biases of the author. Go to https://tips.uark.edu and search for “Bloom’s taxonomy” for more explanations and examples. THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN.  The learning outcomes in the affective domain, or domain of emotional response, have not yet been revised from the original version. These outcomes run from least to most committed (Krathwohl et al., 1964). The affective domain has five basic learning outcomes:

1. Receiving: Being aware of or attending to something in the environment. 2. Responding: Showing some new behavior as a result of experience. 3. Valuing: Showing some definite involvement or commitment. 4. Organization: Integrating a new value into your general set of values, giving it some ranking among your general priorities. 5. Characterization by value: Acting consistently with the new value.

Affective domain Objectives focusing on attitudes and feelings.

616  Chapter 14  Teaching Every Student For example, an outcome for a nutrition class at the valuing level (showing involvement or commitment) might be stated: “After completing the unit on food contents and labeling, at least 50% of the class will commit to the junk food boycott project by giving up fast food for a month.” THE PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN.  James Cangelosi (1990) provided a useful way to think

Psychomotor domain Physical ability and coordination objectives.

about outcomes in the psychomotor domain, or realm of physical ability, as either (a) voluntary muscle capabilities that require endurance, strength, flexibility, agility, or speed, or (b) the ability to perform a specific skill.

Here are two psychomotor outcomes: Four minutes after completing a 1-mile run in 8 minutes or under, your heart rate will be below 120. Use a computer trackpad effectively to “drag and drop” files.

The Cognitive Demands of Learning Outcomes: Webb’s Depth of Knowledge Webb’s Depth of Knowledge (DOK) A taxonomy system similar to Bloom’s cognitive domain in that it moves from lower- to higher-level thinking; often is used in planning curriculum and assessments around the Common Core Standards

Norman Webb (2002) devised a classification system for learning outcomes based on the cognitive demands—the complexity of the thinking involved. Complexity is not the same as difficulty. Remembering a whole page of dialogue may be difficult, but not complex—you just memorize the exact words without in-depth thinking. Webb’s Depth of ­Knowledge (DOK) system is similar to Bloom’s cognitive domain taxonomy in that it moves from lower- to higher-level thinking. The system often is used in planning curriculum and assessments around the Common Core Standards (Hess, 2013). Table 14.4 shows the four levels of Webb’s DOK and some examples. The Guidelines: Using Learning Objectives should help you if you use goals for every lesson or even for just a few assignments.

Table 14.4  Webb’s Depth of Knowledge Levels DOK LEVELS

DESCRIPTION

EXAMPLE VERBS

EXAMPLE ACTIVITIES

Recall and

Working with facts, terms, simple procedures, or formulas; no transformation of information; no “figuring it out.” You know it or you don’t.

Calculate, report, describe, tell, list, draw, define, memorize, match, retell, measure, find, recall

Describe in your own words; make a chart or timeline; spellcheck a paragraph; look up words in a dictionary; follow steps; underline new words in a sentence; perform basic calculations; brainstorm ideas for a class project

Skill/Concept

Demonstrating conceptual understanding by explaining or making a model; converting from one form of information to another; explaining why or how

Infer, estimate, interpret, distinguish, predict, compare-contrast

Multi-step calculations; explain the meaning of a concept; make a working model; design a portfolio for your work

Strategic Thinking

Using analysis and evaluation to solve real-world problems; supporting ideas with evidence; integrating knowledge from several subject matter areas to create a solution or design

Plan, differentiate, cite evidence, refute, generalize, analyze, develop

Create a database; design a website; write a short story; write and record a podcast

Strategic thinking and problem solving over time; complex planning; adjusting plans to fit new circumstances; synthesis and reflection

Design and conduct, synthesize, collaborate, self-evaluate and reflect

Create and perform a work for an audience; research a topic and write a report; develop and test multiple hypotheses and draw conclusions

Reproduce

and Reasoning

Extended Thinking

­ ource: Based on Hess, K. (2013). A guide for using Webb’s Depth of Knowledge with Common Core State Standards. The Common Core Institute; Popham, W. J. (2020). Classroom assessment: S What teachers need to know (9th ed.). Pearson; Petit, M., & Hess, K. (2006). Applying Webb’s Depth of Knowledge and NAEP levels of complexity in mathematics. Marge Petit & Karin K. Hess, Center for Assessment. permission to reproduce is given when authorship is fully cited [email protected]

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GUIDELINES Using Learning Objectives Avoid “word magic”—phrases that sound noble and important, but say very little, such as, “Students will become deep thinkers.” Examples 1. 2.

Keep the focus on specific changes that will take place in the students’ knowledge and skills. Ask students to explain the meaning of the learning targets. If they can’t give specific examples of what you mean, the targets are not communicating your intentions to your students.

­ uit the activities to the target. S Examples 1. 2. 3.

If the goal is the memorization of vocabulary, give the students memory aids and practice exercises. If the goal is the ability to develop well-thought-out positions, consider position papers, debates, projects, or mock trials. If you want students to become better writers, give many opportunities for writing and rewriting.

Make sure your tests are related to your targets. Examples 1. 2.

Write learning targets and rough drafts for tests at the same time. Revise these drafts of tests as the units unfold and targets change. Weight the tests according to the importance of the various targets and the time spent on each.­

Planning from a Constructivist Perspective Stop & Think  Think about the same course assignments you analyzed in the previous Stop & Think. What are the big ideas that run through all those assignments? What other ways could you learn about those ideas besides the assignments? Traditionally, it has been the teacher ’s responsibility to do most of the planning for instruction, but new ways of planning are emerging. In constructivist approaches, planning is shared and negotiated. The teacher and students together make decisions about content, activities, and approaches. Rather than having specific student behaviors and skills as outcomes, the teacher has overarching goals—big ideas, essential questions, or themes—that guide planning (Borich, 2011). These goals are understandings or abilities that the teacher returns to again and again. Since the 1990s, teaching with themes and integrated content has been a major element in planning and designing lessons and units from kindergarten (Roskos & Neuman, 1998) through high school (Clarke & Agne, 1997). In Chapter 12, you saw an example of a whole school that used the theme of “working in harmony” as a big idea for planning across grades K through 12 (Beard, 2015). Some other topics for integrating themes with younger children are people, friendship, communications, habitats, communities, and patterns. Possibilities for older students are given in Table 14.5 on the next page. For more ideas about essential ­questions, search that term on Google. Let’s assume you have some clear, valuable learning targets. You still need to decide what’s happening on Monday. You need to design teaching that is appropriate for your goals.

Constructivist approach See constructivism.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Planning Thematic Units (II, A2) Thematic learning units that integrate two or more content areas have become common in modern classrooms. Describe the principles involved in designing these activities, and explain how student learning can be assessed.

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Table 14.5  Some Themes and Essential Questions for Integrated Planning for Middle and High School Students THEMES

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS

Courage

How are acts of courage revealed in our community?

Diversity and Variation

Why is it important to understand different cultures?

Survival

How can we deal with the diminishing resources on earth?

Groups and Institutions

Why do people live in communities?

Communities of the Future

What is the future of big cities?

Communication/Language

Who is entitled to own the airways?

Human Rights and Responsibilities

What are human beings’ responsibilities about climate?

Identity/Coming of Age

How do people choose friends?

Interdependence

In what ways do animals, including humans, and plants depend on each other?

Change and Conservation

Why do people recycle or not recycle?

Probability and Prediction

How can probability be used in real life to predict the future?

Source: Based on Clarke, J. H. & Agne, R. M. (1997). Curriculum development: Interdisciplinary high school teaching. Pearson; and Thompson, G. (1991). Teaching through themes. Scholastic.

Teaching Approaches Learning Outcome 14.3  Discuss the appropriate uses of direct instruction, independent work, homework, questioning (particularly authentic questions), feedback, dialogue, and group discussion, and explain how to use Understanding by Design to integrate learning outcomes, evidence for reaching those outcomes, and teaching strategies. For many people, “teaching” means an instructor explaining material to students; lecture is a classic form, but there are many other possibilities. In this section you will learn some basic formats for putting teaching plans into action. Of course, different methods may be more or less appropriate, depending on the subject, the students’ prior knowledge, and the particular learning goals. We begin with strategies for teaching explicit facts and concepts.

Research on Teaching Strategies

Pearson eText Video Example 14.4 Dani Ramsey introduces biopoems to her class. How does she communicate goals, provide clear explanations with examples, create a respectful environment, check for understanding, use time effectively, and give useful feedback?

As you saw earlier, there was an explosion of research on teaching in the 1970s and 1980s. This early work identified a number of general teaching strategies that were associated with student learning (Emmer et al., 1980; Good, Biddle, & Brophy, 1975; Good & Grouws, 1975; Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986). The results still stand strong today. These enduring effective general strategies include:

• communication of clear learning goals, • effective use of time so students have ample opportunities to learn material at the right difficulty level,

• proactive and caring classroom management, • clear explanations with examples/nonexamples, • teaching that focuses on meaning and also provides guided and independent practice,

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• frequent checks for student understanding with immediate effective feedback, and • a curriculum aligned with the learning goals and the assessments used to measure those goals. The results of the early research on teaching identified a model that was related to improved student learning as assessed by standardized tests—direct instruction.

­Explicit Teaching and Direct Instruction Barak Rosenshine and Robert Stevens (1986) called this approach direct instruction or explicit teaching. Tom Good (1983a) used the term active teaching to describe a similar approach. Researchers identified the elements of direct instruction by comparing teachers whose students learned more than expected (based on entering knowledge) with teachers whose students performed at an expected or average level. Because the focus was on traditional forms of teaching in U.S. classrooms, the research could not identify successful innovations. Effectiveness was usually defined as average improvement in standardized test scores for a whole class or school, so the results hold for large groups, but not necessarily for every student in the group. Even when the average achievement of a group improves, the achievement of some individuals may decline (Good, 1996; Shuell, 1996). Given these conditions, you can see that direct instruction applies best to the teaching of basic skills—clearly structured knowledge and essential skills, such as science facts, mathematics computations, reading vocabulary, and grammar rules (Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986). These skills involve tasks that are relatively unambiguous, so they can be taught ­step-by-step and evaluated by standardized tests. How would a teacher turn these themes into actions? ROSENSHINE’S SIX TEACHING FUNCTIONS.  Rosenshine and his colleagues (Rosenshine,

1988; Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986) identified six teaching functions based on the research on effective instruction. These could serve as a checklist or framework for teaching basic skills. 1. Review and check the previous day’s work. Reteach if students misunderstood or made errors. 2. Present new material. Make the purpose clear, teach in small steps, and provide many examples and nonexamples of the ideas and concepts you are teaching. 3. Provide guided practice. Question students, give practice problems, and listen for misconceptions and misunderstandings. Reteach if necessary. Continue guided practice until students answer about 80% of the questions correctly.

Direct instruction/explicit teaching Systematic instruction for mastery of basic skills, facts, and information.

Active teaching Teaching characterized by high levels of teacher explanation, demonstration, and interaction with students.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Teacher-Centered Instruction (II, A3) Teacher-centered instruction is often thought of as the “traditional” approach to instruction. In what situations is this instructional format most effective? What are the basic steps involved in carrying out this form of instruction?

Basic skills Clearly structured knowledge that is needed for later learning and that can be taught step-by-step.

4. Give feedback and correctives based on student answers. Reteach if necessary. (Remember, quality feedback is an element of most models of effective teaching.) 5. Provide independent practice. Let students apply the new learning on their own, in cooperative groups, or homework. The success rate during independent practice should be about 95%. The point is for the students to practice until the skills become overlearned and automatic—until the students are confident. Hold students accountable for the work they do—check it. 6. Review weekly and monthly to consolidate learning. Include some review items as homework. Test often, and reteach material missed on the tests. These six functions are not steps to be followed in a particular order, but all of them are elements of effective instruction. For example, feedback, review, or reteaching should occur whenever necessary and should match the abilities of the students. Also, keep in mind the age and prior knowledge of your students. For younger or the less prepared students, use more and shorter cycles of presentation, guided practice, feedback, and correctives. WHY DOES DIRECT INSTRUCTION WORK?  Well-organized presentations with clear expla-

nations and reviews can all help students construct understandings. For example, reviews activate prior knowledge, so the student is ready to understand. Brief, clear presentations

Pearson eText Video Example 14.5 In this example of direct instruction, the teacher provides guided practice as students implement a reading comprehension strategy referred to by the acronym UNREAL. Why is such guided practice important?

620  Chapter 14  Teaching Every Student and guided practice manage students’ cognitive load and avoid taxing their working memories. Numerous examples and nonexamples that highlight similarities and differences give many pathways and associations for building networks of connected concepts. Guided practice can also give the teacher a snapshot of the students’ thinking as well as their misconceptions, so these can be addressed directly as misconceptions rather than simply as “wrong answers.” Teacher explanation is useful for communicating a large amount of material to many students in a short period of time, introducing a new topic, giving background information, or motivating students to learn more on their own. Teacher presentations are therefore most appropriate at the lower levels of the taxonomies described earlier: for remembering, understanding, applying, receiving, responding, and valuing. Every subject, even college English or chemistry, requires some direct instruction. Students may need some direct instruction in how to use various manipulative materials so they can actually learn from (not just play with) the materials. Students working in cooperative groups may need guidance, modeling, and practice in how to ask questions and give explanations. And to solve difficult problems, students may need some direct instruction in possible problem-solving strategies (Arends, 2014). EVALUATING DIRECT INSTRUCTION.  Direct instruction, particularly when it involves ex-

Scripted cooperation Learning strategy in which two students take turns summarizing material and critiquing the summaries.

tended teacher presentations or lectures, has some disadvantages. You may find that some students have trouble listening for more than a few minutes at a time and that they simply tune you out. Teacher presentations can put the students in a passive position by doing much of the cognitive work for them; this may prevent students from asking or even thinking of questions (Freiberg & Driscoll, 2005). Critics also claim that direct instruction is based on the wrong theory of learning. Teachers break material into small segments, present each segment clearly, and reinforce or correct, thus transmitting accurate understandings from teacher to student. The student is viewed as an “empty vessel” waiting to be filled with knowledge, rather than an active constructor of knowledge (Berg & Clough, 1991; Driscoll, 2005). Unfortunately, for younger and less prepared learners, without teacher guidance, the understandings that students construct can be incomplete and misleading (Sweller et al., 2007). But done well, direct instruction and explanation can help all students learn actively, not passively (Leinhardt, 2001). Scripted cooperation is one way of incorporating active learning into lectures. Several times during the presentation, the teacher asks students to work in pairs. One person is the summarizer and the other critiques the summary, then they switch roles for the next summary/critique. This gives students a chance to check their understanding, organize their thinking, and translate ideas into their own words. Other possibilities are described in Table 14.6.

Table 14.6  Active Learning and Teacher Presentations Here are some ideas for keeping students cognitively engaged during teacher presentations. They can be adapted for many ages. Write an Answer: Pose a question, ask everyone to write a brief answer, then call on students to share what they wrote.

Voting: Pose two alternative explanations; ask how many agree with each (may be a good idea to ask the students to close their eyes and vote so they won’t be swayed by the votes of others).

I used to think           , but now I know           : After a lesson, ask students to fill in the blanks, then share their results with the person beside them.

Choral Response: Have the whole class restate in unison important facts and ideas, such as “In a right triangle, a2 + b2 = c2.”

Think-Pair-Share: Pose a question, have students think of an answer on their own and then consult with a neighbor to improve the answer, then ask volunteers to share their ideas.

One-Minute-Write: After a section of the lesson, students write for 1 minute to summarize the key points or raise a question about what is not clear to them.

Chapter 14  Teaching Every Student 621

Deanna Kuhn (2007) said it well: As for direct instruction, of course it has a place. Each young student does not need to reinvent knowledge from the ground up. The challenge is to formulate what we want direct instruction to be. In doing so, it is well to keep in mind that it is students who construct meaning from such instruction and decide what it is that they will learn. (p. 112) See the Guidelines: Effective Direct Instruction for more ideas about teaching effectively.

GUIDELINES Effective Direct Instruction Use a number of examples. Examples 1. 2.

In mathematics class, ask students to point out all the examples of right angles that they can find in the room. In teaching about islands and peninsulas, use maps, slides, models, postcards.

Organize your lessons carefully. Examples 1. 2. 3. 4.

Provide objectives that help students focus on the purpose of the lesson. Begin lessons by writing a brief outline on the board, or work on an outline with the class as part of the lesson. If possible, break the presentation into clear steps or stages. Review periodically.

Anticipate and plan for difficult parts in the lesson. Examples 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Plan a clear introduction to the lesson that tells students what they are going to learn and how they will learn it. Do the exercises and anticipate student problems—consult the teachers’ manual for ideas. Have definitions ready for new terms, and prepare several relevant examples for concepts. Think of analogies that will make ideas easier to understand. Organize the lesson in a logical sequence; include checkpoints that incorporate oral or written questions or problems to make sure the students are following the explanations.

Strive for clear explanations. Examples 1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Avoid vague words and ambiguous phrases: Steer clear of “the somes”—something, someone, sometime, somehow; “the not verys”—not very much, not very well, not very hard, not very often; and other unspecific fillers, such as most, not all, sort of, and so on, of course, as you know, I guess, in fact, or whatever, and more or less. Use specific (and, if possible, colorful) names instead of it, them, and thing. ­Refrain from using pet phrases such as you know, like, and Okay? Record one of your lessons to check yourself for clarity. Give explanations at several levels so all students, not just the brightest, will understand. Focus on one idea at a time, and avoid digressions.

Make clear connections by using explanatory links such as because, if–then, or therefore. Examples 1. 2.

“The North had an advantage in the Civil War because its economy was based on manufacturing.” Explanatory links are also helpful in labeling visual material such as graphs, concept maps, or illustrations.

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Signal transitions from one major topic to another with phrases. Examples 1. 2.

“The next area,” “Now we will turn to,” or “The second step is.” Outline topics, listing key points, drawing concept maps on the board, or using an overhead projector.

Communicate an enthusiasm for your subject and the day’s lesson. Examples 1. 2. 3.

Tell students why the lesson is important. Have a better reason than “This will be on the test” or “You will need to know it next year.” Emphasize the value of the learning itself. Be sure to make eye contact with the students. Vary your pace and volume in speaking. Use silence for emphasis.

Independent Work and Homework You may have heard the term seatwork, but the more current name is independent work—you know students can work many other places besides their “seats” because today they may not have assigned seats in class.

Pearson eText Video Example 14.6 The teacher in this video ­supervises students’ independent practice following the lesson. For a struggling student, she poses questions that guide the student’s understanding without telling the student what to do. Why do students need independent practice?

INDEPENDENT WORK.  Independent classroom-desk work is often overused. For example, a summary of research from 1975 to 2000 found that students with learning disabilities, who often have trouble improving without teacher guidance, were spending about 40% of their time on independent work (Vaughn et al., 2002). Independent work should follow up a lesson and give students supervised practice with quick feedback. It should not be the main mode of instruction. Unfortunately, many workbook pages and worksheets do little to support the learning of important goals. Before you make an assignment, ask yourself, “Does doing this work help students learn anything that matters?” Students should be able to see the connection between the independent work and the lesson. Tell them why they are doing the work. The goals should be clear, all the materials that might be needed should be provided, and the work should be moderately difficult—doable but neither too easy nor too hard. When independent work is too easy, students are not cognitively engaged. When the work is too difficult, students often resort to guessing or copying someone else’s answers just to finish. There are several alternatives to workbooks and worksheets, such as reading silently and reading aloud to a partner; writing for a “real” audience; writing letters or journals; transcribing conversations and punctuating them properly; making up problems; working on long-term projects and reports; solving brainteasers and puzzles; and computer activities (Romano, & Weinstein, 2019). One of my favorites is creating a group story. Two students begin a story on the computer. Then two more add a paragraph. The story grows with each new pair’s addition. The students are reading and writing, editing and improving. With so many different authors, each writer may spark the creative thinking of other contributors. Any independent work requires careful monitoring. Being available to students doing the work is more effective than offering students help before they ask for it. Short, frequent contacts are best (Brophy & Good, 1986). Sometimes you may be working with a small group while other students do independent work. In these situations, it is especially important for students to know what to do if they need help. One expert teacher described by Romano and Weinstein (2019) taught students a rule, “Ask three, then me.” Students have to consult three classmates before seeking help from the teacher. This teacher also spends time early in the year showing students how to help each other—how to ask questions and how to explain.

Stop & Think  Think back to your elementary and high school days. Do you remember any homework assignments? What sticks in your mind about those assignments?

Chapter 14  Teaching Every Student 623 HOMEWORK.  Like so many methods in education, homework has moved in and out of

favor. In the early 1900s, homework was viewed as an important path to mental discipline, but by the 1940s, it was criticized as too much drill and low-level learning. Then, in the 1950s, homework was rediscovered as a way to catch up with the Soviet Union in science and mathematics, only to be seen as putting too much pressure on students during the more laid-back 1960s. By the 1980s, homework was in again as a way to improve the standing of American children compared to students around the world (Cooper & Valentine, 2001). As our first-grade granddaughter worked on her spelling, reading, and math homework (she had assignments every day), I wondered again about the value of homework. No need to guess—educators have been studying the effects of homework for over 75 years (Cooper, 2004, 2007; Cooper et al., 2006; Epstein & Van Voorhis, 2012; Fitzmaurice et al., 2020; Flunger et al., 2015; Kalenkoski & Pabilonia, 2014; Trautwein, 2007). Most of the studies involved math and reading or English homework, but not social studies, science, or other subjects. What have they learned? The Point/Counterpoint: Is Homework Valuable? gives some answers.

POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Homework Valuable? Were all those hours you spent doing your own homework or supervising the work of others really worth it? It depends. . . .

Point Often homework is not valuable.  David Berliner and Gene Glass (2014) said it bluntly: “Let the dog eat it. Homework does not boost achievement” (p. 113). No matter how interesting an activity is, students will eventually get bored with it—so why give them work both in and out of school? They will simply grow weary of learning. And important opportunities are lost for community involvement or leisure activities that would create well-rounded citizens. When parents help with homework, they can do more harm than good—sometimes confusing their children or teaching them incorrectly. And students from poorer families often must work at jobs after school, so they miss doing the homework; then the learning discrepancy between the rich and poor grows even greater. Besides, the research is inconsistent about the effects of homework. For example, one study found that ­in-class work was better than homework in helping elementary students learn (Cooper & Valentine, 2001). Harris Cooper and his colleagues (2006; Harris Cooper, 2007) reviewed many studies of homework and concluded that there is little relationship between homework and learning for young students, but the relationship between homework and achievement grows progressively stronger for older students. Young students may be too distracted by elements of their home environment (toys, TV, games, siblings, etc.) and lack the metacognitive skills to focus their attention in the midst of distractions or manage their time. As a consequence of these concerns, many school districts are reviewing their homework policies to make sure homework is more meaningful and give families more time for other activities (Pinsker, 2019).

­Counterpoint There is a place for homework.  Most research examines the relationship between amount of time spent on homework (as reported by students or parents) and achievement in terms of grades or tests. Evidence indicates that students in high school who do more homework (and watch less television after school) have higher grades, even when other factors such as gender, grade level, ethnicity, socioeconomic status (SES), and amount of adult supervision are taken into consideration (Cooper et al., 2006; Cooper & Valentine, 2001; Cooper, Valentine et al., 1999). High school girls spend about 1 hour more per week on homework

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than boys, even taking into account ability, parents’ help, outside activities such as jobs, and type of coursework. One suggestion is that this additional time spent studying is a factor causing the gender gap that favors girls in college admission and completion—the girls know how to study (Gershenson & Holt, 2015). Consistent with all these findings, the National Education Association suggests a “10 minute rule,” which means 10 minutes of homework per night starting in the first grade and increasing by 10 minutes each grade, so a 12th-grader would be assigned about 120 minutes of homework per night (Walker, 2017). But here is the possible problem with just thinking of homework in terms of time: Not every student takes the same time to do the same homework. Another approach is to focus on effort instead of time. Students’ self-reported effort on homework is consistently and positively related to student achievement (Trautwein et al., 2009). “High homework effort means that a student does his or her best to solve the tasks assigned. There need not be a close relationship between effort and time on homework: A student putting as much effort as possible into a homework assignment might finish in 5 min or still be working after an hour” (Trautwein & Lüdtke, 2007, p. 432). Barbara Flunger and her colleagues (2015) identified 5 types of learners in eighth grade, based on their homework effort (persistence and compliance) and time spent. Fast learners invested good effort to complete homework quickly. High-effort learners invested great effort and more time in homework while average learners invested some effort and little time. Struggling learners had trouble investing effort but spent high levels of time on homework. Then there were minimalists, who invested little effort or time. As you might predict, the fast learners and high-effort learners did significantly better over the year in terms of grades and test scores. Also, it is not surprising that students who are interested in their homework and believe it is valuable for their learning are more engaged in the work, and this engagement is associated with higher achievement (Rodríguez et al., 2019). Beware of Either/Or. Even with the changes in attitudes toward homework over the years, the homework load for middle and high school students has not changed much since the mid-1980s. Upper elementary students seem to have increased homework, however (Loveless, 2014). The real question is not about assigning homework versus not assigning homework, but rather assigning the right kind of homework to the right learners. Students are more likely to put in effort if they see the homework as interesting, valuable, reasonably challenging, and not anxiety provoking—this could require some differentiated homework assignments (Dettmers et al., 2010). So the challenge is to get students to put their best efforts into appropriate homework and to not assign homework that is low quality. Time spent struggling is not time well spent.

To benefit from homework, students must understand the assignment. It may help to do the first few questions as a class, to clear up any misconceptions. This is especially important for students who may have no one at home to consult if they have problems with the assignment. A second way to keep students involved is to hold them accountable for completing the work correctly, not just for filling in the page. This means the work should be checked, the students given a chance to correct the errors or revise work, and the results counted toward the class grade. Expert teachers often have ways of correcting homework quickly during the first minutes of class by having students check each other’s or their own work. If students get stuck on homework, they need help at home, someone who can scaffold their work without just “giving the answer” (Pressley, 1995). But many families don’t know how to help (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2001). The Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships—Homework provide ideas for helping families deal with homework. But no matter what, be prepared for some parent complaints. In a study of parents’ attitudes toward homework, 15% wanted less and 25% wanted more, but thankfully, 60% felt the amount of homework assigned was just right (Loveless, 2014).

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­GUIDELINES Family and Community Partnerships Homework Make sure families know what students are expected to learn. Examples 1.

2.

At the beginning of a unit, send home a list of the main objectives, examples of major assignments, key due dates, a homework “calendar,” and a list of free resources available at libraries or on the Internet. Provide a clear, concise description of your homework policy, including how homework is counted toward class grades, as well as consequences for late, forgotten, or missing homework.

Help families find a comfortable and helpful role in their child’s homework. Examples 1. 2.

Have some homework assignments that are fun and involve the whole family—puzzles, family albums, watching a television program together and doing a “review.” In conferences, ask families how you could help them to support their child in completing and learning from homework. Checklists? Background reading? Websites? Explanations of study skills?

Encourage parents to help structure the home for homework without becoming controlling and punitive or intrusive (Dumont et al., 2014). Examples 1.

2. 3.

4.

Remind families that “helping with homework” means encouraging, listening, monitoring, praising, discussing, brainstorming—not punishing, harassing, threatening, helping when help isn’t needed, or doing the work for their child. Encourage families to set aside a quiet time and place for everyone in the family to study. Make this time a regular part of the daily routine. Encourage parents to focus on modeling and supporting time management and persistence skills in doing homework: homework before play, friends, TV, games, or screen time. Make sure the needed materials are all available so the child won’t interrupt homework to find a pen or ruler.

Solicit and use suggestions from families about homework. Examples 1. 2.

Find out what responsibilities the child has at home—how much time is available for homework. Periodically, have a “homework hotline” for call-in questions and suggestions.

If no one is at home to help with homework, set up other support systems. Examples 1. 2. 3.

Assign study buddies who can be available over the phone. If students have computers, provide lists of Internet helplines. Locate free help in public libraries, and make these resources known.

Take advantage of family and community “funds of knowledge” to connect homework with life in the community, and life in the community with lessons in school (Moll et al., 1992). Examples 1. 2.

Create a class lesson about how family members use math and reading in sewing and in house construction (Epstein & Van Voorhis, 2001). Design interactive homework projects that families do together to evaluate needed products for their home, for example, deciding on the best buy on shampoo or paper towels.

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Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Questioning (III, C) Effective questioning skills are among the most valuable skills a teacher can possess—and among the most difficult to develop. For guidance on asking effective questions in the classroom, read Question Types (unl.edu/teaching/teachquestions .html).

Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback Teachers pose questions, students answer. This form of teaching, sometimes called recitation, has been with us for many years (Romano & Weinstein, 2019). The pattern from the teacher’s point of view consists of IRF: Initiation (teacher asks questions), Response (student answers), and Follow-up (praising, correcting, probing, or expanding) (Burbules & Bruce, 2001; Gillies, 2016). These steps are repeated over and over. As you will see later, there are other ways of thinking about discussion, but for now let’s consider the heart of recitation—the initiation, or questioning, phase. Good questions are important for many kinds of quality teaching. Effective, authentic questions may be among the most powerful teaching tools to keep students cognitively engaged. Questions play several roles in cognition. They can help students rehearse information for effective recall. They can work to identify gaps in students’ knowledge, provoke curiosity, and nurture long-term interest. They can initiate cognitive conflict and promote the disequilibrium that results in a changed knowledge structure. They can serve as cues, tips, or reminders as an expert guides a novice in a learning experience. Students as well as teachers should learn to question effectively. I tell my students that the first step in doing a good research project is asking a good question. For now, we will focus on teachers’ questions. Many of the beginning teachers I work with are surprised to discover how valuable good questions can be and how difficult they are to create. Stop & Think  Think back to your most recent class. What kinds of questions did your professor ask? What sort of thinking was required to answer the questions? Remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, or creating? How long did the professor wait for an answer?

Convergent questions Questions with only one right answer—usually factual questions or rote knowledge questions.

Divergent questions Questions that have no single correct answer.

Authentic questions Questions that the teacher does not have a predetermined answer for.

Pearson eText Video Example 14.7 Literacy teacher Charles Bull asks authentic questions as he presses students to make inferences, support their claims with evidence from the text, and justify their claims by explaining the connections in their own words. What authentic questions does Mr. Bull ask?

KINDS OF QUESTIONS.  Some educators have estimated the typical teacher asks between 30 and 120 questions an hour, or about 1,500,000 questions over a teaching career (Sadker & Sadker, 2006). What are these questions like? Many can be categorized in terms of Bloom’s taxonomy in the cognitive domain. Table 14.7 offers examples of questions at the different taxonomic levels. Another way to categorize questioning is in terms of convergent questions (only one right answer) or divergent questions (many possible answers). Questions about concrete facts are convergent: “Who ruled England in 1540?” “Who wrote the original Peter Pan?” Questions dealing with opinions or hypotheses are divergent: “In this story, which character is most like you and why?” “In 100 years, which of the past five presidents will be most admired and why?” ASKING AUTHENTIC QUESTIONS.  No matter what kinds of questions you ask, be sure that

some are authentic questions, meaning you as the teacher don’t already know the answer. Examples are, “Have we seen this issue before?” “How is what we measure affected by the tools we use?” “In what we just read, how do we separate fact from opinion?” Authentic questions serve several functions (Kelly et al., 2018). They give some authority to students to shape the flow of discussion and connect the class topics to their own lives, so the students are more invested and engaged. Authentic questions also set expectations that everyone will get involved, not just the students who usually have the “right answers.” Finally, authentic questions make you think critically and analyze. Authentic questions open the door for deep explanations. As we have seen before, there is strong evidence that questions requiring deep explanations help students improve academic performance and enhance authentic understanding. What is a deep explanation? Examples of deep explanations include those that inquire about causes and consequences of historical events, motivations of people involved in historical events, scientific evidence for particular theories, and logical justifications for the steps of a mathematical proof. Examples of the types of questions that prompt deep explanations are why, why-not, how, what-if, how does X compare to Y, and what is the evidence for X? These questions and explanations occur during classroom instruction, class discussion, and during independent study. (Pashler et al., 2007, p. 29)

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Table 14.7  Classroom Questions for the Cognitive Domain Questions can be posed that encourage thinking at every level of Bloom’s taxonomy in the cognitive domain. Of course, the thinking required depends on what has gone before in the discussion. CATEGORY

TYPE OF THINKING EXPECTED

EXAMPLES

Remembering

Recalling or recognizing information as learned without really using or changing it

-List the capitals of. . . . -What are the six parts . . .? -Which strategy does the text say you should use here . . .?

Understanding

Demonstrating understanding of the materials without necessarily relating it to anything else

-Summarize in your own words. . . . -What does . . . . mean in this sentence? -Predict the next step . . . .

Applying

Using information to solve a problem with a single correct answer

-Classify these plants. . . . -Calculate the area of. . . . -Select the best strategy for . . . .

Analyzing

Breaking something down into parts; identifying reasons and motives; making inferences based on specific data; analyzing conclusions to see if supported by evidence

-What was the first breakthrough in . . .? The second? -Explain why Washington, D.C., was chosen. . . . -Which of the following are facts, and which are opinions . . .? -Based on your experiment, what is the chemical . . .?

Evaluating

Judging the merits of materials or methods as they might be applied in a particular situation, offering opinions, applying standards

-Rank the top 10 U.S. senators in terms of ­effectiveness in. . . . -Which painting do you believe to be better? Why? -Which study strategy is the best for you in . . .?

Creating

Creating something new; original thinking; original plan, proposal, design, or story

-What’s a good name for . . .? -How could we combine those two ideas? -How could we raise money for . . .? -What would the United States be like if ­Germany had won . . .?

FITTING THE QUESTIONS TO THE STUDENTS—AND WAITING.  Different patterns seem to be

better for certain types of students. The best pattern for younger students and for l­ ower-ability students of all ages is simple questions that allow a high percentage of correct answers, ample encouragement, help when the student does not have the correct answer, and praise. For high-ability students, the successful pattern includes harder questions at both higher and lower levels and more critical feedback (Berliner, 1987; Good, 1988). Whatever their age or ability, however, all students should have some experience with thought-provoking, deep authentic questions and, if necessary, help in learning how to answer them. To master critical thinking and problem-solving skills, students must have time to think about their answers. But classic research shows that teachers wait an average of only 1 second for students to answer (Rowe, 1974). When teachers learn to pose a question, then wait at least 3 to 5 seconds before calling on a student to answer, students tend to give longer answers; more students are likely to participate, ask questions, and volunteer appropriate answers; student comments involving analysis, synthesis, inference, and speculation tend to increase; and the students generally appear more confident in their answers (Sadker & Sadker, 2006). This seems like a simple improvement in teaching, but 5 seconds of silence is not that easy to handle. It takes practice. You might try asking students to jot down ideas or even discuss the question with another student and formulate an answer together. This makes the wait more comfortable and gives students a chance to think. Of course, if it is clear that students are lost or don’t understand the question, waiting longer will not help. When your question is met with blank stares, rephrase the question or ask if anyone can clarify it. However, some evidence shows that extending wait times does not affect learning in university classes, so with advanced high school students, you might conduct your own evaluation of wait time (Duell, 1994; Ingram & Elliott, 2016).

628  Chapter 14  Teaching Every Student A word about selecting students to answer questions. If you call only on volunteers, then you may get the wrong idea about how well students understand the material. Also, the same people volunteer over and over again. Many expert teachers have some systematic way of making sure that they call on everyone: They pull names from a jar or check names off a list as each student speaks (Romano & Weinstein, 2019; Weinstein & Novodvorsky, 2015). Another possibility is to put each student’s name on an index card, then shuffle the cards and go through the deck as you call on people. You can use the card to make notes about the quality of students’ answers or any extra help they seem to need. RESPONDING TO STUDENT ANSWERS.  What do you do after the student answers? The

most common response, occurring about 50% of the time in most classrooms, is simple acceptance—“Okay” or “Uh-huh” (Sadker & Sadker, 2006). But there are better reactions, depending on whether the student’s answer is correct, partially correct, or wrong. If the answer is quick, firm, and correct, simply accept the answer or ask another question. If the answer is correct but hesitant, give the student feedback about why the answer is correct: “That’s right, Chris, the Senate is part of the legislative branch of government because the Senate. . . .” This allows you to explain the material again. If this student is unsure, others may be confused as well. If the answer is partially or completely wrong but the student has made an honest attempt, you should probe for more information, give clues, simplify the question, review the previous steps, or reteach the material. If the student’s wrong answer is silly or careless, however, it is better simply to correct the answer and go on (Good, 1988; Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986). Simply put, feedback is information about how the student’s current performance relates to the learning goal—essential information for constructing understanding (Tan et al., 2020; van den Berg et al., 2014). John Hattie and Helen Timperley (2007) reviewed several decades of research on feedback and developed a model to guide teachers. The model proposes three feedback questions: “Where am I going?” “How am I going?” and “Where to next?” The first question is about goals and goal clarity. The second is about progress— movement toward goals. The third question is about moving forward to improve understandings when goals are not met yet or to build on attained goals. The Hattie and Timperley model also considers the focus of the feedback on four levels: task, process, self-regulation, and self-feedback. Here are some examples (p. 90): Task Feedback: “You need to include more about the Treaty of Versailles.” Process Feedback: “This page may make more sense if you use the strategies we talked about earlier.” Self-Regulation Feedback: “You already know the key features of the opening of an argument. Check to see whether you have incorporated them in your first paragraph.” Self-Feedback: Less effective: “That’s an intelligent response, well done.” More effective: “You must have thought deeply about that response, well done.”

Group discussion Conversation in which the teacher does not have the dominant role; students pose and answer their own questions.

Hattie and Timperley argue that feedback about process and self-regulation is the most powerful because it helps students move toward deep understanding, mastery, and s­ elf-direction in learning. Feedback about self (usually praise) is common in classes but is not effective unless the praise provides information about how effort, persistence, or ­self-regulation moved the student forward, as in, “You are terrific—you stuck with this, revised again, and now this essay makes a powerful argument.” Finally, your feedback as a teacher can include Respectful Inquiry to explore the student’s answer with them (Tan et al., 2020). This means that feedback is accompanied by asking questions to better understand the student’s thinking, being open to follow where the answers lead, and attentive listening—giving students time to answer, looking at them directly, calling them by name. This two-way feedback interaction process models for students how to be more ­metacognitive—how to think about their own thinking. Sounds like good advice in general. GROUP DISCUSSION AND QUALITY TALK.  Classrooms “are the training grounds for

citizenship, and discussions afford students opportunities not only to hear diverse viewpoints, but also to substantiate their claims with evidence” (Reisman, 2015, p. 1). During a group discussion a teacher may pose questions, listen to student answers, react, and probe

Chapter 14  Teaching Every Student 629

for more information, but in a true group dialogue, the teacher does not have a dominant role. Students ask questions, answer each other’s questions, and respond to each other’s answers. These kinds of student-centered dialogues are relatively rare, however. One study of 64 middle schools found that only 1.6 minutes per 60-minute class were devoted to these discussions (Applebee et al., 2003). But no matter what kind of class discussions you have, remember the value of authentic questions that reveal students’ thinking so you and other students can understand and build on their ideas. “Ambitious teachers engage students in collaborative negotiation of ideas motivated by authentic questions. . . . Such instruction requires teachers to be adept at using students’ ideas as fuel to power classroom activity” (Kavanaugh et al., 2020). Group discussions have many advantages. Motivation and engagement can be higher. Students learn to express themselves clearly, justify opinions, and tolerate different views. Group discussion also gives students a chance to ask for clarification and the opportunity to examine their own thinking, follow personal interests, and assume responsibility by taking leadership roles in the group. Discussions are also useful when students are trying to understand difficult concepts that go against common sense. By thinking together, challenging each other, and suggesting and evaluating possible explanations, students are more likely to reach a genuine understanding (Wu et al., 2013). Of course, there are disadvantages. Class discussions are quite unpredictable and may easily digress into exchanges of ignorance. You may have to do a good deal of preparation to ensure that participants have enough background knowledge for the discussion. Some members of the group may have great difficulty participating and may become anxious if forced to speak. And large groups are often unwieldy. In many cases, a few students will dominate the discussion while the others daydream. At times teachers have to intervene to keep students focused on the goal, connected to the actual learning materials being discussed, and listening to each other (Arends, 2014; Freiberg & Driscoll, 2005; Reisman, 2015). Are discussions effective learning tools? In a major review of research conducted from 1964 to 2003 on the value of discussing texts for improving student comprehension, Karen Murphy and her colleagues (2009) reached some surprising conclusions. They examined a wide range of discussion formats including Instructional Conversations, Junior Great Books Shared Inquiry, Questioning the Author, Literature Circles, Book Club, and Grand Conversation—to name just a few. They found many of these approaches were very successful in increasing student talk, limiting teacher talk, and promoting students’ literal interpretations of the texts they discussed. But getting students to talk more did not necessarily promote their critical thinking, reasoning, or argumentation skills. The researchers concluded, “Simply putting students into groups and encouraging them to talk is not enough to enhance comprehension and learning; it is but a step in the process” (p. 760). What happens before, during, and after the discussions are the keys. Based on the findings from their research, Murphy and her colleagues developed an ­approach to discussions called Quality Talk to get the most benefit from discussing texts and readings (Murphy et al., 2016, 2018). “Quality Talk (QT) is a multifaceted approach ­toward classroom discussions designed to increase students’ high-level comprehension by encouraging students to think and talk about, around, and with the text” (Murphy et al., 2018, p. 1120). Students meet in small groups (four to six members) to discuss the reading. The teacher selects the text and topic for discussion, but the students have control over taking turns in the discussion and over their own interpretations—the teacher is not looking for one right answer. Table 14.8 on the next page describes what happens before, during, and after the ­small-group discussions. The Guidelines: Productive Group Discussions on the next page give some more ideas for facilitating a productive group discussion, whether they are whole class or small group.

Lessons for Teachers: Fitting Teaching to Your Goals In the midst of all our discussions about methods, we have to keep in mind that the first questions should be: What should students learn? and What is worth knowing today? Then, we can match methods to goals.

Quality Talk An approach to classroom discussions designed to increase students’ high-level comprehension by encouraging students to think and talk about, around, and with the text.

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Table 14.8  Quality Talk in Small-Group Discussion: Before, During, and After Just putting students in discussion groups does not guarantee learning. You have to prepare and have a plan before, during, and after. TIME

TEACHER

STUDENTS

Before the small-group discussion

Provides mini lessons explicitly teaching how to ask and respond to authentic questions in critical and analytic ways and how to make evidence-based arguments and claims

-Read text -Complete activities in their journal to be sure they understand the key features (e.g., main idea) -Craft some authentic questions about the text

During the small-group discussion

-Facilitates discussion by encouraging students to search the text for arguments, assumptions, beliefs, themes, etc. -Models critical and analytic thinking -Challenges and prompts students to provide evidence, make personal connections -Gradually turns over more responsibility to the group as they improve

-Encourage each other to talk about personal connections to the text -Retrieve and revisit basic information from the text -Gradually take over control of turn-taking and the authority to make and challenge individual interpretations of the text

After the small-group discussion

-Gives feedback about the discussions, possible improvements in the process for next time, challenges any misconceptions -Checks for understanding using appropriate assessments and activities

-Complete post-discussion activities in their journals that require critical thinking and analysis -Set goals for the next group discussion

Source: Based on Murphy, P. K., Firetto, C. M., Wei, L., Li, M., & Croninger, R. M. V. (2016). What REALLY works: Optimizing classroom discussions to promote comprehension and critical-analytic thinking. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3, 27–35; Murphy, P. K., Greene, J. A., Firetto, C. M., Hendrick, B. D., Li, M., Montalbano, C., & Wei, L. (2018). Quality talk: Developing students’ discourse to promote high-level comprehension. American Educational Research Journal, 55, 1113–1160.

GUIDELINES Productive Group Discussions Make sure students are prepared to discuss. Examples 1.

2.

“Tomorrow we will discuss the first chapter in your novel. Bring a list with one thing that wasn’t clear to you, one question that will make others think really deeply, and one connection to your life.” “Tonight write a one paragraph summary of Chapter 3 for tomorrow’s discussion. Tomorrow before the discussion you will swap paragraphs and share feedback.”

Invite shy children to participate. Examples 1. 2.

“What’s your opinion, Jazmin?” or “Does anyone have another opinion?” Don’t wait until there is a deadly silence to ask shy students to reply. Most people, even those who are confident, hate to break a silence.

Direct student comments and questions back to another student. Examples 1. 2. 3.

“That’s an unusual idea, Kolter. Rosa, what do you think of Kolter’s idea?” “That’s an important question, Mei. Alejandro, do you have any thoughts about how you’d answer that?” Encourage students to look at and talk to one another rather than wait for your opinion.

Chapter 14  Teaching Every Student 631

Make sure that you understand what a student has said. If you are unsure, other students may be unsure as well. Examples 1. 2.

Ask a second student to summarize what the first student said; then, the first student can try again to explain if the summary is incorrect. “Karen, I think you’re saying. . . . Is that right, or have I misunderstood?”

Probe for more information, and ask students to elaborate and defend their positions. Examples 1. 2. 3.

“That’s a strong statement. Do you have any evidence to back it up?” ­“Did you consider any other alternatives?” “Tell us how you reached that conclusion. What steps did you go through?”

Bring the discussion back to the subject. Examples 1. 2.

“Let’s see, we were discussing, . . . and Jada made one suggestion. Does anyone have a different idea?” “Before we continue, let me try to summarize what has happened thus far.”

Give time for thought before asking for responses. Example 1.

“How would your life be different if television had never been invented? Jot down your ideas on paper, and we will share reactions in a minute.” After a minute: “Hiromi, will you tell us what you wrote?”

When a student finishes speaking, look around the room to judge reactions. Examples 1. 2.

If other students look puzzled, ask them to describe why they are confused. If students are nodding assent, ask them to give an example of what was just said.

There is no one best way to teach. Different goals and student needs require different teaching methods at different times. Direct instruction often leads to better performance on achievement tests, whereas the open, informal methods such as discovery learning or inquiry approaches discussed in Chapter 10 are associated with better performance on tests of creativity, abstract thinking, and problem solving. In addition, the open methods are better for improving attitudes toward school and for stimulating curiosity, cooperation among students, and lower absence rates (Borich, 2011; Walberg, 1990). According to these conclusions, when the goals of teaching involve problem solving, creativity, understanding, and mastering processes, many approaches besides direct instruction should be effective. Every student may require direct, explicit teaching for some learning goals some of the time, but all students also need to experience more open, constructivist, student-centered teaching as well (Zhang et al., 2021).

Putting It All Together: Understanding by Design We have covered quite a bit of territory here, from objectives to teaching strategies. Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe’s (2006) Understanding by Design (UbD) pulls it all together— expectations for high-level critical thinking, goals, evidence for learning, and teaching approaches. The focus is on deep understanding, which is characterized by the ability to (a) explain, (b) interpret, (c) apply, (d) have perspective, (e) empathize, and (f) have ­self-knowledge about a topic. The big idea behind UbD is backward design. Teachers first identify the important end results for students—the key understandings and big ideas that are the goals of instruction. To focus on understanding (not just fun activities or covering the text), teachers write essential questions—questions that go to the heart of the ideas and push thinking deeper: “What is the greatest problem of the democratic system?” “Who is entitled to own the airways?” “What makes a mathematical argument convincing?” Next the teacher identifies what evidence would demonstrate deep understanding (performance

­ nderstanding by Design U (UbD) A system of lesson and unit planning that starts with key objectives for understandings and then moves backward to design assessments and learning activities.

632  Chapter 14  Teaching Every Student tasks, quizzes, informal assessments?). Then and only then do the teachers design the learning plan—the instruction—they design backward from the end results to the teaching plan. This idea of going from clear goals to teaching plans is at the heart of every approach to using standards and specific targets in teaching. Wiggins and McTighe provide a template to guide backward design planning. You can see many examples of these templates online. Do a Web search for “Understanding by Design template.” The process for completing a plan using backward design for a unit is shown in Figure 14.1. The teacher/designer moved backward from a core mathematics

Figure 14.1  Planning by Design The planning process for a lesson on the Pythagorean Theorem. The teacher/designer planned backward from the core standards. Step 1—Designing the Goal Apply the Pythagorean Theorem to determine unknown side lengths in right triangles in real-world and mathematical problems in two and three dimensions. Common Core www.corestandards.org/Math/Content/8/G/B/

Key Understandings 1. The area formed by the square on top of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the total area of the two squares formed on the tops of the other two sides. 2. There are multiple ways to prove the Pythagorean Theorem.

Essential Questions 1. What makes a mathematical argument of the Pythagorean Theorem convincing?

3.….

3.….

2. Are there any real world uses of the Pythagorean Theorem?

What Will the Student Know? 1. What is a hypotenuse of a right triangle? 2. What is the length of any side of a right triangle, given the two other sides? 3. ….. What Will the Student Be Able to Do? 1. Draw a graphic illustration that demonstrates the validity of the Pythagorean Theorem. 2. ……

Step 2—Designing the Assessment

Authentic/Real-World Assessments 1. Can you calculate the height of a flagpole based on its shadow—how? 2. You have an old media cabinet with an opening that is 34” by 34”. You want a new flat screen TV that is at least a 42” diagonal. Assume the ratio of a new TV height to width is 3/5. Will it fit? Why? 3. Given that the distance between successive bases in baseball is 90 feet, what is the distance a throw has to travel from third base and first base? 4…..

Traditional Assessments 1. Questions on homework 2. Self-questions developed based on chapter, along with answers and justifications. 3. Unit test 4…..

Step 3—Designing the Learning 1. In groups, investigate the area of squares, triangles, and rectangles around the classroom—compare your group’s areas with the areas calculated by other groups for the same objects. 2. Using cardboard pieces, scissors, a ruler, and pencil, prove the Pythagorean Theorem. 3. Modules 6 & 7 in text (For more ideas, see http://questgarden.com/ and search for “Pythagorean Theorem.”)

Chapter 14  Teaching Every Student 633

standard by identifying key understandings and essential questions based on the standard, then planning assessments including traditional tests as well as textbook assignments and performance tasks that include real-life applications, and finally to creating learning experiences that will support understanding. Can you see how many levels of Bloom’s taxonomy are represented here? So far, we have talked about approaches to teaching—targets, strategies, and learning plans. But in today’s diverse classrooms, one size does not fit all. Teachers have to fit their instruction to the needs and abilities of their students—they have to differentiate instruction.

Differentiated Instruction Learning Outcome 14.4  Define differentiated instruction and apply this approach to teaching a diverse group of students, including how to apply the guidelines of universal design for learning in your teaching. The idea of differentiated instruction—adapting teaching to the abilities and needs of each learner—is an ancient one. To prove it, Lyn Corno (2008, p. 161) quotes these words of ­Quintilian from the fifth century B.C.: Some students are slack and need to be encouraged; others work better when given a freer rein. Some respond best when there is some threat or fear; others are paralyzed by it. Some apply themselves to the task over time, and learn best; others learn best by concentration and focus in a single burst of energy. Obviously, Quintilian appreciated the need for fitting instruction to the student. With the increasingly diverse students in today’s classrooms, differentiating instruction is more important than ever. Kelly Puzio and his colleagues note that teachers who successfully differentiate “focus on clear conceptual goals; consider a wide variety of assessment data; carefully plan lessons and units considering students’ needs, preferences, and strengths; and flexibly adapt the curriculum and instruction to suit his or her students” (Kelly Puzio et al., 2020, p. 460). Reviewing 20 years of work on differentiation in literacy classes, these researchers concluded that when teachers are supported in differentiating, their students have significantly higher literacy achievement—writing is especially improved. Teachers can plan for student differences in advance by designing different levels of support and scaffolding for the tasks, texts, and tools that students will encounter—called designed differentiation. But even with good planning, some differentiation happens on the fly to adapt during teaching—called interactional differentiation. There are three targets for designed differentiation, content, process, and product. Here are a few examples (Puzio et al., 2020): ­ ontent: Different types of texts (books, films, maps, graphic novels); modified texts C (the teacher pre-highlights key passages); more or less difficult material. Process: Task differentiation (write a 1-paragraph summary versus a 1-page critique); different tools (text to speech software, dictation, sentence starters, concept mapping software). Product: Different compositions (write a new ending to the story, do a character analysis, design a webpage); different performances (present a tableau, retell the story with added imagery) Many approaches to differentiation rely on appropriate groupings.

Within-Class and Flexible Grouping It is not unusual to have 3- to 5-year ability differences in any given classroom (Castle et al., 2005). But even if you decided to simply forge ahead (against Quintilian’s advice) and teach the same material in the same way to your entire class, you would not be alone. Differences

Pearson eText Video Example 14.8 The teacher in this video teaches students who have diverse levels of language ­proficiency and diverse levels of academic performance. What approaches does she use to differentiate and help students achieve success? Differentiated instruction A flexible approach to teaching that matches content, process, and product based on student differences in readiness, interests, and learning needs. Takes into account students’ abilities, prior knowledge, and challenges so that instruction matches not only the subject being taught but also students’ needs.

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Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II®

in students’ prior knowledge are a major challenge for teachers, especially in subjects that build on previous knowledge and skills such as math and science. One answer has been ability grouping, but that also poses a number of problems.

The Teacher’s Role in StudentCentered Instruction (II, A3)

THE PROBLEMS WITH ABILITY GROUPING.  Students in many classes and schools are grouped

The teacher’s role in ­student-centered instruction is significantly different from that in teacher-centered instruction.

Within-class ability grouping System of grouping in which students in a class are divided into two or three groups based on ability in an attempt to accommodate student differences.

Flexible grouping Grouping and regrouping students based on learning needs.

by ability, even though there is no definitive evidence that this within-class a­ bility grouping is superior to other approaches (Becker et al., 2014). In a random sample of primary grade teachers in the United States, 63% reported using within-class ability groups for reading. Students in lower-ability groups were less likely to be asked critical comprehension questions and were given fewer opportunities to make choices about what to read (Chorzempa & Graham, 2006). For schools with students from lower SES families, grouping often means that these students are segregated into lower-ability tracks. According to Paul George (2005): In my 3 decades of experience with this issue, when homogenous grouping is the primary strategy for organizing students in schools with significant racial and ethnic diversity in the population, the result is almost always deep, and often starkly obvious, division of students on the basis of race, ethnicity, and social class. (p. 187) Thoughtfully constructed and well-taught ability groups in math and reading can be effective, but the point of any grouping strategy should be to provide appropriate challenge and support—that is, to reach children within their zone of proximal development, that area where students can learn and develop (Vygotsky, 1997). In other words, to be effective, different groups require appropriate adjustments in content, process, and product for the groups (Kulik & Kulik, 1997). Flexible grouping is one possible answer. FLEXIBLE GROUPING.  In flexible grouping, students are grouped and regrouped based on

their learning needs. Assessment is continuous so that students are always working within their zone of proximal development. Arrangements might include small groups, partners, individuals, and even the whole class—depending on which grouping best supports each student’s learning of the particular academic content. Flexible grouping approaches include high-level instruction and high expectations for all students, regardless of their group placement (Corno, 2008). One 5-year longitudinal study of flexible grouping in a high-needs urban elementary school found 10% to 57% increases in students who reached mastery level, depending on the subject area and grade level. Teachers received training and support in the assessment, grouping, and teaching strategies needed, and by the end of the study, 95% of the teachers were using flexible grouping. The teachers in the study believed that some of the gains came because students were more focused on learning and more confident (Castle et al., 2005). Do a Web search for “flexible grouping” to find many ideas and examples. As we have seen repeatedly throughout this text, working at a challenging level, but one you can master with effort and support, is more likely to encourage learning and motivation. If you ever decide to use flexible grouping in your class, the Guidelines: Using Flexible Grouping should make the approach more effective (Arends, 2014; Good & Brophy, 2008).

GUIDELINES Using Flexible Grouping Form and re-form groups based on accurate diagnosis of students’ current performance in the subject being taught. Examples 1. 2.

Use scores on the most recent reading assessments to establish reading groups and rely on current math performance to form math groups. Assess continuously. Change group placement frequently when students’ achievement changes.

Chapter 14  Teaching Every Student 635

Make sure different groups get appropriately different instruction, not just the same material. Make sure teachers, methods, and pace are adjusted to fit the needs of the group. Examples 1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

Vary more than pace; fit teaching to students’ interests and knowledge. Assign all groups research reports, but make some written, and others oral or PowerPoint® presentations. Organize and teach groups so that low-achieving students get appropriate extra instruction—not just the same material again. Make lower-achieving groups smaller so students get extra attention. Make sure all work is meaningful and respectful—no worksheets for lower-ability groups while the higher-ability groups do experiments and projects. Try alternatives. For example, DeWayne Mason and Tom Good (1993) found that supplementing whole-class instruction in math with remediation and enrichment for students when they needed it worked better than dividing the class into two ability groups and teaching these groups separately.

Discourage comparisons between groups, and encourage students to develop a whole-class spirit. Examples 1. 2.

Don’t seat groups together outside the context of their reading or math group. Avoid naming ability groups—save the names for mixed-ability or whole-class teams.

Group by ability for one, or, at the most, two subjects. Examples 1. 2. 3.

Make sure that many lessons and projects mix members from the groups. Experiment with learning strategies that stress cooperation (described in Chapter 10). Keep the number of groups small (two or three at most) so that you can provide as much direct teaching as possible. Leaving students alone for too long leads to less learning.

Stop & Think  When you think about teaching in an inclusive classroom, what are your concerns? Do you have enough training? Will you get the support you need from school administrators or specialists? Will working with the students with disabilities take time away from your other responsibilities?

Differentiated Instruction in Inclusive Classrooms The Stop & Think questions are common ones, and sometimes such concerns are justified. But effective teaching for students with disabilities, and all students for that matter, does not require a unique set of skills. It is a combination of good teaching practices and sensitivity to all your students. All your students need to learn the academic material, and they need to be full participants in the day-to-day life of the classroom. Assistive technologies can help. ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY.  The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires

that all students eligible for special education services be considered for assistive technology. Assistive technology is any product, piece of equipment, or system that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities (Goldman et al., 2006). For students who require small steps and many repetitions to learn a new concept, computers are the perfect patient tutors, repeating steps and lessons as many times as necessary. A well-designed computer instructional program is engaging and ­interactive— two important qualities for students who have problems paying attention or a history of

Assistive technology Devices, systems, and services that support and improve the capabilities of individuals with disabilities.

636  Chapter 14  Teaching Every Student failure that has eroded motivation. For example, a math or spelling program might use images, sounds, and gamelike features Here are a few websites to start your search. to maintain the attention of a student with an a­ ttention-deficit disorder. Interactive digital media programs teach hearing peoAT RESOURCES ple how to use sign language. Many programs do not involve For information about types and training in AT, go these websites: sound, so students with hearing impairments can get the full • ABLENDATA (http://www.abledata.com) benefit from the lessons. Students who have trouble reading can • Assistive Tech.net: National Public Website on Assistive use programs that will “speak” a word for them if they touch Technology (assistivetech.net/contact/index.php) • Edutopia (www.edutopia.org; click “topics”; click “all topics”; the unknown word. With this immediate access to help, these click “Assistive Technology”) students are much more likely to get the reading practice they • International Society for Technology in Education (http://www need to prevent falling farther and farther behind. Other devices .ISTE.org • The Iris Center (https://Iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/at) actually convert printed pages and typed texts to spoken words • Microsoft Company (www.microsoft.com; search ”assistive for students who are blind or others who b ­ enefit from hearing technology”) information. For the student with a learning d ­ isability whose • National Center on Accessible Educational Materials (http:// aem.cast.org) writing is not legible, word processors produce perfect penman• Tech Matrix (http://techmatrix.org) ship so the ideas can finally get on paper. Once the ideas are Source: Friend, M. & Bursuck, W. D. (2019). Including students with special needs: A recorded, students can reorganize and improve their writing practical guide for classroom teachers (8th ed.).Hoboken, NJ: Pearson, p. 170. without the agony of rewriting by hand (Hallahan et al., 2019). Figure 14.2 is a list of resources for assistive technology. Things are changing so fast, see if your school has a specialist to provide support about assistive technologies that might help your students.

Figure 14.2  Resources for Assistive Technologies

­ eaching Every Student: Differentiation with Universal R Design for Learning

Universal design Considering the needs of all users in the design of new tools, learning programs, or websites.

Universal design for learning (UDL) Strategies and structures to make learning accessible to as many students as possible in inclusive settings.

With these tremendous advances in technology have come new barriers, however. Many computers have graphic interfaces. Manipulating the programs requires precise mouse or track pad movements, as you may remember when you first learned to point and click. These maneuvers are often difficult for students with motor problems or visual impairments. And the information available on the Internet often is unusable for students with visual problems. Researchers are working on the problem—trying to devise ways for people to access the information nonvisually. In architecture, the concept of universal design addresses these concerns by considering the needs of all users in the design of new buildings, tools, learning programs, websites, and so on. The same principle of design for everyone in education is called unive­r sal design for learning (UDL). The principles of UDL are to provide multiple ways to engage with the learning process, multiple ways to represent or present the learning materials, and multiple ways for students to act and express their understanding. CAST, the Center for Applied Special Technology, has been the leader in developing the field of universal design for learning. Their Guidelines for Universal Design for Learning are used around the world. Table 14.9 is a summary of those guidelines. You can find an interactive version at https://udlguidelines.cast.org (CAST, 2018; Hallahan et al., 2019; Pisha & Coyne, 2001). You can see how these guidelines pull together many of the topics in this book.

• Motivation and the “Why” of learning, including interest, effort, autonomy support, mastery goals, and self-regulation (Chapters 11 and 12).

• Representations and “What” is learning, including verbal and visual representations, languages, symbols, big ideas, patterns (Chapters 6, 8, 9).

• Expressing learning and the “How” of learning, including different ways of responding, multiple tools, goal setting, learning strategies, monitoring and managing learning (Chapters 5, 7, 13, 14).

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Table 14.9  Guidelines for Universal Design for Learning (UDL) CAST

The Universal Design for Learning Guidelines

Provide multiple means of

Provide multiple means of

Provide multiple means of

Engagement

Representation

Action & Expression

Build

Access

Affective Networks The “WHY” of Learning

Internalize

Until learning has no limits

Recognition Networks The “WHAT” of Learning

Strategic Networks The “HOW” of Learning

Provide options for

Provide options for

Provide options for

Recruiting Interest

Perception

Physical Action

• Optimize individual choice and autonomy • Optimize relevance, value, and authenticity • Minimize threats and distractions

• Offer ways of customizing the display of information • Offer alternatives for auditory information • Offer alternatives for visual information

• Vary the methods for response and navigation • Optimize access to tools and assistive technologies

Provide options for Sustaining Effort & Persistence

Provide options for

Provide options for

Language & Symbols

Expression & Communication

• Heighten salience of goals and objectives • Vary demands and resources to optimize challenge • Foster collaboration and community • Increase mastery-oriented feedback

• Clarify vocabulary and symbols • Clarify syntax and structure • Support decoding of text, mathematical

• Use multiple media for communication • Use multiple tools for construction and composition • Build fluencies with graduated levels of support for

notation, and symbols • Promote understanding across languages • illustrate through multiple media

practice and performance

Provide options for

Provide options for

Provide options for

Self Regulation

Comprehension

Executive Functions

Promote expectations and beliefs that optimize motivation • Facilitate personal coping skills and strategies • Develop self-assessment and reflection

• Activate or supply background knowledge • Highlight patterns, critical features, big ideas,

• Guide appropriate goal-setting • Support planning and strategy development • Facilitate managing information and resources • Enhance capacity for monitoring progress

•

and relationships

• Guide information processing and visualization • Maximize transfer and generalization

Source: CAST (2018). Universal Design for Learning Guidelines version 2.2. Retrieved from http://udlguidelines.cast.org.

Summary Research on Teaching (pp. 604–611) What methods have been used to study teaching? For years, researchers have tried to unravel the mystery of effective teaching using classroom observation, case studies, interviews, experimentation with different methods, stimulated recall (teachers view videotapes and explain their teaching), analysis of lesson transcripts, and other approaches to study teaching in real classrooms. What are the general characteristics of good teaching?  A variety of teacher qualities are related to good teaching. ­ Research suggests teachers who receive proper training and certification have more successful students. Although it is ­important, teacher knowledge of a subject is not sufficient for effective teaching. Thorough knowledge does lead to greater clarity and better organization, which are both tied to good teaching. Teachers who provide clear presentations and explanations tend to have students who learn more and who rate their teachers more positively. Teacher warmth, friendliness, and understanding seem to be the traits most strongly related to positive student attitudes about the teacher and the course in general.

What do expert teachers know? It takes time and experience to become an expert teacher. These teachers have a rich store of well-organized knowledge about the many specific situations of teaching. This knowledge is very complex and specific to the situation, topic, students, and even the individual teacher. Within the particular situation and topic, expert teachers have clear goals and take individual differences into account when planning for their students. Expert teachers also know how to be reflective practitioners—how to use their experience as a way to grow and improve in their teaching. What are some sources of teacher expectations?  Sources include language or immigrant status, gender, notes from previous teachers, medical or psychological reports found in cumulative folders, ethnic background, prior knowledge about older brothers and sisters, physical characteristics, previous achievement or IQ scores, SES, parents’ status or behaviors, and the actual ­behaviors of the student. What are the two kinds of expectation effects, and how do they happen? The first is the ­self-fulfilling prophecy, in which the teacher’s beliefs about the students’ abilities have no basis in fact, but student behavior comes to match the initially

638  Chapter 14  Teaching Every Student inaccurate expectation. The second is a sustaining expectation effect, in which teachers are fairly accurate in their initial reading of students’ abilities and respond to students appropriately, but they do not alter their expectations to take account of any improvement. When this happens, the teacher’s unchanging expectation can sustain the student’s achievement at the expected level. In practice, sustaining effects are more common than self-fulfilling prophecy effects. What are the different avenues for communicating teacher expectations? Some teachers tend to treat students differently, depending on their own views of how well the students are likely to do. Differences in treatment toward low-expectation students may include setting less challenging lessons, focusing on lower-level learning, giving fewer choices, providing inconsistent feedback, and communicating less respect and trust. Students may behave accordingly, fulfilling teachers’ predictions or staying at an expected level of achievement.

The First Step: Planning (pp. 611–618) What are the levels of planning, and how do they affect teaching?  Teachers engage in several levels of planning—by the year, term, unit, week, and day. All the levels must be coordinated. The plan determines how time and materials will be turned into activities for students. There is no single model of planning, but all plans should allow for flexibility. Planning is ­ roblem-solving process for experienced teachers. It a creative p is more informal—“in their heads.” What is the Common Core? To address problems with inconsistency, lack of rigor, and redundancies in many state-level standards, beginning in 2009, the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) and the National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA Center) led an effort to define consistent national standards for each grade, K–12, in two broad areas: (a) English language arts and literacy in history/ social studies, science, and technical subjects, and (b) mathematics. Today adoption of the Common Core is a moving target. Make sure you learn about the standards in your state.

What is a learning target, and what are the three taxonomies of educational outcomes? Learning targets tell what students should know and be able to do—what successful learning would look like. Bloom and others have developed taxonomies categorizing basic objectives in the cognitive, a­ ffective, and psychomotor domains. A taxonomy encourages systematic thinking about relevant targets and ways to evaluate them. Six outcomes objectives are listed in the cognitive domain: remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating, acting on four kinds of knowledge: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. Outcomes in the affective domain run from least committed to most committed. Outcomes in the psychomotor domain generally move from basic perceptions and reflex actions to skilled, creative movements. A more concise way to think about learning outcomes is to target knowledge, reasoning, performance skills, products, or dispositions. Describe constructivist planning.  Planning is shared and negotiated in constructivist approaches. Rather than having specific student behaviors as objectives, the teacher has overarching goals or “big ideas” that guide planning. Integrated content and teaching with themes or essential questions are often part of the planning. Assessment of learning is ongoing and mutually shared by teacher and students.

Teaching Approaches (pp. 618–633) How should teachers use direct instruction and homework?  Direct instruction is appropriate for teaching basic skills and explicit knowledge. It includes the teaching functions of review/overview, presentation, guided practice, feedback and correctives (with reteaching if necessary), independent practice, and periodic reviews. The younger or less able the students, the shorter the presentation should be, with more cycles of practice and feedback. The “10-minute rule” for homework means 10 minutes of homework per night starting in the first grade and increasing by 10 minutes each grade, so a 12th-grader would be assigned about 120 minutes. Distinguish between convergent and divergent questions and describe deep questions. Convergent questions have only one right answer. Divergent questions have many possible answers. Deep questions (such as why, why-not, how, whatif, how does X compare to Y, and what is the evidence for?) require thoughtful and well-reasoned explanations—students have to think for themselves. The best pattern for younger students and for lower-ability students of all ages is simple questions that allow a high percentage of correct answers, ample encouragement, help when the student does not have the correct answer, and praise. For high-ability students, the successful pattern includes harder questions at both higher and lower levels and more critical feedback. Whatever their age or ability, all students should have some experience with deep, thought-provoking questions and, if necessary, help in learning how to answer them. How can wait time affect student learning?  When teachers pose a question and then learn to wait at least 3 to 5 seconds

Chapter 14  Teaching Every Student 639

before calling on a student to answer, students tend to give longer answers; more students are likely to participate, ask questions, and volunteer appropriate answers; student comments involving analysis, synthesis, inference, and speculation tend to increase; and the students generally appear more confident in their answers. What are the uses and disadvantages of group discussion?  Group discussion helps students participate directly, express themselves clearly, justify opinions, and tolerate different views. Group discussion also gives students a chance to ask for clarification, examine their own thinking, follow personal interests, and assume responsibility by taking leadership roles in the group. So group discussions help students evaluate ideas and synthesize personal viewpoints. However, discussions are quite unpredictable and may easily digress into exchanges of ignorance. Quality Talk is one way to increase students’ high-level comprehension of texts and support personal engagement with the text. To use this approach, teachers have to plan carefully for what will happen before, during, and after the small-group discussions at the heart of the strategy. How can you match teaching to your goals? Different goals and student needs require different teaching methods. Direct instruction often leads to better performance on achievement tests, but the open, informal methods such as discovery learning or inquiry approaches are associated with better performance on tests of creativity, abstract thinking, and problem solving. In addition, the open methods are better for improving attitudes toward school and for stimulating curiosity, cooperation among students, and lower absence rates. How can you use Understanding by Design to plan quality instruction? The focus of UbD is on deep understanding, which is characterized by the ability to (a) explain, (b) interpret, (c) apply, (d) have perspective, (e) empathize, and (f) have self-knowledge about a topic. The big idea behind UbD is backward design. Teachers first identify the important end results for students—the key understandings and big ideas that are the goals of instruction. To focus on understanding (not just fun activities or covering the text), teachers write essential questions—questions that go to the heart of the ideas and push thinking deeper. The UbD template guides planning based on these considerations.

­Differentiated Instruction (pp. 633–637) What characterizes differentiated instruction?  A flexible approach to teaching that matches content, process, and product based on student differences in readiness, interests, and learning needs. Takes into account students’ abilities, prior knowledge, and challenges so that instruction matches not only the subject being taught but also students’ needs. What are the problems with ability grouping? Academic ability groupings can have disadvantages and advantages for students and teachers. Students in higher-ability groups may benefit, but students in lower-ability groups are less likely to be asked critical comprehension questions and are given fewer opportunities to make choices about readings and assignments. For schools with students from lower SES families, grouping often means that these students are segregated even in their own classes, so ability grouping can create segregation within diverse schools. What are the alternatives available for grouping in classes, including flexible grouping?  In flexible grouping, students are grouped and regrouped based on their learning needs. Assessment is continuous so that students are always working within their zone of proximal development. Arrangements might include small groups, partners, individuals, and even the whole class—depending on which grouping best supports each student’s learning of the particular academic content. Within-class ability grouping, if handled sensitively and flexibly, can have positive effects, but alternatives such as cooperative learning may be better. What characterizes effective teaching for students with disabilities?  Effective teaching for students with disabilities does not require a unique set of skills. It is a combination of good teaching practices and sensitivity to all students. Students with disabilities need to learn the academic material, and they need to be full participants in the day-to-day life of the classroom. To accomplish the first goal, students with learning disabilities benefit from using extended practice distributed over days and weeks and from advanced organizers such as focusing students on what they already know or stating clear learning targets. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a possibility for accomplishing the second goal of fully including students in the dayto-day life of the classroom. The principles of UDL are to provide multiple ways to engage with the learning process, multiple ways to represent or present the learning materials, and multiple ways for students to act and express their understanding.

Key Terms Ambitious teaching Active teaching Affective domain Assistive technology Authentic questions Basic skills

Cognitive domain Constructivist approach ­Convergent questions Differentiated instruction Direct instruction/explicit teaching Divergent questions

Expert teachers Flexible grouping Group discussion Lesson Study Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) Psychomotor domain

640  Chapter 14  Teaching Every Student Pygmalion effect Quality Talk Reflective Scripted cooperation

Self-fulfilling prophecy Sustaining expectation effect Taxonomy Understanding by Design (UbD)

Universal design Universal design for learning (UDL) Webb’s Depth of Knowledge (DOK) Within-class ability grouping

Connect and Extend to Licensure Multiple-Choice Questions 1.

Direct instruction is best used when teachers do which one of the following?

C. Collaborative group work D. Peer tutoring 4.

A. Teach basic skills B. Have their students explore numerous pathways to solve a mathematics problem

2.

C. Encourage their students to refine their creativity in art

A. Self-fulfilling prophecy

D. Assign critical thinking exercises

B. The zone of proximal development

Homework has long been a staple of education. For students to gain the most from their homework experience, ALL BUT which one of the following suggestions should be followed?

C. Professional license

A. Establish that students understand the assignment. B. Hold students accountable for completing the work correctly. C. Check students’ work and allow for corrections and revisions. D. Require a parent signature to ensure collaboration with family. 3.

Teachers sometimes make determinations about their students’ abilities based on little evidence. When teachers expect their students will not do well, their words and actions can make that expectation come true regardless of the validity. This effect is referred to as which one of the following?

Ellen Baker knew that her new job in a middle school would require that she understand differentiated instruction. Using this strategy, her students would be more apt to progress and master the concepts they needed to succeed throughout their school years. One of the techniques she decided to use involved grouping students by their learning needs. She would group students who had scored poorly on their fractions tests with similar students to remediate and develop that skill. She likened this type of differentiated instruction to having students continually work in their zone of proximal development. The type of strategy Ellen Baker wants to use is referred to as which one of the following? A. Flexible grouping B. Jigsaw

D. Supportive withdrawal

Constructed-Response Questions Case Although Casey Yost had done well in her college classes, she was having a difficult time with her student teaching. Her mentor teacher continually scolded her for not correctly writing her objectives and rushing through lessons. Casey did not understand how she could both make her lessons clear and manage to cover the material necessary for the students’ ­upcoming standardized tests. “Casey, if your students don’t understand the material, it won’t make any difference if you cover the material or not. Let’s review one of your objectives for the upcoming lesson. ‘Students will understand fractions.’ This objective is too general. How can you measure if your students ‘understand’? You need to select words that correspond to specific actions that you can observe or measure. Let’s try to develop a few objectives that are more specific.” 5.

In what ways can Casey Yost avoid writing objectives that are too general?

6.

List several strategies that Casey can employ during instruction to teach her students more effectively.

Chapter 14  Teaching Every Student 641

What Would They Do? Teachers’ Casebook: Reaching and Teaching Every Student Critical Thinking About Cases At the beginning of this chapter, we asked you to think critically about how to deal with the wide range of reading levels, family incomes, learning strengths, and learning challenges in your classroom. Now, as you consider these expert teachers’ responses to the case, we again suggest that you think critically. Do the following responses reflect (or contradict) any of the concepts discussed in this chapter? Do the suggestions and solutions described here make sense in light of what you have learned in this or other classes about best practices? How do these ideas align with or challenge your personal philosophy of teaching?

Amy Pochodylo • 9th–12th-grade Science Teacher Buckeye Valley High School, Delaware, OH When differentiating instruction, I always start by thinking about the learning targets being addressed and the ways that students could show mastery of those targets. Whenever possible, I like to also differentiate assessment, so that it is accessible in a variety of ways to students as well. A great framework that I have found for differentiation is the layered classroom (help4teachers.org). To help differentiate for different reading levels, I’ve used interactive reading guides (where students work with a partner and discuss the reading in a structured activity as they go), leveled texts (great technology tools like Newsela help with this), and offered independent reading guides to help students determine what information they should be looking for in a text. I also try to provide access to content in multiple formats, such as by offering a reading, a video, and an opportunity for small-group instruction whenever possible. I also differentiate the formative assessment opportunities. I build in independent work days where students can revisit topics and self-assess their knowledge, choosing to complete options such as edPuzzle video questions, online lab simulations, or other activities. In order to make sure that students are meeting learning goals, I also build in whole-class activities, such as hands-on labs, so that I can assess student knowledge and address common misconceptions with the whole class. Periodic whole-class activities give us a common experience to draw on as well when it is time for assessment. When it is time for a summative assessment, I often include choice for students in open-ended questions, so they can decide which questions to answer to best demonstrate their knowledge. It can also be useful to allow them to answer in a variety of ways, including written responses, typed responses, or verbal responses (technology tools like Flipgrid make it easy for students to record their responses).

Anne Liners • 9th–12th-grade English/Language Arts Student Teacher South High School, Minneapolis, MN A constructivist approach to teaching is incredibly helpful for accommodating diverse learners. Students who are able to make their own meaning from the course content will naturally bring the material into their own Zone of Proximal Development. For example, assigning a research inquiry project might mean that some students find peer-reviewed sources from academic databases while others struggle through articles written at a fourth-grade reading level. As long as both of those students—and everyone in between—are challenging themselves, practicing research skills along with reading skills, and learning new content, then everybody wins. Assessments should look for this progress. Most importantly, teachers must be intentional not to create a hierarchy within the diversity. Even in my English classes, I can’t assume that better reader means smarter kid. A student with a learning disability that obstructs their math abilities might be a brilliant saxophone player or babysitter or chef. And students who struggle with English are often made to feel ‘dumb’ next to their native-speaker classmates, but they have another whole language worth of knowledge. To accommodate all students, a teacher must draw out these strengths. A diverse classroom offers the opportunity for an exchange of the wide range of knowledge that all of these kids bring to school—not just the high achieving ones. Students in diverse schools don’t just learn the content, they learn the languages, cultures, struggles, and skills of their classmates. Planning opportunities for students to guide how and what they learn will help teachers take advantage of the diverse brilliance of their classes.

Lisa White • 2nd-/3rd-grade combined and 3rd-/4th-grade combined Elementary Teacher Moody Elementary School, Port Moody, British Columbia, Canada I very highly personalize instruction to meet the diverse needs of students. Primarily, I build a classroom environment purposefully around the practices known to promote Self-Regulated Learning (SRL). In addition, I attend to practices that support Social-Emotional Learning (SEL), Executive Functioning, and Self-Determination. I am proud that this allows for students of all abilities and needs to be part of our rich and respectful learning community. A foundation of SEL is essential in creating a calm and caring learning environment. My students and I build a common language around SEL, executive function, and self-determination knowledge, skills, and concepts, which are reviewed regularly and as needed throughout the year. I use opportunities I have to coach students through the curriculum, or a productive struggle, to teach them how to learn in various contexts.

642  Chapter 14  Teaching Every Student I focus on teaching the skills, strategies, and mindsets that we all need in order to be successful humans. Students are given control over challenges as they choose what and how they will learn, where and when they will learn it, across the curriculum with the guidelines we build together. We work as a community and as individuals. Students are encouraged to reflect on their own successes and struggles, then receive feedback and support from their peers. Students have learned to coach each other through struggles and celebrate one another’s successes. Technology has become an essential tool in our classroom. Students use technology to advance and reflect on their personalized learning, communicate with their classmates and families, and assess and evaluate their learning. All students have access to the adaptive learning abilities of this technology and use this to control the challenge of an assignment. Assessment occurs on a daily basis. I am constantly observing students to understand them as learners. We run through each stage of an informal inquiry process to inform private discussions I have with students to assess their learning. I collect student work samples, give exit tasks, play games, and perform various other methods of formative assessment to share with students in order to prompt them to talk about what and how they have learned, and how far they have come in their learning. Together we use these discussions to revise or create new learning goals and develop and act upon hunches and ideas about supports they need to achieve their goals. I find it very rare that students empowered with their own learning need coaching to accurately assess their work. Often, they have much deeper insights into their learning than I ever could.

Melissa Roy • 10th-grade Reading/English Teacher Lake Brantley High School, Altamonte Springs, FL As a constructivist, I believe education should be something more akin to what Yeats described as “lighting a fire” rather than “filling a pail.” In my English class I adopted the reading and writing workshop approach in order to ignite students’ love for both and meet them at their level of need. Students love it! They mostly read self-selected texts based on their own interests and abilities and demonstrate mastery of state standards in a variety of ways, including both formal and informal assessments such as book talks or research projects on a topic of interest related to the text. Likewise, students are given choice of mode and medium of writing. I use direct instruction to teach a series of mini lessons on writing techniques, which students are expected to implement as they write. Every piece of writing will not be assessed; instead, students are encouraged to self-assess pieces (with guidance from me and peers) and select their best work for publication and grading. Students are required to write a certain number of finished pieces and read a certain number of texts by the end of the semester according to goals we set together, with each student’s goals being unique to her or his needs. And though goals are individual, I understand that learning is an inherently social process, so I build

in daily opportunities for students to collaboratively problem solve and give and receive feedback on their work as often as needed. In our school we are fortunate to have plentiful technology available to support differentiation and we utilize it daily! Using our online learning management system, I design modules that include opportunities for enrichment and remediation, and also use this platform to facilitate online discussions and collaborations between students.

Tiffinay Al-Lateef • Kindergarten–1st-grade Teacher KIPP Columbus Primary, Columbus, OH To meet the diverse needs of my students, I would differentiate instruction in my classroom. To address the wide range of reading I would provide skill appropriate, culturally relevant texts. To build and bridge gaps with basic reading tools, I would pre-teach and build on vocabulary as much as possible for students. Yes, different philosophies of teaching would have a direct effect on what and how information is being taught to students. While trying to reach every student in my classroom, I would build and focus on individualized assessments for each of my students instead of using mostly standardized testing. Prior to testing I would research the interest of my students, to see what is important to them. This way I would incorporate relevant interest of the students in assessments and my lessons. Technology is present now more than ever before. I would use smart white boards, Chromebook, iPads music, and cell phones. Due to the current pandemic, technologies such as Zoom and Google Classroom help me to reach all my students virtually.

Lou De Lauro • 5th-grade Language Arts Teacher John P. Faber School, Dunellen, NJ In your hometown you probably know a lot of people. To be successful you are going to have to use the town to help you. If you plan properly, you should be able to secure one guest a week for the entire school year. The kids will love meeting new people each week and reading with them. But you need more than a guest a week to visit your classroom. So ask the businesses in town. Maybe a business can run a fundraiser so you can purchase alternative texts for your students. Maybe the local library can introduce you to their biggest donor who might donate texts to you. Maybe you can apply for a grant with the local educational foundation to get new materials. But you need more help. You are a teacher; you were probably a strong student who connected with your former teachers. Visit any teachers that are still teaching, and get their advice on what to do. What has worked in the past may work well now, too. Devote many hours after school to your students. Small-group instruction will help these kids. Get the two students who are

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practically ready for college small stipends donated by a local business so they stay after school and help you with your challenging students. I think that if you fully take advantage of your home court, this is one situation in which you can easily prevail.

Marie Hoffman Hurt • 8th-grade Foreign Language (German and French) Teacher Pickerington Local Schools, Pickerington, OH To start, I would encourage a teacher to look beyond the general classifications of “white, working, middle class, and English speaking.” Even in a class full of students who fit this demographic, there is an array of individuals. Each student learns differently and has different interests. A good teacher will recognize this and challenge students as people, not as groups. Do your best to layer as much as you can throughout your lessons. Give students choices. Use what resources you have—in this case particularly resources for students who are learning English as a second language. Even praising students’ individual characteristics and accomplishments outside the classroom sets the tone. Finally, keep in mind that you are only one person and can only give your best. Don’t overwork yourself and burn out—you are no good to your students or your family if you are wiped out.

M. Denise Lutz • High School Technology Coordinator Grandview Heights High School, Columbus, OH Studies have shown that student success is directly related to teacher effectiveness. In today’s diverse classrooms a teacher must develop effective classroom pedagogy that incorporates effective instructional strategies, uses effective classroom management strategies, and designs effective classroom curriculum to meet the needs of all learners. It is necessary to communicate learning goals for all students, track individual progress, and celebrate successes. Under the guidance of the teacher, students should learn to work collaboratively in small groups and as a cohesive class encouraging and helping one another to be successful. A teacher who establishes and maintains classroom rules and procedures while acknowledging students who do and do not follow these rules and procedures fosters this kind of environment. Consistency, trust, and authenticity will help to advance the development of effective relationships between the teacher, the home, and among class members. Effective classroom curriculum always begins with

the end in mind. The teacher should have a clear picture of what mastery of content would look like for each of his or her students. Understanding the big idea and defining essential questions will guide the collection of activities and lessons that will move each student in the direction of success. The direction of success will remain the same for all students, but lessons and activities may present different paths for individuals to traverse. Today’s teacher must work from day one to get to know each individual and to establish a culture of collaboration among the group.

­Patricia A. Smith • High School Math Teacher Earl Warren High School, San Antonio, TX Because this new teacher is a product of the same school system, it will be imperative to begin classroom instruction with absolutely no preconceived opinions toward any particular student. Likewise, a diverse population requires the teacher to resolve student situations discreetly and judiciously, and not publicly. The initial goals of the teacher would be to facilitate student work in a cooperative manner and engender teacher trust. Planning and organizing icebreaker exercises the first few days of the school year could prove extremely profitable. With a wide range of reading levels, small groups would work to the teacher’s advantage. I would not suggest grouping students according to reading level at all times, but would opt to appoint a recognized student leader to orchestrate daily oral recitations. Moreover, I would select reading materials suited to all students and keep the assignments brief to avoid overwhelming struggling readers. The student leader could also design questions to gauge comprehension and give the group a follow-up spelling test. Initially, the spelling test would be composed of 5 to 10 simple words that students could either print or write. Subsequently, as the students gain confidence and experience success, the readings could be assigned as homework and the students would be required to write a short paragraph answering a reading comprehension question. If the teacher remains well organized, the instructional time allotted for small-group interaction should not extend over 15 minutes in a single class period. Thus, the teacher would not forfeit traditional grammar lessons for the entire class but would still provide limited individualized instruction. I would also supplement SAT reading and English practice for all college-bound students.

Chapter 15

Anita Woolfolk Hoy

Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing

Teachers’ Casebook: Giving Meaningful Grades What Would You Do? Your school requires that you give letter grades to your class. You can use any method you want, as long as an A, B, C, D, or F appears for each of the subject areas on ­every student’s report card, every grading period. Some teachers are using worksheets, quizzes, homework, and tests. Others are assigning group work and portfolios. A few 644

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teachers are individualizing standards by grading on progress and effort more than on final achievement. Some are trying contract approaches and experimenting with ­longer-term projects, while others are relying almost completely on daily class work. Two teachers who use group work are considering giving credit toward grades for ­being a “good group member” or competitive bonus points for the top-scoring group. Others are planning to use improvement points for class rewards, but not for grades. Your only experience with grading was using written comments and a mastery approach that rated the students as making satisfactory or unsatisfactory progress toward particular learning targets. You want a system that is reliable, fair, and manageable, but also encourages learning, not just performance. And you want a system that gives the students feedback they can use to prepare for the state proficiency tests.

Critical Thinking • What would you choose as your major graded assignments and projects? • Would you include credit for behaviors such as group participation or effort? • How would you put all the elements together to determine a grade for every student for every marking period? • How would you justify your system to the principal and to the students’ families, especially when the teachers in your school are using so many different criteria? • What do you think of the wide range of criteria being used by different­­ teachers—is this fair to students? • How will these issues affect the grade levels you will teach?



Overview and Objectives

As you read this chapter, you will examine assessment, testing, and grading, focusing not only on the effects they are likely to have on students, but also on practical ways to develop better methods for testing and grading. Teachers who are experts in assessment have developed ways to assign, collect, evaluate, organize, and return student work, then use the results of assessments to plan future instruction. They make it look easy, but as you learned in Chapter 13, routines have to be taught, explained, and practiced to work smoothly. The same holds for assessment and grading routines (Fives & Barnes, 2020). If you are feeling a bit challenged and unsure of your skills in these different areas, you are not alone. Even experienced teachers feel inadequately prepared for this important task (Ayalon & Wilkie, 2020). The goal of this chapter is to get you ready! I (Anita in this chapter) begin with a consideration of the basic concepts in assessment, including reliability, validity, and absence of bias. Next, we examine the many types of tests teachers prepare each year and approaches to assessment that don’t rely on traditional testing. Then, we explore the effects grades are likely to have on students and the very important topic of communicating with students and families. How will you justify the grades you give? Finally, because standardized tests are so important today, we

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spend some time looking at testing, the meaning of test scores, alternatives to traditional testing, and the role of tests in teacher evaluation. By the time you have completed this chapter, you should be able to: 15.1 Describe the basics of assessment including types of assessments (standardized tests, classroom assessments, and measurements, as well as formative, interim, and summative assessments) and explain how reliability, validity, and absence of bias are used to understand and judge assessments. 15.2 Describe two kinds of test interpretations (norm-referenced and criterion-referenced), how to use selected-response and ­ constructed-response/essay testing appropriately in teaching, and the advantages as well as criticisms of traditional testing. 15.3 Explain how to use formative assessment to improve instruction and

describe ways to design and evaluate authentic assessments, including portfolios, performances, and the development of rubrics. 15.4 Describe the effects of grading on students and the types of strategies teachers can use to communicate to parents about grades. 15.5 Explain how to interpret common standardized test scores (percentile

rank, stanine, grade-equivalent, scale score) as well as current issues and criticisms concerning accountability and teacher evaluation, ­ high-stakes assessment, growth versus proficiency tests, and value-added approaches.

OUTLINE Teachers’ Casebook—Giving Meaningful Grades: What Would You Do? ­Overview and Objectives Basics of Assessment Measurement and Assessment Assessing the Assessments: Reliability and Validity Classroom Assessment: Testing Interpreting Any Test Score Using the Tests from Textbooks Selected-Response Testing Constructed Responses: Essay Testing Assessing Traditional Testing Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments Informal Assessments Authentic Assessments: Performances and Portfolios Evaluating Portfolios and Performances Assessing Complex Thinking Classroom Assessment: Lessons for Teachers Grading Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Grading Effects of Grading on Students

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Grades and Motivation Beyond Grading: Communicating with Families Standardized Testing Types of Scores Interpreting Standardized Test Reports Accountability and High-Stakes Testing New Directions: PARCC and SBAC Using High-Stakes Testing Well: Lessons for Teachers Reaching Every Student: Helping Students with Disabilities Prepare for HighStakes Tests Teacher Accountability and Evaluation Summary and Key Terms Teachers’ Casebook—Giving Meaningful Grades: What Would They Do?

Basics of Assessment Learning Outcome 15.1  Describe the basics of assessment including types of assessments (standardized tests, classroom assessments, and measurements, as well as formative, interim, and summative assessments) and explain how reliability, validity, and absence of bias are used to understand and judge assessments. Would it surprise you to learn that published tests, such as college entrance exams, are creations of the 20th century? In the early to mid-1900s, college entrance was generally based on grades, essays, and interviews. From your own experience, you know that testing has come a long way since then—too far, say some critics. Published tests today are called ­standardized tests because they are administered, scored, reported, and interpreted in a standard manner—same directions, time limits, and scoring for all (Popham, 2020). The schools where you teach probably will use standardized tests, especially to meet the growing demands for accountability. In most schools, however, teachers do not have much say in selecting these tests. ­Classroom assessments, on the other hand, are created or selected by teachers. Classroom assessments can take many different forms—unit tests, essays, portfolios, group projects, performances, oral presentations, videos, designs and plans, journals, websites, wikis, or products such as artwork or clothing—the list is long. Assessments are critical because teaching involves making many kinds of judgments—decisions based on values: “Is this software or book appropriate for my students?” “Should Olivia get a B− or a C+ on the ­project?” This chapter is about the judgments involved in all forms of assessment and grading, with an emphasis on classroom assessments—the kind you will create and interpret. Before we look at either classroom or standardized assessments, let’s examine some key distinctions that apply to both, beginning with the difference between measurement and assessment.

Standardized tests Tests given, usually nationwide, under uniform conditions and scored according to uniform procedures.

Classroom assessments Classroom assessments are selected and created by teachers and can take many different forms—unit tests, essays, portfolios, projects, performances, oral presentations, and so on.

Measurement and Assessment Measurement is quantitative—the description of an event or characteristic using numbers. Measurement tells how much, how often, or how well by providing scores, ranks, or ratings. Instead of saying, “Noah doesn’t seem to understand addition,” a teacher might say, “Noah answered only 2 of the 15 problems correctly in his addition homework.” Measurement also allows a teacher to compare one student’s performance on a particular task with either a specific standard or the performances of other students on the same task. Not all teachers’ decisions involve measurement. But measurement, when properly done, can provide unbiased data for decisions. In fact, data-based decision making is very important in today’s schools. Increasingly, measurement specialists are using the term assessment to describe the process of gathering information from a range of sources about students’ learning. Assessment

Measurement An evaluation expressed in quantitative (number) terms.

Assessment Procedures used to obtain information about student performance.

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Pearson eText Video Example 15.1 Charles Bull uses a quick whole-class approach to formative assessment to check understanding in his literature class. Consider how this type of assessment guides instruction and helps students gauge their understanding. Formative assessment Ungraded testing used before or during instruction to aid in planning and diagnosis.

Pretest Formative test for assessing students’ knowledge, readiness, and abilities before instruction begins.

Interim (growth or benchmark) assessments Assessments that occur at regular intervals during the school year to determine student progress and growth in an objective way.

Summative assessment Testing that follows instruction and assesses achievement.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Types of Assessment (II, C1, 4) Understand the purposes of formative and summative assessment. Explain how teachers and students can make effective use of the information generated by each type of test.

consists of many ways—quantitative and qualitative—to sample and observe students’ skills, knowledge, and abilities, so assessment is the broader term that includes measurement along with many other techniques (Brookhart & Nitko, 2019). Assessments can be formal, such as planned unit tests, or informal, such as observing who emerges as a leader during group work. Assessments can be designed by classroom teachers or by local, state, or national agencies. And today, assessments can go well beyond paper-and-pencil exercises to include judgments based on students’ performances, portfolios, projects, or products (Popham, 2020). FORMATIVE, INTERIM, AND SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT.  There are three general uses or

purposes for assessment, depending on where you are in the instructional cycle: formative, interim, and summative assessment (Northwest Education Association, 2015). Formative assessment is a process that occurs before or during instruction. The purposes of formative assessment are to guide the teacher in planning and adjusting instruction and to provide feedback to help students improve learning. In other words, formative assessment helps form instruction by providing feedback that supports the efforts of both teachers and students (Brookhart, 2018; Dixson & Worrell, 2016). Students often take a formative assessment before instruction, a pretest that helps the teacher determine what students already know. Teachers sometimes assess during instruction to see what areas of weakness remain, so they can direct teaching toward the problem areas. These formative assessments are not graded, so students who tend to be very anxious about “real” tests may find this low-pressure practice in test taking especially helpful. Also, the feedback from formative tests can help students become better judges of quality and more self-regulated in their learning (Clark, 2012). Interim (growth or benchmark) assessments occur at regular intervals during the school year to determine student progress and growth in an objective way. These assessments might be used to differentiate instruction, determine if special services are appropriate, assess progress in Response to Intervention (RtI) programs (see Chapter 5), or evaluate whether a particular curriculum is working as hoped (NWEA, 2015). Some standardized test packages now have interim assessments to help teachers determine whether their students are making good progress and if they will be ready for the standardized test when it comes (Dixson & Worrell, 2016). For an example of interim assessments used by about 12 states, see the Smarter Balanced Assessment System at https://www.smarterbalanced.org Summative assessment occurs at the end of instruction. Its purpose is to measure the students’ level of proficiency—have they learned the prescribed content and skills? Summative assessment, therefore, provides a summary of students’ accomplishments. The final exam is a classic example. Standardized tests such as the SAT or GRE are also summative— they assess what you have learned. Some educators say formative is assessment for learning and summative is assessment of learning (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2020). The distinctions among formative, interim, and summative assessments, however, are really based on how the results are used. If the purpose of the assessment is to improve your teaching and help students guide their own learning, then the evaluation is formative. If the purpose is to track growth and progress over time, the assessment is interim. And if the purpose is to evaluate final achievement (and help report a course grade), the assessment is summative (Dixson & Worrell, 2016). In fact, the same assessment could be used as a formative evaluation at the beginning of the unit, as an interim assessment during the unit, and as a summative evaluation at the end. Because the formative uses of assessment are really the most important in teaching, we will spend more time on them later. For now let’s consider how to judge any assessment.

Assessing the Assessments: Reliability and Validity One of the most common problems with the use of assessments, especially tests, is misinterpretation of results. No assessment provides a perfect picture of a person’s abilities; the results from a test provide only one small sample of behavior. Three factors are important in developing good assessments and interpreting results: reliability, validity, and absence of bias. These terms are applied most often to test scores, even though the underlying considerations apply to all assessments.

Chapter 15  Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing 649 RELIABILITY OF TEST SCORES.  Scores are reliable if a test gives a consistent, precise,

and stable “reading” of a person’s ability from one occasion to the next, assuming the person’s ability remains the same. A reliable thermometer works in a similar manner, giving you a reading of 100°C each time you measure the temperature of boiling water. So, when you see “reliability,” think consistency and precision of measurement. There are several ways to compute reliability, but all the possibilities give numbers between 0.0 and 1.0, like a correlation coefficient. Above .90 is considered very reliable; .80 to .90 is good, and below .80 is not very good reliability for standardized tests such as the SAT or ACT—most of these have a test-retest reliability of .80 to .90 based on about 3 months between testings (Brookhart & Nitko, 2019). Generally speaking, longer tests are more reliable than shorter ones. Errors in Test Scores.  All tests are imperfect estimators of the qualities or skills they are trying to measure. There are sources of error related to the student such as mood, motivation, test-taking skills, or even cheating. Sometimes the errors are in your favor, and you score higher than your knowledge might warrant; sometimes the errors go against you. There are also sources of error related to the test itself: the directions are unclear, the reading level is too high, the items are ambiguous, or the time limits are wrong. The score each student receives always includes some amount of error. How can scores be more precise and error-free? As you might guess, this returns us to the question of reliability. The more reliable the test scores are, the less error there will be in the score actually obtained. On standardized tests, the developers take this into consideration and make estimations of how much the students’ scores would probably vary if they were tested repeatedly. This estimation is called the standard error of measurement. Thus, a reliable test can also be defined as one with a small standard error of measurement. Confidence Interval.  Never base your opinion of a student’s ability or achievement on the exact score the student obtains. For standardized tests, many test companies now report scores using a confidence interval, or “standard error band,” that encloses the student’s actual score. This makes use of the standard error of measurement and allows a teacher to consider the range of scores that might include a student’s true score—the score the student would get if the measurement were completely accurate and error-free. Assume, for example, that two students in your class take a standardized achievement test in Spanish. The standard error of measurement for this test is 5. One student receives a score of 79 and the other, a score of 85. At first glance, these scores seem quite different. But when you consider the standard error bands around the scores, not just the scores alone, you see that the bands overlap. The first student’s true score might be anywhere between 74 and 84 (that is, the actual score of 79 plus or minus the standard error of 5). The second student’s true score might be anywhere between 80 and 90. Both students could have the same true score of 80, 81, 82, 83, or 84, because the score bands overlap at those numbers. It is crucial to keep in mind the idea of standard error bands when selecting students for special programs. No child should be rejected simply because the score obtained missed the cutoff by 1 or 2 points. The student’s true score might well be above the cutoff point. See Figure 15.5 later in this chapter for a test report that includes these score bands. You can apply the same reasoning to political surveys—they generally report a margin of error (usually in very small print at the bottom of the TV screen). If a particular survey in Michigan, say, had one candidate at 47% and the other at 53%, the results would be a “statistical tie” (the language you hear on television) if the poll had a margin of error of ±4%. That is because either candidate’s true percentage could be in the overlapping band of 49%, 50%, or 51%. Differences between candidates’ ratings are truly different and reliable only when the score bands do not overlap. VALIDITY.  If test scores are sufficiently reliable, the next question is whether the scores

are valid, or more accurately, whether the judgments and decisions based on the test scores are valid. To have validity, the decisions and inferences based on the test must be

Reliability Consistency of test results.

Standard error of measurement Hypothetical estimate of variation in scores if testing were repeated.

Confidence interval Range of scores within which an individual’s true score is likely to fall.

True score The score the student would get if the measurement were completely accurate and error-free.

Validity Degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.

650  Chapter 15  Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing supported by evidence. This means that validity is judged in relation to a particular use or purpose—that is, in relation to the actual decision being made and the evidence for that decision. A particular test might be valid for one purpose, but not for another (Haertel, 2018; Popham, 2020). Different kinds of evidence support a particular judgment. If the purpose of a test is to measure the skills covered in a course, then we want content-related evidence of validity, so we should see test questions on all the important course topics and not on extraneous information. Have you ever taken a test that dealt only with a few ideas from one lecture or just a few pages of the textbook? Then decisions based on that test (like your grade) certainly lacked content-related evidence of validity. Some tests are designed to predict outcomes. The SATs, for example, are intended to predict performance in college. If SAT scores correlate with academic performance in college as measured by the criterion of, say, grade-point average in the first year, then we have criterion-related evidence of validity for the use of the SAT in admissions decisions. Most standardized tests are designed to measure some psychological characteristic or “construct” such as reasoning ability, reading comprehension, achievement motivation, intelligence, creativity, and so on. It is a bit more difficult to gather construct-related evidence of validity, yet this is a very important requirement—probably the most important. ­Construct-related evidence of validity is gathered over many years. It is indicated by correlations with other established tests and logical patterns of scores. For example, older children can answer more questions on intelligence tests than younger children can. This fits with our construct of intelligence. If the average 5-year-old answered as many questions correctly on a test as the average 13-year-old, we would doubt that the test really measured intelligence. Today, many psychologists suggest gathering content- and criterion-related evidence are simply ways of determining if the test actually measures the construct it was designed to measure. A test must be reliable in order to be valid. For example, if an intelligence test yields different results each time it is given to the same child over the course of a few months, then, by definition, it is not reliable. Certainly, it couldn’t be a valid measure of intelligence because intelligence is assumed to be fairly stable, at least over a short period of time. However, reliability will not guarantee validity. If that intelligence test gave the same score every time for a particular child, but didn’t predict school achievement, speed of learning, or other characteristics associated with intelligence, then performance on the test would not be a true indicator of intelligence. The test would be reliable—but invalid. Reliability and validity are issues with all assessments, not just standardized tests, but classroom assessments as well. ABSENCE OF BIAS.  The third important criterion for judging assessments is absence of

Assessment bias Qualities of an assessment instrument that offend or unfairly penalize a group of students because of the students’ gender, socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, and so on.

bias. Assessment bias “refers to qualities of an assessment instrument that offend or unfairly penalize a group of students because of their gender, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, religion, or other such group-defining characteristic” (Popham, 2020, p. 128). Biases are aspects of the assessment such as content, language, or examples that might distort the performance of a group—either for better or for worse. Offensiveness occurs when a particular group might be insulted by the content of the assessment. Offended, angry students may not perform at their best. What about unfairly penalizing test takers based on ethnic, racial, gender, religious, or social class biases? Many people believe that tests can unfairly penalize some groups who may not have an equal opportunity to show what they know on the test because the language of the test and the tester may be different from the languages of the students. Also, tests may reflect unfair penalization because different groups have had different opportunities to learn the material tested. The questions asked tend to center on experiences and facts more familiar to students from the dominant culture than to students from minority groups. Consider this test item for fourth-graders described by Popham (2020, p. 375):

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My uncle’s field is computer programming. Look at the sentences below. In which sentence does the word field mean the same as it does in the boxed sentence above? A. The softball pitcher knew how to field her position. B. They prepared the field by spraying and plowing it. C. I know the field I plan to enter when I finish college. D. The doctor used a wall chart to examine my field of vision. Items like this are included on most standardized and textbook tests. But not all family members describe their work as a field of employment. What if your parents worked at a grocery store or a car repair shop? Are these fields? Life outside class has prepared some students, but not others, for this item. The meaning of “field” is part of your cultural knowledge. When you think about it, how can you separate background, context, and culture from cognition? Every student’s learning is embedded in his or her culture, and every test question emerges from some kind of cultural knowledge, so be sensitive to the kinds of questions you ask. And the purpose of the assessment can actually affect evaluators’ judgments. For example, when participants in a study were told the purpose was to evaluate the student’s work to give grades based on the number of mistakes, the evaluators found more mistakes if they thought the student was from a lower-SES family. If the evaluators were told the purpose was to give feedback to guide learning, the gap in finding mistakes for high- and low-SES students was reduced (Autin et al., 2019). With this background in the basic concepts of formative, interim, and summative assessments and attention to reliability, validity, and absence of bias, we are ready to enter the classroom.

Classroom Assessment: Testing Learning Outcome 15.2  Describe two kinds of test interpretations (norm-referenced and criterion-referenced), how to use selected-response and constructed-response/essay testing appropriately in teaching, and the advantages as well as criticisms of traditional testing. Stop & Think  Think back to your most recent test. What was the format? Did you feel that the test results were an accurate reflection of your knowledge or skills? Have you ever had to design a test? What makes a good, fair test?

Pearson eText Podcast 15.1 Some people are just better at taking tests than others. What do they know and how do they do it? Hear textbook author Anita Woolfolk discuss some ideas for improving your own test taking. Her suggestions for students may help teachers develop more effective assessments.

When most people think of assessments in a classroom, they usually think of testing. As you will see shortly, although teachers today have many other options, testing is still a significant activity in most classrooms. In this section, we will examine how to interpret test scores, evaluate the tests that accompany standard curriculum materials, and write your own test questions.

Interpreting Any Test Score Before we even look at different kinds of tests, there is an important consideration. The outcome of any test has no meaning by itself; we must make some kind of comparison in order to interpret test results. There are two basic types of comparisons: In the first, a test score is compared to the scores obtained by other people who have taken the same test. This is called a norm-referenced comparison. The second type is criterion-referenced. Here, the score is compared to a fixed standard or minimum passing score. The same test can be interpreted either in a norm-referenced or criterion-referenced way, depending on the type of ­comparison made.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Traditional Assessment (II C1, 2, 4) Selected-response and essay tests continue to have important roles in effective assessment and evaluation programs. Describe the appropriate uses of these types of tests. Identify the advantages and limitations of each.

652  Chapter 15  Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing Norm-referenced testing Testing in which scores are compared with the average performance of others.

Norm group Large sample of students serving as a comparison group for scoring tests.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Criterion-/Norm-Referenced Tests (II, C5) The ERIC Digest Norm- and ­Criterion-Referenced ­Testing (https://www.ericdigests. org/1998-1/norm.htm) describes the purposes, content, and issues related to criterion- and normreferenced tests. Giving accurate feedback to parents is part of a teacher’s job. When talking with a parent about a child’s abilities, do you think the use of norm-referenced or criterion-referenced test results is more desirable?

NORM-REFERENCED TEST INTERPRETATIONS.  In norm-referenced testing, t­he people who have taken the test provide the norms for determining the meaning of a given individual’s score or grade. You can think of a norm as being the typical level of performance for a particular group. By comparing the individual’s raw score (the actual number correct) to the norm, we can determine if that raw score is above, below, or around the average for that group. There are at least four types of norm groups (comparison groups) in education— the class or school itself, the school district, national samples, and international samples. Students in national norm groups used for large-scale assessment programs are tested one year, and then the scores for that group serve as comparisons or norms every year for several years until the test is revised, or re-normed. The norm groups are selected so that all socioeconomic status (SES) levels are included in the sample. Because students from high-SES backgrounds tend to do better on many standardized tests, a ­high-SES school district will almost always have higher scores compared to the national norm group that includes a wide range of SES levels. Norm-referenced tests cover many general outcomes. They are especially appropriate when only the top few candidates can be admitted to a program. However, n ­ orm-referenced measurement has its limitations. The results of a norm-referenced test do not tell you whether students are ready to move on to more advanced material. For instance, knowing that two students are in the top 3% of the class on a test of algebraic concepts will not tell you if they are ready to move on to advanced math; everyone in the class may have a limited understanding of the algebraic concepts, and no one may be ready to move on. Norm-referenced tests also are not particularly appropriate for measuring affective and psychomotor outcomes. To measure individuals’ psychomotor learning, you need to compare their performance to a clear description of standards. In the affective area, attitudes and values are personal; comparisons among individuals are not really appropriate. For example, how could we measure an “average” level of artistic preferences? Finally, ­norm-referenced tests tend to encourage competition and comparison of scores. Some students compete to be the best. Others, realizing that being the best is impossible, may compete to be the worst. Both goals have their casualties. CRITERION-REFERENCED TEST INTERPRETATIONS.  When test scores are compared, not

Criterion-referenced testing Testing in which scores are compared to a set performance standard.

to the scores of others, but to a given criterion or standard of performance, this is called criterion-referenced testing. To decide who should be allowed to drive a car, it is important to determine just what standard of performance works for selecting safe drivers. It does not matter how your test results compare to the results of others. If your performance on the test was in the top 10%, but you consistently ran through red lights, you would not be a good candidate for receiving a license, even though your score was high. Criterion-referenced tests measure the mastery of a very specific learning target. For example, a criterion-referenced test would be useful in measuring the students’ ability to add three-digit numbers. A test could be designed with 20 different problems, and the standard for mastery could be set at 17 correct out of 20. (The standard is often somewhat arbitrary and may be based on such things as the teacher’s experience.) If two students receive scores of 7 and 11, it does not matter that one student did better than the other because neither met the standard of 17. Both need more help with addition. The results of a criterion-referenced test should tell the teacher exactly what the students can and cannot do, at least under certain conditions; thus these are the right kinds of tests for formative and interim assessments. When teaching basic skills, comparison to a preset standard is often more important than comparison to the performance of others. It is not very comforting to know, as a parent, that your child is better in reading than most of the students in her class if none of the students is reading at grade level. Sometimes standards for meeting the criterion must be set at 100% correct. You would not like to have your appendix removed by a surgeon who left surgical instruments inside the body only 10% of the time.

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Criterion-referenced tests are not appropriate for every situation. Many subjects cannot be broken down into a set of specific targets. And, although standards are important in criterion-referenced testing, they can often be arbitrary, as you have already seen. When deciding whether a student has mastered the addition of three-digit numbers comes down to the difference between 16 or 17 correct answers, it seems difficult to justify one particular standard over another. Finally, at times, it is valuable to know how the students in your class compare to other students at their grade level both locally and nationally. You can see that each type of test is well suited for certain situations, but each also has its limitations.

Using the Tests from Textbooks Most elementary and secondary school texts today come complete with supplemental materials such as teaching manuals and ready-made tests. Using these tests can save time, but is this good teaching practice? The answer depends on your learning targets, the way you teach the material, and the quality of the tests provided. If the textbook test:

• is of high quality, • covers all your learning goals, • matches your testing plan, • asks student to know and do what they were taught, • and fits the instruction you actually provided for your students, then it may be the right test to use. Check the reading level of the items provided and be p ­ repared to revise and improve them to meet the needs of your class ­(McMillan, 2019; ­Russel & Airasian, 2012). What if no tests are available for the material you want to cover, or the tests provided in your teachers’ manuals are not appropriate for your students? Then it’s time for you to create your own tests. We will consider the two major kinds of traditional tests—­selectedresponse and constructed response/essay.

Selected-Response Testing Multiple-choice questions, matching exercises, true/false statements, and short-answer or fill-in items are all types of selected-response testing. The scoring of these types of items is relatively straightforward because the answers are more clear-cut than essay answers. These types of items are what many of us envision when we think of “traditional” testing ­(Chappuis & Stiggins, 2020). How should you decide which item format is best for a particular test? Use the one that provides the most direct measure of the learning outcome you intended for your ­students. In other words, if you want to see how well students can write a letter, have them write a letter, don’t ask multiple-choice questions about letters. But if many different item formats will work equally well, then use multiple-choice questions because they are easier to score fairly and can cover many topics. Switch to other formats if writing good ­multiple-choice items for the material is not possible or appropriate. For example, if related concepts such as terms and definitions need to be linked, then a matching item is a better format than ­multiple-choice. If it is difficult to come up with several wrong answers for a ­multiple-choice item, try a true/false question instead. Alternatively, ask the student to supply a short a­ nswer that completes a statement (fill in the blank). Variety in testing can lower students’ anxiety because the entire grade does not depend on one type of question that a particular student may find difficult. Table 15.1 on the next page gives guidance for using true/false, ­matching, and ­fill-in-the-blank items. We will look closely at the multiple-choice format because it is the most versatile—and the most difficult to use well.

Selected-response testing A form of testing in which students choose the correct response from a set of possible responses provided by the teacher or the test developer instead of creating their own response. Multiple-choice and true-false tests are common examples of selected response testing.

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Table 15.1  Guidance for Using True/False, Matching, and Fill-in-the-Blank Items Here is a checklist for your test preparation. GUIDELINE FOR TRUE/FALSE ITEMS            Write the item as a simple declarative sentence.            Make items entirely true or entirely false as stated—no complex “idea salads” with some truth and some falsehood. GUIDELINES FOR MATCHING ITEMS                                            

Provide clear directions for making the match. Keep the list of items to be matched short—no more than 10. Include only homogeneous items—don’t mix names, dates, events, etc. Keep the wording of the response options short and grammatically the same. Don’t let grammar be a clue.            Provide more response options than items to be matched so students can’t guess the last match because only one answer is left.

GUIDELINES FOR FILL-IN ITEMS            Ask a question. Don’t just make a statement with a blank in it—more than one answer might work in a statement.            Provide one blank per item—Ask one question, get one answer, then move to the next question.            Don’t make the length of the blank a clue either.            Put the blank toward the end. Source: Adapted from Chappuis, J., & Stiggins, R. J. (2020). An introduction to student-involved assessment for learning (3rd ed.)., pp. 156–157. Pearson. Adapted with permission. Reprinted and Electronically Reproduced by Permission of Pearson Education, Inc., New York, NY.

USING MULTIPLE-CHOICE TESTS.  Even though your education professors may reject the use of multiple-choice tests, about 50% of public school teachers endorse these tests (Banks, 2012), so you should know how to use them well. Giving students experience answering multiple-choice tests (as long as this format fits your learning targets) may help prepare the students for state achievement testing that relies on multiple-choice items (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2020). Carefully written multiple-choice items can assess higher-order outcomes if you ask students to apply or analyze a concept, but crafting these items is not easy (Waugh & ­Gronlund, 2013). For example, Mark Smith (2017) asked twelfth-grade students to “think aloud” as they answered multiple-choice items from a U.S. history test on the National Assessment of Educational Progress—a well-known standardized test. The items were intended to measure historical thinking, but the results of the think-alouds indicated that the items really ­assessed factual knowledge, reading comprehension, and test-taking skills. WRITING MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS.  Some students jokingly refer to multiple-choice

Stem The question part of a multiplechoice item.

Distractors Wrong answers offered as choices in a multiple-choice item.

tests as “multiple-guess” tests—a sign that these tests are often poorly designed. Your goal in writing test items is to design them so that they measure student achievement, not ­test-taking and guessing skills, and this can be a challenge. The stem of a multiple-choice item is the part that asks the question or poses the problem. The choices that follow are called alternatives. The wrong answers are called ­distractors because their purpose is to distract students who have only a partial understanding of the material. If there were no good distractors, students with only a vague understanding would have no difficulty in finding the right answer. The Guidelines: Writing Multiple-Choice Test Items should help you write good stems and alternatives.

Constructed Responses: Essay Testing The best way to measure some learning targets is to ask students to create answers on their own; essay questions are one way to accomplish this. When you want to assess mastery of larger chucks of knowledge (like asking students how atoms combine to form other

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GUIDELINES Writing Multiple-Choice Test Items Make the stem clear and simple, and present only a single problem. Ask a complete question with no unessential details. Example Poor There are several different kinds of standard or derived scores. An IQ score is especially useful because

Better An advantage of an IQ score is

State the problem in the stem in positive terms. Negative language is confusing. If you must use words such as not, no, all but, or except, underline them or type them in all capitals. Example Poor Which of the following is not a standard score?

Better Which of the following is NOT a standard score?

Do not expect students to make extremely fine discriminations among answer choices. Example The percentage of area in a normal curve falling between +1 and −1 standard deviations is about:

Poor a. b. c. d.

66%. 67%. 68%. 69%.

Better e. f. g. h.

14%. 34%. 68%. 95%.

Make sure each alternative answer fits the grammatical form of the stem, so that no answers are obviously wrong. Example Poor The Stanford-Binet test yields an a. IQ score. b. reading level. c. vocational preference. d. ­mechanical aptitude.

Better The Stanford-Binet is a test of a. intelligence. b. reading level. c. vocational preference. d. mechanical aptitude.

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Word response options as briefly as possible, and make sure they are grammatically the same (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2020, p. 155). Example Poor Why did colonists migrate to the United States? a. To escape heavy taxation by their native governments. b. Religion. c. They sought the adventure of living among Native Americans in the new land. d. There was the promise of great wealth in the New World.

Better Why did colonists migrate to the United States? a. To escape taxation. b. For religious freedom. c. For adventure. d. To become rich.

Avoid including two distractors that have the same meaning. If only one answer can be right and if two answers are the same, then these two must both be wrong. This narrows down the choices considerably.

Avoid using categorical words such as always, all, only, or never unless they can appear consistently in all the alternatives. Most smart test takers know that categorical answers are usually wrong.

Avoid using the exact wording found in the textbook. Poor students may recognize the answers without knowing what they mean.

Avoid overuse of all of the above and none of the above. Such choices may be helpful to students who are simply guessing. In addition, using all of the above may trick a quick student who sees that the first alternative is correct and does not read on to discover that the others are correct, too.

Avoid obvious patterns on a test. They aid students who are guessing. The position of the correct answer should be varied, as should its length. Make sure there is only one correct or best answer. If more than one answer might be correct, make sure the stem clearly asks for the “best” answer. Base distractors on common errors and misconceptions (Gierl et al., 2017).

substances) or evaluate reasoning (give a rationale for an experiment), then a constructed response is a good choice (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2020). The most difficult part of essay testing is judging the quality of the answers, but writing good, clear questions is not particularly easy, either. CONSTRUCTING ESSAY TESTS.  Because answering essay questions takes time, true essay

tests cover less material than selected-response tests. Thus, for efficiency, essay tests should be limited to the assessment of important, complex learning outcomes. A good essay question includes: (a) a clear and specific context for the question, (b) a statement of what students should describe or explain, and (c) guidelines for what should be covered in the ­answer. Here is an example:

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We have been studying the importance of the carbon cycle and how it works ­[context]. Based on your understanding of the carbon cycle, explain (a) why we need to know about it, and (b) how carbon moves from one place to another [what to describe or explain]. Be sure to include the following [guidelines]:

• Why it is important to understand the carbon cycle (5 points) • The four major reservoirs where carbon is stored (4 points) • At least six ways that carbon gets transferred from one place to another (6 points) (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2020, pp. 187–188) Students need ample time to answer a question like this. If more than one essay is assigned in the same class period, you may want to suggest time limits for each question. Remember, however, that time pressure increases anxiety and may prevent accurate assessment of some students. Whatever your approach, don’t try to make up for the limited amount of material an essay test can cover by including a large number of questions. Rather than including more than two or three essay questions in a single class period, it would be better to plan on more frequent testing. Combining an essay question with a number of selected-response items is one way to prevent the problem of limited sampling of course material (Waugh & Gronlund, 2013). EVALUATING ESSAYS.  When possible, a good first step in grading essays is to construct a set of scoring criteria or a rubric (more on this later) and share it with students. After all, students can succeed only if they know what success means—what does success look like (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2020)? Here is an example of a question and criteria from TenBrink (2003, p. 326).

Question: Defend or refute the following statement: Civil wars are necessary to the growth of a developing country. Cite reasons for your argument and use ­examples from history to help substantiate your claim. Scoring Rubric: All answers, regardless of the position taken, should include (a) a clear statement of the position, (b) at least five logical reasons, (c) at least four ­examples from history that clearly substantiate the reasons given. Once you have set your expectations for answers, you can assign points to the various parts of the essay. You might also give points for the organization of the answer and the internal consistency of the essay. You can then assign grades such as 1 to 5 or A, B, C, D, and F, and sort the papers into piles by grade. As a final step, skim the papers in each pile to see if they are comparable in quality. These techniques will help ensure fairness and reliability in grading. When grading essay tests that contain several questions, it makes sense to grade all responses to one question before moving on to the next. This helps prevent the quality of a student’s answer to one question from influencing your reaction to the student’s other answers. After you finish reading and scoring the first question, shuffle the papers so that no students end up having all their questions graded first (e.g., when you may be taking more time to give feedback or are applying stricter standards) or last (when you may be tired of writing feedback or more lax in your standards). You may achieve greater objectivity if you ask students to put their names on the back of the paper, so that grading is anonymous.

­Assessing Traditional Testing Your stand on traditional testing is part of your philosophy of teaching. First consider the positives of testing—right answers are important. Even though schooling is about learning to think and solve problems, it is also about knowledge. Students must have something to think about—facts, ideas, concepts, principles, theories, explanations, arguments, images, opinions. One reason that American students, compared to students in many other

658  Chapter 15  Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing developed countries, lack essential knowledge may be because American schools emphasize process—critical thinking, self-esteem, problem solving—more than content. To teach more about content, teachers will need to assess content learning. Well-designed traditional tests can evaluate students’ knowledge effectively and efficiently and thus provide feedback for students and information for teacher planning (Popham, 2020). But there are strong criticisms as well. Do traditional tests really tell us what students can do with that knowledge out in the real world? True understanding cannot be measured by tests that ask students to use skills and knowledge out of context. Let’s look at a few alternative approaches to classroom assessment.

Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments Learning Outcome 15.3  Explain how to use formative assessment to improve ­instruction and describe ways to design and evaluate authentic assessments, ­including portfolios, exhibitions, performances, and the development of rubrics. Formative assessments, as you saw earlier, are assessments for learning. They help form and support instruction. Formative assessments may be as informal and “on the fly” as the teacher noticing many students in Spanish class are having trouble with one particular verb construction in conversations and homework, to as formal as quizzes embedded in the curriculum that are just like tests but don’t count toward a grade. As emphasis on formative assessment has increased around the world, achievement is increasing as well (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2020; Decristan et al., 2015). Early on in a unit, assessments should be formative (provide feedback, but not count toward a grade), saving the actual graded assessments for later in the unit when all students have had the chance to learn the material. One approach is informal assessments.

Informal Assessments Informal assessments Ungraded (formative) assessments that gather information from multiple sources to help teachers make decisions.

Pearson eText Video Example 15.2 The high school science teacher in this video describes formative assessments and authentic assessments she uses in her linguistically diverse classroom. How might her informal strategies for learning improve her scaffolding in support of students’ learning?

Informal assessments are ungraded assessments that gather information from multiple sources to help teachers make decisions (Banks, 2012). Two examples of informal assessment are exit tickets and journals. EXIT TICKETS.  The exit ticket is a simple assessment and can even be done “on the fly” as you

notice students struggling. After a lesson, the teacher poses a question or problem. Then each student answers on a separate sheet of paper that becomes her or his ticket to leave the class. Before the next class, the teacher reviews the tickets and creates small discussion groups made up of at least one student with a solid understanding of the material mixed in with students who are struggling. After reviewing and reteaching the concepts that seem to have been the most misunderstood, the teacher tells the students to discuss the exit ticket question in their groups and identifies the students who have a solid understanding as the “topic leaders” (Dixson & Worrell, 2016). Other exit ticket assessments include a 2-minute fast write about the key ideas in the lesson or a description of the “muddiest point,” the idea that was most confusing or unclear. Students don’t even have to put their names on these exit tickets, but a quick read will tell the teacher where reteaching and explanation are needed the next day. JOURNALS.  Individual and group journals are flexible and widely used informal assessments. Teachers may consult the journals to learn students’ concerns and interests so instruction can be more authentic and engaging. But often journals focus on academic learning, usually through responses to prompts. Banks (2012, p. 113) describes one high school physics teacher who asked his students to respond to these three questions in their journals:

1. How can you determine the coefficient of friction if you know only the angle of the inclined plane?

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2. Compare and contrast magnetic, electronic, and gravitational fields. 3. If you were to describe the physical concept of sound to your best friend, what music would you use to demonstrate this concept? When he read the students’ journals, the teacher realized that many of the students’ basic assumptions about friction, acceleration, and velocity came from personal experiences and not from scientific reasoning. His approach to teaching had to change to reach the students. The teacher never would have known to make the changes in his instruction without reading the journals, which served in this case as a formative assessment. There are many other kinds of informal assessments. Every time teachers ask q ­ uestions or watch students perform skills, the teachers are conducting informal assessments. INVOLVING STUDENTS IN ASSESSMENTS.  One way to provide feedback and develop stu-

dents’ sense of efficacy for learning is to involve the students in the formative assessment process. Students can keep track of their own progress and assess their improvement. Here are other ideas, some taken from Chappuis and Stiggins (2020). Students might:

• Learn about the criteria for judging work by examining and discussing with a peer examples of good, average, and poor products or performances. Then pick a poor example and revise to improve it.

• Describe to the teacher or a peer (orally or in writing) the way they approached an assignment, the problems they encountered, the options they considered, and the final result.

• Analyze their strengths and weaknesses before starting a project, then discuss with

Pearson eText Video Example 15.3 Ms. Martin involves her students in assessing how well they met their learning objective in the reading lesson. How does this approach to formative assessment help students identify their own strengths and weaknesses? Authentic assessments Assessment procedures that test skills and abilities as they would be applied in real-life situations.

the teacher or peers how they will use their strengths and overcome their weaknesses as they work on the project.

• In pairs, make up questions that might be on the test, explain why those are good questions, and then answer them together.

• Look back at earlier work and analyze how they have grown by describing “I used to think . . . but now I know. . . .” After doing a few of these analyses, summarize using a frame such as: What did I know before I started? What did I learn? What do I want to learn next?

• Before a major test, do a free write on these prompts: “What exactly will be on the test?” “What kinds of questions will be asked (multiple-choice, essay, etc.)?” “How well will I do?” “What do I need to study to make sure I am ready?” Students also can provide themselves with formative feedback by ­completing the quiz analysis sheet in Figure 15.1 on the next page. After an ungraded quiz, students analyze their mistakes and make plans for improving. This approach makes good use of the ­quiz—­especially because many students just toss the papers without learning anything from the outcome.

Authentic Assessments: Performances and Portfolios Authentic assessments ask students to apply skills and abilities as they would in real life. For example, they might use fractions to enlarge or reduce recipes. If our instructional goals for students include the abilities to write, speak, listen, create, think critically, do research, solve problems, or apply knowledge, then our tests should ask students to write, speak, listen, create, think, research, solve, and apply. How can this happen? PERFORMANCES.  Many educators suggest we look to the arts and sports for analogies to

solve this problem. If we think of the “test” as being the recital, science fair project, game, mock court trial, or other performance, then teaching to the test is just fine. All coaches, artists, and musicians gladly “teach” to these “tests” because performing well on these tests is the whole point of instruction. Authentic assessment asks students to perform.

Pearson eText Video Example 15.4 A science fair is a performance assessment in which students produce products that demonstrate their learning rather than taking traditional tests.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Authentic Tests (II, C1, 2, 4) The emphasis on ­student-centered learning has been accompanied by an emphasis on authentic tests. Understand the purpose, value, and advantages of these forms of assessment. Describe their characteristics and the potential problems with their use.

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Figure 15.1  Reviewing and Analyziing a Quiz or Assignment A form like this can help students analyze a quiz or assignment to serve as formative assessment. After identifying mistakes as “fixable” or “I don’t get it,” the student makes plans to relearn. Reviewing My Results Assignment:

Name:

Date:

Please look at your corrected test and mark whether each problem is right or wrong. Then look at the problems you got wrong and decide if you made a mistake you can fix without help. If you did, mark the “Fixable Mistake” column. For all the remaining problems you got wrong, mark the “Don’t Get it” column.

Problem

Learning Target

Right

Wrong

Fixable Mistake

Don’t Get it

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Analyzing My Results I AM GOOD AT THESE! Learning targets I got right: I AM PRETTY GOOD AT THESE, BUT NEED TO DO A LITTLE REVIEW Learning targets I got wrong because of a fixable mistake: What I can do to keep this from happening again: I NEED TO KEEP LEARNING THESE Learning targets I got wrong and I’m not sure what to do to correct them: What I can do to get better at them: Source: Chappuis, J., & Stiggins, R. J. (2020). An introduction to student-involved assessment for learning (3rd ed.). Pearson, p. 167. Reprinted and Electronically Reproduced by Permission of Pearson Education, Inc., New York, NY.

Performance assessments Any form of assessment that requires students to carry out an activity or produce a product in order to demonstrate learning.

The performances may be thinking performances, physical performances, creative performances, or other forms. So performance assessment is any form of assessment that requires ­students to carry out an activity or produce a product to demonstrate learning (Russell & Airasian, 2012). It may seem odd to talk about thinking as a performance, but there are many ­parallels. Serious thinking is risky, because real-life problems are not well defined. ­Often, the outcomes of our thinking are public; others evaluate our ideas. Like a dancer auditioning for

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a Broadway show, we must cope with the consequences of being ­evaluated. Like a potter looking at a lump of clay, a student facing a difficult problem must experiment, observe, redo, imagine, and test solutions; apply both basic skills and inventive techniques; make interpretations; decide how to communicate results to the intended audience; and o ­ ften accept criticism and improve the initial solution (Clark, 2012; Eisner, 1999). The concern with authentic assessment has led to the development of several approaches based on the goal of performance in context. For example, instead of asking students, “If you bought a toy for 69 cents and gave the clerk a dollar, how much change would you get back?” have students work in pairs with real money to role-play making different purchases or set up a mock class store and have students make purchases and give change (Kim & Sensale Yazdian, 2014; Popham, 2020; Waugh & Gronlund, 2013). The Center for Technology in Learning of SRI International, a nonprofit science ­research institute, also provides an online resource bank of performance-based assessments linked to the National Science Education Standards. The resource is called PALS (Performance Assessment Links in Science). Go to the website pals.sri.com; search for the ­performance tasks for kindergarten through 12th grade. You can select tasks by standard and grade level. PORTFOLIOS.  For years, photographers, artists, models, and architects have had portfo-

lios to display their skills and show to prospective employers. A portfolio is a systematic collection of work, often including work in progress, revisions, student self-analyses, and reflections on what the student has learned. Written work or artistic pieces are common contents of portfolios, but student portfolios might also include letters to the portfolio readers ­describing each entry and its importance, graphs, diagrams, pictures or digital slideshows, PowerPoint presentations, recordings of the students reading their work, unedited and final drafts of persuasive essays or poems, lists of books read, annotated website addresses, peer comments, videorecordings, laboratory reports, and computer programs—anything that demonstrates learning in the area being taught and assessed (Popham, 2020). There is a distinction between process portfolios and final, or “best-work,” portfolios. The distinction is similar to the difference between formative and summative evaluation. Process portfolios document learning and show progress. Best-work portfolios showcase final accomplishments (Johnson & Johnson, 2002). Table 15.2 on the next page shows some examples of portfolios for both individuals and groups. The Guidelines: Creating Portfolios on the next page give some ideas for using portfolios in your teaching.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Portfolio Assessment (II, C1, 2) For a discussion of the advantages, limitations, design, and implementation of portfolio programs, go to nea.org/assets /docs/June2011AdvOnline.pdf.

Portfolio A collection of the student’s work in an area, showing growth, self-reflection, and achievement.

Evaluating Portfolios and Performances Checklists, rating scales, and scoring rubrics are helpful when you assess performances, because assessments of performances and portfolios are criterion referenced, not norm referenced. In other words, the students’ products and performances are compared to established public standards, not ranked in relation to other students’ work. SCORING RUBRICS.  A checklist or rating scale gives specific feedback about elements of a

performance. Scoring rubrics are rules that are used to determine the quality of a student performance, often on a 4-point scale from “excellent” (4) to “inadequate” (1) or on a scale that assigns points to each category—10 points for excellent, 6 for good, and so on (Mabry, 1999). For example, a rubric describing excellent delegation of responsibility in a group research project might be: Each student in the group can clearly explain what information the group needs, what information s/he is responsible for locating, and when the information is needed. This rubric was generated using Rubistar, an online service for educators that allows you to select a subject area and category, and then create a rubric. To get the preceding rubric, I chose the subject of writing—“group planning and research project”—and the category of “delegation of responsibility.”

Pearson eText Video Example 15.5 In this video, elementary students collect items for process and best-works portfolios in social studies. Such displays of the individual’s work demonstrate achievement and growth that is not easily captured in other forms of assessment. Scoring rubrics Rules that are used to determine the quality of a student’s performance.

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Table 15.2  Process and Best-Works Portfolios for Individuals and Groups Here are a few examples of how to use portfolios in different subjects. THE PROCESS PORTFOLIO SUBJECT AREA

INDIVIDUAL STUDENT

COOPERATIVE GROUP

Science

Documentation (running records or logs) of using the scientific method to solve a series of laboratory problems

Documentation (observation checklists) of using the scientific method to solve a series of laboratory problems

Mathematics

Documentation of mathematical reasoning through double-column mathematical problem solving (computations on the left side and running commentary explaining thought processes on the right side)

Documentation of complex problem solving and use of higher-level strategies

Language Arts

Evolution of compositions from early notes through outlines, research notes, response to others’ editing, and final draft

Rubrics and procedures developed to ensure highquality peer editing

SUBJECT AREA

INDIVIDUAL STUDENT

COOPERATIVE GROUP

Language Arts

The best compositions in a variety of styles—expository, humor/ satire, creative (poetry, drama, short story), journalistic (reporting, editorial columnist, reviewer), and advertising copy

The best dramatic production, video project, TV broadcast, newspaper, advertising display

Social Studies

The best historical research paper, opinion essay on a historical issue, commentary on current event, original historical theory, review of a historical biography, account of participation in academic controversy

The best community survey, paper resulting from academic controversy, oral history compilation, multidimensional analysis of a historical event, press corps interview with a historical figure

Fine Arts

The best creative products such as drawings, paintings, sculptures, pottery, poems, thespian performances

The best creative products such as murals, plays written and performed, inventions thought of and built

THE BEST-WORKS PORTFOLIO

Source: Based on D. W. Johnson and R. T. Johnson (2002), Meaningful assessment: A manageable and cooperative process. Pearson Education, Inc.

GUIDELINES Creating Portfolios Involve students in selecting the pieces that will make up their portfolios. Examples

Pearson eText Video Example 15.6 The teacher in this video explains how he uses rubrics with classroom assessments. How are students involved in rubric formation, and how is their input beneficial to their understanding of the learning expectations?

1.

2.

During the unit or semester, ask each student to select work that fits certain criteria, such as “my most difficult problem,” “my best work,” “my most improved work,” or “three approaches to.” For their final submissions, ask students to select pieces that best show how much they have learned.

Make sure the portfolios include information that shows student self-reflection and self-criticism. Examples 1.

Ask students to include a rationale for their selections.

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2. 3. 4.

Have each student write a “guide” to his or her portfolio, explaining how strengths and weaknesses are reflected in the work included. Include self- and peer critiques, indicating specifically what is good and what might be improved. Model self-criticism of your own productions.

Make sure the portfolios reflect the students’ activities in learning. Examples 1. 2.

Include a representative selection of projects, writings, drawings, and so forth. Ask students to relate the goals of learning to the contents of their portfolios.

­ e aware that portfolios can serve different functions at different times of the year. B Examples 1. 2. 3.

Early in the year, it might hold unfinished work or “problem pieces.” At the end of the year, it should contain only what the student is willing to make public. Throughout the year, the portfolios may be the basis for family night conferences. Students can lead the discussion and explain to their family what they have learned by talking them through their portfolios.

Be certain that portfolios demonstrate students’ growth. Examples 1. 2.

Ask students to make a “history” of their progress along certain dimensions and to illustrate points in their growth with specific works. Ask students to include descriptions of activities outside class that reflect the growth illustrated in the portfolio.

Teach students how to create and use portfolios. Examples 1. 2.

Keep models of very well done portfolios as examples, but stress that each portfolio is an individual statement. Examine your students’ portfolios frequently, especially early in the year when they are just getting used to the idea. Give constructive feedback that provides explanations and information about better strategies and problem-solving approaches.

James Popham (2020) emphasizes that rubrics should be neither so specific that they apply to only one task nor so general they give no useful guidance. For example:

• Write a 400-word essay about home fire escape plans that includes the rationale provided by the firefighter who visited our class and the six elements of a good plan. (Too specific—describes only one task and does not address the more general skill of writing essays.)

• Essays will be judged poor, fair, good, or excellent. (Too general—provides no more information than grading essays as D, C, B, or A.) The Guidelines: Developing a Rubric on the next page give more ideas; some are taken from Johnson and Johnson (2002), Guskey (2020), and Popham (2020). It is often helpful to have students join in the development of rating scales and scoring rubrics. When students participate, they are challenged to decide what quality work looks or sounds like in a particular area. They know in advance what is expected. As students gain practice in designing and applying scoring rubrics, their work and their learning often improve. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY.  Because the teacher’s personal judgment plays such a central

role in evaluating performances, reliability is a concern. One teacher’s “excellent” could be another teacher’s “adequate.” Research shows that when raters are experienced and scoring rubrics are well developed and refined, reliability may improve (Herman & Winters, 1994; LeMahieu et al., 1993). In terms of validity, some evidence shows that students who are classified as “master” writers on the basis of portfolio assessment are judged less capable using standard writing assessments. Which form of assessment is the best reflection of enduring qualities? It is hard

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Scoring Rubrics (II, C3) Kathy Schrock’s Guide for Educators (schrockguide .net/­assessment-and-rubrics .html) provides information about every aspect of the use of scoring ­rubrics in the classroom as well as an extensive collection of ­rubrics that can be used or adapted by teachers.

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GUIDELINES Developing a Rubric 1.

2.

3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8.

Make sure the skill to be assessed is important and can be taught. It takes time to develop good rubrics, so make sure the skill being assessed is worth everyone’s time and that the skill can be improved with instruction and practice. Look at models. Show students examples of good and not-so-good work based on composites of work not linked to individual students. Identify the characteristics that make the good ones good and the bad ones bad. List criteria. Use the discussion of models to begin a list of what counts in quality work. Articulate gradations of quality. Describe the best and worst levels of quality; then fill in the middle levels based on your knowledge of common problems and the discussion of ­not-so-good work. Practice on models. Have students use the rubrics to evaluate the models you gave them in Step 2. Use self- and peer assessment. Give students their task. As they work, stop them occasionally for self- and peer assessment. Revise. Always give students time to revise their work based on the feedback they get in Step 6. Use teacher assessment. In your grading, be sure to use the same rubric students used to assess their work.

Note: Step 3 may be necessary only when you are asking students to engage in a task with which they are unfamiliar. Steps 5 and 6 are useful but time-consuming; you can do these on your own, especially when you’ve been using rubrics for a while. A class experienced in rubric-based assessment can streamline the process so that it begins with listing criteria, after which the teacher writes out the gradations of quality, checks them with the students, makes revisions, then uses the rubric for self-, peer, and teacher assessment. For a great explanation of using rubrics, see Mertler (2001) available at https://scholarworks.umass.edu/pare/vol7/iss1/25/. This online article includes several links that allow you to create and customize rubrics for your class, including rubistar.4teachers.org/

to say. In addition, when rubrics are developed to assess specific tasks, the results of applying them may not predict performance on anything except very similar tasks, so we do not know whether a student’s performance on a specific task is a valid indicator for the larger area of study (Haertel, 1999; McMillan, 2004). DIVERSITY AND BIAS IN PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT.  Equity is an issue in all assess-

ment and no less so with performances and portfolios. With a public performance, there could be bias effects based on a student’s appearance and speech or the student’s access to expensive audio, video, or graphic tools. Performance assessments have the same potential as other tests to discriminate unfairly against students who are not wealthy or who are culturally different. And the extensive group work, peer editing, and out-of-class time devoted to portfolios means that some students may have access to greater networks of support, technology, and outright help. Many students in your classes will come from families that have sophisticated tech devices and publishing capabilities. Others may have little support from home. These differences can be sources of bias and inequity, especially in portfolios and performances.

Assessing Complex Thinking In order to develop complex thinking ability, we have to be able to assess it. The good news is that assessing complex thinking and higher-order outcomes actually can help students master and retain core facts as well (Jensen et al., 2014). So, you don’t have to choose between testing facts and testing complex thinking. Assessments of complex thinking don’t have to be tests. Carol Lee and Susan Goldman (2015) have developed assessments of complex thinking in literacy that involve authentic reading and writing. For example, to assess middle and high school students’ abilities to cite evidence in making claims about symbolism in the text, the students had to (a) put events

Chapter 15  Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing 665

in order from the reading to show they comprehended the plot, (b) use a graphic guide to organize claims and evidence they used to answer the question, and (c) write an essay in which they compared and contrasted two stories in relation to the generalizations of the author and the structure of the text. The two stories had the theme of coming of age and incorporated symbolism as a rhetorical tool. Students’ essays were judged with a rubric that evaluated the quality of the claims, whether the evidence cited was supported by the texts, the ability to organize the essay around similarities and differences, and the general clarity of the writing. You can see that assessing complex thinking is demanding for both the students and the teacher!

Classroom Assessment: Lessons for Teachers One major message in this chapter is the importance of correctly matching the type of assessment tools used with the target—the knowledge being assessed. Look at Table 15.3, which summarizes the possibilities and limitations of aligning different assessment tools with their targets. The second lesson is, as you saw in the previous chapter and several others, feedback is critical for learning. The word “feedback” appears 47 times in this chapter and countless times throughout the book. Providing feedback to students is a key professional skill for teachers and one of the most powerful influences on student learning (Hattie, 2009; Schuldt, 2019). What makes feedback valuable? Don’t just provide right answers. Give explanations about why the right answer is correct and the wrong answer isn’t. In learning concepts, give additional correct examples of the concept. Discuss better learning strategies. To make sure students understand and value the feedback, have a conversation with the students about the feedback—don’t just write or say the feedback and assume it was heard. You might even encourage the students to write the feedback down and review it later. Encourage students to identify three strengths,

Table 15.3  Aligning Different Assessment Tools with Their Targets Different learning outcomes require different assessment methods. ASSESSMENT METHOD TARGET TO BE

PERFORMANCE

PERSONAL

ASSESSED

SELECTED-RESPONSE

ESSAY

ASSESSMENT

COMMUNICATION

Knowledge Mastery

Multiple-choice, true/ false, matching, and fill-in can sample mastery of elements of knowledge.

Essay exercises can tap understanding of relationships among elements of knowledge

Not a good choice for this target—three other options (selected-response, essay, personal communication) preferred

Can ask questions, evaluate answers, and infer mastery—but a time-consuming option

Reasoning

Can assess understanding of basic patterns of reasoning

Written descriptions of complex problem solutions can provide a window into reasoning proficiency

Can watch students solve some problems and infer about reasoning proficiency

Can ask student to “think aloud” or can ask follow-up questions to probe reasoning

Skills

Can assess mastery of the prerequisites of skillful performance—but cannot tap the skill itself

Can assess mastery of the prerequisites of skillful performance—but cannot tap the skill itself

Can observe and evaluate skills as they are being performed

Strong match when skill is oral communication proficiency; also can assess mastery of knowledge prerequisite to skillful performance

Ability to Create

Can assess mastery of knowledge prerequisite to the ability to create quality products—but cannot assess the quality of products themselves

Can assess mastery of knowledge prerequisite to the ability to create quality products—but cannot assess the quality of products themselves

A strong match can assess: (a) proficiency in carrying out steps in product development and (b) attributes of the product itself

Can probe procedural knowledge and knowledge of attributes of quality products—but not product quality

Proficiency

Products

Source: From “Where Is Our Assessment Future and How Can We Get There?” by R. J. Stiggins. In R. W. Lissitz, W. D. Schafer (Eds.), Meaningful Assessment: A Manageable and Cooperative Process. Published by Allyn & Bacon. Copyright © 2002 by Pearson Education. Adapted by permission of the publisher.

666  Chapter 15  Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing three areas for improvement, and an action plan to use the feedback to get better. Finally, give feedback in a way that communicates the students are getting better and are worth the effort to improve—support their self-efficacy for learning and improving (Finn et al., 2018; van der Kleij, 2019). In sum, Lorien Schuldt (2019) notes that feedback should:

• Focus on the task and the student’s progress toward the goal, not on the student as a person or on comparisons with other students.

• Provide information about what to do next—how to close the gap between “Where I am” and “Where I’m going.”

• Be constructive and highlight strengths as well as paths to improvement. • Be timely, that is, come at a time when students can act on the guidance to improve. • Foster student agency and ownership of the work. No matter how you assess students, ultimately you will assign grades. We turn to that job next.

Grading Learning Outcome 15.4  Describe the effects of grading on students and the types of strategies teachers can use to communicate to parents about grades. Gia, a 10th-year visual arts teacher, said: “I don’t think any teacher likes grading. It’s time consuming. Assessing the work isn’t much fun. Developing good lessons and teaching well are a lot more fun” (Olsen & Buchanan, 2019, p. 2004). The teachers I know would agree. Grading is one of those school practices that has hardly changed over the years. Teachers often grade the way they do because that’s the way it has always been done (Guskey, 2020). So why grade? Although some people claim that the purpose of grading is to sort students or motivate them to work, the best reason (maybe the only legitimate reason) is to communicate to the students and their families how the students are progressing toward important learning goals. In fact, Tom Guskey, a world-renowned expert on grading, notes two essential consequences of grades that must be changed; 1. We must help students and their families understand that grades reflect not who students are as learners but where they are in their learning journey—and where is always temporary. 2. We must never use grades to sort, select, or rank students (p. 14). Simply put, grades should answer the question students always ask, “How am I ­ oing?” The challenge is to combine a vast amount of information about an individual into d a symbol or other indicator that communicates “how you’re doing” (Hübner et al., 2020). First, the teacher must make a major decision: Should a student’s grade reflect his or her status in comparison with the rest of the class, or should the grade reflect the amount of material learned and how well it has been learned? In other words, should grading be norm referenced or criterion referenced?

Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Grading Norm-referenced grading In determining grades, assessing students’ achievement in relation to one another.

Grading on the curve Norm-referenced grading that compares students’ performance to an average level.

In norm-referenced grading, the major influence on a grade is the student’s standing in comparison with others who also took the course. If a student studies very hard and almost everyone else does too, the student may receive a disappointing grade, perhaps a C or D. One common type of norm-referenced grading is called grading on the curve. How you feel about this approach probably depends on where your grades generally fall along that “curve,” but this approach certainly violates Guskey’s (2020) caution about using grades to sort, select, or rank students. When you think about it, if the curve arbitrarily limits the number of good grades that can be given, then, in the game of grading, most students will be losers and motivation will suffer (Guskey & Bailey, 2001; Haladyna, 2002; Kohn, 1996). Tom Guskey (2011) pointed out the fallacy of grading on the curve: “The normal

Chapter 15  Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing 667

­ ell-shaped curve describes the distribution of randomly occurring events when nothing inb tervenes” (p. 17). But teaching is intervening—we want to teach in such a way that all students learn. Finally, grading on the curve really does not communicate what the student knows or can do, which is the main reason for grading in the first place. For this purpose, we need ­criterion-referenced grading. In criterion-referenced grading, the grade represents a list of accomplishments. If clear learning targets have been set for the course, the grade may represent a certain number of targets reached satisfactorily. When a criterion-referenced system is used, criteria for each grade generally are spelled out in advance. It is then up to the student to earn the grade she or he wants to receive. Theoretically, in this system, all students can achieve an A if they reach the criteria. Criterion-referenced grading has the advantage of relating judgments about a student to the achievement of clearly defined instructional goals or standards. Some school districts have developed reporting systems in which report cards list learning targets along with judgments about the student’s attainment of each target. Reporting is done at the end of each unit of instruction. The elementary school report card shown in Figure 15.2 demonstrates the relationship between assessment and the goals of the unit.

Figure 15.2  A Criterion-Referenced Report Card ­T his is one example of a criterion-referenced report card. Other forms are possible, but all criterion-referenced reports indicate student progress toward specific goals.

Source: Guskey, T. R., Swan, G. M., & Jung, L. A. (2011). Grades that mean something. Phi Delta Kappan, 93(2), p. 53. Used with permission.

Criterion-referenced grading Assessment of each student’s mastery of course objectives.

668  Chapter 15  Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing Most schools have a specified grading system, so we won’t spend time here on the many possible systems, except to say that if your school is trying to improve its grading systems, from teacher gradebooks to report cards to permanent records and transcripts, the best resource is the carefully researched and clearly written book Get Set, Go: Creating ­Successful Grading and Reporting Systems (2020) by Thomas Guskey. Let’s consider an important question about any grading system: What are the effects of grades on students?

Effects of Grading on Students How do you feel about grades? Stop & Think  Think back on your report cards and grades over the years. Did you ever receive a grade that was lower than you expected? How did you feel about yourself, the teacher, the subject, and school in general as a result of the lower grade? What could the teacher have done to help you understand and profit from the experience? When we think of grades, we often think of competition. Highly competitive classes may be particularly hard on anxious students, students who lack self-confidence, students who are less prepared, and students who are learning English. Although high standards do tend to be generally related to increased academic learning, it is clear teachers must strike a balance between high standards and a reasonable chance to succeed. High standards without a way to reach them is simply cruel punishment. So, should low grades and failure be avoided in school? The situation is not that simple. THE VALUE OF FAILING?  Humans generally avoid making errors. “However, a growing body of research in cognitive and educational psychology has established that errors in l­ow-stakes contexts enhance learning when they are followed by corrective feedback” (Wong & Lim, 2019). Feedback—there is that word again. One way to encourage critical thinking and support development of robust knowledge is to ask students questions that push their understanding and even draw out mistakes or errors, then provide clear feedback with reteaching and the chance to improve (Guskey, 2020). For this to work, the class must be a safe place that supports taking risks and making errors, so error correction is possible and valued. And the level of difficulty must be just right—not so hard that students just give up. Also, teachers can describe common errors and explain why they are wrong and why the right answers are right (Wong & Lim, 2019). Failure also can support persistence and motivation, especially if teachers help the students see connections between hard work and improvement. Efforts to protect students from failure and guarantee success may be counterproductive, especially if students come to feel entitled to high grades without exerting much effort—a bad life lesson (Tomlinson, 2005b). RETENTION IN GRADE.  What about the effect of failing an entire grade—that is, of being “held back”? Retained children are more likely to be male, members of minority groups, living in poverty, younger, and less likely to have participated in early childhood programs (Beebe-Frankenberger et al., 2004; G. Hong & Raudenbush, 2005). Is retention a good policy? See the Point/Counterpoint to examine the issue.

Grades and Motivation The assessments you give should support students’ motivation to learn—not their motivation to work for a good grade. But is there really a difference between working for a grade and working to learn? The answer depends in part on how a grade is determined. If you test only at a simple but detailed level of knowledge, you may force students to choose between complex learning and a good grade. But when a grade reflects meaningful learning, and learning is supported by formative assessments with useful feedback, working for a grade and working to learn become the same thing. Today there is increasing discussion

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POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Children Be Held Back? In 2017, about 1,082,000 students (kindergarten through grade 12) were retained in grade (Digest of Educational Statistics, 2020). For the last 100 years, parents and educators have debated about the value of retention versus social promotion (passing students on to the next grade with their peers). What are the arguments and the evidence?

Point Yes, retention just makes sense.  The traditional arguments for retention include that classes will be more similar in achievement level if the low-achieving students are “held back,” so teaching will be easier for the teacher and can be at a higher level for the students in the class. Also, learning with younger classmates may be more developmentally appropriate for the lower-achieving students and could motivate them to work harder (Hong & Raudenbush, 2005). One study in Florida found that students retained in third grade based on reading proficiency test scores had to take fewer remedial courses in high school and were just as likely to graduate as students not retained (Schwerdt et al., 2015, 2017). Critics of the study noted, however, that retained students all received intensive extra services intended to raise reading achievement, so those additional supports may have made the difference and not the actual repeating of third grade (Robinson-Cimpian, 2015). Retention in kindergarten for children considered “not ready” for first grade is a common practice. Compared to students who are relatively younger (January to August birthdays), students who are relatively older (born September to November) have higher achievement in school on average (Cobley et al., 2009). In fact, some parents hold their son or daughter back to give the child an edge over peers in each grade thereafter or because the child was born late in the year—a practice sometimes called “academic red-shirting” (Wallace, 2014). About 4% to 5.5% of children delay entry to kindergarten. The most likely to be red-shirted are White, male, and high-SES children. Schools that serve those populations have higher rates of school delay (Bassok & Reardon, 2013). The results on academic redshirting are mixed. Some studies have found benefits for students who have been held back by their parents, but other studies have found no benefits

Counterpoint No, retention is not effective.  Even though a few studies support the value of retention (e.g., Marsh, 2016; Schwerdt et al., 2015, 2017), almost a century of research indicates that it is not helpful and may even be harmful. Most research finds that grade retention is associated with poor long-term outcomes such as dropping out of school, higher arrest rates, fewer job opportunities, and lower ­self-esteem (Andrews, 2014; Jimerson et al., 2002; Jimerson & Ferguson, 2007; Shepard & Smith, 1989). Lucy Barnard-Brak (2008) studied a national sample of 986 children who had been identified as having learning disabilities and concluded, “delayed kindergarten entrance was not associated with better academic achievement for children with learning disabilities across time” (p. 50). Even though G. Hong and Raudenbush (2005) acknowledged the arguments for retention (see the Point section), their extensive study that followed almost 12,000 kindergarten students through the end of first grade found just the opposite. The researchers compared retained and promoted students from schools that practice retention as well as promoted students from schools that practice social promotion. They found no evidence that retention improved either reading or mathematics achievement. In addition, retention did not seem to improve instruction in the first grade by making the class more similar in academic ability. After 1 year, the retained students were an average of 1 year behind, and evidence indicated that these children would have done better if promoted. Another study that followed retained and promoted students for 4 years found some short-term advantages for retained students in social and behavioral skills, followed by long-term

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problems and vulnerabilities. The authors suggest that the “struggle-succeed-struggle” pattern may undermine academic motivation for retained students and interfere with peer relations (Demanet & Van Houtte, 2016; Wu et al., 2010). Jan Hughes and her colleagues (2018) followed students for years who were retained in grades 1 through 5 and found that being held back led to a significant increase in dropping out of school, especially for Black and Hispanic girls. And the negative impact may not be limited to the retained student. In one study of over 79,000 students, seventh-graders who simply attended school with many peers who were old for their grade (because they had been retained or “red-shirted”) were more likely to get in trouble at school or be suspended (Muschkin et al., 2014). Beware of Either/Or: Using Research for Children. No matter what, children who are having trouble should get help, whether they are promoted or retained. However, just covering the same material again in the same way won’t solve the children’s academic or social problems. The best approach may be to promote the children along with their peers, but to give them special remediation during the summer or over the next year (Demanet & Van Houtte, 2016). In addition, because the inability to focus attention and self-regulate is an important aspect of readiness to learn (Blair, 2002), help should also focus on improving these skills as well. An even better approach would be to prevent the problems before they occur by providing extra resources in the early years.

of grading for learning, not just grading of learning—the same distinction made between formative and summative assessment. If teachers grade in the best interests of their students and talk to students about how to interpret and learn from the grades as feedback, then grades might support motivation to learn (McMillan, 2019). Low grades by themselves generally do not encourage greater efforts, however. Students receiving low grades are more likely to withdraw, blame others, decide that the work is “dumb,” or feel responsible for the low grade but helpless to make improvements. They give up on themselves or on school. In fact, low grades at the beginning of the year may set up a downward spiral: lower grades, less engagement in schoolwork, lower grades, less engagement, and on and on (Poorthuis et al., 2015; Tomlinson, 2005b). Rather than assigning a failing grade, you might consider the work incomplete and give students support in revising or improving it. Maintain high standards and give students a chance to reach them. Again, formative assessment and quality feedback are key (Guskey, 2011, 2018; Polio & ­Hochbein, 2015). The Guidelines: Using Any Grading System give ideas for fair and reasonable use of any grading system.

GUIDELINES Using Any Grading System Explain your grading policies to students early in the course and remind them of the policies regularly. Examples 1. 2.

Give older students a handout describing the assignments, tests, grading criteria, and schedule. Explain to younger students in a low-pressure manner how their work will be evaluated.

Base grades on clearly specified, reasonable standards. Examples 1. 2.

Specify standards by developing a rubric with students. Show anonymous examples of poor, good, and excellent work from previous classes. Discuss workload and grading standards with more experienced teachers.

Chapter 15  Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing 671

3. 4.

Give a few formative tests to get a sense of your students’ abilities before you give a graded test. Take tests yourself first to gauge the difficulty of the test and to estimate the time your students will need.

Base your grades on as much objective evidence as possible. Examples 1. 2.

Plan in advance how and when you will test. Keep a portfolio of student work. This may be useful in student or parent conferences.

Be sure students understand test directions. ­Examples 1. 2. 3.

Outline the directions on the board. Ask several students to explain the directions. Go over a sample question first.

Correct, return, and discuss tests as soon as possible. Examples 1. 2. 3.

Have students who wrote good answers read their responses for the class; make sure they are not the same students each time. Discuss why wrong answers, especially popular wrong choices, are incorrect. As soon as students finish a test, give them the answers to questions and the page numbers where answers are discussed in the text.

As a rule, do not change a grade. Examples 1. 2.

Make sure you can defend the grade in the first place. DO change any clerical or calculation errors.

Guard against bias in grading. Examples 1. 2.

Ask students to put their names on the backs of their papers. Use a point system or model papers when grading essays.

Keep pupils informed of their standing in the class. Examples 1. 2.

Write the distribution of scores on the board after tests. Schedule periodic conferences to go over work from previous weeks.

Give students the benefit of the doubt. All measurement techniques involve error. Examples 1. 2.

Unless there is a very good reason not to, give the higher grade in borderline cases. If a large number of students miss the same question in the same way, revise the question for the future and consider throwing it out for that test.

Avoid reserving high grades and high praise for answers that conform to your ideas or to those in the textbook. Examples 1. 2. 3. 4.

Give extra points for correct and creative answers. Withhold your opinions until all sides of an issue have been explored. Reinforce students for disagreeing in a rational, productive manner. Give partial credit for partially correct answers.

Make sure each student has a reasonable chance to succeed, especially at the beginning of a new task. Examples 1. 2.

Pretest students to make sure they have prerequisite abilities. When appropriate, provide opportunities for students to take a retest to raise their grades, but make sure the retest is as difficult as the original.

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3. 4.

Consider failing efforts as “incomplete,” and encourage students to revise and improve. Base grades more on work at the end of the unit; give ungraded work in the beginning of the unit.

Balance written and oral feedback. Examples 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Consider giving short, lively written comments with younger students and more extensive written comments with older students. When the grade on a paper is lower than the student might have expected, be sure the reason for the lower grade is clear. Tailor comments to the individual student’s performance; avoid writing the same phrases over and over. ­Note specific errors, possible reasons for errors, ideas for improvement, and work done well. Students often don’t read or misinterpret written feedback. Periodically have individual conferences and give constructive feedback—strengths and areas for improvement.

Make grades as meaningful as possible. Examples 1. 2. 3.

Tie grades to the mastery of important learning targets. Give ungraded assignments to encourage exploration. Experiment with performances and portfolios.

Base grades on more than just one criterion. Examples 1. 2.

Use essay questions as well as multiple-choice items on a test. Grade oral reports and class participation.

Source: General conferencing guidelines adapted from Problems in middle and high school teaching: A handbook for student teachers and beginning teachers (pp. 182–187), by A. M. Drayer, 1979. Allyn & Bacon. Copyright © 1979 by Allyn & Bacon. Adapted by permission of the author and publisher.

Beyond Grading: Communicating with Families No number or letter grade conveys the totality of a student’s experience in a class or course. Students, families, and teachers sometimes become too focused on the end point—the grade. But communicating with families should involve more than just sending home grades. There are a number of ways to be in touch with and report to families. Many teachers I know have a beginning-of-the-year newsletter or student handbook that communicates homework, behavior, and grading policies to families. Other options described by Guskey and Bailey (2001) are:

• Notes attached to report cards • “Happy notes” sent home describing a good moment or accomplishment • Phone calls, especially “Good News” calls Pearson eText Video Example 15.7

• School open houses

The teacher in this video holds a conference to discuss Cody’s progress with his mother. The teacher is concerned about ­reporting more than just a grade. She and Cody’s mother discuss how to improve his ­understanding of math concepts.

• Portfolios or exhibits of student work

• Student-led conferences • Homework hotlines • School or class Web pages • Home visits Conferences with parents or caregivers are often expected of teachers in elementary school and can be equally important in middle and high school. You already have some ideas about productive conferences in the Family and Community Partnership Guidelines in

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Chapter 5 (p. 208), in the section on student-led conferences in Chapter 6 (p. 275), and coming up in the Family and Community Partnerships Guidelines about explaining test results on page 679. In addition, the more skilled teachers are at communicating, the more effective they will be at conducting these conferences. Listening and problem-solving skills such as those discussed in Chapter 13 can be particularly important. When you are working with families or students who are angry or upset, make sure you really hear their concerns, not just their words. The atmosphere should be friendly and unrushed. Any observations about the student should be as factual as possible, based on observation or information from assignments. Information gained from a student or a parent/caregiver should be kept confidential. One kind of information that will interest parents is their child’s standardized test scores. In the next section we look at these tests.

Standardized Testing Learning Outcome 15.5  Explain how to interpret common standardized test scores (percentile rank, stanine, grade-equivalent, scale score) as well as current issues and criticisms concerning accountability and teacher evaluation, high-stakes assessment, growth versus proficiency tests, and value-added approaches. For as long as I can remember, educators and policymakers have been concerned about the test performance of American students. Today, politicians point to the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) ( Mullis et al., 2020) showing that the United States is still behind many other developed countries in math and science test scores. In response, there has been more testing at every grade, so you must be knowledgeable. Understanding what standardized test scores really mean and how they can be used (or misused) is a good start.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Concepts of Standardized Testing (II, C5) Be able to define norm groups, measures of central tendency, standard deviation, normal distribution, reliability, and validity, and to explain their roles in standardized tests.

Types of Scores Put Yourself in Their Place  At your first parent conference, a mother and father are concerned about their child’s percentile rank of 86. They say that they expect their child to “get close to 100%. We know she should be able to do that because her grade-­ equivalent score is half a year above her grade!” Do they understand the meaning of these scores? To understand the scores from tests, you need to know some basics about different types of scores and what they tell you, but first you need to know some (easy) statistics. MEASUREMENTS OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND STANDARD DEVIATION.  You have probably had a great deal of experience with means. A mean is simply the arithmetical average of a group of scores. To calculate the mean, you add the scores and divide the total by the n ­ umber of scores in the distribution. The mean offers one way of measuring central tendency, the score that is typical or representative of the whole group of scores. But very high or very low scores affect the mean, so when there are a few very high or low scores, the median may be better than the mean to represent central tendency. The median is the middle score in a ranked list of scores, the point at which half the scores are larger and half are smaller. The mode is the score that occurs most often. The measure of central tendency gives a score that is representative of the group of scores, but it does not tell you anything about how the scores are distributed. Two groups of scores may both have a mean of 50, but be alike in no other way. One group might contain the scores 50, 45, 55, 55, 45, 50, 50; the other group might contain the scores 100, 0, 50, 90, 10, 50, 50. In both cases, the mean, median, and mode are all 50, but the distributions are quite different.

Mean Arithmetical average.

Central tendency Typical score for a group of scores.

Median ­Middle score in a group of scores.

Mode Most frequently occurring score.

674  Chapter 15  Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing Standard deviation Measure of how widely scores vary from the mean.

Variability Degree of difference or deviation from mean.

Range Distance between the highest and the lowest scores in a group.

Normal distribution The most commonly occurring distribution, in which scores are distributed evenly around the mean.

The standard deviation is a measure of how widely the scores vary from the mean. The larger the standard deviation, the more spread out the scores are in the distribution. The smaller the standard deviation, the more the scores are clustered around the mean. For example, in the distribution 50, 45, 55, 55, 45, 50, 50, the standard deviation is much smaller than in the distribution 100, 0, 50, 90, 10, 50, 50. Another way of saying this is that distributions with very small standard deviations have less variability in the scores. Knowing the mean and the standard deviation of a group of scores gives you a better picture of the meaning of an individual score. For example, suppose you received a score of 78 on a test. You would be very pleased with the score if the mean of the test were 70 and the standard deviation were 4. In this case, your score would be 2 standard deviations above the mean, a score well above average. Consider the difference if the mean of the test had remained at 70, but the standard deviation had been 20. In the second case, your score of 78 would be less than 1 standard deviation from the mean. You would be much closer to the middle of the group, with a score above average, but not high. Knowing the standard deviation tells you much more than simply knowing the range of scores. No matter how the majority scored on the tests, one or two students may do very well or very poorly and thus make the range very large. THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION.  Standard deviations are very useful in understanding test

r­ esults. They are especially helpful if the results of the tests form a normal distribution. You may have encountered the normal distribution before. It is the bell-shaped curve, the most famous frequency distribution because it describes many naturally occurring physical and ­social ­phenomena. Many scores fall in the middle, giving the curve its bell appearance. You  find fewer and fewer scores as you look out toward the end points, or tails, of the ­distribution. The normal distribution has been thoroughly analyzed by statisticians. The mean of a normal ­distribution is also its midpoint. Half the scores are above the mean, and half are below it. In a normal distribution, the mean, median, and mode are all the same point. Another convenient property of the normal distribution is that the percentage of scores falling within each area of the curve is known, as you can see in Figure 15.3. A person scoring within 1 standard deviation of the mean obviously has company. Many scores pile up here. In fact, 68% of all scores are located in the area from 1 standard deviation below to 1 standard deviation above the mean. About 16% of the scores are higher than 1 standard deviation above the mean. Of this higher group, only 2% are higher than 2 standard deviations above the mean. Similarly, only about 16% of the scores are less than 1 standard deviation

Figure 15.3  The Normal Distribution The normal distribution, or bell-shaped curve, has certain predictable characteristics. For example, 68% of the scores are clustered within 1 standard deviation below to 1 standard deviation above the mean.

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below the mean, and of that group only about 2% are lower than 2 standard deviations below the mean. At 2 standard deviations from the mean in either direction, the scorer has left the pack. The SAT college entrance exam is one example of a normal distribution. The mean of the Math section is about 500 with a standard deviation of 100, though in 2020, the actual mean was 523 and the standard deviation was 117 (College Board, 2020). So, ­because only 16% of the scores are higher than 1 standard deviation above the mean in a normal distribution, only about 16% of the people who took the Math test scored above 640 (523 + 117 = 640). Now we are ready to look at different kinds of test scores. PERCENTILE RANK SCORES.  Ranking is the basis for one very useful kind of score re-

ported on standardized tests, a percentile rank score. In percentile ranking, each student’s raw score (actual number correct) is compared with the raw scores of the students in the norm group (comparison group). The percentile rank shows the percentage of students in the norm group that scored below a particular raw score. If a student’s score were better than three quarters of the students in the norm group, the student would score in the 75th percentile or have a percentile rank of 75. You can see that this does not mean that the student had a raw score of 75 correct answers or even that the student answered 75% of the questions correctly. Rather, the 75 refers to the percentage of people in the norm group whose scores on the test were below this student’s score. A percentile rank of 50 means that a student has scored ­better than 50% of the norm group and has achieved an average score. There is one caution in interpreting percentile scores. Differences in percentile ranks do not mean the same thing in terms of raw score points in the middle of the scale as they do at the fringes. For example, the difference between the 50th and 60th percentile might be just 2 raw points, whereas the difference on the same test between the 90th and 99th percentile could be about 10 points. So a few answers right or wrong can make a bigger difference in percentile scores if you are near the middle. GRADE-EQUIVALENT SCORES.  Grade-equivalent scores are generally obtained from

Percentile rank Percentage of those in the norming sample who scored below an individual’s score.

Grade-equivalent score

s­ eparate norm groups for each grade level. The average of the scores of all the tenth-­ Measure of grade level based graders in the norm group defines the tenth-grade–equivalent score. Suppose the rawon comparison with norming score average of the tenth-grade norm group is 38. Any student who attains a raw samples from each grade. score of 38 on that test will be assigned a grade-equivalent score of tenth grade. Gradeequivalent scores are generally listed in numbers such as 8.3, 4.5, 7.6, 11.5, and so on. The whole number gives the grade. The decimals stand for tenths of a year, but they are usually interpreted as months. Suppose a student with the grade-equivalent score of 10 is a seventh-grader. Should this student be promoted immediately? Probably not. Different forms of tests are used at different grade levels, so the seventh-grader may not have had to answer items that would be given to tenth-graders. The high score may represent superior mastery of material at the seventh-grade level rather than a capacity for doing advanced work. Even though an average tenth-grader could do as well as our seventh-grader on this particular test, the tenth-grader would certainly know much more than this seventh-grade test covered. Also, grade-equivalent score units do not mean the same thing at every grade level. For example, a second-grader reading at the first-grade level would have more trouble in school than an eleventh-grader who reads at the tenth-grade level. Because grade-equivalent scores are misleading and are often misinterpreted, especially by parents, most educators and psychologists strongly believe they should not be used at all. Several other forms of reporting are more appropriate. STANDARD SCORES.  As you may remember, one problem with percentile ranks is the dif-

ficulty in making comparisons among ranks. A discrepancy of a certain number of raw-score points has a different meaning at different places on the scale. With standard scores, on the other hand, a difference of 10 points is the same everywhere on the scale.

676  Chapter 15  Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing Standard scores Scores based on the standard deviation.

z score Standard score indicating the number of standard deviations above or below the mean that a particular score falls.

T score Standard score with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10.

Standard scores are based on the standard deviation. A very common standard score is called the z score. A z score tells how many standard deviations above or below the a­ verage a raw score is. In the example described earlier, in which you were fortunate enough to get a 78 on a test where the mean was 70 and the standard deviation was 4, your z score would be +2, or 2 standard deviations above the mean. If a person were to score 64 on this test, the score would be 1.5 standard deviations below the mean, and the z score would be –1.5. A z score of 0 would be no standard deviations above the mean—in other words, right on the mean. Measurements similar to z scores are used when you take a bone density test. Your score will compare your bone density to that of a healthy 30-year-old. If your score is below –1, you are moving toward osteoporosis. Below –2, you are there. Because it is often inconvenient to use negative numbers, other standard scores have been devised to eliminate this difficulty. The T score has a mean of 50 and uses a standard deviation of 10. Thus, a T score of 50 indicates average performance. If you multiply the z score by 10 (which eliminates the decimal) and add 50 (which gets rid of the negative number), you get the equivalent T score as the answer. The person whose z score was –1.5 would have a T score of 35. First multiply the z score by 10: -1.5 * 10 = -15 Then add 50: -15 + 50 = 35

Stanine scores Whole-number scores from 1 to 9, each representing a wide range of raw scores.

Before we leave this discussion of types of scores, we should look at one other widely used method. Stanine scores (the name comes from “standard nine”) are standard scores. There are only nine possible scores on the stanine scale, the whole numbers 1 through 9. The mean is 5, and the standard deviation is 2. Stanine scores provide a method of considering a student’s rank, because each of the nine scores includes a specific range of percentile scores in the normal distribution. For example, a stanine score of 1 is assigned to the bottom 4% of scores in a distribution. A stanine of 2 is assigned to the next 7%. Of course, some raw scores in this 7% range are better than others, but they all get a stanine score of 2. Each stanine score represents a wide range of raw scores. This has the advantage of encouraging teachers and parents to view a student’s score in more general terms instead of making fine distinctions based on a few points. Figure 15.4 compares the four types of standard scores we have considered, showing how each would fall on a normal ­distribution curve.

Figure 15.4  Three Types of Standard Scores on a Normal Distribution Curve ­U sing this figure, you can translate one type of standard into another.

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Interpreting Standardized Test Reports Stop & Think  Look at the test printout in Figure 15.5. What are this student’s strengths and weaknesses? How do you know? What specific information can teachers expect from achievement test results? Test p ­ ublishers usually provide individual profiles for each student, showing scores on each subtest. Figure 15.5 is an example of a Student Report for Sally, a fourth-grader, on the Stanford Achievement Test, 10th Edition. Note that the Student Report has three sections. The first (About This Student’s Performance) is a brief narrative explanation that may include a ­Lexile Measure™ (see lexile.com), which is computed from the Reading Comprehension score and helps teachers identify Sally’s reading level in order to select appropriate texts. The second section (Subtests and Totals) attempts to paint a picture of the student’s achievement in Reading, Mathematics, Language, Spelling, Science, Social Science, ­Listening, and Thinking Skills. That section also includes total scores on the battery of tests and scores on the Otis-Lennon School Ability test—a kind of group IQ or scholastic ­aptitude test. Some of the subtests are further divided into more specific assessments. For ­example,

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Interpreting Achievement Tests (II, C4) Accurate information from the teacher is essential for students’ academic progress. See Chapter 7 for a discussion of how to use praise effectively. These guidelines apply to written feedback as well.

Figure 15.5  A Typical Score Report A sample test score report, with no actual test data used.

Source: Sample Stanford Student Report in score report sampler: Guide teaching and learning toward high academic standards for the Stanford Achievement Test Series, 10th Edition (Stanford 10). Copyright © 2009 by NCS Pearson, Inc. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved.

678  Chapter 15  Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing Reading is broken down into Word Study Skills, Reading Vocabulary, and Reading Comprehension. Next to each subtest are several different ways of reporting Sally’s score. The school decides which scores are reported, based on a list of possible reporting formats. This school chose the following types of scores:

Number Correct: Under the second column is the number of items that Sally answered correctly for that subtest (the total number of items on the subtest is in the first ­column, Number Possible). Scaled Score: This is the basic score used to derive all the other scores, sometimes called a growth score because it describes growth in achievement that typically occurs as students move through the grades. For example, the average score for third-graders might be 585, whereas the average score for tenth-graders might be 714 on tests with possible scores that range from 0 to 1,000 across the entire K–12 grades. Often, the difficulty of items is included in calculating scale scores (Popham, 2020). National PR-S (National Percentile Rank and Stanine): This score tells us where Sally stands in relation to students at her grade level across the country in terms of percentile rank (percent with a lower score) and stanine, so a score of 59-5 is a percentile of 59 and a stanine of 5. National NCE (Normal Curve Equivalent): This is a standard score derived from the percentile rank, with a range of 1 to 99, a mean of 50, and a standard deviation of 21. Grade Equivalent: This indicates that Sally’s scaled score is the same as an average student in the indicated grade and month of school. Beware of the problems with grade-equivalent scores described earlier. AAC (Achievement/Ability Comparison) Range: The ACC score compares Sally’s achievement on each subtest to a norm group of other students who have her same ability as measured by the Otis-Lennon School Ability test. The ACC range categorizes Sally’s ACC score as HIGH, MIDDLE, or LOW. You can see that Sally is in the middle on most of the subtests, so her achievement is in the middle compared to students with abilities similar to hers. National Grade Percentile Bands: This is the range of national percentile scores in which Sally’s true score is likely to fall. You may remember from our discussion of true scores that this range, or confidence interval, is determined by adding and subtracting the standard error of the test from Sally’s actual score. Chances are high that Sally’s true score is within this range. Bands that do not overlap indicate likely differences in achievement. The bottom of Figure 15.5 (Clusters) breaks Sally’s subtests down into even more specific skills. For each skill we see the number of questions possible to answer (NP), the number Sally attempted (NA), and the number she got correct (NC). The checkmarks beside the skills indicate if she is average, above average, or below average in each. Notice that some skills are assessed with only a few (3 to 8) questions. Remember that fewer items mean less reliability. DISCUSSING TEST RESULTS WITH FAMILIES.  As a teacher you probably will be expected

to explain test results to your students and their families. Make sure you know the meaning of all the types of scores your school reports—raw scores, percentiles and percentile bands, scale scores, Lexiles, grade equivalents, stanines, or any others that appear on test reports. With high school students it is also useful to tell both the students and their parents that only 25% of academic success in college is associated with a student’s scores on the SAT or ACT. The other 75% is due to motivation, hard work, study habits, interests, and other factors under the student’s control (Popham, 2020). High school grades are better predictors than admission test scores of on-time college graduation, partly because grades provide information about student self-regulation and motivation (Galla et al., 2019). This can be critically important information for families who are afraid their children “aren’t meant for college.” The Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships give some other tips.

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GUIDELINES Family and Community Partnerships Conferences and Explaining Test Results General Conferencing Guidelines Decide on a few clear goals for the conference. Examples 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Gather information about the student to help in your instruction. Explain grades or test results. Let parents know what is coming during the next unit or marking period. Solicit help from parents. Make suggestions for use at home.

Begin and end with a positive statement. Examples 1. 2. 3. 4.

“Jacob is a natural leader.” “Eve really enjoys the science center.” “Yesim is really supportive when other students are upset.” “Ashanti’s sense of humor keeps the class positive.”

Listen actively. Examples 1. 2.

Accept the emotions of parents or caregivers. Don’t try to talk them out of what they feel. ­“You seem to feel frustrated when Lee doesn’t do his homework.”

Respect family members’ time and their concerns about their child—establish a partnership. Examples 1. 2. 3.

Speak plainly and briefly, and avoid jargon. Be tactful, but don’t avoid talking about tough issues. Ask families to follow through on class goals at home: “Ask Leona for her homework checklist, and help her keep it up to date. I will do the same at school.”

Learn from the family members. Examples 1. 2.

Send home a brief questionnaire to be returned before the conference so you can prepare: What are the parents’ concerns and questions? What are the students’ interests and strengths as revealed in hobbies or extracurricular activities?

Follow up and follow through. Examples 1. 2. 3.

Send a brief note thanking the family members for attending. Share student successes through notes or email messages. Keep families informed before problems develop.

Explaining and Using Test Results In nontechnical terms, explain the meaning of each type of score on the test report and explain why tests are not “perfect.” Examples 1.

2.

If the test is norm referenced, know what the comparison group was (national? state? local district?). Explain that the child’s score shows how he or she performed in relation to the other students in the comparison group. If the test is criterion referenced, explain that the scores show how well their child performed specific tasks such as word problems or reading comprehension.

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3. 4.

Encourage parents to think of the score not as a single point, but as a range or band that includes the score. Ignore small differences between scores.

For norm-referenced tests, use percentile scores. They are the easiest to understand. Examples 1.

2.

Percentile scores tell what percentage of students in the comparison group made the same score or lower. Higher percentiles are better, and 99 is as high as you can get; 50 is average. Percentile scores do not tell the “percent correct,” so scores that would be bad on a classroom test (say, 65% to 75% or so) are above average—even good—as percentile scores.

Avoid using grade-equivalent scores. Examples 1.

2.

If parents want to focus on the “grade level” of their child, tell them that high gradeequivalent scores reflect a thorough understanding of the current grade level and NOT the capacity to do higher grade-level work. Tell parents that the same grade-equivalent score has different meanings in different subjects—reading versus mathematics, for example.

Source: Based on ideas from The successful classroom: Management strategies for regular and special education teachers, by D. P. Fromberg & M. Driscoll. Published by Teachers College, Columbia University; Scholastic. (2011). Teacher tips for successful parent-teacher conferences, retrieved from https://www.scholastic.com/teachers/articles/teaching-content/teacher-tips-successful-parent-teacher-conferences/; and T. E. Eissenberg & Lawrence M. Rudner (1988). Explaining test results to parents. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi? article=1001&context=pare

Accountability and High-Stakes Testing Stop & Think  How has standardized testing affected your life so far? What ­opportunities have been opened or closed to you based on test scores? Was the process fair?

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Standardized Testing: Major ­Issues (II, C5) Since their inception, there have been controversies regarding the use of standardized tests in the schools. Familiarize yourself with the major issues that underlie these controversies. Explain the positions of the different camps in these controversies.

High-stakes testing Standardized tests whose results have powerful influences when used by school administrators, other officials, or employers to make decisions.

Accountable Making teachers and schools responsible for student learning, usually by monitoring learning with high-stakes tests.

Every day, decisions about individuals are based on the results of tests. Should Darius be issued a driver’s license? How many and which students from the eighth grade would benefit from an accelerated program in science? Who needs extra tutoring? Test scores may affect “admission” to first grade, promotion from one grade to the next, high school graduation, access to special programs, teacher licensure and tenure, and school funding. MAKING DECISIONS.  When making decisions about individuals based on test results, it is important to distinguish between the quality of the test itself and the way the test is used. Who will be tested? What are the consequences of choosing one test over another for a particular purpose with a given group? What is the effect of the testing on the students? How will the test scores of minority-group students be interpreted? What do we really mean by intelligence, achievement, growth, and proficiency? Do the tests we use to measure these constructs capture what we intended to assess? How will test results be integrated with other information about the individual to make judgments? Answering these questions requires ethical choices based on values, as well as accurate information about what tests can and cannot tell us. Keep these values issues in mind as we examine testing uses and decisions. Because the decisions affected by test scores are so critical, many educators call this process high-stakes testing. One of the high-stakes uses for test results is to hold teachers, schools, and administrators accountable for student performance. For example, teacher bonuses might be tied to their students’ achievement, or schools’ funding may be affected by testing results. But, as James Pellegrino (2014) noted, accountability should never be the only purpose of testing: “The problem is that other purposes of assessment, such as ­providing instructionally relevant feedback to teachers and students, get lost when the sole

Chapter 15  Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing 681

goal of states is to use them to obtain an estimate of how much students have learned in the course of a year” (p. 1). We need whole systems of assessments that give teachers and ­students tools for instruction and learning (Guskey, 2020). WHAT DO TEACHERS THINK?  The teachers I work with are frustrated that test results often

come too late in the year to help them plan instruction or remediation for their current students. This is one reason formative and interim assessments are becoming more popular— the teachers get the information in time to modify and improve instruction. Teachers also are troubled by the amount of time that testing takes—both to prepare for the tests and to give them. They complain that the tests cover material that their curriculum does not include. What are other problems with high-stakes testing? DOCUMENTED PROBLEMS WITH HIGH-STAKES TESTING.  Studies have found that in some states, 80% of the elementary schools spend about 20% of their instructional time preparing for the end-of-grade tests (Abrams & Madaus, 2003). Studies of the actual high-stakes tests in action show testing narrows the curriculum. What is tested is studied, what is not tested is ignored (Haertel, 2018). For example, using the Texas Assessment of Academic Skills has led to curriculum changes that overemphasize what is tested and neglect other areas. In addition, it seems that the test of mathematics is also a test of reading. Students with poor reading ability have trouble with the math test, especially if their first language is not English. Another problem—a study of 8 million fourth- and eighth-grade students taking state assessments in 47 states found that the test format affects the scores of girls compared to boys. Males generally do better on multiple-choice items and females on essay items, so in states that rely more on multiple-choice items, there may be a gender gap favoring boys and the opposite will be true for essay items. The researchers found that about 25% of the variation in gender gaps among the 47 states was due to test item format (Reardon et al., 2018). Finally, tests have become too important—an end in themselves. As one of the most prominent measurement experts has said: “Testing is no longer being employed merely to measure the effects of policy interventions—rather, it has itself become the intervention . . .” (Haertel, 2018, p. 204). Some uses of standardized tests just are not appropriate, as illustrated in Table 15.4.

Connect and Extend to PRAXIS II® Alternatives to Standardized Testing (II, C1) For an overview of the major forms of authentic testing, go to Teachervision.com (teachervision .com/lesson-plans/lesson-6385 .html).

New Directions: PARCC and SBAC In the early 2010s, the federal government gave millions of dollars to two large consortia of states, the Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC) and the Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC), to develop high-quality assessments aligned to the Common Core Standards. The assessments were meant to measure complex

Table 15.4  Inappropriate Uses for High-Stakes Test Results Beware of some uses for standardized test results. Tests were not designed for these purposes. Pass/Fail Decisions

To deny students graduation from any grade, there must be strong evidence that the test used is valid, reliable, and free of bias. Some tests have been challenged in the courts and found to meet these standards, but not all tests are good enough to make pass/fail decisions.

State-to-State Comparisons

You cannot really compare states using standardized test scores. States do not have the same curricula, tests, resources, or challenges. If comparisons are made, they usually tell us what we already know—some states have more funding for schools and more families with higher incomes or higher education levels.

Evaluation of Teachers or Schools

Many influences on test scores—family and community resources—are outside the control of teachers and schools. Often students move from school to school, so many students taking a test in the spring may have been attending that school only for a few weeks.

Identifying Where to Buy a House

Generally speaking, the schools with the highest test scores are in the neighborhoods where families have the highest levels of education and income. They may not be the “best schools” in terms of teaching, programs, academic growth for their students, or leadership, but they are the schools lucky enough to have the “right” students.

Source: From Haladyna, T. H. (2002). Essentials of standardized achievement testing: Validity & accountability. Pearson Education, Inc. Adapted by permission.

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Pearson eText Video Example 15.8 In this video, a principal and assistant principal discuss their school’s approach to using state test data. Note the overall goals of state tests and the constructive use of test data to improve teaching and learning to help every student achieve.

thinking using a range of testing approaches including performance assessment. Since then, some states have formed smaller consortia or are working independently to develop their own assessments that match the standards in their states (Popham, 2020). Most of these assessments are online—no more paper-and-pencil tests—so feedback can be faster and can help inform instruction. Stay tuned for changes in your state. But no matter how fancy the computer-based testing is, the same questions still apply to these new tests: Are they valid? Are they reliable? Do they measure what you taught? Do they measure important outcomes that match the challenges of life today? Do they give you information to improve your teaching (Pellegrino, 2014)?

Using High-Stakes Testing Well: Lessons for Teachers Overreliance on test scores can be harmful to student learning, but test scores can provide some information if used wisely. After all, good tests should assess what students know, and knowledge is a major goal of schooling (Goldhaber & Özek, 2019). Of course, the tests used must be reliable, valid for the purposes used, and free of bias. In addition, the testing program must: 1. Match the content standards of the district—this is a vital part of validity. 2. Be part of the larger assessment plan. No individual test provides all the necessary information about student achievement. It is critical that schools avoid making pass/ fail decisions based on a single test. 3. Test complex thinking, not just skills and factual knowledge. 4. Provide alternate assessment strategies for students with identifiable disabilities. 5. Provide opportunities for retesting when the stakes are high. 6. Include all students in the testing, but also provide informative reports of the results that make the students’ situations clear if they have special challenges or circumstances such as disabilities. 7. Provide appropriate remediation when students fail. 8. Make sure all students taking the test have adequate opportunities to learn the material being tested. 9. Take into account the first language of the students. Students who have difficulty reading or writing in English will not perform well on tests that require English proficiency. 10. Use test results for children, not against them (Haladyna, 2002).

Reaching Every Student: Helping Students with Disabilities Prepare for High-Stakes Tests Erik Carter and his colleagues (2005) tested a procedure for preparing students with learning disabilities, mild intellectual disabilities, and language impairments for a high-stakes state test. The students were ages 15 to 19; over half were Black males, and all had individualized education programs (IEPs—see Chapter 5) to guide their education. None had passed the staterequired achievement tests. Over six class periods, an instructor taught the students strategies such as filling in bubbles on answer sheets completely, sorting problems by difficulty and doing the easy ones first, using rounding to estimate answers in math, identifying exactly what the question is asking by underlining key words and phrases, and employing strategies for eliminating alternatives that have redundant information or extreme qualifiers. The good news is that after completing the preparation program, students improved their scores significantly on the tests. But the bad news is that the increases were not large enough to bring most of the students to the passing level. The authors recommend that preparation for testing should occur much earlier for students with disabilities. At an average age of 16, the students in this study already were discouraged (Carter et al., 2005). The Guidelines: Preparing Yourself and Your Students for Testing should help you and all your students prepare for high-stakes testing.

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GUIDELINES Preparing Yourself and Your Students for Testing Advice for Teachers Make sure the test actually covers the content of the unit of study. Examples 1. 2. 3.

Compare test questions to course learning goals. Make sure that there is good overlap. Check to see if the test is long enough to cover all important topics. Find out if there are any complications your students experience with the test, such as not enough time, too difficult a level of reading, and so on. If there are issues, discuss these problems with appropriate school personnel.

Make sure students know how to use all the test materials. Examples 1. 2. 3. 4.

Several days before the testing, do a few practice questions with a similar format. Demonstrate the use of the answer sheets, especially computer-scored answer sheets. Check with new students, shy students, slower students, and students who have difficulty reading to make sure they understand the questions. Make sure students know if and when guessing is appropriate.

Follow instructions for administering the test exactly. Examples 1. 2.

Practice giving the test before you actually use it. Follow the time limits exactly.

Make students as comfortable as possible during testing. Examples 1. 2. 3. 4.

Do not create anxiety by making the test seem like the most important event of the year. Help the class relax before beginning the test, perhaps by telling a joke or having everyone take a few deep breaths. Don’t be tense yourself! Make sure the room is quiet. Discourage cheating by monitoring the room. Don’t become absorbed in your own paperwork.

Advice for Students Use the night before the test effectively. Examples 1. 2.

Study the night before the exam, ending with a final look at a summary of the key points, concepts, and relationships. Get a good night’s sleep. If you know you generally have trouble sleeping the night before an exam, try getting extra sleep on several previous nights.

Set the situation so you can concentrate on the test. Examples 1. 2.

Give yourself plenty of time to eat and get to the exam room. Don’t sit near a friend. It may make concentration difficult. If your friend leaves early, you may be tempted to do so, too.

­ ake sure you know what the test is asking. M Examples 1. 2. 3. 4.

Read the directions carefully. If you are unsure, ask the instructor or proctor for clarification. Read each question carefully to spot tricky words, such as not, except, all of the following but one. On an essay test, read every question first, so you know the size of the job ahead of you and can make informed decisions about how much time to spend on each question. On a multiple-choice test, read every alternative, even if an early one seems right.

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Use time effectively. Examples 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Begin working right away and move as rapidly as possible while your energy is high. Do the easy questions first. Don’t get stuck on one question. If you are stumped, mark the question so you can return to it easily later, and go on to questions you can answer more quickly. On a multiple-choice test, if you know you will not have time to finish, fill in all the remaining questions with the same letter if there is no penalty for guessing. If you are running out of time on an essay test, do not leave any questions blank. Briefly outline a few key points to show the instructor you knew the answer but needed more time.

Know when to guess on multiple-choice or true/false tests. Examples 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Always guess when only right answers are scored. Always guess when you can eliminate some of the alternatives. Don’t guess if there is a penalty for guessing, unless you can confidently eliminate at least one alternative. Are correct answers always longer? shorter? in the middle? more likely to be one letter? more often true than false? Does the grammar give the right answer away or eliminate any alternatives?

Check your work. Examples 1. 2.

Even if you can’t stand to look at the test another minute, reread each question to make sure you answered the way you intended. If you are using a machine-scored answer sheet, check occasionally to be sure the number of the question you are answering corresponds to the number of the answer on the sheet.

On essay tests, answer as directly as possible. Examples 1. 2. 3.

Avoid flowery introductions. Answer the question in the first sentence and then elaborate. Don’t save your best ideas till last. Give them early in the answer. Unless the instructor requires complete sentences, consider listing points, arguments, and so on by number in your answer. It will help you organize your thoughts and concentrate on the important aspects of the answer.

Learn from the testing experience. Examples 1. 2.

Pay attention when the teacher reviews the answers. You can learn from your mistakes, and the same question may reappear in a later test. Notice if you are having trouble with a particular kind of item; adjust your study approach next time to handle this type of item better.

Teacher Accountability and Evaluation One application of standardized tests worries educators—these less-than-perfect tests are sometimes used to evaluate schools and even individual teachers. But it is not fair to evaluate teachers based on test scores for students who began the year with them far below grade level or who were only in the class a few months (Anagnostopoulos et al., 2021). These real concerns have led to new ideas about test scores and testing. Even here, there are strong cautions—read on. VALUE-ADDED MODELS.  What would you say about a teacher whose students began

the year reading at the third-grade level and ended the year reading at the fifth-grade level? Sounds like a great year of growth in reading, right? But what if the students were

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s­ ixth-graders? If we judge that teacher only by her students’ achievement at the end of the year, we might think the teacher failed—students ending the sixth grade and still reading at the fifth-grade level! No teaching awards for her! But actually the teacher was very effective (assuming she had the students all year). She added value to their learning—2 years’ worth, in fact. The idea of value-added modeling (VAM) is to assess actual growth compared to some baseline of expected average growth. If students can be expected to grow 1 grade level, but they grow 2, that is above expected growth. Value-added measures use statistical procedures to determine what students could be expected to learn based on student data from previous years and maybe other relevant information. If the actual student achievement is greater than predicted, then the estimate of the teacher’s or school’s effect is positive (value is added). If students score as predicted, then the effect is zero, and if they score lower than predicted, then the effect is negative. You can imagine that to make good judgments with a value-added approach, the tests used must be valid, reliable, and aligned with the curriculum. In addition, there must be room at the top and the bottom of the test scores to capture a full range of achievement. Most current standardized tests, however, measure only grade-level standards, so they are not good at assessing growth for students who perform well above or below the grade level. To assess growth, teachers should have the students for most of the year. Also, the smaller the focus (on just one class instead of a whole school), the more uncertain is the estimate of effects, so the same teacher might seem to have larger effects in some years and smaller ­effects in other years. But here are the two biggest concerns. First, to assess teacher effects on learning, students should be assessed as they enter a teacher’s class and when they leave. But that would mean giving standardized tests twice a year and too much time is taken up already with testing. In practice, usually student scores from the previous spring testing are compared to the current-year testing, but that means the summer learning loss that many low-income students experience can affect scores, and the teacher had nothing to do with summer learning loss (Atteberry & Mangan, 2020). Second, to really be able to attribute student gains on test scores to their teacher, the students and teachers would have to be assigned randomly to classes—that never happens. So even with very good, well-chosen tests, other factors involved in who gets into which class with which teacher may still be contributing to test score gains or losses. For example, consider a beloved math teacher in the school. Parents of the best math students push to get their children in this teacher’s class. Because the students are already scoring at the top of the yearly achievement tests, there is little room for growth and the teacher’s value-added contribution could seem low. Or the scores of other students might not “grow” because the school was in bad physical condition, the instructional materials were poor quality and dated, or the students worked after school and never had time for homework—all outside the teacher’s control (Popham, 2020). In an extensive review of value-added research, Kimberlee Everson (2017) noted that no one has suggested a “framework or methodology for untangling a teacher’s contribution from confounding influences, such as access to classroom materials, specialist support, or tutoring” (p. 61). The researchers who have developed value-added modeling are very concerned about misuses, especially in teacher evaluation (Tobiason, 2019) To be valuable, the value-added scores must be based on several years of data from a large number of students. These measures should only be used to identify strengths and weaknesses in the school or the curriculum and to guide professional development, but not to evaluate individual teachers (American Educational Research Association Council, 2015; Blazar et al., 2016). Still, you may be in a school that uses value-added measures, so it makes sense to learn about them. SO HOW SHOULD WE EVALUATE TEACHERS?  In her extensive review of VAM research, Kimberlee Everson (2017) concluded that we cannot use value-added measures or any procedures to evaluate teachers until we answer some fundamental questions about what is good teaching—a question we have raised throughout this book. Everson asks, is a good teacher one who helps students reach only academic goals, or nonacademic goals as well? Does a good teacher bring all students to a set standard, regardless of their background, or

Value-added modeling (VAM) Approaches that use statistical analyses to indicate the average test score gain for students, adjusted for their student characteristics such as prior level of achievement.

686  Chapter 15  Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing does the teacher strive to take every student as far as she or he can go? Who is the right comparison person for a teacher? In Chapter 1, we described different approaches to defining good teaching. Making sure the way we evaluate teachers matches our conception of good teaching is really a question about validity in assessing teachers. In terms of reliability, in an extensive test of the New Mexico evaluation system as applied to about 21,000 teachers from 2015 to 2016, Sy Doan and colleagues (2019) found that 40% of the teachers they studied would have gotten a different composite score if they were reevaluated in the same year. The greater the weight of value-added information in the composite scores, the less consistent the estimates of scores at reevaluation. A BROADER APPROACH: MEASURES OF TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS.  In 2009, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation launched the Measures of Effective Teaching (MET) Project, a research partnership between 3,000 teachers and research teams at dozens of institutions. The Foundation tackled teacher evaluation because research shows that teachers matter; they matter more than technology or funding or school facilities. In pursuing the goal, the project members made a key assumption: Teaching is complex; multiple measures will be needed to capture effective teaching and provide useful feedback for personnel decisions and professional development. In addition to using student achievement gains on state tests, the MET researchers examined many established and newer measures of effectiveness. The final report of the project (MET Project, 2013) identified the following three measures that, if used together, are a valid and reliable way of assessing teaching that leads to student learning:

1. Student gains on state tests. 2. Surveys of student perceptions of their teachers based on the Tripod Student Perception Survey developed by Ron Ferguson at Harvard University (Ferguson, 2008). This survey asks students to agree or disagree with statements such as “My teacher takes time to help us remember what we learn” (for K–2 students); “In class we learn to correct our mistakes (upper elementary students); and “In this class, my teacher accepts nothing less than our full effort” (secondary students) (from Cambridge Education, Tripod Project, Student Survey System). 3. Classroom observations from the Danielson (2013) Framework for Teaching. These look like good choices. Both Tripod scores from students and Danielson Framework scores from observers predict student academic growth on achievement tests (­ Sandilos et al., 2019). But remember, teaching is complex. To capture effective teaching, these measures have to be used accurately and together. Also, as you look at teacher observation in general—the same person teaching the same material to different students can be rated as more or less effective by an observer, depending on the students (Fauth et al., 2020). As ­experienced teachers know, students who are more interested and motivated make teachers look better. Also, there is evidence that male teachers in general and teachers in classrooms with high concentrations of Black, Latino, male, and low-performing students receive significantly lower class-observation ratings. Class composition may bias ratings (Campbell & Ronfeldt, 2018). No system is perfect. The most important system for you is the one that your school will use to evaluate your teaching—find out what it is.

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Summary Basics of Assessment (pp. 647–651) Distinguish between measurement and assessment.  Measurement is the description of an event or characteristic using numbers. Assessment includes measurement, but is broader because it includes all kinds of ways to ­sample and observe students’ skills, knowledge, and abilities. Distinguish among formative, interim, and summative ­assessment.  In the classroom, formative (ungraded, diagnostic assessment) helps form and support learning by providing feedback to both the students and the teacher. Interim (growth) assessments occur at regular intervals during the school year to determine student progress in an objective way—to see if the students are moving toward proficiency. Summative assessment occurs at the end of instruction and summarizes students’ accomplishments in order to report on achievement. What is test reliability? Some tests are more reliable than others; that is, they yield more stable and consistent estimates. Care must be taken in the interpretation of test results. Each test is only a sample of a student’s performance on a given day. The score is only an estimate of a student’s hypothetical true score. The standard error of measurement takes into account the possibility for error and is one index of test reliability. What is test validity? The most important consideration about a test is the validity of the decisions and judgments that are based on the test results. Evidence of validity can be related to content, criterion, or construct. Construct-related evidence for validity is the broadest category and encompasses the other two categories of content and criterion. Tests must be reliable to be valid, but reliability does not guarantee validity. What is absence of bias?  Tests must be free of assessment bias. Bias occurs when tests include material that offends or unfairly penalizes a group of students because of the students’ gender, SES, race, religion, or ethnicity. Culture-fair tests have not proved to solve the problem of assessment bias.

Classroom Assessment: Testing (pp. 651–658) Distinguish between norm-referenced and ­criterion-referenced tests.  In norm-referenced tests, a student’s performance is compared to the average performance of others. In ­criterionreferenced tests, scores are compared to a pre-established standard. ­Norm-referenced tests cover a wide range of general learning goals. However, results of norm-referenced tests do not tell whether students are ready for advanced material, and they are not appropriate for affective and psychomotor learning goals. Criterion-referenced tests measure the mastery of very specific goals. How can testing support learning? Learning is supported by frequent testing using cumulative questions that ask students to apply and integrate knowledge. With the goals of assessment in mind, teachers are in a better position to design their own tests or evaluate the tests provided by textbook publishers.

Describe two kinds of traditional testing.  Two traditional formats for testing are the s­elected-response test and the constructed-response/essay test. Selected-response tests, ­ which can include multiple-choice, true/false, fill-in, and matching items, should be written with specific guidelines in mind. Writing and scoring essay questions requires careful planning, in addition to criteria to discourage bias in scoring.

­ ormative and Authentic Classroom F Assessments (pp. 658–666) How can teachers use formative assessment?  Formative ­assessments may be informal and “on the fly,” such as exit tickets or journals, or formal assessments, such as quizzes ­embedded in the curriculum. Whatever the form, students can participate in the formative assessment by analyzing their work and making plans for improvement. What is authentic assessment?  Critics of traditional testing believe that teachers should use authentic tests and other authentic assessment procedures. Authentic assessment re­ quires students to perform tasks and solve problems that are similar to the real-life performances that will be expected of them outside of school. Describe portfolios.  Portfolios are examples of authentic ­assessment. A portfolio is a collection of a student’s work, sometimes chosen to represent growth or improvement or sometimes featuring “best work.” Portfolios may be produced by individuals or cooperative groups. What are the issues of reliability, validity, and equity with portfolios and performance assessment? Using authentic assessments does not guarantee reliability, validity, and equity

688  Chapter 15  Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized Testing (absence of bias). Using rubrics is one way to make assessment more reliable and valid. But the results from assessment based on rubrics may not predict performance on related tasks. Also, rater bias based on the appearance, speech, or behavior of students or a lack of resources may place students from minority groups at a disadvantage in performance assessments or projects. Why assess complex thinking?  Assessing complex thinking and higher-order outcomes actually can help students master and retain core facts as well. In other words, testing for complex understanding improves learning at all the levels of Bloom’s taxonomy, from remembering factual knowledge to analyzing and creating high-level knowledge. There are ­approaches in each subject that assess students’ abilities to analyze, apply, evaluate, and create.

Grading (pp. 666–673) Describe two kinds of grading. Grading can be either norm referenced or criterion referenced. One popular ­norm-referenced system is grading on the curve, based on a ranking of students in relation to the average performance level. This is not recommended. Criterion-referenced report cards usually indicate how well the individual student has met each of several ­learning goals. How can failure support learning?  Students need experience in coping with failure, so standards must be high enough to encourage effort. Occasional failure can be positive if appropriate feedback is provided. Making errors in low-stakes contexts can enhance learning if students get quality corrective feedback. Students who never learn how to cope with failure may give up quickly when their first­ ­efforts are unsuccessful. Which is better, “social promotion” or being “held back”? Simply retaining or promoting a student who is having difficulty will not guarantee that the student will learn. Unless the student is very young or emotionally immature compared to others in the class, the best approach may be to promote, but provide extra support such as tutoring or summer school sessions. Differentiated instruction could prevent problems.

­Standardized Testing (pp. 673–686) What are mean, median, mode, and standard deviation? The mean (arithmetical average), median (middle score), and mode (most common score) are all measures of central ­tendency. The standard deviation reveals how scores spread out around the mean. A normal distribution is a frequency distribution represented as a bell-shaped curve. Many scores cluster in the middle; the farther from the midpoint, the fewer the scores. Describe different kinds of scores.  There are several basic types of standardized test scores: percentile rankings, which indicate the percentage of others who scored at or below an individual’s score; grade-equivalent scores, which indicate how closely a student’s performance matches average scores for a given grade; and standard scores, which are based on the standard deviation. T and z scores are both common standard scores. A stanine score is a standard score that incorporates elements of percentile rankings. What are some current issues in testing?  Controversy over standardized testing has focused on the role of tests and interpretation of results, the problems with accountability based on test scores, and the ways testing restricts the curriculum. If the test matches important learning targets of the curriculum, is given to students who actually studied the curriculum for a reasonable period of time, is free of bias, fits the students’ language capabilities, and was administered properly, then test results provide some information about the effectiveness of the school. Expert teachers see both the advantages of and problems with standardized testing, but about 50% believe such tests do more harm than good. Teachers should use ­results to improve instruction, not to stereotype students or justify lowered expectations. PARCC and SBAC, two large consortia of states, are developing a new set of K–12 assessments in English and math anchored in what it takes to be ready for college and careers and consistent with the Common Core Standards.

Can grades promote learning and motivation?  Learning is increased by written or oral feedback that includes specific comments on errors or faulty strategies, but that balances this criticism with suggestions about how to improve—along with comments on the positive aspects of the work. Grades can encourage students’ motivation to learn if they are tied to meaningful learning.

Can students become better test takers? How?  Performance on standardized tests can be improved if students gain experience with this type of testing and are given training in study skills and problem solving. Many students can profit from direct instruction about how to prepare for and take tests. Involving students in designing these test preparation programs can be helpful. Students with learning challenges may benefit from intensive and ongoing preparation for taking tests, particularly if the test-taking strategies are tied to specific problems and content learned and tested.

How can communications with families support learning? Not every communication from the teacher needs to be tied to a grade. Communication with students and families can be important in helping a teacher understand students and present effective instruction by creating a consistent learning environment. Students and families have a legal right to see all the information in the students’ records, so the contents of files must be appropriate, accurate, and supported by evidence.

What are some current directions in teacher evaluation?  Concerns about the problems with h ­ igh-stakes tests, the unfairness in evaluating teachers based on test scores of students who began the year far below grade level, and the variability in curricula in different school districts and states have led to new ideas about test scores and testing. Valueadded modeling indicates the average test score gain for students, adjusted for their characteristics such as prior level of

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a­chievement (where they started the year). Experts agree that value-added scores alone cannot be used to evaluate schools or teachers. The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation launched the Measures of Effective Teaching (MET) Project, a research ­partnership between 3,000 teachers and research teams at dozens of institutions that has identified a three-part

system for evaluating good teaching that includes gains on state achievement tests, student perceptions of teachers, and classroom observations using the Danielson Framework for Teaching. Teacher observation, however, is subject to bias based on the behavior of the students or even class composition.

­K ey Terms Accountable Assessment Assessment bias Authentic assessments Central tendency Classroom assessments Confidence interval Criterion-referenced grading Criterion-referenced testing Distractors Formative assessment Grade-equivalent score Grading on the curve High-stakes testing Informal assessments Interim (growth or benchmark) assessments

Standard error of measurement Standard scores Standardized tests Stanine scores Stem Summative assessment T score True score Validity Value-added modeling (VAM) Variability z score

Mean Measurement Median Mode Norm group Norm-referenced grading Norm-referenced testing Normal distribution Percentile rank Performance assessments Portfolio Pretest Range Reliability Scoring rubrics Selected-response testing Standard deviation

Connect and Extend to Licensure Multiple-Choice Questions 1.

3.

Which of the following assessment methods provides feedback that is nonevaluative, occurs before or during instruction, and guides teachers in planning and improving instruction? A. Summative ­B.

Criterion referenced

C. Formative D. Norm referenced 2.

The yearly standardized test in Mr. Taylor’s class is given in the spring. By the summer, Mr. Taylor’s students received their scores in the mail. Many of the parents were upset and contacted Mr. Taylor regarding their children’s “low scores.” “Mr. Taylor, I don’t understand how my daughter could be in Honors classes and have scores on her standardized test in the 70s?” “Your daughter’s scores are above the average nationally. The average score would be a 50.” What type of scoring is being used in the yearly tests Mr. Taylor’s class must take? A. Criterion referenced B. Norm referenced C. Raw scores D. Authentic scoring

Maria had proven to be a very good student in Mr. Rhodes’s class despite having just moved to the United States from another country. So it came as a surprise when Maria performed poorly on her tests. When Mr. Rhodes consulted another teacher who also had Maria as a student, he learned that his test questions may have had something to do with it. His colleague explained that Maria came from a relatively primitive area that does not have television. Her exposure to concepts that draw on a wide variety of cultural experiences was limited. This indicated to Mr. Rhodes that his tests unfairly penalized Maria. This type of assessment that unfairly penalizes a student for his or her lack of resources or cultural knowledge demonstrates which of the following? A. Attribution bias B. Assessment bias C. Reliability bias D. Validity bias

4.

Which one of the following types of assessments would be most beneficial for assessing a student’s ability to debate? A. Formative assessment B. Portfolio assessment C. Summative assessment D. Performance assessment

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Constructed-Response Questions Case

“Class, you will also assist me in grading your performance by using the rubric. By making the rubric and using it to grade yourself, you should do very well.”

“How will you grade our oral book reports, Miss Wren?”

“There are no surprises that way!” Lisa shouted.

“I am going to grade them with each of you! We will develop what is called a rubric. It is a list of items on which you should focus while preparing and presenting your book report.”

5.

In addition to listing the criteria for what constitutes quality work and having students self-assess, list some additional guidelines for Miss Wren to remember when developing a rubric.

­6.

Grades, a form of extrinsic reinforcement, can be a source of celebration for Miss Wren’s students or a punishment. To make the most of grades and increase her students’ chances for success, what should Miss Wren keep in mind when grading her students?

“How will we be involved?” “You will help me make the rubric. What are some of the things you think should be included in your oral report?” “I think we should have to have audience participation, or else it gets too boring!” “Good idea, Terry. What else?” The class continued to add to the rubric until there were six aspects on which to focus.

What Would They Do? Teachers’ Casebook: Giving Meaningful Grades At the beginning of this chapter, we asked you to think critically about what kind of grading system you will use. Now, as you consider these teachers’ responses to that question, we again suggest that you think critically. Do the following responses reflect (or contradict) any of the concepts discussed in this chapter? Do the suggestions and solutions described here make sense in light of what you have learned in this or other classes about best practices? How do these ideas align with or challenge your personal philosophy of teaching?

Monika Stahlstrom • 3rd–7th-grade Teacher East Kensington Outdoor Learning School, Surrey, British Columbia, CA Consulting curriculum documents and performance standards is a key first step towards successful assessment. The teacher needs to have a clear understanding of what excellence looks like in order to know what questions to ask and feedback to give to promote learning and growth. At the beginning of the school year, communicating the ­grading language and definitions to parents and learners is essential. Clarity in how you interpret progress in relation to learning standards, no matter the method, is important to ensure shared understandings. In this scenario, you are mandated to use letter grades, so make clear the definitions of these letters early and often. From here, take time to teach students mastery language. In this case, I would use mastery language with letter grades equated for reporting periods only as I have found letter grades to hinder the process of learning; letter grades tend to become the goal rather than mastering the ­learning goal itself. With students, practice assessing learning with mastery language using something familiar, like learning how to ride

a bike or toddlers learning how to walk. This helps give a reference that is more easily understood than first trying self-assessment with writing a good paragraph or effective ­communication in math. Then, when planning for assessment, determine which curricular skills, content, understanding and core competencies to focus on and name throughout the unit of study. It is important to give students time to engage with the learning goals by co-creating criteria that demonstrate a skill at a standard. Using ­examples and allowing students to sort and determine for themselves what works and why allows them to take ownership of the learning goal and understand it from the beginning. Instructionally, students are intentionally reminded of the goals and the criteria decided upon consistently through visuals, rubrics with the students’ exact language, reflections, and in self and peer assessments. Students use single-point rubrics for ease and efficiency at the end of lessons while multi-point mastery rubrics are used for clarity and as a means to build understanding of goals and next steps in learning. Throughout the unit, descriptive feedback is provided during lessons or in response to assignments that ask questions and is specific about learning progress in relation to standards. In the end, students would either complete a project or task that requires application of learned skills and knowledge or choose a strong piece of evidence to showcase growth. This evidence can be chosen from the variety of times they were asked to use the skills and knowledge to best demonstrate where they are in their learning now, how they know, and where they will go to next. This process works in all subject areas and grades. The assessment in the end, the letter grade equated from the mastery language, is easily justified to parents, administrators, and students as it is clear from the beginning what that grade standard

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looks like as they have been central to the learning process. We also have multiple pieces of evidence to draw upon to prove the grade itself if it were ever unclear.

Madya Ayala • High School Preperatoria Teacher

From start to finish, this process of assessment ends up becoming the means to deep learning and reflection for all.

I think it is important to assess a cross-section of student work. First, portfolios can be a useful way to gather various types of work throughout the year. Using a portfolio, a teacher can then attach a letter grade to student progress and achievement. It is important to grade children not only on progress, but also on their understanding of material. I use meaningful, written assessments to test for retention and understanding of my students’ knowledge. Finally, I grade various projects and experiments so that the students who are better project-based learners will be graded fairly. I also like the idea of using a ­rubric system to grade students on writing or projects. Under a rubric system, a teacher allocates a certain number of points to each content area. It is then easy to attach a letter grade based on the number of points received.

Maria Avila • 5th-grade Math and Science Teacher Stone Lakes Elementary School, Orlando, FL I have worked at multiple schools, one of which allowed us the freedom and flexibility to grade as we wished, provided we could justify our system to parents. Although this was great for the teachers, it wasn’t so great for the students or parents, as this system replicated the scenario above. It led to parents requesting specific teachers because they were “easy graders.” Ultimately, having a standard grading approach across a grade level or school would be the ­best-case scenario. I feel my current school does just that. Teachers have the freedom and flexibility to grade as we wish, however we must come up with a general system across a grade level. Our grade level currently assigns a weighted average of 40% on tests, 35% on quizzes and 25% on class work. This is not ideal for me as I struggle with assigning so much weight on tests, however it is one I can live with. It provides the flexibility for me to weight projects as a test grade if I choose to do so. The major graded assignments and projects that I assign tend to have students demonstrate proficiency with a concept or standard. As a math and science teacher, I ­provide students with an error analysis that they have to justify. They examine the error and provide a justification as to where the error was made and why. I then grade this using a ­rubric. In fact, most of the open-ended assignments I grade have a rubric that I have discussed, reviewed, and modified with the students. When it comes to group projects, I have the students self-assess their work and I note their participation in the ­social/ emotional component of their report card. In my 24 years of teaching, grading continues to be an ever-evolving issue—there just isn’t a perfect method, but we can strive for fairness.

Katie Churchill • 3rd-grade Teacher Oriole Parke Elementary School, Chicago, IL I use a combination of assessment tools to evaluate my students. Using a rubric that students and parents alike are familiar with provides an easy-to-follow-and-understand ­ grading system. The rubric needs to remain in a focal area in the classroom as a constant reminder to the students of what their expectations are. By differentiating instruction consistently to cover all learning styles and modalities, the students hopefully become more involved and invested in their own learning and, as a result, produce better quality work and exceed expectations. Several factors play a part in obtaining a particular letter grade. The letter grade is earned through a combination of group work, completing objectives, and following the rubric guidelines for quality work.

Eugenio Garza Lagüera, Campus Garza Sada, Monterrey, N. L. Mexico

Katie Piel • Kindergarten–6th-grade Teacher West Park School, Moscow, ID Students should be given the latitude to express achievement in different ways like group projects, daily class work, tests, and individual projects. All students are held accountable for demonstrating their own learning. With each teacher grading on a different standard, the teachers must also take on the responsibility of collaborating with their peers. Communicating to other teachers the skills a student can be expected to bring with him or her to the next level is crucial.

Allan Osborne • Assistant Principal Snug Harbor Community School, Quincy, MA Any grading system should consider a student’s progress and effort. Grading systems also should be individualized to account for a student’s unique strengths and weaknesses. Thus, a student with a learning disability should not be held to the same expectations as a gifted student. The most critical aspect of any successful grading system is that it is fair. Fairness dictates that students and their parents be given information in advance about class requirements and expectations, along with a description of grading criteria. A system that is fair can be easily justified. It is also important to keep accurate and detailed records of student progress. In addition to recording grades on tests, quizzes, and projects, anecdotal records describing a student’s typical performance should be kept. These records can be valuable if a report card grade is questioned. Although group assignments can be an important learning experience, I would be reluctant to place too much emphasis on a group project grade. As we all know, each member of the group does not participate equally, and thus, a group grade does not reflect the contribution of each individual member.

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Licensure Appendix Part 1  Licensure Examination Study Guide You probably will have to take a licensure examination in order to become a teacher in your state. In over 40 states and jurisdictions, the Praxis II® test is the required licensure examination. This section highlights the concepts from each chapter that may be on your licensure test.

Chapter 1  Developing relationships with professionals: Until you become a teacher, it will be difficult to establish a working relationship with other practitioners. However, you might find this site beneficial: K–12 Practitioners’ Circle (nces.ed.gov/practitioners/teachers.asp). Keeping current with educational issues: Education Week (edweek.org) will keep you up-to-date about innovations in teaching, policy initiatives, and changes in public laws ­related to education. These issues are often highly complex. The use of critical thinking skills is essential when making judgments about the information you will encounter in this type of publication.

Chapter 2  Recognize the influences that socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, and community values may have on: ●●

Student learning preferences

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Academic achievement

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Attitudes, self-esteem, and expectations for success

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Opportunities for quality educational experiences

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Teachers’ attention to students

Devise strategies that: ●●

Increase awareness of stereotypes and biases

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Eliminate racist, sexist, and other discriminatory teaching practices

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Promote culturally-relevant teaching

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Promote positive school–home relationships

Chapter 3  Understand how the brain works: ●●

Brain imaging techniques

●●

Neurogenesis and brain development

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Plasticity

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Brain-based educational strategies

For theories of cognitive development, you should understand: ●●

Basic assumptions of Piagetian and Vygotskian theories

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How students build their unique knowledge bases

A-1

A-2  Licensure Appendix ●●

How students acquire skills

●●

Important terms and concepts related to each theory

●●

The key steps, mechanisms, or milestones related to each theory

●●

The limitations of each theory

Chapter 4  Understand the major concepts and progressions related to: ●●

Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model of development

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Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development

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Piaget’s and Kohlberg’s perspectives on moral development

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Gilligan’s theory of caring

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The distinction between moral judgments and social conventions

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Haidt’s social intuitionist model

Design or choose strategies that: ●● ●●

●●

Support optimal social and emotional development of students Help students cope with major life transitions and challenges to safety, as well as physical and mental health Help students build a sense of self-concept, self-esteem, and self-identity (including racial identity)

Recognize signs or behaviors that indicate sexual abuse or child abuse.

Chapter 5  Explain the effects of legislation on public education: ●●

Americans with Disabilities Act

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Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act

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Section 504

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Individualized education programs

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Inclusion and least restrictive environment

Understand views of intelligence and describe its measurement: ●●

Types of intelligence tests and their uses

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Multiple intelligences

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Interpreting intelligence scores

Explain how creativity is defined and assessed. Describe and differentiate among learning styles and preferences. Accommodate the needs of students with exceptionalities: ●●

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder

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Visual and speech difficulties

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Differences in mental abilities

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Learning disabilities

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Intellectual disabilities

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Autism spectrum disorders

Licensure Appendix A-3

Chapter 6  For the development of language, you should understand: ●●

Diversity in language development

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The major accomplishments of language development of school-age children

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The relationship between language and literacy

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Basic steps that teachers can take to enhance literacy among their students

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Strategies that support English acquisition in non-English–speaking students

Chapter 7  Understand the basic assumptions and contributions of these behaviorists: ●●

Pavlov

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Skinner

Determine appropriate behavioral techniques to: ●●

Foster appropriate classroom conduct

Understand basic processes of operant conditioning and their roles in learning, including: ●●

Antecedents and consequences

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Types of reinforcement and reinforcement schedules

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Punishment

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Shaping

Chapter 8  Understand how memory and recall are affected by: ●●

The limitations, capacities, and capabilities of the various structures of human ­memory (e.g., memory stores)

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The manner in which humans process information

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Prior knowledge of a topic

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Executive control processes

Explain how students and teachers can enhance learning through the use of: ●●

Elaboration and mnemonic devices

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Organized presentations

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Meaningful learning and instructional activities

Chapter 9  Focus on each of these major topics: ●●

Metacognitive knowledge and learning

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Learning strategies ●●

Basic principles of teaching these strategies

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Cognitive processes involved in various strategies

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Appropriate uses of different strategies

A-4  Licensure Appendix ●●

Problem solving ●●

General problem-solving strategies/heuristics and algorithms

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The value of problem representation

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Factors that impede problem solving

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Critical thinking

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Transfer of learning ●●

Types of transfer and promoting transfer

Chapter 10  Explain the advantages and appropriate uses of major student-centered approaches to learning and instruction: ●●

Inquiry learning

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Problem-based learning

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Cognitive apprenticeships

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Cooperative learning

Understand important concepts related to student-centered models of instruction: ●●

Situated learning

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Complex learning environments

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Authentic tasks

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Multiple representations of content

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Piaget and Vygotsky: theories of constructivism

Recognize how technology influences learning both positively and negatively.

Chapter 11  Focus on these major topics: ●●

Bandura’s social cognitive theory

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Modeling and observational learning

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Learner agency

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Self-efficacy

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Teachers’ sense of efficacy

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Self-regulated learning

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Helping students monitor and regulate learning

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Self-regulation of emotions

Chapter 12  Describe the theoretical foundations of the major approaches to motivation. ●●

●●

Identify and define important terms related to motivation including needs, ­selfdetermination, goals, expectancies, values, costs, attributions, beliefs about ability, ­interest, ­curiosity, and emotions. Use your knowledge of motivation to: ●●

Identify situations and conditions that can enhance or diminish student motivation to learn

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Design strategies to support individual and group work in the classroom

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Implement practices that help students become self-motivated

Licensure Appendix A-5

Chapter 13  Understand principles of classroom management that promote positive relationships by: ●●

Establishing daily procedures and routines

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Developing student–teacher relationships and parent–teacher relationships

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Responding effectively to minor student misbehavior

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Implementing reasonable rules, procedures, penalties, and rewards

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Keeping students actively engaged in purposeful learning

Diagnose problems and prevent or reduce inappropriate behaviors by: ●●

Communicating effectively with students and parents

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Addressing misbehaviors in the least intrusive way possible

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Confronting disruptive behaviors in an effective, efficient manner

Chapter 14  Develop plans for instruction and consider: ●●

The role of objectives in instruction

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Writing learning targets

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The use of educational taxonomies to identify effective objectives

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The role of independent practice (i.e., independent work/seatwork and homework)

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Direct instruction ●●

Basic assumptions

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Appropriate uses/principles of implementation

Understand the basic principles of teacher-centered and student-centered forms of ­instruction, including: ●●

Appropriate uses and limitations

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The role of the teacher

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Effective questioning techniques

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Whole-group discussions

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Recitation

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Thematic/interdisciplinary instruction

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Differentiated instruction

Chapter 15  Describe the characteristics and purposes of major types of tests: ●●

Criterion-referenced and norm-referenced tests

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Formative, interim, and summative tests

Explain the major issues related to concerns about standardized testing, including: ●●

High-stakes testing

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Bias in testing

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Test-taking programs

A-6  Licensure Appendix Understand major concepts related to classroom assessment and grading: ●●

Formative and summative assessment

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Reliability and validity

●●

Criterion-referenced and norm-referenced grading

Describe the characteristics, uses, and limitations of major assessment techniques, including: ●●

Multiple-choice items

●●

Essays

●●

Portfolios

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Exhibitions (performances)

Design a scoring rubric for an authentic learning task that possesses: ●●

Validity

●●

Reliability

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Generalizability

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Equity

Standardized testing ●●

Interpreting different types of scores

●●

Criticisms of standardized testing

Part 2  Correlating Text Content to the PRAXIS II® Principles of Learning and Teaching Tests and InTASC Model Core Teaching Standards Each state in the country has its own set of licensure requirements that new teachers must meet in order to work in the classroom. An increasing number of states are basing their requirements on standards developed by InTASC (Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium). These standards are based on 10 principles and foundations of effective teaching practice that InTASC has identified as essential for optimal student learning. Many states assess new teachers’ knowledge of those principles through the use of tests from the Praxis II® series published by the Educational Testing Service. Within the Praxis II® series are three Principles of Learning and Teaching (PLT) tests, one each for grades K–6, 5–9, and 7–12. Each PLT test assesses students’ knowledge of educational psychology and its application in the classroom. The following table is designed to help you study for your PLT test and meet the Essesntial Knowledge indicators for each of InTASC’s 10 principles of effective teaching. The left-hand column of the table lists the topics assessed in a PLT test. The right-hand column contains InTASC’s Knowledge standards. In the center column, you will find the chapters and sections in this textbook that correspond to the PLT tests and InTASC standards.

A-7

A-8  Licensure Appendix PRAXIS II® TOPICS I.

WOOLFOLK AND USHER TEXT CONNECTIONS

INTASC ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE INDICATORS

Students as Learners

A. Student Development and the Learning Process 1. Theoretical foundations about how learning occurs: how students construct knowledge, acquire skills, and develop habits of mind ■■

■■

Chapters 6–12 (entire chapters)

Examples of important theorists: ●●

Jean Piaget

Chapter 3/Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Chapter 10/Cognitive and Social Constructivism

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Lev Vygotsky

Chapter 3/Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective Chapter 10/Cognitive and Social Constructivism

●●

Howard Gardner

Chapter 5/Another View: Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

●●

Robert Sternberg

Chapter 5/Another View: Sternberg’s Successful Intelligence

●●

Albert Bandura

Chapter 7/Beyond Behaviorism: Bandura’s Challenge and Observational Learning Chapter 11/Social Cognitive Theory

●●

Urie Bronfenbrenner

Chapter 4/Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development

Important terms that relate to learning theory: ●●

Adaptation

Chapter 3/Basic Tendencies in Thinking

●●

Conservation

Chapter 3/Four Stages of Cognitive Development

●●

Constructivism

Chapter 3/The Role of Learning and Development; Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers Chapter 10/Constructivism and Interactive Learning (entire chapter)

●●

Equilibration

Chapter 3/Basic Tendencies in Thinking

●●

Co-constructed process

Chapter 3/The Social Sources of Individual Thinking

●●

Private speech

Chapter 3/The Role of Language and Private Speech

●●

Scaffolding

Chapter 3/Private Speech and the Zone; Vygotsky: What Can We Learn?; Guidelines: Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching Chapter 10/ Facilitating Deep Learning in a Constructivist Classroom; Common Elements of Learner-Centered Teaching

Zone of Proximal Development

Chapter 3/The Zone of Proximal Development; Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the “Magic Middle” Chapter 10/Social Constructivism

Learning

Chapter 2/Diversity in Learning Chapter 3/Cognitive Development Chapter 7/Understanding Learning; Behavioral Views of Learning Chapter 8/Cognitive Views of Learning Chapter 9/Metacognition; Learning Strategies Chapter 10/Learning in Groups Chapter 10/Learning through Cooperation Chapter 10/Constructivist Views of Learning

●●

●●

1(d) The teacher understands how learning occurs—how learners construct knowledge, acquire skills, and develop disciplined thinking processes—and knows how to use instructional strategies that promote student learning.

Licensure Appendix A-9

PRAXIS II® TOPICS

WOOLFOLK AND USHER TEXT CONNECTIONS

INTASC ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE INDICATORS

Chapter 11/Social Cognitive Theory Chapter 11/Modeling: Learning by Observing Others Chapter 11/Self-Regulated Learning: Skill and Will Chapter 11/Bringing It All Together: Theories of Learning Chapter 12/Motivation in Learning and Teaching (entire chapter) ●●

Knowledge

Chapter 3/The Social Sources of Individual Thinking; Activity and Constructing Knowledge Chapter 8/The Importance of Knowledge in Cognition; Teaching for Long-Lasting Knowledge: Basic Principles and Applications Chapter 10/How Is Knowledge Constructed?; Knowledge: Situated or General?

●●

Memory

Chapter 8/Cognitive Views of Memory; Long-Term Memory

●●

Schemas

Chapter 8/Schemas

●●

Transfer

Chapter 9/Teaching for Transfer

2. Human development in the physical, social, ­emotional, moral, and cognitive ­domains

■■

■■

1(e) The teacher understands that each learner’s cognitive, linguistic, social, emotional, and physical development influence learning and knows how to make instructional decisions that build on learners’ strengths and needs

Contributions of important theorists: ●●

Jean Piaget

Chapter 3/Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Chapter 10/Cognitive and Social Constructivism

●●

Lev Vygotsky

Chapter 3/Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective Chapter 10/Cognitive and Social Constructivism

●●

Albert Bandura

Chapter 7/Beyond Behaviorism: Bandura’s Challenge and Observational Learning Chapter 11/Social Cognitive Theory

●●

Erik Erikson

Chapter 4/Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development

●●

Lawrence Kohlberg

Chapter 4/Kohlberg’s Theories of Moral Development

●●

Carol Gilligan

Chapter 4/Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory

●●

Jonathan Haidt

Chapter 4/Beyond Reasoning: Haidt’s Social Intuitionist Model of Moral Psychology

Major progressions in each developmental domain and the ranges of individual variation within each domain

Chapter 2/Ethnic and Racial Identity; Gender Identity Chapter 3/Four Stages of Cognitive Development; Information Processing, Neo-Piagetian, and Neuroscience Views of Cognitive Development; Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory; The Social Sources of Individual Thinking Chapter 3/Four Stages of Cognitive Development; Information Processing, Neo-Piagetian, and Neuroscience Views of Cognitive Development; Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory; The Social Sources of Individual Thinking Chapter 4/Physical and Motor Development; Identity and Self-Concept; Understanding Others and Moral Development Chapter 6/The Development of Language

A-10  Licensure Appendix PRAXIS II® TOPICS

WOOLFOLK AND USHER TEXT CONNECTIONS

■■

Impact of students’ physical, social, emotional, moral, and cognitive development on their learning and ways to address these factors when making decisions

Chapter 2/Creating Culturally Welcoming Classrooms; Guidelines: Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching; Guidelines: Culturally Relevant Teaching Chapter 3/Four Stages of Cognitive Development; Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory; Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships; Guidelines: Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child; Guidelines: Helping Students to Use Formal Operations; The Social Sources of Individual Thinking; Assisted Learning; The Zone of Proximal Development Chapter 4/Physical Development; Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development; Identity and Self-Concept; Understanding Others and Moral Development; ­Personal/Social Development: Lessons for Teachers Chapter 6/The Development of Language Chapter 10/Guidelines: Supporting the Development of Media Literacy Chapter 11/Teaching Toward Self-Efficacy and SelfRegulated Learning; Guidelines: Encouraging Emotional Self-Regulation Chapter 13/Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning

■■

How development in one domain, such as physical, may affect performance in another domain, such as social

Chapter 3/General Principles of Development; The Brain and Cognitive Development; Influences on Development Chapter 4/Physical Development

INTASC ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE INDICATORS

B. Students as Diverse Learners 1. Differences in the ways students learn and perform

Chapter 5/Learner Differences and Learning Needs Chapter 2/Culture and Diversity

Learning styles and preferences

Chapter 5/Learning Styles/Preferences Chapter 2/Diversity in Learning

Multiple intelligences

Chapter 5/Another View: Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

●●

Performance modes Concrete-operational thinking

●●

Visual and aural learners

Chapter 3/Later Elementary to the Middle School Years: The Concrete-Operational Stage; Guidelines: Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child Chapter 5/Learning Styles: Proceed with Caution; Students with Learning Challenges Chapter 6/Generation 1.5: Learners in Two Worlds

●●

Race and ethnicity

Chapter 2/Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination; Ethnicity and Race in Teaching and Learning; Creating Culturally Welcoming Classrooms

●●

Gender differences

Chapter 2/Gender and Sexual Orientation in Teaching and Learning; Guidelines: Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching Chapter 4/Sex Differences in Self-Concept of Academic Competence Chapter 5/Sex Differences in Intelligence and Achievement

Cultural expectations and styles

Chapter 2/Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity (entire chapter) Chapter 6/Teaching Immigrant Students and English Learners Chapter 6/Classrooms Today Chapter 14/Teacher Expectations

●●

●●

●●

●●

2(g) The teacher understands and identifies differences in approaches to learning and performance and knows how to design instruction that uses each learner’s strengths to promote growth.

Licensure Appendix A-11

PRAXIS II® TOPICS ●●

English Language Learners

2. Areas of exceptionality in students’ learning

●●

●●

●●

●●

●●

●●

●●

Chapter 5/Learner Differences and Learning Needs

Chapter 5/Students with Communication Impairments; Students with Health and Sensory Impairments

Learning disabilities

Chapter 5/Students with Specific Learning Disabilities; Individualized Education Program; Section 504 Protections Chapter 6/Special Challenges: Students Who Are English Learners with Unique Learning Needs and Gifts

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Chapter 5/Students with Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders

Intellectual disabilities

Chapter 5/Students with Intellectual Disabilities; Guidelines: Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities

Autism spectrum disorder

Chapter 5/Autism Spectrum Disorders

Gifts and talents

Chapter 5/Students Who Are Gifted and Talented Chapter 5/Individual Differences and the Law

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA); Section 504 Protections for Students

Chapter 5/IDEA; Section 504 Protections

Inclusion, mainstreaming, and least restrictive environment

Chapter 5/Individual Differences and the Law; Least Restrictive Environment Chapter 14/Reaching Every Student: Differentiation with Universal Design for Learning

4. Approaches for accommodating various learning styles and intelligences

Chapter 5/Learner Differences and Learning Needs— Focus on: Creativity in the Classroom; Learning Styles/ Preferences; Individual Differences and the Law; Teaching Students with Gifts and Talents

●●

Differentiated instruction

Chapter 14/Differentiated Instruction; Assistive Technology; Reaching Every Student: Differentiation with Universal Design for Learning

●●

Alternative assessment

Chapter 15/Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments

●●

Testing modifications

Chapter 15/Reaching Every Student: Helping Students with Disabilities Prepare for High-Stakes Tests

5. Process of second-language acquisition and strategies to support the learning of students

INTASC ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE INDICATORS

Chapter 6/Diversity in Language Development; Teaching Immigrant Students and English Learners; Special Challenges: Students Who Are English Learners with Unique Learning Needs and Gifts Chapter 2/Creating Culturally Welcoming Classrooms

Special physical or sensory challenges

3. Legislation and institutional responsibilities relating to exceptional students

●●

WOOLFOLK AND USHER TEXT CONNECTIONS

Chapter 6/Basic Communication and Academic Language; Dialect Differences in the Classroom; Teaching English Learners; Teaching Immigrant Students and English Learners; What Is the Best Way to Teach Students Who Are ELs?; Bilingual Education and English Learners

2(h) The teacher understands students with exceptional needs, including those associated with disabilities and giftedness, and knows how to use strategies and resources to ­address these needs.

9(j) The teacher understands laws related to learners’ rights and teacher responsibilities (e.g., for educational equity, appropriate education for learners with disabilities, confidentiality, privacy, appropriate treatment of learners, reporting in situations related to possible child abuse).

2(g) The teacher understands and identifies differences in approaches to learning and performance and knows how to design instruction that uses each learner’s strengths to promote growth.

2(i) The teacher knows about secondlanguage-acquisition processes and knows how to incorporate instructional strategies and resources to support language acquisition.

A-12  Licensure Appendix PRAXIS II® TOPICS

WOOLFOLK AND USHER TEXT CONNECTIONS

6. Understanding of influences of individual experiences, talents, and prior learning, as well as language, culture, family, and community values on students’ learning

Chapter 2/ Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? ­Culture and Diversity (entire chapter) Chapter 5/Learner Differences and Learning Needs

●●

Multicultural backgrounds

Chapter 6/Teaching Immigrant Students and English Learners Chapter 2/Ethnic and Racial Differences in School Achievement; Economic and Social Class Differences; Education Is Cultural; Culturally Relevant Pedagogy; Creating Culturally Welcoming Classrooms; Diversity in Learning; Lessons for Teachers: Teaching Every Student (entire chapter)

INTASC ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE INDICATORS

2(j) The teacher understands that learners bring assets for learning based on their individual experiences, abilities, talents, prior learning, and peer and social group interactions, as well as language, culture, family, and community values. 2(k) The teacher knows how to access information about the values of diverse cultures and communities and how to incorporate learners’ experiences, cultures, and community resources into instruction.

●●

●●

●●

●●

●●

●●

Age-appropriate knowledge and behaviors

Chapter 3/Four Stages of Cognitive Development; Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective; Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers Chapter 4/The Self, Social, and Moral Development— Focus on: The Preschool Years: Trust, Autonomy, and Initiative; The Elementary and Middle School Years: Industry versus Inferiority; Adolescence: The Search for Identity; Understanding Others and Moral Development

The student culture at the school

Chapter 2/Peer Influences and Resistance Cultures Chapter 4/Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for ­Development; Peers Chapter 12/Learned Helplessness

Family backgrounds

Chapter 4/Families Chapter 2/Poverty and Social Inequality; Poverty and Academic Outcomes Chapter 4/Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships Chapter 12/Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships

Linguistic patterns and differences

Chapter 5/Students with Communication Impairments Chapter 6/The Development of Language; Dialects; What Is Involved in Being Bilingual?

Cognitive patterns and differences

Chapter 5/Learning Styles/Preferences Chapter 8/Individual Differences in Working Memory; Long-Term Memory Chapter 9/Individual Differences in Metacognition

Social and emotional issues

Chapter 4/Understanding Others and Moral Development Chapter 5/Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders Chapter 6/Affective and Emotional/Social Considerations Chapter 11/Self-Regulation of Emotions

1(g) The teacher understands the role of language and culture in learning and knows how to modify instruction to make language comprehensible and instruction relevant, accessible, and challenging.

Licensure Appendix A-13

PRAXIS II® TOPICS

WOOLFOLK AND USHER TEXT CONNECTIONS

INTASC ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE INDICATORS

C. Student Motivation and the Learning Environment 1. Theoretical foundations about human motivation and behavior

●●

Important terms that relate to motivation and behavior

Chapter 12/Motivation in Learning and Teaching (entire chapter)

3(i) The teacher understands the r­ elationship between motivation and ­engagement and knows how to d ­ esign learning experiences ­using strategies that build learner ­self-direction and ownership of learning.

Chapter 7/Operant Conditioning: Trying New ­Responses; Reinforcement Schedules Chapter 11/Social Cognitive Views of Learning and Motivation Chapter 12/Motivation in Learning and Teaching Chapter 14/Teacher Expectations

2. How knowledge of ­human emotion and behavior should influence ­strategies for organizing and ­supporting individual and group work in the classroom

Chapter 10/Collaboration and Cooperation; Guidelines: Using Cooperative Learning; Designing Interactive ­Digital Learning Environments Chapter 11/Reaching Every Student: Technology and Self-Regulation; Guidelines: Encouraging Emotional Self-Regulation; Teaching Toward Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated Learning Chapter 12/Anxiety in the Classroom; Reaching Every Student: Coping with Negative Emotions; Guidelines: Coping with Anxiety; Guidelines: Supporting SelfDetermination and Autonomy; Strategies to Encourage Motivation to Learn Chapter 14/Teacher Expectations

3(j) The teacher knows how to help learners work productively and cooperatively with each other to achieve learning goals.

3. Factors and situations that are likely to promote or diminish students’ motivation to learning, and how to help students to become self-motivated

Chapter 11/Guidelines: Encouraging Emotional SelfRegulation; Teaching Toward Self-Efficacy and SelfRegulated Learning Chapter 12/Needs: Lessons for Teachers; Goals: Lessons for Teachers; Interest, Curiosity, and Emotions: Lessons for Teachers; Supporting Autonomy

3(i) The teacher understands the r­elationship between motivation and ­engagement and knows how to ­design learning experiences using strategies that build learner self-direction and ownership of learning.

4. Principles of effective management and strategies to promote positive relationships, cooperation, and purposeful learning

Chapter 7/Methods for Encouraging Behaviors; ­ Guidelines: Applying Operant Conditioning: Encour­aging Positive Behaviors; Handling Undesirable ­Behavior; Reaching Every Student: Positive Behavior Supports; Current Applications: Functional Behavioral Assessment, Positive Behavior Supports, and Self-Management Chapter 10/Collaboration and Cooperation; Guidelines: Using Cooperative Learning Chapter 13/The What and Why of Supportive Classroom Organization; Caring Relationships: Connections with Schools; The Need for Communication; Diversity: Culturally Responsive Management

3(k) The teacher knows how to collaborate with learners to establish and monitor elements of a safe and productive learning environment including norms, expectations, routines, and organizational structures.

●●

●●

●●

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Establishing daily procedures and routines

Chapter 13/Routines and Rules Required: In-Person Learning; Routines and Rules Required: Remote Learning; Guidelines: Establishing Class Routines for ­In-Person Learning; Guidelines: Establishing Routines and Rules for Remote Learning

Establishing classroom rules, punishments, and rewards

Chapter 13/Prevention Is the Best Medicine; Reaching Every Student: Restorative Justice Chapter 14/Teacher Expectations

Giving timely feedback

Chapter 7/Guidelines: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Praise Appropriately Chapter 13/The Need for Communication Chapter 14/Responding to Student Answers Chapter 15/Effects of Grading on Students

Maintaining accurate records

Chapter 15/Authentic Assessments: Performances and Portfolios; Guidelines: Creating Portfolios; Evaluating Portfolios and Performances

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Communicating with parents and caregivers

Chapters 3–9, 12–15/Guidelines: Family and Community Partnerships (one in each chapter)

Using objective behavior descriptions

Chapter 7/Putting It All Together: Applied Behavior Analysis

Responding to student misbehavior

Chapter 7/Contingency Contracts, Token Reinforcement, and Group Consequences; Handling Undesirable Behavior; Guidelines: Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Punishment Chapter 13/Dealing with Discipline Problems; Special Challenges with High School Students; Guidelines: Imposing Penalties; Assertive Discipline; Confrontations and Negotiations; Guidelines: Handling Potentially Explosive Situations

Arranging classroom space

Chapter 10/Designing Interactive Digital Learning Environments Chapter 13/Planning Spaces for Learning; Guidelines: Designing Learning Spaces

Pacing and the structure of the lesson

Chapter 13/Encouraging Engagement; Guidelines: Keeping Students Engaged; Withitness; Overlapping and Group Focus; Movement Management Chapter 14/Clarity and Organization; Guidelines: Effective Direct Instruction

INTASC ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE INDICATORS

II. Instruction and Assessment A. Instructional Strategies 1. Major cognitive processes associated with student learning Critical thinking Creative thinking

Chapter 9/Critical Thinking and Argumentation Chapter 5/Creativity: What It Is and Why It Matters

Inductive and deductive thinking

Chapter 3/High School and College: Formal Operations

Problem structuring and problem solving

Chapter 9/Problem Solving; Guidelines: Applying Problem Solving

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Invention

Chapter 5/Creativity: What It Is and Why It Matters

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Memorization and recall

Chapter 8/Cognitive Views of Memory

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2. Major categories, advantages, and appropriate uses of instructional strategies

8(k) The teacher knows how to apply a range of developmentally, culturally, and linguistically appropriate instructional strategies to achieve learning goals.

Cooperative learning

Chapter 10/Collaboration and Cooperation; Guidelines: Using Cooperative Learning

Direct instruction (often referred to as teachercentered instruction)

Chapter 14/Explicit Teaching and Direct Instruction

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Discovery learning

Chapter 10/Inquiry-Based Learning; Problem-Based Learning

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Whole-group discussion

Chapter 14/Group Discussion and Quality Talk; Guidelines: Productive Group Discussions

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Independent study

Chapter 9/Learning Strategies; Guidelines: Becoming an Expert Student Chapter 11/Agency and Self-Efficacy; Self-Regulated Learning: Skill and Will Chapter 14/Independent Work and Homework

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8(j) The teacher understands the cognitive processes associated with various kinds of learning (e.g., critical and creative thinking, problem framing and problem solving, invention, memorization, and recall) and how these processes can be stimulated.

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Interdisciplinary ­instruction (sometimes referred to as thematic instruction)

Chapter 10/Inquiry-Based Learning; Problem-Based Learning Chapter 14/Planning from a Constructivist Perspective

Questioning

Chapter 14/Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback

3. Principles, techniques, and methods associated with major instructional strategies

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5(j) The teacher understands how current interdisciplinary themes (e.g., civic literacy, health literacy, global awareness) connect to the core subjects and knows how to weave those themes into meaningful learning experiences.

8(k) The teacher knows how to apply a range of developmentally, culturally, and linguistically appropriate instructional strategies to achieve learning goals.

Direct instruction (often referred to as teachercentered instruction)

Chapter 14/Explicit Teaching and Direct Instruction; Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback; Rosenshine’s Six Teaching Functions

Student-centered models

Chapter 10/Cognitive and Social Constructivism

4. Methods for enhancing student learning through the use of a variety of resources and materials

INTASC ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE INDICATORS

Chapter 10/Designing Interactive Digital Learning Environments Chapter 14/Assistive Technology; Reaching Every Student: Differentiation with Universal Design for Learning

8(n) The teacher knows how to use a wide variety of resources, including human and technological, to engage students in learning.

B. Planning Instruction 1. Techniques for planning instruction to meet curriculum goals, including the incorporation of learning theory, subject matter, curriculum development, and student development ●●

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National and state learning standards State and local curriculum frameworks State and local curriculum guides

Chapter 14/An Example of State-Level Goals: The Common Core Chapter 15/Accountability and High-Stakes Testing

Scope and sequence in specific disciplines Units and lessons

Chapter 14/The First Step: Planning; Classroom Goals for Learning; Planning from a Constructivist Perspective

Behavioral objectives: affective, cognitive, and psychomotor Learner objectives and outcomes

Chapter 14/Learning Goals; Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies; Guidelines: Using Learning Objectives

2. Techniques for creating effective bridges between curriculum goals and students’ experiences ●● Modeling ●●

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7(i) The teacher understands learning theory, human development, cultural diversity, and individual differences and how these impact ongoing planning.

Chapter 7/Beyond Behaviorism: Bandura’s Challenge and Observational Learning

Chapter 11/Modeling: Learning By Observing Others

Guided practice

Chapter 3/Assisted Learning Chapter 10/Facilitating Deep Learning in a Constructivist Classroom; Cognitive Apprenticeships; Reciprocal Questioning Chapter 14/Rosenshine’s Six Teaching Functions

Independent practice, including homework

Chapter 11/Agency and Self-Efficacy; Self-Regulated Learning: Skill and Will Chapter 14/Independent Work and Homework

Transitions

Chapter 13/Overlapping and Group Focus; Movement Management; Guidelines: Keeping Students Engaged

7(g) The teacher understands content and content standards and how these are organized in the curriculum.

7(j) The teacher understands the strengths and needs of individual learners and how to plan instruction that is responsive to these strengths and needs.

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Activating students’ prior knowledge

Chapter 8/The Importance of Knowledge in Cognition; Long-Term Memory Chapter 9/Defining Goals and Representing the Problem Chapter 10/Scaffolding

Anticipating preconceptions

Chapter 9/Factors That Hinder Problem Solving

Encouraging exploration and problem solving

Chapter 3/Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for Teachers Chapter 9/Problem Solving Chapter 11/Agency and Self-Efficacy

Building new skills on those previously acquired

Chapter 3/Basic Tendencies in Thinking Chapter 5/Students with Intellectual Disabilities; Guidelines: Teaching Students with Intellectual Disabilities Chapter 8/Long-Term Memory; Constructing Declarative Knowledge: Making Meaningful Connections; ­Development of Procedural Knowledge Chapter 10/Scaffolding Chapter 11/Observational Learning in Teaching

INTASC ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE INDICATORS

C. Assessment Strategies 1. Types of assessments

Chapter 15/Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-­ Referenced Grading; Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments; Classroom Assessment: Testing

6(j) The teacher understands the differences between formative and summative applications of assessment and knows how and when to use each.

2. Characteristics of assessments

Chapter 15/Basics of Assessment; Assessing the ­Assessments: Reliability and Validity; Writing MultipleChoice Questions; Constructed Responses: Essay Testing; Reliability, Validity, Generalizability; Guidelines: Developing a Rubric

6(k) The teacher understands the range of types and multiple purposes of assessment and how to design, adapt, or select appropriate assessments to address specific learning goals and individual differences, and to minimize sources of bias.

3. Scoring assessments

Chapter 15/Using Multiple-Choice Tests; Evaluating ­Essays; Evaluating Portfolios and Performances; Guidelines: Developing a Rubric

4. Uses of assessments

Chapter 15/Norm-Referenced versus ­Criterion-Referenced Grading; Accountability and High-Stakes Testing; Formative and Authentic Classroom Assessments; Classroom Assessment: Testing

5. Understanding of measurement theory and assessmentrelated issues

Chapter 15/Norm-Referenced versus Criterion-Referenced Grading

6(1) The teacher knows how to analyze assessment data to understand patterns and gaps in learning, to guide planning and instruction, and to provide meaningful feedback to all learners.

III. Communication Techniques A. Basic, effective verbal and nonverbal communication techniques

Chapter 13/The Need for Communication; Prevention Is the Best Medicine

8(m) The teacher understands how multiple forms of communication (oral, written, nonverbal, digital, visual) convey ideas, foster self-expression, and build relationships.

B. Effect of cultural and gender differences on communications in the classroom

Chapter 6/Dialect Differences in the Classroom Chapter 2/Sociolinguistics; Gender in Teaching and Learning; Creating Culturally Welcoming Classrooms

3(1) The teacher understands how learner diversity can affect communication and knows how to communicate effectively in differing environments.

C. Types of questions that can stimulate discussion in different ways for different purposes

Chapter 10/Facilitating Deep Learning in a Constructivist Classroom Chapter 14/Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback

Licensure Appendix A-17 INTASC ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE INDICATORS

PRAXIS II® TOPICS

WOOLFOLK AND USHER TEXT CONNECTIONS

1. Probing for learner understanding

Chapter 10/Facilitating Through Asking and Answering Deep Questions; Guidelines: Facilitating Deep Questioning Chapter 14/Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback

2. Helping students articulate their ideas and thinking processes

Chapter 9/Guidelines: Applying Problem Solving Chapter 14/Group Discussion and Quality Talk; Guidelines: Productive Group Discussions

5(n) The teacher understands communication modes and skills as vehicles for learning (e.g., information gathering and processing) across disciplines as well as vehicles for expressing learning.

3. Promoting risk taking and problem solving

Chapter 9/Problem Solving

8(j) The teacher understands the cognitive processes associated with various kinds of learning (e.g., critical and creative thinking, problem framing and problem solving, invention, memorization, and recall) and how these processes can be stimulated.

4. Facilitating factual recall

Chapter 14/Questioning, Discussion, Dialogue, and Feedback

5. Encouraging convergent and divergent thinking

Chapter 5/Assessing Creativity Chapter 14/Kinds of Questions

6. Stimulating curiosity

Chapter 12/Tapping Interests; Guidelines: Building on Students’ Interests and Curiosity; Curiosity: Novelty and Complexity

7. Helping students to question

Chapter 10/Facilitating Through Asking and Answering Deep Questions; Guidelines: Facilitating Deep Questioning Chapter 14/Fitting the Questions to the Students—and Waiting

IV. Profession and Community A. The Reflective Practitioner 1. Types of resources available for professional development and learning

Chapters 1–15/Teachers’ Casebook (opening and closing sections of each chapter)

Professional literature Colleagues 2. Ability to read and understand articles about current views, ideas, and debates regarding best teaching practices

Chapter 1/Using Research to Understand and Improve Learning Chapters 1–15/Point/Counterpoint (one in each chapter)

3. Why personal reflection on teaching practices is critical, and approaches that can be used to achieve this

Chapters 1–15/Point/Counterpoint (one in each chapter)

9(g) The teacher understands and knows how to use a variety of ­self-assessment and problem-solving strategies to analyze and reflect on his/her practice and to plan for adaptations/adjustments.

1. Role of the school as a resource to the larger community

Chapter 2/Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity Chapter 13/Caring Relationships: Connections with School

10(1) The teacher understands schools as organizations within historical, cultural, political, and social contexts and knows how to work with others across the system to support learners.

2. Factors in the students’ environment outside of school (family circumstances, community environments, health, and economic conditions) that may influence students’ life and learning

Chapter 2/Economic and Social Class Differences Chapter 4/Families; Peers Chapter 5/Students with Learning Challenges

10(m) The teacher understands that alignment of family, school, and community spheres of influence enhances student learning and that discontinuity in these spheres of influence interferes with learning.

B. The Larger Community

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INTASC ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE INDICATORS

3. Basic strategies for involving parents/guardians and leaders in the community in the educational process

Chapter 2/Who Are You? Who Are Your Students? Culture and Diversity Chapters 3–9, 12–15/Family and Community Partnerships (one in each chapter)

10(n) The teacher knows how to work with other adults and has developed skills in collaborative interaction appropriate for both face-to-face and virtual contexts.

4. Major laws related to students’ rights and teacher responsibilities

Chapter 5/Individual Differences and the Law; The Rights of Students and Families Chapter 13/The Need for Communication

Equal education Appropriate education for handicapped children ●● Confidentiality and privacy ●● Appropriate treatment of students Reporting situations related to possible child abuse

9(j) The teacher understands laws related to learners’ rights and teacher responsibilities (e.g., for educational equity, appropriate education for learners with disabilities, confidentiality, privacy, appropriate treatment of learners, reporting in situations related to possible child abuse).

Chapter 4/Teachers and Child Abuse Chapter 4/Mandated Reporting

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Note: The InTASC (Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium) standards were developed by the Council of Chief State School Officers and member states. Copies may be downloaded from the council’s website at http://www.ccsso.org. Source: Council of Chief State School Officers. (2013, April). Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium InTASC Model Core Teaching Standards and Learning Progressions for Teachers 1.0: A Resource for Ongoing Teacher Development. Washington, DC: Author.

Glossary Absence seizure  A seizure involving only a small part of the brain and that causes a child to lose contact briefly with ongoing events—short lapses of consciousness. Academic language  The entire range of language used in elementary, secondary, and university-level schools, including words, concepts, strategies, and processes from academic subjects. Academic learning time  Time when students are actually succeeding at the learning task. Accommodation  Altering existing schemes or creating new ones in response to new information. Accountable  Making teachers and schools responsible for student learning, usually by monitoring learning with high-stakes tests. Acronym  Technique for remembering by using the first letter of each word in a phrase to form a new, memorable word. Action research  Systematic observations or tests of methods conducted by teachers or schools to improve teaching and learning for their students. Active teaching  Teaching characterized by high levels of teacher explanation, demonstration, and interaction with students. Adaptation  Adjustment to the environment. Adolescent egocentrism  Assumption that everyone else shares one’s thoughts, feelings, and concerns. Advance organizer  A statement or tool that introduces and summarizes concepts to help students ­organize the information they will learn about. Affective domain  Objectives focusing on attitudes and feelings. Affinity groups  Online communities for videogame users where they can share knowledge, strategies, role-play scenarios, game modifications, or fan fiction stories and novels based on the games they are playing. Algorithm  Step-by-step procedure for solving a problem; prescription for solutions. Ambitious teaching  An approach to teaching grounded in challenging goals, complex but engaging tasks, and high-quality discussions building on students’ ideas. Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA)  Federal legislation prohibiting discrimination against individuals with disabilities in employment, transportation, public access, local government, and telecommunications. Amotivation  A complete lack of any intent to act—no engagement at all. Analogical thinking  Heuristic in which one limits the search for solutions to situations that are similar to the one at hand. Anorexia nervosa  Eating disorder characterized by very limited food intake. Antecedents  Events that precede an action. Anxiety  General uneasiness, a feeling of tension. Applied behavior analysis  The application of behavioral learning principles to understand and change behavior. Appropriating  Being able to internalize or take for yourself knowledge and skills developed in interaction with others or with cultural tools. Argumentation  The process of debating a claim with someone else. Articulation disorders  Any of a variety of pronunciation difficulties, such as the substitution, distortion, or omission of sounds. Assertive discipline  Clear, firm, nonhostile response style. Assessment  Procedures used to obtain information about student performance. Assessment bias  Qualities of an assessment instrument that offend or unfairly penalize a group of students because of the students’ gender, socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, and so on. Assimilation  Fitting new information into existing schemes. Assisted learning  Providing strategic help in the initial stages of learning, gradually diminishing that help as students gain independence. Assistive technology  Devices, systems, and services that support and improve the capabilities of individuals with disabilities.

G-1

G-2 Glossary Attachment  Forming an emotional bond with another person, initially a parent or family member. Attention  Focus on a stimulus. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)  Current term for disruptive behavior disorders marked by overactivity, excessive difficulty sustaining attention, or impulsiveness. Attribution theories  Descriptions of how individuals’ explanations, justifications, and excuses influence their motivation and emotion. Authentic assessments  Assessment procedures that test skills and abilities as they would be applied in real-life situations. Authentic questions  Questions that the teachers do not have a predetermined answer for. Authentic task  Tasks that have some connection to real-life problems the students will face outside the classroom. Autism spectrum disorders  Developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally evident before age 3, and ranging from mild to major. Automated basic skills  Skills that are applied without conscious thought. Automaticity  The ability to thoroughly perform learned tasks without much mental effort. The result of learning to perform a behavior or thinking process so thoroughly that the performance is automatic and does not require effort. Autonomy  Independence. Availability heuristic  Judging the likelihood of an event based on what is available in your memory, ­assuming those easily remembered events are common. Balanced bilingualism  Adding a second language capability without losing your heritage language. Basic skills  Clearly structured knowledge that is needed for later learning and that can be taught step-by-step. Behavioral learning theories  Explanations of learning that focus on external events as the cause of changes in observable behaviors. Being needs  Maslow’s three higher-level needs, sometimes called growth needs. Belief perseverance  The tendency to hold on to beliefs, even in the face of contradictory evidence. Bias  A prejudicial preference or action. Bilingual  Speaking two languages and dealing appropriately with the two different cultures. Binge eating disorder  Uncontrolled eating of large quantities of food, such as a whole cake or entire jar of peanut butter. Bioecological model  Bronfenbrenner’s theory describing the nested social and cultural contexts that shape development. Every person develops within a microsystem inside a mesosystem that is embedded in an exosystem—all of which are a part of the macrosystem of the culture. All development occurs in and is influenced by the time period—the chronosystem. Blended families  Parents, children, and stepchildren merged into families through remarriages. Bottom-up processing  Perceiving based on noticing separate defining features and assembling them into a recognizable pattern. Brainstorming  Generating ideas without stopping to evaluate them. Bulimia nervosa  Eating disorder characterized by overeating, then getting rid of the food by self-induced vomiting or laxatives. CAPS  A strategy that can be used in reading literature: Characters, Aim of story, Problem, Solution. Case study  Intensive study of one individual or one situation. Central executive  The part of working memory that is responsible for monitoring and directing attention and other mental resources. Central tendency  Typical score for a group of scores. Cerebral palsy  Condition involving a range of motor or coordination difficulties due to brain damage. Chain mnemonics  Memory strategies that associate one element in a series with the next element. Chunking  Grouping individual bits of data into meaningful, larger units. Classical conditioning  Association of automatic responses with new stimuli. Classification  Grouping objects into categories. Classroom assessments  Classroom assessments are selected and created by teachers and can take many different forms—unit tests, essays, portfolios, projects, performances, oral presentations, and so on. Classroom management  Techniques used to maintain a healthy learning environment, relatively free of behavior problems.

Glossary G-3 Cmaps  Tools for concept mapping developed by the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition that are connected to many knowledge maps and other resources on the Internet. Coactions  Joint actions of individual biology and the environment—each shapes and influences the other. Co-constructed process  A social process in which people interact and negotiate (usually verbally) to create an understanding or to solve a problem. The final product is shaped by all participants. Code switching  Moving between two speech forms. Cognitive apprenticeship  A relationship in which a less experienced learner acquires knowledge and skills under the guidance of an expert. Cognitive development  Gradual, orderly changes by which mental processes become more complex and sophisticated. Cognitive domain  In Bloom’s taxonomy, memory and reasoning objectives. Cognitive load  The volume of cognitive resources necessary to complete a task. Cognitive science  The interdisciplinary study of thinking, language, artificial intelligence (AI), and the brain. Cognitive view of learning  A general approach that views learning as an active mental process of ­acquiring, remembering, and using knowledge. Collaboration  A philosophy about how to relate to others—how to learn and work together. Collective monologue  Form of speech in which children in a group talk but do not really interact or communicate. Commitment  In Marcia’s theory of identity statuses, individuals’ choices concerning political and religious beliefs, for example, usually as a consequence of exploring the options. Community of practice  Social situation or context in which ideas are judged useful or true. Compensation  The principle that changes in one dimension can be offset by changes in another dimension. Complex learning environments  Problems and learning situations that mimic the ill-structured nature of real life. Computational thinking  The thought processes involved in formulating problems so you can represent their solution steps and algorithms for computing. Computerized axial tomography (CAT)  A technique that uses X-ray technology to provide enhanced, 3-dimensional images of the part of the body scanned. Concept  A category used to group similar events, ideas, objects, or people. Concept map  A drawing that charts the relationships among ideas. Concrete operations  Mental tasks tied to concrete objects and situations. Conditioned response (CR)  Learned response to a previously neutral stimulus. Conditioned stimulus (CS)  Stimulus that evokes an emotional or physiological response after conditioning. Confidence interval  Range of scores within which an individual’s true score is likely to fall. Confirmation bias  Seeking information that confirms our choices and beliefs, while ignoring disconfirming evidence. Consequences  Events that follow an action. Conservation  Principle that some characteristics of an object remain the same despite changes in its appearance. Constructive/Structured controversy  Students work in cooperative groups to research a particular controversy. Constructivism/constructivist approach  View that emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and making sense of information. Context  Internal and external circumstances and situations that interact with the individual’s thoughts, feelings, and actions to shape development and learning. The physical or emotional backdrop associated with an event. Contiguity  Association of two events because of repeated pairing. Contingency contract  A contract between the teacher and a student specifying what the student must do to earn a particular reward or privilege. Continuous reinforcement schedule  Presenting a reinforcer after every appropriate response. Convergent questions  Questions with only one right answer—usually factual questions or rote knowledge questions.

G-4 Glossary Convergent thinking  Narrowing possibilities to a single answer. Cooperation  Way of working with others to attain a shared goal. Cooperative learning  Situations in which elaboration, interpretation, explanation, and argumentation are integral to the activity of the group and where learning is supported by other individuals. Co-regulated learning  Process of sharing the regulation of learning, behaviors, motivation, and emotions among group members. Co-regulation  A transitional phase during which students gradually appropriate self-regulated learning and skills through modeling, direct teaching, feedback, and coaching from teachers, parents, or peers. Correlations  Statistical descriptions of how closely two variables are related. Creativity  Imaginative, original thinking or problem solving. Criterion-referenced grading  Assessment of each student’s mastery of course objectives. Criterion-referenced testing  Testing in which scores are compared to a set performance standard. Critical periods  If learning doesn’t happen during these periods, it never will. Critical thinking  Evaluating conclusions by logically and systematically examining the problem, the evidence, and the solution. Crystallized intelligence  Ability to apply culturally approved problem-solving methods. Cueing  Providing a stimulus that “sets up” a desired behavior. Cultural deficit model  A model that explains the school achievement problems of ethnic minority students by assuming that their cultures are inadequate and does not prepare the students to succeed in school. Cultural tools  The real tools (computers, scales, etc.) and symbol systems (numbers, language, graphs) that allow people in a society to communicate, think, solve problems, and create knowledge. Culturally relevant pedagogy  Excellent teaching that supports students’ cultural identities by promoting academic success, developing/maintaining cultural competence, and developing a critical consciousness to challenge the status quo. Culturally responsive management  Taking cultural meanings and styles into account when developing management plans and responding to students. Culture  The knowledge, values, attitudes, and traditions that guide the behavior of a group of people and allow them to solve the problems of living in their environment. Cyber aggression  Using email, Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, or other social media to spread rumors, make threats, or otherwise terrorize peers. Decay  The weakening and fading of memories with the passage of time. Decentering  Focusing on more than one aspect at a time. Declarative knowledge  Verbal information; facts; “knowing that” something is the case. Deficiency needs  Maslow’s four lower-level needs, which must be satisfied first before higher-level needs can be addressed. Defining attribute  Qualities that connect members of a group to a specific concept. Deliberate practice  Becoming expert in a skill that has clear criteria by focusing on the discrepancies ­between your current skill level and expert performance and working persistently to improve your ­performance, usually with guidance and feedback from an expert coach. Depth of Knowledge (DOK)  A taxonomy system similar to Bloom’s cognitive domain in that it moves from lower- to higher-level thinking; often is used in planning curriculum and assessments around the Common Core Standards. Descriptive studies  Studies that collect detailed information about specific situations, often using observation, surveys, interviews, recordings, or a combination of these methods. Design-based research  Practitioners identify research questions based on problems of practice; then researchers gather and analyze the data to address those problems. Desirable difficulty  The more effort that is required to remember something, the better you will learn and the stronger the memory will be—as long as the efforts are successful. Development  Orderly, adaptive changes we go through between conception and death; these developmental changes remain for a reasonably long period of time. Developmental crisis  A specific conflict whose resolution prepares the way for the next stage. Deviation IQ  Score based on a statistical comparison of an individual’s performance with the average performance of others in that age group. Dialect  Any variety of a language spoken by a particular group.

Glossary G-5 Differentiated instruction  A flexible approach to teaching that matches content, process, and product based on student differences in readiness, interests, and learning needs. Takes into account students’ abilities, prior knowledge, and challenges so that instruction matches not only the subject being taught but also students’ needs. Direct instruction/explicit teaching  Systematic instruction for mastery of basic skills, facts, and information. Direct reinforcement  Reinforcement given after successful completion of a task. Disability  The inability to do something specific such as walk or hear. Discrimination  Treating or acting unfairly toward particular categories of people. Disequilibrium  In Piaget’s theory, the “out-of-balance” state that occurs when an individual realizes that his or her current ways of thinking are not working to solve a problem or understand a situation. Distractors  Wrong answers offered as choices in a multiple-choice item. Distributed learning practice  Practice in brief periods with rest intervals. Distributive justice  Beliefs about how to divide materials or privileges fairly among members of a group; follows a sequence of development from equality to merit to benevolence. Divergent questions  Questions that have no single correct answer. Divergent thinking  Coming up with many possible solutions. Domain-specific knowledge  Information that is useful in a particular situation or that applies mainly to one specific topic. Domain specific strategies  Consciously applied skills to reach goals in a particular subject or problem. Dual coding theory  Suggests that information is stored in long-term memory as either visual images or verbal units, or both. Educational psychology  The discipline concerned with teaching and learning processes; applies the methods and theories of psychology and has its own as well. Effective instruction delivery (EID)  Instructions that are concise, clear, and specific, and that communicate an expected result. Statements work better than questions. Egocentric  Assuming that others experience the world the way you do. Elaboration  Adding and extending meaning by connecting new information to existing knowledge. Elaborative rehearsal  Keeping information in working memory by associating it with something else you already know. Electroencephalograph (EEG)  A technique that measures electrical patterns in the brain created by neuron movements using electrodes attached to the scalp. Embodied cognition  Theory stating that cognitive processes develop from real-time, goal-directed interactions between humans and their environment. Emergent literacy  The skills and knowledge, usually developed in the preschool years, that are the foundation for the development of reading and writing. Emotional and behavioral disorders  Behaviors or emotions that deviate so much from the norm that they interfere with the child’s own growth and development and/or the lives of others—inappropriate behaviors, unhappiness or depression, fears and anxieties, and trouble with relationships. Emotions  Three interrelated factors–physiological responses, behaviors, and feelings—that produce an affective response to a situation. Empathetic listening  Hearing the intent and emotions behind what another says and reflecting them back by paraphrasing. Empirical  Based on systematically collected data. Enactive learning  Learning by doing and experiencing the consequences of your actions. EMR Model  A research-based strategy for developing positive relationships with students. EMR stands for Establish-Maintain-Restore. Engaged time  Time spent actively engaged in the learning task at hand. Also referred to as time on task. English as a second language (ESL)  The classes devoted to teaching English to students who are English learners. English learners (ELs)  Students who are learning English and whose primary or heritage language is not English. Epilepsy  Disorder marked by seizures and caused by abnormal electrical discharges in the brain. Episodic buffer  The process that brings together and integrates information from the phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and long-term memory under the supervision of the central executive.

G-6 Glossary Episodic memory  Long-term memory for information tied to a particular time and place, especially memory of the events in a person’s life. Equilibration  Search for mental balance between cognitive schemes and information from the environment. Ethnic-racial identity  The beliefs, feelings, significance, and meaning people have about their ethnicity or race. Ethnicity  A cultural heritage shared by a group of people. Ethnography  A descriptive approach to research that focuses on life within a group and tries to understand the meaning of events to the people involved. Event-related potential (ERP)  Measurements that assess electrical activity of the brain through the skull or scalp. Exceptional students  Students who fall outside the typical range of development and require special ­educational services to reach their full potential. Executive control processes  Processes such as selective attention, rehearsal, elaboration, and organization that influence encoding, storage, and retrieval of information in memory. Executive functioning  All those processes that we use to organize, coordinate, and perform goal-directed, intentional actions, including focusing attention, inhibiting impulsive responses, making and changing plans, and using memory to hold and manipulate information. Exemplar  An actual memory of a specific object. Expectancy for success  Students’ beliefs about how well they will perform on an upcoming task. Expectancy × value theories  Explanations of motivation that emphasize individuals’ expectations for success combined with their valuing of the goal. Experimentation  Research method in which variables are manipulated and the effects recorded. Expert teachers  Experienced, effective teachers who have developed solutions for classroom problems. Their knowledge of the teaching process and content is extensive and well organized. Explicit memory  Long-term memories that involve deliberate or conscious recall. Exploration  In Marcia’s theory of identity statuses, the process by which adolescents consider and try out alternative beliefs, values, and behaviors in an effort to determine which will give them the most satisfaction. Expressive vocabulary  All the different words a person uses in speaking or writing. Extended families  Different family members—grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, and so on—living in the same household or at least in daily contact with the children in the family. Extinction  The disappearance of a learned response. Extraneous cognitive load  The resources required to process stimuli irrelevant to the task. Extrinsic motivation  Motivation created by external factors such as rewards and punishments. Fixed mindset  A personally held belief that abilities are stable, uncontrollable, set traits. Flashbulb memories  Clear, vivid memories of emotionally important events in your life. Flexible grouping  Grouping and regrouping students based on learning needs. Flow  A mental state in which you are fully immersed in a challenging task that is accompanied by high levels of concentration and involvement. Fluid intelligence  Mental efficiency; nonverbal abilities grounded in brain development. Flynn effect  Because of better health, smaller families, increased complexity in the environment, and more and better schooling, IQ test scores are steadily rising. Focal onset seizure  A seizure originating in just one area of the brain lasting only a minute or two. The person may experience a sudden feeling of joy, sadness, anger, or nausea, or sensations such as taste, smell, or movement in one part of the body. Formal operations  Mental tasks involving abstract thinking and coordination of several variables. Formative assessment  Ungraded testing used before or during instruction to aid in planning and diagnosis. Free, appropriate public education (FAPE)  Public funding to support appropriate educational programs for all students no matter their needs. Functional behavioral assessment (FBA)  Procedures used to obtain information about antecedents, ­behaviors, and consequences to determine the reason or function of the behavior. Functional fixedness  Inability to use objects or tools in a new way. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)  An MRI is an imaging technique that uses a magnetic field along with radio waves and a computer to create detailed pictures of the inside of the body. A functional MRI uses an MRI to measure the tiny changes that take place in the brain during brain activity. Funds of knowledge  Knowledge that families and community members have acquired in many areas of work, home, and religious life that can become the basis for teaching.

Glossary G-7 Gender biases  Different views of men, women, or gender non-conforming people often favoring one group over the other. Gender identity  The sense of self along the female-to-male continuum or as neither female nor male (i.e., nonbinary). Gender roles  The behaviors and characteristics that the culture stereotypically associates with being a man or a woman. Gender schemas  Organized cognitive structures that include gender-related information that influences how children think and behave. Genderlects  Different ways of talking for men and women. General intelligence (g)  A general factor in cognitive ability that is related in varying degrees to performance on all mental tests. General knowledge  Information that is useful in many different kinds of tasks; information that applies to many situations. Generalized onset seizure  A seizure involving a large portion of the brain. Generation 1.5  Students whose characteristics, educational experiences, and language fluencies are somewhere in between those of students born in the United States and those of students who are recent immigrants. Generativity  Sense of concern for future generations. Gestalt  German for pattern or configuration. Gestalt theorists hold that people organize their perceptions into coherent wholes. Gifted and talented  Students who demonstrate outstanding aptitudes and competencies in one or more of many domains. Glial cells  The white matter of the brain. These cells greatly outnumber neurons and appear to have many functions such as fighting infections, controlling blood flow and communication among neurons, and providing the myelin coating around axon fibers. Goal orientations  Patterns of beliefs about goals related to achievement in school. Goal-directed actions  Deliberate actions toward a goal. Good behavior game  Arrangement where a class is divided into teams and each team receives demerit points for breaking agreed-upon rules of good behavior. Grade-equivalent score  Measure of grade level based on comparison with norming samples from each grade. Grading on the curve  Norm-referenced grading that compares students’ performance to an average level. Grit  A personality trait characterized by passion and persistence to meet long-term goals. Group consequences  Rewards or punishments given to a class as a whole for adhering to or violating rules of conduct. Group discussion  Conversation in which the teacher does not have the dominant role; students pose and answer their own questions. Group focus  The ability to keep as many students as possible involved in activities. Growth mindset  A personally held belief that abilities are unstable, controllable, and improvable. Handicap  A disadvantage in a particular situation, sometimes caused by a disability. Heritage language  The language spoken in the student’s home or by members of the student’s family. Heuristic  General strategy used in attempting to solve problems. Hierarchy of needs  Maslow’s model of seven levels of human needs, from basic physiological requirements to the need for self-actualization. High-stakes testing  Standardized tests whose results have powerful influences when used by school administrators, other officials, or employers to make decisions. Hostile aggression  Bold, direct action that is intended to hurt someone else; unprovoked attack. Human agency  The capacity to coordinate learning skills, motivation, and emotions to reach your goals. Hypothesis/hypotheses  A prediction of what will happen in a research study based on theory and previous research. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning  A formal-operations problem-solving strategy in which an individual begins by identifying all the factors that might affect a problem and then deduces and systematically evaluates specific solutions. “I” message  Clear, nonaccusatory statement of how something is affecting you. Identity  Principle that an individual or object remains the same over time. The complex answer to the question: “Who am I?” Identity achievement  Strong sense of commitment to life choices after free consideration of alternatives.

G-8 Glossary Identity diffusion  Uncenteredness; confusion about who you are and what you want. Identify-first reference  Using terms such as “autistic” or “deaf” to describe a person—some people prefer this reference because they “claim” the disability as their own and value it as a part of who they are. It is a source of pride to be part of that culture. Identity foreclosure  Acceptance of parental life choices without considering options. Images  Representations based on the physical attributes— the appearance—of information. Immersive virtual learning environment (IVLE)  A simulation of a real-world environment that immerses students in tasks like those required in a professional practicum. Immigrants  People who voluntarily leave their country to become permanent residents in a new place. Impairment  Any loss or abnormality in a physical or psychological structure or function. Implicit memory  Knowledge that we are not conscious of recalling but that influences our behavior or thought without our awareness. Importance or attainment value  The importance of doing well on a task; how success on the task meets personal or identity-based needs. Incentive  An object or event that encourages or discourages behavior. Inclusion  The integration of all students, including those with severe disabilities, into regular classes. Industry  Eagerness to engage in productive work. Informal assessments  Ungraded (formative) assessments that gather information from multiple sources to help teachers make decisions. Information processing  The human mind’s activity of taking in, storing, and using information. Initiative  Willingness to begin new activities and explore new directions. Inquiry learning  Approach in which the teacher presents a puzzling situation or question and students solve the problem by gathering data and testing their conclusions. Insight  In problem solving, the sudden realization of a solution. In the triarchic theory of intelligence, the ability to deal effectively with novel situations. Instrumental aggression  Strong actions aimed at claiming an object, place, or privilege—not intended to harm but may lead to harm. Integration  Fitting the child with special needs into existing class structures. Integrity  Sense of self-acceptance and fulfillment. Intellectual disabilities  Significantly below-average intellectual and adaptive social behavior, evident before age 18. Intelligence  Ability or abilities to acquire and use knowledge for solving problems and adapting to the world. Intelligence quotient (IQ)  Score comparing mental and chronological ages. Interest or intrinsic value  The enjoyment a person gets from a task. Interference  The process that occurs when remembering certain information is hampered by the presence of other information. Interim (growth or benchmark) assessments  Assessments that occur at regular intervals during the school year to determine student progress and growth in an objective way. Interleaved practice  Mixing up practice by, for example, tossing from 2 and 4 feet before being tested at 3 feet, solving different types of problems, or practicing different vocabulary words. Intermittent reinforcement schedule  Presenting a reinforcer after some but not all responses. Internalize  Process whereby children adopt external standards as their own. Intersectionality  Our overlapping, intersecting social identities (gender, sexual orientation, class, ethnicity, religion, age, etc.) that shape each and every one of us in unique ways. Interval schedule  Length of time between reinforcers. Reinforcement based on time between responses. Intimacy  Forming close, enduring relationships with others. Intrinsic cognitive load  The resources required by the task itself, regardless of other stimuli. Intrinsic motivation  Motivation associated with activities that are internally rewarding. Jason Flat Act  Legislation passed in 20 states that requires educators to complete in-service training about awareness and prevention of death by suicide. Jigsaw classroom  A learning process in which each student is part of a group and each group member is given part of the material to be learned by the whole group. Students become “expert” on their piece and then teach it to the others in their group. Keyword method  System of associating new words or concepts with similar-sounding cue words and images.

Glossary G-9 KWL  A strategy to guide reading and inquiry: Before—What do I already know? What do I want to know? After—What have I learned? Lateralization  The specialization of the two hemispheres (sides) of the brain cortex. Learned helplessness  The expectation, based on previous experiences with a lack of control, that all of one’s efforts will lead to failure. Learning  Process through which experience causes permanent change in knowledge or behavior. Learning management system (LMS)  Systems that deliver e-learning, provide tools and learning materials, keep records, administer assessments, and manage learning. Learning preferences  Preferred ways of studying and learning, such as using pictures instead of text, working with other people versus working alone, learning in structured or in unstructured situations, and so on. Learning sciences  An interdisciplinary science of learning, based on research in psychology, education, computer science, philosophy, sociology, anthropology, neuroscience, and other fields that study learning. Learning strategies  A special kind of procedural knowledge—knowing how to approach learning tasks. Learning styles  Characteristic approaches to learning and studying. Least restrictive environment (LRE)  Educating each child with peers in the general education classroom to the greatest extent possible. Legally blind  Seeing at 20 feet what a person with normal vision can see at 200 feet and/or having ­severely restricted peripheral vision. Lesson study  As a group, teachers develop, test, improve, and retest lessons until they are satisfied with the final version. Levels of processing theory  Theory that recall of information is based on how deeply it is processed. Limited English proficient (LEP)  A term also used for students who are learning English when their primary or heritage language is not English—not the preferred term (English learner; EL) because of the negative connotations. Loci method  Technique of associating items with specific places. Locus of causality  The location—internal or external—of the cause of behavior. Long-term memory  Permanent store of knowledge. Low vision  Vision limited to close objects. Mainstreaming  Teaching children with disabilities in regular classes for part or all of their school days. Maintenance rehearsal  Keeping information in working memory by repeating it to yourself. Mandated Reporting  By law, teachers and other professionals who have frequent contact with children must report suspected child abuse and neglect. Massed practice  Practice for a single extended period. Massive multi-player online games (MMOs)  Interactive gaming environments constructed in virtual worlds with many players who may assume character roles or avatars. Mastery experiences  Students’ awareness of their own previous successful performance—the most powerful source of efficacy information. Mastery goal  A personal intention to improve abilities and learn, no matter how performance suffers. Maturation  Genetically programmed, naturally occurring changes over time. Mean  Arithmetical average. Means-ends analysis  Heuristic in which a goal is divided into subgoals. Measurement  An evaluation expressed in quantitative (number) terms. Median  Middle score in a group of scores. Melting pot  A metaphor for the absorption and assimilation of immigrants into the mainstream of society so that ethnic differences vanish. Menarche  The first menstrual period in girls. Mental age  In intelligence testing, a performance that represents average abilities for an age group. Meta-analysis  An integration and summary of many individual studies to synthesize the outcomes into one result that characterizes the findings from the studies. Metacognition  Knowledge about our own thinking processes and how to control them, along with the skills to regulate your thinking. Metalinguistic awareness  Understanding your own use of language. Mirror systems  Areas of the brain that fire both during perception of an action by someone else and when performing the action.

G-10 Glossary Mnemonics  Techniques for remembering; the art of memory. Mobile learning  Learning that takes place across contexts through the use of personal electronic devices. Mode  Most frequently occurring score. Modeling  Changes in behavior, thinking, or emotions that happen through observing another person—a model. Monolingual  Speaking only one language. Moral dilemma  Situations in which no choice is clearly and indisputably right. Moral realism  Stage of development wherein children see rules as absolute. Moral reasoning  The thinking process involved in judgments about questions of right and wrong. Morality of cooperation  Stage of development wherein children realize that people make rules and people can change them. Moratorium  Identity crisis; suspension of choices because of struggle. Motivation  An internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains behavior. Motivation to learn  The tendency to find academic activities meaningful and worthwhile and to try to benefit from them. Movement management  Keeping lessons and the group moving at an appropriate (and flexible) pace, with smooth transitions and variety. Multicultural education  Education that promotes equity in the schooling of all students and challenges racism and other forms of discrimination. Multiple representations of content  Considering problems using various analogies, examples, and metaphors. Myelination  The process by which neural fibers are coated with a fatty sheath called myelin that makes message transfer more efficient. Natural/logical consequences  Instead of punishing, have students redo, repair, or in some way face the consequences that naturally flow from their actions. Near-infrared optical tomography (NIR-OT)  A technique that uses an optical fiber to transmit nearinfrared light through the scalp and into the brain. Some of the light is reflected back, indicating blood flow and oxygenation in the blood, which reveals brain activity. Need for autonomy  The desire to have our own wishes, rather than external rewards or pressures, determine our actions. Need for competence  The desire to demonstrate ability or mastery over the tasks at hand. Need for relatedness  The desire to belong and to establish close emotional bonds and attachments with others who care about us. Negative correlation  A relationship between two variables in which a high value on one is associated with a low value on the other. Example: height and distance from top of head to the ceiling. Negative reinforcement  Strengthening behavior by removing an aversive stimulus when the behavior occurs. Neo-Piagetian theories  More recent theories that integrate findings about attention, memory, and strategy use with Piaget’s insights about children’s thinking and the construction of knowledge. Neurogenesis  The production of new neurons. Neurons  Nerve cells that store and transfer information. Neutral stimulus  Stimulus not connected to a response. Nigrescence  The process of developing a Black racial identity. Nondiscriminatory evaluations  A basic principle of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act ­specifying schools must determine each student’s disability and educational needs using tools and ­procedures that are culturally responsive. Norm group  Large sample of students serving as a comparison group for scoring tests. Norm-referenced grading  In determining grades, assessing students’ achievement in relation to one another. Norm-referenced testing  Testing in which scores are compared with the average performance of others. Normal distribution  The most commonly occurring distribution, in which scores are distributed evenly around the mean. Object permanence  The understanding that objects have a separate, permanent existence. Observational learning  Learning by observation and imitation of others—vicarious learning. Operant conditioning  Learning in which voluntary behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences or antecedents. Operants  Voluntary (and generally goal-directed) behaviors emitted by a person or an animal.

Glossary G-11 Operations  Actions an individual carries out by thinking them through instead of literally performing the actions. Organization  Ongoing process of arranging information and experiences into mental systems or categories. Ordered and logical network of relations. Overlapping  Supervising several activities at once. Overlearning  Practicing a skill past the point of mastery. Overregularize  To apply a rule of syntax or grammar in situations when the rule does not apply, for ­example, saying, “The bike was braked.” Overt aggression  A form of hostile aggression that involves physical attack. Paraphrase rule  Policy whereby listeners must accurately summarize what a speaker has said before being allowed to respond. Parenting styles  The ways of interacting with and disciplining children. PARS  A four-step reading strategy: Preview the material to identify main ideas; Ask questions related to the main idea; Read the chapter to find answers to your questions; Summarize the main ideas in your own words. Part learning  Breaking a list of items into shorter lists. Participant observation  A method for conducting descriptive research in which the researcher becomes a participant in the situation in order to better understand life in that group. Participants/subjects  People or animals studied. Participation structures  The formal and informal rules for how to take part in a given activity. Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)  Teacher knowledge that combines mastery of academic content with knowing how to teach the content and how to match instruction to student differences. Peer cultures  Groups of children or adolescents with their own rules and norms, particularly about such things as dress, appearance, music, language, social values, and behavior. Percentile rank  Percentage of those in the norming sample who scored below an individual’s score. Perception  Interpretation of sensory information. Performance assessments  Any form of assessment that requires students to carry out an activity or produce a product in order to demonstrate learning. Performance goal  A personal intention to seem competent or perform well in the eyes of others. Personal development  Changes in personality that take place as one grows. Personal learning environment (PLE)  Virtual platform that provides tools that support individualized learning in a variety of contexts and situations. Personal learning network (PLN)  Framework in which knowledge is constructed through online peer interactions. Perspective-taking ability  Understanding that others have different feelings and experiences. Phonological loop  Part of working memory. A speech- and sound-related system for holding and rehearsing (refreshing) words and sounds in short-term memory for about 1.5 to 2 seconds. Physical development  Changes in body structure and function over time. Physiological or emotional arousal  Physical and psychological reactions causing a person to feel alert, attentive, wide awake, excited, or tense. Plasticity  The brain’s tendency to remain somewhat adaptable or flexible. Portfolio  A collection of the student’s work in an area, showing growth, self-reflection, and achievement. Positive behavior supports (PBS)  Interventions designed to replace problem behaviors with new actions that serve the same purpose for the student. Positive correlation  A relationship between two variables in which the two increase or decrease together. Example: calorie intake and weight gain. Positive practice  Practicing correct responses immediately after errors. Positive reinforcement  Strengthening behavior by presenting a desired stimulus after the behavior. Positron emission tomography (PET)  A method of localizing and measuring brain activity using computer-assisted motion pictures of the brain. Pragmatics  The rules for when and how to use language to be an effective communicator in a particular culture. Precorrection  A tool for positive behavior support that involves identifying the context for a student’s misbehavior, clearly specifying the alternative expected behavior, modifying the situation to make the problem behavior less likely, then rehearsing the expected positive behaviors in the new context and ­providing powerful reinforcers.

G-12 Glossary Prejudice  Prejudgment or irrational generalization about an entire category of people. Premack principle  Principle stating that a more preferred activity can serve as a reinforcer for a less ­preferred activity. Preoperational  The stage before a child masters logical mental operations. Presentation punishment  Decreasing the chances that a behavior will occur again by presenting an aversive stimulus following the behavior; also called Type I punishment. Pretest  Formative test for assessing students’ knowledge, readiness, and abilities before instruction begins. Priming  Activating a concept in memory or the spread of activation from one concept to another. Principle  Established relationship between factors. Private speech  Children’s self-talk, which guides their thinking and actions. Eventually, these verbalizations are internalized as silent inner speech. Problem  Any situation in which you are trying to reach some goal and must find a means to do so. Problem solving  Creating new solutions for problems. Problem-based learning  Students are confronted with a problem that launches their inquiry as they collaborate to find solutions and learn valuable information and skills in the process. Procedural knowledge  Knowledge that is demonstrated when we perform a task; “knowing how.” Procedural memory  Long-term memory for how to do things. Procedures/routines  Prescribed steps for an activity. Production deficiency  Students learn problem-solving strategies, but do not apply them when they could or should. Productions  The contents of procedural memory; rules about what actions to take, given certain conditions. Propositional network  Set of interconnected concepts and relationships in which long-term knowledge is held. Prototype  A best example or best representative of a category. Psychomotor domain  Physical ability and coordination objectives. Psychosocial  Describing the relationship of the individual’s emotional needs to the social environment. Puberty  The physiological changes during adolescence that lead to the ability to reproduce. Punishment  Process that weakens or suppresses behavior. Pygmalion effect  Exceptional progress by a student as a result of high teacher expectations for that student; named for the mythological king Pygmalion, who made a statue, then caused it to be brought to life. Qualitative research  Exploratory research that attempts to understand the meaning of events to the participants involved using such methods as case studies, interviews, ethnography, participant observation, and other approaches that focus on a few people in depth. Quality Talk  An approach to classroom discussions designed to increase students’ high-level comprehension by encouraging students to think and talk about, around, and with the text. Quantitative research  Research that studies many participants in a more formal and controlled way using objective measures such as experimentation, statistical analyses, tests, and structured observations. Quasi-experimental studies  Studies that fit most of the criteria for true experiments, with the important exception that the participants are not assigned to groups at random. Instead, existing groups such as classes or schools participate in the experiments. Race  A socially constructed category based on appearances and ancestry. Racial and ethnic pride  A positive self-concept about your racial or ethnic heritage. Radical constructivism  Knowledge is assumed to be the individual’s construction; it cannot be judged right or wrong. Random  Without any definite pattern; following no rule. Range  Distance between the highest and the lowest scores in a group. Ratio schedule  Reinforcement based on the number of responses between reinforcers. Receptive vocabulary  The words a person can understand in spoken or written language. Reciprocal questioning  Students work in pairs or triads to ask and answer questions about lesson material. Reconstruction  Re-creating information by using memories, expectations, logic, and existing knowledge. Reflective  Thoughtful and inventive. Reflective teachers think back over situations to analyze what they did and why, and to consider how they might improve learning for their students. Refugees  A special group of immigrants who also relocate voluntarily but who are fleeing their home country because living there is not safe for them.

Glossary G-13 Reinforcement  Use of consequences to strengthen behavior. Reinforcer  Any event that follows a behavior and increases the chances that the behavior will occur again. Relational aggression  A form of hostile aggression that involves verbal attacks and other actions meant to harm social relationships. Reliability  Consistency of test results. Removal punishment  Decreasing the chances that a behavior will occur again by removing a pleasant stimulus following the behavior; also called Type II punishment. Representativeness heuristic  Judging the likelihood of an event based on how well the events match your prototypes—what you think is representative of the category. Reprimands  Criticisms for misbehavior; rebukes. Resilience  The ability to adapt successfully in spite of difficult circumstances and threats to development. Resistance culture  Group values and beliefs about refusing to adopt the behaviors and attitudes of the majority culture. Respondents  Responses (generally automatic or involuntary) elicited by specific stimuli. Response  Observable reaction to a stimulus. Response cost  Punishment by loss of reinforcers. Response set  Rigidity; the tendency to respond in the most familiar way. Response to intervention (RtI)  A process to make sure students get appropriate research-based instruction and support as soon as possible and that teachers are systematic in documenting the interventions they have tried with these students so they can use this information in planning instruction. Restorative justice  An alternative to punishment that focuses on building, nurturing, and repairing relationships while giving a voice to victims, offenders, and the community. Restructuring  Conceiving of a problem in a new or different way. Retrieval  Process of searching for and finding information in long-term memory. Retrieval practice/testing effect  Practicing by retrieving information from memory instead of rereading or restudying—more effective because retrieval seems to help memories consolidate in the brain and strengthens the neural pathways so the knowledge is easier to find later. Reversibility  A characteristic of Piagetian logical operations—the ability to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse the steps and return to the starting point; also called reversible thinking. Reversible thinking  Thinking backward, from the end to the beginning. Ripple effect  “Contagious” spreading of behaviors through imitation. Rote memorization  Remembering information by repetition without necessarily understanding the meaning of the information. Rules  Statements specifying expected and forbidden behaviors; dos and don’ts. Scaffolding  The practice of providing students with support for meaning making and independent thinking. Schema-driven problem solving  Recognizing a problem as a “disguised” version of an old problem for which one already has a solution. Schemas (singular, schema)  In cognitive theory, basic structures for organizing information; concepts. Schemes  Mental systems or categories of perception and experience. Scoring rubrics  Rules that are used to determine the quality of a student’s performance. Script  Schema, or expected plan, for the sequence of steps in a common event such as buying groceries or ordering pizza. Scripted cooperation  Learning strategy in which two students take turns summarizing material and critiquing the summaries. Section 504  A part of civil rights law that prevents discrimination against people with disabilities in programs that receive federal funds, such as public schools. Selected-response testing  A form of testing in which students choose the correct response from a set of possible responses provided by the teacher or the test developer instead of creating their own response. Multiple-choice and true-false tests are common examples of selected-response testing. Self-actualization  Fulfilling one’s potential. Self-concept  Individuals’ knowledge and beliefs about themselves—their ideas, feelings, attitudes, and expectations. Self-efficacy  A sense of being able to deal effectively with a particular task. Beliefs about your personal ­capabilities in a particular situation.

G-14 Glossary Self-esteem  The value each of us places on our own characteristics, abilities, and behaviors. Self-fulfilling prophecy  A groundless expectation that is confirmed because it has been expected. Self-handicapping  Students’ engagement in behavior that blocks their own success in order to avoid testing their true ability. Self-instruction  Talking oneself through the steps of a task. Self-management  Management of your own behavior and acceptance of responsibility for your own ­actions. Also the use of behavioral learning principles to change your own behavior. Self-regulated learning  A view of learning that emphasizes the role of both skill and will when analyzing learning tasks, setting goals, applying skills, maintaining motivation, monitoring progress, and making adjustments about how learning is carried out. Self-regulation  Process of activating and sustaining thoughts, behaviors, and emotions in order to reach goals. Self-regulatory knowledge  Knowing how to manage your learning, or knowing how and when to use your declarative and procedural knowledge. Self-reinforcement  Controlling (selecting and administering) your own reinforcers. Semantic memory  Memory for meaning. Semilingual  A lack of proficiency in any language; speaking one or more languages inadequately. Semiotic function  The ability to use symbols—language, pictures, signs, or gestures—to represent actions or objects mentally. Sensitive periods  Times when a person is especially ready to learn certain things or is responsive to certain experiences. Sensorimotor  Involving the senses and motor activity. Sensory memory  System that holds sensory information very briefly. Serial-position effect  The tendency to remember the beginning and the end, but not the middle of a list. Seriation  Arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, or volume. Sexual orientation  A multidimensional construct that refers to people’s sexual identity, sexual attraction, and/or sexual behavior. Shaping  Reinforcing each small step of progress toward a desired goal or behavior. Shared regulation  Students and teachers working together to regulate each other through reminders, prompts, and other guidance. Sheltered instruction  Approach to teaching that improves English language skills while teaching content to students who are English learners by putting the words and concepts of the content into context to make the content more understandable. Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP®)  An observational system to ensure that each element of sheltered instruction is present for a teacher. Short-term memory  Component of memory system that holds information for about 20 seconds. Situated learning  The idea that skills and knowledge are tied to the situation in which they were learned and that they are difficult to apply in new settings. Social and emotional learning (SEL)  The process of integrating thinking, emotion, and behavior into teaching and learning so that adults and children develop skills to be aware of themselves and others, learn to manage their own and others’ emotions and behavior, make responsible decisions, and build ­positive relationships. Social cognitive theory  Theory of learning and motivation that adds to social learning theory a consideration of cognitive factors such as beliefs, self-perceptions, and expectations. Social conventions  Agreed-upon rules and ways of doing things in a particular situation. Social development  Changes over time in the ways we relate to others. Social goals  A wide variety of needs and motives to be connected to others or part of a group. Social isolation  Removal of a disruptive student for 5 to 10 minutes. Social learning theory  Theory that emphasizes learning through observation of others. Social negotiation  Aspect of learning process that relies on collaboration with others and respect for ­different perspectives. Social persuasion  Evaluative messages that students receive from people around them that convey ­information about their capabilities. Sociocultural theory  Emphasizes role in development of cooperative dialogues between children and more knowledgeable members of society. Children learn the culture of their community (ways of thinking and behaving) through these interactions.

Glossary G-15 Socioeconomic status (SES)  Relative standing in a society based on income, power, background, and prestige. Sociolinguistics  The study of the formal and informal rules for how, when, about what, to whom, and how long to speak in conversations within cultural groups. Source monitoring  Deciding if a memory is real and accurate by remembering where you encountered particular information—your own experience, or a dream, or from TV, or someone else’s experience? Spasticity  Overly tight or tense muscles, characteristic of some forms of cerebral palsy. Specific learning disability  Problem with acquisition and use of language; may show up as difficulty with reading, writing, reasoning, or math. Speech impairment  Inability to produce sounds effectively for speaking. Spermarche  The first sperm ejaculation for boys. Spiral curriculum  Bruner’s design for teaching that introduces the fundamental structure of all subjects early in the school years, then revisits the subjects in more and more complex forms over time. Spreading activation  Retrieval of pieces of information based on their relatedness to one another. Remembering one bit of information activates (stimulates) recall of associated information. Standard deviation  Measure of how widely scores vary from the mean. Standard error of measurement  Hypothetical estimate of variation in scores if testing were repeated. Standard scores  Scores based on the standard deviation. Standardized tests  Tests given, usually nationwide, under uniform conditions and scored according to uniform procedures. Stanine scores  Whole-number scores from 1 to 9, each representing a wide range of raw scores. Statistically significant  Not likely to be a chance occurrence. Stem  The question part of a multiple-choice item. Stereotype  A widely held, often oversimplified schema that organizes knowledge or perceptions about a category. Stereotype threat  The emotional and cognitive burdens that can result from heightened awareness that your performance in an academic situation might confirm a stereotype that others hold about you. Stimulus  Event that activates behavior. Stimulus control  Capacity for the presence or absence of antecedents to cause behaviors. Story grammar  Typical structure or organization for a category of stories. Structured English immersion (SEI)  An environment that teaches English rapidly by maximizing instruction in English and using English at a level appropriate to the abilities of the students in the class who are English learners. Successive approximations  Reinforcing small steps to reach a goal; the small component steps that make up a complex behavior. Summative assessment  Testing that follows instruction and assesses achievement. Sustaining expectation effect  Student performance is maintained at a certain level because teachers don’t recognize improvements. Synapses  The tiny space between neurons—chemical messages are sent across these gaps. Synaptic plasticity  See plasticity. Syntax  The order of words in phrases or sentences. T score  Standard score with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10. Task analysis  System for breaking down a task hierarchically into basic skills and subskills. Taxonomy  Classification system. Teachers’ sense of efficacy  Teachers’ beliefs about how capable they are of reaching even the most d ­ ifficult students and helping them learn. Theory  Integrated statement of principles that attempts to explain a phenomenon and make predictions. Theory of mind  An understanding that other people are people too, with their own minds, thoughts, feelings, beliefs, desires, and perceptions. Theory of multiple intelligences (MI)  In Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, an individual’s eight separate abilities: logical-mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist. Theory-based  An explanation for concept formation that suggests our classifications are based on ideas about the world that we create to make sense of things.

G-16 Glossary Time on task  Time spent actively engaged in the learning task at hand. Also referred to as engaged time. Time out  Technically, the removal of all reinforcement. In practice, isolation of a student from the rest of the class for a brief time. Token reinforcement system  System in which tokens earned for academic work and positive classroom behavior can be exchanged for some desired reward. Tonic-clonic seizure:  A generalized seizure that includes uncontrolled movements, twitching, or spasms. Top-down processing  Making sense of information by using context and what we already know about the situation; sometimes called conceptually driven perception. Transfer  Influence of previously learned material on new material; the productive (not reproductive) uses of cognitive tools and motivations. Transition programming  Gradual preparation of students with special needs to move from high school into further education or training, employment, or community involvement. Trauma-informed educators  Teachers who recognize the students’ history of trauma; understand how trauma can affect the students’ emotions, behavior, and learning; and design learning environments that address the needs of the students while avoiding retraumatizing them. Triadic reciprocal causality  An explanation of human functioning as the interaction between personal, behavioral, and environmental influences. Triarchic theory of successful intelligence  A three-part description of the mental abilities (thinking processes, coping with new experiences, and adapting to context) that lead to more or less intelligent behavior. True score  The score the student would get if the measurement were completely accurate and error-free. Unconditioned response (UR)  Naturally occurring emotional or physiological response. Unconditioned stimulus (US)  Stimulus that automatically produces an emotional or physiological response. Understanding by Design (UbD)  A system of lesson and unit planning that starts with key objectives for understandings and then moves backward to design assessments and learning activities. Universal design  Considering the needs of all users in the design of new tools, learning programs, or websites. Universal design for learning (UDL)  Strategies and structures to make learning accessible to as many students as possible in inclusive settings. Utility value  The usefulness of a task for meeting your goals. Validity  Degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure. To be valid, the decisions and inferences based on the test must be supported by evidence. Value  An individual’s belief about the extent to which a task or assignment is generally useful, enjoyable, or otherwise important. Value-added modeling (VAM)  Approaches that use statistical analyses to indicate the average test score gain for students, adjusted for their student characteristics such as prior level of achievement. Variability  Degree of difference or deviation from mean. Verbalization  Putting your problem-solving plan and its logic into words. Vicarious experiences  Accomplishments that are modeled by someone else. Vicarious reinforcement  Increasing the chances that we will repeat a behavior by observing another person being reinforced for that behavior. Virtual learning environments (VLEs)  Technology-based platforms that allow learning in a variety of ways. Visuospatial sketchpad  Part of working memory. A holding system for visual, tactile, and spatial information. Voicing problems  Inappropriate pitch, quality, loudness, or intonation. Volition  Willpower; an internally-driven, intentional decision to reach valued goals by applying selfregulated learning. Warm demanders  Teachers who are especially effective with Black students; they show both high expectations and great caring for their students. What Works Clearing House  A service of the U.S. Institute of Education Sciences that reviews the existing research on different programs, products, practices, and policies in education in order to provide educators with the information they need to make evidence-based decisions. Within-class ability grouping  System of grouping in which students in a class are divided into two or three groups based on ability in an attempt to accommodate student differences. Withitness  According to Kounin, awareness of everything happening in a classroom.

Glossary G-17 Work-avoidant learners  Students who don’t want to learn or to look smart, but just want to avoid work. Working memory  The brain system that provides temporary holding and processing of information to ­accomplish complex cognitive tasks such as language comprehension, learning, and reasoning; the ­information that you are focusing on at a given moment. Working-backward strategy  Heuristic in which you start with the goal and move backward to solve the problem. z score  Standard score indicating the number of standard deviations above or below the mean that a particular raw score falls. Zero reject  A basic principle of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act specifying that no student with a disability, no matter what kind or how severe, can be denied a free public education. Zone of proximal development (ZPD)  Developmental phase at which a child can master a task if given appropriate help and support from a more capable person.

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Name Index Aamodt, S., 97 Abdelfattah, F., 166 Abdi, B., 533 Abduljabbar, A. S., 166 Aber, J. L., 148, 584 Aboud, F. E., 44, 45 Abraham, C., 476 Abrami, P. C., 23, 397, 445 Abrams, L. M., 681 Abrams, M. D., 477 Abry, T., 8, 573 Abuhamdeh, S., 533 Abu-Hilal, M. A., 166 Accavitti, M., 62 Acevedo, J., 448 Acharya, P., 558 Acker, R. V., 148 Ackerman, B. P., 49 Adachi, P. J. C., 448 Adams, C. M., 24 Adesope, O. O., 380, 531 Adjapong, E., 530 Adkins, N., 592 ADL, 64 Aelterman, N., 512 Agarwal, P. K., 355, 356, 358 Ageyev, V., 115, 116, 120 Agne, R. M., 617, 618 Agullo, J. A., 252 Ahn, H. S., 476 Ahtone, T., 254 Ainley, M., 533 Airasian, P. W., 653, 660 Akhtar, S., 348 Akinola, M., 534 Al Otaiba, S., 249, 250 Alamos, P., 11 Alansari, M., 607–609 Alarcon, G. M., 195 Albanesi, C., 574 Albert, K., 425 Alberto, P. A., 293, 296–298, 304, 307, 310 Albrecht, D., 272 Albro, E. R., 249, 250 Aldrich, C., 448 Aldrich, N. J., 430, 431 Aldrup, K., 11 Alexander, J. F., 629 Alexander, P. A., 16, 17, 352, 480 Alferink, L. A., 95, 98 Alfieri, L., 430, 431 Alfredsson, J., 217 Algeo-Nichols, D., 633 Ali, S. R., 46 Allen, J. P., 13, 15, 511, 592 Allen, K., 514, 574 Allen-Meares, P., 582 Allensworth, E., 483 Allington, R. L., 52 Allison, C. M., 69 Alloway, T. P., 212, 342

Alloy, L. B., 524 Almasi, J. F., 376 Aloe, A. M., 553, 606 Altose, A. J., 537 Alvarez, A. N., 255 Alves de Lima, D., 263 Alzate, G., 156 Amabile, T. M., 198, 200 Amadieu, F., 445 Amanti, C., 124, 274, 625 Ambridge, B., 342 Ambrose, D., 200 Amemiya, J., 580 American Educational Research Association Council, 685 American Psychiatric Association, 215, 229, 230 American Psychological Association (APA), 43, 55, 63, 204, 205, 327 American Psychological Association, Presidential Task Force on Educational Disparities, 61 American Psychological Association, Zero Tolerance Task Force, 580 Amo, L. C., 553 Amstutz, L. S., 581 Ana, V., 56 Anagnostopoulos, D., 611, 684 Anagnostou, E., 211 Anastasiow, N. J., 444 Anderman, E. M., 16, 474, 518, 527 Anderman, L. H., 474, 518, 527, 558, 573, 605 Anderson, A., 17 Anderson, A. R., 575 Anderson, B., 533 Anderson, C. A., 149 Anderson, C. W., 434 Anderson, G. E., 669 Anderson, J. R., 93–95, 188, 192, 326, 329, 331, 340, 344, 350–352, 359, 360, 384, 389, 390, 394, 395 Anderson, L., 250 Anderson, L. M., 618 Anderson, L. W., 614, 615 Anderson, M., 159 Anderson, M. C., 336, 338, 343, 344 Anderson, M. D., 68 Anderson, R. C., 116, 436, 473, 629 Anderson, S. R., 244, 254 Andrä, C., 345 Andreasen, N. K., 448 Andresen, A., 338 Andrew, M., 669 Andrews, E. E., 187 Andrews, J. A., 135

Andrews-Todd, J., 433 Andrews-Weckerly, S., 515 Anfara, V. A. Jr., 581 Angell, A. L., 249 Anguiano, C. J., 380 Anicama, C., 57 Anmarkrud, Ø., 338 Annenberg Foundation, 99 Ansari, A., 11, 573 Ansari, D., 99, 101 Ansary, N. S., 585, 586 Anyon, J., 58, 260 Anzures, G., 45 Apel, K., 249, 250 Appel, M., 45 Applebee, A. N., 629 Arango, C., 211 Arbuthnott, K. D., 204 Archambault, L., 455 Archer, C., 68, 253 Archer, S. L., 159 Archodidou, A., 116 Arena, D., 448, 449 Arends, L. R., 382 Arends, R. I., 429, 620, 629, 634 Arens, A. K., 163, 474, 521 Armento, B. J., 79, 593 Armer, M., 147 Armijo, M., 250 Armstrong, K., 15 Arneson, J. J., 49 Arnett, J. J., 159, 173 Arnold, M. L., 172 Aro, M. T., 476 Aro, T. I., 476 Aronson, E., 433, 438, 441 Aronson, J., 45, 194 Artelt, C., 371 Artiles, A. J., 68 Arum, R., 420 Ash, D. P., 148 Ashcraft, M., 329, 336, 340, 343, 345, 346, 351, 355, 388 Ashman, G., 393 Ashton, M. C., 190 Assor, A., 542 Assouline, S. G., 17 Asterhan, C. S. C., 400, 401, 434 Atkinson, R. C., 329 Attanucci, J., 168 Atteberry, A., 685 Atwood, J., 151 Au, T. K., 253 August, D., 8, 266 Austin, S., 7 Austin, T. Y., 274 Autin, F., 651 Auxier, B., 159 Auzias, G., 211 Avery, R. E., 402, 438 Avramidis, E., 206, 219 Ayalon, M., 645

Aydin, B., 494 Aydın, Y. C., 7 Ayres, L. R., 494 Azano, A. P., 231 Azevedo, R., 487 Baay, P., 481 Babad, E. Y., 608 Babichenko, M., 401 Bacchini, D., 485 Baceviciute, S., 448 Bachrach, J. E., 528, 529 Backfisch, I., 388 Baddeley, A. D., 212, 336–338, 343, 344, 355 Bae, C. L., 356 Baek, Y., 449 Baelen, R. N., 62, 483 Baer, J., 198 Bagley, E., 448 Bahrick, H. P., 352 Bailey, C. S., 8, 9 Bailey, J. M., 425, 666, 672 Bailey, R., 9, 489 Bailey, U. L., 217 Bailey, W. M., 478 Bain, P. M., 346, 358, 381, 425, 426, 626 Baker, C. M., 149 Baker, D. S., 605 Baker, J., 669 Baker, K., 265 Baker, K. M., 478 Baker, S. K., 266, 473 Balass, M., 100 Baldwin, B. T., 232 Baldwin, J. M., 89 Ball, D. L., 606 Balsai, M. J., 522 Banaschewski, T., 211 Bandura, A., 149, 165, 314, 315, 419, 463, 465, 466, 468, 469, 472–477, 479, 487, 492, 493, 516 Banerjee, R., 153 Banks, C. A. M., 37 Banks, J. A., 37, 73, 79, 262 Banks, S. R., 654, 658 Banner, G. E., 342 Barbaranelli, C., 476 Barbatsis, G., 445 Barber, B. R., 494 Barbot, B., 198 Bardach, L., 519 Bardi, A., 519 Bargh, J. A., 62 Barkley, R. A., 212, 217 Barlow, D. H., 23 Barlow, W., 400 Barmer, A., 60 Barmore, J., 685 Barnard-Brak, L., 669

N-1

N-2  Name Index Barnes, N., 645 Barnett, M. S., 402 Baron, A., 44 Baroody, A. E., 573 Baroody, A. J., 431, 445 Barr, H., 149 Barrett, L. F., 43, 534, 537 Barron, K. E., 521, 524 Barros, E., 136 Barry, C. M., 146 Barth, A. E., 210 Bartholomew, K. J., 507, 512 Bartlett, S. M., 307 Barton-Arwood, S. M., 682 Barzilai, S., 371, 407 Barzillai, M., 100 Basarkod, G., 163 Basham, J., 631 Bassok, D., 669 Bastable, E., 593 Batalova, J., 255, 262 Bates, J., 146 Bates, J. E., 148 Bates, T. C., 525 Bathia, S., 61 Batruch, A., 651 Battiato, A. C., 624 Battistich, V. A., 436 Bau, C., 211 Bauer, A. M., 307 Bauer, L., 48 Bauer, P. J., 342 Bauer, S. S., 670 Bauer, W. I., 605 Baum, J., 70, 71 Baumeister, R. F., 62, 155, 165, 166, 514 Baumert, J., 164, 165, 606, 624, 634 Baumrind, D., 142 Bayliss, D. M., 212 Bayliss, P., 206, 219 Bay-Williams, J. M., 386 Bazán, A. R., 250 Beal, S. A., 483 Bean, F. D., 55 Beane, J. A., 165 Bear, G. G., 558 Beard, K. S., 533, 617 Beatty-Hazelbaker, R., 76, 77 Beaty, R. E., 198, 200 Beauchamp, C., 99 Beauchamp, M. H., 99 Bechara, A., 96 Beck, A. N., 670 Becker, B. J., 606 Becker, E. S., 605 Becker, M., 634 Becker, S., 536 Becker, W. C., 20 Beckes, L., 536 Beckmann, S., 20, 385, 387 Beebe-Frankenberger, M., 668 Beechum, N. O., 483 Beghetto, R. A., 199, 200 Bego, C. R., 381 Behne, T., 136 Behrmann, M., 211 Beijaard, D., 628 Beike, S. M., 532

Beilock, S. L., 66, 68, 527 Beishuizen, J., 424 Belfiore, P. J., 313 Belland, B. R., 384, 394, 397, 423, 424, 428, 429, 431, 445, 541 Bellgrove, M. A., 211 Belsky, J., 12, 13 Bembenutty, H., 508 Benbow, C. P., 17, 234 Ben-Eliyahu, A., 488 Benita, M., 517 Benjamin, K. S., 573 Benner, A. D., 46, 48, 62 Bennett, C. I., 51, 76 Benton, J., 511 Benton, S. L., 101 Beohm, A. E., 113 Bereiter, C., 403, 420 Berenbaum, S. A., 63 Berg, C. A., 620 Berger, K. S., 115, 119, 123, 133, 136, 142, 143, 167, 253, 254 Bergin, D. A., 530 Bergmann, J., 454 Berk, L. E., 94, 105, 113, 114, 118, 119, 133, 135, 194 Berko, J., 247 Berliner, D. C., 16, 17, 24, 50, 623, 627 Bernacki, M. L., 383, 446 Bernard, R. M., 23, 445 Bernecker, K., 481 Berry, R. Q. III., 60 Berryman, M., 150 Berson, E., 401 Berthold, K., 355 Bertram, C., 686 Best, J. R., 114 Betts, S. M., 478 Bewick, C. J., 451, 452 Bi, S.-S., 482 Bialystok, E., 253, 257, 265, 266 Bichler, S., 387, 388 Bickel, E. S., 425 Bickmore, K., 581 Biddle, B., 618 Bierman, K. L., 342 Biglan, A., 312 Bigler, R. S., 63, 64, 68, 195 Biocca, F. A., 445 Bird, E., 137–139 Birgili, B., 454, 455 Birisci, S., 455 Bishop, D. V. M., 245 Bishop, R., 150 Bisra, K., 388 Bitsko, R. H., 6 Bjork, E. L., 378 Bjork, R. A., 17, 204, 355 Bjorklund, B. R., 350 Bjorklund, D. F., 113, 114, 120, 327, 350 Blachman, B. A., 250 Black, L. I., 6 Blair, C., 50, 188, 194, 342, 485, 670 Blanc, M. H. A., 254 Blasiman, R., 378 Blast, J. L., 316, 317 Blatchford, P., 424 Blazar, D., 685

Blazier, C., 6 Bledsoe, S. E., 223 Blewitt, P., 93, 94 Blömeke, S., 571, 577 Bloom, B. S., 21, 231, 614, 615 Bloom, P., 246, 255 Blum, W., 606 Blumberg, S. J., 6 Blume, F., 566 Blumenfeld, P. C., 431, 557 Blunt, J. R., 380 Bobbitt Nolen, S., 22 Bobek, D. L., 140 Bobis, J., 389 Bocian, K. L., 668 Bode, P., 73 Boden, K. K., 517 Bodmann, S. M., 517 Bodrova, E., 120, 123 Boedhoe, P., 211 Bohn-Gettler, C. M., 533 Boiarskaia, E. A., 136 Bois, J., 608 Boivin, M., 147, 148 Bokosmaty, S., 384, 388 Bond, R., 476 Bonell, C., 224 Bong, M., 475, 476, 519, 522 Bonifay, W., 574 Bonner, S. M., 606 Bonneville-Roussy, A., 467 Boodoo, G., 195 Borich, G. D., 617, 631 Borjas, S., 424 Borko, H., 15, 401 Borman, G. D., 51 Bornstein, M. H., 194 Borokhovski, E., 445 Borrero, N. E., 254, 255 Borst, G., 114 Borup, J., 454, 455 Bos, C. S., 79, 622 Bosanquent, P., 424 Böse, S., 634 Boseck, J. J., 488 Bosker, R. J., 536, 606, 607 Boston Children’s Hospital, 223 Botella, J., 486, 495 Bottge, B., 346, 358, 381, 425, 426, 626 Bottia, M. C., 61 Bottiani, J. H., 556, 592, 593 Bouchard, A., 195 Bouck, E., 215, 216, 227, 229, 230, 232–235 Bouffard, T., 467 Bowers, J. S., 98, 419 Bowker, J. C., 145–147 Bowles, R. P., 485 Boyce, W. T., 51 Boykin, W., 195 Boyle, C. A., 6 Boyle, J. R., 378 Boyle, M., 434, 436, 437 Boyle, O. F., 254, 258, 266–268 Brackett, M. A., 8, 9, 489, 536, 605 Bradshaw, C. P., 305, 310, 312, 556, 573, 584, 586, 592, 593 Brainerd, C. J., 113, 120 Brame, B., 148

Branch, A. J., 56 Brandeis, D., 211 Brand-Gruwel, S., 18 Brannon, L., 64, 66 Bransford, J. D., 100, 327, 403 Brantlinger, E., 48 Branum-Martin, L., 266 Braskhøj Lauridsen, L. L., 134 Bråten, I., 338 Bray, I., 137–139 Bray, M. A., 305 Bredekamp, S., 121 Breiner, K., 485 Breivik, K., 585 Brem, S., 211 Brendgen, M., 147, 148 Bressoux, P., 476, 608 Brett, J. P., 537 Brice, A. E., 259 Brice, R. G., 259 Brichinall, L., 15 Bridges, M., 61 Briesch, A. M., 230, 313 Briggs, D. C., 427, 429 Brinkman, S., 195 Brio-Meisels, G., 9, 489 Britner, S. L., 475 Brix, N., 134 Broadbent, J., 476 Broady, K., 48 Broda, M., 476 Broderick, P. C., 93, 94 Brody, N., 195 Broidy, L. M., 148 Bronfenbrenner, U., 140 Bronson, E., 232 Brookhart, S. M., 648, 649 Brookmeyer, K. A., 145 Brooks, P. J., 430, 431 Brooks, W. D., 522 Brooks-Gunn, J., 52, 134, 135 Brophy, J. E., 299, 508, 519, 520, 527, 536, 539, 541, 607, 608, 618, 622, 634 Brown, A. L., 61, 100, 327, 377, 381 Brown, B. B., 145 Brown, C. S., 46, 57, 62, 64–66, 71, 145 Brown, E. D., 49 Brown, E. R., 46 Brown, J., 15, 70, 71 Brown, J. L., 11, 148, 491, 584 Brown, J. S., 360 Brown, L. E. R., 197, 488 Brown, P. C., 101, 204, 326, 341, 353, 355, 356, 376, 491 Brown, R. D., 350 Bruce, B. C., 626 Bruck, M., 349 Bruer, J. T., 98 Bruner, J. S., 122, 345, 417, 424 Bruning, R. H., 334, 340, 353, 354, 371, 384, 394, 417, 419 Brunken, R., 531 Brunner, M., 162, 163, 188, 606 Brusca-Vega, R., 187 Brush, K., 9, 489 Bryant, C., 558 Bryant, P., 20

Name Index N-3 Bryce, C. I., 8 Buchanan, R., 666 Buchholz, J., 478 Bucich, M., 197, 488 Buck, R., 15 Buck Institute for Education, 432 Buckner, J. C., 53 Budge, S. L., 71 Budiman, A., 261 Buehl, M. M., 538, 543 Buehler, R., 392 Buenavista, T. L., 44 Bühner, M., 387, 388 Buhs, E. S., 148 Bui, D. C., 378 Bullard, J., 451 Bulut, O., 656 Bunford, N., 219 Buntain-Ricklefs, J., 573 Bunuan, R. L., 305 Buontempo, J., 525, 526 Burbules, N. C., 626 Burchinal, M., 13, 151 Burden, P. R., 587 Burden, R., 206, 219 Bureau, J. S., 511 Bureau of Labor Statistics, 195 Burger, K., 476 Burgess-Brigham, R., 262 Burgos, G., 445 Burić, I., 478, 605 Buriel, R., 142, 163 Burke, D., 446 Burke-Spero, R., 8 Burns, E. C., 467 Burrell, S., 425 Bursuck, W. D., 206–210, 214, 218, 219, 227, 228, 232, 299, 311–313, 381, 636 Burt, S. A., 51 Busatto, G. F., 211 Busch, K. C., 401 Bush, J. R., 163 Bushman, B. J., 149 Buskirk, A. A., 145, 146 Bussey, K., 138 Bustamante, M. R., 156 Butcher, K. R., 345, 354 Butera, F., 511, 520, 651 Buth, A. J., 580 Butisingh, S., 79, 524 Butler, D. L., 313 Butterworth, B., 99, 101 Büttner, G., 658 Butz, A. R., 22, 476 Byers-Heinlein, K., 253 Byle, K. A., 194 Byrd, C. M., 57 Byrd, P., 264 Byrne, D., 519 Byrnes, J. P., 96, 134, 155, 159, 352, 377 Cain, K., 249, 250 Cain, T., 606 Cairns, B. D., 89 Cairns, R. B., 89 Cajete, G. A., 76 Çakıroğlu, J., 7 Calderhead, J., 612

Calderoni, S., 211 Caldwell, K. A., 146 Calfee, R., 613 Calhoun, B. M., 204 Callaghan, T., 136 Callahan, C. M., 230, 231, 277 Callahan, M., 187 Callan, G., 522 Callanan, M., 432 Calzada, E. J., 57 Cameron, J., 316, 317 Cameron-Faulkner, T., 246 Campbell, E. M., 295 Campbell, J. D., 165 Campbell, S. L., 686 Campbell, W. K., 452 Cangelosi, J. S., 616 Canning, E. A., 530, 541 Cano-Garcia, F. J., 489 Canter, L., 590 Canter, M., 590 Cantrell, S. C., 376 Cao, Q., 573 Capa, Y., 8 Caprara, G. V., 473, 476 Carbone, P. S., 137 Carbonell, O. A., 156 Carbonneau, K. J., 121, 422 Cardoza, K., 272 Carlson, S. M., 167 Carlstrom, A., 375 Carney, R. N., 358 Carpenter, S. K., 358, 402, 404, 480 Carrasco-Ortiz, M. A., 489 Carroll, J. B., 188, 193 Carroll, J. M., 526 Carroll, M. D., 137 Carter, E. W., 682 Carter, J. S., 376 Carter, M., 206 Carter, R. A., 631 Carvalho, C. M., 525 Cascallar, E., 436 Case, R., 114, 121 Casey, B. J., 96 Cash, A. H., 573 Caskie, G., 385 Cassady, J. C., 478, 488, 520, 536, 539 Cassotti, M., 114 Castejon, J. L., 190 Castellano, J. A., 277 Castle, S., 633, 634 Castro-Villarreal, F., 210 Catrysse, L., 341 Cauffman, E., 173 Caughy, M. O., 162 Causadias, J. M., 37 Cavanna, J., 611 Cavell, H. J., 297 Caye, A., 215, 216 Cazden, C., 556 Ceci, S. J., 195, 349, 402 Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST), 636, 637 Center for Promise, 54 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 70, 333

Cepeda, N. J., 358, 487 Chafouleas, S. M., 221, 313, 574 Cham, H., 491 Chamberlain, R. W., 358 Chan, C.-K., 49, 53 Chance, P., 316–318 Chandler, P., 386 Chang, C., 445, 487 Chang, L., 485 Chang, M.-L., 489 Chang, Z., 326 Changas, P. C., 386 Chappuis, J., 612, 648, 653, 654, 656–660 Charles, C. M., 25, 556, 562, 571, 590, 591 Charles, E. P., 149 Charles-Harris, S., 611 Charness, N., 394 Charnigo, R., 217 Chase, J., 46 Chase, W. G., 394 Chaudhary, N., 485 Chávez, R., 53 Chawla, D. S., 230 Chein, J., 485 Chen, C. H., 429 Chen, F., 136 Chen, J. A., 448, 478 Chen, J.-K., 68, 253 Chen, K., 97 Chen, M., 558 Chen, Q., 198, 200 Chen, X., 145, 146, 574 Chen, Z., 391 Cheng, S.-L., 478 Cheng, W., 9 Cherniss, C., 195–197 Cherry, L., 472 Cheryan, S., 65 Chesnut, S. R., 418, 423 Cheung, A. C. K., 266 Cheung, C.-N., 356 Chi, M. T. H., 386, 394, 403, 404, 417 Child Trends Databank, 6 Children’s Defense Fund, 6, 48, 152, 153 Childress, S., 151 Chin, M. J., 62 Chinn, C. A., 429, 431 Chiu, C.-Y., 201 Chiu, M. M., 140, 146 Cho, B., 400 Choi, H.-H., 339 Chongde, L., 113 Chorzempa, B. F., 634 Chow, A., 528 Chow, B. W.-Y., 140, 146 Christensen, A., 541, 573 Christensen, A. P., 198, 200 Christenson, S. L., 575 Christodoulou, J., 17, 97 Christopher, J. C., 76, 77 Christou, C., 342 Chronis-Tuscano, A., 217 Ciani, K. D., 519 Cicognani, E., 574 Cimpian, A., 526 Cirino, P. T., 386

Clapp, E. P., 198 Clark, A. G., 158 Clark, C. M., 71 Clark, D. A., 381 Clark, D. B., 449 Clark, I., 648 Clark, J. M., 345 Clark, K., 265 Clark, M. H., 46 Clark, R. E., 430, 620 Clarke, J. H., 617, 618 Clarke-Stewart, K. A., 13, 151 Clary, M., 605 Clay-Chambers, J., 431 Clayton, K., 519, 520 Clemens, N., 250 Cleminshaw, C. L., 215, 217 Clough, M., 620 Coan, J. A., 536 Coats, L. T., 543 Cobas, J. A., 163 Cobb, P., 419 Cobley, S., 669 Coccia, M. A., 491 Cockburn, J., 290 Cocking, R. R., 100, 327 Codell, E. R., 15, 590 Coffield, F. J., 204 Coghill, D., 215, 216 Cohen, A. B., 37 Cohen, D. R., 478 Cohen, E. G., 433, 437, 438 Cohen, K. M., 70 Cohen-Eliyan, N., 434 Cokley, K., 51 Colangelo, N., 17 Colby, G. T., 633 Cole, K. M., 556, 562, 571, 590, 591 Cole, M., 418 Cole, P. M., 485 Coleman, D., 376 Coleman, M., 622 Coleman, M. R., 444 Coles, E. K., 217 Coll, C. G., 161 Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL), 9, 151, 152 Colledge, E., 245 College Board, 675 Collie, R. J., 467, 490, 558 Collier, V. P., 266 Collins, A., 360, 432 Collins, A. M., 420 Collins, C., 70 Collins, K. M., 427 Collins, P., 266 Collins, W. A., 146 Cologon, K., 15 Comadena, M. E., 605 Committee on Increasing High School Students’ Engagement and Motivation to Learn, 495, 540 Common Sense Media, 7, 149, 150, 444 Compton, D. L., 212, 214, 386, 430

N-4  Name Index Conklin, S., 476 Conley, D., 420 Conneely, C., 434 Conner, T., 76, 77 Connor, C. M., 249, 250 Connor, J. P., 582 Connor-Zachocki, J., 444 Conrad, J., 629 Conway, M. A., 348 Cook, C. R., 573 Cook, G., 57, 94, 146, 161 Cook, J. L., 57, 94, 146, 161 Cook, M., 187 Cooper, C. E., 52 Cooper, C. R., 230 Cooper, H. M., 474, 607, 623 Cooper, J. O., 287, 293, 298 Cooper, S. R., 49 Cooper Johnson, L., 249, 250 Coplan, R. J., 145–147 Copple, C., 121 Copur-Gencturk, Y., 66 Corazza, G., 198 Corbin, C. M., 11 Cordes, S. A., 113 Corno, L., 481, 482, 633, 634 Corpus, J. H., 507 Cortes, K., 421, 436 Cortes, K. I., 436, 585 Cortez, A., 421 Cortina, K., 58, 60 Costello, M. B., 45 Cothran, D. J., 151 Coughlin, C., 430 Council on Children with Disabilities, 137 Covington, M. V., 519, 527, 536 Cowan, N., 343 Cox, K., 61 Coyne, P., 636 Crabbe, R., 146 Crago, R. V., 582 Craik, F. I. M., 341, 353 Cramond, B., 198–199 Crapo, R. H., 245 Craven, J. A. III., 606 Craven, R. G., 162–164 Crawford. A., 373 Creamer, J. F., 48 Crede, M., 484 Creese, A., 255 Cremin, L. A., 455 Creswell, J. W., 22 Crocker, J., 165 Cromley, J. G., 522 Crompton, H., 383, 446 Crone, D. A., 249 Croninger, R. M. V., 439, 629, 630 Cronjaeger, H., 163 Crooks, C. V., 272 Cropley, M., 489 Crosnoe, R., 13, 52, 146, 151, 525, 526 Cross, D., 574 Cross, T., 4 Cross, T. B., 56 Cross, W. E. Jr., 56, 57 Crosson, A., 562 Croudace, T., 64 Crowe, E. C., 249, 250

Cruickshank, D. R., 605 Crum, A. J., 534 Csapó, B., 384 Csikszentmihalyi, M., 533 Cucina, J. M., 194 Cui, A., 60 Culatta, A., 117, 234 Cullen, M., 491 Cummings, J., 553, 559, 575, 577 Cunningham, E., 311 Cupp, P. K., 173 Curby, T. W., 573 Curno, C., 20 Curran, M., 576, 593 Curry, S. R., 53 Curwin, R., 580 Cusack, A., 536 Cusick, P. A., 8 Cutter, J., 427 Cutuli, J. J., 49, 53 Dadds, M. R., 307, 308 Dagenais, C., 23 Dagogo-Jack, S., 629 Dai, T., 522 Dale, P. S., 484 Daley, B. J., 380 Dalton, A., 144 Damon, W., 169 Daniels, L. M., 535, 536 Daniels, P., 69 Danielson, C., 12, 13, 686 Danielson, L., 250 Danielson, M. L., 6 Danish, J., 446 Dargue, N., 345 Darling-Hammond, L., 196, 488, 534 Darnon, C., 511, 520 Dart, E. H., 297 DaSilva Iddings, A. C., 274 Daunic, A. P., 494 Davidoff, J., 245 Davidson, E., 8 Davidson, J., 385 Davidson, M. L., 543 Davies, I. R. L., 245 Davies, P. G., 45, 46, 56, 57 Davis, D., 375 Davis, G., 143 Davis, G. A., 231, 234, 235 Davis, H. A., 151, 478 Davis, H. L., 375 Davis, J., 250 Davis, N. R., 423 Davis, R., 491 Dawdanow, A., 376 Day, S. B., 388, 402 de Araujo, Z., 455 De Boer, H., 606, 607 De Bruin, C. L., 230 De Castella, K., 519 De Fraine, B., 519 De France, K., 536 de Freitas, S., 449 De George, G., 276 de Groot, A. D., 394 De Groot, E. V., 480 de Jong, E. M., 11, 558 de Jong, T., 379, 380, 427

de Koning, B., 525 de Ruiter, L. E., 450 De Smedt, B., 99, 101 Dean, C. G. P., 432 Dean, D., 401 Dearing, E., 250, 272 Deary, I. J., 188 Debnam, K. J., 556, 573, 593 Debs, M., 594 Debus, R. L., 164 DeCaro, M. S., 431 Deci, E. L., 316, 492, 507, 508, 510, 511, 517, 542 Deckers, L., 506 Decristan, J., 658 DeCuir-Gunby, J. T., 57 Dedrick, R. F., 356 Defend Innocence., 153 DeJong, J. M., 624 Dekhinet, R., 253 Del Bove, G., 476 Del Toro, J., 60 Delafield-Butt, J. T., 230 deLara, E., 149 DeLay, D., 489 Deleveaux, G., 445 Della-Chiesa, B., 93, 97, 100, 101 DeLozier, S., 376 Delpit, L., 73, 74, 77, 79, 112, 251, 260, 593 Demana, F., 117 Demanet, J., 607, 670 Demaray, M. K., 605 DeMarie, D., 327 DeMauro, A. A., 491 Demerath, P., 51 Demetriou, A., 188, 192, 212, 342 Demuth, K., 248 Denessen, E., 62 Denissen, J. J. A., 670 Deniz, C. B., 633, 634 Dennie, D., 558 Dent, A. L., 231, 480 Denton, C. A., 210 Deppeler, J. M., 230 DeRose, L. M., 134 Derous, E., 428, 431 Derry, S. J., 417 Desautel, D., 372 Desjardins, C. D., 49, 53 DeSoto, K. A., 358 D’Esterre, A. P., 526 Dettmers, S., 624 DeWall, C. N., 392 DeWalt, P. S., 57 DeWeese, A., 491 Dewey, J., 417, 531 Dhaliwal, T. K., 62 Diament, M., 206 Diamond, A., 485, 491 Diamond, L. M., 63, 70 Diamond, N. T., 230 Diaz, E. I., 277 Diaz-Rico, L. T., 253, 256, 264–266 DiBenedetto, M. K., 466, 473, 476, 485, 508, 515 Dicke, A. L., 530 Dicke, T., 474, 521 Dickens, W., 194 dickey, l. m., 71

Dickinson, J., 477 Diemer, M. A., 48, 50, 68 Dierendinck, C., 162, 163 Diffley, R. III., 195 Digest of Educational Statistics, 669 DiGiacomo, D., 421, 433 Dilig, R., 60 Dillihunt, M. L., 76, 77 Dillon, K. P., 149 Dindia, K., 66 Ding, Y., 387 Dingfelder, S. F., 75 Dionne, G., 147, 148 DiPerna, J. C., 9 Dirk, J., 343 Dixon, L. Q., 262 Dixson, D. D., 648, 658 D’Mello, S., 493 D’Mello, S. K., 626, 678 Doan, S., 686 Dobber, M., 427 Dobolyi, D. G., 17 Dochy, F., 436 Dodge, K. A., 140, 148, 167, 485 Doggett, A. M., 217 Doggett, R. A., 311 Dohn, N. B., 417–420 Doidge, N., 93 Dolan, C. V., 188 Dole, J. A., 407 Dolgin, K. G., 223 Dolmans, D. H. J. M., 429, 430 Dombo, E. A., 222 Domitrovich, C. E., 9, 488 Dompnier, B., 520 Donche, V., 341 Donnelly, P., 626 Dore, R. A., 135, 136 Double, K. S., 197, 488 Dougherty, M. R., 98 Douglas, K. M., 249, 250 Douin, T. A., 478 Dow, G. T., 199, 200 Dowdy, E., 586 Dowler, J., 495 Downer, J. T., 11 Dowson, M., 537, 539 Doyle, S., 491 Doyle, W., 555 Drake, M., 316 Drayer, A. M., 672 Dresel, M., 523 Dresler, T., 566 Drew, C. J., 185, 215 Driscoll, A., 620, 629 Driscoll, M., 20, 385, 387, 680 Driscoll, M. P., 101, 404, 420, 421, 620 Druckman, D., 441 Drummond, L., 495 Du, Q., 216 Dubarry, M., 263 Dubinsky, J. M., 93, 97, 99, 101, 326 DuBois, D. L., 474 Duckworth, A., 526, 678 Duckworth, A. L., 62, 195, 481–484, 486, 491, 493 Duell, O. K., 627

Name Index N-5 Dufrene, B. A., 311 Duke, N. K., 431 Duke, R. F., 439 Dumont, H., 625 Duncan, G. J., 50, 52, 61, 482 Duncker, K., 391 Dunlosky, J., 378, 381 Dunn, D. S., 187 Dunn, K., 204 Dunn, R., 204 Dunston, K., 46 Duong, M. T., 573 DuPaul, G. J., 215, 217, 299 Durksen, T. L., 479 Durlak, J. A., 9, 140, 488 Dusenbury, L., 224 Dux, P. E., 334 Dweck, C. S., 299, 481, 525–527 Dworsky, A., 53 Dwyer, C., 327 Dymnicki, A. B., 140 Easter, M. A., 519 Easton, B. P., 149 Ebbinghaus, H., 358 Eberhard, D. M., 244, 254 Ebersbach, M., 113 Ecalle, J., 445 Eccles, J. S., 68, 96, 134, 155, 159, 164, 481, 521, 522, 540 Ecclestone, K., 204 Echevarría, J., 257, 258, 262, 268, 270–273 Echevarria, R., 423 Echeverria-Estrada, C., 255 Eckert, T. L., 516 Eddy, C. L., 478 Edelberg, W., 48 Edwards, J. M., 195 Edwards, K. D., 478 Edwards, S., 135 Edwards, S. A., 449, 450, 454 Ee, J., 61 Efklides, A., 480, 481 Ehlis, A.-C., 566 Ehrenfeld, T., 326 Ehrenhalt, J., 70 Ehrlich, K. B., 50 Eidell, T. L., 555 Eilam, B., 400 Eiland, M. D., 431, 445 Eisenberg, N., 93, 94, 103, 104, 111–115, 117, 118, 169, 172, 342 Eisenberg, R., 316, 317 Eisner, E. W., 661 Eissenberg, T. E., 680 Eitel, A., 345, 381, 492 Ejesi, K., 57 Ekono, M., 48 El Yaafouri, L., 277 Elbertson, N. A., 489 Elbich, D. B., 198, 200 Elder, L., 397, 398 Eley, T., 245 Elias, M. J., 562, 572, 578, 579, 585, 586 Elias, S. M., 476 Eliot, L., 69 Elkind, D., 111

Ellemers, N., 64 Ellington, A. J., 117 Elliot, A. J., 517, 519, 534, 536 Elliott, V., 627 Elzinga, N., 605 Emdin, C., 73, 77, 79, 530 Emerson, M. J., 118 Emmer, E. T., 555, 556, 559, 561, 568, 569, 577, 605, 618 Endres, T., 480, 492 Engel de Abreu, P. M. J., 371 Engelhart, M. D., 614 Engle, R. W., 342 English, M. S., 485 Ennis, C. D., 151 Epilepsy Foundation, 227 Eppe, S., 249 Epstein, J. L., 623, 625 Epstein, J. N., 249 Erdelyi, M. H., 352 Eresh, J. T., 663 Erickson, F., 432 Erickson, W., 228 Ericsson, A., 231, 359, 360, 395, 397, 469 Ericsson, K. A., 394 Erikson, E. H., 157, 166 Erin’s Law, 153 Ernst, A., 134 Eron, L. D., 149 Ertmer, P. A., 432 Escudé, M., 423 Eskreis-Winkler, L., 308, 482, 483 Espelage, D. L., 70, 71, 583, 586 Espinosa, L. M., 256 Estévez, I., 624 Ethnic and Racial Identity in the 21st Century Study Group, 55 Ethnologue., 255 Ettekal, I., 148, 149, 436 Evans, G. W., 50–51, 53 Evans, K. R., 581 Evans, S. W., 215, 217, 219 Everson, K. C., 685 Evertson, C. M., 556, 558, 559, 561, 568, 569, 577, 605 Extein, M., 195–197 Eylon, B. S., 417, 432 Eysenck, M. W., 336, 338, 343–346 Fabes, R. A., 64, 69, 70, 172 Fabiano, G. A., 217 Facione, P. A., 399 Fackler, S., 478 Fahle, E. M., 681 Falco, M., 224 Falk, A., 482 Fanti, K. A., 485 Fantuzzo, J., 143 Farivar, S. H., 438 Farkas, G., 114, 187, 250 Farmer, J., 574 Farmer, T. W., 148 Farmer-Dougan, V., 95, 98 Farrell, A. F., 53 Farrington, C., 483 Farrington, D. P., 582 Farver, J. M., 249, 265 Fauth, B., 658, 686

Fazio, L. K., 356, 381 Felde, M., 93, 96, 99, 101, 534 Feldman, R. S., 133 Feldman, S. S., 173 Feldon, D. F., 522 Felicia, P., 449 Fenesi, B., 343 Feng, S., 97 Fennig, C. D., 244, 254 Fenton, D. F., 386 Ferguson, C. J., 149 Ferguson, J. K., 574 Ferguson, P., 669 Ferguson, R. F., 686 Fernandes, M. A., 381 Fernandez, S. C., 253 Fernet, C., 7 Ferrer, E., 188 Ferreri, S. J., 20 Ferrero, J., 134, 135 Ferretti, R. P., 515 Ferring, D., 266 Fida, R., 476 Fien, H., 473 Figueroa, G., 149 Fincham, J. M., 389 Finkel, D., 188 Finkenauer, C., 482 Finley, T., 299 Finn, A. S., 484, 678 Finn, B., 666 Finnilä, K., 349 Fiore, S. M., 433, 436 Fiorella, L., 381, 388, 438, 482 Firetto, C. M., 439, 629, 630 Fischbach, A., 162, 163 Fischel, J. E., 249 Fischer, A., 384 Fischer, F., 387, 388, 445 Fischer, H. E., 605 Fischer, K. W., 96–100, 112, 114 Fischer, N., 511 Fishbein, B., 673 Fisher, D., 100 Fishman, B., 431 Fishman, E., 401 Fiske, S. T., 44, 607 Fitts, P. M., 359 Fitzgerald, H. E., 445 Fitzgerald, M. S., 424, 425 Fitzmaurice, H., 623 Fives, H., 645 Fivush, R., 350 Flanagan, C. A., 51, 580 Flanigan, A. E., 487 Flannery, B., 613 Flavell, E. R., 372 Flavell, J. H., 107, 248, 372 Fleer, M., 136 Fleith, D., 201 Fletcher, A., 224 Fletcher, J. M., 210, 212, 214, 250, 430 Flint, A., 607–609 Flint, K., 525 Floden, R. E., 605 Flom, R., 246 Flores, L. Y., 476 Florit, E., 249, 250 Flower, A., 305

Flowerday, T., 136, 531 Floyd-Tenery, M., 274 Flunger, B., 623, 624 Flynn, J. R., 194 Flynn, M., 623 Foerde, K., 333 Fogarty, M., 250 Foley, K., 149 Foltz, P. W., 433 Fong, C. J., 308 Fontaine, J. R. J., 512 Foo, C., 57 Foorman, B. R., 266 Forcier, M., 135 Ford, C. J., 474, 475, 484 Foster, H., 134 Fox, P. W., 434 Foy, P., 673 Francis, D. J., 210, 250, 266 Frank, J. L., 490, 491 Frank, K., 448 Franke, B., 211 Franke, M., 20, 385, 387 Frankenberg, E., 61 Frankenhuis, W. E., 52 Franklin, S., 110 Fraser, A. M., 489 Fraser, J. W., 593 Fredricks, J. A., 481, 557 Freeman, S., 97 Freiberg, H. J., 620, 629 Freiberg, J., 312 French, S., 55 Frenzel, A. C., 163, 536, 605 Frey, N., 100 Frey, W. H., 6 Fridlund, A. J., 200 Fridriksdottir, K., 590 Friedman, S. L., 13, 151 Friedman-Weieneth, J. L., 215 Friedrich, A. A., 574 Friend, M., 185, 187, 206–209, 212–215, 218, 219, 223, 226–228, 230, 232, 233, 246, 299, 311–313, 381, 636 Frith, E., 198, 200 Fromberg, D. P., 680 Fronius, T., 580, 592 Frost, E. J., 614 Fryar, C. D., 137 Fuchs, D., 386 Fuchs, L. S., 386 Fujita, K., 481 Fuligni, A. J., 56, 574 Fuller, B., 61 Fuller-Thomson, E., 144 Fulmer, S. M., 540, 573 Funke, J., 384 Furrer, C., 514 Furst, N., 605 Furtak, E. M., 427, 429 Fyfe, E. R., 424, 431 Gabrieli, C. F. O., 484 Gabrieli, J. D. E., 484 Gadson, N., 76, 77 Gage, N. A., 574 Gagné, E. D., 351, 359, 360 Gagné, M., 511, 628 Gaias, L. M., 556, 586, 593

N-6  Name Index Galindo, C., 61 Galinsky, A. D., 201 Galla, B. M., 482, 678 Gallagher, J. J., 444 Galliher, R. V., 56 Gallimore, A., 149 Gallimore, R., 116, 262 Galton, M., 436 Galvan, A., 96 Gamoran, A., 629 Gándara, P., 262 Ganis, G., 326 Ganley, C. M., 66 Ganson, K. T., 138 Garbarino, J., 149, 583 Garcia, E. E., 75, 265 Garcia, S. B., 262, 276 García Valdivia, I., 61 Gard, A. M., 51 Gardner, H., 38, 188–190, 231 Gardner, M., 678 Gardner-McCune, C., 450 Gargiulo, R. M., 215, 216, 227, 229, 230, 232–235 Gargurevich, R., 517 Garland, M., 431 Garlick, D., 192, 196 Garner, P. W., 143 Garnets, L., 70 Garrison, J., 417 Garza, A., 149 Garzón, J., 448 Gaskill, P., 23 Gaspard, H., 521, 530 Gasser, L., 573 Gathercole, S. E., 342, 371 Gatz, M., 188 Gautier, M. P., 57 Gawrilow, C., 566 Gay, G., 76, 79, 593 Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network (GLSEN), 71, 72 Geary, D. C., 418 Gee, G. C., 55, 56 Gee, J. P., 444, 448 Geerling, D. M., 481 Gehlbach, H., 167 Geier, C., 96 Geier, R., 431 Geiser, C., 188 Gelman, R., 113 Gendler, T. S., 481, 482, 486 Gengaro, F. P., 79, 524 Gentner, D., 390 Gentrup, S., 607, 608 Genzlinger, N., 60 George, P. S., 634 Gerber, J. P., 474 Gerig, T. M., 607 Germine, L., 17, 97 Gershenson, S., 62, 608, 624 Gershoff, E. T., 93, 94, 103, 104, 111–115, 117, 118, 169, 308, 342 Gersten, R., 258, 265, 266 Gerwels, M. C., 559, 561, 569 Gestwicki, C., 121 Getz, S., 96

Gezer, M. U., 262 Gibson, D., 448 Gierl, M. J., 656 Gijbels, D., 341 Gil, L., 372 Gilar, R., 190 Gilbert, D. T., 334, 352 Gilbert, L., 116 Gilbert, W., 514 Gill, E., 70, 71 Gillen-O’Neel, C., 574 Gillespie, J. N., 250 Gillet, J. W., 373 Gilliam, W. S., 62 Gillieron, O., 520 Gillies, R. M., 389, 434, 436, 437, 439, 626 Gilligan, C., 168 Giluk, T. L., 173 Gindis, B., 115, 116, 120 Ginns, P., 388, 389 Ginsburg, K. R., 136 Ginsburg, M., 143 Gion, C. M., 593 Girard, A., 147, 148 Girvan, E. J., 593 Gitomer, D. H., 663 Giunta, L. Di., 485 Gladstone, J. R., 484 Gladwell, M., 395 Glass, C. R., 441 Glass, G. V., 623 Glasser, W., 577 Glăveanu, V. P., 198, 201 Glazewski, K. D., 432 Gleitman, H., 200 Glenberg, A., 355 Glenham, M., 160 Glennie, E., 670 Glock, S., 607 Gluck, M. A., 91, 94, 289, 290, 292, 295, 326, 327, 349, 534 Gnagy, E. M., 217 Godden, D. R., 355 Godleski, S. A., 149 Goerdt, A., 573 Goetz, T., 163, 517, 535, 536, 539, 605 Goh, W., 401 Golann, J. W., 594 Goldenberg, C., 250, 262, 265, 266 Goldhaber, D., 53, 682 Golding, J., 64 Goldin-Meadow, S., 389, 525 Goldman, S. R., 635, 664 Goldsmith, M., 351 Goldstein, L. H., 215 Goldstein, L. S., 169 Goldstone, R. L., 388, 402 Goldsworthy, H., 250 Goldwater, M., 402 Goleman, D., 195–197, 489 Göllner, R., 11, 566, 686 Gollwitzer, P. M., 481 Golombok, S., 64 Gomez Zaccarelli, F., 401 Gonzales, N., 274 Gonzales, R., 274 Gonzalez, A. L., 263

González, J. M., 251 Gonzalez, N., 124, 274, 625 González, T., 580 Gonzalez, V., 187, 254 Good, T. L., 434, 492, 558, 605, 608, 618, 619, 622, 627, 628, 634, 635 Goodman, D. M., 76, 77 Goodman, G. S., 308 Goodrich, J. M., 265 Goodyear, J., 195, 233 Gordon, K. A., 478 Gordon, R. A., 146 Gorman, J. L., 79, 524 Gorrel, S., 138 Gorski, P. C., 47, 50, 52, 54, 484 Gosseries, O., 341 Goswami, U., 99, 101, 212 Gottlieb, G., 89 Gottwald, S., 100 Goupil, L., 372 Goyer, J. P., 678 Grabow, K., 436 Gradwell, J. M., 611 Graesser, A. C., 346, 358, 381, 425, 426, 433, 436, 444, 445, 448, 533, 626 Graham, C. R., 4, 454, 455, 563 Graham, L. J., 15 Graham, M., 473 Graham, S., 46, 61, 62, 478, 505, 523, 524, 526, 582–586, 634 Granger, K. L., 8 Granja, M. R., 53 Grant, B. O., 56 Grant, S. G., 611 Grasman, R. P. P. P., 188 Grassinger, R., 523 Graves, A., 262, 272 Gray, A., 250 Gray, D. L. L., 58, 514, 520, 544, 574 Gray, P., 337, 338 Gredler, M. E., 115, 117, 118, 120–122, 372 Green, F. L., 372 Green, M., 102 Green, S., 585, 586 Greenberg, M. T., 9, 491 Greene, J. A., 383, 439, 446, 480, 485, 491, 629, 630 Greene, M. B., 585, 586 Greene, M. J., 482 Greeno, J. G., 420 Greenspan, R. L., 349 Greenwald, A. G., 44, 62 Greenwood, E. J., 537 Greer, D., 558 Gregory, A., 13, 15, 217, 511, 592 Greiff, S., 384, 387, 388, 433, 436 Gresalfi, M., 432 Gresham, F. M., 668 Grewal, D., 197 Grieshaber, S., 135 Griffin, D., 392 Griffith, J., 489 Griffiths, S., 138 Grigg, S., 477

Grigorenko, E. L., 195, 198, 200, 212, 214, 233, 430 Grimaldi, P. J., 358 Gripshover, S. J., 525 Gronlund, N. E., 654, 657, 661 Gröschner, A., 605 Gross, J. J., 481, 482, 484, 486, 525 Gross-Loh, C., 527 Grossman, P., 432 Grossnickle, E. M., 531 Grouws, D., 618 Grover, S., 450 Grower, P., 64, 66 Grütter, J., 573 Guardabassi, V., 536 Guay, F., 7, 514 Gubbins, E. J., 277 Guckenburg, S., 580, 592 Gudmundsdottir, G. B., 477 Guglielmi, R. S., 265 Gullotta, T. P., 488 Gumus, B., 517 Gunderson, E. A., 66, 68, 525, 526, 527 Gunn, D., 212 Gunn, K. C. M., 230 Guo, D., 340 Guo, J., 57, 163, 474, 521 Guo, J.-P., 387 Guo, Q., 656 Gupta, N., 71 Gupta, V., 63, 71 Gurian, M., 68, 69 Guryan, J., 52 Guskey, T. R., 663, 666–668, 670, 672, 681 Gustin, W. C., 21 Gutiérrez, K. D., 420, 421, 432 Gwen Marchand, G., 22 Ha, H., 374 Hacker, D. J., 407 Haderlein, S. K., 431 Hadwin, A. F., 436, 485 Haerens, L., 512 Haertel, E. H., 650, 664, 681 Hafen, C. A., 13, 15, 511, 592 Hafez, D. A., 380 Hagborg, W. J., 164 Hagemans, M. G., 379, 380 Haggard, P., 481 Hahn, C.-S, 194 Haidt, J., 167, 171 Hailey, E. P., 231 Haimovitz, K., 527 Hajovsky, D. B., 195 Hakuta, K., 8, 265, 266 Haladyna, T. H., 666, 681, 682 Hale, N. M., 158 Hale, S., 378 Hales, C. M., 137 Haley, M. H., 274 Halim, M. L., 64 Hall, E., 204 Hall, N. C., 163, 536 Hallahan, D. P., 5, 211–216, 218, 225, 228–230, 372, 382, 636 Halpern, D. F., 69, 194, 195 Halvorsen, A. L., 431

Name Index N-7 Hamann, D. L., 605 Hamdan, N., 526 Hamers, J. F., 254 Hamilton, J., 334 Hamilton, R., 277 Hamlett, C. L., 386 Hamm, J., 524 Hamman-Ortiz, L., 268 Hammer, C. S., 250, 251 Hampson, S. E., 135 Hamre, B. K., 11–13, 479, 511 Han, J., 134 Han, Y., 134 Hanafin, J., 623 Hand, V., 432 Hanish, L. D., 64, 69, 70 Hanna, M., 262 Hannafin, M. J., 423, 428, 429, 541 Hannah-Jones, N., 61 Hanselman, P., 525 Hanson, M. H., 198 Hanson-Peterson, J., 490 Hanushek, E. A., 11 Hapgood, S., 427 Happe, F., 245 Harackiewicz, J. M., 65, 517–519, 530, 541 Harber, K. D., 79, 524, 608 Hardaway, T., 614 Hardin, C. J., 310 Hardman, M., 185, 215 Hardy, I., 253, 658 Hargreaves, J., 224 Hargreaves, L., 436 Harklau, L., 264 Harms, M. B., 167 Harms, P. D., 484 Harmsen, R., 427 Harp, S. F., 531 Harper, K., 219 Harrington, H. J., 438 Harris, A. H., 429 Harris, J. R., 146 Harris, K. A., 371, 375 Harris, R. J., 272 Harrison, J., 491 Harrison, J. R., 219 Harrison, S., 334 Hart, S. A., 536 Hart, S. C., 9 Harter, S., 135, 155, 162, 163, 474 Hartley, B. L., 46, 68 Hartman, K., 149 Hartshore, J. K., 248 Hartwig, M. K., 356 Harvey, E. A., 215 Hasan, A., 195 Hasselhorn, M., 163 Hatch, T., 190 Hatfield, D., 448 Hatlevik, O. E., 477 Hattie, J., 509, 514, 574 Hattie, J. A. C., 628, 665 Haugen, C., 268 Haugh, G. P., 391 Hay, P., 138 Hayenga, A. O., 507 Hayes, A. R., 68 Hayes, S. C., 313

Headden, S., 525, 527 Healey, K., 544 Healy, N., 563 Hearn, S., 160 Heath, S. B., 248 Hecht, C. A., 541 Hecht, S. A., 328 Heistad, D., 49, 53 Hellwege, M. A., 477 Helms, J. E., 57 Helwig, C. C., 169 Hemberger, L., 402 Hembrooke, H., 349 Henderikx, M., 525 Henderson, M. D., 493 Hendrick, B. D., 629, 630 Henik, A., 213 Henington, C., 311 Hennessey, B., 198 Hennessey, B. A., 317 Hennessey, M. N., 418, 423, 629 Hennessy, S., 421 Henrich, C. C., 145 Henriksen, D., 198, 202 Henriksen, T. B., 134 Henry, B., 66 Hensley, L., 605 Henson, R. A., 530 Herald, S. L., 148 Herbers, J. E., 49, 53 Herbert, E. A., 566 Herman, J., 663 Herman, K. C., 478, 584 Herman, M., 56 Hermkes, R., 119 Heron, T. E., 287, 293, 296, 298 Herrell, A. L., 256 Herrenkohl, L. R., 440 Herrera, D., 517 Herrero, E. C., 252 Herrmann, Z., 432 Herron, A., 68 Herschkowitz, N., 140 Hertel, S., 658 Herzig, P., 20, 385, 387 Hess, K., 616 Hesse, F. W., 433 Hetherington, E. M., 144 Heverly-Fitt, S., 145, 146 Heward, W. L., 287, 293, 296, 298 Hiatt, R., 134 Hickey, D. T., 417 Hidi, S. E., 481, 529, 531, 541 Hieb, J. L., 381 Hier, B. O., 516 Higgs, J., 421 Higley, K., 418, 423 Hilgard, E. R., 16 Hill, E. L., 133 Hill, H. C., 606 Hill, W. H., 614 Hillemeier, M. M., 114, 187 Hilton, C., 402 Hinckley, D., 149 Hines, C. V., 605 Hines, M., 64 Hinesley, V., 326 Hinojosa, C. P., 525

Hinton, C., 93, 97, 101 Hinz, E., 49, 53 Hiroto, D. S., 524 Hirsch, E. D. Jr., 399 Hirvikoski, T., 217 Hlutkowsky, C. O., 371, 372, 374, 375 Hmelo-Silver, C. E., 429, 431, 445, 446 Hochbein, C., 670 Hochweber, J., 658, 666 Hodis, F. A., 509 Hoepfner, D., 431 Hoffman, H. G., 62 Hoffman, J. A., 230 Hoffman, M. L., 172 Hoffmann, J. D., 8, 9 Hofkens, T. L., 11, 528, 573 Hogan, T., 606 Högden, F., 290 Hoge, R. D., 199, 201 Hogeveen, J., 295 Holden, G. W., 308 Holland, A. A., 584 Holland, J. D., 434 Holland, R. W., 62 Hollis, R. B., 378 Holmes, J. D., 97 Holmström, A., 217 Holt, S. B., 62, 624 Holzberger, D., 478 Homner, L., 449 Hondrich, A. L., 658 Hong, G., 668, 669 Hong, J. S., 582, 583 Hong, J. Y., 555 Honicke, T., 476 Honomichl, R., 391 Hoogerheide, V., 388, 404, 438 Hoogman, M., 211 hooks, b., 73 Hooper, S. Y., 512, 514, 542 Hoover, S., 272 Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., 624 Hope, E. C., 58, 544, 574 Hopkins, E. J., 135, 136 Hopkins, M., 8 Hopkins, R. F., 381 Hopps, J., 46 Horn, J. L., 188 Horn, S. S., 71 Hornstra, L., 62, 536 Horovitz, B., 290 Horowitz, J. M., 47, 56, 61 Horowitz-Johnson, Z., 585 Horst, E. A., 160 Hoselton, R., 310 Houdé, O., 114 Houts, R., 12, 13 Houtte, M. V., 607 Howard, J., 136 Howard, J. L., 511, 514 Howard-Jones, P. A., 99, 101 Howe, C., 421 Howe, K. R., 8 Hoy, K. L., 563, 565 Hoy, W. K., 26, 27, 478, 555 Hsieh, P. P., 523 Hsu, J. Y. L., 436 Hu, A., 431

Hu, F.-T., 389 Huang, C., 519 Huang, F. L., 478, 592 Huang, X., 476 Huber, C. R., 397–399 Hübner, N., 666 Hubscher, R., 122 Hudley, C., 51 Huesmann, L. R., 149 Huettig, F., 389 Hughes, C., 682 Hughes, D., 574 Hughes, E. M., 17 Hughes, J. N., 573, 670 Huguet, P., 45 Huguley, J. P., 57 Hui, L., 480 Huitsing, G., 582 Huizenga, H. M., 188 Hulleman, C. S., 65, 505, 517, 518, 521, 524–526 Hulme, C., 212 Hung, D. W. L., 432 Hung, W., 429, 430 Hunnikin, L. M., 148 Hunt, J. McV., 121, 123 Hunt, N., 228, 229 Hunt, S. K., 605 Hurley, N., 580, 592 Hurry, J., 20 Husbye, N. E., 444 Hushman, C., 121 Hussain, M., 580 Hussar, W., 60 Hutchinson, J. M., 313 Hutchinson, N. L., 216 Hutt, S., 678 Hwang, G.-J., 448 Hwang, N., 577 Hyde, J. S., 63, 65, 69, 168, 195, 541 Hyde, L. W., 51 Hyder, N., 580 Hymel, S., 151, 152, 582, 586 Iachan, R., 525 Ialongo, N. S., 305 Icenogle, G., 485 Igielnik, R., 47 Iglesias, A., 253 Ihori, N., 149 Ilioska, I., 211 Ilten-Gee, R., 169, 170 Imai-Matsumura, K., 478 Immordino-Yang, M. H., 196, 488, 534 Inbar, J., 608 Ingram, J., 627 Inhelder, B., 110 Inns, A. I., 436, 440 Institute of Education Sciences (IES), 393 Iordanou, K., 401, 402 Ireland, G. W., 476 Irewole-Ojo, F. O., 134 Irvine, J. J., 79, 593 Isaacson, W., 345 Ispa-Landa, S., 592 Ito, M., 420

N-8  Name Index Ivcevic, Z., 536 Iverson, H., 427, 429 Izard, C. E., 49 Jabbar, A. I. A., 449 Jackson, A., 423 Jackson, L. A., 445 Jackson, Y., 308 Jacobs, A., 156 Jacobs, J. E., 164 Jacobson, L., 606 Jacobson, M. J., 388, 402 Jadallah, M., 436 Jaeger, A. J., 376, 391 Jaffee, S., 168 Jagers, R. J., 489, 493 Jain, S., 537, 539 James, C., 452 James, W., 16, 70, 165, 471, 484 Jamieson, J. P., 534, 537 Jamil, F. M., 479 Jang, H., 511, 542 Janika, A., 135 Janosz, M., 23 Janssen, J., 435 Jarrett, R., 143 Jarrold, C., 212 Järvelä, S., 436, 485 Jarvin, L., 195, 233 Jaswal, V. K., 245 Jaycox, L. H., 10 Jellesma, F. C., 11, 558 Jennings, P. A., 220, 490, 491 Jensen, E., 50, 51, 53, 54 Jensen, J. L., 664 Jensen, L. A., 173 Jenson, W. R., 305 Jeong, H., 445 Jeong, S., 522 Jerome, E. M., 13 Jerrim, J., 429, 430 Jerusalem, M., 537 Jewell, J. A., 65 Jha, A., 491 Ji, Y., 97 Jia, Y., 574 Jiang, Y., 48, 197, 488, 522 Jimerson, S. R., 669 Jirout, J. J., 531, 533 Jitendra, A. K., 20, 385, 387 Jo, K., 445 Job, V., 481 Jobson, L., 348 Joel, D., 63, 69, 195 Joët, G., 476 Johnson, A., 217 Johnson, A. H., 221 Johnson, D. W., 435, 436, 441, 442, 483, 516, 661–663 Johnson, J. F., 58 Johnson, P., 421 Johnson, R. C., 61, 441 Johnson, R. T., 435, 436, 441, 442, 516, 661–663 Johnson, S., 51, 295 Johnson, S. M., 682 John-Steiner, V., 115 Johnston, O., 607 Jolly, J. L., 232

Jones, B. D., 166 Jones, K. P., 624 Jones, L., 571, 572, 575, 577, 588, 590, 591 Jones, M., 51 Jones, M. G., 607 Jones, M. H., 519 Jones, M. L., 56 Jones, S. H., 429 Jones, S. M., 9, 15, 66, 148, 488, 489, 584 Jones, V., 571, 572, 575, 577, 588, 590, 591 Jonsdottir, I. J., 590 Jonsson, A., 486, 487, 495 Jordan, A., 606 Jordan, M., 256 Jörg, V., 490 Judd, T., 334 Jun, S., 253 Jung, H., 195 Jung, L. A., 667 Jurbergs, N., 304 Jussim, L., 606, 608, 610 Justice, L. V., 348 Juth, S., 522 Juvonen, J., 520, 584, 586, 670 K–12 Computer Science Teachers Association, 449 Kachanoff, F. J., 514 Kackar-Cam, H. Z., 540, 573 Kaendler, C., 437 Kagan, J., 140 Kagan, S., 438–440 Kahn, E., 70, 71 Kahn, J., 9, 488, 489 Kahneman, D., 38, 62 Kain, J. F., 11 Kain, J. J., 11 Kaiser, J., 232 Kalenkoski, C. M., 623 Kalinowski, A. G., 21 Kalogrides, D., 681 Kalyuga, S., 384, 386–388, 393, 430 Kamp, E. T., 427 Kana’iaupuni, S. M., 74 Kanazawa, S., 187, 188 Kane, M. J., 198, 200 Kang, H., 523 Kang, S. H. K., 358, 509 Kantamneni, N., 477 Kapinus, B. A., 613 Kaplan, A., 480, 517–519, 522 Kaplan, J. S., 307 Kaplan, S. N., 230 Kapur, M., 402 Karp, K. S., 386 Karpicke, J. D., 380 Karpicke, J. J., 358 Karson, A., 574 Kaschak, M., 249, 250 Katartzi, E., 507, 512 Katz, I., 514, 542 Katz, S. R., 151 Katzir, T., 98 Kauffman, J. M., 5, 211–216, 218, 225, 228–230, 307, 309, 316, 372, 382, 636

Kaufman, J., 198 Kaufman, T. M., 582 Kauser, R., 142 Kavanagh, S. S., 432, 629 Kazdin, A. E., 292, 298, 299, 304, 307–309 Keane, J. N., 53 Keating, D., 13, 151 Keavney, M., 316 Keefe, J. W., 204 Kehle, T. J., 305 Kellam, S. G., 305 Keller, M. M., 162, 163, 539, 605 Keller, U., 162, 163 Kelly, D. J., 45 Kelly, D. L., 673 Kelly, D. R., 482, 483 Kelly, J. B., 144 Kelly, M. L., 304 Kelly, S., 626 Kelly, Y., 134 Keltner, D., 51 Kemp, C., 206 Kempert, S., 253 Kennedy, J. J., 605 Kennedy, P., 473 Keogh, R., 338 Kern, M. L., 514, 574 Kerr, M, 134 Kersting, N., 526 Keyes, T. S., 483 Khanem, F., 133 Kiang, L., 57 Kicken, W., 18 Kiesel, A., 334 Kiewra, K. A., 425 Kilcher, A., 429 Killewald, A., 48 Killingsworth, M. A., 334 Killingsworth, S. S., 449 Kim, C.-M., 423, 428, 429, 541 Kim, E. J., 511 Kim, H., 670 Kim, H. E., 60, 61 Kim, J., 431, 511 Kim, J. A., 343 Kim, J. S., 52 Kim, L. E., 478 Kim, M., 511 Kim, N. J., 445 Kim, P., 50–51 Kim, S. il, 522 Kim, S.-I., 531 Kim, S.-Y., 116 Kim, Y., 61, 661 Kim, Y.-S., 249, 250 Kinach, B. M., 430 Kincade, L., 573 Kindsay, J. J., 623 King, A., 438, 440 King, E. M., 449 King, R. B., 519, 526 Kinnell, A., 195 Kipperman, K. L., 215, 217 Kirk, S. A., 444 Kirschner, P. A., 18, 424, 430, 445, 620 Kirshner, B., 420 Kitil, M. J., 490

Kittelman, A., 310 Kizzie, K. T., 58, 60 Klahr, D., 430, 431 Klass, P., 246 Klassen, R. M., 7, 473, 476, 478, 479, 490, 535 Klauda, S. L., 521 Klee, H. L., 538, 543 Kleickmann, T., 529 Klein, D., 68, 253 Klein, H. J., 517 Klein, M., 211 Klein, S., 68, 253 Klein, S. B., 287, 289, 294 Klein, S. S., 429 Kleinfeld, J., 68 Klesse, L. J., 584 Klieme, E., 658 Klinger, J., 210 Klopack, E. T., 135 Klusmann, U., 11, 606, 686 Knapp, M. S., 53 Knifsend, C., 520 Knight, G. P., 55 Knightly, L. M., 253 Knoppick, H., 634 Knotek, S. E., 223 Knowlton, B. J., 333 Kobayashi, K., 378 Koch, I., 334 Kochenderfer-Ladd, B., 436, 585 Kochhar, R., 47 Koedinger, K., 346, 358, 381, 425, 426, 626 Koedinger, K. R., 20, 385, 387 Koenig, E. A., 516 Koenig, M. A., 167 Koenig, O., 345 Koenka, A. C., 480 Koeppen-Schomerus, G., 245 Koestner, R., 316, 514 Kogachi, K., 61 Kogan, I., 607, 608 Kogan, M. D., 6 Kohlberg, L., 167 Kohn, A., 310, 316, 317, 483–484, 666 Koike, R., 478 Kokko, K., 148 Kollar, I., 445 Kollar, M., 48 Köller, O., 164, 165 Konstantopoulos, S., 431 Koomen, H. M. K., 558 Koomen, H. M. Y., 11, 478, 558, 575 Koopman, R., 160 Koorn, P., 525 Korf, R., 390 Koriat, A., 351 Korman, H. T. N., 53 Korn, Z., 313 Körndle, H., 419 Kornell, N., 378 Korte, G., 8 Kosciw, J. G., 71 Koser, L., 20 Koslouski, J. B., 10, 220, 222 Kosse, F., 482

Name Index N-9 Kosslyn, S. M., 326, 345, 346 Kouider, S., 372 Kounin, J. S., 471, 570 Koury, A. S., 263 Kovas, Y., 484, 536 Kovelman, I., 254, 255 Kozulin, A., 115, 116, 120 Kraft, M. A., 484 Krajcik, J., 431 Kratchovil, C. J., 216 Krathwohl, D. R., 614, 615 Kratzig, G. P., 204 Kraus, M. W., 48, 51 Krauss, S., 606 Kreider, H., 250, 272 Kretschmann, J., 17 Kreuzberger, C., 149 Kristen, C., 607, 608 Kroger, J., 159 Kronberger, N., 45 Krone, C. R., 196, 488, 534 Kronholz, J., 231, 232 Krueger, J. L., 165 Kruger, A. C., 122 Kudyn, M., 526 Kuhfeld, M., 7 Kuhlmann, S., 381 Kuhn, D., 110, 401, 402, 434, 621 Kuhn, L., 555 Kuklinski, M. R., 607–609 Kulik, C. C., 634 Kulik, J. A., 634 Kulikowich, J. M., 352 Kummer, T. A., 664 Kuncel, N. R., 49, 397–399 Kunter, M., 478, 606, 624, 658 Kupzyk, S., 297 Kurlakowsky, K. D., 158 Kush, J. M., 586, 592 Kuyper, H., 163 Kyndt, E., 436 Kyungmin, K., 608 LaBrot, Z. C., 297 Lachner, A., 388, 438 Ladd, G. W., 148, 149, 436 Ladson-Billings, G., 58, 61, 73, 74, 79, 81 Ladwig, J., 150 Lahat, A., 169 Lai, C. K., 44 Lai, P., 402 Laibson, D., 491 Lake, V. E., 169 Lamb, M. E., 142 Lambert, R., 61 Lambert, S. F., 158 Landrum, T. J., 307, 309, 316 Lane, D., 173 Langan-Fox, J., 425 Langer, J. A., 629 Lange-Schubert, K., 529 Langley, R., 375 Langley, S. D., 277 Lansford, J. E., 485 Lanza, S., 164 LaParo, K. M., 13 LaPier, 248 LaQuea, R., 149

LaRocque, J., 341 Larsen, R., 454, 479, 573 Larson, K. E., 592 LaRusso, M. D., 15 Larzelere, R. E., 142 Latawiec, B., 436 Latham, G. P., 303, 313, 515, 517 Lather, P., 24 Lauermann, F., 521, 530 Lauver, K., 375 Lave, J., 404, 417, 420, 432 Lawler, M. J., 10 Lawless, K., 635 Lawlor, J., 434 Lawrence, F. R., 251 Lawson, H. A., 514 Lawson, M. A., 514 Lazarides, R., 478, 530 Lazonder, A. W., 427 Lazowski, R. A., 505 Leaf, P. J., 312 Leaper, C., 64, 65, 260 Leary, M. R., 514 Lease, M. A., 147 Lebuda, I., 198 Ledward, B., 74 Lee, C., 228 Lee, C. D., 326, 348, 664 Lee, G., 482 Lee, H. S., 374, 389 Lee, J., 3, 25, 27, 44, 55, 68, 530 Lee, J. Y. K., 46 Lee, K., 45, 385, 573 Lee, L. H. J., 612 Lee, M., 519 Lee, M. Y., 430 Lee, R. M., 55 Lee, S., 45 Lee, S. J., 44, 255 Lee, S. Y., 475 Lee, W., 540 Lee, Y. K., 438, 441 LeFevre, J. A., 117, 249 Leff, S., 585 Lefler, M., 445 Leh J. M., 385 Lehmann, R., 634 Lehr, C. A., 575 Lei, P.-W., 9 Leigh, E., 212 Leinhardt, G., 620 LeMahieu, P., 663 Leman, P. J., 402, 438 Lemelson, R., 38 Lemery-Chalfant, K., 488 Lemmer, G., 526 Lenhart, A., 444, 448 Lens, W., 517 Lent, R. W., 476 Leonard, J. A., 53 Leong, D. J., 120 Lepper, M. R., 316 Leppink, J., 339 Lerkkanen, M. K., 423 Lerner, M. D., 135, 136 Lerner, R. M., 140 Lesaux, N., 266 Lester, N. L., 581 Leung, A. K.-Y., 201

Leung, M. C., 148 Levesque, C., 262 Levin, J. R., 357, 358, 577 Levine, S. C., 66, 68, 525, 527 Levitin, D. J., 333 Levitt, P., 51 Levontin, L., 519 Levy, I., 530 Levy, S., 622 Lewedeg, V., 253 Lewis, C., 142 Lewis, W. E., 515 Lewis-Smith, H., 137–139 Lewno-Dumdie, B., 195 Lew-Williams, C., 253 Lhamon, C. E., 63, 71 Li, C. R., 22, 475 Li, D., 400 Li, H., 187 Li, J.-B., 482 Li, M., 439, 629, 630 Li, T., 211 Li, W., 431 Li, Y., 9, 525 Liben, L. S., 64, 68 Lichtenfeld, S., 535 Lickliter, R., 89 Lidz, J. L., 245 Liebtag, E., 268 Lieven, E., 246 Lillard, A. S., 135, 136 Lillemyr, O. F., 136 Lim, S. W., 668 Limber, S. P., 585 Lin, C.-H., 445, 487 Lin, L., 525 Lin, T. J., 436 Lin, T.-Z., 424 Linan-Thompson, S., 266 Lindsay, P. H., 330 Lindstrom Johnson, S., 556, 586, 593 Linford, B. J., 517 Ling, D. S., 485, 491 Ling, G., 574 Linn, M. C., 417, 432 Linnenbrink, E. A., 519 Linnenbrink-Garcia, L., 231, 519, 520, 522, 528, 534 Linquanti, R., 8 Lipnevich, A. A., 539 Lisciandrello, J., 563 Lisette, W., 428, 431 Lismont, B., 436 Liszkowski, U., 136 Litalien, D., 514 Litke, E., 685 Little, S., 580 Liu, J., 7, 134 Liu, Q., 388 Liu, S., 61 Liu, W. M., 46 Liu, Y., 97, 431 Livingstone, S., 420 Lobczowski, N. G., 439 LoBue, V., 149 Lochman, J. E., 494 Locke, E. A., 303, 313, 466, 515, 517 Lockhart, R. S., 341

Lockl, K., 372 Loewenstein, J., 390 Loftus, E. F., 349 Logan, J. A. R., 536 Logel, C., 45, 46, 56, 57 Loi, M., 477 Lombardi, D., 425 London, K., 349 London, R., 136–137 Lonergan, A., 138 Long, A., 593 Long, J. D., 49, 53 Long, J. F., 536 Lonigan, C. J., 210, 249, 250, 265 López, I., 48 Lopez, M. H., 43, 56 Lorch, E. P., 217, 376 Lorch, R. F., 376 Lorde, A., 42 Lorenz, G., 607, 608 Loschky, L. C., 272 Losel, F., 582 Losey, K. M., 264 Lotan, R. A., 433 Lou, X., 134 Loughran, J., 606 Lount, R. B. Jr., 517 Love, B. L., 73, 74, 77, 484 Loveless, T., 614, 624 Lovelett, J., 356 Lovison, V. S., 62 Lowenstein, A. E., 11 Loyens, S. M. M., 404, 428, 429, 431 Lu, L., 478 Lubart, T., 198 Lubienski, S. T., 66 Lubinski, D., 17, 234 Lucariello, L. M., 327 Luckner, A. E., 13 Lüdtke, O., 11, 17, 163–165, 536, 539, 623–624, 686 Luftenegger, M., 519 Lui, A. M., 606 Luke, N., 153 Lun, J., 13 Luna, B., 96 Lundström, U., 137 Lunsford, L. B., 682 Lupkowski-Shoplik, A., 17 Lyle, K. B., 381 Lyons, M. D., 575 Lysenko, L., 23 Ma, S., 436 Ma, T. L., 482 Ma, Y., 454 Maaz, K., 634 Mabry, L., 661 Mac, J., 44 MacCann, C., 197, 488 Macdonald, K., 17, 97 MacDonald, S., 476 Mace, F. C., 313 Macedonia, M., 345 Mach, H., 119 Machado, A., 105 Macionis, J. J., 46–47, 55 Mack, T. R., 385

N-10  Name Index MacLeod, J., 454 MacMillan, D. L., 668 MacRae, A., 581 Maczuga, S., 114, 187, 250 Madaus, G. F., 681 Madden, A., 376 Maddux, W. W., 201 Madison, S. M., 609 Madsen, C. H., 20 Madsen, K., 605 Maeda, Y., 404 Maehler, C., 212 Maehr, M. L., 480 Maenner, M. J., 6 Mäeots, M., 427 Maggin, D. M., 491 Magnan, A., 445 Magnuson, K., 50 Magnusson, S. J., 427, 428 Mahieu, P., 607 Mahlberga, N., 349 Mahn, H., 115 Mahon, J., 297 Mai, J., 134 Maier, M. A., 534 Mainhard, T., 536 Makel, M. C., 439 Makransky, G., 448 Malanchuk, O., 68 Malby, R. W., 449, 450 Malecki, C. K., 605 Malin, J., 524 Malin, J. L., 231 Malinen, O. P., 478 Malmberg, L. E., 478 Malone, N., 74 Malone, P. S., 485 Maloney, E. A., 536 Maloy, R. W., 454 Mañá, A., 372 Manfra, M. M., 23 Mangan, D., 685 Mann, F. B., 60 Manning, B. H., 493, 494 Manoli, C. C., 427 Mantilla, A., 135 Mao, Y., 117 Mara, K. R., 522 Marchand, A. D., 50, 68 Marcia, J. E., 159, 160 Marcum, M., 424 Marder, K., 136 Marecek, J., 76, 77 Marevic, I., 341 Marinova-Todd, S., 253 Markauskaite, L., 402 Markman, E. M., 245 Markowitz, A. J., 8 Marks, A., 57 Marks, A. K., 161 Markstrom, C., 55 Marley, S. C., 121, 422 Marois, R., 334 Marraccini, M. E., 223 Marrin, S., 386 Marsh, E. J., 356, 381 Marsh, H. W., 162–166, 474, 521, 525, 535, 536 Marsh, J. A., 614 Marshall, D., 253

Marshall, H. H., 417, 421 Marshall, K., 228, 229 Marshall, M., 229 Martella, A. M., 431 Martin, A. J., 162–164 Martin, C. L., 63, 64, 69, 70 Martin, F., 450 Martin, G. N., 452 Martin, J., 417, 418 Martin, M. O., 673 Martin, R., 162, 163, 188, 266 Martin, R. E., 484 Martinez, F. D., 51 Martinez, S., 553, 559, 575, 577 Martinez-Fuentes, S., 57 Martinussen, M., 159 Martiny, S. E., 475 Marvin, K. L., 307 Marx, R., 431 Marzano, J. S., 555 Marzano, R. J., 555 Mascolo, M. F., 112 Masia, B. B., 615 Masiello, M., 585 Masland, L. C., 147 Maslow, A. H., 509, 533 Mason, D. A., 635 Mason, L., 418, 420 Masten, A. S., 49, 53 Master, A., 65, 525 Mastergeorge, A. M., 438 Mastropieri, M, A., 206, 210 Mathias, B., 345 Mathis, E., 9 Matjasko, J. L., 53 Matos, F., 402 Matos, L., 517 Matson, J. L., 230 Matson, M. L., 230 Matsumura, L. C., 562 Matthews, G., 492, 537 Matthews, J. S., 58, 60, 522 Matthews, M. D., 482, 483 Matthews, S., 340 Mattison, R., 187 Maupin, A. N., 62 Mavilidi, M. F., 340 May, H., 250 May, S., 266 Mayer, J., 196, 197 Mayer, R. E., 287, 326, 340, 354, 397, 417, 425, 438, 446, 448, 449, 476, 487, 492, 531 McAllister, P. A., 605 McArdle, J. J., 188 McCafferty, S. G., 118 McCain, M. R. C., 477 McCandliss, B. D., 97 McCarthy, M. R., 311 McCaslin, M., 417, 424, 434–436, 492, 495, 558 McClain, S., 51 McClelland, M. M., 485 McClintic-Gilbert, M. S., 507 McCoach, D. B., 277 McCormick, M. P., 150 McCrudden, M. T., 22 McDaniel, M., 17, 204, 346, 358, 381, 425, 426, 626

McDaniel, M. A., 101, 204, 326, 341, 353, 355, 356, 376, 491, 664 McDermott, K. B., 353 McDevitt, T. M., 95, 96 McDonald, C. L., 146, 147 McDonald, K. L., 145, 146 McDonald, L., 607–609 McDougall, P., 148 McEwen, B. S., 51 McGarrah, M. W., 9, 488 McGill-Frazen, A., 52 McGoey, K. E., 299 McGovern, L., 376 Mcgrath, L. M., 17, 97, 476 McHugh, J. R., 23 McIlveen, P., 477 McInerney, D. M., 519 McIntosh, K., 310, 593 McIntosh, P., 58, 76, 77 McKay, S., 525, 527 McKellar, S. E., 68 McKenna, J., 669 McKenna, J. W., 305 McKinley, J. C., 100 McKinsey, P., 68, 253 McLean, K. C., 56 McLean, L., 8 McLeod, S. A., 204 McLeskey, J., 218, 219 McLoughlin, G., 536 McMillan, J. H., 653, 664, 670 McNamara, D. S., 448 McNeil, N. M., 424 McNurlen, B., 116 McQuillin, S. D., 575 McTighe, J., 614, 632 McTigue, E., 340 Meade, M. E., 381 Medina, M., 56 Mediratta, K., 15, 592 Meece, J. L., 165, 303, 313, 469, 515, 518, 519, 530, 537 Meens, D. E., 8 Mehta, P. D., 266 Meichenbaum, D., 493 Meijer, A. M., 537 Meissel, K., 607–609 Meister, C., 123 Meister, D. G., 15 Mejia-Arauz, R., 250 Melby-Lervåg, M., 212 Melnick, S. A., 15 Melrose, S., 425 Meltzoff, A. N., 65 Mendle, J., 134, 135 Mendoza, E., 421 Mendoza, K., 452 Menon, V., 212 Menzer, M. M., 146, 147 Mercado, E., 91, 94, 289, 290, 292, 295, 326, 327, 349, 534 Mercer, L. K., 372, 492, 495 Mercer, N., 115, 117, 421 Meredith, M. D., 136 Mereish, E. H., 71 Merritt, A., 149 Merritt, J., 430 Mertler, C. A., 25, 664 Merton, R. K., 607

Messano, F., 151 Messina, J. P., 167, 168 Mestre, J. P., 385 MET Project, 686 Metcalfe, J., 346, 358, 381, 425, 426, 482, 626 Metz, K., 250 Metzler, C. W., 312 Meyer, D. K., 540, 558, 573 Meyering, E. E., 341 Mhatre, P., 526 Miccio, A. W., 251 Michalchik, V., 420 Michalowski, J., 574 Michou, A., 517 Mickelson, R. A., 61 Middleton, M. J., 480, 518, 519 Midgley, C., 173, 480, 518 Midgley, L., 20 Miele, D. B., 481, 504, 525 Migliacci, N., 257 Mihaly, K., 686 Mikami, A. Y., 13, 15, 511, 592 Mikkers, J., 429 Milich, R., 217 Milkman, K. L., 491 Miller, A., 519 Miller, A. D., 538, 543 Miller, B., 436, 629 Miller, F. G., 593 Miller, G. A., 335, 336 Miller, L., 100 Miller, M., 436, 485 Miller, N., 438 Miller, P. H., 89, 90, 102, 103, 107, 112–114, 116, 122, 141, 155, 156, 159, 160, 248, 418 Miller, R. B., 301 Miller, S., 149 Miller, S. A., 107, 248, 335 Miller, S. M., 115, 116, 120 Miller, S. P., 425 Miller-Cotto, D., 352 Miller-Perrin, C., 308 Milner, H. R. IV., 50, 51, 54–56, 58, 60, 73, 151 Min, E., 449 Minbashian, A., 197, 488 Minch, D., 574 Minnameier, G., 119 Miranda, T. Z., 257, 266 Mirpuri, S., 62 Mischel, W., 482 Mishra, P., 198, 202, 603 Mislevy, R. J., 448 Mistry, R. S., 48, 50, 51 Mitchell, C., 51, 262 Mitchell, M., 529 Mitchison, D., 138 Miyake, A., 118 Miyamoto, K., 93, 97, 100, 101 Mo, L., 391 Moè, A., 514, 605 Moeller, J., 536 Moeller, K., 566 Moise-Titus, J., 149 Mok, K., 68, 253 Moll, H., 136 Moll, L. C., 115, 124, 274, 625 Moller, A. C., 511

Name Index N-11 Moller, J., 163, 232 Moller, K., 529 Molnár, G., 384 Mond, J., 138 Monk, C. S., 51 Monk, J. S., 204 Monopoli, W. J., 585 Monroe, C. R., 593 Monsaas, J. A., 21 Montalbano, C., 629, 630 Montroy, J. J., 485 Montrul, S., 254 Montuori, A., 198 Moon, T. R., 231 Moore, D. W., 230 Moore, J., 297 Moos, D. C., 487 Mootoo, C., 62 Mora, L., 43, 56 Morehead, J., 525 Morehead, K., 376, 378 Morell, M., 484 Morelli, G., 114 Morgan, H., 76 Morgan, K. L., 431 Morgan, P. L., 114 Morgenroth, T., 475 Morger, V., 605 Mor-Hagani, S., 407 Morin, A., 579 Morin, A. J. S., 163, 166, 514 Morin, H. K., 586 Morin, R., 56 Morin, V. A., 425 Morine-Dershimer, G., 611 Morisano, D., 515 Morris, D. B., 478 Morris, E. W., 62 Morris, J., 436 Morris, P. A., 140 Morris, R., 100 Morris, T. R., 476 Morrison, C. M., 348 Morrison, F. J., 12, 13, 151, 485 Morrow, L. M., 566 Morsanyi, K., 536 Mortenson, E., 580 Morton, M. H., 53 Moseley, D. V., 204 Moser, U., 10 Moshman, D., 418, 419 Mouratidis, A., 507, 508, 512, 520 Mraz, M., 373 Mudrick, N. V., 487 Mueller, C. M., 299 Mueller, K. J., 527 Mueller, P. A., 487 Muenks, K., 484, 525 Muething, C. S., 305 Muhonen, H., 423 Muis, K. R., 480, 482 Mulé, C., 230 Mulet, J., 445 Muller, C., 185, 525, 526 Müller, H., 334 Mullins, N., 71 Mullins, T. S., 295 Mullis, I. V. S., 673 Mun, R. U., 277 Munger, K. A., 250

Muñoz, A., 423 Munt, E. D., 313 Murayama, K., 517, 519, 530, 535, 536 Murdock, S. G., 311 Murdock, T. A., 173 Murdock, T. B., 158 Murphey, D., 222 Murphy, M., 526 Murphy, N. A., 137 Murphy, P. K., 101, 399, 426, 439, 629, 630 Murray, C. S., 250 Murray, D. W., 555 Murray, J. S., 525, 526 Murray, M. S., 250 Murray, S. B., 138 Muschkin, C. G., 670 Musci, R. J., 310, 312 Museus, S. D., 44 Myers, C. E., 91, 94, 289, 290, 292, 295, 326, 327, 349, 534 Myers, D. G., 55, 392 Myerson, J., 378 MyIntyre, J., 9, 489 Na, V. S., 44 Nadler, J. T., 46 NAEA, 188, 201 Nagaoka, J., 483 Nagata, J. M., 138 Nagengast, B., 166, 623–625, 666 Nagin, D. S., 148 Nagle, R., 254 Naglieri, J. A., 118 Nagy, G., 625 Nakajima, N., 195 Nakamoto, J., 249 Napolitano, C. M., 10 Narciss, S., 419 Nash, P., 448 Nasir, N. S., 144, 153, 155 Nastasi, B. K., 327 Nathan, M. J., 381 National Alliance of Black School Educators, 187 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 195 National Association for Gifted Children (NAGC), 231 National Center for Education Statistics, 54, 55 National Center for Homeless Education, 53 National Center on Family Homelessness, 53 National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future, 5 National Immigration Forum, 261 National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Early Child Care Research Network, 249 National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), 224 National Science Foundation, 62

National Science Foundation, National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, 62 Navarrete Berges, A., 511 Navarro, R. L., 476 Neblett, E., 55, 56 Needham, A., 113, 120 Neff, D., 124, 274, 625 Neisser, U., 195 Nelson, B., 9, 489 Nelson, J. R., 100 Nelson, K. E., 342, 350 Nelson, N., 473 Nemec, P. B., 590 Nesbit, J. C., 380, 388 Ness, I. J., 198 Nett, U. E., 539 Nettle, D., 52 Neubrand, M., 606 Neuman, M., 624 Neuman, S. B., 617 Neumann, K., 605 Neumann, M., 634, 666 Neumeister, K. L. S., 198–199 Neves-Pereira, M.S., 198 Newman, S. E., 360 Newsom, J. S., 66 Newton, P. M., 204 Ng, E. L., 385 Ng, S. F., 385 Nguyen, B. M. D., 592 Nguyen, L., 573 Nguyen, U. S., 53 Nguyen-Jahiel, K. T., 116, 436, 629 Nguyen-Pham, H., 149 Nicholls, J. G., 519 Nicholson, L. J., 536 Nickerson, K., 162 NIDDK, 228 Niemib, P., 349 Niens, U., 44, 45 Nieto, S., 73 Nigam, M., 430 Niggli, A., 623, 624 NIMH, 223 Nisbett, R. E., 38, 194 Nitko, T. J., 648, 649 Nix, R. L., 342 Njokanma, O. F., 134 Noack, P., 574 Nock, M. K., 352 Noddings, N., 169, 200 Noe-Bustamante, L., 43, 56 Noguera, P., 151, 592 Nokes, J. D., 398, 407 Nokes-Malach, T. J., 371, 372, 374, 375, 385, 396, 406, 517 Nolan, J. F., 577 Nolen, S. B., 543 Noor, N. M., 44, 45 Norbert, F., 254 Norby, M. M., 334, 340, 353, 354, 371, 384, 394, 417, 419 Nordby, C. J., 372, 492, 495 Nordström, A. L., 217 Norman, D. A., 330 Northwest Education Association (NWEA), 648 Norton, E., 100

Norwalk, K. E., 11, 686 Novack, M., 389 Novak, A., 51 Novodvorsky, I., 556, 557, 559, 578, 584, 586–588, 611, 628 Ntoumanis, N., 507, 512 Nucci, L. P., 142, 169–171 Nulty, A., 448 Nunes, T., 20 Nussbaum, E. M., 401, 421, 426 Nussbaum, M., 402 Nuttall, A. K., 61 Nuttall, J., 135 Nyberg, L., 352 Nye, B., 623 Nylund, D., 215, 217, 218 Nystrand, M., 626, 629 Oakes, J., 18, 53 Oakes, M. A., 62 Oberle, E., 9, 491 Obidah, J. E., 593 O’Brennan, L. M., 584 Oburu, P., 485 O’Campo, P. J., 162 O’Connor, B. C., 217 O’Connor, C., 52 O’Connor, E. E., 150 O’Connor, P. A., 536 Oczlon, S., 519 Odegard, T. N., 350 Oden, M. H., 232 O’Doherty, J. P., 290 O’Donnell, A. M., 434, 435, 437, 438, 447 O’Donnell, J., 48 Oduwole, A. O., 134 Oettingen, G., 481 Ogbu, J. U., 51 Ogbuehi, P., 20, 385, 387 Ogden, C. L., 137 Oğuz, E., 454–455 Oh, J. S., 253 Oh, S., 231 Oh, Y., 491 Ohio Department of Education, 256 Okagaki, L., 52, 75 O’Keefe, B., 53 O’Keefe, P. A., 519 O’Kelly, J., 434 Okkinga, M., 382 Oldham, E., 434 O’Leary, A. P., 372 O’Leary, K. D., 299 O’Leary, S., 299, 307 O’Leary, S. G., 299 Oliver, M., 429, 430 Oller, D. K., 253 Olney, A. M., 626 Olsen, B., 666 Olsen, J., 134 Olson, D. R., 23 Olsson, L., 328 Olsson, M., 475 Olszewski-Kubilius, P., 439 Olweus, D., 585 O’Mara, A., 163 O’Mara, A. J., 164 Omarshah, T., 511

N-12  Name Index O’Neal, C. R., 484 O’Neil, K., 147 O’Neill, J. C., 223 O’Neill, R. E., 311 Oppenheimer, D. M., 487 Orange, C., 578 Orben, A., 452 O’Reilly, T., 348 Orfield, G., 61 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 68, 96, 436 Orlando, L., 105 Ormiston, H., 553, 559, 575, 577 Ormrod, J. E., 95, 96, 326, 327, 377 Orobio de Castro, B., 670 Orosco, M. J., 210 ORR, 261 Orr, A., 70, 71 Osborne, J. F., 401 Osborne, J. W., 166 Osenk, I., 166 Osgood, D. W., 164 Oslund, E., 250 Ostarek, M., 389 Östergren, R., 328 Osterhage, J., 478 Osterman, K. F., 574 Ostrov, J. M., 149 Osuna, J., 356 Otten, S., 455 Otto, B., 246 Oudman, S., 536 Ouellette, R., 79, 524 Ovando, C. J., 266 Overman, L. T., 51 Overstreet, S., 221 Owens, E. B., 142 Owens, J. S., 215, 217, 219 Owens, R. D., Jr., 219, 245, 246, 259, 260 Owens, R. J. Q., 379 Ownston, R. D., 449 Özek, U., 682 Paas, F., 338–340, 438, 525 Pabilonia, S. W., 623 Padilla, D., 57 Padilla-Munoz, E. M., 489 Padmanabhan, A., 96 Pahlke, E., 69 Pai, H.-H., 404 Paik, E. S., 205 Paivio, A., 345, 381 Pajares, F., 16, 35, 162, 165, 315, 466, 474–476 Pakarinen, E., 423 Palardy, G., 51, 79 Palcic, J., 304 Palikara, O., 467 Palincsar, A. S., 377, 417, 418, 424, 425, 427, 428, 435, 438, 440 Palmer, D., 268 Palmquist, C. M., 135, 136 Pan, S. C., 356 Pan, Y., 555 Panadero, E., 486, 487, 495 Pang, M. F., 387

Panitz, T., 434 Pansky, A., 351 Papageorge, N. W., 62, 608 Pape, S., 51 Papert, S., 450 Pare-Blagoev, J., 98 Paris, A. H., 557 Paris, D., 76 Paris, S. G., 492, 494 Park, B., 531 Park, D., 62, 483, 527 Park, E., 44 Park, G., 17, 234 Park, H. M., 517 Park, J. W., 48 Park, L. E., 165 Parke, R. D., 142, 163 Parker, C., 581 Parker, J. H., 489 Parker, K., 56 Parker, M., 20 Parker, P. D., 163, 166 Parner, E., 134 Parnis, K., 581 Partika, A. C., 375 Pas, E. T., 310, 312, 592 Pascalis, O., 45 Pashler, H., 17, 204, 346, 358, 381, 425, 426, 480, 626 Pasqua, J. L., 297 Passmore, A., 491 Pastorelli, C., 473, 485 Patall, E. A., 308, 512, 514, 519, 522, 528, 542, 623 Patel, S., 584 Patel, Y., 211 Patrick, H., 517, 518, 540 Patton, D. U., 582 Patton, F., 161 Pauk, W., 379 Paul, R., 316, 397, 398 Pauli, W. M., 290 Paulos, L., 334 Paulsen, D. J., 96 Paunesku, D., 493, 525 Payne, A. C., 249 Payne, B. D., 493, 494 PBS, 57 Pea, R., 450 Pearl, R., 148 Pearson, B. Z., 253 Pearson, J., 338 Peck, S. C., 144, 153, 155 Pedaste, M., 427 Pedersen, N. L., 188 Pekrun, R., 163, 356, 381, 474, 517, 521, 534–536, 547 Pelham, W. E., 217 Pell, T., 436 Pellegrino, J. R., 682 Pellegrino, J. W., 635 Pellis, S., 135 Pendakur, S. L., 44 Penn, L. T., 476 Pennebaker, J. W., 524 Penuel, W., 420 Penuel, W. R., 433 Peppler, K., 420 Peregoy, S. F., 254, 258, 266–268

Perera, H. N., 477 Perez, A. M., 190 Perez, C., 255 Perez, T., 522 Perfetti, C. A., 100 Perkins, D. N., 403, 425 Perner, J., 371 Perrin, A., 159 Perry, B. L., 62 Perry, N. E., 62, 65, 108, 134–137, 147, 155, 167, 172, 232, 249, 313, 372, 479, 490–492, 494, 495 Perry, R. P., 524, 536 Persson, H., 580, 592 Peruche, B. M., 62 Perusse, D., 147, 148 Peters, K., 475 Peterson, C., 167, 350 Peterson, G. W., 163 Peterson, M., 135 Petit, M., 616 Petitto, L. A., 253–255 Petrilli, M. J., 613 Petrosino, A., 580, 592 Pettit, G. S., 167 Peura, P. I., 476 Peverly, S. T., 113 Pew Research Center, 56 Peyton, S. T., 194 Pfeffer, F. T., 48 Pfiffner, L., 217 Philipp, A., 478 Phillips, B. M., 210, 249, 250 Phillips, D. C., 417, 418 Phillips, L., 495 Phillips, M. M., 541 Phippen, J. W., 219 Phye, G. D., 405 Piaget, J., 21, 87, 102–108, 110–113, 115, 116, 118–123, 125, 126, 135, 155, 170, 353, 400, 417, 418, 435, 455, 496 Pianta, R. C., 10–13, 151, 573 Pick, A. D., 246 Pickering, S. J., 342 Pickett, T. Jr., 46 Piel, J. A., 102, 155 Pierce, W. D., 316, 317 Pieschl, S., 480, 485 Pietschnig, J., 519 Piff, P. K., 51 Pihlgren, C., 217 Pike, M. K., 138 Pin, W. H., 114 Pineau, A., 114 Piñeiro, I., 624 Pinger, P., 482 Pinkard, N., 420 Pinker, S., 98, 341 Pinquart. M., 142 Pinsker, J., 623 Pintrich, P. R., 474, 478, 480, 509, 515, 518–520, 529, 530, 537 Piquette, N., 445 Pisha, B., 636 Pit-ten Cate, I. M., 607 Pituch, K. A., 52, 512 Pivnick, L. K., 146

Plager, E., 20 Plank, D. N., 614 Plank, D. R., 682 Plant, E. A., 62 Plants, R., 635 Platsidou, M., 342 Plavnick, J. B., 20 Plomin, R., 196 Plucker, J., 198 Plucker, J. A., 199, 200 Plummer, B. D., 678 Podolski, C. P., 149 Podolsky, A., 681 Pohlmann, B., 163 Poikkeus, A. M., 423 Poirel, N., 114 Poldrack, R. A., 333 Polikoff, M. S., 614, 686 Polio, M., 670 Poljac, E., 334 Polk, L., 4 Pollack, T. M., 58 Ponnock, A., 484 Pool, R., 231, 337, 360, 395, 397, 469 Poorthuis, A. M. G., 670 Popham, W. J., 612, 614, 616, 647, 648, 650, 658, 661, 663, 678, 682, 685 Popov, V., 341 Portwood, S. G., 10 Posada, G., 156 Posner, M. I., 359, 385 Postema, M. C., 211 Postle, B. R., 341 Postlethwaite, B. E., 173 Poteat, V. P., 71 Potocki, A., 445 Powell, S. R., 386 Pradhan, M., 195 Prakash, K., 147 Prati, G., 574 Prat-Sala, M., 476 Prawat, R. S., 418 Preckel, F., 188, 508 Preckel, T., 163 Prellwitz, M., 137 Premack, D., 300 Prensky, M., 448 Pressley, M., 249, 371, 375, 383, 624 Pretzlik, U., 20 Price, G. E., 204 Price, L. F., 96 Price, T. S., 245 Price, W. F., 245 Priniski, S. J., 541 Przybylski, A. K., 452 Pudas, S., 352 Pugh, K. J., 541 Pulfrey, C., 511 Pulham, E., 4, 454, 455 Pulkkinen, L., 148 Pullen, P. C., 5, 211–216, 218, 225, 228–230, 372, 382, 636 Pullmann, M. D., 573 Puncochar, J., 434 Puntambekar, S., 122 Purpura, D. J., 431, 445 Putman, M., 478 Putnam, R., 15

Name Index N-13 Putney, L., 115, 122, 123 Putwain, D. W., 536 Puzio, K., 633 Pyke, A. A., 117 Quan, H., 482 Quiceno, J., 156 Quin, D., 11 Quince, V., 53 Quinn, D. M., 52, 62 Quinn, P. C., 45 Quinn, P. D., 195, 483 Quintana, S. M., 55, 57 Rabiner, D. L., 555 Rabinowitz, M., 606 Rachlin, H., 470 Radford, J., 424 Radley, K. C., 297 Radvansky, G. A., 329, 336, 340, 343, 345, 346, 351, 355, 388 Raes, E., 436 Rafter, M., 389 Rahim, A., 479, 491, 492 Rai, M. K., 272 Raijmakers, M. E. J., 188 Raikes, H. A., 143 Raikkonen, E. M., 476 RAINN, 152 Rakoczy, H., 136 Ralston, P. A. S., 381 Ram, N., 485 Ramani, G., 399 Ramde, J., 23 Ramey, D. R., 265 Ramirez, G., 66, 68, 536 Ramirez, J. D., 265 Ramlau-Hansen, C. H., 134 Ramon Lizarraga, J., 421 Ramos, A., 519 Randolph, S. M., 162 Rapaport, A., 431 Rapp, D. N., 533 Rapp, J. T., 307 Rasheed, D., 491 Rasku-Puttonen, H., 423 Rasplica Khoury, C., 430 Ratner, H. H., 245 Rau, M. A., 380, 381 Raudenbush, S. W., 58, 60, 608, 668, 669 Raudsepp, E., 391 Raver, C. C., 50, 485 Ravit, G. D., 429, 431 Raviv, T., 10 Rawson, K. A., 347, 378, 381, 525, 666 Reardon, S. F., 50, 58, 669, 681 Reback, R., 8 Reber, R., 530, 531, 541 Reddy, L. A., 11, 686 Reddy, S., 96, 216, 334 Reder, L. M., 341, 371, 420 Redford, P., 476 Redifer, J. L., 356 Reed, L. A., 586 Reed, R. P., 624 Reese, L., 250 Reeve, J., 313, 507, 510–513, 540, 542

Regalia, C., 473 Regner, I., 45 Regueiro, B., 624 Reich, J., 611 Reichert, M., 162, 163 Reid, E. E., 431, 445 Reid, J. M., 264 Reigh, E., 401 Reiman, E. M., 97 Reimann, P., 386 Reimers, F., 48 Reinke, W. M., 478, 584 Reis, S. M., 230, 231, 233, 234 Reisberg, D., 200 Reisman, A., 628, 629 Reiter-Palmon, R., 198 Reljic, G., 266 Rendon, P., 274 Renkl, A., 355, 387, 388, 438, 492 Renninger, K. A., 481, 528, 529, 531 Renzulli, J. S., 231, 233, 234 Repka, M., 53 Resnick, L. B., 420 Reeves, S., 524 Rey, G. D., 376 Reyes, C. R., 62 Reyes, E. I., 79 Reyes, M. R., 605 Reynolds, C. A., 188 Reynolds, C. R., 210 Reynolds, R. E., 480 Reznitskaya, A., 116 Rhodes, J., 420 Rhodes, M., 44 Rhodes, M. G., 376 Rice, D., 185 Rice, F. P., 223 Richardson, M., 476 Richey, J. E., 396, 406 Richmond, M., 156 Rickard, T. C., 356 Riddle, T., 62 Rideout, V., 6 Riedesel, C. A., 386 Rieser, S., 658 Rigby, K., 580, 584 Riggall, A. C., 341 Riggle, E. D. B., 71 Rillero, P., 430 Rimfeld, K., 484 Rimm, S. B., 231, 234, 235 Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., 573 Rintamaa, M., 376 Ritchey, K., 56, 376 Ritchie, S. J., 10, 194 Rittle-Johnson, B., 388, 431 Rivas-Drake, D., 55, 56, 489, 493 Rivera, A., 274 Rivers, J. C., 11 Rivers, S. E., 489, 605 Rivet, T. T., 230 Rivkin, S. G., 11 Robbins, S. B., 375 Robbins, S. J., 294, 563 Roberge, M. M., 264 Roberson, D., 245 Roberts, A., 60, 525 Roberts, G., 250, 402

Roberts, M. C., 10 Roberts, R. D., 492 Robey, A., 98 Robinson, D. H., 425 Robinson, J. C., 623 Robinson, J. P., 70, 71 Robinson-Cimpian, J. P., 66, 669 Robustelli, S., 606 Rockoff, J., 8 Roderick, M., 483 Rodkin, P. C., 148 Rodriguez, S., 624 Roediger, H. L. III, 64–66, 101, 204, 326, 341, 353, 355, 356, 358, 376, 491 Roehrig, G., 93, 97, 99, 101 Roeser, R. W., 144, 153, 155, 480, 491 Roessger, K. M., 380 Rogat, T. K., 520 Rogers, B. P., 334 Rogers, L. O., 57 Rogoff, B., 114, 115, 122, 417, 432 Rogow, F., 452 Rogowsky, B. A., 204 Rohal, M., 56 Rohde, L. A., 215, 216 Rohrer, D., 17, 204, 356, 358, 480 Roid, G. H., 193 Rojas, J. P., 477, 484 Rojas, N. R., 307 Rojas, R., 253 Rolland, R. G., 517 Roloff, J., 686 Romano, M. E., 5, 559, 561, 566, 571, 578, 622, 626, 628 Romero, C., 525 Ronfeldt, M., 686 Roorda, D. L., 11, 558 Ros, A., 628 Rosario, R. J., 57 Rosch, E. H., 346 Roschelle, J., 449 Roscoe, R. D., 448 Rose, C. A., 574 Rose, N., 521 Rose, N. S., 341 Rosenberg, M., 164 Rosenberg, M. D., 198, 200 Rosenberg, M. S., 218, 219 Rosenfarb, I., 313 Rosenshine, B., 123, 605, 618, 619, 628 Rosenthal, L., 42 Rosenthal, R., 606, 608 Rosenzweig, E. Q., 541 Roseth, C. J., 436, 438, 441, 516, 585 Roskos, K., 617 Ross, M., 392 Ross, S., 122, 424 Rostosky, S. S., 71 Roth, G., 517 Rothkopf, A., 529 Rowan, B., 606 Rowe, M. B., 627 Rowe, M. L., 52, 399 Rowley, S. J., 58, 60 Rozek, C. S., 65

Rubach, C., 478 Rubie-Davies, C. M., 607–609 Rubin, K. H., 145–147, 234 Rubinsten, O., 213 Ruble, D. N., 63, 64 Rucinski, C. L., 11 Ruck, M. D., 51, 61 Rudd, T., 593 Rudner, L. M., 680 Rudolph, K. D., 158 Rummel, J., 341 Rummel, N., 357, 437 Rundle, S., 204 Rupp, A. A., 448 Rusby, J. C., 312 Russell, M. K., 660 Russell, S. T., 71 Rust, J., 64 Ruzek, E., 7, 15, 592 Ryan, A., 146, 520 Ryan, M. K., 475 Ryan, R. M., 316, 492, 507, 508, 510, 511, 523 Ryoo, J. H., 310, 312 Saalbach, H., 253 Saavedra, A. R., 431 Sabatini, J., 348 Sabatino, C. A., 222 Sabet, R. F., 555 Sabey, A., 137–139 Sabzalian, L., 76 Sacker, A., 134 Sackett, P. R., 49 Sacks, V., 222 Sadker, D., 626–628 Sadker, M., 626–628 Sadler, P. M., 117 Saffran, J., 93, 94, 103, 104, 111–115, 117, 118, 169, 342 Safter, H. T., 199 Sailer, M., 449 Sakamoto, A., 149 Salchegger, S., 163 Saleem, M., 149 Salem, A., 70, 71, 261 Salen Tekinba?, K., 420 Salimi, F., 388 Salmela-Aro, K., 528 Salomon, G., 403, 425 Salovey, P., 196, 197, 489, 605 Saltarelli, A. J., 438, 441 Saltarelli, W. A., 441 Salvi, A., 204 Sam, C., 250 SAMHSA., 220, 221 Sammons, P., 478 Sams, A., 454 Samuel, R., 476 Sana, F., 343, 487 Sanchez Viveros, B., 403 Sanders, W. L., 11 Sandilos, L. E., 11, 686 Sanger Study Center, 396 Sanghera-Sidhu, S., 445 Sansone, C., 481 Santiago, C., 10 Santos, N. M., 221 Santtilaa, P., 349

N-14  Name Index Sappington, R., 476 Sarrazin, P., 608 Sasser, N., 579, 580 Sattler, H., 580 Sattler, J. M., 190, 193, 199, 201 Sauerwein, M., 511 Saulnier, G., 160 Savage, R., 445 Savin-Williams, R. C., 70 Savolainen, H., 478 Sawyer, K., 198–201 Sawyer, R. K., 371, 421–422 Sax, L., 68 Saxbe, D. E., 536 Saxe, G. B., 113 Scabini, E., 473 Scalise, K., 90, 93, 96, 99, 101, 534 Scammacca, N. K., 250 Scanlan, M., 24 Scarcella, R., 266 Schachner, J. N., 48 Schachner, M. K., 574 Schacter, D. L., 352 Schacter, H. L., 584, 586 Schaefer, D. R., 56 Schalke, D., 188 Schallert, D. L., 480, 511 Scharf, F., 331 Schatschneider, C., 250 Scheepers, A. W. A., 515 Scheer, J. R., 71 Scheibe, C., 451 Scheiter, K., 345, 381 Schellinger, K. B., 140 Scherer, R., 403 Scherrer, V., 508 Schiefele, U., 164 Schieve, L. A., 6 Schippers, M. C., 515 Schlueter, D., 53 Schmid, R. F., 445 Schmidgall, S. P., 381 Schmidt, E. M., 230 Schmidt, H. G., 428, 430, 431 Schmiedek, F., 343 Schneider, B., 525 Schneider, W., 327, 371, 372 Schnellert, L., 313 Schnotz, W., 345 Schnyder, I., 623, 624 Schoenfeld, A. H., 390, 394 Scholer, A. A., 481 Schonert-Reichl, K. A., 9, 151, 152, 489–491 Schoor, C., 419 Schor, J., 420 Schrage, J., 481 Schrager, S. M., 517 Schraw, G., 205, 328, 350, 389 Schraw, G. J., 340, 419 Schrift, R. Y., 334 Schroeder, N. L., 380 Schuchardt, K., 212 Schuldt, L. C., 665, 666 Schulze, C., 137 Schulze, S. K., 352 Schumacher, R. F., 386 Schunk, D. H., 90, 91, 93, 94, 97, 101, 120, 122, 123, 162, 165,

287, 303, 313, 315, 329–332, 346, 357, 371, 372, 375, 382, 383, 395, 405, 417–420, 466, 468–471, 473, 476, 481, 486, 491, 515, 518, 519, 530, 537 Schutz, P., 22 Schwab, J. J., 24 Schwab, Y., 562, 572, 578, 579 Schwager, A., 345 Schwaighofer, M., 387, 388 Schwan, S., 357 Schwartz, B., 294 Schwartz, D. L., 97, 403 Schwartz, H. L., 8 Schwartz, J. E., 386 Schwartz, M. S., 294 Schwartz, S., 563 Schwartz, S. J., 55 Schwarz, B. B., 400, 401, 434 Schwarzenthal, M., 574 Schwarzer, R., 537 Schweig, J. D., 686 Schwerdt, G., 669 Schwinger, M., 518, 526 Scott, J. G., 582 Scott, T., 436 Scruggs, T. E., 206, 210 Scudellari, M., 17 Sears, D. A., 404 Seaton, E. K., 55, 56 Seaton, M., 163 Sechler, C. M., 436 Seehorn, D., 450 Sefton-Green, J., 420 Seggie, F. N., 454–455 Seidel, T., 427, 429, 603 Seitz, S., 138 Seli, P., 198, 200 Selig, J. P., 121, 422 Seligman, M. E. P., 478, 483, 523, 524 Sellers, R. M., 55 Semega, J., 48 Senbanjo, I. O., 134 Senecal, C., 7 Senechal, M., 249 Senko, C., 517, 518 Sensale Yazdian, L., 661 Serpell, R., 419 Setrill, S.A., 536 Sette, S., 573 Seung Yang, J., 484 Shada, N., 477 Shaenfield, D., 401 Shaffer, D. W., 448 Shah, P., 205 Shahar, G., 145 Shanahan, E. J., 195, 233 Shanahan, M. E., 553 Shanahan, T., 266 Shand, J., 607 Shapiro, L. R., 245 Shapka, J. D., 490 Sharkey, J. D., 586 Shavelson, R. S., 605 Shaw, S. T., 536 Shayer, M., 111 Shaywitz, S. E., 210 Shea, T. M., 307

Shearer, C. B., 188–191 Shechtman, Z., 172 Sheets, R. H., 38, 76 Shen, H., 62 Shen, J., 97 Shepard, L. A., 669 Shernoff, D. J., 533 Sherwood, C., 424 Shi, H., 134 Shi, Y., 402, 454 Shibuya, Al, 149 Shic, F., 62 Shiffrin, R. M., 329 Shim, S. S., 520 Shimada, H., 478 Shin, D. D., 531 Shin, J.-Y., 262 Shipley, T. F., 376 Shirky, C., 487 Shiyko, M. P., 134 Shjogren, K. A., 185, 187, 206, 215, 227 Shonkoff, J. P., 51 Shore, D. I., 343 Shores, K., 60, 61 Short, D. J., 268 Shrider, E. Z., 48 Shrier, L. A., 145 Shrout, P. E., 64 Shuai, L., 216 Shuell, T. J., 619 Shulman, E. P., 483, 485, 678 Shute, V. J., 3, 25, 27 Siddiq, F., 403 Siddle Walker, V., 73 Sidney, P. G., 402, 404 Siegal, M., 264 Siegel-Hawley, G., 61 Siegle, D., 277 Siegle, D. B., 231, 234, 235 Siegler, R. S., 93, 94, 103, 104, 111–115, 117, 118, 120, 169, 342 Sierra, Z., 198 Siiman, L. A., 427 Silven, M., 246 Silver, J., 136 Silverman, R., 399 Silverman, S. K., 351 Silvia, P. J., 198, 200 Simmons, D., 10, 152, 198, 250, 489 Simmons, D. N., 8, 9 Simmons, L., 250 Simon, D. A., 358, 376, 382 Simon, D. P., 394 Simon, H. A., 360, 420 Simon, T., 225 Simonds, C. J., 605 Simons, G. F., 244, 254 Simons, L. G., 135 Simons, R. L., 135 Simonton, D. K., 198, 201 Simpkins, S. D., 250, 272, 482 Sims, S., 429, 430 Sims, W. A., 11, 686 Sinclair, M. F., 575 Sinclair, S., 62 Sirin, S. R., 47, 49 Sirinides, P., 250 Skagerlund, K., 328

Skiba, R. J., 15, 327, 553, 559, 575, 577, 592 Skibbe, L. E., 485 Skinner, A. T., 485 Skinner, B. F., 292, 293 Skinner, C., 48 Skinner, E., 514 Skoog, T., 134 Skuballa, I. T., 525 Slama, R. B., 262 Slaten, C. D., 574 Slater, A., 137–139 Slater, A. M., 45 Slater, L., 165 Slater, S. C., 562 Slavin, R. E., 20, 23,266, 436, 437, 440, 441 Sleegers, P. J. C., 382 Sleek, S., 327 Sloane, K. D., 21 Slot, W., 18 Sloutsky, V. M., 372 Smetana, J. G., 142, 143 Smith, A. C. G., 272 Smith, D. C., 216 Smith, D. D., 444 Smith, D. G., 96 Smith, E. D., 135, 136 Smith, E. E., 346 Smith, F., 356 Smith, J. L., 46, 461 Smith, K. A., 441 Smith, L. L., 478 Smith, M., 60 Smith, M. D., 654 Smith, M. L., 669 Smith, P., 342 Smith, S., 53, 216 Smith, S. M., 355 Smith, S. W., 494 Smith, T. S., 260 Smolkowski, K., 593 Sneyers, E., 607 Snow, C. E., 246, 249, 253, 262 Snow, R. E., 606 Snowberg, K. E., 491 Snyder, K. E., 231 Søbstad, F., 136 Soemer, A., 357 Soenens, B., 512 Soland, J., 7 Soleck, G., 46 Solesbee, C., 584 Solomon, D., 436 Soloway, E., 431 Son, L. K., 358, 376, 382 Sonnert, G., 117 Sood, S., 385 Soodak, L. C., 311 Sorbring, E., 485 Sorhagen, N. S., 526, 608 Sorvo, R. M. A., 476 Sosniak, L. A., 614 Soter, A. O., 629 Soydan, A. S., 590 Spada, H., 437 Spagnolo, A. C., 590 Spanierman, L., 55, 56 Spanogle, C., 149

Name Index N-15 Spanoudis, G., 188, 192, 212, 342 Spearman, C., 188 Spears, F. M., 143 Spencer, K., 100 Spencer, S. J., 45, 46, 56, 57 Spendlove, D., 15 Spengler, M., 188 Spilt, J. L., 575 Spinath, B., 518 Spitzer, B. J., 493 Sprague, J. R., 312 Sprenger, M., 93, 96, 101 Spring, K. J., 455 Spuhl, S. T., 118 SRCD, 251 Srna, S., 334 Stadler, M., 387, 388 Stahl, S. A., 202 Stahnke, R., 571, 577 Staley, K. C., 488 Star, J. R., 385, 388 Starck, J. G., 62 Stark, K., 10, 220, 222 Starko, A. J., 200, 202 Starosta, K., 385 Starrett, M. J., 341 Stattin, H., 134 Stautberg, S., 308 Stavinoha, P. L., 584 Steenbergen-Hu, S., 439 Stein, R. E. K., 136 Steinberg, L., 57, 135, 146, 147, 161, 485 Steingut, R. R., 512 Steiner, E. D., 536 Steinmayr, R., 484, 518, 526 Stenske, M. T., 307 Stephens, J., 173, 174 Steptoe, A., 489 Sterling-Turner, H. E., 305 Sternberg, K., 333, 344, 346–348 Sternberg, R. J., 191, 192, 195, 198, 200, 231, 333, 344, 346–348, 385, 492 Stevens, J., 149 Stevens, K., 68 Stevens, R., 76–77, 619, 628 Stevenson, H. C., 73 Sticca, F., 517 Stickle, B., 9, 489 Stiggins, R. J., 612, 648, 653, 654, 656–660 Still, M., 60, 61 Stinson, D. W., 52, 68, 262 Stipek, D. J., 506, 525, 526, 542 Stockard, J., 430 Stoddard, J. D., 448 Stoeger, H., 491 Stone, E., 63, 65, 71 Stoolmiller, M., 473 Stough, L. M., 555, 556, 561 Stout, M., 580 Støvring, H., 134 Stoycos, S. A., 536 Strachan, S. L., 431 Stratton, H., 224 Strauss, V., 8 Strayer, D. L., 334 Strayer, J., 160

Strom, B. C., 378 Strom, P. S., 586 Strom, R. D., 586 Stroman, C., 544 Strong-Bak, W., 297 Stupinisky, R. H., 536 Su, C., 194 Su, J.-H., 262 Su, P., 134 Sudkamp, A., 232 Sugai, G., 574 Suizzo, M.-A., 52 Suldo, S. M., 574 Sullivan, J. R., 210 Sullivan, M. A., 299 Suls, J., 474 Sun, J., 436 Sun, Y., 134 Sung, H-.Y., 448 Supple, A., 163 Surprenant, C. W., 167, 168 Sutton, R. E., 536 Sutton, R. M., 46, 68 Sutton, T. E., 135 Svarovsky, G. N., 448 Svetleff, Z., 477 Svinicki, M., 381 Svoboda, R. C., 65 Swan, G. M., 667 Swansea University, 204 Swanson, G. J., 307 Swanson, H. L., 372 Swanson, J., 488 Swanson, J. M., 215, 216 Swanson, T. C., 220 Swearer, S. M., 582, 584, 586 Sweller, J., 338–340, 345, 384, 386–388, 393, 430, 525, 620 Sweller, N., 345 Swing, E. L., 149 Syed, M., 55, 56 Sylvia, P. J., 530 Symes, W., 536 Synodi, E., 136 Syvertsen, A. K., 580 Tabori, A. V., 223 Tajran, J., 356 Takash, H. M. S., 485 Talbot, M., 146 Tallal, P., 204 Tamim, R. M., 445 Tamis-LeMonda, C., 64 Tan, F. D. H., 612, 628 Tan, J. J. X., 48 Tan, S. C., 612 Tanaka, A., 530 Tang, M., 388 Tang, Y., 97 Tangney, B., 434 Tanis, M., 427 Tanner-Smith, E. E., 449 Tao, F., 134 Tapanya, S., 485 Tarasawa, B., 7 Tate, C. C., 51, 63, 69, 195 Tate, J., 477 Taub, M., 487 Taxer, J. L., 482

Taylor, A., 478 Taylor, A. R., 391 Taylor, C., 491 Taylor, D. M., 514 Taylor, G. G., 494 Taylor, M., 8 Taylor, R. D., 9, 140 Te Winkel, W. W. R., 430 Temple, C., 373 Templin, J. L., 530 TenBrink, T. D., 657 Tenenbaum, H. R., 61, 402, 438, 607 Tennant, J. E., 605 Teranishi, R. T., 592 Terkildsen, T. S., 448 Terman, L. M., 232 Terry, M. N., 605 Tetzner, J., 634 Tharp, R. G., 75, 76, 116 Theis, D., 511 Theobald, R., 53 Theodorakis, N., 582 Theodore, L. A., 305 Theokas, C., 140 Therriault, D. J., 356 Thijs, J. T., 575 Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C., 507, 512 Thomaes, S., 670 Thoman, D. B., 46, 481 Thomas, D. R., 20 Thomas, H. J., 582 Thomas, J. R., 133, 134, 137 Thomas, K., 536 Thomas, K. T., 133, 134, 137 Thomas, M. S. C., 99, 101 Thomas, P. L., 484 Thomas, R., 666 Thomas-Tate, S., 249, 250 Thompson, C. A., 402, 404 Thompson, G., 514, 618 Thompson, L., 390, 536 Thompson, R. A., 143 Thompson, R. K., 8 Thompson, W. L., 326 Thomson, K., 491 Thouvenelle, S., 451, 452 Throndsen, I., 477 Tibbetts, Y., 541 Tien, J., 421 Tierney, W. G., 42, 53 Tikva, C., 450 Tillmanns, M., 116 Timmers, F., 436 Timperley, H., 628 Tingstrom, D. H., 305 Tipton, E., 525 Tirado, L. M. U., 485 Titsworth, S., 487 Tjosvold, D., 441 Tobias, S., 430 Tobiason, G., 685 Tobler, N., 224 Toglia, M. P., 350 Tognatta, N., 250 Tokar, D. M., 477 Tolar, T. D., 210, 250 Tolvanen, A., 478 Tomasello, M., 122, 136, 245, 246 Tomasetto, C., 536

Tombu, M. N., 334 Tomlinson, C. A., 230, 668, 670 Tomlinson, R. C., 51 Tomlinson-Clarke, S., 576, 593 Tompkins, J. R., 234 Tomsaik, M. J., 10 Tong, F., 334 Tonks, S. M., 521, 522 Toomey, R. B., 71 Topping, K., 253 Torrance, E. P., 198, 199, 234 Tortora, M., 633, 634 Tough, P., 483 Touretzky, D., 450 Tourva, A., 188, 192, 212 Traff, U., 328 Trainin, G., 474 Trautwein, U., 11, 164, 165, 623–625, 686 Tredoux, C., 44, 45 Tremblay, R. E., 147, 148 Tricot, A., 339, 384 Trigani, B., 149 Trobst, S., 529 Trompeter, N., 138 Tropp, L. R., 44, 45 Trott, J., 525 Trouilloud, D., 608 Troutman, A. C., 293, 296–298, 304, 307, 310 Trucano, M., 540, 573 Truong, N. L., 71 Trust, T., 454 Tsai, K. M., 56 Tsai, Y.-M., 606 Tsang, W., 79, 524 Tsantis, L. A., 451, 452 Tschannen-Moran, M., 440, 443, 478, 520 Tseng, A., 401 Tseng, C.-M., 511 Tsourlidaki, E., 427 Tsukayama, E., 62, 195, 483, 527 Ttofi, M. M., 582 Tucker-Drob, E. M., 10 Tuitt, N. R., 57 Tulagan, N., 482 Tully, L. A., 307, 308 Tuovinen, J., 386 Turkheimer, E., 194 Turkle, S., 159, 160, 444 Turnbull, A., 185, 187, 206, 215, 227 Turnbull, H. R., 185, 187, 206, 215, 227 Turner, E., 159 Turner, J. C., 492, 540–541, 573 Twenge, J. M., 452 Tyler, B.-J., 262, 276 Tyler, K. M., 76 Tyler, N. C., 216 Tynan, M. C., 484 Tyson, K., 61, 62 Tze, V. M. C., 7, 535 U. S. Department of Education., 58–60, 62, 187, 229, 276, 277, 612 Udell, W., 401 Ugen, S., 162, 163 Uline, C. L., 58

N-16  Name Index Votruba-Drzaz, M. T., 248 Umana-Taylor, A. J., 55–57 Umbreit, J., 311 Una Global Evaluation Group, 44, 45 UNHCR, 261 University of Lynchburg, 396 Unkelbach, C., 290 Upright, J. J., 593 Uqdah, A. L., 76 Urban Institute, 6 Urbina, S., 195 Urdan, T., 480, 517, 519, 526 U.S. Department of Agriculture, 48 U.S. Department of Education, 58–60, 62, 187, 229, 276, 277, 612 U.S. Department of Health, 6, 153 Usher, E. L., 22, 466, 473–478, 481, 484, 486, 521 Utz, J. C., 383, 446 Vacca, J. A. L., 373 Vacca, R. T., 373 Vagi, K. J., 328 Vaillancourt, T., 586 Vakil, S., 421 Valentine, J. C., 474, 607, 623 Valenzuela, A., 151 Valiente, C., 488, 489 Vallancourt, T., 148 van Aken, M. A. G., 670 van Anders, S. M., 63, 69, 195 van de Leemput, C., 445 van de Pol, J., 424 van de Vijver, F. J. R., 574 Van de Walle, J. A., 386 van den Bergh, L., 62, 628 Van den Broeck, L. V., 607 van den Wittenboer, G. L. H., 537 van der Kleij, F. S., 666 van der Mass, H. L. J., 188 van der Meij, H., 379 van der Meij, J., 379 van der Molen, H. T., 430 van der Spek, E. D., 449 Van Der Veer, R., 115 van der Vleuten, C. P. M., 339 van der Werf, M. P. C., 606, 607 van Egmond, M. C., 511 van Gelderen, A. J. S., 382 van Gog, T., 339, 340, 388, 404, 424, 428, 429, 431, 438 Van Goozen, S. H. M., 148 Van Houtte, M., 63, 670 van Leeuwen, A., 435 Van Loan, C. L., 494 Van Matre, J. C., 607 van Merriënboer, J. J. G., 18, 338, 339, 424, 429, 430, 445 Van Meter, P., 379 van Nimwegen, C., 449 van Oers, B., 427 van Oostendrop, H., 449 Van Quaquebeke, N., 628 Van Riesen, S. A., 427 van Rooij, D., 211 Van Ryzin, M. J., 516, 585

van Schooten, E., 382 van Steensel, R., 382 Van Voorhis, F. L., 623, 625 VandeKamp, K. O., 372, 492, 495 Vandell, D. L., 52, 482 Vandergrift, N., 13 Vandermass-Peler, M., 136 Vanhoof, J., 607 VanLehn, K. A., 403, 404 Vansteenkiste, M., 508, 512, 517, 520 VanTassel-Baska, J., 17 Vantieghem, W., 63 Varier, D., 476 Varma, S., 97, 99, 101 Vasquez, A. C., 57, 308, 512 Vasquez, J. A., 75 Vaughn, M., 492 Vaughn, M. G., 250 Vaughn, S., 210, 250, 622 Vecchio, G. M., 476 Vecchione, M., 476 Veenstra, R., 582 Vega, R. Jr., 305 Velazquez, M. N., 376 Vella-Brodrick, D., 514, 574 Venturanza, R. J., 44 Verkuyten, M., 56 Vermeersch, H., 63 Vernon, P. A., 190 Vernon-Feagans, L., 246 Verock, R.-E., 454 Verplaetse, L. S., 257 Verschueren, K., 519 Vezeau, C., 467 Vidal-Abarca, E., 372 Viholainen, H. J. K., 476 Villegas, L., 262 Viner, R., 134 Viraro, F., 147, 148 Visconti, K. J., 436 Visee, J., 388, 438 Visser, B. A., 190 Vitaro, F., 148 Vitiello, V. E., 531, 533 Vivies, X. D., 45 Vlachopoulos, S., 507, 512 Vock, M., 17 Voeten, M., 62 Vogel, F., 445 Vogt, M., 257, 258, 268, 270, 271, 273 Vohs, K. D., 165 Volman, M., 424 von Eye, A., 445 von Kriegstein, K., 345 von Schrader, S., 228 von Stumm, S., 196 Von Suchodoletz, A., 479 Vongkulluksn, V. W., 478 Vosicka, L., 383, 446 Voss, T., 606 Vossoughi, S., 423 Votruba-Drzal, E., 50, 263 Vrangalova, Z., 70 Vriesema, C. C., 424, 435, 436, 495 Vrikki, M., 421 Vygotsky, L. S., 115–119, 493, 634

Waaler, E., 217 Waasdorp, T. E., 312, 573, 584–586 Wade, T. D., 166 Wadsworth, M. E., 48 Wagner, I., 345 Wagner, R. K., 212, 214, 430 Wagner, W., 666 Wahl, M., 573 Wahlsten, D., 89 Waits, B. K., 117 Walberg, H. J., 316, 317, 631 Walker, A. E., 445 Walker, J. E., 307 Walker, J. M. T., 624 Walker, T., 624 Wallace, J. B., 669 Wallace, L., 491 Walls, M. L., 134 Walqui, A., 257, 277 Walsh, M., 159 Walters, G. D., 583 Walton, G. M., 481, 493, 525, 526 Wammes, J. D., 381 Wang, C., 520 Wang, F., 354 Wang, H., 134 Wang, K., 60 Wang, M.-T., 57, 60, 528, 580 Wang, S., 97 Wang, W., 60, 144, 585 Wang, Y., 61, 62 Wang, Z., 348, 531 Wangaard, D. B., 173, 174 Wanzek, J., 250 Ward, J. D., 42, 53 Ward, L. M., 45, 64, 66, 246 Ware, S., 277 Warikoo, N., 62 Warneken, F., 136 Warr, M., 603 Warschauer, M., 445, 487 Wasserman, E. A., 294 Waterhouse, L., 188, 189 Waterman, A. S., 159 Waters, L., 514, 574 Waters, S., 574 Waters, S. D., 49 Waters, S. F., 45 Watkins, K. E., 68, 253 Watkins, S. C., 420 Watson, J. B., 287 Watson, J. M., 334 Watson, M. S., 436 Watson, P., 607–609 Watson, T. S., 311 Wattie, N., 669 Watts, T. W., 482 Waugh, C. K., 654, 657, 661 Waxman, S. R., 245 Way, N., 574 Waycott, J. L., 425 Wearing, H., 342 Webb, N. L., 616 Webb, N. M., 438 Weber, M. J., 158 Webster, R., 424 Wechsler, D., 193 Wecker, C., 445 Wegner, D. M., 352

Wehby, J., 682 Wehmeyer, M. L., 185, 187, 206, 215, 227 Wei, L., 426, 439, 629, 630 Weidinger, A. F., 484 Weidner, B. L., 476 Weil, E., 68 Weiner, B., 505, 523, 524, 546 Weinstein, C. S., 5, 151, 514, 556–559, 561, 563, 566, 571, 573, 576, 578, 584, 586–588, 593, 607–609, 611, 622, 626, 628 Weinstein, E., 452 Weinstein, N., 452 Weinstein, R. S., 607–609 Weishaar, M., 378 Weiss, A. L., 594 Weiss, H. B., 250, 272 Weissberg, R. P., 140, 195–197, 488 Welk, G. J., 136 Wellman, H., 167 Wells, A. E., 148 Wells, K. C., 494 Welsh, J. A., 342 Welsh, R. O., 580 Wendt, D. C., 76, 77 Wenger, E., 404, 420, 432 Wenger, I., 137 Wentzel, K. R., 9, 146, 504, 573 Werker, J. F., 246, 253 Werts, M. G., 234 Wertsch, J. V., 117 West, M. R., 484, 669 West, R. E., 455 West, S. G., 670 Westberg, K. L., 230 Westgate, E. C., 535 Westling, D. L., 218, 219 Westling, E., 135 Weston, T., 487 Wetzel, N., 331 Wheatley, K. F., 479 Wheatley, L., 421 Wheeler, L., 474 Whipp, P. R., 628 Whipple, A. D., 669 Whitbeck, L. B., 134 White, A. C., 522 White, A. E., 536 White, L., 57 White, M., 605 White, M. C., 485, 493 White, S. L. J., 15 White, T., 117, 574 Whitehead, A. N., 428 Whitehurst, G. J., 249 Whitesell, N., 57 Whitesell, N. R., 474 Wicherts, J. M., 188 Widmann, A., 331 Wiedmann, M., 437 Wigfield, A., 96, 134, 155, 159, 164, 484, 521, 522, 540 Wiggins, G., 614, 631, 632 Wijnen, W. H. F. W., 430 Wilcox, S. M., 71 Wilczynski, S. M., 305

Name Index N-17 Wildy, H., 607 Wilensky, R., 491 Wiley, J., 391 Wilkerson, I., 48 Wilkie, K. J., 645 Wilkinson, I. A. G., 629 Willcutt, E. G., 212, 214, 430 Willems, Y. E., 482 Williams, A. B., 582 Williams, B., 489, 493 Williams, C. D., 57 Williams, C. H., 524 Williamson, P., 166 Willingham, D. T., 17, 190, 299, 329, 334, 353, 356, 381 Willoughby, T., 448 Willower, D. J., 555 Wilson, K. A., 613 Wilson, M., 474 Wilson, S. M., 163, 684 Windschitl, M., 417, 419, 455 Winett, R. A., 287 Wink, J., 115, 122, 123 Winkler, R. C., 287 Winne, P. H., 17, 383, 388, 480, 481, 494 Winner, E., 201, 231, 232 Winsler, A., 118 Winston, E., 185, 215 Winstone, N. E., 402, 438 Winters, L., 663 Winters, M. A., 669 Wirthwein, L., 526 Witherspoon, L., 593 Wittrock, M. C., 325 Wittwer, J., 387 Wohl, M. J. A., 514 Wojslawowicz, J. C., 145, 146 Wolf, M., 100 Wolfe, P., 99 Wolke, D., 194

Woloshyn, V., 383 Wolpert-Gawron, H., 563 Won, S., 475 Wong, H. K., 569 Wong, J.-H. S., 44 Wong, K. F., 254 Wong, L., 18, 396 Wong, N.-W. A., 255 Wong, R. T., 569 Wong, S. S., 668 Wood, D., 122, 424 Wood, E., 135, 445 Wood, K., 612 Wood, T. W., 430 Woodard, S. M., 664 Woodward, A., 113, 120 Woodward, J., 20, 385, 387 Woodward, L., 400 Woodward, M. M., 357 Woody, S., 526 Woolf, B. P., 449, 450 Woolfolk Hoy, A., 7, 8, 26, 27, 51, 65, 134–137, 147, 151, 155, 167, 172, 232, 249, 328, 347, 372, 440, 443, 478, 490, 514, 520, 536, 573, 593, 605 Woolverton, S., 53 Worrell, F. C., 648, 658 Worthington, R. L., 476 Wouters, P., 449 Wu, S., 262 Wu, S. P. W., 381 Wu, W., 670 Wu, X., 629 Wu, Y., 348 Wulfert, E., 313 Wustenberg, S., 384 Wylie, R., 417 Xiao, L., 96 Xiao, Y., 254

Xie, H., 354 Xie, K., 478 Xu, J., 543 Xu, K. M., 525 Xu, M., 163, 164 Yada, A., 478 Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence, 196, 197 Yaman, M. A., 172 Yang, C., 586 Yang, H. H., 454 Yang, J. S., 484 Yang, L., 216 Yang, L.-Y., 387 Yang, S. M., 525 Yang, Y. C., 429 Yap, A. C., 68 Yawkey, T., 187 Yeager, D. S., 493, 525, 526 Yeh, C. J., 254, 255 Yekovich, C. W., 359, 360 Yekovich, F. R., 359, 360 Yell, M. L., 220 Yeung, A. S., 163 Yi, V., 44 Yip, T., 55, 62 Yont, K. M., 246 Yoshikawa, H., 574 Yough, M., 270 Young, J. R., 198 Youngswirth, S. D., 215 Yu, A., 62, 483 Yue, C. L., 378 Yuen, S. D., 265 Yun, S., 449 Zablotsky, B., 6 Zacharia, Z. C., 427 Zacks, J. M., 348 Zamary, A., 347 Zarate, K., 491

Zárate, R. C., 681 Zarrett, N., 482 Zauberman, G., 334 Zee, M., 7, 478, 558 Zeedyk, S., 253 Zehr, H., 581 Zeidner, M., 492, 536, 537 Zelazo, P. D., 169 Zeldin, A. L., 475 Zentall, S. S., 532 Zepeda, C. D., 371, 372, 374, 375, 517 Zerr, C. L., 353 Zervoulis, K., 64 Zettle, R. D., 313 Zhang, Hein, S., 60 Zhang, J., 631 Zhang, L., 631 Zhang, Q., 381 Zhang, W., 97 Zhang, X., 656 Zhang-James, Y., 211 Zhao, J., 262 Zhao, Y., 445 Zheng, B., 445, 487 Zhong, L., 340 Zhou, M., 44 Zhou, Z., 113, 354 Zhu, W., 136 Ziegler, A., 491 Zilanawala, A., 134 Zimmer, W. K., 340 Zimmerman, B. J., 382, 471, 481, 486 Zirkel, S., 58 Zmuda, J. H., 305 Zohar, A. R., 371, 407 Zongrone, A. D., 71 Zumbrunn, S., 476 Zumbrunn, S. K., 531, 533 Zusho, A., 478, 519, 520 Zwart, R., 427

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Subject Index ABAB experimental designs, 20, 22 Ability beliefs about, 473, 521 goals, 518 mindsets about, 525 mindsets in classroom, 525–526 Abolitionist teacher, 75 Absence seizures, 227 Abstract examples/ representations of concepts, 6 cognitive development, 102 cognitive views of learning, 346, 361 culture and diversity, 74 teaching of, 86, 128–129 Abstractions, 86, 114, 128 mindful, 403 Abuse, child, 152–154 Academic caring, 151 Academic language, 256–258, 263 Academic learning time, 557–558 Academic self-concept, 162–164 Acceleration of students, 17, 234 Acceptance, identitydevelopment models, 70 Accommodation, 104, 208, 209 Accountability and high-stakes testing, 680–681 Accountability for teachers, 680–681, 684–686 Achievement emotions, 534–535 ethnic and racial differences in, 58–60 motivation to learn and, 510 self-concept and, 162–164 student personal and social-contextual factors, 26–27 teacher expectations and, 608 tests, 677–680 Achieving with Integrity (AwI) seminar, 174 Acquisition phase, learning strategies, 405 Acronyms, 357 Action research, 23 Actions, cognitive development and, 114 Active retrieval, 381 Active teaching, 619–620 Activity, Piaget’s theory, 103, 121–122 Adaptation, 103, 104 Additive bilingualism, 254 Adolescent egocentrism, 111

Adolescents. See also High schoolaged children biracial or multiracial, 56 brain development, 95–96 communities of care, creating, 574–575 in ethnic-racial identity, 56 formal operational stage (Piaget), 110–112 peers, influence of, 145–149 physical development, 134 psychosocial development (Erikson), 156–157 relationships with teachers, 149–152 self-concept, development of, 163–164 sleep and, 96 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 118–120 special challenges with, 587 Advance organizers, 425 Aesthetic needs, 509–510 Affective considerations, English learners, 270–272 Affective domain, 13–15, 615–616 Affinity groups, 449 African American Secretary of Defense, 45 African Americans. See also Diversity, Ethnic and Racial Identity culturally responsive classroom management, 591–594 discrimination, legacy of, 60–62 diversity in learning, 75–77 ethnic and racial identity, 55–62 literacy development, 60 racial inequality, 60 stereotype threat, 45–46 Agency, 473–479. See also Human agency Aggression. See also Bullying peers, influence of, 148 types of, 148–149 Algorithms, 390 Allergies, 228 Ambitious teaching, 611 American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD), 225 American Educational Research Association, 35 American Psychological Association, 16, 43 American Psychologist, 10

American Sign Language (ASL), 229, 248, 255 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 209 Amotivation, 507 Amygdala, 91 Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), 185 Analogical thinking, 384, 407 Analytical intelligence, 199, 200 Analyzing questions, 614–615, 627 Anorexia nervosa, 138 Antecedent–behavior– consequence (A–B–C), 23, 292, 310–311 Antecedents, 292, 296–297, 310, 311 Anxiety, 524, 534–539 Applied behavior analysis, 287, 298–310, 496 Applying questions, 614–615, 627 Apprenticeships, cognitive, 432–433 Appropriating, 418 Appropriation, cognitive development and, 116, 117 Argument stratagem, 116 Argumentation, 400–402 Aristotle, 289 Arousal, 474, 475 Articulation disorders, 218 Artificial intelligence (AI), 450 Asexual people, 70 Asian Americans. See also Diversity diversity in learning, 75–77 graduation rates, 60 model minority students, 44 stereotype threat, 45–46 Asperger syndrome, 230 Assertive discipline, 590 Assessment, 647. See also Classroom assessments accountability and high-stakes testing, 680–681 aligning tools with targets, 665 authentic assessments, 659–660 classroom assessment, overview of, 651–658 communication about, 673, 678–680 complex thinking, 664–665 of creativity, 198–199 essay testing, 654–657 frequent testing, 354, 355, 404, 657. See also Testing effect grading, 666–673 informal assessment, 658–659

interim (growth) assessment, 648, 651, 652, 681 involving students in, 659 learning outcomes and assessment method, 665 of learning styles, 204 measurement and, 647–648 overview, 647 performances and portfolios, 659–661 reliability and validity, 648–651 reports, standardized testing, 677–678 retrieval practice/testing effect, 355–356 score types, 673–676 standardized testing, 654, 673–678 stereotype threat, effects on test performance, 45–46 testing effect, 355–356, 381 from textbooks, 653 types of, 647–648 Assessment bias, 650–651 Assimilation, 104, 114 Assisted learning, 122–123 Assistive technology, 635–636 Asthma, 228 Attachment, 143–144, 156 Attainment value, 521 Attention, 528–539 cognitive learning, 493 complex cognitive processes, 385, 394 executive control process, 371 executive functioning, development of, 114 learning strategies, 375–377, 382 memory and, 331 motivation and, 539–545 multitasking and, 333–334 note taking, 378 observational learning and, 468–473 self-regulation of, 480 teaching and, 334–335 triarchic theory of successful intelligence, 191 Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) overview of, 215–218 physical activity and, 136–137 Attention disorders, 211–212, 215–218 Attribution theories, 522–525 Attributions and mindsets, 527 Audience, imaginary, 111 Auditory complex, brain, 95, 212

S-1

S-2  Subject Index Authentic assessments, 659–661 Authentic instruction, for developing critical thinking skills, 397 Authentic questions, 626 Authentic tasks, 541 complex learning environments and, 421 Authoritarian parents, 142 Autism spectrum disorders, 206, 210, 229–230 Automated basic skills, 359 Automaticity, 191, 199, 333 Autonomy, 156–157 motivation and, 510–514 need for, 511–514 support of, 542 Availability heuristic, 392 Aversive situations and stimulants, 293, 306 Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, 194 Axons, 93–94 Balanced bilingualism, 254, 262 Bandura, Albert, 465–466, 479, 485, 496 Basal ganglia, 91 Basic skills, 619 automated, 359 Behavior modification, 287. See also Applied behavior analysis Behavioral approaches, motivation, 508–509 Behavioral disorders, 219–225 Behavioral domain, 15 Behavioral learning theories applied behavior analysis, overview, 298–310 challenges, cautions, and criticisms, 314–320 vs. cognitive view of learning, 326 contiguity and classical conditioning, 289–291, 296 contingency contracts, 303 defined, 287 functional behavioral assessments (FBA), 310–311 group consequences, 305 lessons for teachers, 318 operant conditioning, 292–297, 299–300, 302, 309, 312, 314 positive behavior, encouraging, 298–302 positive behavior supports (PBS), 311–312 self-management, 313–314 summary chart, 497 Teachers’ Casebook, 284, 321–323 token reinforcement systems, 304 undesirable behaviors, response to, 306–310 Behavioral objectives, 612 Being needs, 509–510

Belief perseverance, 392 Beliefs, 466, 473 Belonging needs, 509–510 Belonging-supportive learning environments, 544 Benevolence, 169 Best-works portfolio, 661–662 Betty’s Brain, 447 Bias assessment, 650–651 confirmation, 392 defined, 44 gender differences and intelligence, 201–203 gender roles and, 64–70 performance assessment and, 664 stereotypes, prejudice, discrimination, 43–46 Bias-free language, 43 Biculturalism, 161, 255 Bilingual education and English learners, 264–268 Bilingualism, 251–256. See also English learners (ELs) balanced, 254, 262 benefits of, 253–254 definition, 252 gifted and talented students and, 277 heritage language, 254–255 limited bilingual students, 263 loss of language, 254–255 myths and misconceptions about, 255–256 needs and gifts, 276–277 research on bilingual education, 264–267 two-way immersion, 267–268 Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, 686 Bill of Rights, classroom, 562–563 Binet, Alfred, 192 Binge eating disorder, 138 Bioecological model of development (Bronfenbrenner), 140–154 Biologically primary abilities, 388 Biologically secondary skill, 388 Biology, effect on development, 89 Bisexuals, 63, 70 Black Lives Matter, 34, 37, 57, 442 Black racial identity, 56–57 Blended families, 141 Blending classroom, 454–455 Bloom, Benjamin, 614–615, 627 Blue Lives Matter, 34 Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, 189–190 Body image, 137–139 Body movement, cerebral cortex, 95 Body sensation, cerebral cortex, 95 Bottom-up processing, 331 Boys. See Males Brain adolescent development of, 95–96

behavioral learning theory, neuroscience of, 294–295 bilingualism and, 253 cerebral cortex, functional areas, 95 cognitive development and, 91–102 cognitive learning and, 326–327 common myths, 98–99 developing brain, 91–96, 196 emotion and, 533–536 forgetting, memory and, 352 imaging techniques, 91–92 instruction affecting development, 97 learning and teaching implications, 95–101 myelination of, 188 neuroscience of learning challenges, 211–212 observational learning, 389 plasticity, 93, 97 reading, learning and, 99–101 regions of, 91 retrieval practice/testing effect, 381 stem, 91 stress hormones, effect on, 51 Brainstorming, 373, 566 Bronfenbrenner, Urie, 140–154 bioecological model of development, 140–141 Brown, Linda, 60 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954), 60 Bulimia nervosa, 138 Bullying, 582–586 cyberbullying. See Cyber aggression (bullying) Teachers’ Casebook, 552, 599–601 types of, 148–150, 584 zero tolerance, 579–580 Burnout, 478, 489, 491 Canvas, 447 CAPS, 382 CAPTCHAs (Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart), 331 Career decisions, practical intelligence and, 199 Caring relationships, 573–576 Case studies, 21, 22 Caste, 48. See also Social class. CAT (computerized axial tomography) scans, 91, 92 Catastrophe theory, 113 CBITS (Cognitive Behavioral Intervention for Trauma in Schools), 272 Centering, 106 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 70, 135 Central executive, 336–337 Central tendency, 673–674 Cerebellum, 91, 212

Cerebral cortex, 95 Cerebral palsy, 226 Cerebrum, 91 Chain mnemonics, 357 Change, discontinuous, 89–90, 112–113 Cheating, 172–174 Check & Connect program, 575 Checklists, software appropriate for young children, 451 Child abuse, 152–154 Child-directed speech (CDS), 246 Childhood obesity, 137 Children. See also Adolescents; Infants brain development, 95–96 peers, influence of, 145–149 preoperational stage of development (Piaget), 106–107 theory of cognitive development (Piaget), 102–114 Chinese learners brain activity research, 97 cognitive ability, emphasis on, 113 Choice, support of, 513 Chunk and chew, 271 Chunking, 341 Cisgender, 63 Clarity, 605 Class, social, 46–54 CLASS (Classroom Assessment Scoring System) model, 13–15 Class inclusion, 120 Classical conditioning, 290–291, 350 Classification, 108, 109 Classroom assessments, 647–666 authentic, 659–661 complex thinking, 664–665 essay testing, 654–657 formative, 658–659 lessons for teachers, 665–666 selected-response testing, 653–654 testing, 651–658 from textbooks, 653 Classroom environment authentic tasks and, 421 complex learning environments, 421 constructivism and interactive learning, 414–461 culturally welcoming classrooms, creation of, 72–80 digital media and learning, 444–457 encouraging engagement, 569–570 Framework for Teaching, 12–13 goals in social context, 513 learning spaces, planning for, 568–569 motivation, strategies for, 539–545

Subject Index S-3 quick response to problems, 576–577 routines and rules, 559–565 self-determination, support for, 511 student anxiety, reducing, 536–537 triadic reciprocal causality, 466–467 Classroom goal structure, 519 Classroom organization, 15 Classroom organization and management, 552–595 basic goals, 556–558 bullying. See Bullying caring relationships, 573–576 communication, need for, 588–591 culturally responsive management, 591–595 first weeks of class, 568–569 for in-person learning, 559–560 for remote learning, 563–565 handling classroom disruptions, 306–310 high school students, special challenges with, 587–588 learning spaces, planning for, 566–568 problem prevention, 570–572 research on, 559 routines and rules, 559–565 zero tolerance policies, debate about, 579–580 Clinical interviews, 21 Cliques, 145 Cloud-based applications, 445 Cmaps, 379 Co-constructed processes, 115 Co-regulation of learning, 436, 485, 491 Coactions, 89 Code switching, 260 Coding, computational thinking and, 449–450 Cognitive apprenticeships, 432–433 Cognitive approaches, motivation, 508, 519 Cognitive-centered learning styles, 204–205 Cognitive constructivism, 417–418 Cognitive development, 88–89. See also Sociocultural theory (Vygotsky); Theory of cognitive development (Piaget) brain and, 91–102 cultural tools and, 116–117 culture and, 113–114 developing brain, 91–102 influences on, 103 learning and, 120 Piaget’s theories, 102–114, 120–122 regions of brain, 91 stages of, 104–112

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, 115–120, 122–123 Cognitive disabilities. See Intellectual disabilities Cognitive domain, 13–14, 614–615, 627 Cognitive function, brain regions, 91 Cognitive impairment. See Intellectual disabilities Cognitive learning theory, summary chart, 496 Cognitive load, 339–341, 387 Cognitive monitoring, 377 Cognitive needs, 509–510 Cognitive processes critical thinking and argumentation, 397–402 learning strategies, 375–383 metacognition, 371–375 neuroscience and, 211–212 problem solving, 383–397 transfer of learning, 402–406 Cognitive science, 326 Cognitive view of learning, 326 vs. behavioral view, 326 cognitive load and retaining information, 339–341 constructing declarative knowledge, 353–356 explicit memory, 343–350 implicit memory, 343, 350–351 information processing system, 329 knowledge, role of, 327–328 long-term memory, 343–353 procedural knowledge, development of, 359–360 working memory, 336–343 Cold cognition, 196 Collaboration, 434, 491, 495 cooperation and, 434–437 Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL), 9, 151–152 Collaborative learning, 122, 434 computer-supported, 445 Collective monologue, 118 College-aged students, formal operational stage (Piaget), 110–112 Commitment, 159 Common Core Standards, 612–614 Common sense, questions of in research, 17–18 Communication, by teachers of appropriate expectations, 608–610 classroom organization and management, 588–591 of grades and progress, 672 Communication language, 256–258 Communication skills, students autism spectrum disorders, 229–230 diversity in learning, 76 Community of practice, 419

Community partnerships, 107, 143, 208, 275, 314, 354, 405–406, 544–545, 594–595, 625, 679–680 Comparative organizers, 425 Compensation, 108 Competence, need for, 511–514 Competitive goal framing, 516 Complementary methods, research, 22 Complex learning environments, 421 Complex tasks, self-regulation and, 491–492 Complex thinking, assessing, 664–665 Comprehension, 213 learning strategies for comprehending, 377 Computational thinking, 449–450 Computerized axial tomography (CAT) scans, 91, 92 Computers, use in learning, 444–457 Concept, explicit memory and, 344–350 Concept maps, 380–381 Conceptually-driven knowledge, 331 Concrete examples/ representations of concepts cognitive development, 101, 102, 105, 107, 109–110, 112 cognitive views of learning, 361 complex cognitive processes, 376 learning differences and needs, 258 Concrete-operational stage (Piaget), 105, 107–108 Concrete operations, defined, 107 Conditional knowledge, 374 Conditioned response (CR), 290 Conditioned stimulus (CS), 290 Conferences student-led, English learners and, 274–276 tips for, 208, 672–673, 678–680 Confidence interval, 649 Confirmation bias, 392 Confrontations, 591 Connected knowledge, 406 Connections with school, 573–576 Consequences, 292. See also Discipline classroom rules violations, 562–563 communication, need for, 588–591 logical, 562, 577 quick response to problems, 576–577 Conservation, 106, 108 Construct-related evidence of validity, 650 Constructive controversies, 441–442

Constructivism, 414–461 cognitive apprenticeships, 432–433 cognitive constructivism, 417–418 collaboration and cooperation, 434–437 cooperative learning, 435–436. See also Groups defined, 417 designing learning environments and, 423–433 digital media, learning and, 444–457 dilemmas of, 455 inquiry-based learning, 427–432 instructional planning and, 617–618 learner-centered teaching, 420–423 learning, constructivist views of, 417–418 learning theories, summary chart, 496 social constructivism, 418–419 Constructivist approach. See Constructivism Constructivist practice, dilemmas of, 455 Contemporary Educational Psychology, 22 Content-related evidence of validity, 650 Context, 140, 355 Contiguity, 289–291 Contingency contracts, 303 Contingency support, 424 Continuous change, 89–90, 112 Continuous reinforcement schedule, 295 Control, attribution theories and, 523–524 Control and agency, teachers sharing with students, 492–493 Controlling communication, motivation and, 512 Controversial children, 147 Controversies, constructive/ structured, 441–442 Convergent questions, 626 Convergent thinking, 199 Cooperation, 434 among students and teacher, 555–558 Cooperative goal framing, 516 Cooperative learning. See also Groups collaboration and, 433–444 designing tasks, 437–438 effects of, 436 preparing students for, 439 students’ role in, 439 teacher’s role in, 437 techniques, 440–442 within-class and flexible grouping, 633–635 Coping Power Program, 493 Coronavirus pandemic, 10, 45. See also COVID-19 pandemic

S-4  Subject Index Corpus callosum, 91 Correlation studies, 19, 22 Costs, expectancy, and value, in motivation, 520–522 Coverage-focused teaching, 614 COVID-19 pandemic, 4, 7, 169, 223 digital learning, 444 lack of Internet connection, 52–53 social and economic inequality, 48 stress for teacher on, 489 students, mental health issues, 224 technology, 487 vaccine, 452 virtual learning environments (VLEs), 447 Creating questions, 614–616, 627 Creative intelligence, 200 Creativity, 198–203 Creativity-relevant process, 200 Criterion-referenced grading, 666–673 Criterion-referenced testing, 651–653 Criterion-related evidence of validity, 650 Critical periods in development, 90 second-language learning, 253 Critical thinking, 397–402 online sources, 399–400 teaching, 397–399 Cross-sectional studies, 21 Crowds, peer groups, 145–146 Crystallized intelligence, 188 Cueing, 297 Cultivating Awareness and Resilience in Education (CARE) program, 491 Cultural context crystallized intelligence, 188 pragmatics, 248 Cultural database, 37, 39 Cultural deficit model, 262 Cultural groups, 42–43 Cultural Identity Wheel, 42 Cultural tools, 116–117 Culturally relevant pedagogy, 73–75, 78 Culturally responsive classroom management, 591–594 Culture academic language proficiency, 256–257 brain plasticity and, 97 caring relationships and school connections, 574 cognitive development and, 113–114 culturally welcoming classrooms, creation of, 72–80 Deaf community, 229 definition, 37 dialect differences, 259–260 discontinuity, 77

diversity in learning, 75–77 economic and social class differences, 46–53 and educational history, 37–40 ethnicity and race, defining, 55 example student profiles, 41 funds of knowledge, 274 gender roles and bias, 64–70 iceberg model, 37–38 identity, ethnic and racial, 55–58 immigrant students, teaching of, 261–263 intersections and terminology, 42–43 language development, 244–251 language diversity and emergent literacy, 250–251 lessons for teachers, 77–80 moral development theory, 167–169 moral reasoning, differences in, 171–172 multicultural education, overview, 72–80 parenting and, 142–143 peer cultures, 146 play, differences in, 136 racial inequality, legacy of, 60–62 school achievement, ethnic and racial differences, 58–60 self-concept and, 163–164 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 115–120, 418–419 stereotypes, prejudice, discrimination, 43–46 stereotype threat, 45–46 terminology, 42–43 values and learning preferences, 75–76 Curiosity, motivation and, 531–533 Curiosity value, 541–542 Curriculum compacting, 234 Curriculum examples, Tools of the Mind, 123 Cyber aggression (bullying), 148, 582, 586 dealing with, 586 described, 582 Cyberbullying, 586 Danielson’s Framework for Teaching, 12–13 Data-driven processing, 331 Death by suicide, 223 Decay in memory, 341 Decentering, 106 Declarative knowledge, 328, 353–356, 359, 371 Declarative memory, 343–350 Decoding skills, 250 Deductive skills, 110 Deep knowledge, 406

Deep poverty, 53 Deep questions cognitive development, 112 development, 102, 112 facilitating through asking and answering, 425–427 teaching every student, 626, 628 Defend Innocence project, 153 Deficiency needs, 509–510 Defining attribute, 345 Delayed gratification, 482 Deliberate practice, 394 cognitive development, 345 cognitive views of learning, 359, 361 complex cognitive processes, 395 social cognitive views of learning and motivation, 469, 482 teaching every student, 587 Deliberative argumentation, 401 Deliberative-collaborative argumentation, 401–402 Dendrites, 93 Depth of processing theory, 341 Descriptions, combining verbal and graphic descriptions, 344 Descriptive studies, 19 Design-based research, 24 Design experiments, 605 Designed differentiation, 633 Designing class spaces, 566–568 Desirable difficulty, 353, 355 Development, 88. See also Bioecological model of development (Bronfenbrenner); Theory of cognitive development (Piaget) appropriate computer activities, 450–452 argumentation skills, 401 constructivist view of learning, 414–457 definition of, 88–90 general principles of, 90 instruction affecting brain development, 97 language developmental milestones, 245–249 metacognition and, 372–374 moral development, 167–174 observational learning and, 468, 469 physical development, 132–139 psychosocial development (Erikson), 155–162 self-concept, 163 self-regulation and, 483–484 theories, 89–90 working memory, 341–343 Developmental crisis, 155 Developmental disability. See Intellectual disabilities; Physical disabilities Developmentally appropriate practice, 121

Deviation IQ, 193 Dewey, John, 16, 417, 427, 434, 531 Diabetes, 228 Dialects, 259–260 Dialogue for developing critical thinking skills, 397 as teaching method, 626–629 Differential reinforcement, 298 Differentiated instruction, 633–637 Differentiation, 533 Digital age, cognitive development and, 117 Digital citizenship, digital literacy, media literacy, 450–453 Digital learning environments, 444–455 Direct instruction, 214, 619–621, 639 Direct reinforcement, 470 Directives instruction manner, 375 Disabilities defined, 185 intellectual. See Intellectual disabilities learning. See Learning disabilities; Specific learning disabilities (SLD) physical. See Physical disabilities Disability Etiquette, 185–186 Discipline assertive discipline, 590 beliefs about, 554–555 bullying and cyberbullying, 584 communication, need for, 588–591 consequences to rule violations, 562 culturally responsive classroom management, 591–594 discipline without stress® teaching model, 583 high school students, special challenges with, 587 problem prevention, 570–572 quick response to problems, 576–577 zero tolerance policies, 579–580 Discipline without Stress Punishments or Rewards, 582, 583 Discontinuous change, 112 Discrimination, 46 gender identity and sexual orientation, 71–72 racism and, 61–62 Discussion, as teaching method, 626–629 Disequilibrium, 104 Disordered eating, 137–139 Disputative argumentation, 401

Subject Index S-5 Disruptive behavior, ignoring of, 296, 298, 318. See also Classroom organization and management Distractors, multiple choice questions, 654 Distributed learning/practice cognitive development, 99, 102 cognitive view of learning, 354, 358 complex cognitive processes, 382 teaching every student, 639 Distributive justice, 169 Divergent questions, 626 Divergent thinking, 199 Diversity assessment bias, 650–651, 664 caring relationships and school connections, 574 creativity and, 201 culturally responsive classroom management, 591–594 culturally welcoming classrooms, creation of, 72–80 economic and social class differences, 46–53 educational, overview, 37–38 emergent literacy and language, 250–251 ethnicity and race, 55–62 example student profiles, 41 gender identity and sexual orientation, 63–72 gender roles and bias, 64–70 identity, ethnic and racial, 55–58 immigrant students, teaching of, 261–276 in learning, 74–76 indigenous communities, 56–57, 74–76, 248, 432 intelligence, differences in, 195–196 interpreting cultural differences, 37–43 in learning, 75–77 moral reasoning, 171–172 multicultural education, overview, 73 parenting styles, 142 racial inequality, legacy of, 60–62 school achievement, ethnic and racial differences, 58–60 stereotype threat, 45–46 Division of Adolescent and School Health, 70 Divorce, 144 Domain general frame, 375 Domain-relevant skills, 200 Domain-specific knowledge cognitive views of learning, 327–328 vs. coherent knowledge, 406 complex cognitive processes, 384, 387, 390 Point/Counterpoint, 430

Domain-specific strategies, 360 Dominican Americans, 57 Dopamine receptors, 188, 295 Dow, Whitney, 57 Down Syndrome, 225 Drawing strategies, 380–381 Drug use and abuse, 223–225 Dual coding theory, 345 Dual-language development, 252–255. See also Bilingualism; English learners (ELs) Dyslexia, 211 E-journals, 271 Ear learners, 264 Eating disorders, See Disordered eating Economic factors. See Socioeconomic status (SES) Education is cultural, 37–38 current trends in, 4–11 Education Week, 12 Educational autobiography, 39–40 Educational debt, achievement gap and, 58 Educational history, cultural and, 39–43 Educational Psychologist, 9 Educational psychology, 16–18, 24–25 research in, 17–24 theories in, 24–25 EEG (electroencephalograph), 91, 92 Effective instruction delivery (EID), 297 Effective practice, 355 Efficacy, sense of, 478 Ego goals, 518 Egocentric, defined, 106 Egocentric speech, 118 Egocentrism, adolescent, 111 Elaborated goals, 515 Elaboration, 353–354 as executive control process, 371, 375 Elaborative rehearsal, 340 Electroencephalograph (EEG), 91, 92 Elementary aged children classroom rules for, 561 concrete-operational stage (Piaget), 107–109 first weeks of class, 568–569 in-person teaching, rules for, 561 physical development, 133 preoperational stage of development (Piaget), 106–107 psychosocial development (Erikson), 155–162 relationships with teachers, 151

self-concept, development of, 163 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 118 teacher–student interactions in classroom, 14–15 Embodied cognition, 388–389 Emergent literacy, 249–251 Emotion-focused strategies, 537 Emotional arousal, 475 Emotional disorders, 185, 219–225 Emotional disturbance, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 219 Emotional intelligence (EI), 196–198 Emotional learning, 488–489 Emotional support, 13–14 Emotions, 533–536. See also Motivation achievement emotions, 534–535 adolescent brain development, 95–96 amygdala, 91 anxiety, 524, 534–539 brain regions for, 94–95 brain research and, 98–99 in classroom, 536 emotional intelligence, 488 English learners, 270, 279 negative, 537–539 observational learning and, 471–472 peer popularity and rejection, 147 physical development, 134 relatedness, need for, 511–514 self-concept and, 163–164 self-regulation of emotions, 488–491 social goals, 519–520 teacher burnout, 478, 489, 491 Empathetic listening, 589–590 Empirical, defined, 25 EMR model, 573–574 Enactive learning, 315, 466 Encounter stage of nigrescence, 57 Encouraging positive behaviors, 301, 302 Enculturation, 420 Engaged time, 557, 569 Engagement, encouragement of, 569 Engineering, 65. See also STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) fields English as a second language (ESL), 264. See also English learners (ELs) English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL), 261, 264. See also English learners (ELs) English language learners (ELLs), 262. See also English learners (ELs)

English learners (ELs), 261–263 bilingual education and, 264–268 cooperative learning and, 444 giftedness, recognizing, 276 immigrant students, 261–263 learners with disabilities, 276–277 standardized testing and, 8 structured English immersion (SEI), 265 teaching approaches, 264 trends in education, 6–7 Enrichment, 234 Enthusiasm, teacher, 605 Environment, classroom. See Classroom environment; Classroom organization and management Environment, influence of. See also Bioecological model of development (Bronfenbrenner) adaptations to, 103 effect on development, 89 intelligence, 132–133 practical intelligence, 191 social intuitionist model, moral development, 171–172 student achievement, 50–51 Epilepsy, 227 Episodic buffer, 336, 338 Episodic memory, 348 Equilibration, 104 Equity pedagogy, 73 Erikson, Erik, 155–162 Erin’s Law, 153 ERP (event-related potential), 91, 92 ESL (English as second language), 371 ESSA (Every Student Succeeds Act), 8, 12, 20 Essay testing, 654–657 Esteem needs, 509–510 Ethic of care, 168 Ethical issues, behavioral learning theory, 287 Ethnic-racial identity, 55 development, 56–57 multidimensional and flexible, 56 Ethnic minority groups, 55, 57, 62, 79 Ethnicity assessment bias, 650–651, 664 caring relationships and school connections, 574 culturally relevant pedagogy, 73–75 culturally responsive classroom management, 591–594 culturally welcoming classrooms, creation of, 72–80 defining, 55

S-6  Subject Index Ethnicity(continued) diversity in learning, 75–77 identity, 55–58 immigrant students and English learners, teaching of, 261–263 intelligence, differences in, 195–196 moral reasoning, 117 motivation and, 527 parenting styles, 142 poverty rates, 49 pride, racial and ethnic, 161–162 racial inequality, legacy of, 60–62 school achievement and, 58–60 self-concept, ideas of, 163 stereotype threat, 45–46 trends in education, 6–7 Ethnography, 21 Etiquette, disabilities and, 185–186 Evaluating online resources, 400 Evaluating questions, 615, 627 Evaluating skills, metacognition and, 271, 374 Event-related potential (ERP), 91, 92 Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), 8, 12, 20 Evidence-based practices, 20 Examples. See also Abstract examples/representations of concepts; Concrete examples/representations of concepts; Worked examples problem solving and, 387–388 Exceptional students, 185 Executive control processes, 371–375 Executive functioning, 114 Executive processes, triarchic theory of intelligence, 191 Exemplar, 346 Exercise, 136–137 Exit tickets, 658 Expectancies, values, and costs, 520–522 Expectancy for success, 521 Expectancy × value theories, 520 Expectations, 606–609 academic self-concept and, 51 for students, 191, 466–467 triadic reciprocal causality, 466–467 Experience-dependent neural changes, 94 Experience-expectant neural changes, 93 Experimentation, 19, 22 Expert knowledge, 394–397 Expert reversal effect, 387 Expert teachers, 605 Explicit memory, 344–350 Explicit teaching, 619–622, 631 Exploration, 159

Expository organizers, 425 Expressive vocabulary, 246–247 Extended families, 141 External comparisons, selfconcept development, 163 Extinction, 296 Extraneous cognitive load, 339 Extrinsic motivation, 507–508 Facilitation constructivist classrooms, deep learning, 423–427 deep questions, asking and answering, 425–427 Fading process with scaffolding, 424 Failing, value of, 668 Failure avoidance, 526 False growth mindset, 527 Families bioecological model of development, 140–144 classroom management, communication about, 588–591 conferences with, 208, 672, 678, 679 connecting with families, 143 English language learners, working with, 272–275 preoperational children, caring for, 107 Family and community partnerships, motivation to learn, 107, 143, 208, 275, 314, 354, 405–406, 544–545, 594–595, 625, 679–680 Feedback, 11, 665–666, 668, 686 cognitive development, 102, 122 complex cognitive processes, 382, 405 constructivism, 419, 429, 431, 432, 436, 437, 444, 445, 451 culture and diversity, 66, 67, 79, 306 development and, 161, 166 goals and, 516–517 helpful feedback, 628 language development, 252, 256, 258, 268 learning differences and needs, 214 managing learning environments, 570, 572, 576 motivation in learning and teaching, 513, 526, 532–533, 542, 544 praise-and-ignore approach, 298 responding to student answers, 628 social cognitive views, 466, 469, 475, 491, 492, 495 student attributions and, 524 teaching every student, 609, 618–619, 626, 628–629 triadic reciprocal causality, 466–467

Feeling different/uncertain, identity-development models, 70 Females ADHD diagnoses, 215 assessment bias, 650–651 gender and intelligence, 132–133 gender roles and bias, 64–70 genderlects, 260 gifted students, identifying, 234 moral development, 168 self-concept, 164 stereotype threat, 45–46 Field experiments, 20 Fill-in-the-blank items, 653–654 Fine-motor skills, 133 Finger spelling, 229 Fixed-interval reinforcement schedule, 296 Fixed mindset, 164, 525 Fixed-ratio reinforcement schedule, 296 Flashbulb memories, 348 Flatt, Clark, 223 Flatt, Jason, 223 Flexibility in thinking, creativity, 199 Flexible grouping, 633–634 Flexible knowledge, 410 Flipped classroom, 454 Flow, 533 Floyd, George, 61 Fluency disorder, 218 Fluid intelligence, 188 Flynn effect, 193–194 fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), 91, 92 Focal onset seizures, 227 Focus, executive functioning, 114 Focusing on one dimension, preoperational thinking, 106 Forgetting, memory and, 341, 352 Formal operational stage of development, 105, 110–111 Formative assessment, 648, 651– 652, 658–661, 668, 671, 681 constructivism, 432 Formative testing, 266 Framework for Teaching, 12–13 Framing, 375 Free, appropriate public education (FAPE), 205 Frequent testing, 657. See also Testing effect cognitive views of learning, 354 complex cognitive processes, 404 retrieval practice, 355–356 Freud, Sigmund, 90 Friendships, 146–147 Frontal lobe, brain, 91, 95, 212 Functional behavioral assessments (FBA), 310–311 Functional fixedness, 391

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 91, 92 Funds of knowledge, 274 g (general intelligence), 188 g (mental energy), 188 Games, 448 Gardner, Howard, 188–191, 201 Gates Foundation, 686 Gay students, 70–72 Gender ADHD diagnoses, 215 assessment bias, 650–651 expression, 63 gifted students, identifying, 234 intelligence, differences in, 195–196 moral development, 169 substance use disorder, 223–224 Gender biases, 65–70 Gender identity, 63–64, 71–72 Gender roles, 63–65 Gender schemas, 64–65 Genderlects, 260 General intelligence (g), 188 General knowledge, 327–328 General learning disability. See Intellectual disabilities; Learning disabilities; Specific learning disabilities (SLD) Generalized onset seizures, 227 Generalized research findings, 22 Generation 1.5, 263–276 Generativity, 160 Genetics effect on development, 89, 103 intelligence and, 196 Germane cognitive load, 339 Gestalt, 331–332 Gifted and talented students cooperative learning, use of, 443–444 English learners and, 276, 280 identification of, 232–233, 277 overview, 230–235 racial and ethnic discrimination and, 62 research on, 230–232 teaching, 234–235 Girls. See Females Glial cells, 94 Global self-esteem, 162, 165 GLSEN Safe Space Kit, 72 Goal-directed actions, 105 Goal-directed attention, 331 Goal orientations, 514–520 contextual influences on, 519 performance, 518–519 Goals, 481, 514–520 achievement emotions, 534 cooperative vs. competitive, 516–517 framing, 516 goal-setting, observational learning, 468, 477, 487 learning, 612–614

Subject Index S-7 self-management and goalsetting, 313–314 setting, 515 structures, 516 work avoidance, 519 Good behavior game, 305 Google Apps, 444–445 Google documents, 445 Grade-equivalent scores, 675 Grade retention, 668–670 Grading, 666–673 on a curve, 666–667 effects on studentsmotivation, 668 guidelines for, 670–672 norm-referenced vs. criterionreferenced, 666–668 Gradual change in human development, 89–90 Grammar skills, developmental milestones, 248 Gray matter, 92 Grit, 482–484 Gross-motor skills, 132 Group consequences, 305 Group discussion, 628–631 Group focus in classroom management, 571 Group work, goals of, 434 Groups assigning roles in cooperative groups, 439–440 collaboration and cooperation, 433–437 composition, 439 designing cooperative learning tasks, 437–438 learning in, 433–434 misuses of, 434–435 preparing students for, 439 setting up, 438–440 within-class and flexible grouping, 633–634 Growth assessment, 648, 680 Growth mindset, 525–527 Guided participation, 432 Guidelines adolescents, positive body images, 139 aggression, dealing with, 150 anxiety, coping with test, 538 attention, gaining and maintaining, 335 becoming expert students, 395–396 caring relationships, 575–576 children of divorce, helping, 144–145 class routines for in-person learning, 560 classical conditioning, application of, 291 classroom organization and management, 594–595 concrete-operational stage, teaching tips, 109–110 conferences, productive, 208 conferences, tips for, 679–680

connecting with families, 143 cooperative learning, 443 creativity, applying and encouraging, 201–202 culturally relevant teaching, 78 deep questions, facilitating through asking and answering, 426 direct instruction, 621–622 disciplining students with emotional problems, 221 emotional self-regulation, 490 English learners, support for, 273 explosive situations, handling of, 587–588 eyewitness testimony, interviewing students and, 349–350 family and community partnerships, 275, 594–595 flexible grouping, 634–635 formal operational stage of development, 112 gender bias, avoiding,67 grading systems, 670–672 group discussions, 630–631 healthy mindset, encouraging, 528 helping students understand and remember, 360–361 homework, 625 identity formation, supporting, 161 initiative and industry, encouraging, 157–158 intellectual disabilities, students with, 226 interest and curiosity, building on, 532 IQ scores, interpreting, 194 language and literacy promotion, 251–252 language learning, promotion of, 258 learning objectives, 617 learning space, designing of, 567–568 media literacy development, 453 motivation, sociocultural foundations of, 544–545 observational learning, use of, 472 organizing learning, 354 penalties, imposing of, 578–579 physical differences in classroom, 133–134 portfolios, creating, 662–663 positive behaviors, encouraging, 302 poverty, teaching students who live in, 54 praise, appropriate use of, 299–300

preoperational children, caring for, 107 preparing for testing, 683–684 problem solving skill development, 393 punishment, use of, 309 remote learning, routines and rules for, 563–565 rubrics, development of, 664 self-determination and autonomy, supporting, 513 self-efficacy, supporting, 477 self-management, student, 314 standardized test results, explaining, 679–680 student engagement, 570 teacher expectations, 609–610 transfer of learning, 405–406 universal design for learning (UDL), 636–637 Vygotsky’s theory, applying in teaching, 124 welcoming all families, 275 writing objective test items, 655–656 Guskey, Thomas, 666, 668 Haidt, Jonathan, 171–172 Hall, G. Stanley, 16 Handicap as opposed to a disability, 185 Hawking, Stephen, 185 Headline writing, 271 Health, student achievement and, 50–51 Hearing impairments, 229 Heredity, intelligence and, 196 Heritage language, 254–255 Heuristics, 390–391 Hierarchy of needs, 509–510 High functioning autism spectrum disorder and cautions in the use of the term, 229–230 High-Leverage Teaching Practices, TeachingWorks, 14 High school-aged children. See also Adolescents classroom rules for, 561–562 effective managers of, 569 first weeks of class, 569 formal operational stage (Piaget), 110–111 in-person teaching, rules for, 561–562 peers, influence of, 145–149 physical development, 134 psychosocial development (Erikson), 157–158 relationships with teachers, 151 self-concept, development of, 163 special challenges with, 587 transition to high school, caring communities, 574–575 High-stakes testing, 680–681

Higher-order thinking, 187 Highlighting, as learning strategy, 377–378 Highly mobile students, 53 Highly structured, review, and skill-building tasks, 437 Hippocampus, 91 Hispanic students. See Latina/o Americans Home environment. See Environment, influence of Homelessness, 53 Homework, 619, 623–625 Homosexual students, 63 Hostile aggression, 148 Housekeeping procedures in classroom management, 559, 566 Human agency, 473 Hybrid instruction, 459 Hybrid learning, 4 Hyperactive child, 215 Hyperactivity disorders, 147, 213, 215–218 Hypothalamus, 91 Hypothesis/hypotheses, definition, 25 Hypothetico-deductive reasoning, 110 “I” message, 590 Identity, 108, 156 defined, 155 psychosocial development (Erikson), 155–162 technology and, 159–160 Identity achievement, 159 Identity-development models, 70 Identity diffusion, 159 Identity-first language, 186–187 Identity-first reference, 186 Identity foreclosure, 159 IEP (Individualized Education Program), 207, 226 IES Practice Guides, 20, 347, 358, 380, 424–425, 626, 657–658 Ignoring behaviors, 296, 298, 318 Illegal alien, 43 Illusion of understanding, 204–205 Imagery, meaningful connections, 354–355 Images, 344–345 Imaginary audience, 111 Imaging techniques, brain, 91–92 Imitative learning, 122 Immersion/emersion stage of nigrescence, 57 Immersion strategies structured English immersion (SEI), 265 two-way immersion, 267–268 Immersive virtual learning environment (IVLE), 448 Immigrant students, teaching of, 261–263 Immigrants, 261 Impairment, 185 Implicit memory, 343, 350–351

S-8  Subject Index Importance value, 521 Impulse control adolescents, 96 executive functioning, development of, 114 psychosocial development (Erikson), 157 Tools of the Mind under Impulse control, 123 In-group prejudices, 44–45 Incentives, 507–508, 520, 541 Inclusion, 206 Inclusive classrooms, differentiated instruction, 635–636 Inclusive opportunities, 543–544 Inclusive playgrounds, 137 Independent work, 622 Indicators in learning standards, 612 Indigenous communities, 48, 56–57, 74–75, 76, 248, 432 Individual interests, 529–530 Individualistic goal framing, 516 Individualized Education Program (IEP), 207, 226 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 205–209, 212 assistive technology, 635–636 autism spectrum, 229–230 components and provisions, 205–208 emotional and behavioral disorders, 219–220 emotional disturbance, defined, 219 positive behavior supports, 311–312 response to intervention (RTI), 209–211 Inductive reasoning, 110 Industry (Erikson), 157–158 Infants brain development, 91–96 language development, 245–246 psychosocial development (Erikson), 156 sensorimotor stage (Piaget), 105–106 theory of cognitive development (Piaget), 105 Inferiority, psychosocial development (Erikson), 157–158 Inferring relationships, 110 Informal assessments, 658–659 Information, motivation and, 512 Information processing, 329–353 Information retrieval, memory, 351–352 Initiative (Erikson), 157 Inquiry learning, 427–432 Insight, 191, 372 Instructed learning, 122 Instruction. See Teaching Instructional manner in teacher metacognitive support, 375

Instructional objectives, 612 Instructional reasoning, 606 Instructional support, 13–15 Instructional time, 557 Instrumental aggression, 148 Instrumental value tasks, 541 Integration, 206, 533 Integrity (Erikson), 160 Intellectual disabilities, 225. See also Learning disabilities behavioral views of learning, 311 learner differences and learning needs, 225–226 Intelligence cultural influences and, 38 defining, 187–188 gifted and talented students, 230–235 measures of, 192–195 neuroscience and, 192 as process, 191 sex differences, 195–196 student beliefs about, 525 Intelligence quotient (IQ), 192–195 academic achievement and, 194–195 Interactional differentiation, 633 Interest areas/learning spaces, classroom planning, 566–568 Interest value, 521, 541–542 Interests, motivation and, 529–530 Interference in forgetting, 341 Interim (growth or benchmark) assessment, 648, 651, 652, 681 Interleaved practice, 356 Intermittent reinforcement schedule, 295 Internal comparisons, selfconcept development, 163 Internalization and internalization-commitment stages of nigrescence, 57 Internalize (moral rules and principles), 172 International Mind, Brain, and Education Society, 98 Interpersonal intelligence, 188–191 Intersectionality, 42 Interval schedule, 295 Interventions, autism spectrum disorders, 230 Intimacy (Erikson), 160 Intrapersonal intelligence, 188–191 Intrinsic cognitive load, 339–340 Intrinsic motivation, 507–508 Intrinsic task motivation, 200 Intrinsic value, 521, 541–542 Investigative listener, 440 IRF (initiation, response, follow-up), 626 Irving, John, 198, 200 James, William, 16, 39 Jason Flatt Act, 223

Jigsaw classroom, 441, 444 Joint attention speech, 246 Journal of Educational Psychology, 16, 99 Journals, 271, 658–659 Juvenile diabetes, 228 Keyword method, 357–358 Khan, Salman, 454 Kinesthetic learning styles, 204 Knowledge cognition and, 327–328 construction of, internal and external processes, 419 construction of, teaching implications, 121–122 constructivist views of learning, 417–420 executive functioning, development of, 114 expert knowledge and problem solving, 394–397 expert teachers, 605 making meaningful connections, 353–356 metacognition and, 371 pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), 606 self-regulation and, 480–481 situated and general knowledge, 419–420 Knowledge acquisition components, intelligence, 191 Knowledge construction process, 73 Kohlberg, Lawrence, 167–169 KWL (know, want, learn) strategy, 372–373, 381 Labeling for students, 185–187 possible bias in application of, 187 Laboratory School, University of Chicago, 16 Language development. See also Bilingualism; English learners (ELs) academic language, 256–263 autism spectrum disorders, 229–230 brain plasticity and, 97 brain regions for, 95 communication and academic language, 256–257 cultural differences, 244–277 developmental milestones, 245–247 diversity in, 250–258. See also Language diversity dual-language development, 252–255 emergent literacy, 249–251 encouraging, 219 preoperational stage of development, 106–107 second-language learning, 253 sex differences, 195–196

signed language, 255 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky) on, 117–118 theory of multiple intelligences, 188–191 Language disabilities communication impairments, 218–219 language disorders, 219 neuroscience and, 211–212 Language diversity. See also Bilingualism; English learners (ELs) dialects, 259–260 emergent literacy and, 250–251 immigrant students and English learners, teaching of, 261–263 native-language maintenance instruction, 265 second-language learning, 253 semilingual, 266 Language loss, 254–255 Langue des Signes Quebecoise (LSQ), 255 Lateralization, 95 Latina/o Americans cultural groups, 43 culturally responsive classroom management, 591–594 discrimination, legacy of, 60–62 diversity in learning, 75–77 ethnic-racial identity, 56 graduation rates, 60 poverty rates, 48 Learned helplessness, 214, 523 Learner differences. See also Learning disabilities defining intelligence, 187–188 differentiated instruction, 633–637 gifted and talented students, 230–235 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 205–209 intelligence as process, 191 language and labeling, 185–187 learning and thinking styles, 203–205 measuring intelligence, 192–195 referrals, process for, 211 sex differences and, 195–196 types of learners, 624 Learning. See also Behavioral learning theories; Cognitive view of learning; Learning challenges; Learning disabilities; Theory of cognitive development behavioral views of learning, 287 brain regions and, 91 classroom time for, 556–557

Subject Index S-9 cognitive development and, 120 constructivist views of, 417–419 diversity in, 75–80 gender and sexual orientation in, 63–72 instructed learning, 122 motivation to learn, strategies to, 539–544 neuroscience and, 99–101 performance and, 315–316 self-efficacy and, 476–478 social cognitive views, 495–496 universal design, differentiation with, 636–637 Learning approaches for different cultures, 75–77 Learning challenges, 211–230. See also Learning disabilities neuroscience and, 211–212 Learning disabilities See also Specific learning disabilities (SLD) autism spectrum disorders, 6, 210, 229–230 communication impairments, 218–219 cooperative learning, use of, 443–444 differentiated instruction, 633–637 emotional and behavioral disorders, 219–225 health and sensory impairments, 226–229 high-stakes tests and, 682 hyperactivity and attention disorders, 215–217 intellectual disabilities, 225–226 labeling and language, 185–187 note taking strategies, 378 overview of, 213–215 production deficiencies, 382 referrals, process for, 211 response to intervention (RTI), 209–211 Learning goals, 517, 612–614 Learning management system (LMS), 447 Learning preferences, 75–76, 204–205 Learning sciences cognitive apprenticeships, 432–433 collaboration and cooperation, 433–444 constructivist perspectives, application of, 414–457 constructivist views of learning, 417–419 defined, 423 digital media, interactive learning and, 444–455 inquiry-based learning, 427–432

learner-centered teaching, 420–423 Learning Skills Research Centre, 204 Learning spaces/interest areas, classroom planning, 566, 567–568 Learning strategies, 375–383 application of, 382–383 attention, 375, 377, 381 drawing, 380–381 note taking, 378–379 organizing, visual tools for, 379–381 reading strategies, 381–382 students with learning disabilities, 213, 214–215 summaries, 377 transfer of learning, 402–405 underlining and highlighting, 377–378 Learning styles, 203–205 problems with, 17, 204–205 Learning targets, 613–617, 653–672 Least restrictive environment (LRE), 206 Left brain learning, 98 Legal issues Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 209 child abuse, 152–154 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 205–209 Vocational Rehabilitation Act (1973), 209 Legally blind, 228 Lengua de señas nicaragüense, 255 Lesbians, 53, 70–71, 583 Lesson study, 612 Levels of processing theory, 341 LGBTQ students, 70–72, 583 Limited bilingual students, 264. See also English learners (ELs) Limited capacity of working memory, 341 Limited English proficient (LEP), 264 Linguistic intelligence, 188–191 Lip reading, 229 Listening empathetic listening, 589–590 phonological loop, 336–338 Literacy emergent, 249–251 language diversity and emergent, 250–252 media and digital, 444–455 Literature response groups, teaching English language learners, 267 Loci method, 357 Locus of causality, 507, 523, 542 Logical consequences, 562, 577 Logical-mathematical intelligence, 188–191

LOGO programming, 450 Long-term memory, 343 capacity and duration of, 343 explicit (declarative) memories, 343–350 implicit memories, 343, 350–351 individual differences, 352–353 information processing system, 330 retrieving information, 351–352 Longitudinal studies, 21 Low expectations for students in poverty, 51 teacher expectations, 608–610 Low vision, defined, 228 Lower class, defined, 47 Magic middle, 123–124 Mainstreaming, 206 Maintenance rehearsal, 340 Males ADHD diagnoses, 215–216 gender identity and sexual orientation, 63–64, 70–72 gender roles and bias, 64–70 genderlects, 260 sex and intelligence, 195–196 stereotype threat, 45–46 substance use disorder, 223–224 Mandated reporting, 153 Manipulatives, 121–122 Mapping, Cmaps, 379–380 Marcellino, Rosa, 225 Maslow, Abraham, 509–510 Massed practice, 358 Massive multi-player online games (MMOs), 449 Mastery experiences, 474, 475 Mastery goals, 517–518 Matching exercises, 653–654 Mathematics and mathematic skills, 471. See also STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) fields comprehension and problem solving, 385–386, 391 ethnic and racial achievement data, 58–60 neuroscience and, 211, 212 self-concept and, 162–164 sex differences, 195–196 specific learning disabilities, 211–213 stereotype threat, 45–46 technology, use of, 117 Maturation, 89, 103, 134–135 Mean, test scores, 673–674 Meaning, knowledge construction and, 341 Meaning, language development, 246–247 Means-ends analysis, 390

Measurement, 647–648 data-based decision making, 647 intelligence, measures of, 192–195 standard error of, 649 Measures of Effective Teaching (MET) Project, 686 Media aggressive behavior and, 149 identity and technology, 159–160 impact of, 6–7 literacy and use, 452 prejudice and, 45–46 Median, test scores, 673 Mediation of mental processes, 117 Medulla oblongata, 91 Melting pot, 261 Memory cognitive load and retaining information in working, 339–341 emotions and body, 534 executive control processes, 371 executive functioning, development of, 114 explicit memory, 343–350 implicit memory, 343, 350–351 individual differences, 341–343, 352–353 information processing system, 329–330 learning strategies, 378 long-term memory, 343–353 mnemonics, 357–358 neuroscience of, 212 problem solving schemas, 387–388, 391, 394 retrieval practice, 373, 381 robust knowledge, 406 rote memorization, 358 sensory memory, 329–335 short-term memory, 329, 336–337 working memory, 188, 336–343 Menarche, 134 Mental age, 192 Mental health issues, stigma of, 224–225 Mental retardation, 225. See also Intellectual disabilities Mentorship, for developing critical thinking skills, 397 Merryn, Erin, 153 Meta-analysis, 9 Metacognition, 371–374 development of, 372–374 executive control processes, 371 individual differences, 371–372 KWL (know, want, learn) strategy, 373, 381 self-regulation and, 479, 480 teachers supporting student metacognition, 374

S-10  Subject Index Metacognitive knowledge, 374, 401 Metacognitive skills, 373, 374 Metalinguistic awareness, 248–249 Metamotivation, 481 #MeToo movement, 66 Middle class, defined, 47 Middle school aged children concrete-operational stage (Piaget), 107–110 peers, influence of, 145–149 psychosocial development (Erikson), 157–158 relationships with teachers, 149–152 self-concept, development of, 163 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 118 Mindful abstraction, 403 Mindfulness training, 490 Mindset about ability, 525–528 about failure, 526–527 Minecraft, 449 Minority group, 55 Mirror neuron systems, 326 Mixed methods, research, 22–23 Mixon, Justin, 272 Mnemonics, 357–358 CAPS, 382 as learning strategy, 376, 381 PARS, 381 Mobile learning, 446 Mode, test scores, 673 Model-evidence link, 425 Modeling, 466, 474–475 aggressive behavior, 149 cognitive behavior modification, 493–494 instruction manner, 375 observational learning, 468–473 triadic reciprocal causality, 466 Moderately difficult goals, 515 Monitoring skills, 371, 374, 395–397 Monolingual children, 252, 262–263 Moral action, 174 Moral awareness, 174 Moral commitment, 174 Moral development, 167–174 Moral dilemmas, 168 Moral judgments, 170, 174 Moral realism, 170 Moral reasoning, 167 Morality of cooperation, 170 Moratorium (Erikson), 159 Motherese, 246 Motivation, 376, 383, 405, 468, 505–506. See also Behavioral learning theories anxiety, 536–537 attribution theories, 522–524 autonomy, support of, 542 building blocks of students’ motivation, 540

classroom strategies, summary of, 541–542 curiosity and, 531–533 emotions, 533–536 expectancy x value theories, 520–522 flow, 533 general approaches to, 505–509 goals and goal orientations, 514–520 grades and, 668–670 interests, tapping of, 529–530 intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, 507–508 intrinsic task motivation, 200 learning, strategies for, 539–545 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 509–510 mindsets and, 525–528 needs and, 509–514 observational learning and, 470 self-determination and, 509–514 self-efficacy and, 476 self-regulation and, 481 and transfer, 402, 405 triadic reciprocal causality, 466–467 Motivation to learn, 539–544 Motivational components, 505 Motor skills, development and, 97, 105–106, 114, 132–135 Movement, theory of multiple intelligence, 189, 190 Movement management, 558, 571 Moving residences, impact on students, 53 Mozart effect, 97 Multicultural education, 73 creation of culturally welcoming classrooms, 72–80 diversity in learning, 75–77 lessons for teachers, 77–80 overview of, 72–80 Multimedia learning activities, 444–455 Multiple-choice tests, 653–654 Multiple representations of content, 421–422 Multiple texts, integrating, 407 Multitasking, 333 Musical intelligence, 189, 190 Myelination, 94 Nancekivell, Sharlene, 205 National Assessment of Educational Progress, 59 National Association for Gifted Children (NAGC), 231 National Association for the Education of Young Children, 121 National Center for Children in Poverty, 53 National Center on Response to Intervention, 210

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), 249 National Institute on Drug Abuse, 224 National Rifle Association, 44 National School Climate Survey, 71 Native Americans, 62, 75 Native American languages, 248, 254 Native-language maintenance instruction, 265 Natural (logical) consequences, 562, 577 Naturalist intelligence, 188–189 Nature vs. nurture, 89, 232 Near-infrared optical tomography (NIR-OT), 91, 92 Needs, 509–514 for autonomy, 511, 512 for competence, 511, 512 deficiency and being, 509–510 growth vs. safety, 509–510 Maslow’s hierarchy of, 509–510 need-supportive vs. needthwarting classroom, 512 for relatedness, 511, 512, 514 Negative behavior functional behavioral assessments, 310–311 ignoring of, 296, 298, 318 response to, 306, 307 Negative correlation, 19 Negative emotions, 537–539 Negative reinforcement, 293–294, 306–307 Neglect, child, 153, 154 Neglected children indicators of child abuse, 154 in peer popularity, 147 Neglecting parents, 142 Negotiations, 591 Neo-Piagetian theories, 114 Nervous system, brain development, 91–102 Neurodevelopmental disorder, 229 Neurogenesis, 93 Neuromyths, 98 Neurons, 91–94, 97 Neuroscience behavioral learning and, 294–295 cognitive learning and the brain, 326–327 forgetting, memory and, 341 learning and teaching implications, 99–101 of learning challenges, 211–212 Neutral stimulus, 290 Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS), 401 Nigrescence, 56 NIR-OT (near-infrared optical tomography), 91, 92

No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act (2002), 8, 20, 68 Nonacademic self-concept, 162, 163 Nondiscriminatory evaluations, 206 Norm groups, 652 Norm-referenced grading, 666–668 Norm-referenced testing, 652 Normal distribution, 674–676 Note taking skills, 378–379 Obama, Barack, 225, 465 Obesity, 137 Object permanence, 105 Observational learning, 315, 466, 468–473 Obsessive-compulsive disorders, 38 Occipital lobe, 91, 95 Offensiveness in assessment bias, 650 OK2BME website, 135 Online sources, 399–400 Operant conditioning, 292–297 challenges and criticisms, 315 encouraging positive behaviors, 298–299, 302 praise, 299 punishment, 287, 293–295, 305–310 Operants, defined, 292 Operations (Piaget), 106 Opportunity gaps, 60 Oral fluency, 213 Organization, 354, 605, 606, 615 Organization of thoughts, Piaget on, 103–104 Organizational skills, 463, 500, 501 Organizing, learning strategies, 377, 379–381 Originality and creativity, 199 Out-group prejudices, 44–45 Outcome expectations, 468 Overlapping in classroom management, 571 Overlearning, 404 Overregularize in language development, 248 Overt aggression, 148 Overweight children and obesity, 137 Pacific Islanders, 60 Paraphrase rule, 589 PARCC tests, 681 Parenting styles, 142 Parietal lobe, brain, 91, 95 PARS, 381 Part learning, 358 Participant observation, 21 Participants/subjects, research, 19 Participation structures, 76, 556, 561 Participatory appropriation, 432

Subject Index S-11 Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC), 681 Passive construction, language development, 248 PATHS (Promoting Alternative THinking Strategies), 9–10 PATHS curriculum, 9–10 Pavlov, Ivan, 290 Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), 606 Peer cultures, 146 bioecological model of development, 145–149 poverty, effect of, 51 Peer Helpers Program, 152 Penalties. See Discipline Perceived cost, 522 Percentile rank scores, 675 Perception, 331, 332 Perceptual narrowing, 246 Perfectionism, dangers of, 166 Perfectionistic concerns, 166 Perfectionistic striving, 166 Performance assessments, 659–664 Performance components, triarchic theory of successful intelligence, 191 Performance goals, 518–519 Performances, 659–661 Permissive parents, 142 Person-first language, 186–187 Person-first reference, 186 Personal caring, 151 Personal choice in moral development, 169, 170 Personal development, 89 Personal interest, 507, 547 Personal knowledge, 374 Personal learning environment (PLE), 447 Personal learning network (PLN), 448 Personal territories, classroom planning, 566 Personality, learning and thinking styles, 203–205 Personalized education approach, 530 Perspective-taking ability, 167 PET (positron emission tomography) scans, 91, 92 Pew Research Center, 56 Phonemic awareness, 213, 253 Phonetic speech sound, 246 Phonological loop, 336–338 Physical abuse of children, 153, 154 Physical activity, 135–137 Physical development, 89 body image and disordered eating, 137–139 obesity, 137 overview, 132–135 play, recess, and physical activity, 135–137

Physical disabilities Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 209 assistive technology, 635–636 cooperative learning, use of, 443–444 English learners, 276–277 high-stakes tests and, 682 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 205–208 language and labeling, 185–187 physical activity and, 136–137 positive behavior supports (PBS), 310–312 trends in education, 6 Vocational Rehabilitation Act (1973), 209 Physical neglect of children, 153, 154 Physiological arousal, 475 Physiological needs, 509–510 Piaget, Jean, 90, 102–114, 135, 418, 419, 435, 441, 496. See also Theory of cognitive development (Piaget) implications for teaching, 120–122 limitations, 112–114 theory of cognitive development, 102–114 Pianta, Robert, 11–13 Pituitary gland, 91 Planning, of instructional content constructivist approaches, 617–618 design process, 632 flexible and creative plans, 614–616 learning goals and targets, 612–614 research on, 611–612 Understanding by Design (UbD), 631–633 Planning skill, 374 Planning tasks, students Framework for Teaching, 12–13 learning strategies, 377 metacognition and, 371 problem solving and, 395–397 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 117 Plasticity, brain, 93, 97 culture and, 97 synaptic plasticity, 93 Play cultural differences and, 136 physical development and, 135–137 plan, 123–124 value of, 136 Playgrounds for all. See Inclusive playgrounds Podcasts academic optimism, 607 brain-based education, 100 classroom management, 556

cooperative learning, 435 efficacy judgments, 478 learning theories, differences in, 326 positive and negative reinforcements, 293 procrastination, 526 self-efficacy, 474, 526 student sense of self, 162 teacher involvement, importance of, 11 as teaching tool, 205, 271 test taking skills, 651 Point/Counterpoint ADHD, pills or skills, 216–217 brain-based education, 98–99 building self-esteem, schools role, 165–166 English learners, teaching strategies, 265–266 gender differences and teaching, 68–69 grade retention, 669–670 grit, 483–484 homework valuable, 623–624 inquiry- and problem-based learning approaches, 430–431 making learning fun, 530–531 multitasking, 333–334 research as guide to education, 23–24 rewards for learning, 316–317 teaching of critical thinking and problem solving skills, 399 zero tolerance policies, 579–580 Pons (brain), 91 Popular children, 147 Popularity, 147 Portfolios, 659–664 Positive behavior supports (PBS), 310–312, 593 Positive correlation, 19 Positive practice overcorrection, 307 Positive reinforcement, 293 Positive teacher–student relationships, 11, 573–575, 585 Positron emission tomography (PET) scans, 91, 92 Poverty academic outcomes and, 49–53 achievement gap and, 60 affects children’s educational outcomes, 50 assessment bias, 650–651 deep, 53 gifted and talented students, identifying, 234 rates of, 48 and social class, 48–54 and social inequality, 48 trends in education, 6 Practical intelligence, 191, 195, 196

Practice. See also Deliberate practice; IES Practice Guides; Retrieval practice brain, retrieval practice/ testing effect, 381 deliberate practice, 359 developmentally appropriate practice, 121 distributed learning/practice, 358, 382 interleaved practice, 356 as learning strategy, 377, 406–407 massed practice, 358 memory, retrieval practice, 371, 381 positive practice overcorrection, 307 retrieval practice, 355–356, 371, 381 Pragmatics, 76 of classroom, 76 language skills, 248 Praise-and-ignore approach, 298 PRAXIS II ADHD, 215 advance organizers, 425 alternatives to standardized testing, 681 antecedents, 297 applied behavior analysis, 298 attention, 334 attribution theory, 522 authentic tests, 659 bilingual issues, 252 characteristics of cooperative learning, 433 classroom space, 566 concept mapping, 380 concepts of standardized testing, 673 criterion-/norm-referenced tests, 652 cultural and gender differences in the classroom, 43 developing basic skills, 359 discovery learning, 428 distinctions between Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories, 125 economic conditions/ socioeconomic status (SES), 46 encouraging/discouraging behaviors, 301 Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development, 155 families, 143 forms of cooperative learning, 441 gender bias, 66 human development, 133 implications of Piaget’s theory, 121 implications of Vygotsky’s theory, 122 individual education programs (IEP), 207

S-12  Subject Index PRAXIS II (continued) inquiry learning, 427 instructional objectives, 612 intelligence testing, 193 interpreting achievement tests, 677 the larger community, 37 learning by association, 290 learning/cognitive styles, 204 learning strategies, 375 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 509 memory and instruction, 336 memory and recall, 350 memory strategies, 358 modeling, 465 moral development, 171 multicultural education, 72 multiple intelligences, 188 observational learning, 470 operant conditioning, basics of, 292 planning thematic units, 617 portfolio assessment, 661 prior knowledge, 348 problem solving, 383 procedures and routines to minimize confusion and misbehavior, 559 promoting intrinsic motivation to learn, 508 promoting student engagement, 569 questioning, 626 racial bias, 61 reasoning, 110 rules, 561 scoring rubrics, 663 self-determination, 511 self-esteem, 164 self-regulation, 494 standardized testing: major issues, 680 student-centered learning, 420 student misbehavior, 576 taxonomies of educational objectives, 614 teacher-centered instruction, 619 teacher professionalism, 12, 15 teacher–student communication, 589 teacher’s role in studentcentered instruction, 634 teaching and management, 308 teaching concepts, 345 test anxiety, 536 thinking skills, 397 traditional assessment, 651 transfer of learning, 402 types of assessment, 648 Pre-encounter nigrescence, 56 Precorrection, 312 Preferences, learning, 204 Prejudice, 44, 80 reduction efforts, 73 stereotypes and discrimination, 43–46

Premack principle, 300–301 Preoperational stage of development, 105–107 Preparation tasks (Danielson model), 12 Preschool-aged children physical development, 132–133 psychosocial development (Erikson), 156–157 self-concept, development of, 163 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 118 Presentation punishment, defined, 294 Pretest, 648 Priming, 351 Principle, defined, 24 Prior knowledge. See also Scaffolding cognitive views of learning, 356, 360 complex cognitive processes, 376, 378 constructivism, 419, 424, 427, 430–431, 449 social cognitive views of learning and motivation, 496 teaching every student, 607, 618, 619, 634 Private speech, 117–119 Probing questions. See Deep questions Problem, defined, 384 Problem-based learning, 428–429 Problem general frame, 375 Problem solving, 23, 383–397 attention, 385, 394 cognitive development, 110 cognitive processes, 383–397 cognitive views of learning, 351, 356, 359, 360 complex cognitive processes, 382, 383–397, 399, 403–407 creativity, 198–203 crystallized intelligence, 192 culture and diversity, 54, 74, 313 defining goals and representing the problem, 384–389 examples and, 389 expert knowledge and, 394–397 learning differences and needs, 212, 213 mathematics comprehension and problem solving, 386, 391 memory, problem solving schemas, 387, 388, 394 planning tasks and, 395–397 Point/Counterpoint, 399 problem identification, 384 procedural knowledge and, 394–395

reconstruction, 351 representations and, 385, 387, 389 schema-driven, 387–388 self-concept and, 162 skill development, 384, 392 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 116–118. See also Scaffolding specific learning disabilities, 212, 213 successful intelligence, 191 teaching of critical thinking and problem solving skills, 399 translation and, 387–388 triarchic theory of successful intelligence, 191 well structured vs. ill structured problems, 384 Procedural fairness, 650 Procedural knowledge, 328 development of, 359–360 metacognition and, 371 problem solving and, 394–395 Procedural memory, 350 Procedures, classroom, 559–565 for in-person learning, 559–563 for remote learning, 563–565 Process portfolio, 661, 662 Production, observational learning and, 469 Production deficiencies, 382 Productions, memory, 350 Professional organizations, 15 Professional responsibilities, 12 Framework for Teaching, 12–13 Project Look Sharp, 452 Promotive interaction, 435–436 Prompting to support metacognition, 375 Pronunciations, dialects and, 259 Propositional networks, 344 Prototype, 345 Proximal development, zone of (ZPD), 119–120 Proximal goals, 515 Pruning, synapses, 93–94 Psychological tools, 117 Psychomotor domain, 616 Psychosocial, defined, 155 Psychosocial development (Erikson), 155–166 Puberty, 134–135 Punishment, 287, 293–295, 305–310 PurpleState virtual internship, 448 Pygmalion effect, 606 Qualitative change in development, 90 Qualitative research, 21, 24 Quality talk (QT), 629–630 Quantitative change in development, 90 Quantitative research, 21–22, 24

Quasi-experimental studies, 29 Quebec Sign Language, 255 Questioning. See also Deep questions as teaching method, 626–629 Race, 42–46, 55–62. See also Diversity assessment bias, 650–651, 664 caring relationships and school connections, 574 culturally relevant pedagogy, 73–74 culturally responsive classroom management, 591–594 culturally welcoming classrooms, creation of, 72–80 defining, 55 discrimination, legacy of, 60–63 diversity in learning, 75–77 identity, 55–58 immigrant students, teaching of, 261–263 intelligence, differences in, 195–196 intersectionality, 42 labels and terminology, 187 moral reasoning, 171–172 motivation and, 524 parenting styles, 142 poverty rates, 49 racial identity, 55–57 racism, 61–62 school achievement and, 58–60 self-concept, ideas of, 161–162 stereotypes, prejudice, discrimination, 43–46 stereotype threat, 45–46 trends in education, 6–7 White privilege, 58 Racial and ethnic pride, 161–162 Racial identity, 55–57 Racial inequality, legacy of, 60–62 Racism, 61–62 Radical constructivism, 418 Random, 19 Range, test scores, 674 Ratio schedule of reinforcement, 295 Reading brain research and, 100 cultural differences, 97 emergent literacy, 249–251 language diversity and emergent literacy, 250–251 neuroscience and, 211, 212 poverty, student achievement and, 49, 52 specific learning disabilities, overview, 212–215 summer reading programs, 52 Receptive language, growth in, 251 Receptive vocabulary, 246–247

Subject Index S-13 Recess, importance of, 136–137 Reciprocal questioning, 440–441 Recitation, 626–629 Reconstruction in remembering, 351–352 Reflective teachers, 6, 606 Refugees, 261–262 Rehearsal, executive control process, 371 Reinforcement, 292, 347 classical conditioning, 290–291 encouraging positive behaviors, 298–299, 302 observational learning and, 470 schedules, 295–296 Reinforcer, 292 Rejected children, 147–148 Rejecting parents, 142 Rejection, peer groups, 147–148 Relatedness, need for, 511–514 Relational aggression, 148–149 Relationship skills, SEL dimensions, 152 Relationships, inferring using hypothetico-deductive reasoning, 110 Reliability, assessments, 648–649, 663–664 Remembering. See Memory Remembering questions, 615, 627 Removal punishment, 294, 308 Representations cognitive development theories and, 114 problem solving and, 385, 386, 389 Representativeness heuristics, 392 Reprimands, 307 Research descriptive studies, types of, 19–21 as a guide to education, debate about, 23–24 insights from, 18 methods, summary chart, 22 role of time in, 21 in support of student learning, summary chart, 25–27 teachers as researchers, 23 theories for teaching, 24–25 Resistance culture, 51–52 Respondents, 290 Response, contiguity and, 289 Response cost, 306, 307 Response set, 391 Response to intervention (RtI), 209–211 Responsible decision making, SEL dimensions, 152 Restorative justice, 580–581 Retention, observational learning and, 469 Retention in grade, 668–669 Retrieval, 351–352 Retrieval practice cognitive views of learning, 355–356

complex cognitive processes, 373, 378, 380, 381, 404, 406 Reversibility, Reversible thinking (Piaget), 106–108 Rewards, 507–508, 520, 541 Right brain learning, 98 Ripple effect, 471 Risk taking behavior, adolescents, 96 Roam and review, 271 Robust knowledge, 406–408 Role-playing games (RPGs), 449 Roles, cooperative learning groups, 439 Rosa’s Law, 225 Rosenshine’s six teaching functions, 619 Rote memorization, 358 Routines, classroom, 559, 560–566 in-person learning, 559 remote learning, 563–565 Rubrics, scoring, 661–664 RULER (Recognizing, Understanding, Labeling, Expressing, and Regulating emotions), 9, 489 Rules, classroom, 559–563 in-person learning, 561–563 remote learning, 563–565 Safety needs (Maslow), 509–510 SBAC tests, 681 Scaffolding advance organizers as, 425 constructivism and, 421, 423–425 defined, 122 development and, 119, 122, 123 Schema-driven problem solving, 389 Schemas, 62, 347–348 cognitive load theory, 387 schema-driven problem solving, 387–389 self-explanation, 387–388 worked examples, 387–388 Schemes (Piaget), 104–106, 114 School connections and belonging, 573–575 School disruptions, academic outcomes and, 52–53 School-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports (SWPBIS), 312 Science, 471. See also STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) fields ScienceDaily, 205 Scientifically based research, 20 Scoring rubrics, 661–663 Scripted cooperation, 620 Scripts, in implicit memory, 350 Seating arrangements, 566 Second-language learning, 253. See also Bilingualism common errors and accomplishments, 257

Secondary school students. See High school-aged children Section 504, 209 Seizure disorders, 227 Selected-response tests, 653–654 Self-actualization, 509–510 Self-awareness, 152, 422–423 Self-concept, 162–164, 474 defined, 162 development of, 163 gender differences, 164 poverty, effect of, 51 psychosocial development (Erikson), 155–166 structure of, 162–163 Self-control, 482. See also Selfregulation Self-determination in classroom, 511 how to support, 513 motivation and, 509–514 Self-efficacy, 521, 523–524 agency and, 473–479 social cognitive theory and, 473–479 teachers’ sense of, 478–479 teaching toward, 491–495 triadic reciprocal causality, 466, 468 Self-esteem, 164–166, 474 global self-esteem, 162, 165 need for, 509–510 social goals, 519–520 Self-evaluation, self-regulated learning and, 494–495 Self-explanation, 387, 407–408 Self-fulfilling prophecy, 606–607 Self-handicapping strategies, 526 Self-influence, 487 Self-instruction, 493 Self-knowledge, theory of multiple intelligence, 194–198 Self-management, 313–314, 493–494. See also Self-regulation SEL dimensions, 152 Self-motivation. See Motivation Self-regulated learning, 479–480 cognitive behavior modification, 493–494 models of, 485–487 social cognitive model of, 485–487 teaching toward, 491–495 Zimmerman’s three-phase model of, 486–487 Self-regulation, 479, 558 achievement gap and, 58 development of, 480–485 developmental changes in, 485 vs. discipline, 581, 590 of emotions, 488–491 failure of, 462 organizational skills and, 463, 499–500

self-reinforcement and, 470 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 118 steps toward preventing management problems, 571–572 teacher stress, 489–491 teaching toward, 491 technology and, 487–488 Self-regulatory knowledge, 328, 371, 405 Self-reinforcement, 313, 470 Self-starter, 479 Semantic memory, 344 Semilingual, 266 Semiotic function, 106 Sensitive periods in development, 90 second language learning, 253 Sensorimotor stage of development (Piaget), 105–106 Sensory memory, 330–335 Serial-position effect, 358 Seriation, 109 Sex in curriculum and media, 65–66 intelligence, differences in, 195–196 Sexual abuse, 153–154 Sexual orientation, 63–72 creating safe spaces, 72 defined, 63 discrimination based on, 71–72 reaching out to help students, 71–72 sexual identity development, 70 Sexual minority youth, 71 Sexual orientation and gender identity issues (SOGI), 135 Shaping, 301 Shared regulation, 485, 491 Sheltered instruction, 268–270 Sheltered Instruction Observational Protocol (SIOP), 269–272 Short-term memory, 338 information processing system, 330 Sickle cell disease, 228 Sign language, 229 Signed English, 255 Signed languages, 255 Simon, Theodore, 192 Single-subject experimental studies, 19, 22 Situated learning, 404, 420 Situational interests, 529–530 Skill-building tasks, for cooperative learning, 437 Skills for argumentation, 401 Skinner, B. F., 292–293, 295, 496 Sleep, adolescents and, 96

S-14  Subject Index Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC) tests, 681 Social aggression, 147, 148 Social and emotional learning (SEL), 8, 148, 196 exercise and recess, 136 five dimensions of, 152 PATHS, 9–10 principles, 224 research on, 9 social-emotional trauma, 10 supporting, 151–152 and teaching whole child, 8–10 Social awareness, SEL dimensions, 152 Social class, 46–53 Social cognitive theory, 465–467 modeling, 468–473 motivation and, 508, 519 overview of, 463, 496 self-efficacy and agency, 473–479 self-management, 493–494 self-regulated learning, 485–488 self-regulated learning, teaching toward, 491–495 Social considerations, English language learners, 270 Social constructivism, 416–423 Social context. See Bioecological model of development (Bronfenbrenner) Social conventions and moral reasoning, 169, 170 Social development, 89 early and late maturation, 134–135 Piaget on, 103 psychosocial development (Erikson), 155–166 Vygotsky’s theory, 115–120 Social goals, 519–520 Social inequality, poverty and, 48 Social intuitionist model (Haidt), 171–172 Social isolation (time out), 307–308 Social learning, 488–489 Social learning theory, 315–316, 466 Social media body image and disordered eating, 137–139 bullying. See Cyber aggression (bullying) identity and technology, 159–160 Social negotiation (constructivism), 421 Social organization, diversity in learning and, 75 Social persuasion (sources of selfefficacy), 474, 475 Social skills autism spectrum disorders, 229–230

gifted students, 232 practical intelligence and, 195 preventing problems, classroom management, 570–572 theory of multiple intelligence, 194–199 Social transmission (Piaget), 103 Socialized speech, 118 Sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), 115 assisted learning, 122 cooperative learning and, 433, 436 implications for teaching, 120, 122–123 limitations of, 120 overview of, 115–120 Socioeconomic status (SES), 47 achievement gap and, 58–59 assessment bias, 650–651 cultural differences, 46–53 Generation 1.5, 263–264 gifted and talented students, identifying, 234 poverty rates, 48–50 trends in education, 6 Sociohistoric theory. See Sociocultural theory (Vygotsky) Sociolinguistics, 76–77 Software appropriate for young children, checklist, 451 Sounds, language development, 246, 249 Source monitoring, 349 Southern Poverty Law Center, 45 Spaced practice. See Distributed learning/practice Spasticity, 226 Spatial information, brain regions for, 95 Spatial intelligence, 194–198 Special education. See Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Specific learning disability (SLD), 212–215. See also Learning disabilities autism spectrum disorders, 229–230 focusing attention, 372 gifted and talented students, identifying, 234 response to intervention (RTI), 210 Speech impairments, 218–219 Speech reading, 229 Spermarche, 134 Spiral curriculum, 422 Spock, Benjamin, 155 Spreading activation, 351 Stability, 523 Standard deviation, 674 Standard error of measurement, 649 Standard scores, 675–676

Standardized testing, 647–648, 654. See also Assessment accountability and high-stakes testing, 680–681 No Child Left Behind Act and, 20 test reports, interpreting, 677–678 types of scores, 673–676 Standards, learning, 612–613 Stanford Achievement Test, 10th Edition, 677 Stanford-Binet test, 192–193 Stanine scores, 676 Statistically significant, 20 Stem, multiple choice questions, 654 STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) fields, 471 and gender bias, 65 Stereotype threat, 45–46 Stereotypes, 44, 62. See also Bias Sternberg, Robert, 191, 200 Stimulated recall, 604 Stimulus, 289 Stimulus control, 296 Stimulus-driven attention, 331 Storage and retrieval, executive control processes, 371 Story grammar, 348 Strategies. See also Learning strategies executive functioning, development of, 114 Strategy instruction, specific learning disabilities and, 214 Strategy knowledge, 374 Stress brain research and, 100–101 English learners and, 272, 280 student achievement and, 50 teacher burnout, 478, 491 Structured controversies, 441–442 Structured English immersion (SEI), 265 Student teachers, advice for, 16 Student teams achievement divisions (STAD), 437 Students. See also Learning agency and control with, 492 assessment, involvement in, 658–659 current teaching trends, 4–11 grading, effects of, 668 learning, research summary chart, 25–26 learning gap, 58 learning styles, 17 penalties for, 578 sharing control with in classroom management, 562–563; 581–583 specific learning disabilities, 212–215, 234 student-led conferences, 274–275

student ownership of learning, 423 teacher expectations and, 606–609 teacher relationships and, 11 trauma effects, 10 Stuttering, 218, 219 Subjects, research, 19 Substance use disorder, 223–224 Subtractive bilingualism, 254 Successful intelligence, 191 Successive approximation, 301 Suicide. See Death by suicide Summaries, learning strategies and, 376–377 Summarizing, paraphrase rule, 589 Summative assessment, 648, 661 Summer, student achievement and, 52–53 Survival needs (Maslow), 509–510 Sustaining expectation effect, 607 Symbols, preoperational stage of development, 106 Synapses, 91 Synaptic plasticity, 93 Syntax, language development, 248–249, 256 T score, 676 Talented students. See Gifted and talented students Task analysis, 301 Task goals, 517 Task value, 521 Tasks authentic, 541 multitasking, 333–334 Taxonomy, 614–615 Taylor, Breonna, 61 Teacher attention, as reinforcement, 298–299 Teacher–student interactions, domains of, 14–15 Teachers. See also Teaching abolitionist, 75 advice for beginners, 15 agency and control, 492–493 attributions, 524 burnout, 478, 491 caring relationships, 573–575 characteristics of effective teachers, 605 child abuse, recognizing, 152–153 culturally welcoming classrooms, creation of, 72–80 diversity of, 7 evaluation, 687–688 expectations of, 606–609 expert teachers, 605 multicultural classroom, tips for, 77–80 relationships with students, 149–150 as researchers, 23–24 response to cheating, 174 sense of efficacy, 7, 478–479 value of, 10–11

Subject Index S-15 Teachers’ Casebook becoming a great teacher, 2, 30–32 bullies and victims, 552, 599–601 communicating and creating community in classroom, 242–243, 281–283 conversation about race, 34, 83–85 failure to self-regulate, 462– 463, 499–501 giving meaningful grades, 644–645, 690–691 including all students, 182, 239–241 mean girls, 130, 178–181 motivating students, 502, 549–551 necessity is the mother of inventive teaching, 414, 459–461 reaching and teaching every student, 602, 641–643 remembering the basics, 324, 365–367 sick of class, 284, 321–323 symbols and cymbals, 86, 128–129 uncritical thinking, 368–369, 411–413 Teaching. See also Classroom organization and management; Guidelines anxiety, helping students cope, 536–537 attention and, 334–335 constructivist, learnercentered, 420–423 current trends in, 4–11 dialects and, 259–260 differentiated instruction, 633–637, 640 direct instruction, 619–621, 631 of English learners, 261–263 fitting to goals, 629–631 Framework for Teaching, 12–13 gender and sexual orientation in, 63–72 gender bias in, 66–70 goals, motivation and, 514–520 good teaching, defined, 11–15 homework and independent work, valuable, 622–626 of immigrant students, 261–263 learner-centered, 420–423 making meaningful connections, 353–356 meaningful lessons, 356–358 memorization, 358–359 metacognitive development skills, 372–373 moral climate of classroom, 170–171 motivation, supporting, 539–544

neuroscience and, 99–101 observational learning and, 470–473 poor, 53 questioning, discussion, and dialogue, 626–629 research on, 604–611, 618–619 Rosenshine’s six functions of, 619 self-efficacy in learning and, 476–478 sociocultural theory (Vygotsky), implications of, 120, 122–123 student learning research, summary chart, 25–26 students who live in poverty, 54 TeachingWorks, 13–14 theories for, 24–25 theory of cognitive development, implications of, 120–122 toward self-efficacy and selfregulated learning, 491–495 transfer of learning, 402–405 Understanding by Design (UbD), 631–632 whole child and SEL, 8–10 TeachingWorks, 13–14 Teasing, 561, 582. See also Bullying Technical tools, cognitive development and (Vygotsky), 117 Technology, 471. See also STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) fields assistive, 635–636 digital media, learning and, 444–455 identity and, 159–160 and learning, 445 powered pedagogy, 454–455 rich environments, 445–449 STEM fields, and gender bias, 65 Technology-rich environments (TREs), 445–449 Television, aggressive behavior and, 149 Temporal lobe, brain, 91, 94, 95 Terminology, cultural intersections and, 42–43 Testing. See Assessment; Standardized testing Testing effect, 355–356, 381 Thalamus, 91 Theory defined, 24 development, questions for, 88–90 teaching theories, 24–25 Theory-based concepts, 345–346 Theory Into Practice, 22–23, 508, 541

Theory of cognitive development, Piaget, 90, 102–114 cooperative learning and, 433, 436 four stages of, 102–111 implications for teachers, 120–122 limitations of, 112–114 neo-Piagetian views, 114 private speech, 117–119 underestimation of children’s abilities, 113 Theory of cognitive development, Vygotsky 115–120 cultural tools, 116–117 implications for teaching, 122–124 language and private speech, 117–119 limitations, 120 zone of proximal development, 119–120 Theory of fluid intelligence, 194 Theory of mind, 167 Theory of moral development Haidt, 671–672 Kohlberg, 167–169 Nucci, 669–671 Theory of multiple intelligences (MI), 191, 194–198 Think-Pair-Share, 271 Thinking styles, 204 Thorndike, E. L., 16 Three-tiered system, autism spectrum disorder interventions, 210 Tier 1, 2, and 3 prevention, 312 Time for learning, 556–557, 570 Time on task, 557, 569 Time out, 307 Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, 71 Token reinforcement systems, 304 Tonic-clonic seizure, 227 Tools, cognitive development and (Vygotsky), 116–117 Tools for Getting Along, 494 Tools of the Mind, 123 Top-down processing, 331 Tracking, 53 Transfer of learning, 402–405 Transfer responsibility in scaffolding, 424 Transgender people, 63–64, 70 gender bias and discrimination, 65–72 Transition programming, 226 Translation, problem solving and, 387–389 Trauma, 220–223 dealing for immigrant students, 272 effects on students, 10 symptoms, 308 Trauma-informed educators, 221 Tree diagrams, 380 Trends in education, 4–11

Triadic reciprocal causality, 466–467 Triarchic theory of successful intelligence, 191 Tripod Student Perception Survey, 686 True/false testing, 653 True score, 649 Trust, importance of, 156 Tryptophan, 51 TV Talk Show, 271 Type 1 diabetes, 228 Type 2 diabetes, 228 Unconditioned response (UR), 290 Unconditioned stimulus (US), 290 Underlining, as learning strategy, 377–378 Understanding by Design (UbD), 631–632 Understanding questions, 614–615, 626 Undesirable behaviors, response to, 306–310 Unfair penalization in assessment bias, 650 Uninvolved parents, 142 United Spinal Association, 185 United States, education trends, 4–11 Universal design, 636 Universal design for learning (UDL), 210, 636–637 University of Chicago, Laboratory School, 16 Unknown onset seizure, 227 Upper class, defined, 47 U.S. Institute of Education Sciences (IES), 20 Utility value, 521 Vagueness, 605 Validity, 649–650, 663–664 Value, 521 Value-added modeling (VAM), 684–685 Variability, test scores, 674 Variable-interval reinforcement schedule, 296 Variable-ratio reinforcement schedule, 296 Venn diagrams, 380 Verbal skills. See Language development; Vocabulary development Verbalization in problem solving, 391 Vicarious experiences (as sources of self-efficacy), 474–475, 478 Vicarious learning, 468–473 Vicarious reinforcement, 470 Video examples ABC student, 23 academic optimism, 607 academic vocabulary, 257 adaptation, 104

S-16  Subject Index Video examples (continued) ADHD students, strategies for, 215 adolescents, 158 anxiety, 537 assessing knowledge, 659 assisted learning, 122–123 assistive device to communicate, 228 authentic questions, 626 autism spectrum disorders, teaching of, 229–230 behavioral learning theory, 287 best-works portfolio, 661 Black racial identity, 57 bullying, 582 care for students, 10 caring relationships, 575 characteristics of teacher, 12 classroom management, 556 classroom rules, 561 clear communicate goals, 618 code switching, 260 cognitive approach, 327 community of learners, 79 conferences, 672 conservation, 106 constructivist view of learning, 417 contiguity, 289 creativity vs. innovation, 198 critical thinking skills, 398 culturally relevant pedagogy, 73 curiosity, motivation and, 529 deep learning, 425 desegregation and discrimination, 46 dialect and accents, 259 differentiated instruction, 635 digital media, learning and, 444 disabilities, 207 diversity among students, 6 domain-specific knowledge, 328 early maturing, 134 eating disorder, 137 effective teachers, qualities of, 605 elaboration, 353 emergent literacy skills, 250 emotional and behavioral disorders, 220 English learners, teaching of, 263 formative classroom assessments, 648 friendships, 146 gender roles and bias, 64 goal-focused planning, 611

goal setting, 515 good teaching models, 12 guided reading, grouping for, 608 IEP (Individualized Education Program), 207 immigrant students, 272–273 independent work, 622 informal assessment, 658 inquiry-based learning, 427 intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, 507 knowledgeable and inventive, teacher as, 13 Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, 168 least restrictive environment (LRE), 206 literacy skill development, 249 long-term storage, 345 memory strategies, 327, 340 metacognition, 372 modeling, 470 moral development, 167–168 motivation, 509–510, 541 multicultural teaching principles, 79 Native Americans, discrimination of, 55 peer teaching, 420 physical activity, 136 physical development goals, 137 planning of instruction, 611 portfolios, 659, 661 positive behavior support system, 312 problem based learning, 428 problem solving skill development, 384 psychosocial development, 157 receptive language, growth in, 251 reinforcement methods, 298–299, 304 routine, classroom, 559 RtI program, 209 rubric formation, 662 scaffolding, use of, 424 Section 504 services, 209 self-efficacy, source of, 475–476 self-evaluation, 494 self-regulation, 480, 486, 581 sheltered instruction, 268 SIOP system, 268, 272 social and emotional learning (SEL), 151 state test data, use of, 682 student engagement, 569, 605 student’s culture, 43

students’ interests, 529–530 students learning through online, 444 taking notes, 378 tapping into cultural funds of knowledge, 274 teacher as researcher, 23 teacher expectations, 608 teachers support a growth mindset, 527 theories of development, 357 theory of multiple intelligences, 195 token reinforcement systems, 304 transfer of learning, 402 vocabulary, importance of, 256 Vygotsky’s theory, 116 working memory, 338 zone of proximal development, 119 Videogames, aggressive behavior and, 149 Violence, effect of media, 149 Virtual learning environments (VLEs), 447 Visual cortex, brain, 95 Visual impairments, 228 Visual information, brain regions for, 95 Visual-spatial information, working memory and, 212 Visual strategies for teaching English language learners, 267 Visuo-spatial sketchpad, 336–338 Vocabulary development. See also Language development developmental milestones and, 246–247 preoperational stage of development, 106 Vocational Rehabilitation Act (1973), 209 Voicing problems, 219 Volition, 481–484 Vygotsky, Lev, 115–120, 418–419, 421, 423, 435, 496 implications for teaching, 122–124 limitations, 120 implications for teaching, 122–124 theory of cognitive development, 115–120 zone of proximal development, 115, 418 Warlpiri Sign Language, 255 Warm demanders, 593 Warmth, teacher, 605

Webb, Norman, 616 Webb’s Depth of Knowledge (DOK), 616 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-V), 193 Welcome centers, 274 What Works Clearinghouse, 20, 23 White coat syndrome, 291 White matter (brain), 94 White privilege, 58 The Whiteness Project, 57 Wikis, 444, 447, 457 Williams, Marco, 57 Willpower, 481–484, see also Volition Within-class ability grouping, 634 Withitness in classroom management, 571 Wolf Reintroduction and Management Learning Unit, 436 Work-avoidant learners, 519 Work ethic, 482 Worked examples cognitive views of learning, 339 complex cognitive processes, 387–389, 407, 432 constructivism and designing learning environments, 432 Working-backward strategy, 390 Working class, defined, 47 Working memory, 329, 336–339 capacity of, 338 cognitive load and retaining information, 339–341 fluid intelligence and, 194 individual differences, 341–343 information processing system, 330 limited capacity, 341, 363 model of, 336 neuroscience of, 212 Writing headlines, 271 Writing skills, 212, 214–215 Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence, 198 z score, 676 Zero reject, 205 Zero tolerance policies, 579 Zimmerman’s three-phase model of self-regulated learning, 486, 487 Zone of proximal development (ZPD), 119–120, 418, 423

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